i
9. REZERVOARI I VODOTORNJEVI
Armiranobetonski rezervoari se grade za potrebe vodovoda (regulisanje neravnomerne
potrošnje ili u slučajevima prekida dotoka vode), kanalizacije, te za razne tehničke potrebe u industriji. Namenjeni su skladištenju tečnosti: ne samo vode, nego i naftnih proizvoda, smola, špiritusa, vina, kiselina, gasova... Generalno, armirani, i prethodnonapregnuti, beton je najekonomičniji materijal za njihovu gradnju, ali pod uslovom (ovde samo posebno naglašeno) da je dobro dobro projektovan i izveden. izveden. Armirani beton olakšava zadovoljenja uslova ne samo nosivosti i upotrebljivosti, nego i onih koji se odnose na očuvanje kvaliteta skladištene vode (higijenski uslovi, stabilnost temperature, zaštita od dnevnog svetla...). Rezervoarske konstrukcije su među prvima u kojima je armirani beton primenjen. Armiranobetonski rezervoari se projektuju različitih kapaciteta, prema če mu se klasifikuju na male (do 500), srednje i velike (preko 5000m 3). Kapacitet rezervoara je, načelno, određen režimom korišćenja i funkcijom. Rezervoari zapremina većih od 200m 3 moraju biti podeljeni na više komora (čišćenja, popravke...). Konstrukcije u kojima se skladište voda ili druge tečnosti se projektuju, poput drugih, sa dovoljnom nosivošću i trajnošću, ali uz dodatni uslov vodone propusnosti – sprečavanje prolaza vode kroz betonsku konstrukciju. Za razliku od drugih konstrukcija, uslov vodonepropusnosti
je često kritičan (najstrožiji) prilikom projektovanja rezervoara i ostali aspekti projektovanja mu mogu biti podređeni.
Sl. 9/1. Ukopani i nadzemni rezervoari
Pri izradi rezervoara, posebna se pažnja mora posvetiti izradi vodonepropusnog betona , u cilju postizanja potrebnog stepena nepropusnosti rezervoara. Da bi se, za tečnosti i gasove, ostvarila nepropusnost, potrebno je proizvesti i ugraditi kompaktan, gust i nepropusan beton.
Ovo se postiže pravilnim projektom betona i dobrom ugradnjom. Za vodonepropusni beton, prirodni pesak i šljunak treba pretpostaviti veštačkom pesku i tucaniku, te osigurati dovoljnu količinu najsitnijih frakcija (kameno brašno). Prilikom izvođenja, od posebnog značaja je dobra ugradnja vibriranjem i pažljiva nega betona. Pr ednost imaju betoni plastičnih konzistencija, sa nižim vodocementnim faktorima. Dodacima se, već dobra, svojstva poboljšavaju. Kao dodatno sredstvo u cilju obezbeđenja vodonepropusnosti, može se koristiti cementno malterisanje površina ili njihovo torkretiranje, kao i premazivanje površina različitim smesama (vodeno
i
Korišćene reference [13], [15], [16], [43], [44], [45], [49], [78], [79], [80], [6] 411
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016 staklo, cerezit...). Za rezervoare u kojima se skladišti agresivna tečnost, ne ophodna je unu-
trašnja obloga od keramičkih pločica, stakla, prirodnog kamena ili savremenih sintetičkih materijala otpornih na dejstvo predmetne hemijske agresije. Uz nepropusnost betona, dobro odabrana, projektovana, dimenzionisana i izvedena temeljna konstrukcija je uslov nepropusnosti rezervoara.
Sl. 9/2. Vodotornjevi i bazeni
Ukopani rezervoari, ukopani zidovi i ploče, moraju biti zaštićeni (izolovani) od agresivnog delovanja podzemnih i površinskih voda. Treba nastojati da rezervoar bude smešten iznad nivo a podzemnih voda, te da se površinske vode dreniraju. Sloj tla iznad rezervoara mora biti minimalne debljine 70cm, kako bi se „amortizovali“ temperaturni uticaji. Nadzemni rezervoari, zbog temperaturnih uticaja, moraju biti dilatirani unutrašnje, prema oko lnim objektima ili snabdeveni pokretnim osloncima, kako bi se omogućilo nesmetano temperaturno širenje i sažimanje. Prema obliku, rezervoari mogu biti: kružne ili pravougaone osnove. Posebnu vrstu rezervoara predstavljaju oni podignuti na kule – vodotornjevi, ali i otvoreni rezervoari – bazeni. Mogu biti
nadzemni, delimično ili potpuno ukopani. Najčešće se izvode monolitno, ali je moguće i izvođenje od prefabrikovanih elemenata. Mogu se projektovati i kao otvoreni, kada konzolni k onzolni zidovi redovno dobijaju hor izontalno ojačanje na vrhu. Izbor vrste rezervoara zavisi od namene, veličine, ekonomičnosti i vrste tla na kojem se rezervoar temelji.
