A Short History of Manufactured Fibers For thousands of years, the use of fiber was limited by the inherent qualities available in the natural world. Cotton and linen wrinkled from wear and washings. Silk required delicate handling. Wool shrank, was irritating to the touch, and was eaten by moths. Then, a mere century ago, rayon — the first manufactured fiber — was developed. The secrets of fiber chemistry for countless applications had begun to emerge. anufactured fibers now are put to work in modern apparel, home furnishings, medicine, aeronautics, energy, industry, and more. !iber engineers can combine, modify and tailor fibers in ways far beyond the performance limits of fiber drawn from the silkworm cocoon, grown in the fields, or spun from the fleece of animals. The Early Attempts
The earliest published record of an attempt to create an artificial fiber took place in "##$. %nglish naturalist &obert 'ooke suggested the possibility of producing a fiber that would be (if not fully as good, nay better) than silk. 'is goal remained unachieved for more than two centuries. The first patent for (artificial silk) was granted in %ngland in "*++ to a Swiss chemist named udemars. 'e dissolved the fibrous inner bark of a mulberry tree, chemically modifying it to produce cellulose. cellulos e. 'e formed threads by dipping needles into this solution solu tion and drawing them out - but it never occurred to him to emulate the silkworm by etruding the cellulosic liquid through a small hole. /n the early "**01s, Sir 2oseph W. Swan, an %nglish chemist and electrician, was spurred to action by Thomas %dison1s new incandescent electric lamp. 'e eperimented with forcing a liquid similar to udemars solution through fine holes into a coagulating bath. 'is fibers worked like carbon filament, and they found early use in %dison1s invention. /t also occurred to Swan that his filament could be used to make tetiles. /n "**+ he ehibited in 3ondon some fabrics crocheted by his wife from his new fiber. 4ut electrical lamps remained his main interest, and he soon abandoned work on tetile applications. First Commercial Production
The first commercial scale production of a manufactured fiber was achieved by !rench chemist Count 'ilaire de Chardonnet. /n "**5, his fabrics of (artificial silk) caused a sensation at the 6aris %hibition. Two years later he built the first commercial rayon plant at 4esancon, !rance, and secured his fame as the (father of the rayon industry.) Several attempts to produce (artificial silk) in the 7nited States were made during the early "5001s but none were commercially successful until the merican 8iscose Company, formed by Samuel Courtaulds and Co., 3td., began production p roduction its production produ ction of rayon in "5"0. "5"0 . /n "*59, rthur :. 3ittle of 4oston, invented yet another cellulosic product — acetate — and developed it as a film. 4y "5"0, Camille and 'enry :reyfus were making acetate motion
picture film and toilet articles in 4asel, Swit;erland. :uring World War /, they built a plant in %ngland to produce cellulose acetate dope for airplane wings and other commercial products. 7pon entering the War, the 7nited States government invited the :reyfus brothers to build a plant in aryland to make the product for merican warplanes. The first commercial tetile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the Celanese Company in "5<$. /n the meantime, 7.S. rayon production was growing to meet increasing demand. 4y the mid"5<01s, tetile manufacturers could purchase the fiber for half the price of raw silk. So began manufactured fibers1 gradual conquest of the merican fiber market. This modest start in the "5<01s grew to nearly =0> of the national market for fiber by the last decade of the century. Nylon — The “Miracle” Fiber
/n September "59", merican chemist Wallace Carothers reported on research carried out in the laboratories of the :u6ont Company on (giant) molecules called polymers. 'e focused his work on a fiber referred to simply as (##,) a number derived from its molecular structure. ?ylon, the (miracle fiber,) was born. The Chemical 'eritage !oundatio n is currently featuring an ehibit on the history of nylon. 4y "59*, 6aul Schlack of the /.@. !arben Company in @ermany, polymeri;ed caprolactam and created a different form of the polymer, identified simply as nylon (#.) ?ylon1s advent created a revolution in the fiber industry. &ayon and acetate had been derived from plant cellulose, but nylon was synthesi;ed completely from petrochemicals. /t established the basis for the ensuing discovery of an entire new world of manufactured fibers. An American Romance
:u6ont began commercial production of nylon in "595. The first eperimental testing used nylon as sewing thread, in parachute fabric, and in women1s hosiery. ?ylon stockings were shown in !ebruary "595 at the San !rancisco %position — and the most eciting fashion innovation of the age was underway. merican women had only a sampling of the beauty and durability of their first pairs of nylon hose when their romance with the new fabric was cut short. The 7nited States entered World War // in :ecember "5$" and the War 6roduction 4oard allocated all production of nylon for military use. ?ylon hose, which sold for A ".<+ a pair before the War, moved in the black market at A"0. Wartime pin-ups and movie stars, like 4etty @rable, auctioned nylon hose for as much as A$0,000 a pair in war-effort drives. :uring the War, nylon replaced sian silk in parachutes. /t also found use in tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies, and even was used in the production of a highgrade paper for 7.S. currency. t the outset of the War, cotton was king of fibers, accounting for more than *0> of all fibers used. anufactured and wool fibers shared the remaining <0>. 4y the end of the War in ugust "5$+, cotton stood at =+> of the fiber market. anufactured fibers had risen to "+>. The Post-ar !ndustry
