Contents Introduction Guidelines for study
Chapter 1 The French Revolution and Napoleon David Smith Origins: challenges posed and unmet France under Napoleon The Napoleonic Wars The Congress of Vienna
1 1 39 43 59
Chapter 2 German and Italian unification David Smith Nations, nation-states and nationalism The unification of Italy The unification of Germany Austria in the 19th century
65 65 83 94 117 120 120 128 141 150 165
Chapter 4 War and change in the Middle East, 1914–49 Mariam Habibi Introducing the Middle East The First World War in the Middle East The peace settlements The mandate system
198 209 217 229 239
Chapter 5 The Second World War and Western Europe Richard Jones-Nerzic and David Keys The Second World War in Europe Post-war Europe Post-war Spain, 1945–53 Rebuilding Europe Germany, 1950–69 Spain, 1953–75 Unifying Europe
244 244 259 267 273 277 282 289
Chapter 6
Chapter 3 Western and Northern Europe, 1848–1914 David Smith France, 1848 Napoleon III and the Second Empire The Third Republic The United Kingdom, 1867–1900 The United Kingdom, 1900–14
Palestine The Second World War and the creation of the State of Israel Atatürk and the Turkish Republic Iran and Reza Khan, 1924–41 Saudi Arabia
Post-war developments in the Middle East, 1945–2000 Mariam Habibi Egypt Arab unity The Arab world and Israel Lebanon Iran, 1941–79
171
Chapter 7
171 175 187 190
Social and economic developments in Europe and the Middle East Peyman Jafari and David Smith Case study: United Kingdom, 1945–2000 Case study: Iran, 1953–2000
314 314 336 343 356 363
376 377 403
Authors Mariam Habibi is Assistant Professor with the American Graduate School of International Relations and Diplomacy, based in Paris. She is a workshop leader for InThinking, IB Teacher Workshops. Peyman Jafari is a researcher at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, and is currently a Phd candidate in the University of Amsterdam, Faculty of Social and Behavioural
taught IB History in France and Slovakia. He is co-ordinator of the European History e-Learning Project (e-Help).
David Keys teaches IB History at the British International School, Bratislava, Slovakia. He has taught History and English in Turkey, Saudi Arabia and the UK and is a translator and writer. David Smith teaches at the Ecole Lindsay Thurber
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By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
discuss Nasser’s rise to power in Egypt analyse the success and failure of the reforms of Nasser and Sadat in Egypt, and compare their foreign policies assess the degree of change and continuity under the presidency of Mubarak define the impact of Pan Arabism, the Arab League and Pan Islamism in the region consider the causes of the ongoing conflict between Israel and the Arab world evaluate the success of the peace talks between Israel and the Arab world
recognize the forces that divided Lebanon and caused its civil war
assess Iran’s path to modernization and its long-term consequences
understand the causes of the revolution in Iran in 1979.
Egypt
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Post-war developments in the Middle East, 1945–2000
This section deals with the impact of nationalism, communalism, modernization and westernization on some of the countries of the Middle East. Though the Middle East was not directly involved in the battles of the Second World War, it nonetheless witnessed major changes in its aftermath. Europe’s decline boosted nationalist movements, introducing major political, economic and social changes. In turn, Europe was replaced by the United States as a dominant influence on international relations in the region. Domestically it led to reforms that brought the countries closer to the Western model, both socially and economicall y. In some cases these had long term repercussions. The chapter wi ll concentrate on these changes and evaluate their long-term effects with a focus on Egypt and Iran. It will also cover the Arab–Israeli conflict and consider the attempts at peacemaking.