Sl. 9/3. Stubovi u unutrašnjosti rezervoara, prefabrikovani rezervoar
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Na rezervoarima moraju da budu predviđeni otvori za provetravanje i za prodor cevi. Na mestima otvora u zidu izvode se „mufovi“ od zavarenih limova, za koje se zavaruje armatura zida prekinuta otvorom.
Tehnički uslovi za izradu i upotrebu hidrotehničkog betona definisani su standardom SRPS U.E3.010 (1987). Pod hidrotehničkom konstrukcijom se podrazumevaju objekti ili njihovi delovi koji su stalno ili povremeno u dodiru sa vodom. Beton koji se upotrebljav a za izvođenje hidrotehničkih konstrukcija i koji, zbog toga, ima posebna svojstva, naziva se hidrotehnički beton. Prema položaju konstrukcije ili njenog dela u odnosu na nivo vode, hidrotehnički beton može biti: podvodni beton (stalno u vodi), beton u zoni promenljivog nivoa vode (od kote minimalnog do kote maksimalnog maksimalnog vodostaja plus 1m) i beton iznad nivoa vode. Zavisno od dimenzija i položaja konstruk-
cije, može biti: masivni (beton koji se ugrađuje u konstrukcione delove čija je najmanja dimenzija veća od 1m, a zapremina veća od 10m3) i nemasivni beton (bar jedna dimenzija manja od 1m). Prema pritisku vode, hidrotehnički betoni se klasifikuju na: beton pod pritiskom (preko 1bar) i beton bez pritiska. Prema agresivnosti vode razlikuju razlikuju se: betoni koji nisu ugroženi delovanjem vode kao agresivne sredine, i betoni koji to jesu.
Predmetnim standardom (u sprezi sa komplementarnim) se definišu uslovi kvaliteta sastavnih delova betona, posebno cementa, granulata, vode, dodataka betonu, armature, zatim uslovi kvaliteta betona
(čvrstoće, pritisna i zatezna, vodonepropustljivost, otpornost prema delovanju mraza, otpornost prema hemijskom agresivnom delovanju, otpornost prema eroziji, abraz iji i kavitaciji, te se definišu termička svojstva betona. Dodatno, daju se načelni uslovi vezani za deformacijska svojstva betona: modul elastičnosti, tečenje i skupljanje betona. Istim standardom su definisani i projekti konstrukcije i organizacije u smislu m inimalnog sadržaja, kao i projekat betona. Sa stanovišta izvođenja betonskih radova, definisan je način spravljanja betona, transporta, pripreme za betoniranje, ugradnje betona i njegove nege. Za visoke ili niske temperature, predviđena je primena mera betoniranja na visokim (preko 30ºC), odnosno niskim spoljnim temperaturama (ispod +5ºC).
Slabo ugrađen beton ili konstatacija konstatacija neostvarenosti potrebne vodonepropusnosti podležu sanaciji. U prvom slučaju je predviđeno potpuno uklanjanje kavernoznih kavernoznih mesta do zdravog betona i naknadnu ugradnju betona istih karakteristika, pri čemu se mogu koristiti druga veziva. Ukoliko je propusnost tečnosti posledica prslina, ove se moraju sanirati injektiranjem ili nekim drugim pogodnim načinom. Sanacionim radovima prethodi projekat sanacije.
Konačno, standardom se detaljno propisuju mere kontrole kvaliteta betona i ocene kvaliteta betona u konstrukciji.
Sl. 9/5. Hidroizolacija rezervoara – spoj dna i zida
Kod podzemnih rezervoara potrebno je izvesti izolaciju zidova i ploča sa strane zemljanog
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
Materijali koji se koriste u cilju sprečavanja prodora vode (hidroizolacioni materijali) su: asfalt (uobičajeno preko gornje ukopane ploče), bitumenska hartija, drugi sintetički materijali. budućeg rezervoara je uobičajeno van domena projektantske odluke, ali uslovi tla mogu radikalno uticati na proračun i, kasnije, ponašanje buduće konstrukcije. Tlo bez podzemnih voda sa uniformnim sastavom i nosivošću je idealno. Na žalost, ovakvi uslovi r etko mogu biti i ostvareni. Šta više, lokacije rezervoara su uobičajeno na tlu relativno loših karakteristika, sa visokim nivoima podzemnih voda (blisko površini).
