University of Setif
English Department
Applied Linguistics
31.10.2017
Introduction 1. Linguistics: is the scientific study of language as a system of human communication.
The branches of language are: 1) Phonetics/ phonology: sound system 2) Syntax: sentence structure 3) Cognitive linguistics: relationship between language and cognition 4) Semantics/ pragmatics/ functions of language: meaning
2. Applied linguistics:
It is putting theories of linguistics into practice.
It is the study of foreign and second language learning and teaching.
It is the study of language and linguistics in rel ation to practical problems such as translation, speech pathology, lexicology, etc.
It uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology and linguistics to develop language use in practical fields. (Richards a nd Schmidt, 2002:320)
It is the theoretical and empirical e mpirical investigation of real world problems in which language is a central issue. (Brumfit, 2004:03)
3. Applied linguistics Vs educational linguistics:
Educational linguistics is an area of study that integrates the research tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of social sciences in order to investigate the broad range of issues related to language lan guage and education. It is a branch of applied linguistics that deals with the study of language in teaching and learning. linguistics is a Thus, applied linguistics is the umbrella term, and educational linguistics part of it.
Similarities: Both of them are concerned with linguistics in r elation to real life
problems or with language in relation to practical problems. However, However, educational linguistics is narrower in scope than applied linguistics because in only deals with
the study of language in relation to teaching and learning, unlike applied linguistics which deals with more issues.
Differences: Hornberger (Denson, 2005:08): “the researchers should suggest that
educational linguistics is to be separated from applied linguistics. Not all interests in applied linguistics are, thus, necessarily tied to educational issues.”
4. The role of linguistics in educational linguistics: Brunfit (2001)states that the
individual contribution that linguists can make to educational work is twofold: 1) They can provide technical understanding deriving from linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic research to address educational problems, or to enable educational practitioners to become more proficient in addressing themselves. 2) They can contribute by collaborating with colleagues or by themselves, operating both as linguists and as educational researchers and teachers, understanding the reality of classroom environment in order to develop the educational practice.
5. Scope of applied linguistics: Experts agree that applied linguistics is a broad and
macro-level term including many areas of concern. Therefore, the combination of language and real world problems is the main constituent of applied l inguistics.
Language acquisition
Error analysis
Discourse analysis
Child language
Contrastive linguistics
Language and gender
Communication in profession
Educational technology and language learning
Learner autonomy in language learning
Language contact and language change
Interpreting and translating
Psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics
14.11.2017 Second Language Acquisition
1. What is Second Language Acquisition (SLA)?
It is the study of: 1) How L2 are learned 2) How learners create a new language system s ystem with limited exposure to an L2 3) Why most L2 learners do not achieve the same degree of pr oficiency in L2 as they do in their L1 4) Why some learners appear to achieve native-like proficiency in more than one language
2. The foundation of SLA
1) Language use : mono-, bi- and multilingual 2) L2 users are different from L1 users in knowledge, linguistic awareness, and cognitive processes
3. The nature of language learning
The nature of language is complex and multi-levelled
The nature of language learning is inherent. Children learn through interaction and stimulus. It is innate and distinct from general intelligence.
The rate of development when learning a language differs from one person to another.
Social experience has an important role. Language learning requires input. Kids in multi-lingual environment learn all the languages available.
L1 is not necessary to be taught.
Initial state
L1
L2
Innate ability to acquire it
Innate ability based on L1 knowledge, word knowledge and interaction skills
Intermediate state
Maturation, diversified input
Transfer, input, interaction,
and interaction
feedback, motivation and instruction
Native competence
Final state
Multilingual competence
21/11/2017 4. Framework of SLA
In trying to understand of the process of SLA, we are se eking to answer three basic questions: 1) What exactly does L2 learner come to know? 2) How does L2 learner acquire this knowledge? 3) Why are some learners more successful success ful in SLA than others? Period
Linguistics
Psychology
Sociology
50’s and
Structuralism
Behaviourism
Socio-Cultural Theory
before 60’s
70’s
Transformational Generative
Information
Grammar (TGG)
Processing
Functionalism
Humanistic Model
Variation Theory
Accomodation Theory
80’s
Principles and Parameters
Connectionism
Social Psychology
Model
Since the 60’s, scholars have formulated systematic theories and models to address the basic questions in the field of SLA. Different approaches to the study of SLA can be categorised as primarily based on linguistic, psychological psychological and social frameworks. Cook (1992:557) says that: « L2 users differ from monolinguals in L1 knowledge; advanced L users differ from monolinguals in L2 knowledge; L2 users have a different metalinguistic awareness from monolinguals; L2 users have different cognitive processes than monolinguals. These subtle differences consistently suggest that people with multi-competence are not simply equivalent to two monolinguals, but are a unique combination. »
28.11.2017 5. Factors influencing SLA
Scholars believe that there are many factors that influence the process of second language acquisition: 1) Language learner: is the language processor. Learners differ in matter of age, rate of acquisition, etc. 2) Cognitive factors: intelligence, language aptitude, etc. 3) Affective factors: motivation, anxiety, willingness, etc. 4) Social factors: the environment, interaction, individuals, gender, etc.