Modern Egypt emerged in 1952 when a military c oup, better known today as the Egyptian Revolution, brought down the monarch, King Farouk, and put in office a military regime. The new rulers rallying around a strong sentiment of nationalism, succeeded in introducing a series of reforms to modernize E gypt. Furthermore, they challenged the West and affirmed Egypt’s independence on the international scene. The man whose name is c losely associated with these changes is Gamal Abdel Nasser, the son of a postman, who, at the apex of his career, was elevated to the status of hero and hailed as the un ifier of
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Post-war developments in the Middle East, 1945–2000
the Arab world. He was, according to historian William Cleveland, “the embodiment of what the Arab world wanted to be: assertive, independent and engaged in the construction of a new society freed from the imperial past and oriented towards a bright Arab future.” This section will give an account of the circumstances that allowed Nasser to come to power. Egypt, the most populated of all the Arab countries in the Middle East stands on the crossroads of Asia and Africa. Through the Suez Canal, a man-made waterway built in 1869, it links the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. This conti nues to be the major naval route between Europe and Asia. Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire but was controlled by Britain. In 1914 it became a British protectorate. In the post-war period a nationalist uprising, inspired by the Wafd Party, sought independence from the United Kingdom. The British arrested Zaghlul its leader and exiled him to Malta. The arrest incited further anger and in 1919 anti-British riots became widespread throughout the country. The nationalist revolt led to the cancellation of the protectorate in 1922 and Egypt became an independent state, with King Fuad on its throne. In 1923 a constitution was drawn up and following the first parliamentary elections in January 1924, Zaghlul became Egypt’s first elected prime minister. The British, however, continued to interfere i n Egyptian politics. In 1936 following the death of King Fuad and his succession by King Farouk certain changes were introduced. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was signed which offered Egypt more independence, but the UK maintained a military presence in the Suez Canal zone and had the right to “defend Egypt” in case of attack. The occasion for interference was to come in the course of the Second World War in1942. The humiliation that the Egyptians experienced on that occasion, known as the “4th of February incident” was one of the factors that brought Nasser to power. When war was declared in 1939 Egypt declared its neutrality and had every intention of staying out of the conflict. On 13 September 1940, when Italian troops crossed the Libyan border into Egypt, this proved to be impossible and Alexandria came under heavy attack. Economically, the country also suffered as its trade was disrupted by war-time conditions. There were severe food shortages, which caused bread riots in Cairo. The Egyptian political elite’s position towards the Allied forces was a little ambivalent. Given their history of domination by the British, some saw the war as an opportunity to close ranks with the UK’s enemies. Fearing such an eventuality, the British took the upper hand and forced the King to appoint a member of the more reliable Wafd Party as prime minister. This happened on the 4th of February 1942. The ultimatum, which left the King with the choice of either following British orders or abdicating, was humiliating for Egypt. The consequences of the incident were far-reaching. It undermined Egypt’s sovereignty and discredited the monarchy and the Parliament. For the Wafd party, the 4th of February incident was political suicide. The party lost all credibility with the Egyptians as they were seen to be too co-operative with a foreign power and therefore stopped being a nationalist alternative in Egyptian post-war politics.
A protectorate is an independent state that is provided with administrative, diplomatic and military support by a stronger state or entity. The protectorate usually accepts specified obligations, but retains its sovereignty.
The Wafd (meaning delegation) was the name of a nationalist party led by Saad Zaghlul after the First World War. The party stopped functioning in 1952, but was revived as the New Wafd Party in 1983.
t y: A c t i v i Saad Zaghlu Research the career of Saad Zaghlu, who formed the first Wafdist government in 1924. What were his goals and aims? How did he attempt to achieve these aims? To what extent was he successful?
Discussion point: Credibility (the ability to elicit belief) is a vital quality for a politician. What are the factors that enhance credibility in a political leader or a politician?
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When the war ended, relations between Egypt and the United Kingdom remained tense. The Egyptians wanted the UK to renegotiate the 1936 treaty and evacuate its troops from the Suez Canal zone, but the British refused. The political situation was unstable as both the King and the ruling Wafd Party were regarded as compromised and weak in relation to the UK, so neither inspired much loyalty. The Suez Canal was one of the major bones of contention between Egypt and the UK. It is not surprising that it came to blows in 1956 with a war between the two countries. The Suez Canal Company was originally owned by the French, who had been responsible for its construction. It was then taken over by the Egyptians in 1863, during the reign of Ismail Pasha, for a sum of £3,800,000. But in 1875, faced with a major financial crisis due to a drop in the demand for Egyptian cotton in the world market, Egypt was forced to sell its shares to the British government. Furthermore, the British government secured its investment by maintaining a British force in the canal zone. The presence of British troops on Egyptian soil angered many Egyptians and the Egyptian government asked the British to leave on many occasions. In 1936 the AngloEgyptian Treaty, which affirmed Egypt’s sovereignty, nonetheless stipulated Britain’s hold on the canal zone. Stationed in the area to protect it were 10,000 British troops. In 1951, when the government finally chose to abrogate the treaty and force the British out, there were violent clashes. The British troops remained in the area until 1956. Another factor contributing to rising discontent was the economic situation of Egypt, and the growing gap between the rich and the poor. As a country in which the economy was mainly based on food production, this gap was particularly apparent amongst landowners. There was a massive inequality in land distribution and in the size of the holdings: 0.4 per cent of the landowners were in possession of 35 per cent of the country’s cultivable land, whil e 94 per cent of the population owned 35 per cent of the land. The size of the holdings varied from 200 feddans or more (an Egyptian unit of area equivalent to 1.038 acres or 0.42 hectares) to 0.8 feddan. Given that many of the landowners were in fact the ruling politicians, no real attempts were made to change the situation and consequently the politicians became the target of the anger of the poor.
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Finally, the humiliating defeat of the 1948–9 Arab–Israeli War (see chapter 4, p. 213–6) increased the unpopularity of King Farouk. The war convinced the younger officers of the incompetence of the men ruling Egypt. Two opposition groups emerged. The first were the Muslim Brothers, a Pan-Islamic group which had been formed in 1928 by Hassan al Banna. Thi s was a movement which proposed a return to Islamic values as a means of uniting Muslims in the Arab world against the intrusion of foreign powers. The other were the Free Officers, a group of junior military officers formed immediately after the 1948–9 war, who proposed a national revival to recoup Egypt’s lost pride through the overthrow of the monarchy. They were motivated by the desire to rid Egypt of British imperialism and bring about social justice reforms that would combat social inequality.