Sl. 9/6. Uzgon praznog rezervoara
Visok nivo podzemnih voda mora biti obuhvaćen proračunom, ne sam o zbog njihovog agresivnog uticaja, nego i po pitanju uzgona (Sl. 9/6). Sa druge strane, loša nosivost tla može uticati na povećana sleganja, koja su posebno opasn a kao neravnomerna. Neravnomerna sleganja su karakteristična za tla promenljivog sastava, poput prikazanog na Sl. 9/7.
Sl. 9/7. Promenljiv sastav tla ispod rezervoara
Podaci o tlu ispod rezervoara moraju biti poznati za potrebe projektovanja i moraju biti rezul-
tat njegovog ispitivanja bušotinama (minimalni prečnik 150mm i dubina 10m, 10m, dopunjene manjim bušotinama dubine 3 do 4m ). Ispitivanjem tla je neophodno utvrditi i hemijski sastav tla i podzemnih voda, kako bi se utvrdilo eventualno prisustvo sulfata ili drugih hemikalija
koje deluju agresivno na beton i koje mogu dovesti do korozije armature. Pažljiva analiza je posebno važna u situacijama kada je lokalitet prethodno korišćen za industrijske potrebe (zagađen) ili kad je reč o tlu koje je bilo potopljeno. Uopšte, istraživanjima tla neophodno je precizno utvrditi sve parametre koji su, prilikom projektovanja, neophodni u cilju obezbeđenja od agresije i neravnomernih i velikih sleganja rezervoara. Projektom konstrukcije rezervoara moraju biti obuhvaćeni svi, od interesa, aspekti koji su ve-
zani za izvođenje. Tako prekidi betoniranja, na primer, moraju biti dati (projektovani) odgovarajućim crtežima, a prilikom izvođenja neophodno je strogo pridržavati se projektovanih.
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Kod rezervoara koji se izvode na potopljenom tlu ili na tlu sa visokim nivoom podzemne vode mora se, za vreme gradnje, obezbediti odsustvo vode tokom gradnje. Dva osnovna metoda u
tom cilju su snižavanje nivoa podzemne vode crpljenjem ili izvođenje zida šipova. Proračunskom procedurom je, kao i uvek, neophodno zadovoljiti granična stanja nosivosti i upotrebljivosti. Prilikom proračuna konstrukcije rezervoara validne su sve odredbe date Pravilnikom za beton i armirani beton (PBAB87). Uobičajeno, proračun prema graničnom stanju nosivosti prethodi drugom, dok, u slučaju rezervoara to je čest slučaj, proverom prema graničnom stanju upotrebljivosti, prethodni rezultati dimenzionisanja mogu biti korigovani. Naime, za objekte u kojima se skladište tečnosti i gasove najveća dopuštena granična širina prslina armiranobetonskih elemenata je propisana na nisku vrednost od 0.1mm. Jako agre-
sivne sredine mogu i prepoloviti ovu maksimalno dopuštenu vrednost, za slučaj kada je povremeno opterećenje opravdano analizirati da je dugotrajnog karaktera (PBAB87, član 113). Odredba kojom se dopušta uvećanje maksimalno dopuštenih širina prslina do 50% u situaci jama kada su debljine zaštitnih slojeva slojeva veće od minimalnih je od male koristi u slučaju slučaju rezervoara.
Rezervoarske konstrukcije se, po izvođenju, testiraju (ispituju) u smislu obezbeđenosti specificiranih zahteva. Način ispitivanja je zavisan od pristupačnosti elementa, a dominantan predmet ispitivanja je vodonepropusnost i širina prslina. Ukopane konstrukcije je neophodno ispitati pre zatrpavanja. Praćenje ponašanja (monitoring ) konstrukcije je obaveza korisnika i sprovodi se kao mera u sklopu redovnog i obaveznog održavanja betonskih konstrukcija.
mogu se projektovati kao jednokomorni ili višekomorni. Prema veličini i broju komora, njihovom međusobnom položaju, moguća su različita rešenja rasporeda i oblika (Sl. 9/8, Sl. 9/9, Sl. 9/9, Sl. 9/11). Osim na zidove, ploča rezervoara velike površine se može oslanjati i na stubove, poput pečurkaste konstrukcije. Poželjan raspored stubova u osnovi je takav da 9/10) . su postavljeni krugu, mada su češća rešenja sa ortogonalnim rasterom stubova (Sl. 9/10). Razmak stubov a je uobičajeno 3.5 do 4.5m.