fter the war, @/1s came home, families were reunited, industrial merica gathered its peacetime forces, and economic growth surged. The conversion of nylon production to
civilian uses started and when the first small quantities of postwar nylon stockings were advertised, thousands of fren;ied women lined up at ?ew Bork department stores to buy. /n the immediate post-war period, most nylon production was used to satisfy this enormous pent up demand for hosiery. 4ut by the end of the "5$01s, it was also being used in carpeting and automobile upholstery. t the same time, three new generic manufactured fibers started production. :ow 4adische Company today, 4S! CorporationD introduced metali;ed fibersE 7nion Carbide Corporation developed modacrylic fiberE and 'ercules, /nc. added olefin fiber. anufactured fibers continued their steady march. 4y the "5+01s, the industry was supplying more than <0> of the fiber needs of tetile mills. new fiber, (acrylic,) was added to the list of generic names, as :u6ont began production of this wool-like product. eanwhile, polyester, first eamined as part of the Wallace Carothers early research, was attracting new interest at the Calico 6rinters ssociation in @reat 4ritain. There, 2. T. :ickson and 2. &. Whinfield produced a polyester fiber by condensation polymeri;ation of ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid. :u6ont subsequently acquired the patent rights for the 7nited States and /mperial Chemical /ndustries for the rest of the world. host of other producers soon Foined in.
A ash and ear Re"olution
/n the summer of "5+<, (wash and wear) was coined to describe a new blend of cotton and acrylic. The term eventually was applied to a wide variety of manufactured fiber blends. Commercial production of polyester fiber transformed the (wash and wear) novelty into a revolution in tetile product performance. 6olyester1s commerciali;ation in "5+9 was accompanied by the introduction of triacetate. The maFority of the <0th century1s basic manufactured fibers now had been discovered, and the industry1s engineers turned to refining their chemical and physical properties to etend their use across the merican economy. /n the "5#01s and "5=01s consumers bought more and more clothing made with polyester. Clotheslines were replaced by electric dryers, and the (wash and wear) garments they dried emerged wrinkle free. /roning began to shrink away on the daily list of household chores. !abrics became more durable and color more permanent. ?ew dyeing effects were being achieved and shape-retaining knits offered new comfort and style.
Endless Possibilities
/n the "5#01s, manufactured fiber production accelerated as it was spurred on by continuous fiber innovation. The revolutionary new fibers were modified to offer greater comfort, provide flame resistance, reduce clinging, release soil, achieve greater whiteness, special dullness or luster, easier dyeability, and better blending qualities. ?ew fiber shapes and thicknesses were introduced to meet special needs. Spande, a stretchable fiberE aramid, a high-temperature-resistant polyamideE and para-aramid, with outstanding strength-to-weight properties, were introduced into the marketplace.
/n the early "5#01s, manufactured fiber accounted for nearly 90> of merican tetile mill consumption. 4y "5#+, the manufactured fiber industry was providing over $0> of the nation1s fiber needs. Gne dramatic new set of uses for manufactured fibers came with the establishment of the 7.S. space program. The industry provided special fiber for uses ranging from clothing for the astronauts to spaceship nose cones. When ?eil rmstrong took (Gne small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,) on the moon on 2uly <0, "5#5, his lunar space suit included multi-layers of nylon and aramid fabrics. The flag he planted was made of nylon. Today, the ehaust no;;les of the two large booster rockets that lift the space shuttle into orbit contain 90,000 pounds of carboni;ed rayon. Carbon fiber composites are used in as structural components in the latest commercial aircraft, adding strength and lowering weight and fuel costs.
#a$ety and Ener%y Challen%es
The early "5=01s saw a wave of consumer protection demands, most notably one for a mandated !ederal flammability standard for children1s sleepwear. The manufactured fiber industry spent A<0 million on flammability research and development in "5=< and "5=9, and manufactured fiber fabrics became predominant in this market. !lammability standards were also issued for carpet and other products. /n the 7.S. carpet market, 55> of all surface fibers are now manufactured fibers. /n late "5=9, when the ?ation was struck by a severe energy crisis, the manufactured fiber industry reduced the energy required to produce a pound of fiber by <#>. 4y then, the industry was using but "> of the ?ation1s petroleum supply to provide two-thirds of all fibers used by merican tetile mills.