Discussion point: Land is an important source of wealth in many countries. What other sources of wealth can you think of? Does the source of wealth define the type of country?
Pan-Islamism is a political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state.
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In 1951 the Wafd government, faced with growing opposition, announced the unilateral abrogation of the 1936 treaty as a way to gain some popularity. The British once again refused to negotiate. The matter had become a question of national pride and the refusal led to clashes between the Egyptian people and the British forces stationed in the canal zone, killing and wounding hundreds of protestors. On 26 January 1952, a day known as “Black Saturday”, Cairo exploded in anger: demonstrators took to the city centre burning banks, cinemas, bars. This was the last straw that broke the camel’s back.
Egypt
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) Gamal Abdel Nasser was born in Alexandria, where his father had a job as a postal worker. As a young student he participated in many of the anti-British demonstrations of the 1930s. In 1937, a year after the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, he enrolled in the Military Academy in Cairo. Fighting in the 1948 War against Israel, he had a first-hand experience of the humiliation of defeat. He blamed King Farouk and the political elite for Egypt’s humiliation. Nasser was popular among ordinary people because of his social background. He spoke vernacular Arabic, which was easily understood. He was also admired for his courage and charisma. During the period of his presidency he succeeded in highlighting Egypt’s role as a pioneer in the Arab world. To the outside world Nasser’s Egypt could no longer be ignored. He also introduced important socio- economic reforms within the country which left an indelible imprint on Egypt. His premature death at the age of 52 was mourned by the majority of Egyptians.
On the night of 22–23 July 1952 t y: A c t i v i the army headquarters, the Essay skills: Causation airport and communication “Discuss the long-term and the short-term causes for the rise of Nasser to power.” centres were seized by the Free Officers and in a relatively For a historian, events are agents that bring about other events, often in bloodless co up (two sold iers reaction to what has gone on before. This is what we call causation. Some of these events have consequences that take a long time to were killed and seven mature; others trigger a reaction straight away. The first category we call wounded), King Farouk’s long-term causes and the second become short-term causes. government was replaced with To respond to the essay question, you need to select events that fit both the Revolutionary Command categories, and to decide on whether they had a short-term (S) or longCouncil (RCC). The King was term (L) impact. Fill out the table below with 4–6 events. Once the sent into exile, where he table is completed, you have all the evidence you need to construct a remained until his death in clear analytical essay. Make sure that your justifications are logical. 1965. In June 1953 the monarchy was abolished, the Event When did it happen? What did it lead to? L/S? 1923 constitution was withdrawn, political parties were banned and though Egypt was proclaimed a Republic, the RCC obtained the right to rule for a transition period of three Discussion point: years. The RCC also prohibited all those who had held political posts in 1946–52 from entering politics again. Under the new Many governments in the regime, Mohammad Naghib became President, with Nasser in the Middle East emerged out of a post of Vice-President. In February 1954, disagreement between military coup d' état. What do you think gives the armed Nasser and Naghib led to the resignation of the latter. With his forces the legitimacy to govern? main rival out of the way, Gamal Abdel Nasser started to construct his Nasserist state.
The Nasserist state In contrast to the weak government and lack of l eadership shown by its f ormer monarch, the new regime led by the military and the Free Officers demonstrated its well-honed organizational skills, military discipline and authority. The military rulers represented
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the nation as a whole. The members of the new government represented the ordinary people and not just the privileged landowners. Nasser himself, originating from the rural poor, symbolized the new Egypt: one that would take into consideration the under-privileged. He spoke their language and understood their plight. In a speech made in April 1954 he said: “The Egyptian masses were too weak to start a revolutionary action to improve their lot, so we your brothers started it for you, but you are the revolution.” The new regime claimed to be the guardian of the people’s interests. The new regime was a populist regime, which means that they claimed to represent “the people”. It was also a one-party system. As representatives of the people, other parties were no longer needed. Political parties are divisive and this regime wanted to introduce a new model that reflected co-operation rather than conflict in society: Egypt would be “a co-operative state”. Nasser justified this position in a statement quoted in the New York Times, in 1955: “We see no advantage for Egypt in the establishment of a parliament in which men serving the interests of big landlords, or of Iraq, London, Washington or Moscow, would sit masquerading as Egyptians.” In January 1953 the RCC formed the National Liberation Rally as the only political organ that represented the people. Nasser was its Secretary-General. This organization was to form a bridge between the people and the revolution. In 1956 the end of the three-year transition was announced and a new constitution was drawn up, without however permitting any other political parties. In 1957 the Liberation Rally was replaced by the National Union. The National Union’s role was to supervise and guide the people. In 1962, this body was replaced with the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), another name for the single party that continued to be the sole body representing the people of Egypt. Even though Egypt only had one political party, elections did take place. Candidates were chosen and closely screened by the ruling party.