Sl. 9/8. Jednokomorni kružni rezervoari
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
Manji rezervoari se izvode konstantne debljine zidova, dok se kod većih, u cilju optimizacije, zidovi mogu projektovati i izvoditi promenljive debljine, sužavajući se ka vr hu. Posebna pažnja se mora posvetiti vezi donje ploče rezervoara i zida. Na ovom mestu poželjno je izvođenje propisno armiranog zadebljanja (vute).
Sl. 9/11. Više kružnih rezervoara sa zajedničkom zasunskom komorom
Temeljna ploča može biti izvedena (projektovana) zajedno sa zidovima i stubovima, ili se zidovi i stubovi mogu nezavisno temeljiti (videti npr. Sl. 8/37) , a donja ploča se izvesti između ovih temelja. Nepropusnost kroz spojnicu se, tada, obezbeđuje umetanjem bakarnog lima i mase za zaptivanje žljebova (Sl. 9/12a) ili, bolje, pomoću rebraste gumene trake i kita za zaptivanje žljeba (Sl. 9/12b). 9/12b).
Sl. 9/12. Spoj temelja i ploče poda
Gornje, krovne, ploče okruglih rezervoara se najčešće projektuju kao ravne, pune ili rebraste konstrukcije. Ređe je njihovo izvođenje u obliku kupola. se, takođe, projektuju sa jednom ili više komora, a visina im retko
prelazi 6m. Neke karakteristične dispozicije rezervoara pravougaone osnove su date na narednim slikama (Sl. 9/13, Sl. 9/13, Sl. 9/14). 9/14).
Sl. 9/13. Jednokomorni 9/13. Jednokomorni pravougaoni pravougaoni rezervoari
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
je, u ovom pravcu, karakteristično centrično aksijalno naprezanje), to su debljine njihovih zidova veće nego za kružne.
Sl. 9/14. Dvokomorni rezervoar i zasunska komora rezervoara
Rezervoari se moraju projektovati na način da mogu da prime horizontalno opterećenje od skladištene tečnosti, ali i sva ostala relevantna dejstva . Za kružne rezervoare je karakterističan prijem horizontalnog pritiska (iznutra ili spolja) čistim zatezanjem ili pritiskom u horizontalnom pravcu, saglasno kotlovskoj formuli (Sl. 9/15). 9/15). Kod pravougaonih rezervoara angažuje se, uz aksijalnu, i savojna otpornost (Sl. 9/16). 9/16) . Osim zadovoljenja kriterijuma nosivosti, niz je detalja kojima kod projektovanja rezervoara
mora biti posvećena posebna pažnja, a koji su vezani za primenu konstruktivnih mera, način izvođenja, monitoringa...
Sl. 9/15. Čisto zatezanje ili pritisak kod rezervoara kružne osnove
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
Konstrukcijski beton je izložen različitim okruženjima i uticajima. Donji delovi zidova su uvek izloženi dejstvu tečnosti, dok gornji mogu biti i pokvašeni i suvi. Krov ukupanog rezervoara je vodonepropusno obložen sa gornje strane (sloj asfalta, na primer) i, time, zaštićen od prodora vlage i vode. Sa druge strane, njegovo dno je mesto stvaranja kondenza. Stubovi vodotornjeva
su, npr., izloženi alteranativnim suvim–vlažnim uslovima od kiše, makar i ne bili u dodiru sa skladištenom tečnošću. Neki od ovih različitih uslova su prikazani shematski (Sl. 9/18). 9/18). Što su elementi izloženiji dejstvu vlage, to im je potrebno posvetiti veću pažnju u smislu sprečavanja prodora vlage i karbonizacije, kroz zaštitni sloj, do armature. Korozija armature ima za posledicu smanjenje njene količine i, eventualno, nedovoljnost za prijem uticaja, s jedne strane, dok sa druge izaziva koroziju zaštitnog sloja betona (cepanje, krun jenje), te progresivno i dalja oštećenja.
Sl. 9/18. Izloženost vodi/vlazi
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
U pojedinim si tuacijama (mogu biti diktirane estetskim zahtevima, ail i opasnošću samih teč-
nosti po okolinu) kao proračunski zahtev se može postaviti i potpuno odsustvo prslina. U praksi ovo ne znači da prslina uopšte neće biti.
