Building Basics Overview Finance Contract Documents Building Specifications Cost of Building Architectural Drawings Building on a site Project Management
Professionals An Introduction to Professional Services he Architect he !ngineer he Building Designer he "uantit# Surve#or he Cost !stimator he Project Manager he Building Contractor Insurance
Plant Hire Overview Conditions of $ire and %ates
Siteworks
Building Basics http)**www+,uildaid+co+-a*%esourc http)**www +,uildaid+co+-a*%esources*.nderstanding/01the/ es*.nderstanding/01the/01Building/01Process+ht 01Building/01Process+htm m
Overview here are a num,er of factors to ,e ta&en into account ,efore ,eginning a ,uilding project2 these range from finance and drawings to project management and ,uilding on a site+ his section offers an overview of what one should ,e aware of2 to ensure the ,asics are covered ,efore the ,uild commences+
Finance Once #ou have decided to ,u# or ,uild2 the ne't step is deciding on a ,udget+ 3oo&ing at a home loan 4which the vast majorit# of people must do52 it is important to note that ,an&s generall# do not offer more than an 61/ loan+ herefore2 one must have at least 71801/ of the purchase price ,efore approaching a ,an& for a loan+ Ban&s do sometimes offer a loan of the full purchase price2 ,ut this is rare and the interest rate implications are ver# high+ Please note that when purchasing a home2 it is the seller9s responsi,ilit# to ensure that the municipal rates and ta'es are paid up to date and an electrical compliance certificate must ,e produced+ It is important to note that with ,uilding loans2 ,an&s are reluctant to offer more than :1/ of the cost of the contract+ he purchase price can comprise the land and cost of ,uilding+ If the land is paid in full2 this can ,e used as securit# for a loan for the cost of ,uilding+ Before one is a,le to secure a ,uilding loan2 plans must ,e presented along with at least three ;uotes from a reputa,le ,uilding contractor 4the ,uilding contractor must present proof of all ris& insurance cover2 and <$B%C <$B%C enrolment certifi cates52 an engineers report is most often re;uired = this can ,e o,tained through the contractor2 the design professional2 or directl# from an certified structural engineer+ Coupled with this2 one must present a comprehensive document outlining how and when the ,uilding contractor will ,e paid+
Contract Documents
An Introduction to Sitewor&s he >BCC Series 4>oint Building Contracts Committee5 contracts are recommended+ here are !'cavation Site $uts ( oilets various t#pes of contracts to suit different circumstances+ he# are availa,le from the <$B%C 4
BCC we,site+ he CIDB 4Construction Industr# Development Board5 have also developed ree Felling ( Stump %emoval four contracts that are recommended+ Signage
$ow much will it cost@ he contract amount that will ,e paid at predetermined and agreed intervals+
$ow long with it ta&e@ Concrete Slabs he contract period = a contract must allow for e'tension and should have a penalt# clause+ It
Overview #pes of Sla,s Design uidelines Other Sla, S#stems oid Formers
is a good idea to emplo# the services of a law#er to at least chec& the contract ,efore signing+ he legal fees compared to the average contract amount are negligi,le+
#%S OF !"#"'() CO)!(CS* (+!"",")S W%H%) H" -BCC S"!%"S ()D FO!,S.
Waterproofing H" P!%)C%P(# B/%#D%)+ (+!"",") 0PB(1 An Introduction to he document is the cornerstone of the >BCC Series 0111+ he Agreement is made up of nine sections starting with the definitions of all the primar# elements and phrases+ he ne't sections Damp ( are ordered as closel# as possi,le to the project e'ecution se;uence+ State su,stitution ?aterproofing ?ater Containing clauses are listed in the penultimate section+ he final section is a schedule of all the varia,les re;uired to complete the Agreement he Agreement Agreement is designed to ,e used with or without ,ills Structures of ;uantities+ he ,uilding industr#2 li&e almost ever# aspect of modern life2 does not stand still2 Flat %oof and in the ensuing seven #ears >BCC found it necessar# to pu,lish three further editions = in ?aterproofing 0112 011 and finall# edition +7 in 011E = to deal with changing circumstances+ Windows Doors & Door Frames
he BCC Series 0111 and further editions+ Doors ?ooden Doors ,%)O! WO!2S (+!"",") arage Doors he Agreement is designed for use where the wor&s are of a minor and simple nature+ he
!oofing Overview %oof Coverings
emplo#er appoints a principal agent to administer the contract and direct contractors appointed for specialised wor& and installations that will not fall within the contractor9s responsi,ilities or lia,ilities+
(D-/D%C(%O) !/#"S Adjudication is an accelerated form of dispute resolution in which the adjudicator determines determines a An Introduction to dispute as an e'pert and not as an ar,itrator+ Adjudication is now the default dispute resolution Plastering process for the Principal Building and <*S Su,contract Agreements Agreements and these %ules are to ,e ?all Coatings ( read in conjunction with the dispute clause of the Agreements+ he State does not ma&e use of Finishes ( Crac& this form of dispute resolution+ Plastering
Fillers Floor Applications Swimming Pools FO!, OF ")D"!
his document is for use with the Principal Building Agreement2
#ig$ting 3earning a,out lighting $ome lighting
Plumbing An Introduction to
S%" POSS"SS%O) C"!%F%C(" his certificate records the hand8over of the site to the contractor which is an act that is contractuall# signifi cant and should ,e f ormall# recorded+ CO)!(C P!%C" (D-/S,") P!O'%S%O)S 0CP(P1 !scalation adjustment ,ased on a wor&a,le formula method rather than on actual cost changes simplifi es claims and accounting procedures+ o achieve achieve this o,jective it is necessar# to agree
Plum,ing erminolg# Building %egulations and Minimum Specifications Sanitar#ware and fittings Acr#lic ,aths Fitting a ge#ser
on a ,as&etG of wor& groups and the weighting of the elements of the wor& group+ he agreements re;uire that the contract value shall ,e adjusted according to the procedure laid down in a CPAP listing the appropriate ,ase month+ W(%'"! OF CO)!(CO!5S #%") his form can ,e used for ,oth the Principal Building and Minor ?or&s Agreements Agreements and re;uires the provision of a Pa#ment uarantee from the !mplo#er+ he waiving of the lien ,# the contractor is of contractual significance+
Ceilings & Partitioning
Building Specifications
An Introduction to Ceilings ( Partitioning
It is a,solutel# vital to create a comprehensive specification for an# ,uilding project+ o guarantee accurate costing2 one cannot use general notes and specifications+ As the word suggests2 a specifi cation contains specifi c information+ For e'ample2 a door is not simpl# a door = it has a frame and furniture 4hinges2 handles2 loc&sets5 and can ,e made from a num,er of different materials+
%ronmonger3 An Introduction to Ironmonger# 3oc&s $inges
o estimate the cost of a project without a specifi cation is impossi,le and to enter into a contract without one is ver# short8sighted+ oo oo man# ,uilding contracts are entered into with vague information+ he specification should form an integral part of the ,uilding contract+ It is important to note that there is no such thing as a standard specification as no two structure are ali&e or use the same materials+
%ronmonger3
he format of the Buildaid Building ( Pricing uide forms the ,asis of a specification+ !ach
An Introduction to section and su,8section should ,e loo&ed at separatel# and the information used to compile a Ironmonger# specification for each particular trade or process+ 3oc&s $inges
Painting & Wallcoatings
Cost of Building
An Introduction to Painting Applications ( "uantities Coatings
?e must categoricall# state that there reall# is no such thing as a standard ,uilding rate per s;uare meter+ Because Because no two structures are the same2 no two ,uilding costs are the same+ his does not just relate to the finishes in a ,uilding2 as finishes on average onl# ma&e up ,etween 01 = 1/ of the total ,uilding cost+ Over the following pages2 we demonstrate that design has a great infl uence on the cost of ,uilding2 ,# ta&ing two houses of different design and costing the project = the result shows two vastl# different s;uare meter rates2 even though +la4ing similar internal finishes have ,een specified+ Below is a simple e'ample showing four shapes2 An Introduction to all 7E1m0 ,ut with vastl# different wall lengths+ la-ing Balustrades It is o,viousl# imperative to ensure that an accurate cost estimate is created ,efore ,uilding ?hat is glass@ commences+ commences+ he more detailed a specification2 the more accurate a cost estimate can ,e+ As $ow is glass previousl# mentioned this pu,lication is set up to assist in the creation of a specification and made@ costing of the specification+ Ma&ing flat glass 4the float process5 Basic t#pes of flat glass used in the ,uilding industr# (rc$itectural Drawings
here are some ,asics that are re;uired ,# all local authorities in terms of ,uilding projects+ $owever2 it is vital to chec& with #our local authorit# in terms of what their specific re;uirements An Introduction to are ,efore su,mitting drawings for approval+ If drawings are not approved ,efore ,uilding Flooring commences2 the local authorit# has the right to stop all ,uilding activities and indeed2 if the in#l ile ( Sheet plans are not in accordance withtheir regulations2 to order that the ,uilding ,e torn down+ Flooring Please note that he Architectural Profession Act Act 01112 Act of 0111 was pu,li shed on 7 Flooring
Carpeting
?ooden Flooring Decem,er 0111 and came into operation on 0 >anuar# 0117+ his replaces the Architectural Act of 7J:1 which affects all persons practicing the architectural profession+ Among other and Dec&s factors2 he Act affects who is allowed to su,mit plans for approval+ Please ensure that a Ceramic iles
Specialised Contractors
registered architectural professional has signed off #our drawings ,efore su,mitting to #our local authorit#+ For more information on he Act and the changes affected please logon to www+sacapsa+com+
Airconditioning Awnings P#()S ,/S B" S/B,%"D FO! H" FO##OW%)+ B/%#D%)+ (C%'%%"S. Boreholes Carports ( Shade • An# wall 7+Em or higher K Drainage Ports 3andscaping • Swimming pools K An# structure with a roof+ Hitchens Fittings ( Cup,oards • An# structure 4when ,uilt5 which deviates from the original plan must ,e re8su,mitted+ Paving Slights Swimming Pools Please note that some plans2 when approved2 ma# have to ,e started within a #ear of approval
and once started2 ma# have to ,e completed within a specific time+ !ach plan su,mitted must contain certain information and this ma# differ slightl# from area to area+ Plans will need to ,e coloured according to colour codes specified ,# the local authorit#+ All drawings should consist of as man# plans2 sections and elevations as ma# ,e necessar# to indicate2 where relevant2 the position2 form2 dimensions and materials of the proposed ,uilding to ,e erected+ Below is a list of the minimum re;uirements to ,e included on a set of wor&ing drawings+ •
Site Plan
•
Floor Plan
•
!levations
•
Sections
•
eneral
It should ,e noted that wor&ing drawings 4the drawings used on site5 should far e'ceed the content of the plans su,mitted for approval+ here are a num,er of drawings that some authorities don9t re;uire2 for e'ample) roof plan and electrical plan+
Building on a Site Building on a site is not simpl# a matter of fi nding a design and a site to suit ones needs+ here are man# aspects to consider and loo& out forL such as the gradient or slope2 northern or southern hemisphere in terms of the western sun2 entr#2 ,uilding lines and servitudes2 view and shape+ Climatic conditions determine the importance of orientation+ he com,ination of all these aspects on a site is more comple' than one would imagine+ Also ta&e time to chec& out the soil conditions on the stand chosen = certain soils can pose difficult# for ,uilding and ma# also pose landscaping difficulties2 adding costs to the ,uild+ %emem,er to chec& if the site chosen is in a proclaimed township and what municipal services are offered 4for e'ample2 some areas do not have ru,,ish collection services5+ Also chec& what the rates and ta'es are for the area as this will ,ecome part of the monthl# cost of living and will ,e due for pa#ment on transfer of the propert#+ Our ,oo& $ome Plans for Southern Africa = ISB<) 1 = 01 = J7J 8 12 offers e'amples of how to address the issue of site differences ,# stepping or orientating a design to suit the site+
One must ta&e the following into account when choosing or ,uilding on a site) •
radient or Slope
•
!ntr#
•
Building 3ines ( Servitudes
•
iew
•
Shape
Pro6ect ,anagement Project management entails planning2 organi-ing2 co8ordinating or scheduling2 controlling and directing the activities of a project+ Project management can also ,e regarded as a planning and control mechanism for using resources to achieve specific o,jectives+ As with an# project2 good organi-ation and management are essential elements in ensuring the success of a project+ From a simple chec& listm to computer programmes2 there are various wa#s in which to ensure the smooth running of a project and trac&ing when2 where and how activities are to ,e completed+ Project management is also a,out overcoming o,stacles which are numerous when involved in the ,uilding of a home2 li&e unrealistic e'pectations of the owner and the limited num,er of s&ills availa,le within the industr#+ Project management has three critical elements) time2 cost and ;ualit#+ hese elements interact constantl# and a ,alance must ,e esta,lished and maintained ,etween them+ %emem,ering if time and cost receive priorit#2 then ;ualit# will ,e neglected2 and vice versa+ he realit# in South Africa at present is the emphasis on time and cost2 resulting in man# poorl# ,uilt homes2 which is compounded ,# the l ac& of s&ills+
78 Professionals (n %ntroduction to Professional Services ?hile there can ,e no su,stitute for e'perience2 the ultimate definition of a professional9 is someone registered with a ,od# whose e'istence is aimed at offering protection to the pu,lic through statutor# control+ A nota,le tendenc# in the residential ,uilding industr# is that more and more clients are attempting to owner8,uild9 their new homes+ he availa,ilit# of specialist su,8contractors2 covering most aspects of ,uilding a new home2 is ma&ing the role of owner8,uilder*project manager9 more via,le+ Changes in the residential ,uilding mar&et have resulted in an e'tremel# competitive industr#2 saturated with su,8contractors offering e'tremel# attractive deals to the untrained e#e9+ In short2 the residential ,uilding industr# is full of fl#8,#8night2 ,a&&ie ,uilders9 whose aim is to undercut all other ;uotes and then to ma&e mone# ,# compromising ;ualit#+
he old adage of #ou get what #ou pa# for9 seems more appropriate now than ever ,efore+ One9s ,est protection in this high8ris& mar&et is to emplo# the services of a professional+ For most2 the investment in a home is the ,iggest financial commitment one will ever ma&e+ !nsure that the ,est value for mone# is achieved ,# utilising at least one professional9 on the list of consultants for the ,uilding project+ ?hile there can ,e no su,stitute for e'perience2 the ultimate definition of a professional9 is someone registered with a ,od# whose e'istence is aimed at offering protection to the pu,lic through statutor# control+ Professionals are ,ound ,# a code of ethics2 enforcea,le ,# law+ here are man# professionals involved in a ,uilding project+ From the architect*designer2 right down to the interior decorator+ It is vital to chec& references2 call up past clients and view completed projects 4where applica,le5 ,efore entering into an agreement+ his section outlines various professionals involved in the industr#+
$e (rc$itect A registered architect is the highest ;ualified person who can ,e utilised on a ,uilding project+ Although2 in the domestic ,uilding industr# most homes are designed ,# ,uilding designers = most of whom are ;ualified to underta&e the design of domestic structures2 up to 7E11m0 and three stor# commercial ,uildings+ !nough time must ,e allowed for appointing and ,riefing an architect as it la#s the foundation for the eventual success of the project+ his serves to eliminate misunderstandings a,out principles ,etween the client and the architect and sets the pattern for further co8operation ,etween ,oth parties+ he client9s initial tas& is to i nform the architect of his re;uirements with respect to) •
the si-e of the structure
•
how man# individual units will ma&e up the structure 4e+g+ ,athrooms2 ,edrooms etc+5
•
the t#pe of structure 4tim,er frame2 face ,ric&2 plaster5
•
additional features re;uired 4slights2 swimming pools2 water features5
•
project ,udget
%)"!P!"(%O) OF H" B!%"F he architect interprets the initial ,rief 8 to identif# and weigh all factors that will constitute the ma&eup of the structure+ his would involve determining site restrictions2 feasi,ilit# and practicalit#+ he architect then reports his findings to the client ,# wa# of a concise document2 which involves all aspects of the project as perceived ,# himself and his findings+ his allows the client to decide whether the architect should proceed to the design of the project or to change the ,rief+
D"S%+) CO)C"P he first tas& in consultation with the client is to adjust and e'pand on the outline ,rief on the
,asis of the report and include an# comments the client ma# have+ A s&etch design would then commence2 la#ing out the ,rief in visual form+ Continuit# of presentation to the client is essential to avoid repetition and misunderstanding+ Design2 technical documentation and approval+ .pon acceptance of the s&etch plan in theor#2 the client will then instruct the architect with a final design proposal+ It ma# ,e found at this stage that the original ,rief differs greatl# from the current ,rief due to concepts and ideas visualised during the planning process+ Information that the architect imparts can greatl# transpose the original ,rief to a more effective and artistic one+ A final specification must ,e agreed upon and thereafter onl# minor deviations should ,e entertained as cost estimates2 programme feasi,ilit# and other factors ma# ,e jeopardised+ he architect will then cr#stallise the design in as much detail as possi,le+ An# information that is necessar# to achieve this o,jective is collected2 anal#sed and collated+ Specialised items such as electrical or mechanical installations2 special windows or doors or other specialised components are o,tained from specialist firms+ his allows the architect to prepare an elemental estimate of costs2 which is reconciled with original costs ;uoted+ Drawings and other documents are prepared in accordance with the preion of the relative authorities+ %esults of the design wor& are then su,mitted to the client and include) •