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The new regime justified its seizure of power by the fact that they would redistribute the wealth of the country, modernize Egypt and bring social justice to the country. One of the regime’s most ambitious objectives was an extensive agrarian reform, introduced in 1952. For Nasser this transformed the military coup into a revolution. A decade later, in 1962, with the launching of the Arab Socialist Union, Nasser’s revolutionary policies, which he named the National Charter, spread to the rest of society. When presenting the Charter, Nasser explained his policies in the following way: “Revolution is the way in which the Arab nation can free itself of its shackles, and rid itself of the dark heritage which has burdened it … [it] is the only way to overcome underdevelopment which has been forced on it by suppression and exploitation.” The Free Officers had taken the law in their hands because the legal government had been the source of humiliation for Egypt. Their discourse was a nationalistic one and stood in opposition to foreign domination. For Nasser, nationalism
t y: A c t i v i Class debate “Political parties are divisive” vs. “Political parties are necessary”. Consider the following statement: The Premier and his colleagues on the Revolution Command Council are convinced that restoration of the freedom of political parties to contest elections would produce a parliament in which special interests could buy representation, and would neglect the well-being of the Egyptian masses. Source: Nasser quoted in the New York Times. 19 May 1955.
The National Charter became the platform for action of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU). Its agenda included: 1 a programme of nationalization in which banks, insurance companies, shipping companies and major heavy industries all passed from private hands to the state 2 agrarian reform, which reduced the maximum holdings from 200 to 100 feddans 3 90 per cent income tax imposed on income over 10,000 Egyptian pounds 4 workers being represented on management boards 5 workers and peasants being guaranteed at least 50 per cent of the seats in parliament.
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was synonymous with revolution because it was only through independence that Egypt could bring social justice to Egypt: “We must fight imperialism, monarchy and feudalism because we are opposed to injustice, oppression and slavery.”
Egypt
t y: A c t i v i The National Charter Read the agenda of the National Charter on page 318, and answer the following questions: 1 Who was the National Charter designed to appeal to? 2 Which groups in society would feel threatened by it? 3 What were the implications of these divided opinions for the future of the Nasserist regime?
One of the trade-marks of Nasserist Egypt was the notion of Arab Socialism. This identified with a state-run centralized planned economy, a series of welfare measures and the will to export these ideas to other Arab states. The mission set forth by the n ew r egime went beyond th e borders of Egypt. Nasser insisted on uniting the Arab world and he cultivated a sense of communalism as well as nationalism. His objective was to restore the pride and confidence of the Arabs and through this unite them against the external forces. The 1956 constitution, for example, stated that Egypt was an Arab country and part of the Arab nation. This emphasis was a reminder that Egypt planned to lead the other Arab states in this quest. Nasser referred to the outcome of the Suez Crisis in 1956 as “the Great Arab victory” (see p. 337), its momentum going beyond Egypt’s borders. In 1958 Egypt entered into a union with Syria and Nasser announced the birth of the United Arab Republic.
Opposition such as the Muslim Brotherhood and the Communist Party were severely repressed. In 1954 after an assassination attempt on Nasser by a member of the Muslim Brothers, six of its leaders were executed and thousands of its members imprisoned. The Communist Party received a similar treatment. After a major strike in the textile factory near Alexandria, said to have been instigated by the Communist Party of Egypt, the army was t y: called in to crush the strike. A c t i v i Two of the workers were Essay skills: Compare and contrast executed and many more Very often in the exams you will be asked to compare and contrast two received prison sentences. Later, single-party rulers. It is advisable to tackle such a question thematically. in 1957 an intelligence service, Use the list of headings below to write up a comparative analysis of the Mukhaberat , was set up and Nasser and one other single-party ruler from the 20th century. its job was to keep a strict watch Single–party rule Nasser Another ruler on the people. Having come to power in a conspiratorial Conditions that brought the leader to power manner, the new regime was Cult of personality fully aware of the dangers of Nature of the government conspiracy. According to the Domestic policies historian Mary Ann Fay, Nasser Foreign policies had once admitted that he tended to see a conspiracy in everything. Consequently, his regime was extremely vigilant and condemned any form of opposition. The press, now under state control, was subject to strict censorship.