Oblik i konfiguracija rezervoara, dimenzije elemenata, ugrađena armatura, kvalitet materi jala... i svi ostali rezultati projekta moraju slediti iz detaljnih analiza sprovedenih sagledavanjem realnih uslova eksploatacije. Neophodno je konstrukcijsko rešenje rešenje razmatrati sa aspekta
nosivosti, upotrebljivosti, jednostavnosti izvođenja i cene koštanja. Ovi faktori, često, mogu biti u svojim posledicama suprotstavljeni jedni drugima . Optimalna rešenja se odlikuju jednostavnošću koncepta i detalja. Načelno, prenos opterećenja do temelja posredstvom minimalnog broja elemenata je uvek dobar.
Kod ove vrste konstrukcija, od većeg je značaja ne go kod drugih, poželjno je izbeći sva mesta skokovite promene preseka, budući da su ona, zbog koncentra cije naprezanja, sklona razvoju prslina. Uopšteno, oblikovanjem i konstruktivnim merama, potrebno je preduprediti pojavu značajnih koncentracija naprezanja, ma čime bila izazvana (prodori, nastavljanje i sidrenje armature, oštri uglovi, krupni armaturni pr ofili, koncentrisana dejstva...). Od posebnog značaja je, takođe, razmatrati metode izvođenja i nege betona i precizno defi-
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
U kontaktnoj površi realizuju se opiruće sile trenja, što može biti uzrok pojavi prslina ( Sl. 9/20). Budući da deluju nepovoljno, mere u cilju smanjenja koeficijent a trenja može biti opravdano preduzeti, na primer, polaganjem polietena ili nekog sličnog materijala na spoju, preko sloja betona (koji, u cilju redukcije sila trenja, mora biti izveden sa glatkom gornjom površinom). Preporučuje se, dodatno, primena betona ovog sloja koji karakteristikama odgovara betonu konstrukcije.
Betoniranje elemenata se obavlja u kontinualnim sekcijama, čime svaka sekcija ima jedan slobodan kraj (Sl. 9/21a) 9/21a). Ovim je omogućeno nesmetano skupljanje, za razliku od betoniranja 9/21b), kada se, usled skupljanja, mogu pojaviti značajni naponi zatezanja „na preskok“ (Sl. 9/21b) prilikom očvršćavanja betona, a, samim tim, i neželjene prsline.
Sl. 9/21. Betoniranje u kontinualnim sekcijama upoređeno s betoniranjem „na preskok“
Alternativno, mogu biti ostavljeni uski neizbetonirani delovi („šlicevi“), koji se naknadno zapunjavaju, po (nesprečenom) očvršćavanju okolnog b etona, a time se kompenzuju deformacije usled skupljanja. Maksimalno rastojanje između nastavaka zavisi od mnogih faktora (između
ostalih od količine armature u elementu), ali su, obično, dužine preko 15m ekonomski neopravdane (obično su znatno manje) . Zidovi se „izjedna“ mogu betonirati do visina koje ne prelaze (oko) 6m. Prilikom dimenzionisanja i usvajanja čelika za armiranje, uz zadovoljenje uobičajenih odredbi, neophodno je obezbedi ti i armaturu za prijem napona zatezanja od skupljanja. Njeno lociranje uz spoljašnje ivice betona je maksimalnog učinka. Pravilnim armiranjem (vrsta, broj, profil) može se postići dobra kontrola/raspored prslina (Sl. 9/22). 9/22). Veća količina armature (manji naponi u armaturi), tanji profili i manji razmaci između šipki su „pravila“ „ pravila“ ko jima se treba voditi.