the form and appearance of the ,uilding
•
structural design of the ,uilding
•
standard finishes
•
e'pected performance of the ,uilding with respect to ph#sical well8,eing2 up&eep and dura,ilit#
•
recommendations on tenders
•
elemental cost anal#sis
•
programme for the erection of the ,uilding+
.pon acceptance ,# the client2 the documents are then su,mitted to the relevant 3ocal Authorit# for approval+ CO)!(C (D,%)%S!(%O) ()D S/P"!'%S%O) It is essential that all the following tas&s are full# documented and performed timeousl#+ All instructions should ,e issued via the architect to the teams contracted to site2 avoiding dela #s and unclear instructions2 which can lead to claims and unpleasantness+ he architect2 under the client9s instruction2 calls for tenders+ he method for o,taining tenders must meet the approval of the client+ $e must ,e made aware of the importance of finding a contractor whose organisation is suita,le for the wor&+ On receipt of the tenders2 the architect will evaluate their content and report his findings to the client2 with his recommendations+ $e will then inform the successful tenderer on ,ehalf of the client+ A legall# ,inding contract is then signed ,etween the contractor and the client2 the contents of which are vetted ,# the architect+ Involving himself in ever# step of the project allo ws the
architect to monitor cost control and progress on ,ehalf of his client+ $is tas&s therefore follow the procedure ,elow) •
issuing tender documents
•
reporting on tenders received and ma&ing recommendations
•
preparing the contract documents for signing
•
preparing su,8contract documents and awarding su,8 contracts
•
approving su,8contract drawings and samples
•
supervising the site regularl# and preparing supervision reports
•
attending site meetings
•
monitoring the progress against the proposed construction programme
•
valuing wor& in progress
•
issuing interim certificates
•
issuing instructions and additional drawings where necessar#
•
determining hand8over procedures
•
adjudicating claims ,# the contractor
•
arranging for the ma&ing good of defects after the retention period
•
preparing and issuing the final account
he project is wound up with the issue of final certificates2 for pa#ment ,# the client2 as well as pa#ment of the remaining professional fees+
$e "ngineer he traditional role of a consulting civil*structural engineer in the residential ,uilding industr# appears to ,e a thing of the past+ ?hile it is true that this sector of the ,uilding industr# has never properl# utilised the services of an enginee r2 the tendenc# these da#s is that the su,8 contractor who offers a turn&e# pac&age of design and suppl# of suspended concrete sla,s2 generall# accepts the responsi,ilities of the engineer+ he client is therefore2 and understanda,l# so2 reluctant to appoint an independent Consulting !ngineer2 at an additional cost to the project+ he Consulting !ngineer will offer professional advice on the following aspects of a t#pical residential development) •
An overview of the preliminar# designs2 offering guidance as to the economies of the structural s#stem9+ hese considerations are normall# discussed with the
architect*designer and client+ •
An evaluation of the founding conditions on the identified site2 so that appropriate foundation design is ta&en into account at the planning stage+ he services of a geotechnical engineer * engineering geologist are often utilised in this regard+
he design and detailing of the final structural s#stem9 of the residence+ his will include the following) •
•
•
•
Foundation design where ground conditions render conventional strip foundations inappropriateL he design of the structural elements+ In particular this refers to multi8store# dwellings where the design of reinforced concrete sla,s2 columns and ,eams are t#picall# re;uired+ Alternative designs in structural steelwor& or tim,er are also an optionL he design or general overview of e'ternal services such as storm8water management2 roads 4pavements52 etcL he supervision of all of the a,ove mentioned aspects of wor&+ During the supervision of the engineering related wor&s2 advice on other aspects of ,uilding can also ,e given+
he fee a Consulting !ngineer will charge is directl# related to the wor& and responsi,ilit# he will underta&e+ .ltimatel#2 the client decides on the role of the engineer+ he e'perience of ,uilding a dream home can ,e e'tremel# rewarding+ ?hatever course of action one chooses to follow2 ,e it the old conventional method of appointing a contractor for the full assignment2 or the more challenging and ris method of owner8,uilding2 ,e sure to utilise the sound advice of a professional+ A Consulting !ngineer can offer advice on all methods of construction and is not therefore married to a particular product or method+ Don9t ,e fooled ,# the contractor offering a cost saving if a particular &ind of suspended sla, s#stem is used+ he advantages and disadvantages of all methods of construction must ,e e'plained to the client from an un,iased point of view2 so that the client can ma&e decisions according to his e'pectations+
$e Building Designer he majorit# of prospective homeowners are under the misconception that emplo#ing professionals is onl# for the wealth#+ his could not ,e further from the truth2 and #et2 vast sums of mone# continue to ,e spent on ,adl# designed homes+ Badl# designed ,uildings can create astronomical hidden costs and ,ecome poor investments+ B# not utilising the s&ills of a trained professional from the ,eginning2 a dream home will ;uic&l# turn into a nightmare+ For e'ample2 a roof structure ma&es up 01/ of the ,uilding cost and if ine'pertl# designed2 could dou,le in cost+ he functionalit# and aesthetics of the ,uilding must ,e ta&en into consideration2 as well as ,udget constraints+ In selecting a designer2 it is of utmost importance to esta,lish a comforta,le wor&ing relationship2 ensuring that the design of a home is a team effort+ Before selecting a designer2 one should view completed projects and spea& to various clients for feed,ac&+
he ,asic tas&s of the ,uilding designer can ,e ,ro&en down as follows) P!"P(!(%O) .pon ta&ing an initial ,rief2 the ,uilding designer will produce a set of s&etch plans2 which should conform to the following criteria) •
he house must ,e aestheticall# pleasing as well as practical to live in
•
he design must fit comforta,l# on the proposed stand
•
•
he design must ,e positioned in such a wa# that it ,enefits from the elements that surround it rather than ,e hindered ,# them he ,udget must ,e strictl# adhered to+
Budgeting is an e'tremel# important step to the final outcome and success of a project+ Over8 designing at the onset can ,e e'tremel# disappointing when ;uotes or the ,ill of ;uantities state that the project is wildl# out of reach of the proposed ,udget+ his ultimatel# leads to an additional e'pense and time dela#s whilst the designer redraws the project+ Most project costs can ,e esta,lished as earl# as s&etch level allowing the client to ela,orate on or reduce the design+ WO!2%)+ D!(W%)+S Once a design has ,een settled upon2 the designer ma# now commence with full wor&ing drawings+ At this stage2 the client will assist the designer ,# specif#ing what t#pes of finishes will ,e re;uired and these will ,e included on the wor&ing drawings+ Itemising even the smallest and most insignificant item will reduce the margin of error when construction ,egins+ he designer will collate this information into a finishing schedule2 and where specific items cannot ,e finalised2 a reasona,le ,udget for these items will ,e allowed+ Final wor&ing drawings are e'tremel# detailed and show elevations of the ,uilding from the north2 south2 east and west+ Drawings will include sections and roof la#outs2 as well as a detailed floor plan with electrical and plum,ing la#outs+ %esearch shows that less than 1/ of the resources re;uired are on the average drawing+ A professional should provide a comprehensive set of wor&ing drawings to ensure that the contractor does not misinterpret plans+ B/%#D%)+ COSS !"#("D O D"S%+) A ,adl# designed ,uilding will generall# cost more mone# than initiall# envisaged+ If design elements are not thought through carefull# during the design process2 the ,uilding will almost certainl# ,e faced with unforeseen pro,lems+ hese pro,lems cost mone#+ S;uare metre ,uilding rates are the ,iggest m#th in the ,uilding industr#+
$e :uantit3 Surve3or WH( %S ( :/()%9 S/!'"9O!; "uantit# surve#ors are the financial consultants of the construction industr# whose training and e'perience ;ualif# them to advise on cost and contractual arrangements and to prepare contract documents+ he# act in liaison with architects2 consulting engineers and contractors to safeguard the client9s interest+ he# are independent e'perts who operate in a specialised area of the construction industr#+ he title ;uantit# surve#or was reserved under the "uantit# Surve#ors9 Act of 7J:1 for e'clusive use ,# those who had o,tained the necessar# ;ualifications and e'perience prescri,ed under the Act+ In terms of it2 such persons must register with the South African Council for "uantit# Surve#ors ,efore the# ma# offer their service as consultants to the pu,lic+ "uantit# surve#ors are re;uired to compl# with a strict code of professional conduct which includes responsi,ilit# to their emplo#ers or clients and to their profession having full regard to the pu,lic interest2 conducting themselves so as to uphold the dignit# and reputation of the profession and discharging their duties to their emplo#ers and
clients in an efficient and competent manner with complete fidelit# and without undue dela#+
H" !()+" OF S"!'%C"S OFF"!"D B9 :/()%9 S/!'"9O!S Firms generall# offer a wide spectrum of services to their clients ,ut naturall# tend to gain e'perience or concentrate their services in specific fields+ Before commissioning the services of ;uantit# surve#ors2 prospective prospective clients are advised to investigate the particular e'perience and the services in which the# specialise+ he services the# offer could ,e) •
•
!stimating and cost advice !stimates and cost advice during all stages of the development of a project are essential if the correct decisions with full awareness of their financial implications are to ,e made+ Sophisticated techni;ues2 e'tensive cost data ,an&s and an intimate &nowledge of ,uilding and construction economics ena,le ;uantit# surve#ors to provide relia,le cost advice+
COS P#())%)+ Clients want to &now that the# are receiving value for mone#2 not onl# with regard to the capital cost ,ut also in respect of the running and maintenance cost of a project+ Cost planning ena,les decisions on various design alternatives to ,e made with actual costs ,eing constantl# monitored against original ,udgets+
P!OP"!9 D"'"#OP,") (D'%C" A ,uilding should should meet the functional dimensional and technological technological re;uirements for which it was designed2 should ,e aestheticall# pleasing and meet the cost limits of the client9s ,udget+ A ;uantit# surve#or is a,le to provide pre8design feasi,ilit# studies involving technical and*or economic investigations there,# ena,ling a client to decide whether2 and in what form2 to proceed+
H%SO!9 OF :/()%9 S/!'"9%)+ he ;uantit# surve#or emerged in !ngland at the ,eginning of the nineteenth centur#2 although the firm of henr# Cooper and Sons of %eading was esta,lished as earl# as 7:6E+ Prior to the first recorded usage of the term ;uantit# surve#orG in 76EJ+2 the terms measurerG2 custom surve#orG or surve#orG were used+ In those earl# da#s the ;uantit# surve#or acted for the master tradesmen2 measuring the wor& after completion and fre;uentl# su,mitting partisan Final Accounts to the ,uilding owner+ As As a direct result of these activities it increasingl# ,ecame the practice of ,uilding owners to have wor& e'ecuted under contract and to call f or tenders ,efore an# wor& was underta&en+ A procedure therefore developed where,# ,uilding owners would approach an architect to design a ,uilding+ Drawings and specifications were distri,uted to selected master ,uilders2 who would then su,mit tenders for the total price rather than a collection of prices from master tradesmen+ he tas& of arriving at an accurate estimate of cost or tender can ,e carried out in onl# one wa# 8 that of measuring the ;uantities of all materials and la,our necessar# to complete the wor&2 i+e+ preparing ,ills of ;uantities+ As each ,uilder had to prepare his own ,ills of ;uantities for each project2 the# realised that it would ,e more economical for them as a group to emplo# one surve#or to measure ;uantities for them all+ he# would thus share the cost of the surve#or2 o,tain an identical Bill of "uantities which ensured that the# would all ,e tendering on the same ,asis+
he ,uilding owner su,se;uentl# realised that it would ,e to his personal advantage to appoint and pa# the fees of the ;uantit# surve#or+ hus the independent professional ;uantit# surve#or gained consultant status+
(D'%C" O) ")D"!%)+ P!OC"D/!"S ()D CO)!(C/(# (!!()+",") he choice of an appropriate form of contract for an# given project will depend on the nature of the project2 the circumstances under which the wor& is to ,e carried out and the particular needs of the client+ "uantit# surve#ors2 in colla,oration with architects are a,le to advise their clients on the most advantageous procurement methods availa,le2 including) Contracts incorporating ,ills of ;uantities2 provisional ,ills of ;uantities and schedules of rates+
(C %) D%SP/"S "C8 "uantit# surve#ors possess possess &nowledge and e'pertise in the fields of costs and contracts which e;uip them to prepare valuations for fire insurance2 to advise in the settlement of insurance claims and to ,e called as e'pert witnesses or act as ar,itrators in an # court or ar,itration on ,uilding disputes+
,("!%(# #%S ()D '(#/"S "uantit# surve#ing services in respect of civil2 mechanical2 and electrical wor& Propert# economics Project management Fast trac& construction
!",/)"!(%O) "uantit# surve#ors are remunerated according to a recommended scale of fees2 set out in the ariff ariff of Professional Charges pu,lished ,# the Association of South African "uantit# Surve#ors+ Fees are generall# ,ased on a percentage of the value of the wor& handled2 var#ing in accordance with the t#pe of wor& done or the scope of services rendered+ For more infomation visit www+asa;s+co+-a
$e Cost "stimator he cost estimator can ,e seen as a complement to the ;uantit# surve#or+ he cost estimator relates prices and costs to resources and items measured ,# the ;uantit# surve#or+ enerall#2 ;uantit# surve#ors focus more on the formal mar&et and less so on the domestic mar&et+ he ;uantit# surve#or deals more with items9 as opposed to resources92 for e'ample) •
•
a ;uantit# surve#or measures a given structure in s;uare metres of ,ric&wor& a cost estimator measures a given structure at resource level 4,ric&s2 sand2 cement2 etc5 and prices them+
%eports generated ,# cost estimators can ,e li&ened to Bills of "uantities or Bill of Material2 although the# go one step further ,# appl#ing an estimated price or cost to that specific item+ he independent cost estimator has2 in recent #ears2 ,ecome an accepta,le means to esta,lishing costs of domestic and commercial projects+ 3i&e the ;uantit# surve#or2 the cost estimator re;uires a set of wor&ing drawings to measure off2 and for a single wall will ;uote num,ers of ,ric&s2 cement2 sand2 stone and other related resources and price them+ his method of pricing a structure can ,e considered as one of the more accurate2 and with the assistance of computer technolog#2 can produce information ;uic&l#2 consistentl# and accuratel#+ A ,adl# designed ,uilding will generall# cost more mone# mone# than initiall# envisaged+ If design elements are not thought through carefull# during the design process2 the ,uilding will almost certainl# ,e faced with unforeseen pro,lems+ hese pro,lems cost mone#+ S;uare metre ,uilding rates are the ,iggest m#th in the ,uilding industr#+ industr#+
S%" "#",")S arious arious site conditions ma# affect the cost of ,uilding+ he first consideration is alwa#s the slope or gradient of the site+ isuall#2 a site alwa#s seems more level than it actuall# is+ A variance of onl# one metre across a t wo hundred s;uare metre house 4assuming a length of 01 metres5 would increase the ,ric& ;uantit# ,# appro'imatel# ten thousand ,ric&s+ If one considers the price of the ,ric&s2 mortar and l a,our2 this could amount to nearl# %:2111811+ In terms of ,uilding regulations2 the height of the foundation ,ric&wor& ma# also re;uire that the thic&ness of the wall ,e increasedL amounting to more cost+ Sites with ver# steep gradients usuall# re;uire retaining walls2 which are e'tremel# e'pensive2 particularl# when structural reinforced concrete is re;uired+ %etaining walls also re;uire vertical damp8proofing and agricultural drains+
o,structions would include electrical poles2 fire h#drants2 storm water drains and trees planted on the pavement+ An electrical pole ,loc&ing a proposed drivewa# could ,e a costl# e'ercise to remed#+
FO/)D(%O) "#",")S As mentioned a,ove2 the gradient of a ,uilding site will affect the cost of the foundations+ here are however2 other factors that ma# influence costs+ Poor soil conditions ma# re;uire engineered foundations+ A 0E1 s;uare metre home ,uilt in auteng in 7JJ: incurred an additional cost of %:12111811 due to soil conditions and the necessit# to use concrete piling+ It is good practice to have the to have the soil conditions tested ,# a geotechnical engineer ,efore design and2 if possi,le2 ,efore even ,u#ing the stand+ Complicated structures with split8 levels or columns will alwa#s increase the foundation cost2 even if ,uilt on a level site+
S/P"!S!/C/!" "#",")S hese elements are contained in the structure ,etween the foundation and roof2 the major element ,eing the walls+ here are man# elements that will influence the cost of the superstructure+ .nli&e the foundations there are doors2 windows and t #pes of materials utilised that present numerous varia,les when considering costs+ Presented ,elow are a num,er of costing models to demonstrate how costs var# depending on the elements used in construction+