Status of women Treatment of the opposition Treatment of minorities Role of education Propaganda
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An important feature of Nasser’s regime was his cult as a leader. Even though Nasser had risen from the ranks of the army, he distinguished himself from them so that if the military had any setbacks it would leave his reputation intact. As a leader, he was always present, personifying the nation and the regime, and insisting on absolute loyalty. What Nasser said in October 1954 immediately after a member of the Muslim Brotherhood shot eight bullets in his direction, but missed, is one example of this relationship. “If Abdel Nasser dies ... each of you is Gamal Abdel Nasser ... Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to sacrifice his life Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser standing at the window of his train as it enters for the nation.” the station in Cairo on 29 October 1954 is greeted by the crowd. He is returning from Alexandria where he had been the victim of an assassination Nasserist Egypt’s foreign relations attempt by Mahmood Abdel Latif, a member of the Muslim Brothers. Within a few years of Nasser’s accession to power, Egypt became the scene of a war with the United Kingdom, France and the State of Israel. The Suez War, as it came “My countrymen, my blood spills to be known, had a major impact on Egypt’s relations with the for you and for Egypt. I will live world. It: for your sake, die for the sake of
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created a distance between Egypt and the Western Allies improved Egypt’s relations with the communist world elevated Egypt to a leadership role in the Arab world became one of the causes for the outbreak of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.
Though Nasser had made it clear that his aim was to reduce foreign interference in Egypt, he did not at first choose to turn his back on the West. On the contrary, to finance the Aswan Dam project and to improve Egypt’s outmoded military equipment he first turned to the West. But the loan that was offered by the World Bank stipulated that its officials supervise Egypt’s budget. Another request, this time for military equipment, was simply refused. On learning this, Nasser was forced to seek out other alternatives. Starting out, in April 1955, he became one of the founding members of the non-aligned movement, following the Bandung Conference. In September of the same year, he announced an arms deal with Czechoslovakia. He would receive Soviet military equipment via Czechoslovakia in exchange for Egyptian cotton. In May 1956 Egypt recognized Communist China. In this move, he went against the Western Alliance’s containment policy requiring “friendly nations” to refrain from recognizing Mao’s China. And, in a final bold step, in June 1956, Nasser accepted the Soviet Union’s offer of a loan for the construction of the Aswan Dam. In July, the US State Department announced that financial help to Egypt was no longer “feasible”. To pursue the Aswan Dam project, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal.
your freedom and honor. Let them kill me; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride, honor and freedom in you. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die, each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser.” Gamal Abdel Nasser, after an attempt on his life in 1954.
The Bandung Conference was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, which took place 18–24 April 1955 in Indonesia. The aim of the conference was to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural co-operation. It took a strong position against all forms of foreign intervention in the internal affairs of independent countries . As the Western Imperial nations including the United States were implicated, the meeting was not viewed very favourably by the Western Allies.
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Egypt
The Suez crisis and the 1956 War We need to understand the ensuing Suez crisis in the context of the Cold War. From the 1950s the cold war had entered a new phase: in order to avoid physical confrontation each side chose the system of alliances. Alliance with the Western camp included generous US military and economic aid. The division of the world into the East–West contending spheres of influence manifested itself in the signing of pacts. The Central Treaty Organization otherwise known as the Baghdad Pact, signed in 1955 between Britain, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Iraq, aimed to bring these countries that were situated on the Soviet Union’s southern borders into the Western sphere of in fluence and thus contain the spread of communism. The British government attempted to force Egypt to join the alliance. The new Egyptian government had promised to restore Egypt’s sovereignty over the Suez Canal, which according to the 1936 treaty was still under the control of the British government. The British refused to discuss the evacuation of the Suez Canal base until Egypt agreed to join th e Baghdad Pac t. But the Egyptians would only start discussing the matter when the British agreed to leave. In October 1954 the UK agreed to sign an agreement promising to withdraw their troops from the base within 20 months. They added the provision, however, that the British base could be reactivated in the event of an attack on Egypt or Turkey by an outside power or an Arab League state. In February 1955 the British Foreign Minister, Anthony Eden, visited Cairo seeking again to persuade Nasser to join the Baghdad Pact. Nasser once again refused. Furthermore, since Nasser was more attracted by the non-aligned pact he also encouraged other Arab states to refuse the Baghdad Pact. He was successful in convincing both Syria and Jordan to decline membership in the Baghdad Pact. By April 1956 the UK had withdrawn their troops from the canal zone. The canal was nonetheless still owned by the British Suez Canal Company. On 26 July 1956, immediately after the announcement by the United States that a loan would not be forthcoming, Nasser announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal. Though he was prepared to pay compensation to the owners, he justified this act by stating that he would thereafter use the income from the canal to finance projects such as the Aswan Dam project. Nasser was asserting Egypt’s rights over what he considered to be Egyptian property. The UK viewed the matter differently and started devising a plan to overturn Nasser’s decision. A secret agreement was reached between Israel, France and the UK. This is the reason the war is remembered in the Arab world as the “Tripartite Aggression”. The Israelis refer to it as the “Sinai War”. This plan consisted of an Israeli attack on Sinai with the objective of reaching the east bank of the canal. This took place on 29 October 1956, and would be followed by a British and a French ultimatum asking both Egypt and Israel to retreat from the canal zone in order to avoid conflict and ensure safe passage for navigation. As Israel would agree and Egypt could only refuse (according to the plan) the British air force would carry out an air raid. This event took place on 31 October.