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Armatura ugrađena u beton je zaštićena od korozije izazvane alkalnošću cementa. Međutim, vremenom beton reaguje sa karbon-dioksidom iz vazduha i formiraju se karbonati, koji pro-
gresivno slabe zaštitu. Minimalnim debljinama zaštitnog sloja betona jeste obezbeđena armatura za normalne uslove. Međutim, u izuzetno agresivnim situacijama opravdano je razmotriti mogućnost ugradnje specijalnih vrsta armatura, kakve su na primer: galvanizovane šipke ili šipke obložene materijalom na bazi epoksija (duplo skuplje) ili šipke od nerđajućeg čelika (i do deset puta skuplje). Upotreba ovakve armature može biti opravdana i kod vrlo tankih elemenata, kada nije moguće obezbediti dovoljnu debljinu zaštitnog sloja betona. Kod rezervoara se uobičajeno koristi normalni portland cement . Iako upotreba brzo- očvršćavajućeg cementa nije za preporuku, zbog izraženijih prslina usled skupljanja, kod betoniranja na niskim temperaturama njegova primena može biti opravdana. Ukoliko je utvrđeno prisustvo sulfata ili sličnih hemijskih kontaminenata, u podzemnoj vodi, primena sulfatno -otpornog cementa je od esencijalnog značaja. Količinu cementa u betonskoj smeši treba odrediti tako da se, s jedne strane, obezbedi trajnost i funkcionalnost, a sa druge da se izbegnu visoke tem-
perature u sveže izlivenom betonu. Uobičajeno, beton za rezervoarske konstrukcije se spravlja sa 325 do 400kg/m 3 cementa, uz više vodocementne faktore, ali ne preko 0.55 . Primenjeni agregat mora mora biti veoma niskih dilata cija skupljanja usled sušenja i niskog nivoa apsorpcije vode. Kvarcni pesak, načelno, je zadovoljavajućih karakteristika za primenu kod betona ove vrste konstrukcija. Maksimalna veličina zrna agregata je funkcija debljine betoniranog elementa. Kada debljina to dozvoljava, primena krupnijih frakcija ima povoljno dejstvo na smanjenje dilatacija skupljanja. Dodaci kojima se poboljšava ugradljivost ili nosivost su, saglasno potrebama, poželjni, pod
uslovom da ne sadrže hloride koji izazivaju koroziju čelika. Betonska mešavina mora biti projektovana na način koji obezbeđuje dobru ugradljivost raspoloživim sredstvima. Preporučuje se primena pervibratora za unutrašnje vibriranje betona.
Elementi rezervoara su izloženi dejstvu pritiska uskladištene tečnosti. Zapreminska težina tečnosti je, ovde, primarni podatak. Tako je zapreminska težina vode 10kN/m 3, kanalizacione vode – oko 11 kN/m 3, mulja – 10.5 do 12.0 kN/m 3. Projektant je u obavezi da razmatra najnepovoljnije kombinacije dejstava i kad je reč samo o opterećenju tečnosšću (na primer u višekomornim rezervoarima). Pregrade moraju biti anali-
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016 Naravno, osim ovih, konstrukcije rezervoara moraju biti razmatrane na najnepovoljnije uticaje
kombinacija koje uključuju i sva relevantna stalna opterećenja, povremena dejstva (kor isna, sneg, vetar...), temperaturna ili seizmička dejstva. Kod rezervoara u k ojima se skladište zapaljive tečnosti ili gasovi neophodna je i kontrola konstrukcije na dejstvo me rodavne incidentne kombinacije opterećenja.
Sl. 9/23. Pun i nezatrpan rezervoar
Sl. 9/24. Prazan i zatrpan rezervoar
Poželjno je konstrukcije rezervoara temeljiti na uniformnoj podlozi dobre nosivosti, čime bi se minimizirala diferencijalna sleganja. Međutim, ovo nije uvek (retko je) slučaj. Neophodno
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
sada, izloženi dejstvu težine tla iznad prepusta, čime je angažovana veća težina u suprotstavljanju uzgonu. Kada je uzgon relevantan samo u toku gradnje, mera prevencije može biti ori jentisana u pravcu sniženja nivoa podzemne vode (crpljen je, na primer). Projektom je potrebno obezbediti koeficijent sigurnosti od uzgona od minimalno 1.10 (neke preporuke idu i do 1.25). Dat je primer proračuna potrebnih dimenzija temeljne stope usled dejstva uzgona (Okvir 9/3). 9/3).
Za razliku od uobičajenih armiranobetonskih konstrukcija, gde su graničnim stanjima nosivosti postavljeni strožiji zahtevi pred dimenzionisanje, kod rezerv oara uslo vi eksploatacije u većoj meri opredeljuju proračun. Načelno, postupak proračuna je u izvesnoj meri invertovan i podrazumeva: usvajanje (pretpostavljanje) dimenzija elemenata, određivanje potrebnih količina armature u cilju kontrolisanja širine prslina u propisanim granicama, te kontrolu graničnog stanja nosivosti. Kontrola širine prslina je uslovljena poznavanjem količina i rasporeda armatura, što u ovom slučaju nije obezbeđeno, pa proračun mora proći kroz nekoliko iteracija, što je očigledna mana ovakvog pristupa (redosleda proračuna). treba da bude izabrana (pretpostavljena) kao optimalna imajući na
umu sledeće aspekte: jednostavnost izvođenja, konstrukcijsku dispoziciju, dopuštene ugibe, odgovarajuću nosivost i, naravno, širinu prslina. Prevelike debljine zidova mogu rezultirati višim vrednostima termičkih utica ja prilikom očvršćavanja betona (rezultat – prsline). Iskustveno je utvrđeno da su optimalne debljine zida reda veličine desetine raspona za konzolne zidove, a nešto manje debljine (na primer dvanaestina ras pona) u situacijama kad je zid oslonjen na oba sv oja kraja. Usvojene suviše male debljine zida mogu biti povezane sa problemom dobre ugradnje betona, a dobra ugradnja betona je već postavljena kao primarni zahtev u izvođenju rezervoara. Za zidove visine manje od 2m se ne preporučuje usvajanje debljine ma-
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Zid se može projektovati tako da se sužava ka vrhu (Sl. 9/28), u cilju uštede u materijalu. Tada, linearna promena debljine duž cele visine ima prednost nad ostalim rešenjima. Pri tome, unutrašnja ivica ostaje vertikalna.