S%)+#" SO!"9 'S DO/B#" SO!"9 he following costing models show the difference in cost for a single store# dwelling and a dou,le store# dwelling+ Both structures are 011m0 each 8 the dou,le store# has a ground floor of 711m0 and a first floor of 711m0+ he costing includes structural elements and la,our2 ,ut e'cludes electrical2 plum,ing2 &itchens2 ,athroom fittings and e'ternal wor&s+ he elements that have ,een e'cluded would ,e common to ,oth structures+ he prices used in the models should ,e used for comparative purposes onl#+ he models show that a dou,le store# structure costs / more than a single store# structure+ In practice2 ver# few dou,le store# dwellings are ,uilt with e;ual floor area on the ground and first floor+ he average is closer to 1/ ground floor area and 1/ first floor area+ In this case2 a dou,le store# dwelling would cost less than / more+ ?hen the e'cluded common elements are included2 the percentage difference drops even more+ It is therefore safe to assume that the difference in cost ,etween a dou,le store# and single store# is negligi,le+
9P"S OF W(##S ()D !"#("D COSS In the costing models ,elow2 a 001 mm thic& wall2 71m long2 0+Em high2 with foundation ,ric&wor& E11mm high2 has ,een used and a 71mm ' 0E1mm concrete footing has ,een assumed2 as displa#ed in the graphic ,elow+
$e Pro6ect ,anager Project managers have ,een involved in various industries for decades+ he responsi,ilities of a project manager will var# ,etween industries and projects+ ?ithin the formal sector of the construction industr#2 and on larger ,uilding projects2 the responsi,ilities of project managers
are fairl# well defined+ %esponsi,ilities within the less formal and domestic industr# var# radicall# and the term Project Manager generall# carries misconceptions+ he significant difference ,etween a ,uilding contractor and a project manager is) •
•
a ,uilding contractor carries the ris&s involved in a ,uilding project+ a project manager is emplo#ed as an overseer and the emplo#er would carr# all the ris&s+
his fundamental difference can easil# ,e overloo&ed and misunderstood and the result2 due to a lac& of information2 could drop ,oth the project manager and emplo#er into hot water+ ?ithin the domestic ,uilding industr# 4homeowners2 developers and even contractors5 the use of project managers is widespread+ here is a perceived saving of pa#ing management fees rather than a fi'ed contract price and a certain fle'i,ilit# is enjo#ed+ he project manager9s fees can var# greatl# and are usuall# higher on smaller projects+ Fees can ,e a percentage of predetermined cost and fi'ed upfront2 or a percentage of the final project cost+ Activities and responsi,ilities of the project manager and emplo#er should ,e carefull# considered and contained in a written agreement+
$e Building Contractor Building contractors range from one man ,usinesses to large national organisations+ he smaller contractor ta&es on the challenges of a highl# comple' industr# with minimal resources+ he contractor ultimatel# wears the hat of the salesman2 ;uantit# surve#or2 accountant2 ,u#er and project manager+ er# little professional assistance has ,een used ,# smaller contractors in the past and in particular2 assistance with pricing a project accuratel#+ he success or failure of a contractor depends largel# on his a,ilit# to ;uote profita,l# and wor& efficientl#+ Bearing in mind that a contractor will ;uote a fi'ed contract price2 which generall# includes materials and la,our2 the margin for error is great+ It is human nature to push for a ,argain and the result is generall# that one part# will lose+ he ultimate scenario is where the homeowner is pa#ing a fair price2 and the contractor is ma&ing a fair profit+ he onus falls on the homeowner to chec& the mar&et rates with respect to la,our and materials+ Contractors generall# charge a percentage of the total project cost and #et again2 these percentages can var# radicall#+ his o,viousl# affects the final ;uotes tendered ,# contractors+ If a contractor has not allowed for overheads in the contract cost2 a small percentage mar&up is usuall# applied to the contract price after the profit mar& up+ he profit is dependent on mar&et conditions2 comple'it# of the wor& and the ris& involved2 to name a few+ he contractor should concentrate more on esta,lishing an accurate cost and then appl#ing what he feels is a reasona,le profit+
%nsurance P!O"C%O) (+(%)S #"+(# COS !%S2 he construction industr# is fraught with claims2 disputes and high financial ris&s+ Creation of a dispute is eas#N It is the resolution that is time consuming and costl#+ CPS 4Construction Protection Services5 is aimed at minimising the financial conse;uences of the dispute situation2 whether disputes are settled through mediation2 ar,itration or the courts+
WHO W%## % CO'"!; All parties who are involved in the contracting industr# can ,e covered+ A t#pical construction project is ,etween the !mplo#er2 Main Contractor2 Su,8Contractors and the whole range of material and service suppliers+ Disputes can occur in an# one of these contracts+
WH( %S H" P!O"C%O) P(C2(+"; •
•
A uni;ue com,ination of consultanc# and insurance aimed at minimising ris&+ Insurance cover for the costs of the emplo#ment of consultants and the legal team in pursuing or defending actions arising f rom contractual difficulties+
•
Anal#sis of claims and*or disputes to identif# resolution options+
•
An on8line telephone advisor# service+
•
Minimising the cost impact if the dispute situation persists+
WH( 9P"S OF P!OB#",S (!" CO'"!"D; •
Dela#s
•
!'tensions of time
•
3oss of productivit#
•
Acceleration
•
Penalties
•
Set8offs
•
ariations
•
Performance ( retention
•
Defective wor&manship
In fact2 almost all disputes e'cept those which f all under a PI polic#+
Plant Hire
O'"!'%"W here is a vast amount of e;uipment that is used on a ,uilding project and ,ecause not all e;uipment is used constantl#2 it is often not practical for a ,uilding contractor to own all the necessar# e;uipment+ herefore2 hiring e;uipment is ,oth practical and cost effective+ $iring is usuall# priced on a dail# or hourl# rate+ A da# is eight hours and transport is generall# not included 8 chec& #our local hire shop9s terms and conditions+
CO)D%%O)S OF H%!" ()D !("S A rate is calculated for each item relative to its value and applied to a common term+ A deposit pa#a,le in advance is also levied and is refunded on date of termination of the hire period+ enerall#2 an# e;uipment deemed fault# ,# the hirer on deliver# will ,e replaced or full# refunded+ On acceptance of the goods2 the onus falls on the hirer to maintain the e;uipment in good running order and repair to the standard re;uired ,# the owner until the e;uipment is returned to the owner+
Siteworks
() %)!OD/C%O) O S%"WO!2S
"
S%" H/S & O%#"S
Site $uts Site huts are an a,solute necessit# if no other water or rain8proof loc&a,le facilit# is availa,le+ he# would generall# ,e used for the storage of cement or an# other items suscepti,le to water damage or theft+ !'amples of such huts are) •
tents
•
a tim,er frame clad in corrugated iron sheeting 4wend# houses5
•
,ric&8,uilt with a mud t#pe mortar mi' and demolished on completion
•
par& homes 4for larger sites5
It must ,e noted that stringent regulations are enforced regarding site huts and other temporar# facilities2 and the onus falls on the ,uilder to ,e aware of these regulations+ hese regulations would relate mostl# to the occupant of such a dwelling who would reside therein as a watchman or the li&e+ he t#pe of flooring2 ade;uate ventilation2 roofing and more would have to adhere to the minimum regulations set down ,# the local authorit#+ Should an# accidents occur where the occupant is injured2 the ,uilding contractor would ,e held responsi,le+ Site toilets Most new ,uilding sites do not have toilet facilities2 ,ut porta,le toilets can ,e hired2 or temporar# site toilets conforming to local authorit# regulations can ,e constructed for use during the term of construction+ Siting of site toilets
PO%SO)%)+ Poisoning of soil under concrete surface ,eds and foundations is alwa#s a recommendation2 especiall# in areas with &nown termite infestation+ %ates var# according to the t#pe of poison used2 t#pe of pest involved2 si-e of project2 and var#ing soa&ing depths+ reatment must ,e effected once the footings are ,uilt and the filling has ,een consolidated2 prior to the la#ing of conduits+ It is also recommended that a plastic sheet with no puncture holes ,e laid over the treatment 4undle .SB green ,lac&5+ his would also eliminate rising damp if correctl# applied+ here are also insecticides availa,le for use on all tim,er which comes in contact with the ,uilding surfaces2 i+e+2 window frames and doors+ he product is painted on with a paint ,rush
and usuall# three coats are ample to impregnate the wood+ Soil treatments are used to com,at termite nests encountered in the surrounds to a ,uilding+ he aim is to introduce appro'imatel# 1 litres of the mi'ture into the nest which would gas the ;ueen2 and the nest will die
!"" F"##%)+ & S/,P !",O'(# ree felling and stump removal ma# seem an eas# tas&2 #et this often re;uires s&illed persons such as chain saw operators and sometimes even people s&illed in the use of d#namite+ Man# ,uilding sites toda# are in ,uilt8up areas ,etween e'isting ,uildings or ma#,e down panhandles+ he tree feller needs to &now where the tree will fall2 its length when fallen and removal of it after it has ,een cut down ,it ,# ,it from the top+ As this is such a diverse and varied trade2 it is impossi,le to give guideline prices+ It would ,e necessar# for the tree feller to evaluate the amount of wor& on site ,# means of a site visit ,efore a ;uote can ,e given+ he following points are however ta&en into account when pricing+ rees Alive or dead #pe of tree 4some have ,rittle tim,ers2 others have soft fle'i,le tim,ers+ his determines if ,ranches can ,e swung towards the trun& or if the# need to ,e tied off and lowered5+ = e+g+ !ucal#ptus 4,rittle5 = e+g+ Cedar 4soft fle'i,le5 Crown leaf volume 4mass5 Pro'imit# to ,uildings2 ,oundar# walls2 swimming pools etc+ Accessi,ilit# for de,ris removal and stump e'cavation 4the longer the distance the de,ris has to ,e ta&en2 the higher the price5+ Services would include tree pruning and shaping2 thinning out of ,ranches to improve light penetration2 tree removal2 stump removal2 ,racing of trees2 tree maintenance 4removal of dead ,ranches2 die ,ac&2 dead heart rot2 etc5 and tree transplanting+
S%+)(+" Signage consists of) SABS approved Chromade& sheeting mounted on 0E ' 0E s;uare tu,ing frame2 treated as per SABS standards2 and erected with : mm ' 0 mm D8profile treated poles with galvanised ,olts2 planted :11 mm deep in soil2 concrete anchored+
Foundations & Superstructure
() %)!OD/C%O) O FO/)D(%O)S & S/P"!S!/C/!" his section is the most comple' and contains the largest variet# of materials+ One has onl# to view the product manuals produced ,# some manufacturers to appreciate the magnitude of materials that could ,e used in construction+ ?e have listed the most commonl# used
materials+ 3a,our in this section forms a ver# small portion+ o relate la,our rates to each and ever# item of material is almost impossi,le and not practical+ he SABS 111 regulations are clearl# and professionall# presented and a complete cop# should ,e in the office of all those involved in the industr#+
,O!(! ,ortar for ,asonr3 Mortar ,inds ,ric&s and ,loc&s together to give strength and sta,ilit# to a wall+ Freshl# mi'ed mortar must ,e soft plastic so that it spreads easil# and ma&es good contact with the ,ric&s during la#ing+ It must harden thoroughl# without ,ecoming to strong+ oo strong a mortar ma# cause crac&ing2 is wasteful and is more e'pensive+ ec$nical information Materials) Cement .se either) Ordinar# Portland cement 4C!MI 0+E5 or Portland Cement C!MIIA 0+E Ordinar# Portland cement ( lime Lime .se ,uilding lime with the SABS mar&+ Do not use ;uic&lime or agricultural lime+ 3ime is sold in 0E&g ,ags+ 3ime should ,e used if the sand lac&s fine material or is single si-ed as such sands tend to produce mortar with poor wor&a,ilit# unless lime is included in the mi'+ 3ime also helps the fresh mortar to retain water when it is placed against dr# cement ,ric& or ,loc& and helps to prevent crac&ing of the hardened mortar+ Sand he sand should ,e clean 4grass2 leaves2 roots etc2 are harmful5 and it should not contain too much cla#+ It should consist of hard particles which range in si-e from dust up to a,out 0mm+ Pit sands generall# have these characteristics+ %iver2 dune and ,each sands are often too uniform in si-e 4single si-ed5 to give good results+ Ready-mix mortar (dry) In some areas mortar can ,e ,ought in ,ags read# for mi'ing and use+ It should ,e used in accordance with the manufacturer9s instructions+ Batc$ing t$e materials A ,uilders wheel,arrow is a convenient measure for large ,atchesL the capacit# is E litres+ Steel drums of 01 or 0E litre capacit# and ,uc&ets are useful for small ,atches+ Chec& the capacit# of drums and ,uc&ets when filled to the ,rim as this is often more than the nominal capacit#+ o ,atch2 shovel material into the measure and then stri&e off2 level with the ,rim+ ,i=ing Mi'ing should ,e done on a clean hard surface such as a smooth concrete floor or a steel sheet+ Small ,atches ma# ,e mi'ed in a wheel,arrow as the volume of the ,atch is no more than half the capacit# of the ,arrow+
Sand2 cement and lime2 if used2 should ,e mi'ed until the colour of the mi' is uniform+ hen add water in small ;uantities2 mi'ing after each increment2 until the mi' is soft and plastic+ Handling If mortar is left in the sun ,efore ,eing used2 it should ,e covered with plastic sheeting or a wet sac&+ Discard mortar that has ,een stiffened so much that it is impossi,le to remi' it without adding more water+
(++!"+("S +eneral he ground on which a structure is to ,e ,uilt has a great influence on the life8span of the structure+ If #ou are ,uilding a new house2 and are not sure a,out the ground conditions2 it is ,est to use the services of a professional person to advise #ou a,out foundation re;uirements+ Strip footings are the most common t#pe of foundation2 and the re;uirements will ,e discussed in some detail+ !'cept where founded on roc&2 the minimum founding depth for strip footings should not ,e shallower than 11mm ,elow the original ground level+ Materials re;uired for good foundation concrete Once the foundations has ,een dug2 #ou need to purchase the re;uired materials+
Cement "ualit# cement2 with the SABS mar& on the ,ag2 is re;uired to ensure that the foundations are functional+ Sand for foundation concrete Sands for use in foundation concrete should compl# with all the following) •
contain little or no organic material 4material produced ,# animal or plant activities5
•
not contain an# particles which are retained on a sieve or nominal aperture si-e Emm
•
•
have a cla# content such that a wormG mm in diameter cannot ,e rolled in the palm of the hand ,# adding a few drops of water to material o,tained from sieving a sample of dr# sand through a n#lon stoc&ing+ when one litre of cement is mi'ed in a container to three litres of sand and three litres of stone2 to a uniform colour2 the mi'ture should not re;uire more than :E1 ml of water to ,e added to reach a wet or just rightG for use consistenc#+
Stone Stone for concrete is normall# 7Jmm2 although 7mm can also ,e used2 and should alwa#s ,e hard and clean+ Stone has a smaller influence on the final characteristics than do the properties of sand+
Water ?ater is used for mi'ing the cement2 sand and stone2 and should ,e f it for drin&ing+ 7m of concrete re;uires the purchase of) E+E poc&ets of cement 1+:Em of concrete sand 1+:Em of stone ,i=ing $and mi'ing of concrete should ,e underta&en on a surface which is free of contaminants+ he sand should ,e thoroughl# mi'ed with the cement ,efore the addition of the water and stone+ he addition of water to the mi' should ,e controlled and should ,e such that the resulting concrete can ,e readil# compacted into the corners of the formwor& and around the reinforcement2 without segregation of the materials or e'cessive ,leeding of free water at the surface+ Placing of concrete Freshl# mi'ed concrete should not ,e allowed to stand for so long that it stiffens ,efore it is placed+ Concrete ma# ,e left standing for limited periods2 ,ut must ,e covered with plastic sheets or wet sac&s to prevent it dr#ing out+ Concrete should not ,e re8tempered ,# the addition of water or an# other material+ ?et concrete should ,e remi'ed ,efore ,eing placed2 should the stone particles settle to the ,ottom of wheel,arrows during transportation+ All e'cavators and other surfaces of an a,sor,ent nature that are to come into contact with concrete should ,e dampened with water ,efore concrete is placed+ ?herever possi,le2 the concrete should ,e deposited verticall# into its final position to avoid segregation of aggregates or displacement of reinforcement and other items that are to ,e em,edded+ Concrete should ,e compacted ,# mechanical means2 or ,# means of spading2 rodding or for&ing2 in such a manner that the concrete is thoroughl# wor&ed against the formwor& and around the reinforcement of other em,edded items without displacing them so as to ensure that the concrete is free from hone#com,ing and planes of wea&ness+ ?herever practica,le2 concrete should ,e placed in a continuous process+ #a3ing of masonr3 units he surface upon which masonr# is to ,e laid should ,e clean and free of loose aggregate+ Burnt cla# units having high initial rates of a,sorption should ,e wet 0 hours prior to la#ing+ .nits should ,e surface dr# when laid+ Immersing of units in water should not ,e permitted+ A rough ,ut effective field test to determine initial rate of a,sorption can ,e made ,# drawing a 0Emm diameter circle 4draw around a %0 coin5 on the surface of the unit to ,e mortared+ hen2 using a medicine dropper2 ;uic&l# place 01 drops of water within this circle+