Discussion point: Who was the rightful owner of the Suez Canal? The facts: The United Kingdom and France had built the canal.
The UK had bought out Frances’s shares in ownership. The canal is situated in Egypt.
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The last act of aggression in this well thought-out plan was the landing of French and British paratroopers on Port Said on 5 November. Although everything had gone according to plan, the attack was halted at midnight on 6 November, and was immediately condemned by both the United States and the Soviet Union. President Eisenhower was so furious that he was ready to sell the US government’s Sterling Bond holdings, which would have forced the devaluation of the British currency. He also led the UN General Assembly to demand an immediate end to the offensive. France and Britain agreed to a UN sponsored ceasefire. The UK and France withdrew their troops in December and Israeli forces evacuated the region by March 1957. The UN sent its troops to the Sinai as a peacekeeping force. In April 1957 the Suez Canal re-opened for international commerce.
The Sinai Campaign: October–November 1956 Israel 1948–67 Israeli parachute-landing troops Principle Israeli advances 29 October – 5 November 1956
British and French landings in Port Said Port Said Mediterranean Sea Port Fuad El Arish S u e z C a n a l
Gaza
a e S d a e D
Rafah ISRAEL
Kantara Abu Aweigila
Negev
EGYPT Bir Gafgafa
Ismailia
Kusselma Bir Hasana JORDAN
Suez Milta Pass
Kalat en-Nakhel
Ras Sudr El Tamad
Eilat Aqaba
SINAI
G u l f o f S u e z
Abu Zeneima
Dahab
a b a q A f o lf u G
Tor Nabek Tiran Sharm el-Sheikh
Though Egypt had undergone a military defeat, Nasser was not overthrown as the three belligerent countries had hoped. Instead the crisis turned into a political triumph for Nasser. Egypt retained its newly acquired rights over the Suez Canal and Nasser was hailed as a hero in the Arab worl d. According to William Cleveland, “No other Arab leader approached his status and no other Arab leader aroused such high expectations.”
The British and the French had been humiliated on the international scene. Suez was indeed a watershed in terms of the decline of the UK’s role in the Middle East. As the f ormer CIA official Chester L. Cooper put it, Suez turned out to be “the lion’s last roar.” According to Avi Shlaim, Suez was the turning point: the European phase in the history of the Middle East gave way to the superpower phase. The repercussions for the British and the French inside Egypt were even worse; their nationals were expelled and their property seized. The Egyptian Jews were also either expelled or chose to leave.
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Jerusalem
The Suez Crisis brought Egypt and the Soviet Union closer together. In 1958 the Soviet Union finalized its offer of a loan for the construction of the Aswan Dam. They also increased their military aid. Ideologically, Egypt remained neutral. According to Nasser, Egypt’s foreign policy
SAUDI ARABIA
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Egypt
was an example of “positive neutralism”: it did not enter into conflict with either of the superpowers. It can, however, be argued that the 1967 War against Israel found its long-term roots in the Suez Crisis. Nasser’s popularity and status as a champion of the Arab world led to some unwise and hasty moves. This included the short-lived United Arab Republic and the intervention in Yemen’s civil war. Both these themes will be covered in the section on Arab Unity.
The 1967 War or the “Six Day War” The mid 1960s had witnessed growing tension on Israel’s borders with Jordan and Syria. The Israelis complained of guerrilla raids and retaliated. In 1967 the tone became more hostile and the Israeli Prime Minister, Levi Eshkol, warned that Damascus could be occupied if the raids were not controlled. Nasser saw this as an opportunity to revive the heroic days of 1956 and i mprove his tarnished reputation. He therefore called on the UN peacekeeping forces (present since the 1956 War) to leave the Sinai. Once they left, on 16 May, he announced that he would be closing the Tiran Straits, which connects the Gulf of Aqaba to the Red Sea and is vital to Israeli shipping. For Israel this constituted a declaration of war, a casus belli. On 5 June, Israel launched a full-scale pre-emptive attack on Egypt, Syria and Jordan. Within a few hours the Israeli air force had destroyed 90 per cent of the Egyptian air force, about 70 per cent of the Syrian air force and almost all of the Jordanian air force. By 8 June the Israeli ground force had crossed the Sinai and reached the Suez Canal. Within six days the Arab defeat was total. Israel now held the City of Jerusalem, the West Bank, the Gaza strip, the Sinai Peninsula and parts of the Golan Heights. The 250,000 Palestinians living on the West Bank were forced to flee to the East Bank. The military defeat of 1967 was a tragic reminder of the defeat in 1948 and a major setback for Nasser. In the eyes of the Egyptians, those who had promised to restore Egypt’s national pride had brought her further shame in the humiliating defeat of 1967. Egypt had lost approximately 10,000 soldiers and 1,500 officers; another 5,000 soldiers and 500 officers were captured and 80 per cent of its military equipment destroyed.