Today
/nnovation is the hallmark of the manufactured fiber industry. !ibers more numerous and diverse than any found in nature are now routinely created in the industry1s laboratories. ?ylon variants, polyester, and olefin are used to produce carpets that easily can be rinsed clean — even <$ hours after they1ve been stained. Stretchable spande and machinewashable, silk-like polyesters occupy solid places in the 7.S. apparel market. The finest microfibers are remaking the world of fashion. !or industrial uses, manufactured fibers relentlessly replace traditional materials in applications from super-absorbent diapers, to artificial organs, to construction materials for moon-based space stations. %ngineered non-woven products of manufactured fibers are found in applications from surgical gowns and apparel interfacing to roofing materials, road bed stabili;ers, and floppy disk envelopes and liners. ?on-woven fabrics, stiff as paper or as soft and comfortable as limp cloth, are made without knitting or weaving. s they always have, manufactured fibers continue to mean, (life made better.)
First Commercial &'#' Production
1910 —
&ayon
1941 —
Saran
1959 —
1924 —
cetate
1946 —
etallic
1961 — ramid
1930 —
&ubber
1949 —
odacylic
1983 —
64/
1936 —
@lass
1949 —
Glefin
1983 —
Sulfar
1950 —
crylic
1992 —
3yocell
1953 —
6olyester
1939 — ?ylon 1939 —
8inyon
MAN-MA(E F!)ER# *!#T+R,
Spande
Arti$icial cellulose $ibers The first man-made fibers which were developed and produced used polymers of natural origin, more precisely of cellulose which is a raw material available in large quantities in the vegetable world. The beginning of industrial production of man-made fibers goes back to the year 189, when the !rench "ount #ilaire de "hardonnet started up his plant for the production of $"hardonnet silk% &initial output' ( kg per day), using the cellulose nitrate process. *s it happens in general in the case of technical-scientific developments, this achievement was the result of previous studies and researches &since appro+imately the year 18) focused mainly on the chemical properties of cellulose. n particular the researchers found the way to treat cellulose &a material insoluble in usual solvents and inflammable) with nitric acid &nitrification), to dissolve the derivative with solutions of alcohol-ether, to prepare suitable e+trusion devices &spinnerets) and finally to regenerate cellulose through saponification in alkaline baths &denitrification) in order to eliminate the danger inherent in the nitro compound &inflammable and e+plosive). *ctually the birth date of the $artificial silk% &such was the name given to this fibre at its introduction) is said to date back some years before &188) when an nglishman, /r 0wan, produced small quantities of nitrocellulose which the researcher had in mind to user the development of incandescent bulbs. /ore or less in the same period another way had been searched for to make cellulose capable of being spun, after being discovered that cellulose could be dissolved in a mi+ture of copper o+ide and ammonia &0chweiter2s reagent, 18(3). n fact this principle had been the basis in 4ermany for the production initially of incandescent bulbs &1891), then of cuprammonium fibers &1893) via the so-called $cupro% process, which was improved with the draw-spinning process &1891) and resulted in the production of 5emberg cupro yarn in 199. /eanwhile a patent had been registered in ngland by the researchers "ross, 5evan and 5eadle &1896) for the production of sodium cellulose +anthate and for its dissolution in dilute caustic soda. n this way the basis were laid for the production of a man-made cellulose fibre, now called viscose, which remained for decades the main process in use for the production of manmade fibers. The first industrial plants were built some years later in ngland and in 4ermany &early 19), and contributed to the rapid decline and giving up of the "hardonnet process &which was left off in 4ermany in 1911). 7ne of the various chemical properties of cellulose which found particular interest was the possibility of esterificating with acetic acid the three hydro+ylic groups contained in the glycosidic group of cellulose the first product to be obtained was triacetate &189) which, as it was later on discovered, could be partially hydrolied &19() into a product which was easily soluble in acetone. #owever only later on the most was made of the capacity of cellulose acetates to be transformed into fibers the fibre which attained more relevance was cellulose diacetate &1919-1961), commonly named acetate, whereas triacetate &produced since 191) found limited commercial interest owing to its difficult dissolution, restricted only to chloroform. "ellulose fibers were produced with said processes in form of continuous filament yarns, as the primary obective of the researchers was the reproduction of the morphology and, at least 3 partially, of the properties of raw silk &from which the term $artificial silk% originated). n 196 the fibre was made available also in form of staple fibre &$:istra%, 4ermany) and as such attained in time relevant market importance. ;ecent years saw the development of a process for the production of cellulose fibers using a solvent specifically studied for cellulose &<-methylmorpholine-<-o+ide), which on one hand safeguarded to a greater e+tent the inherent properties of the original cellulose structure and on he other permitted the use of processes less polluting than traditional ones. n this connection we cannot but emphasie the role played by the talian industry within the sector of cellulose fibers. The first factories sprang up at the beginning of last century thanks to the initiative of !rench chemical groups and in 191 could supply 1( tons of rayon &this was the name given to the ontinuous filament fibre). The first post-war period saw the successful coming on stage of the company 0<*