Sl. 9/29. Konzolni zid izložen dejstvu pritiska tečnosti
Bočni pritisak na zidove se prima kombinacijom savijanja i smicanja. Najjednostavniji slučaj je konzolni zid sa maksimalnim smicanjem i savijanjem u korenu. Treba imati na umu da je ovaj
zid sastavni deo ili kružnog rezervoara, kada je reč o cilindričnoj ljuski, ili pravougaonog rezervoara, zbog čega je pridržan na krajevima poprečnim zidovima i, načelno, radi kao ploča oslonjena na tri (ili četiri) ivice. Samo u situacijama male visine i velike dužine zida je opravdano razmatrati statički sistem gredne konzole sa slike (Sl. 9/28). 9/28). Kako u površinskim elementima nije pogodno postavljati posebnu armaturu za prijem smicanja (prepreka je dobroj ugradnji betona i neefikasna je u utrošku čelika), to debljinom zida valja obezbediti prijem graničnih smičućih naprezanja samim betonskim presek om. U nekim slučajevima ovo može opredeliti debljinu zida. Horizontalni ugib zida, tj. njegovo ograničenje (obično na veličinu manju od 30mm), kao kri-
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
U armiranobetonskoj ploči poprečno opterećenoj (savijanoj), sa porastom opterećenja nastaju i razvijaju se . Sa razvojem prslina, povećanjem njihove širine, ali i ugiba ploče, raste i napon u armaturnim šipkama (Sl. 9/31). Za isti betonski presek i opterećenje, veća količina armature će imati za posledicu manje radne napone u čeliku i manju širinu prslina. Ovim se, ograničavanjem radnih (eksploatacionih) naprezanja u armaturi može uticati na kontrolu širine prslina (limiting stress design [15]). [15]). Ovaj pristup bazira na ograničenju napona u zategnutoj armaturi u eksploatacionim uslovima. Tabelom na Sl. na Sl. 9/32 su date preporuke, u tom smislu,
britanskih standarda (BS8007), u funkciji vrste armature i dozvoljene širine prslina (limiting stress design ). ). Drugim preporukama, maksimalni eksploatacioni napon u zategnutoj armaturi
treba ograničiti na vre dnost svakako manju od 250 MPa.
Sl. 9/31. Prsline kao posledica savijanja
Prilikom kontrole širine prslina, pojedini preseci će biti dominantno aksijalno opterećeni (horizontalne sile u zidovima kružnih rezervoara ili u pojedinim zonama zidova pravougaonih rezervoara), drugi dominantno savijani, a, u opštem slučaju izloženi simu ltanim uticajima aksijalnih sila i momenata savijanja.
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
U slučajevima kada je cilindrični zid spojen sa temeljem (ili donjom pločom) na način da je omogućena njegova slobodna deformacija (Sl. 9/34), 9/34) , u zidu se realizuju samo membranske sile, saglasno membranskoj teoriji tankih ljuski.
Sl. 9/34. Spoj zida i temelja koji omogućava slobodnu deformaciju cilindrične ljuske
Statički uticaji, kada su membranski uslovi oslanjanja zadovoljeni mogu se odrediti primenom tablica, za različite vrste rotaciono -simetričnih opterećenja (Sl. 9/35). 9/35). Tangencijalne aksijalne sile se, tada, određuju saglasno kotlovskoj formuli.
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
Sl. 9/36. Konturni uslovi na dnu cilindra i dijagrami uticaja u vertikalnom pravcu
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Sl. 9/40. Promena momenta u horizontalnom pravcu u zidu pravougaonog rezervoara
Za pravougaone rezervoare, ali i za sve kružne rezervoare u situacijama kada je narušena, iz nekog razloga, rotaciona simetrija, podrazumevani način proračuna uticaja je primenom softvera za strukturalnu analizu. Za primer, prikazani su momenti savijanja u horizontalnom pravcu zida pravougaonog jednokomornog rezervoara (Sl. 9/40). 9/40).