!ach unit should ,e laid and adjusted to its final position while the mortar is still plastic+ An# unit which is distur,ed to the e'tent that the initial ,ond is ,ro&en after positioning2 should ,e removed and re8laid on fresh mortar+ All perpend and ,ed joints should have a nominal thic&ness of 71mm+ he ,ed joint thic&ness should not ,e less than Emm or more than 7EmmL perpend joint thic&ness should not ,e less than Emm or greater than 01mm+ Masonr# should not ,e laid when the temperature is less than EQC+ ?et or fro-en units should not ,e laid+ In hot or wind# weather conditions2 the length of mortar runs ahead of units which are to ,e laid2 should ,e adjusted to ensure that the mortar remains plastic when the units are laid+ he rate of new construction should ,e limited so as to eliminate an# possi,ilit# of joint deformation2 slumping or insta,ilit# which ma# reduce ,ond strength+ Cutting of units should ,e &ept to a minimum+ >oints in face masonr# should ,e finished and compacted to the re;uired profile with a jointing tool in the period ,etween initial and final set+ >oints in faces of walls constructed of hollow units should not ,e ra&ed+ emporar# supports should ,e provided to support masonr# in arches and a,ove openings+ Such supports should onl# ,e removed once masonr# has developed ade;uate strength+ Masonr# walling should not overhang concrete foundation sla,s ,# more than 01mm+ Plastering successfull3 he masonr# surface to which plaster is to ,e applied should ,e free from oil2 dirt and other su,stances that ma# affect the ,ond with the plaster+ Plaster should ,e mi'ed on a surface free of contaminants2 or ,# mechanical mi'er2 for a period of time that ensures all the ingredients are properl# mi'ed+ Before an# plastering commences2 all chases should ,e complete and all electrical2 plum,ing conduit ,o'es and the li&e ,e fi'ed in position+ Plastering should ,e carried out in one operation+ >oints in plasterwor& should onl# ,e provided at intersections ,etween surfaces+ Plaster should ,e firml# troweled onto the walls+ Plaster should not ,e allowed to dr# too ;uic&l# and should ,e dampened ,# means of a light spra# for a period of not less than 0 da#s+ ,aterials re>uired for good ,ortar &?Plaster cement: "ualit# cement2 with the sa,s mar& on the ,ag2 should ,e useful to ensure that #our ,ric&wor& or plasterwor& is successful+ Sand Sand is the most critical selection when doing ,ric&la#ing or plastering2 and is generall# the cause of most plaster or mortar pro,lems+ o avoid most of the pro,lems2 sand used in mortar and plaster should compl# with the following2 and it will ,e worth chec&ing the sand to avoid major pro,lems later)
•
contain little or no organic material 4material produced ,# animal or plant activities5
•
not contain an# particles which are retained on a sieve or nominal aperture si-e Emm
•
•
•
have a cla# content such that a wormG mm in diameter cannot ,e rolled in the palm of the hand ,# adding a few drops of water to material o,tained from sieving a sample of dr# sand through a n#lon stoc&ing when 0+E&g of cement is mi'ed to 70+E&g of air dr# sand the mi'ture does not re;uire more than +:E litres of water to ,e added to reach consistenc# suita,le for plastering or mortaring have ade;uate plasticit#
Mortars are ,est when coarse and medium sand fractions are predominant+ hese si-es can ,e viewed through a transparent plastic ruler using a hard lens+ 4Place graduals on ruler over sand5= er# coarse 0 = 7mm Coarse sand 7 = 1+Emm Medium sand 1+E = 1+0Emm Fine sand 1+0E = 1+70Emm he visual e'amination should reveal a high proportion of coarse and medium sand fractions2 ,ut also some ver# coarse sand+ If the visual measurement of sand indicates that it is too coarse or too fine2 a complementar# sand should ,e sought and ,lended with the original sand to improve performance+ Sand for plaster should ,e predominantl# coarse to medium 47+1 = 1+0Emm5+ If the availa,le sands are predominantl# fine sand 4R1+0Emm52 the# should ,e ,lended with a suita,le coarser sand+ Concrete Floors Pat$s and Drivewa3s Concrete uses are endless2 and whether #ou are ,uilding #our own home or tac&ling a project around #our home2 a little &nowledge will help #ou ma&e a success of each jo,+ Concrete is simpl# a mi'ture of PPC cement2 sand2 stone and water2 and strength depends on three things) •
the amount of each material in the mi'2 including water
•
how well it is compacted or pac&ed
•
&eeping the finished concrete damp for as long as possi,le
Sand for concrete Sands for use in concrete should compl# with all of the following •
contain little or no organic material 4material produced ,# animal or plant activities5
•
not contain an# particles which are retained on a sieve or nominal aperture si-e Emm
•
have a cla# content such that a wormG mm in diameter cannot ,e rolled in the palm
of the hand ,# adding a few drops of water to material o,tained from sieving a sample of dr# sand through a n#lon stoc&ing •
•
when one litre of cement is mi'ed in a container to three litres of sand and three litres of stone to a uniform colour2 the mi'ture does not re;uire more than :E ml of water to ,e added to reach a wet or just rightG for use consistenc#+ the mi'ture prepared to chec& on the amount of water re;uired to reach an accepta,le consistenc# should ,e left in the mi'ing container2 in the shade2 for a period of 71 minutes+ If a la#er of water more than 7mm deep appears on the surface2 it is li&el# that the sand lac&s fine material and should ,e ,lended with plaster sand+
Stone Stone for concrete is normall# 7Jmm2 although 7mm can also ,e used2 and should alwa#s ,e hard and clean+ Stone has a much smaller influence on the characteristics than the properties of the sand do+ Water ?ater is used for mi'ing the PPC cement2 sand and stone2 and should ,e water that is fit for drin&ing+
C",") here are cements formulated primaril# for use in concrete2 although some ma# ,e suita,le for sand8cement mi'es+ Common cements consist of portland cement onl#2 or a ,lend of portland cement and e'tender or filler+ From >ul# 7JJ2 when !uropean standard was adopted2 the South African standard for common cements ,ecame SABS !< 7J:87 Cement 8 composition2 specifications and conformit# criteria+ Part 7) Common cementsG+ he standard specifies a num,er of properties and performance criteria+ Composition and strength are re;uired to ,e displa#ed ,# the manufacturer on the pac&aging of each cement produced+ he standard specifies composition of cements according to the proportions of constituents2 ie portland cement2 e'tenders and fillers+ he standard specifies strengths which are determined in accordance with SABS !< 7J87 Methods of testing cement+ Part 7) Determination of strengthGL using a water)cement ratio of 1+E+ he standard permits man# different com,inations of composition and strength class+ In practice2 however2 the manufacturers will ,e constrained ,# what is technicall# and economicall# feasi,le+ he num,er of com,inations that are li&el# to ,e produced in South Africa will therefore ,e considera,l# fewer than the num,er permitted ,# the standard+ Masonr# cements are formulated primaril# to impart good wor&a,ilit# to mi'es for rendering2 plastering and masonr# wor&+ Masonr# cements are normall# a ,lend of portland cement and finel# ground limestone or h#drated limeL some masonr# cements include an ai r8entraining agent+ From >ul# 7JJ2 the stand for masonr# cements is SABS !< 787 Masonr# cement+ Part 7) Specification9+ he standard defines masonr# cement as a factor# made finel# powdered h#draulic ,inder which relies essentiall# upon the presence of portland cement clin&er to develop strength+ ?hen mi'ed with sand and water onl# and without the addition of further materials it produces a wor&a,le mortar suita,le for use in rendering2 plastering and masonr#
wor&+ he standard specifies composition2 strength performance2 f ineness2 setting times2 soundness and the properties of fresh mortar+ Fl# ash 4FA5 is collected from the e'haust flow of plant ,uring finel#8ground coal+ he finer fractions are used as a cement e'tender+ FA reacts with calcium h#dro'ide2 in the presence of water2 to form cementing compounds consisting of calcium silicate h#drate+ his reaction is called po--olanic and FA ma# ,e descri,ed as a s#nthetic po--olan+ he h#dration of Portland cement produces significant amounts of calcium h#dro'ide which does not contri,ute to the strength of the hardened cement paste+ he com,ination of FA and PC is a practical means of using FA and converting calcium h#dro'ide to a cementing compound+ FA should not ,e used on its own as the ,inder for concrete+ he effect of FA on the properties of concrete depends on the FA concrete of the ,inder+ eneral trends are as follow) Fres$ concrete. •
•
Improves the wor&a,ilit# of fresh concrete2 ie FA tends to reduce water re;uirement for a given slump+ Slightl# retards the setting of fresh concrete+
Hardened Concrete. •
%educes the rate of hardening and strength gain particularl# at low temperatures
•
%educes the rate at which heat is generated ,# the reactions of PC and FA
•
•
•
•
Improves the sulphate resistance of concrete with ade;uate FA content+ Specialist advice is recommended %educes the rate of chloride diffusion through concrete Can prevent or retard the reaction ,etween al&alis and al&ali8reactive aggregates in concrete if used in sufficient ;uantities2 ie 01/ %esults in a finer pore structure and lower permea,ilit# if well cured+ o achieve good dura,ilit# all concrete should ,e well cured+
Condensed silica fume 4CSF5 is the condensed vapour ,#8product of the ferro8silicon smelting process+ CSF reacts with calcium h#dro'ide2 in the presence of water to form cementing compounds consisting of calcium silicate h#drate+ his reaction2 as mentioned ,efore2 is called po--olanic and CSF ma# ,e descri,ed as a s#nthetic po--olan+ Because the h#dration of PC produces calcium h#dro'ide2 the com,ination of CSF and PC is a practical means of using CSF and improving the cementing efficienc# of PC+ In addition to the chemical role of CSF2 it is also a fine filler9 + he e'tremel# small CSF particles in the mi'ing water act as nuclei for the formation of calcium silicate h#drate which would otherwise form onl# on the cement grains+ CSF will also change the microstructure of the interfacial -one+ he result is a more homogenous microstructure that has greater strength and lower permea,ilit#+ 4o ensure thorough dispersion and effective use of the CSF2 the use of plasticising admi'tures is recommended5+
CSF affects the properties of concrete as follows) Fres$ concrete. •
%educes the wor&a,ilit# of fresh concrete2 ie CSF tends to increase the water re;uirement for a given slump+
•
Increases cohesion
•
Significantl# reduces the ,leeding of f resh concrete
Hardened concrete •
Marginall# retards strength development at one da#
•
%educes permea,ilit# of concrete
•
%educes the rate of chloride diffusion through concrete
•
Increases the strength of concrete+
Finel# ground limestone is chemicall# virtuall# inert when mi'ed with portland cement and water 4although there are some minor reactions5+ Depending on its fineness2 limestone ma# however act as a fine filler9 in fresh paste+ 3imestone ma# ,e used as a filler in common cement or as a wor&a,ilit# improver in masonr# cement+ he effect of limestone on the properties of concrete or mortar depends on the specific limestone2 whether a grinding aid is used in production2 and the fineness of the limestone+ eneral trends are as follow) Fres$ concrete or mortar. •
$as no significant effect on water re;uirement
•
Prolongs the ,leeding period ,ut reduces the amount of ,leed water
•
3imestone ma# improve the wor&a,ilit# of mortar
B!%C2S & B#OC2S Bric&s and ,loc&s are the most ,asic ,uilding components utili-ed in the construction of an# structure+ Bric&s have changed in shape and si-e over centuries+ here are man# different t#pes availa,leL not onl# in si-e ,ut also colour2 te'ture and strength+ Bric&s can ,e divided into two distinct categories2 ,eingL Cla# and Concrete 4concrete ,ric&s are sometimes incorrectl# referred to as cement ,ric&s5+ Cla# Bric&s are manufactured from a mi'ture of Cla# 4different cla#s produce the different colours5 and other additives2 which are mi'ed together to ma&e a plia,le t#pe mi'ture almost li&e plasticine2 which is then e'truded and cut to si-e+ Concrete ,ric&s and ,loc&s are manufactured from various t#pes of aggregate 4sand and other materials li&e ash mi'ed with small stone particles5 creating the te'ture and colour2 mi'ed with cement and water2 which is then vi,rated into a mould creating the shape and si-e and profile of the ,ric&*,loc&+ Cla3 Bricks In the construction of a t#pical residential house2 the cost of cla# ,ric&s or cla# plaster ,ric&s would generall# amount to ,etween / and 6/ of the total construction cost of the house+ In
the case of commercial projects2 li&e factories or office ,loc&s2 the cost of face ,ric&s and plaster ,ric&s is ,etween 0/ and / of the total construction cost+ Bric&wor& ,eing the most visi,le component of a ,uilding often leads to the perception that the vast majorit# of the cost of the ,uilding must therefore ,e in the ,ric&wor&+ Fortunatel# this is not true and should allow one the fle'i,ilit# of creating different details that can ,e achieved using Cla# ,ric&s in man# different wa#s and applications+ Some traditional advantages of using Cla# ,ric&s) Cla# ,ric&s &eep interiors comforta,leL $eav#weight cla# ,ric&s have an in,uilt a,ilit# to &eep ,uildings cool in summer and warm in winter+ During the da#2 cla# cla# ,ric& slowl# a,sor,s and stores heat thus helping to &eep ,uildings cool+ During the night2 the stored heat is slowl# released and this assists in maintaining the inside temperature at a consistent level there,# minimi-ing the need for heating and cooling and associated energ# costs2 which has ,ecome increasingl# important in a new era+ Cla# ,ric&s are fire resistantL ,ecause the# are fi red at high temperatures during manufacture and are therefore almost incom,usti,le+ A cla# ,ric&wall ,ric&wall is resistant to f i re and collapse+ ?alls ,uilt with ;ualit# cla# ,ric&s which are properl# constructed will produce strong2 sta,le and dura,le ,uildings+ Cla# ,ric&s ,uilt in the form of solid or cavit# walls offer e'cellent insulation properties+ Concrete Bricks & Blocks Concrete masonr# has a surprisingl# long histor# and was fi rst seen in Britain in 7612 in the .SA it has ,een in use since 7J11+ More concrete masonr# is used in the .SA2 erman# and France than an# other t#pe of masonr#2 and in the .SA2 it accounts for 61/ of all masonr# used+ Although concrete masonr# units have ,een used in South Africa since the earl# 7J11s2 their use was initiall# confi ned to rural areas+ heir application increased rapidl # after ?orld ?ar 02 due to an increased demand for housing+ And this period saw the introduction of mo,ile ,loc&8ma&ing machines2 where concrete masonr# units were produced on site+ he difference ,etween a ,ric& and a ,loc& is a matter of si-e2 not material+ A ,loc& is a masonr# unit var#ing in length from 11mm to E1mm2 a ,ric& varies in length from 7J1mm to 001mm+ Standard specification. he standard for concrete masonr# units is SA
hus for commercial reasons2 units of reduced width are ,eing made which are non8modular and non8imperial2 such as 000 ' J1 ' :mm that satisf# the minimum re;uirements of SA
Concrete Slabs O'"!'%"W
9P"S OF S#(BS %n situ 0reinforced concrete1 A concrete concrete sla,2 including the ,eams or or columns that have formwor& formwor& 4temporar# or permanent into which concrete is pored2 &eeping it in place until i t cures5+ And t#picall# designed ,# an !ngineerL cast with this is the steel reinforcement which is necessar# to provide the strength re;uiredL which too would t#picall# ,e specified , # the !ngineer+ hese t#pes of sla,s are normall# used in applications where greater spans or loads or ,oth are re;uired2 li&e in multi store# ,uildings+ Also used when difficult shapes need to ,e cast2 li&e staircases2 or if longer cantilever projection is re;uired+ Hollow core slab 0HCS1 A reinforced reinforced or pre8stressed concrete concrete sla, and designed as a ri,,ed sla,2 sla,2 containing coresL generall# var#ing in thic&ness from 701mm to 0E1mm and depending on loading2 spanning up to 70m+ he width is normall# +J11 or 7+011m Cores are t#picall# either circular or elliptical+ $ollow cores afford a reduction in self weight of 1/ or more2 compared with a solid sla, of the same depth+ For most applications2 no propping is necessar# during construction2 ,ut crane access is essential+ !ib and block slab 0!B1 Composed of rectangular shaped 4generall#5 precast concrete reinforced or pre8stressed ri,s2 supporting re,ated non8structural hollow concrete fi ller ,loc&s placed ,etween two ri,sL the most common ri, spacing ,eing E12 11 and E1mm+ he s#stem is sometimes referred to as plan& and ,loc& or ,eam and ,loc&+ A structural concrete topping is poured ,etween and over the ,loc&s2 with a minimum thic&ness of 1mm+ ?elded mesh reinforcement is placed in this topping to control possi,le shrin&age crac&s+ he filler ,loc&s are availa,le in different heights ranging from 701mm to E1mm which produces an overall depth of sla, from 7:1mm to 11mm2 and with a clear span of up to 71m2 depending on loading+ his t#pe of sla, re;uires temporar# supports 4propping5 at appro'imatel# 72 E11 m centres+ Some of the advantages of this t#pe of sla, s#stem areL •
It provides an economical2 versatile light weight monolithic sla, s#stem+ Components are relativel# light and no mechanical handling is necessar#+
•
•
•
Sla,s ma# ,e designed as either simpl# supported or full# continuous+ he# are ideal for Soffit plaster ,ut fi'ing of suspended ceilings is also eas# and simple+ !lectrical and plum,ing services are readil# catered for ,# omitting hollow ,loc&s at specifi c locations or fitting thinner ,loc&s to allow for these services+
D"S%+) +/%D"#%)"S %n situ 0reinforced concrete1 Man# in situ sla,s are designed to span in two directions2 with the main reinforcement running in ,oth directions2 provided suffi cient lateral support e'ists to carr# such sla,s+ #picall# these t#pes of sla, allow greater spans and loads to ,e accommodated2 li&e par&ing garages+ Other alternatives to accommodate greater loads and spans include downstand ,eams and or upstand ,eams2 although not usuall# used in residential ,uildings+ Mushroom heads on columns reduce potential ,earing pro,lems 4push through5 of fl at sla,s where downstand ,eams need to ,e avoided+ One wa# spanning sla,s onl# re;uire lateral support to the walls or columns that carr# them2 and since the# do not ,ear on walls in the non8span direction2 this t#pe of sla, design is used more in residential t#pe applications2 as it can allow for greater fle'i,ilit# of la#out*design of a t#pical dou,le store# ,uilding+ An alternative form of suspended sla, is a waffle sla,G2 or more commonl# referred to as a coffer sla,G2 formed ,# in situ concrete ,eams integral with the sla,+ Coffers are formed on the soffit ,# formers which are later removedL 4reducing self weight52 and hence the use of less concrete+ Flat sla,s in upper floors have ,een mainl# used where ceilings are to ,e formed directl# on the soffit+ Coffered soffits of in situ tee ,eams can ,e found mainl# where suspended ceilings are used+ And more rarel# where the soffit is left e'posed as cast+ !einforced $ollow core Sla,s are designed as simpl# supported ri,,ed sla,s i n the conventional manner+ $owever the# are more versatile than the pre8stressed sla,2 since longitudinal top reinforcement can ,e cast8in for cantilever action+ Prestressed $ollow core Sla,s are designed as simpl# supported pre8tensioned ri,,ed sla,s2 in accordance with the re;uirements of SABS 171187 or the appropriate
OH"! S#(B S9S",S Windeck ?indec& is a prestressed concrete manuall#8assem,led2 suspended fl oor s#stem comprising prestressed concrete ,eams and reinforced concrete til es+ Dimensionall#2 ?indec& is ,ased on a E1mm module+ he ?indec& assem,l# results in an off the shutter tile top surface2 off the shutter surfaces to the ,eams and a self finished underside to the tiles+ Other finishes ma# ,e applied if desired+ ?indec& accepts electrical ca,ling ,etween tiles ,efore grouting and tooling2 and is fire resistant+ Bond?#ok •