which, through the concentration of various production units, became at the end of the 62s one of the maor world producers of viscose rayon and later on of viscose staple fibre. n 1963 the production of cuprammonium yarn was started on behalf of the company $0eta 5emberg 0.*.%. n short, the talian production rose from =6 tons in 1919 to =6,( tons in 1969, so that taly became the leading producer in urope with a 1>? share of world production. *t the outbreak of the 6nd @orld @ar the talian production had reached 16, tons. The post-war period recorded a recovery of this industry, which reached its peak with 66>, tons in 19> from that date on, at first slowly and later at a quick pace, artificial fibers made room for synthetic fibers. *s regards artificial fibers, it needs to be reminded that this group of fibers includes also fibers which have as raw materials natural polymers other than cellulose, like fibers derived from proteins. * considerable historical significance was attained in taly by protein fibers derived from casein, which were produced initially by 0<* in 19=> &researcher' !erretti) under the name Aanital, later on renamed into /erinova. Brotein fibers of animal origin &casein from milk) stopped to have commercial significance, whereas still to-day a certain interest is enoyed, especially in the C0*, b y protein fibers of vegetable origin &maie, peanuts). #ynthetic $ibers The development and production of synthetic fibers &obtained by synthesis of chemical compounds) are a rather recent achievement. The delay in developing these fibers is to be ascribed to an insufficient knowledge of the structure of natural polymers &such as cellulose, rubber, natural fibers), which were difficult to be studied from the chemical point of view because they were nor fusible, nor reactive and not even soluble' in short, they were completely different from usual chemical substances. The basic studies carried out in the 1962s by 0taudinger, a 4erman researcher, brought out the fact that natural polymers are formed by linear macromolecules, that is by long thread-like chains, reproducible through the reaction of suitable, relatively simple molecules. ven if the date of birth of synthetic fibers is traced back to the production in 19=1 of a chlorovinyl fibre &B-", 4ermany), the fact is that the first real synthetic fibre in industrial production which would have a heavy impact on the market was the polyamide fibre, launched by the company DuBont under the trade-name $nylon% &e+perimental production in 19=8). The fibre came to success when the researchers obtained a product &polymerised amide, from which the name polyamide) by condensation of molecules presenting two reactive aminic groups &he+amethylenediamine) with molecules characterised by two carbo+ylic reactive groups &adipic acid). n order to be differentiated from other polymers belonging to same chemical class, this polymer was marked with the acronym >.> which indicates the number of carbon atoms &that is >) in the two molecules forming the repetitive polymer unit. n that same period &19=9), as a result of researches carried out in 4ermany by /r 0chlack in 19=8, starting from caprolactam, a single molecule of basic monomer, a new polyamide fibre was produced under the name $Berlon% &type >). n those years, starting from terephthalic acid and glycol ethylene, polyester fibre was invented &@hinfield and Dickson, 4reat 5ritain, 191) along with acrylic fibre &4erman and *merican patents, 196) owing to war vicissitudes, the industrial plants were however started up only in the early (2s. t is quite remarkable that in so few years all man-made fibers of primary importance for the te+tile sector &polyester, polyamide and acrylic fibers) were developed. 7nly later on an talian researcher, the talian 6. 7n the scenario of synthetic fibre production, taly made its appearance in 19=9 with the production of small quantities of nylon &company /ontecatini). The war blocked every
development, but the production of polyamide fibers started up again in the post-war period, to reach 3,( tons in 19(>. n 19(( the company ;hodiatoce started the production of polyester fibers under the name $Terital% in 19(9 the dison group produced the acrylic fibre named $Aeacril%, followed in 19>1 by the industrial production of the polypropylene fibre named $/eraklon%. The producers of man-made fibers renewed in the >2s the great effort made by the producers of artificial fibers in the =2s, bringing in the years 19>-193 the share of the talian production on world production to about (?. #owever, starting from the years 32s -82s, a slow decline took place owing to lack of rationalisation of the production plants, to insufficient research and development activity, to overproduction, to the oil crisis and also to production delocaliation from old-industrialised countries &urope, C0*, Eapan) to the newly-industrialied countries of the !ar-ast &"hina, Taiwan, 0outh Forea).