6. SLA theories 1) Innativist Theory: It considers language acquisition as innately determined. Theorists
believe that humans are born with a built in device of some kind that predisposes them to acquire languages. This predisposition is a systematic perception on language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalised system of language. Innativists use more of a rationalist approach in explaining the mystery of language acquisition. Chomsky, in 1965, claimed the existence of innate properties of language that explain a child’s mastery of his or her native language.
2) Input based theories: The Monitor Theory of Krashen: a. The Acquisition Vs Learning Hypothesis: claims that we have two
independent ways of developing language ability. i. Language acquisition is a subconscious process that occurs very
naturally in a non-threatening environment. Research strongly supports the view that both children and adults can subconsciously acquire languages. ii. Language learning is a conscious process that occurs at school in an
academic setting. b. The Natural Order Hypothesis: claims that we acquire parts of language in a
predictable order. Some grammatical items tend to come earlier in the acquisition than others e.g. “ing” progressive is acquired earlier than third person singular “s”. c. The Monitor Hypothesis: explains the relationship between acquisition and
learning. It defines the influence of learning on acquisition. Learning functions as a monitor. When a monitor is not used, errors are natural. This can happen internally before we actually speak or write, or as a self-correction after we produce the utterance or the written text. d. The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis: relates to acquisition and not to
learning. The “i” represents the level of knowledge already acquired by the learner. The “+1” is a metaphor for language that is just a step beyond that level. The “i+1” is provided naturally when input is unde rstood. e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: claims the existence of a metaphorical
barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language. Affects refer to feelings, motives, needs and attitudes. 3) Environmental Environmental theories: They deny the role of innate contributions and insist that an
organism’s experience is more important to development than its nature, and that processing learning is activated through input (Behaviourism: (Be haviourism: Skinner). Learning then happens when strong connections between individuals and the outside world are established.
4) Interactionist theories: They are more powerful than the previous ones because they
involve both innate and environmental factors to explain learning.
05.12.2017 Contrastive Analysis 1. Introduction
Applied linguistics is the branch of linguistics concerned with using linguistic theories to address real world problems. It has been traditi onally dominated by the fields of language education and second language acquisition. 2. Contrastive Contrastive analysis
It is based on the assumptions of Behaviourism where language acquisition is seen as a process of habit formation. In other words, old habits of L1 may be helpful in learning an L2. L2. If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of L1, it i s reasonable to focus on the differences between L2 and L1, since learning is a process process of habit formation which involves imitation, practice and reinforcement. 3. Definition of contrastive analysis
It is the study and comparison of two languages: the learner ’s target language and and the learner’s native language. In other words, it is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. The systematic comparison of L1 and L2 structures is done in order to predict difficulties. Serious studies in contrastive analysis begun with Robert Lado’s 1957 book “Linguistics across Culture”. It builds upon ideas set out in l inguistic relativity, also known as the Sapire and Worf Hypothesis, which believed that language structures affect cognitive thinking. This led to the automatic transferring of one language’s rules to another. In his book, Lado claimed that: “[those] elements which are similar to the learner’s native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. Contrastive analysis is founded on the assumption that second or foreign language learners tend to transfer into the target language features found in their native language. Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.”
The transfer may be positive or negative. It is said to be positive when a familiar skill facilitates the learning of a new structure (patterns are similar). But when there are differences in patterns, they would hinder the learning of the target language. 4.
Applications of contrastive analysis
James (1980) stated that: “Contrastive studies have four main applications: 1) predicting errors in L2 2) error diagnosis 3) testing learners 4) course design 5. Contrastive Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
This extension of the notion of contrastive analysis attributed the ability to predict errors to a contrastive analysis of two languages. A predictability that practitioners associated with the degree of similarity between the two systems. 6. Advantages of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
It explains pronunciation and phonological interference, and enhances language learners’ awareness about what elements they can transfer from L1. 7. Disadvantages Disadvantages of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
Problems for the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis can be in the predictive version. 1) The association with Behaviourism: in 1959, Chomsky criticised and challenged the Behaviourist view of language by introducing new concepts in the field of language learning. 2) The misprediction: specifically the supposed ability of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis to predict errors, was not supported by facts. 8. Criticism of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
1) The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characte risation of errors. 2) Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from L1 interference. 3) The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of errors in L2 acquisition. Thus, it became cl ear that contrastive analysis anal ysis could not predict learning difficulties and is only useful in the retrospective explanation of errors.