Economic and social policies under Nasser The Nasserist regime set about introducing social and economic changes in Egyptian society through new legislation. The aims of these policies were to break away from the old social, economic and political order and end the privileges of the large landowners. Nasser strove to build popular support amongst the poorer sectors of society, in particular the rural workers. His aim was to encourage the industrialization and modernization of Egypt. Within weeks of coming to power, in September 1952, the RCC enacted the first Agrarian Reform Act. This law aimed to offer the poorer fellahin (farmers) the possibility of a better life. It aimed to do this through a fairer land distribution by setting a limit on the size of property. The law stated that the maximum hol ding for a family
Casus belli is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. Casus means “case” or “incident”, and also “rupture”, while belli means “of war”.
“Democracy is not defined by the constitution and the parliament, but is created by eliminating feudalism and monopoly and the domination of capital. There is no freedom and no democracy without equality and no equality with feudalism and exploitation and domination of capital.” Gamal Abdel
“One of the principal aims of the land reform scheme is to direct new investment into the improvement of land and into mining, industrial and commercial enterprise.” Gamal Abdel Nasser
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would be 200 feddans. The surplus land was then sold at a favourable price to those farmers who owned less than 5 feddans. The poor farmers were given 30 years to pay back the state. The dispossessed owners were to be compensated with government bonds. As this was deemed an insufficient amount of ti me to pay back the debt, in 1962, with the launching of the National Charter the period for payment was raised to 40 years. The National Charter also extended land distribution by lowering the ceiling of ownership to 100 feddans in 1962. As a result of the Land Reform Act, rents were lowered and co-operatives were established for the very poor farmers (those who owned less than 5 feddans). These co-operatives provided farmers with fertilizers, seeds, pesticides and transportation for the products to the market. Other conditions included the introduction of a minimum wage for agricultural workers, and access to the national power grid for electricity extended to many vill ages. In April 1954 Nasser announced the confiscation of land belonging to the royal family. This was redistributed in the same manner to the poor farmers. Through this redistribution, 869 landless peasant families in the Beheira province near Alexandria were given land. On this occasion Nasser pledged to work to establish decent living standards for all workers and peasants, but urged them not to expect miraculous results.
Discussion point The Aswan Dam The Aswan High Dam controls the flooding of the Nile, stores water for times of drought and provides hydro-electric power. These benefits do not come without a price. Dams, like any other technical advancement, need to be reviewed in the light of the environmental, and social impact it has on the country. What type of environmental and social impact did the Aswan Dam have?
The new labour laws addressed the industrial workers with a similar aim to gain popularity and raise living standards. These reforms included a raise in the minimum wage, a reduction in working hours, job creation (especially in the public sector), the introduction of rent control, and a programme to construct housing for workers. In 1957 the National Planning Committee was established giving the state a leading role in organizing the economy. The economic system under Nasser has been called “State Capitalism” because, while maintaining the capitalist system, it placed much of the ownership in the hands of the state and created a large public sector. In the 1960s economic policies shifted further towards a greater state monopoly. In 1960 Egypt launched its first Five Year Plan. The plan placed emphasis on industrial development supported by a programme of nationalization announced in the 1962 National Charter. By 1970 the public sector accounted for 74 per cent of all industrial production, 46 per cent of all production (as rural production remained largely in private hands), 90 per cent of all investment and 32 per cent of the GNP. The public sector workers were provided with a decent pension, a minimum wage and health care. The economic and social reforms included a major project to build a dam at Aswan. This would improve the irrigation system and be a major source of hydroelectric power. The project began in 1960 and was completed in 1970. As a result of this project the agricultural areas increased from 5.2 to 5.8 million feddans.
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Another area of public life through which the Nasserist regime could distinguish itself from the past was the provision of education. The government increased its spending on education Ceremonies on completion of the Aswan High with the goal of obtaining national and cultural unity. The slogan Dam. Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet “Two new schools every three days” was posted everywhere. Union with Nasser, 01 January 1964.
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Though this remained a publicity slogan, the number of students increased substantially. Enrolment in primary sch ools went up from 1.3 million in 1953 to 3.6 million in 1970. Government figures also showed a fall in the illiteracy rate from 80 to 50 per cent. Nasser also encouraged university education by making it free and promising every university graduate a government job. Women in Egypt had already expressed their political demands before the Nasserist revolution. Doria Shafig and her organization “Daughter of the Nile Union” were at the forefront of the movement to obtain the right to vote. The RCC’s discourse was clearly progressive, however no practical reform in the voting system seemed forthcoming. In March 1954 Shafig and 18 other women went on a hunger strike in protest. They were promised that the matter would be considered. Two years later, in 1956, women won the right to vote. By 1957 modest changes occurred, two women were elected to the National Assembly, and state education was opened to both sexes. The 1962 National Charter stated that women were equal to men; it allowed for an increase in the number of women in universities and the workforce. Women were even given access to the Al-Azhar University, a religious institution previously closed to women. In 1963 laws were passed that promoted equal pay between men and women. Nasser’s regime did not, ho wever, alter the discriminatory measures of the existing family laws.
t y: A c t i v i Daughter of the Nile Union Research Doria Shafiq and the Daughter of the Nile Union. How did her movement compare to women's movements elsewhere?