•
Bond83o&9s uni;ue side lap inter8loc&ing s#stem provides for fast and simple construction+ Bond83o&9s spanning capa,ilities allow for a reduction i n the num,er of temporar# supports re;uired+
•
Bond83o& eliminates the need for formwor& and reinforcement+
•
Bond83o& will accept most floor service s#stems+
•
Bond83o&9s soffi t forms the finished ceiling without the need for plastering+
•
Bond83o& has ,een fire tested ,# the CSI% and has ;ualified for a fire rating of 701 minutes+
Bond?Dek Composite Deck •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bond8De& is a new composite steel flooring s#stem for multi8store# steel or concrete ,uildings+ Bond8De&9s uni;ue side lap interloc&ing s#stem provides for fast and simple construction+ he speed results in major la,our cost savings+ Bond8De& is a,le to span up to metres unsupported under wet concrete with a minimum depth of Emm over the profi le+ Bond8De& will accept most floor services s#stems+ Bond8De& is availa,le in a galvanised coated steel2 pre8primed for painting on one side2 and stainless steel 126mmL 721mm and 720mm thic&+ Bond8De& has ,een fi re tested ,# the CSI% and has ;ualified for a rating of 701 minutes+ Brown,uilt also offers a complete design service if re;uired+ he Bond8De& profile displaces 121:mT per mU of dec&+
'O%D FO!,"!S !'panded pol#st#rene 4!PS5L can ,e used in various different wa#s)
•
o create different levels of the f inished concrete level of a sla, especiall# from internal to e'ternal thresholds2 or where steps are re;uiredL
•
•
Special designs in soffits of flat sla,sL
•
•
%ecesses 4voids5 for lighting or other services re;uired in the soffit of a sla,+ Sage' pol#st#rene is manufactured in a range of grades for a variet# of applications to suit customer re;uirements)
•
•
•
•
•
7D is used in ,uilding insulation applications as core material for panels2 cold room insulation2 pac&aging and flotation+ 0D and 0D are used in applications which re;uire greater cross8,rea&ing and compressive strengths2 such as in floor and roof sla, insulation2 and where a ,etter finish is re;uired2 such as in displa# applications+ F% rade is treated with a flame retardant and is ideal for industrial applications where fire safet# re;uirements must ,e met+ As the material shrin&s awa# from ignition sources without further ,urning2 it is suited to e'posed applications+ he a,ove are availa,le in F% grades+ V rade is a lo w8densit# material used mainl# in void forming and pac&aging+
Waterproofing
() %)!OD/C%O) O D(,P & W("!P!OOF%)+ he lac& of damp proofing is the cause of most defects in structures+ It is important that architects2 contractors2 developers2 inspectors or an# part# concerned ensure that damp proofing s#stems are installed correctl#+ It is also important that the correct materials are used+ Most damp proofing applications are in the form of sheets of PC or malthoid used in various areas+ (re 3ou building a problem; ouWre investing a lot of mone# in this project+ ? ith damp causing the walls to effloresce2 and surface finishes such as carpets2 floor tiles and wall cladding to deteriorate and deca#+ It ma&es good sense to attend to damp proofing needs at the construction stage2 at a fraction of the cost of #our ,uilding+ o remed# a damp pro,lem at a l ater stage is costl# and la,our intensive+ And it is wise to insist on recognised manufacturers li&e undle2 ,ecause undle manufactures speciall# formulated plastic sheeting for each damp proof application+ Damproofing s#stems account for less than 720/ of the ,uilding cost of an average structure+ isit www+gundle+co+-a for more info+
W("! CO)(%)%)+ S!/C/!"S Permastop ? Concrete Penetrating Waterproofer A cement8,ased mi'ture containing chemicals which com,ine with the water in the cement and migrate into concrete plaster there,# effectivel# waterproofing the structure against h#drostatic pressure+ For slurr# coatings and plugging holes+ Supplied as a dr# gre# or white powder for mi'ing with water+ Suita,le for permanentl# waterproofing2 in all climates2 structures such as ,asements2 cellars2 reservoirs2dr# doc&s2 ,ridges2 tunnels2 sewers2 h#dro8electric stations2 retaining walls2 lift shafts2 machiner# pits2 grain silos2 underground in mines2 maga-ines2 su,wa#s2 underground telephone structures2 etc+ Can ,e effectivel# applied to outside or inside of structures+ Permastop is onl# effective on cement surfaces such as clean concrete and cement plaster2 and will not wor& on painted or other surfaces+ Coverage as a slurr# coat) 7) s;uare meters*&g*coat+ Fle=bond ? Portland Cement (dmi=ture A non8to'ic late'8,ased li;uid admi'ture for Portland cement plasters2 screeds or concrete+ ItXs purpose is to replace some or all of the water in cement mi'es to improve ,ond2 waterproofing2 fle'ural2 tensile and a,rasive strengths2 adhesion2 thin film hardness2 wea& acid resistance2 adhesion to asphalt and dr #ing shrin&age+ Avoid use of Fle',ond in free-ing weather and protect from free-ing in storage+ Applications) ?aterproofing water containing structures such as reservoirs2 water features2 fish ponds etc+ .sed in conjunction with CemcreteXs Pol#prop#lene Mem,rane for crac&s and joints in structures2 improving adhesion of slush8coat for re8mar,eliting2 patching2 repairing or re8 screeding floors+ Improving adhesion and waterproofing ;ualities of) CemcreteXs ile adhesive2 CemcreteXs ile grout2 CemcreteXs self8levelling floor screed+ Waterproofing /npainted Cracked !eservoirs. Acid8wash the walls and floors of the reservoirs using a solution of 7 volume h#drochloric acid 4spirits of salts5 and 0 volumes water+ Allow the acid to act for a,out 71 minutes then wire ,rush and flush with water+ Allow to dr#+ $ac& out crac&s+ ?ire ,rush internal surfaces of crac&s+ Fill crac&s with a mi' of 7 cement 0 plaster sand mi'ed to a stiff paste with a solution of 7 litre Fle',ond and 7 litre water+ ?hen filling is hard and dr#2 mi' 7 litre Fle',ond 7 litre water and sufficient cement to produce a poura,le slurr#+ Cut pol#prop#lene mem,rane into convenient widths2 dip into slurr#2 appl# over filled crac&s and smooth down using gloved hands and finall# paint the mem,rane with the slurr#+ Coverage) 7 litre Fle',ond2 7 litre water2 &g Portland cement will cover 720 s;uare metres using CemcreteXs pol#prop#lene mem,rane+ If it is desired to paint the entire internal surfaces of the reservoir after crac&s have ,een repaired this ma# ,e done using the same mi' of slurr#+ Coverage) 7 litre Fle',ond2 7 litre water2 &g Portland Cement will cover appro'imatel# 01 s;uare metres*coat+ Allow all wor& to dr # and air cure for da#s ,efore filling the reservoir+ Pol3prop3lene ,embrane Pol#prop#lene mem,rane is a geote'tile having a random arrangement of fi,res ensuring uniform strength and fle'i,ilit# in all directions+ Its al&ali resistant properties ena,le it to ,e used in conjunction with Portland cement8,ased slurries in water8containing structures to seal over crac&s and joints+ .sed in conjunction with Permastop or Fle',ond* cement slurries for waterproofing reservoirs2 etc+ Pol#prop#lene availa,le in ,ul& or cut in 71m ' 711mm strips+
Siliconseal ? Solvent Based A low8viscosit# penetrating li;uid for application to vertical surfaces of masonr# or concrete ,# ,rush2 roller or spra#+ It is designed to penetrate the surface up to the depth of 71 mm2 ma&ing the capillar# passages water repellent+ his prevents the passage of water ,ut allows the masonr# to ,reathe and dr# out+ Also useful for preventing rising damp in ,ric&walls ,# pumping the fluid into previousl# drilled holes along the course of ,ric&s immediatel# a,ove the fault# damp8proof mem,rane+ Coverage) Face ,ric&s s;+ metres*litre Porous ,ric&s s;+ metres*litre Concrete s;+metres*litre Water?!epellent Cement An intimate mi'ture of cement and CemcreteXs waterproofing compound2 to o,viate site mi'ing+ .seful for producing water8repellent plaster2 mortar and concrete+ Pondcrete An integrall# fi,re reinforced2 waterproof2 coloured cement8,ased concrete mi'ture supplied in dr# powder form for mi'ing to a stiff mi'ture with clean water for construction of fish ponds and other small water features+ Coverage) 1 &g*12: s;uare metres81mm thic&+ Colours) Sandstone2 ranite Pin& and Ironstone+ ,atcrete Matcrete and Fle',ond used with Cemlam and Cemforce 4Pol#prop#lene matting5 for repairing or construction of water containing structures+ Application) Building fish ponds2 lining of channels2 lining of soil dams2 relining of pipes2 repair of crac&ed reservoirs+ Cemforce Cemforce is an open te'tured reinforcing 4mm ' mm5 mesh fa,ric2 made of pol#prop#lene strands and fi,res+ It was designed for use with cement matrices+ It is totall# inert to the al&alinit# of cement and has an e'tended fi,rous interface area with which cement matri' can interact and mechanicall# ,ond+ he Cemcrete mi'es are speciall# formulated to form part of the Cemforce2 similar to fi,reglass and resin+ Availa,le in 7m ( 02m widths up to E11m lengths+ Cemlam Cemlam is tightl# woven pol#prop#lene tape with a mm ' mm mesh fa,ric made of pol#prop#lene strands and fi,res laminated ,# hot e'trusion forming a tough waterproof su,strate+ It is totall# resistant to the al&alinit# of cement and offers e'tended fi,rous interface on the strands with which the cement matri' can mechanicall# ,ond+ he cement matri' is speciall# formulated to form part of the Cemlam to act li&e fi,reglass and resin+ Availa,le in 0m widths up to 0E1m lengths+
F#( !OOF W("!P!OOF%)+ In South Africa there is enormous variance in climatic conditions 8 from desert conditions to a Mediterranean climate+ emperatures can range f rom ,elow -ero to the mid8thirties+ ?hilst this2 in itself2 is not unusual2 what does ma&e it a factor in structural waterproofing is the fact that
these variations occur all in the space of 0 hours+ %ain2 driven ,# gale force winds2 hits some of the coastal regions and other regions go from drought conditions to floods+ All these dramatic climatic conditions affect our ,uilding in one wa# or another and accordingl# climate must ,e ta&en in consideration when designing structures+ ?hen drawing up specifications for flat roof merel# to state ?aterproofing strictl# to manufacturerXs specification can ,e dangerous philosoph# to follow2 as it will not al wa#s provide the re;uired jo,+ Poor specif#ing details are one of the major failures of waterproofing2 and hence lea&+ Also2 locating all the plant e;uipment on flat roofs must ,e planned carefull# to prevent an# pro,lems with the flow of water and eas# access to the waterproofing+ here are man# waterproofing materials on the mar&et2 most of them good2 ,ut ever# material has its performance limitations+ .ni;ue emphasis is often placed on a materialXs guarantee2 merel# a warrant# on their materials2 ie+ that it will ,e free of defects for a specified period+ he# certainl# do not guarantee that their materials will wor&2 regardless of the circumstances+ It also appears to ,e eas# to operate toda# as a waterproofing contractor+ here are man# companies from which to choose2 with more and more springing up all the time+ Clearl# the reason for this is that it is not a capital8intensive industr#+ hese da#s2 with the varied selection of availa,le materials2 however2 coupled to the comple'it# of modern ,uilding design2 man# ,uildings are in fact neither straightforward nor simple to waterproof+ A depth of e'perience and &nowledge of the trade is essential to provide a waterproof ,uilding+ Designers2 it seems2 are constantl# tr#ing to create the most complicated structures2 in order to test the ingenuit# of engineers and the a,ilities of contractors to e'ecute design wor&+ It seems also as though designers e'pect the material to perform miracles in e'treme situations+
not against each other+ Supervision of all aspects of the wor& and fre;uent chec&s on site to ensure that the detailing is ,eing done without an# compromises is vitalL especiall# in the case of major projects where man# trades are involved+ he main contractor and especiall# the other trades 4such as plum,ers2 electricians2 ,ric&la#ers and tiler52 must all ,e made aware of the importance and principles of waterproofing+ It is not alwa#s eas# and on occasions impossi,le2 to repair the waterproofing after it has ,een damaged+ In conclusion2 the success of a Zlea&8freeZ roof lies in the initial design2 selection of the correct material for the jo, and careful2 uncompromised application ,# a reputa,le and e'perienced waterproofing contractor+ here are no ZwonderZ materials+ Prices and guarantees should not necessaril# ,e the onl#2 or main criteria applied when selecting and specif#ing waterproofing 8 and neither should it determine the choice of the waterproofing contractor+
Windows Doors & Door Frames
() %)!OD/C%O) O W%)DOWS ?indows are manufactured in man# shapes and si-es2 as well as in various materials 8 steel2 wood2 concrete and aluminium+ It is important to research the various ;ualities of the different t#pes of windows2 not onl# from a functionalit# aspect2 in terms of the homes location2 ,ut also aestheticall# to ensure the windows ,est suite the home design st#le+
S""# W%)DOWS Steel is the strongest and most cost effective window construction and ,urglar ,ars can ,e welded in position+ Steel windows offer considera,le savings during construction and withstand rough handling during transport and ,uilding activities+ Steel can ,e cut2 curved and welded to meet precise details in purpose made designs and can ,e finished in an# colour+ ?indows can ,e custom manufactured to client9s specific re;uirements2 with a range of standard si-es availa,le for general use+ Most steel products are availa,le in galvanised or dipped in corrosion resistant red8o'ide paint+ his ensures that the# cannot ,e damaged ,# rain and can ,e painted in a wide range of colours+ ?hen windows are to ,e fitted into e'isting or newl# ,uilt openings2 it is essential that the openings are plum,2 s;uare and to the correct si-e+ he si-es of openings should provide mm clearance all round the window frame+
o ensure ma'imum weather performance2 frames should ,e set ,ac& at least :Emm from the face of the wall+ A su,8frame is onl# necessar# if there is a need for a ,older perimeter line+ ?hen windows are ,eing ,uilt in2 care must ,e ta&en to &eep the window ,oth plum, and s;uare+ ?here composite windows are ,eing fi'ed2 attention must ,e paid to alignment across the couplings+ Fi'ings should ,e at the holes adjacent to the couplings+ For windows2 which are fi'ed directl# into cavit# ,ric&wor&2 the position of the jam, is important+ he window should ,e set so that the ,ac& of the long leg i s in front of the cavit#+ his will allow for full weather protection ,# the insertion of a vertical damp proof mem,rane into the frame section against the long leg+ he mem,rane should project into the ,ric&wor& cavit# to prevent the formation of a water path+ he space at the ,ac& of the frame should ,e filled with a fillet of waterproof cement+ A gap2 which should not e'ceed mm2 should ,e maintained ,etween the frame edge and the ,ric&wor&+ All frames have fi'ing holes for which the manufacturer will suppl# fi'ing lugs designed to set into the mortar course+ he height of windows ma# not al wa#s coincide with ,ric& courses+ In such cases2 it is advisa,le to position the window to fit closel# under the lintel and adjust the ,ric&wor& under the sill to the correct level+ Sills should ,e positioned with the outside face of the up stand2 in line with the inner face of the outer leaf of ,ric&wor&2 to ensure that the window locates correctl# at the jam,+ he window should ,e sealed to the sill with ,edding compound+ !'ternal pointing is recommended+ Pressed steel sills should ,e fi'ed to tim,er sills with num,er 71 rust proof wood screws+ ile ,ric& on edge or special ,ric& sills are fre;uentl# used+ hese should alwa#s ,e designed to allow the frame to locate correctl# at the jam,+ Projecting hinges for eas# cleaning can ,e supplied2 at e'tra charge if ordered+ Ordering instructions for steel residential windows & doors "uantit# of each t#pe2 ;uoting t#pe letters and num,ers in full+ he hands of side hung casements and doors 4the hand9 is the side on which hinges are fitted loo&ing from inside5+ •
?hether the doors are to open outwards or inwards
•
?hether side hung windows re;uire project hinges
•
?hether ,urglar ,ars are re;uired
•
?hether hot8dip galvanising is re;uired
•
?hether fl#8screens are re;uired
"uantit# of each t#pe2 ;uoting t#pe letters and num,er in full+
•
?hat t#pe of fi'ing is re;uired+
•
?hether vents are to ,e hori-ontall# pivoted or ,ottom hung+
•
?hether ,urglar ,ars are re;uired+
•
?hether fl#8screens are re;uired+
(#/,%)%/, W%)DOWS Aluminium is an e'tremel# dura,le material+ It has a thic& profile and loo&s ver# solid+ Aluminium windows are retro8fitted+ here are minimal standard ranges in aluminium as most windows are made to fit the opening left once a ,uilding is complete+ here are numerous finishes an aluminium window can come in) Anodi-ed windows are chemicall# stained+ Anodi-ing leaves a metallic finishL Powder coating is used to create m#riad coloursL and Plastic wrapping gives a te'tured loo& = such as wood+ his is the most e'pensive t#pe of finish+ Aluminium windows come alread# gla-ed and are sealed with a ru,,er seal+ Furniture is included+ Aluminium needs the least maintenance+ It does not need to ,e painted2 ,ut it does o'idise 4similar to rust5 over time and therefore should ,e &ept clean+ Aluminium is ver# soft and can ,e easil# damaged+ Manufacturers will come to site to measure openings ,efore the# suppl# windows2 to ma&e sure that the frames will fit+
WOOD") W%)DOWS he ,eaut# of wood is un;uestiona,le and can enhance ,oth the aesthetic appeal and value of a home dramaticall#+ hroughout histor#2 wood has ,een the material of choice for windows and doors 8 even as fashions have changed2 with painted and natural wood alternativel# in popularit#+ he following recommendations appl# to the use and maintenance of wooden windows and doors) •
•
•
•
It is essential that protective oil ,e applied to wooden windows and doors prior to installation in order to prevent staining ,# cement or plaster on ,uilding sites+ he oil should ,e penetrative and used regularl# to prevent o'idisation and avoid damage+ he doors and windows should ,e treated with care and e'ternal forces should ,e avoided during the construction process 4e+g+ props over sliding doors and forcing ,ric&s into small places5+ A product li&e Sil&wood is recommended+ his product provides protection against water a,sorption and . degradation+ It minimises wood degradation such as crac&ing2 splitting2 warping and grain raise2 which occurs as a result of natural aging and climatic changes+