Kod projektovanja detalja armiranja elemenata rez ervoarskih konstrukcija, od posebne je važnosti obezbediti dobru
čelik-beton, te obezbediti dobro
armaturnih šipki.
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
mreže, kada potrebne količine armature nisu velike u meri u kojoj je primena armaturnih mreža limitirana njihovom jediničnom površinom preseka.
Sl. 9/42. Postepeno nastavljanje armature zida
Zidovi cilindričnih rezervoara se armiraju vertikalnom armaturom proisteklom iz graničnih uticaja momenta savijanja i aksijalne sile, i horizontalnom, prstenastom, armaturom jednos-
trano ili, češće, dvostrano. Neki karakteristični detalji ar miranja elemenata kružnih rezervoara su dati na Sl. na Sl. 9/41. Pravilo „postepenog“ nastavljanja armature (Sl. 9/42), 9/42), u cilju izbegavanja koncentracija naprezanja (mesta potencijalnih oštećenja), je ovde od velikog značaja.
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Sl. 9/45. Armatura na spoju dva zida prikazana u horizontalnom preseku
Crtežima detalja armature mora biti predviđen i način distanciranja armature, te položaj i specifikacija samih distancera, u cilju obezbeđenja projektovane debljine zaštitnih slojeva (Sl. 9/46). 9/46).
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
nesprečenogi horizontalnog pomeranja na dnu, kada su maksimalne aksijalne (kotlovske) sile karakteristika nanjže zone cilindra. Drugim načinima veze zida s temeljem će odgovarati i drugačija distribucija kablova po visini. Zbog velikih gubitaka sile prednaprezanja usled trenja koji bi se realizovali kod kablova velike
dužine kojim bi se obuhvatio ceo obim rezervoara, jedan kabl pokriva samo deo obima (polovinu, trećinu..., zavisno od prečnika cilindra). Kako bi se izbegli značajniji efekti rotacione nesimetrije, kablovi se sidre smaknuto, na primer kao na Sl. 9/48. Uobičajeno je da se, ovim načinom, kablovi vode kanalima ostavljenim u jezgru zida.
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
Projektovanje armiranobetonskih rezervoara nalaže precizno definisanje položaja, broja i tretmana mesta
. Temperaturne deformacije, kao i efekti skupljanja betona
su bitno određeni brojem prekida i njihovim razmakom. Sa druge strane, prekidi/nastavci betoniranja nisu mesta koja treba da omoguće relativno pomeranje delova konstrukcije s jed ne i druge strane prekida. Kod horizontalnog prekida (Sl. 9/51a), na spoju ploče i zida, poželjno je prekid izmestiti vi-
sinski za 10 do 15cm izvođenjem „sokle“. Na ovaj način se obezbeđuju „vođice“ za oplatu zida
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
se obezbeđuju prekidi u kontinuitetu betonskog elementa (konstrukcije), kako bi se omogućilo relativno pomeranje jednog dela u odnosu na drugi. Zglobovi kojima je omogućeno relativno pomeranje dva dela elementa mogu biti kontrakcioni i ekspazivni, zavisno da li je njima omogućeno relativno razmicanje ili primicanje (respektivno) dva dela elementa (Sl. 9/54, Sl. 9/54, Sl. 9/56). 9/56).
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016
Rezultat je zbirni neto gubitak tečnosti usled propuštanja vode i njene dodatne apsorcije betonskim elementima. Dopušteni, prihvatljivi, gubitak je definisan uslovima (zadatkom) pro jekta. Uobičajeno se kreće u granicama između 1 i 2 promila. promila. Ukoliko se utvrdi veći gubitak od prihvatljivog, test može biti produže n/ponovljen u narednih sedam dana, a zadovoljavajući rezultati ponovljenog testa se smatraju prihvatljivim. Nezadovoljavajući rezultati ponovljenog testa nalažu primenu mera kojima će se utvrditi kritična mesta i preduzeti mere sanacije. Naravno, nakon ovoga rezervoar mora biti ponovo testiran.
Međutim, sam prethodni test još uvek nije dovoljan da se donese zaključak o zadovoljavaju-
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016 G , određuje se na osnovu ukupne težine tečnosti, G a njen položaj u odnosu na dno rezer-
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi t
h
3 R / h
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Brujić - Betonske konstrukcije – radna verzija - 24. novembar 2016 Ako za lokaciju objekta ne postoje detaljna proučavanja seizmičnosti, maksimalno ubrzanje tla se
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9. Rezervoari i vodotornjevi dI
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