Nasser died in 1970 of a heart attack at the age of 52. The Egyptians were overwhelmed by a sense of loss, not because they supported his policies, but because they feared the future without him. In the words of historian Mary Ann Fay “he had left behind an imperfect and unfinished revolution.”
t y: A c t i v i Verdicts on Gamal Abdel Nasser Nasser’s name has gone down in history as the dynamic and charismatic President who put Egypt back on the map. He broke with Egypt’s past and transformed its society according to a new set of rules. These rules were not always well thought-out in advance and some have left Egypt with a legacy of economic inefficiency, an oversized bureaucracy and a political system centered around one person: the president. Using the information in this section and the following passages, discuss Nasser’s contribution to the history of the Egyptian state.
Source A Nasser changed the course of the country's history … He understood what democracy is. He loved the common man. Source: Statement by Amin Howeidi, former Minister of Defence and chief of Egyptian General Intelligence, quoted in the bi-lingual Egyptian–French daily newspaper Al Ahram . 5 November 2009.
Source B He pushed Egypt ahead, but soon let his fantasy take over, leading to the disaster of 5 June 1967 … From a zaim[Arabic work meaning the courageous one] he turned into a prophet whom no one could criticize. He was all in one. In him were embodied all the national gains of Egypt ever since the country had a recorded history. Suez was the turning point. It led him to believe that revolutionary Egypt vanquished Imperialism and that had it not been for Nasser this would not have happened. Victory was his victory, protected by Providence. Everyone forgot Egypt was not victorious in 1956! Source: Hussein Dhu’I Fiqar Sabri, quoted in the independent Egyptian weekly Rose-el Youssef . 18 July 1975.
Source C For 18 Years Nasser Had A lmost Hypnotic Power in His Leadership of Egyptians Source: Obituary headline, New York Times, 29 September 1970.
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Source D Abdel Nasser was not a tyrant as some believe. He was considerate, frank and decisive. He sought to understand what was being presented to him before he made a decision. Source: Statement from 1968 by Abdel Wahab al Burullusi, Minister of Public Health, published in Rose-el Youssef . 29 September 1975.
Source E … signaled to the nation and it awoke; he signaled to the army and it moved; he signaled to the king and he departed; he berated imperialism and it exited from the country, feudalism and it was smashed, political parties and they were dissolved.
Source F He overwhelmed us with his magic … and the hopes, dreams and promises which underlay the victories of the revolution which he repeatedly announced to us … with their pipes and drums, anthems, songs and films, which made us see ourselves as a great industrial state, leaders of the developing world … and the strongest military power in the Middle East. Source: Tawfig al Hakim, an Egyptian writer whose play, El Sultan El Haer (The Perplexed Sultan ) , from 1960, could be regarded as a mild criti que of Nasser. Quoted in Vatikiotis, P.J. 1978. Nasser and his Generation. New York, USA. St. Martin’s Press. p. 320.
Source G
Source: From Shakhsiyyat Abdel Nasir (The Personality of Abdel Nasser ) by M Rabi, published in 1966. Quoted in Vatikiotis, P.J. 1978. Nasser and his Generation, New York, USA. St. Martin’s Press. p. 313.
Nasser’ s chari sma may well have an aesthe tized the Egyptians. The fact remains that his autocrac y founded littl e that is politically lasting, even though it may have provided the outli nes of social and economic change in the future. Source: Vatikiotis, P.J. 1978. Nasser and his Generation. New York, USA. St. Martin’s Press. p. 268.
Nasser’s funeral, 1 October 1970.
Anwar Sadat, 1970–1981 Anwar Sadat, Nasser’s successor was faced with a country that mourned its hero but was also in desperate need of an overhaul. The economy was stagnant. There were signs of social unrest; 1968 had already seen widespread demonstrations by students and workers in major cities. Many were frustrated at government inefficiency and corruption. Politically the tension that reigned between Israel and Egypt left many Egyptians feeling uncertain about the future. In the 11 years that Sadat took control, he succeeded in reorienting the country on a new path economically, politically and socially. Under the slogan “the revolution of rectifications”, he set about correcting his predecessor’s mistakes. In most cases this meant a total reversal of the Nasserist regime.
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Sadat had been a member of the Free Officers Group. In 1954 he was the Minister of State and in 1956 he chaired the National Union. Between 1960 and 1968 he became vicepresident, a post to which he was reappointed in December 1969 and was therefore acting president at the time of Nasser’s untimely death. His candidacy for the position in the long term was