Application •
he product should ,e applied with either a ,rush or a roller+
•
he surface of the wood must ,e dr#2 clean and free of contaminants
•
he first coat should onl# ,e applied after this period+
•
If the wood is porous2 it is advisa,le to appl# a third coat of the product for ma'imum protection+
•
Maintenance coats should ,e applied when the wood appears faded or dr#+
•
Brushes and rollers can ,e cleaned with either turpentine or white spirits+
•
If the product is solvent ,ased 4as is Sil&woodG52 it is flamma,le and therefore should onl# ,e applied in well8ventilated areas+
CO)C!"" W%)DOWS Concrete windows are made from high densit#2 un8reinforced2 low permea,ilit# 1Mpa concrete2 cast in high ;ualit# moulds+ he product has a smooth finish2 which ma# ,e painted or left in its natural state+
() %)!OD/C%O) O DOO!S Doors are manufactured in man# shapes and si-es2 as well as in various materials 8 steel2 wood2 concrete and alumnium+ It is important to research the various ;ualities of the different t#pes of doors2 not onl# from a functionalit# aspect2 in terms of the homes location2 ,ut also aestheticall# to ensure the door ,est suite the home design st#le+
WOOD") DOO!S More often than not2 costs dictate our purchases and this fundamental design enhancement is left to the last minute+ Doors are far too often just specified ,# their opening or stated on the
drawing to owner9s specification92 #et the design implementation and enhancement one can achieve is enormous+ Budgets tend to ma&e one use hollow8core doors for the interior2 ,ut consider the use of supawood moulded or solid tim,er doors as the# are stronger2 soundproof and more aestheticall# pleasing+ "ualit# doors and fittings not onl# wor& ,etter2 ,ut also last longer and add distinction+ As Africans we tend to ,e unaware of the variet# of woods availa,le+ Meranti is the most common2 ,ut other suita,le material to consider is Maple2 Sapele2 %ose wood2 Oa&2 Iro&o2 im,uia2 %hodesian ea& and Beech+ Doors comprise two different t#pes2 namel# flush and panel+ Doors with glass i nserts are referred to as lights92 i+e+ sidelights+ Patio doors2 incorporating sliding and French doors are the traditional methods for transition ,etween indoor and outdoor living spaces+ he# serve a dual purpose2 windows2 light and ventilation+ Sta,le doors are still preferred in the &itchen environment as the# allow the free flow of air and increase the interior light levels whilst ,eing a,le to &eep small children indoors
+(!(+" DOO!S he decision to ,e made when purchasing or replacing a garage door can ,e influenced ,# man# factors+ he correct decision as to which t#pe of door and from which materials it is manufactured ma# ,e influenced ,# lifest#le and design criteria+ A garage door is often the largest moving item in a home+ Safet # and convenience when moving this large item is paramount+ Purchasers must ensure that the design of the door meets and complies with performance and design criteria that are internationall# accepted+ A manufacturers warrant# should ,e o,tained for ,oth the garage door and if fitted the automation device+ A wide range of doors are availa,le to the architect2 designer and homeowner+ he following will help #ou decide which door suits #our lifest#le and compliments #our home+ ,aterials used to manufacture garage doors Timber arage doors have traditionall# ,een manufactured from a variet# hardwood tim,ers+ he hinged garage door was manufactured with hard wood frames and slates+ he hardwood frame was later su,stituted for a steel frame with hardwood slates+ oda# the finest tim,er garage doors are manufactured from meranti2 cedar or other similar hard woods+ he cost and scarcit# of hardwoods has forced the mar&et to utilise saligna as a su,stitute for meranti+ In order to ,e cost effective wooden doors ma# contain hard,oard wood panels+ he high maintenance factor and environmental impact on the ecolog# of the use of hardwoods has diminished the popularit# of wooden doors+ Steel B# far the greatest num,ers of garage doors are manufactured from steel+ he maintenance free pre8painted steel doors provide the ,us# homeowner with an elegant modern solution to garage doors+ he# are availa,le with various patterns pressed i nto the steel door panel+ Comple' raised panels to ri,,ed panels are availa,le+ In addition the steel used in the door panel ma# itself ,e em,ossed with wood graining for a natural loo&+ he minimum standard for a steel garage doors is one using galvanised steel+ alvanised steel is manufactured from a cold rolled ,ase and has -inc applied to it ,# means of a continuous immersion in a -inc ,ath+ he amount of -inc on the steel is what determines the corrosion resistance of the steel+ his can ,e measured , # means of thic&ness or ,# means of the total weight of -inc per s;uare meter present on the cold rolled sheet+ Certain steel manufacturers not onl# coat the steel with -inc2 ,ut with a com,ination of -inc and aluminium this steel is referred to as [incalume or Alu-inc+ [incalume9s corrosive prevention properties are far greater than that of standard galvanised material+
he most commonl# used steel for garage doors is pre8painted2 where the galvanised or -incalume has ,een pre8painted ,# the steel manufacturer+ hese steels are referred to as Colourcoat2 Cromade&2 Color,ond and various other proprietar# references to impl# that the steel has ,een pre8painted+ he most common paint used is a pol#ester paint+ A ,ase or undercoat is applied to the steel this primer is to ensure that the finishing coat ,onds to the steel+ A final or finishing coat is applied onto the undercoat+ he paint thic&ness is normall# ,etween 01 and 0Emicrons+ Once the paint has ,een applied to the steel it is ,a&ed on the steel ,# means of a heat process+ Certain steel manufacturers have perfected methods of appl#ing up to 011 microns of paint per finishing coat+ he thic&ness or gauge of steel used on garage doors varies according to the t#pe of steel door used+ ?here the steel has to roll up thinner gauges are prefera,le+ ?here the doors tilt or2 open in sections2 thic&er gauges are ,etter suited+ Fibreglass Fi,reglass has recentl# ,ecome a su,stitute product for teel garage doors+ Fi,reglass has no structural strength and is reliant on a frame to hold the door rigid+
door panel helical springs are used+ hese doors can ,e automated+ Si4es and ,easuring +arage Doors Most garages in South Africa are constructed to standard si-es+ he standard height for a garage door opening is 07E1mm measured from finished floor level to the underside of the lintel+ he standard width of a single garage door is 0E11mm and a dou,le garage 661mm measured from wall to wall+ In order to save costs a smaller door has ,ecome common with a width for single doors of 01mm+ he ?idth and $eight of a garage door is not the onl# dimension that can influence which t#pe of door will fit what also needs to ,e considered is the following) he $ead %oom the si-e from the underside of the lintel to the ceiling or the roof trusses inside #our garage+ he
of the door has ,een compromised and this will effect the life span if the door+ he curtain 4or door panel5 of the door has hori-ontal ri,s impressed on it+ he deeper the ri,,ing the stronger the oor+ his curtain runs in a trac&2 ,etween the curtain and the trac& is a wool pile or n#lofelt that creates a friction ,etween the curtain and the trac&+ he ;ualit# of the weave of the pile will to some e'tent determine the maintenance free lifespan of the door+ he curtain is fitted with two guide ,loc&s2 normall# incorporating a roller2 attached at the ,ottom of the curtain to ensure that the curtain remains in the same position in the trac& and operates with a ma'imum ease+ he springs at the head of the door should ,e set up to ensure that the commencement operating force of the roll up door is no more that 7E&g+ %oll up doors normall# have loc&s pre fitted ,# the manufacturer+ here are a wide variet# of loc&s that are fitted to these doors+ he simplest loc& is a loc& c#linder with two loc&ing arms+ he most comple' and effective loc& is a center lift loc& with internal and e'ternal loc&ing a,ilit#+ Most doors are fitted with a ,ottom lift handle+ A ru,,er weather seal is fitted to the ,ottom of the door to prevent moisture ingress and wind ,lown dirt+ On higher ;ualit# doors this can ,e replaced without an# specialised e'pertise+ %oll up doors can ,e automated ,# various means+ he most effective and efficient means of automating a door is to connect an opener directl# onto the wheel or drum of the door+ Certain high ;ualit# doors have their wheels prepared to accept an opener+ he opener is simpl# inserted over the a'le of the door into the wheel+ his drives the door up or down utilising the full effect of the tor;ue tu,e+ Other methods of automating rollup doors such as lifting the doors from the ,ottom of the door tend to lift one side of the door at a time+ his results in uneven wear of the weather stripping and an increase in the maintenance re;uired on these doors+ Certain operators lift the doors from the ,ottom using ca,les+ hese installations if carried out rofessionall# are satisfactor#2 ,ut are mess# and unsightl#+ he lightweight curtain of these doors ma&es successful automation economical and cost effective+ %oll up doors can ,e manufactured in various si-es+ Doors that are wider than 0E11 and higher than 0:11 should have purpose designed ri,s to ensure that the strength of the door is maintained+ Dou,le door as well as doors up to E111mm high ,# E111mm wide can ,e manufactured+ hese high performance doors have custom designed wheels or drums with specialised trac&s and component+ Slatted Doors Slatted doors that roll up are manufactured from two ,asic materials steel and aluminium+ he decision to use one or the other is driven , # cost and location of the door+ his drives the door up or down utilising the full effect of the tor;ue tu,e+ Other methods of automating rollup doors such as lifting the doors from the ,ottom of the door tend to lift one side of the door at a time+ his results in uneven wear of the weather stripping and an increase in the maintenance re;uired on these doors+ Certain operators lift the doors from the ,ottom using ca,les+ hese installations if carried out professionall# are satisfactor#2 ,ut are mess# and unsightl#+ he lightweight curtain of these doors ma&es successful automation economical and cost effective+ %oll up doors can ,e manufactured in various si-es+ Doors that are wider than 0E11 and higher than 0:11 should have purpose designed ri,s to ensure that the strength of the door is maintained+ Dou,le door as well as doors up to E111mm high ,# E111mm wide can ,e manufactured+ hese high performance doors have custom designed wheels or drums with specialised trac&s and component+ Steel Slatted Doors
hese doors are commonl# referred to as industrial doors+ he doors are manufactured from a series of interloc&ing slats that form the curtain or panel of the door+ hese slats are roll formed from various gauges of steel+ hese slats are normall# manufactured from galvanised steel that can then ,e painted once the# have ,een roll formed+ he# are from 1+:mm to 7+0mm thic& depending on the span or width of the door and the application of the door+ Slatted doors unli&e continuous curtain doors do not rel# on a tor;ue tu,e+ he wheels on the slatted doors tend to ,e smaller than on roll up doors and the commencement roll re;uires less headroom+ he slatted door however ta&es more space to roll up2 as each slat needs to ,e accommodated+ Slatted doors are manuall# operated on smaller doors2 theses are referred to as push ups+ he operating force re;uired to commence operating one of these doors is great doors ver# often have an adjusted operating weight of 1&g or more+ he curtain of these doors can ,e e'tremel# heav# in which case a chain hoist with a gear,o' is fitted to the door+ his is often the onl# wa# to open and close an industrial door+ A ,ottom rail is fitted to the door which accommodates the loc&+ ?aist high loc&s can also ,e fitted+ hese doors can also ,e f itted with automation devises+ he# tend to ,e more e'pensive than other automation owing to the weight of the curtain that is ,eing lifted+ Access gates can ,e fitted to slatted doors as well as various other additional e'tras li&e cran& handle opening and closing rather than chain operation+ Slatted doors can ,e produced from perforated steel slates2 which allow vision through the door ,ut still provides ma'imum securit#+ Steel is also used to manufacture rolling grilles+ Instead of a rolled slat as a curtain for the door a formed grill is utilities+ heses doors are popular to protect shop fronts or as secondar# securit# measures in shopping malls+ he# ma# have straight lin& construction or have a patterned lin& construction+ hese grills provide ma'imum ventilation and visi,ilit# when shut+ Aluminum Slatted doors .tilising the same operating mechanism as a steel roller door the aluminum version is used where a higher ;ualit# of finish is re;uired or where corrosion of normal galvanised steel slates ma# present a threat to the life span of the door+ he anodised or powder coated aluminum slates are e'truded rather than rolled+ Aluminum doors tend to ,e lighter than steel doors and easier to operate manuall#+ Sectional doors ma# ,e manufactured from tim,er2 steel or fi,reglass+ he manner in which sectional doors are sprung in order to reduce operating weights is of prime importance+ wo t#pes of spring arrangements are commonl# used+ he safest of these methods is orsion Springs+ hese are normall# installed a,ove the door at the head of the door on a steel a'le+ he oil tempered helicall# wound spring is contained ,# the a'le2 should the spring come loose of the plug windings on each side of the spring or come loose of the a'le all that will happen is that the door will not open easil#+ !'tension or tension springs are stretched in order to help lift the door+ In the closed position the spring is in its full # stretched position+ hese springs are fitted a,ove the rear hori-ontal9s of the trac&+ Should a safet# ca,le not ,e fitted or fail to perform ade;uatel#2 the spring either coming loose or ,rea&ing inside the garage can do significant damage to an#thing or an#one inside the garage+ he hinges of a sectional door are num,ered according to which panel the# are fitted onto+ he# ma#,e manufactured from galvanised steel or from composite plastics+ he composite plastic hinge has the advantage of ,eing ;uieter in use+ he hinges perform two functions2 the# join the sections together and allow them to ,rea& when the door is used and the end hinges contain the wheels or rollers of the door+ he wheels that get fitted to the trac& via the hinges are normall# fitted with ,all ,earings for e'tended life hese wheels have a galvanised shaft to prevent corrosion and pol#prop#lene wheel surface to reduce the noise of the wheel in the trac& + arious loc&ing arrangements can ,e fitted onto sectional doors+ Center loc&s2 friction loc&s2
slam loc&s can all ,e fitted to sectional doors+ hese are not re;uired if the door is to ,e automated with an automatic opener+ Dou,le doors or doors that have ,een manufactured from thinner gauge steels ma# re;uire stiffeners to ,e fitted at the time of installation+ Certain technologicall# advanced sectional doors ma# have a pol#prop#lene curve fitted instead of a steel curve on the trac&+ he curving of steel distorts the channel in the trac& reducing the si-e of the channel+ his forces manufacturers to use smaller wheels than what the channel in the trac& is designed for+ his results in rattling doors+ Pol#prop#lene curves reduce the wear on the wheel and allow the door to operate in a ;uieter manner+ im,er sectional doors are normall# manufactured with E panels to a standard height door+ Doors ma# ,e manufactured in slatted or raised and fielded designs+ !ach section is weatherproofed ,# means of a shiplap joint+ manufactured from either meranti or saligna the door manufacturer selects tim,er of matching ;ualit# and grain to ensure that each sectional panel and each door matches+ he manufacturer ma# stain or paint the tim,er with a colour impregnated weather resistant sealant to prevent moisture loss from the tim,er+ Steel sectional doors are manufactured from steel 1+mm to 1+ mm thic&+ he thic&ness of the steel determines the strength of the door+ Most steel sectional doors are manufactured from pre8painted steels+ (utomation of garage doors Most garage doors can ,e automated ma&ing use of a 7*rd horsepower motor ,eing operated on 001volt power+ 3arger motors and 8phase power are re;uired on large heav# doors or where door are to handle a large volume of traffic+ Sectional and tilt doors utilise the same t#pe of automation s#stems+ hese garage door openers are mounted at the top of the doors hori-ontal to the open position of the doors+ hese openers are either chain drive or screw drive+ he advantages of chain drive are their cost and a,ilit# to ,e used on doors of various heights without having to custom manufacture an opening arm+ Screw drive s#stems tend to ,e more e'pensive and their enclosed screw s#stem is a smoother operating mechanisms+ he electronic s#stems lin&ed to garage door oeners llo w additional functions to ,e operated ,# their transmitters llowing garage door openers to ,e integrated nto the overall ecurit# and automation in a modern household+ It is ,est to fit automation to a garage door at the initial installation stage+ How muc$ s$ould garage doors Cost he final price of a garage door depends on the choice of door t#pe2 the automation s#stem that is added to it and who installs the door+ arage door prices do not var# dramaticall# on a regional ,asis+ he average cost of installing a door is ,etween %011 for a roll up door to % E11 for a sectional or tip up door+ he prices of slatted doors are not included as these are priced on en;uir#+ he finest of these doors would use deep drawing ;ualit# steel that has ,een tim,er em,ossed+ ?hen complete no e'ternal fi'ings are visi,le on the doors+ he ,ottom panel or section normall# has a weather seal fitted+ In ;ualit# doors this weather seal is fitted to an aluminium section and can ,e replaced , # the homeowner+ !ach steel section is fitted with a num,er of steel st#les+ hese st#les perform two functions+ he# are there to provide a suita,le ,ase for the hinges to ,e fitted to them and the# are fi'ed to the section of the door to provide strength+ A ;ualit# door will have pol #urethane ,onding ,etween the st#le and the panel of the door and the st#le will ,e affi'ed to the panel on two vertical faces+ A standard door has four sections+ Certain steel sectional doors ma# ,e fitted with op lights+ hese are availa,le in a num,er of different patterns+ he most popular is the image of a sunset+ Other patterns include Colonial2
Cathedral2 Sun,urst and various others+ hese op lights apart from providing the door with an aesthetic appeal provide light into a garage when the door is closed+ Steel sectional doors are manufactured in various st#les+ A raised and fielded panel t#pe door and a ri,,ed design t#pe door+ All sectional steel doors re;uire less headroom than roll up t#pe doors+ Steel sectional doors ma# also ,e used f or industrial applications+ .sing a slightl# heaver gauge steel these doors can ,e manufactured up to widths of :111 mm and heights of E111 mm+
!oofing
O'"!'%"W his section is a,out roofs and roofing = the materials and products2 methods and certain criteria which are used in the construction of these elements+ A more specific purpose is to draw the attention of readers to features and functions of different t#pes of roofs and roofing and the overall cost considerations in choosing different t#pes+
Protection from sun2 wind and rain+
•
Strength and sta,ilit#
•
Dura,ilit#
•
Control of heat loss = insulation
•
Prevention of condensation
•
Acoustics 8 e'clusion and prevention of noise
•
Fire protection and prevention
•
Provision of da# lightingL where appropriate+
here is an a,solute re;uirement in roofi ng to prevent water reaching the interior of a ,uilding2 in contrast with some of the other functional re;uirements where some shortfall ma# ,e tolera,le+ AgainL highlighting the need for ta&ing care in design and the construction* erection of roofs and roofi ng to ensure water penetration into the interior of the ,uilding is avoided+
wo &inds of rainfall intensit# need to ,e consideredL •
%ain falling verticall#
•
%ain driven ,# wind
Both categories contri,ute to the total ;uantities of rainwater needing disposal2 ,ut the second categor# particularl# affects the weather tightness of lapped roofing2 such as tiles and slates2 and even the direction and e'tent of lap of larger sheetsL with man# manufacturers recommending the use of underla#s2 fi'ing of tiles etc+ in these applications+ One must remem,er that rain falling while the wind is ,lowing affects pitched roofs more than flat 4and walls even more so52 it is therefore important to consider ones geographical location2 associated weather patterns and not onl# #our desired roofing re;uirements+
!OOF CO'"!%)+S Cla3 !oof iles Burned cla# was the commonl# used material in Ancient times in manufacturing of roof tiles+ .sed for centuries and still used2 ho wever this t#pe of tile is more e'pensive than the more common concrete tile+ Cla# roof tiles enhance warmth and character to a ,uilding with permanent colour which weather and age over time2 ,ut never fade+ Cla# roof tiles are natural and dura,le which elegantl# enhances the appearance of roofs2 not onl# withstanding the elements2 ,ut actuall# improving with age from e'posure+ Cla# roof tiles are availa,le in the ever8popular Brosele#2 Constantia ( Cordova as well as the cost effective Portuguese and Marseilles+ he# are availa,le from various different manufacturers in South Africa2 in a variet# of colours li&e terracotta and multi flashed colours+ arious ,onds are used when la #ing different t#pes of cla# tiles2 fromL straight ,ond or moc& interloc&ing2 ,ro&en ,ond2 fl at and semicircular over under 4the over8tile and under8tile are of roughl# the same shape2 the under8tile ,eing largerL these tiles form a ,eautiful roof which is fle'i,le in ,oth sidelap and headlap5+ Concrete !oof iles Concrete roof tiles are manufactured in an e'tensive range of profiles2 colours and finishes 4finishes will var# from one manufacturer to another5 which enhance the visual appearance of an# roof and provide designers with a wide scope for e'pression+ Surface finishes for tiles are categori-ed in accordance with SABS specifications+ All surface coatings are applied under factor# controlled conditions+ Concrete roof tiles manufactured ,# mem,ers of the Concrete Manufacturers Association meet the re;uirements of SABS E087JJ1 Standard specification for concrete roof tiles+ he# are manufactured in accordance with the SABS ISO J110 "ualit# Management S#stem Pressed ,etal !oof iles Pressed metal roof tiles are strong2 light weightL which significantl# reduces the ;uantit# of tim,er re;uired in the support structure and provides eas# installation+ he# allow for ease of deliver# and don9t re;uire large truc&s to transport them2 ma&ing this a popular roof covering in remote l#ing areas+ A further advantage ,eing steel8,ased2 no ,rea&ages occur during transit or storage on site+ Metal roof tiles come in different profiles and finished with either a standard acr#lic coating or a te'tured coating and availa,le in various colours and are also manufactured from different
materials+ iles are complemented ,# a full range of accessories such as ridges2 hips2 ga,le trims2 ,arge,oard covers and flashings+ Due to their lightweight attri,utes2 tiles are the ideal application in the re8roofing mar&et where the# can ,e laid over the e'isting roof without removing the old roofing material+ Slates can ,e descri,ed as an# rectangular sheet of roofing material2 whether of natural slate2 stone2 cast stone2 fi,re cement2 or metal+ Fibre cement he
•
•
•
he
)atural Slate Slate is commonl# descri,ed as a dar& gre# natural stone made up of man# thin la#ers which can ,e split 4riven5 into thin sheets2 then cut to si-e to create tiles+ Other colours are availa,le in roofing slates and not just the traditional dar& gre# or silver ,lue as it is &nownL ,elow are the commonl# used colours in roofing+ •
•
•
Silver Blue) he colour ranges from silver to gre# to almost ,lac&2 and ma# occasionall# contain faint tints of #ellow or gold+ ?est Countr#) his is a silver ,lue ,ased slate with rings2 circles or spots of red2 ,rown2 silver2 white2 orange2 #ellow and ver# occasionall# green2 with one or more of these colours present on each tile+ Multi colour) his is a silver ,lue ,ased slate with su,dued to ,right colouring on at least 01/ of the surface area+ he colour varies from reds2 ,rown2 orange2 #ellows and even greens2 or an# com,ination thereof+
S$eeting %oof sheeting comes in various different profiles2 e+g+ corrugated2 IB% and folded steel+ Manufactured from numerous different t#pes of material to suit specific applications2 all having certain advantages and uni;ue propertiesL with metal sheeting ,eing the most commonl# used+ Organic Fibre Onduline is an e'tremel# tough lightweight corrugated roofi ng and wall cladding material manufactured from ,itumen8saturated organic fi ,res under intense pressure and heat+ It is fl e'i,le2 economical and virtuall# indestructi,le+ It provides a high degree of weather protection and thermal insulation 8 even in the most e'treme climatic conditions+
Originall# developed in !urope over E1 #ears ago2 Onduline is now e'tensivel# used in agricultural2 light industrial and domestic applications in over 711 countries from the tropics to the artic circle+ Onduline offers man# advantages over other roofi ng and wallcladding materials+ •
•
It has high insulation and sound a,sor,enc# values
•
Cannot rust or ,ecome ,rittle
•
%ot and fungi resistant+
•
It is colourfast and resists most chemicals and corrosion+
•
It is impact resistant and eas# to handle+
Onduline is pro,a,l# the most fle'i,le2 versatile and economicalroofi ng and cladding material in the world+ #pes2 colours and si-es Onduline simplifies the wor& of the designer2 architect and specifier as there is just one convenient standard si-e of sheet to wor& with+ It is further simplified ,# its eas# cutting and fi'ing characteristics+ Onduline can ,e cut with an ordinar# hand or power saw and is fi 'ed using corrosion resistant P! headed or safe top nails+ Onduline is manufactured in the following pre8pigmented 4PP5 coloursL Fibre cement Fi,re8cement technolog# was developed at the end of the 76th centur# ,# an Austrian2 3udwic& $atsche&+ Products are made of Portland cement2 refined sand and speciall# treated cellulose fi,res+ he mould a,ilit#2 strength and dura,ilit# of fi,re8cement ma&es it a perfect material for the manufacture of a wide range of ,uilding materials+ Fi,re cement roof sheeting is availa,le in two ,asic profi les and has ,een used in the south African ,uilding Industr# for roofing and side cladding for decades+ he ictorian sheet is a popular profile and it has ,een designed to recreate the appearance and character of a traditional ictorian st#le roof+ And is particularl# suita,le for coastal areas where corrosive conditions prevent the use of man# other products+ ,etal Metal %oof sheeting is availa,le in a wide variet# of profi les2 thic&nesses and t#pes of material and coatings+ .suall# all roof sheeting materials are manufactured from hot8dipped galvani-ed steel and fall within internationall# accepted specifications and tolerances+ $$ %o,ertson2 esta,lished in 7JE6 was the fi rst manufacturer of roof sheeting in South Africa+ Other t#pes of material are manufactured li&e Supergalm which is an aluminium -inc allo# coated steel and [incalume\ a composite of aluminium and -inc+ #pical t#pes of material includeL Commercial ;ualit#2 high tensile and econogalv+ #pical t#pes of coatings include Chromade&+ here are a large variet# of sheeting materials and profiles designed for larger t#pe commercial ,uildings li&e shopping centres and industrial ,uildings which re;uire specific properties that suit this t#pe of application+ hese are ;uite different to what is re;uired for the
smaller t#pe ,uilding and the residential housing mar&etL although these t#pes of materials and profiles can ,e used in residential applications+ e+g+ Brown,uilt+
Plastering () %)!OD/C%O) O P#(S"!%)+ Plastering is pro,a,l# the least mentioned trade under regulations and standard specifications+ Material ;uantities supplied ,# the Portland cement institute should ensure sound mortar mi'es2 ,ut to ,e assured of ;ualit# wor&manship ,# tr#ing to enforce ,uilding regulations i s difficult for plastering+ he architect or designer should ,e responsi,le for preparing specifications and details that ensure ;ualit# wor&manship+ A mar&ed sample panel of plaster on site is usuall# the most effective specification+ All plastering on site must conform with the sample panel+
W(## CO(%)+S & F%)%SH"S & C!(C2 F%##"!S Cemwas$ A coloured waterproof cement ,ased coating2 re;uiring mi'ing with water onl#2 ,efore ,eing applied direct to ,ric&wor&2 ,loc&wor& or cured plaster in one or two coats+ $aving a ,ase of white cement2 it sets roc&8hard and is ultra8violet ra# resistant2 economical2 waterproof and e'tremel# dura,le+ Application ,# 011mm ,loc& ,rush+ Passes 0hr SABS rain penetration test+ Coverage) Depending on suction and te'ture+ 7st coat) 71 8 7 s;uare metres 0nd coat) 76 8 00 s;uare metres Availa,le in a wide range of colours+ Colorcem Coloured Scratc$ Plaster A high ;ualit# portland cement for floors2 precast concrete2 plaster and terra--o+ As the use of Colorcem involves care and dedication2 the reader is advised to contact the Cemcrete echnical Department ,efore appl#ing+ (rctic Plaster ? W$ite Cement Finis$ A white cement8,ased s&im plaster supplied in powder form re;uiring onl# the addition of water ,efore ,eing applied in one coat mm thic& to wood floated cement plaster+ Sets roc&8hard and is unaffected ,# ultra8violet ra#s+ Can ,e sealed with CemcreteXs concrete sealer or Silicon sealer+ Coverage) Appro'imatel# 2E s;+ metres*01&g sac& uscan3 Plaster A coloured cement plaster for interior and e'terior2 re;uiring mi'ing with water onl# ,efore ,eing applied ,# steel trowel 8Emm thic& directl# onto conventional wood float plaster+ Is ultra8 violet resistant and unaffected ,# water+ he final surface can ,e finished as ,rush2 scratching2 sponged2 polished or wood floated and acid washed ma&ing different te'tures2 and cures mottled2 creating a living wall+ he final surface should ,e sealed with Cemcrete+ Availa,le in a wide range of colours+ he final surface should ,e sealed with Cemcrete Siliconseal solvent ,ased+ Coverage) 08 m+s;+*1 &g sac& depending on thic&ness+
e=turite !oug$cast A coloured cement8,ased decorative finish for e'teriors and interiors on walls and ceilings Integrall# coloured to eliminate painting+ Permanentl# hides plaster cra-ing and similar defects+ Supplied in powder form for mi'ing with water+ .sed in conjunction with Cem,ond where application is to smooth or fria,le ,ac&ings+ Application ,# hand operated #rol flic&ing machine+ Availa,le in various colours+ Ceilings 8 s;uare metres per 0E &g Decocrete A coloured cement ,ased material speciall# formulated ,e plastered to e'cessive thic&ness ,ut does not slide or shrin& and dries roc& hard+ Slow setting gives plent# of time to wor& and manipulate the material ZinsituZ on the wall while wet+ Can ,e coloured with Colorcem or imprinted using Coloured %elease Agent and ru,,er moulds+ 3ends itself to artistic carving when ,iscuit hard+ Can ,e sealed with colour hardener sealer to enhance colour+ Availa,le in various colours+ Coverage) appro'+ s;uare metres per 1 &g depending on thic&ness applied+ Stipplecrete An economical coloured waterproof cement8,ased te'tured finish for e'teriors and interiors on walls and ceilings+ Integrall# coloured to eliminate painting+ Brushed to waterproof and then stippled to te'ture using a whitewash ,loc&,rush directl# onto ,ric&wor& or ,loc&wor&+ Cure each coat with water three times the following da#+ Passes 0 hour SABS rain penetration test on two coat application+ Coverage) 71 8 7 s;uare metres per 1 &g sac& stippled 7 8 00 s;uare metres per 1 &g sac& ,rushed 4Both depend on surface suction5+ Basecoat (nd (d$esive An integral part of the !'terior Insulation Finish S#stem 8!IFS+ A special mi'ture of adhesives2 fillers2 plasticisers2 etc+ for mi'ing with ordinar# Portland cement to o,tain a controlled mi'ture for repair of concrete and masonr#2 attaching and su,se;uent surfacing of pol#st#rene insulation ,oards prior to painting2 etc+ Base coat and Adhesives use is twofold) Firstl# it can ,e used as a Z,ase coatZ for levelling2 patching and filling masonr#2 concrete and plaster ,efore painting2 with or without a glassfi,re reinforcing mesh+ And secondl# as an adhesive for pasting insulation ,oard pol#st#rene5 or feature segments onto interior or e'terior ,uildings ,efore covering with glassfi,re2 reinforced mesh impregnated with the same material+ Availa,le in 0E &g drums Coverage) 12E s;uare metres per &g mi'ed material mm thic&+ Cembond ? +eneral (d$esive Cement (dditive Plaster 2e3ing (id A general purpose li;uid for ,onding and fi'ing of or on concrete2 ,ric&2 ceramic tiles2 cement plaster2 stone2 tim,er2 firm oil plant2 etc+ Cem,ond o,viates chipping2 is non8flamma,le and has ,een proved over the past #ears to ,e a safe2 dependa,le adhesive for the ,uilding industr#+ For the ,est results2 all surfaces should ,e non fla&ing as well as grease and dirt free+ Protect against free-ing in the can and on the wall within a few hours of application+ ?ill not ,ond to plastic2 ru,,er or g#psum plaster+ ?ash ,uc&ets and rollers in water when temporaril# not in use+ he application of Cem,ond using different dil utions with water are numerous and a comprehensive data sheet is availa,le on re;uest+ !speciall# useful when appl#ing ordinar# cement plaster2 CemcreteXs S&im Plaster2 acr#lic paint2 hermoplastic coating2 ile adhesive2 Cemwash2 Bric&wash2 Stipplecrete2 Arctic plaster2 e'turite roughcast2 etc+2 to smooth2 fria,le
or dusting surfaces+ (coustic Ceiling Spra3 A lightweight ,lend of spra#ing ceilings to create a roughcast appearance ,efore ,eing coated with an acr#lic paint in the desired colour+ For most ceiling surfaces such as off shutter concrete2 paper ,oard2 %hinolite2 etc+2 use with Cem,ond+ Coverage) Appro'imatel# 01 s;uare metres per 01&g $ermoplastic Coating ? Coloured (nd e=tured A tough resin8,ased2 thermoplastic2 te'tured coating containing silica and mica for ma'imum film protection against ultra8violet ra#s+ Provides a super dura,le coating for 'terior walls and roofs2 capa,le of hiding surface imperfections and hairline crac&s+ Supplied read# for use2 it might re;uire thinning with water+ Application ,# ,rush or roller+ ?ash tools with water+ Availa,le in ten colours+ Coverage) 8 s;uare metres per litre per coat+ %nterior Crack Filler An eas# to wor& cellulose crac& filler for filling crac&s2 gaps around door and window frames2 light switches2 sills2 nail holes2 wood grain2 ¬ holes2 etc+ Adheres to cement plaster2 g#psum plaster2 fi,re cement and tim,er+ Supplied in powder form for mi'ing with water+ "=terior Crack Filler A tough thermoplastic acr#lic8,ased crac& filler supplied read# to use in paste form for filling crac&s and other imperfections in plaster and concrete ,efore painting+
F#OO! (PP#%C(%O)S Colour Hardener Cemcrete colour hardener and colour release agent+ A ,lend of special cements2 colouring agents and e'tremel# hard wearing aggregates for dusting onto wet concrete or a wet screed ,efore imprinting with a ru,,er mould to give the effect of tiles or paving+ .sed in conjunction with coloured release agent to prevent the mould stic&ing to the wet concrete and give 72 0 or colours in final surface+ Colour hardener colours) %ed2 an2 Slate2 Ivor#2 Straw2 re# and $unterXs reen Coverage) Appro'imatel# E s;uare metres per 01&g+ %elease agent colours) Dar& Brown2 Blac&2 erra Cotta2 reen2 ellow2 3ight re# and $unterXs reen+ Coverage) Depends on usage and depth of colour re;uired+
evenl#2 CemcreteXs floor levelling compound is suita,le for levelling concrete2 ;uarr# tiles2 terra--o2 mosaic2 stone2 asphalt2 etc+2 preparator# to la#ing carpets2 par;uet2 vin#l tiles2 and most other floor coverings+ he normal thic&ness is 02E mm down to a feather dge+ Coverage) If 02E mm thic& s;uare metres per 01 &g
SW%,,%)+ POO#S Pool Plaster ? ,arble Based A scientificall# formulated mi'ture of white cement2 with mar,le and special additives+ It is supplied in dr# form for mi'ing on site with clean water+ Application is ,# steel plastererXs trowel+ CemcreteXs mar,le pool plaster provides a smooth plaster Emm thic&2 which ,ecomes an integral part of the structure+ It permanentl# eliminates painting+ Coverage) 0 s;uare metres per 1&g sac& if appli ed Emm thic&+ Colours) ?hite2 Blue2 Charcoal2 A,,otsford reen and Sandstone+ Pool Crack Filler A heav# fi,re8reinforced filler for use in mar,elited concrete swimming pools+ %emove mar,elite for :Emm each side of crac& through to the concrete+ ZZ out concrete 71mm deep and 71mm wide+ ?ire ,rush e'ternal surfaces of crac& and surrounding e'posed concrete and prime with CemcreteXs crac& filler primer+ Hnife in filler+ Allow filler to air cure for two da#s+ Appl# neat white cement slurr# to e'posed concrete and shoulders of mar,elite and immediatel# re8 appl# CemcreteXs Mar,le Pool Plaster+ Fill pool following da#+ Pool ? /nderwater A ;uic&8setting compound2 having a ,ase of white Portland cement and white mar,le2 speciall# formulated for the underwater patching of mar,le pool plaster+ he area to ,e patched should ,e chipped using a heav#2 sharp2 steel chisel2 pa#ing attention to achieving clean8cut edges at J1 degrees to the plane+ ?hen all is read#2 mi' compound with water and trowel into cavit# within four minutes+
"lectrical
() %)!OD/C%O) O "#"C!%C(# !lectricit# is accepted as a normal part of ever#da# life and ever# #ear we put more and more appliances to use in our homes2 some of them simple2 li&e the &itchen toaster and some comple'2 such as a or a computer+ Being a cheap source of energ#2 the demand for electricit# has more than tripled over the past three decades+ South Africa has one of the most sophisticated energ# transmission s#stems in the world+ arious t#pes of processes ma# ta&e place to provide us with this energ#+ he more o,vious method is ,# ,urning material such as coal in a furnace2 heating up water in a ,oiler into super heated steam2 forcing the ,lades of a tur,ine into rotation and coupling this mechanicall# to a generator providing electricit#+ ?e see coal fired power stations all around the countr# with their tall cooling towers pouring out steam+ Other methods include h#dro8electric schemes which ma&e use of gravit# to force water through tur,ines+ Solar and wind power2 as well as nuclear power stations2 all strive to provide one thing = electricit#+ er# often the electrical distri,ution in a home is neglected and left up to the electrician to decide where a light fitting should ,e placed or a plug point ,e positioned+ Although his advice is invalua,le and his &nowledge of the regulations surrounding such installations necessar#2 input from the owner is ver# important+
ood planning and forethought on the num,er and nature of appliances to ,e used in the home ,ecomes important information to the electrician when he sits down to design an efficient la#out of the various circuits that will conduct electricit# to appliances+ he electrician on the other hand should not neglect the fact that the needs of the user should ,e ta&en into account wherever possi,le+ A good wor&ing relationship with the owner is vital in order to minimise assumptions which alwa#s lead to disappointments later+ All electrical appliances convert electrical energ# into useful wor&+ Proper distri,ution planning will ensure that ever# appliance is placed and operated correctl# in the home
"!,%)O#O+9 'olt .nit used as the measure of electrical pressure S#m,ol 8 Analogous to Hpa pressure in water pipe+ In South Africa the single phase voltage availa,le for domestic use is 001 olts 4Between neutral and a phase5+
,ut all operate on the same principle+An important factor when choosing a switch is its rating+ A reputa,le manufacturer will alwa#s indicate the operating voltage and current rating+ For instance2 a light switch must not ,e used as a stove isolation switch2 simpl# ,ecause the rating of the light switch will ,e too low for the stove current drain2 causing it to overheat and fail+ Circuit breaker Performs the same function as a fuse2 ,ut needs onl# to ,e reset2 not replaced+ hese have now replaced the traditional fuses2 and are chosen and connected into a circuit in e'actl# the same wa#+ he# are also &nown as contact ,rea&ers or trip switches+?hen the current flo w in a circuit e'ceeds the rating of the ,rea&er it will simpl# trip2 cutting off the electricit# suppl# to that circuit2 protecting it from damage+ Once the fault has ,een cleared2 the circuit ,rea&er is reset2 thus restoring the suppl#+ he# are located in the distri,ution ,o' of the house and also in the utilit# suppl# meter ,o'+ !ver# ,rea&er should ,e clearl# mar&ed in order for fault# circuits to ,e easil# identified and isolated+ "art$ leakage unit his device is a,le to detect small im,alances ,etween the earth conductors and the suppl#2 indicating lea&age of electricit# down to earth+ A small test ,utton is provided and should ,e used to test the unit periodicall#+ It is a vital safet# feature for an# installation and should ,e installed+ Distribution bo= ?here the electrical suppl# is distri,uted from within the ,uilding+ It usuall# houses all the contact ,rea&ers2 earth lea&age unit and ma# house items such as a door ,ell transformer and timers+ arious si-es of distri,ution ,o'es are found2 the main distri,ution ,o' ,eing in the house2 and smaller ,o'es2 together with contact ,rea&ers and possi,l# earth lea&age units2 at other points2 such as swimming pool pumps2 motors of gates and out,uildings+ imer A device ma# ,e used to switch the electrical suppl# on and off at predetermined times over a 0 hour period+ he ,etter &nown timer is the pool pump timer set at certain intervals to switch the pump on and off2 filtering the water at regular intervals+ his useful service alleviates the tas& of doing it manuall# and &eeps it consistent+ ransformer If a voltage other than the mains voltage 4001 olts5 is needed to suppl# electricit# to an appliance2 a transformer is necessar# to step this voltage up or down+ 3ow voltage lighting2 as its name suggests2 needs 70 olts in order to operate safel# and correctl#L a transformer ma# ,e used to step the mains down to this level+ A door ,ell transformer wor&s on e'actl# the same principle+ On the other hand2 industr# sometimes needs higher voltages than can ,e supplied ,# the .tilit# and uses transformers to step up to the re;uired level+ (C*DC AC2 is the a,,reviation for alternating current and DC for direct current+ AC is the t#pe of electricit# supplied ,# the electricit# suppl# utilit# to our industr# and homes+ DC is the t#pe of electricit# that would ,e supplied ,# a ,atter# or an appliance such as a car ,atter# charger where the voltage and current are constant+ All the appliances found in our homes that operate on the mains suppl# are designed to wor& with AC+ Some appliances however need ,atteries2 such as porta,le radios) these wor& on DC+ Single*$ree p$ase Single phase denotes an electrical s#stem or apparatus that has or uses onl# one alternating voltage+ A pol#phase s#stem has more than one alternating voltage and three phase is a common s#stem seen in larger domestic and industrial installations+ hree phase ,eing three alternating voltages displaced in phases relative to one another+ If it is &nown that large loads are going to ,e re;uired from an electrical source2 for e'ample a large house ma# need three 0E1 litre ge#sers apart from all the other appliances2 a three phase installation will allow the various circuits to ,e shared ,etween the phase2 ma&ing it more efficient+ For the average si-e
dwelling however2a single phase installation is usuall# more than ade;uate+our electrician will ,e a,le to advise #ou on the correct s#stem for #our needs+ Bear in mind that there is a limit to the amount of current that is supplied to each user2 this varies from area to area and the electrical suppl# utilit# or #our electrician will ,e a,le to advise #ou+ ,eter he electricit# meter is a ver# sensitive device that measures consumption in units of 7111 watts per hour and is e'pressed in &ilowatt8hours+ In modern installations2it will ,e located in a weather8proof housing just outside the #ard and will more than li&el# have a peep hole so that the meter reader can ta&e readings without having to open it+ Older installations have ,een mounted on the same ,oard that houses the contact ,rea&ers and*or fuses inside the ,uilding+ his device ma&es it possi,le for the electricit# suppl# utilit# to charge for the amount of electricit# used over a period of time+ he more electricit# used2 the more units indicated , # the meter+ he rate per unit will ,e multiplied ,# the total num,er of units for the period measured2giving a total value for the amount consumed+ !ela3 unit In an effort to save energ#2 it has ,ecome common practice for man# municipal suppl# utilities to install in residences a rela# unit that is remotel# controlled to switch off the ge#ser during a period when there is little or no demand+ his has little effect on the individual household since the off time is relativel# short ,ut cumulativel#2 a si-a,le saving is achieved+ he location re;uirements for these units does var# from area to area and where re;uired must ,e installed+
#ig$ting
#"(!)%)+ (BO/ #%+H%)+ $e $armon3 of lig$t 3ight is one of those essentials one tends to ta&e for granted in the home environment and #et without it2 life after sunset would literall# come to a standstill+ It is an integral part of one9s lifest#le and with modern technolog# and design2 has come to mean so much more than a simple glo,e+ ?ith light one can create atmosphere and moods2 e'tend space and change the shape of rooms+ One can create colour and highlight areas of focus+ If one designs light sources to interact2 the possi,ilities are almost endless and an environment can ,e created which offers ,oth the appeal of harmon# and the practical ,enefits of light where it is most needed+ Choosing the right light sources for one9s home re;uires much forethought and anal#sis of one 9s real needs+ It also re;uires &nowledge of lighting options availa,le toda#+ he $ouse of Illumination outlines a practical run down on the ,asic techni;ues of lighting+ Downlig$ters and Wall?was$ers Downlighters and e#e,alls9 can ,e surface mounted or recessed into the ceiling+ he# give a direct light2 which is also totall# adjusta,le+ rack Spot &ube #ig$ting he ceiling light trac& and tu,e8light are recognised as ,eing fle'i,le as a s#stem with man# different uses+ A good suggestion is to mi' 0018volt spotlights with fluorescent tu,es and hologen lighting which can ,e angled in different directions+ Such a alighting s#stem would ,e
particularl# effective in a room which has one centre point housed in a e'isting concrete ceiling+ /plig$tersWall?lig$ts &Pendants wo of the greatest advantages of uplighters is that one can use a wide variet# of different reflectors along with a specific lamp to create pools of light e'actl# as re;uired+ ?all lights and pendants are still a popular choice in the home environment as the# fit in perfectl# with a m#riad of interior designs+ able & Standing #amps Both ta,le and standing l amps are particularl# great tools when it comes to creating soft am,ient lighting in the home+ he# can ,e positioned an#where a soft focussed light is needed2 and are as much an aspect of interior design as the # are practical sources of light+ Dimming ,ec$anisms Dimming is a popular device with man# lighting s#stems ,ut there are a few essential facts one should &now) Dimming of incandescent lighting is possi,le ,# using a standard dimmer2 for e'ample2 118watt or up to 7111 watt+ If one wants to include dimming controls on a low voltage s#stem2 ,e aware that this is not an eas# feature to install+ It is essential that full# comprehensive dimming controls are used along with the correct transformer+ ?hen using a torodial fused transformer2 one can appl# a standard dimmer+ Ceiling #ig$ting If one decides to install lighting into concrete2 it is important to remem,er that the light will generate heat and enough space must ,e created to allow sufficient circulation of air around the light+ Speciall# designed sleeves or ,o'es can ,e installed to &eep the transformer 011mm awa# from the actual fitting+ Before plastering2 a plate can ,e installed which will accommodate the light at a later stage+ ( few Pointers. ?hen lighting up a room2 ,e careful to not create hard shadows2 which will distur, the harmon# and overall effect of a room+ Pla# a little = for e'ample2 spotlights trained on a painting or even a vase of flowers produce an interesting three8dimensional effect+ Decorative lights contri,ute towards creating a an overall harmonious loo& with the interior design+ Be careful of glare = this is particularl# important when planning the lighting for an indoor wor& area+ 3ighting designs should ,ecome lighting schemes rather than a ro w of individual lights+ Create an interacting luminaire s#stem for the ,est results+ As a rule2 choose clear light for wor&2 rela'ing light for the home and direct ,eams for highlighting+ A home shouldn 9t end t the patio door = e'tend living areas ,# introducing several light sources in the garden+ !nerg# saving should alwa#s ,e a consideration when planning #our lighting re;uirements+
HO," #%+H%)+ 3ighting in a home need not ,e star& and with new technolog# in lighting constantl# ,eing developed2 lighting has ,ecome an art2 and an integral part of interior design+ One can create space with light in the wa# in which it is distri,uted+ he first o,servation that can ,e made a,out light is that it comes from somewhere+ isi,le light has a source 8 directional orientation+ $ow can that direction ,e esta,lished@ It is not alwa#s eas# to do so2 as all light angles are different+ he simplest wa# is to loo& for the cast shadows2 for e'ample 8 if light is from the right2 the cast shadow will ,e towards the left2 if from the ,ottom2 it will show shadows upward+ As light leaves its source and travels through space2 it decreases in intensit# and an illusion of space can ,e created with different intensities and angles+ Colour and light should wor& hand in hand to create the right atmosphere+ Colours can also ,e graded in shades of light and dar&
and therefore one has to &now a room9s colour scheme ,efore the lighting is designed+ 3ighting has ,ecome an artistic medium and one can learn to paint with illumination using various techni;ues to add depth2 dimension and even drama+ One9s home should ,e a haven2 where one can feel safe2 rela'ed and at ease2 &eeping in mind that entertaining usuall# ,ecomes an integral part of one9s home lifest#le+ a,le lamps2 for instance2 can perform a valua,le function if the# are selected and placed with care+ A light fi'ture with a translucent shade wor&s ,est as a decorative source of illumination+ 3ow voltages create little islands of light2 which draw people to seating areas and add a comforting human scale to a room+ .p8lights are another source of illumination for rooms that need visual te'ture+ An up8light placed ,ehind a tall leaf# plant will cast interesting shadows on the wall and ceiling for a romantic effect+ here are three elements that should ,e ta&en into account when lighting a room) art2 architecture and people+ •
•
•
•
Accent8lighting2 used to focus on a piece of art or an architectural element re;uires at least three times as much light on the focal point2 as the general lighting+ as&8lighting illuminates a certain area2 ena,ling one to perform specific tas&s such as sewing or reading+ Care should ,e ta&en in tas& lighting to not position the light source directl# overhead2 as this will cause a glare on the surface 8 this glare is &nown as veiling reflection9+ Am,ient8lighting provides areas with overall illumination2 ena,ling one to see and wor& without e#e8strain+ here is no single feature that can perform all the re;uired lighting functions+ Bac&8 lighting a translucent screen is another wa# of creating am,ient light in a room+ 3ighting in a slight &eeps the slight from ,ecoming a ,lac& hole9 at night+ Don9t let visuall# powerful lighting cause other aspects of the design to suffer loss of impact2 unless the lighting is to ,e the central focus+
2itc$ens Hitchens have ,ecome the new centers for entertaining+ he impact of lighting in the &itchen should ,e as inviting as the rest of the house2 instead of star& and ,rightl# lit+ B# fitting controlla,le lighting levels2 one can change the mood of the &itchen for wor&ing in or to carr# on a soft2 rela'ed theme in line with the rest of the house+ "ntrance fo3er An entrance to a home is often restricted in space2 ,ut with lighting and related design techni;ues2 the space can ,e su,tl# transformed into a warm2 welcoming area+ A home is often judged ,# what is seen and felt at the entr#+ his ma&es it dou,l# important to set just the right mood and tone2 which suits ,oth the character of the people living in the home and the design+ #iving !oom 3ighting in a living room should ,e as fle'i,le as the rest of the home9s components and needs to ,e controlla,le to satisf# a variet# of needs+ ?hen lighting a living room2 one should ta&e into consideration what activities will mostl# ta&e place in the room2 such as watching television2 reading2 entertaining2 etc+ he la#out of the room and its uses will ,e a deciding factor in terms of the t#pe of lighting design techni;ues used+ Dining !oom Dining rooms have ,een transformed in a lot of modern homes to multi8use spaces2 used not onl# for dinner times2 ,ut school projects2 famil# meetings2 sewing2 etc+ his lends itself to adjusta,le lighting2 ena,ling one to elegantl# light the room for a dinner part#2 whilst effectivel# illuminating it for wor&+ Bedroom
A ,edroom is one room where am,ient lighting is of foremost importance+ Often ,edrooms end up with one light fi'ture in the middle of the ceiling2 lighting onl# a part of the room and leaving the rest in shadow+ Should ,edside lamps ,e chosen2 an opti;ue light is ,est in a shared ,edroom2 as it will illuminate a certain space2 instead of casting light throughout the room+ Bedside swivel lamps should ,e mounted just a,ove shoulder height+ Bat$rooms Bathrooms re;uire good illumination+ anit# lights are optimall# mounted at e#e8level2 flan&ing the mirror so as to provide the necessar# cross illumination+ %ecessed down8lights ma# help reduce glare ,ut aren9t ade;uate sources of fill light+ our home should ,e where #ou are the most comforta,le+ ?ell8planned lighting offers the fle'i,ilit# to change each room9s appearance to complement #our lifest#le+
Plumbing
() %)!OD/C%O) O P#/,B%)+ Plum,ing involves the installation of pipes and fi ttings for water2 gas and sewerage reticulation+ ?ater is divided into hot and cold and sewerage into waste water and soil water+ Plum,ing also includes the installation of rainwater and stormwater s#stems+ ?ater suppl# and sewerage are two important aspects of plum,ing2 which pla# a ver# important role in the ,uilt environment and societ# as a whole+ Plum,ing is therefore one of the more regulated trades in the ,uilding industr#2 where onl# a registered licensed plum,er can underta&e plum,ing wor&+ he aim of this section is to provide technical information as a guide2 and ,asic product &nowledge to ena,le the reader to compile a specifcation and an accurate cost estimate of what a specific plum,ing point or installation should cost+
"!,%)O#O+9 $ere are some da# to da# e'amples of plum,ing terminolog# for the domestic mar&et) •
•
•
•
suppl# and fit a ,ath or ,asin point+ 4his means to suppl# all materials and la,our to ,ring the necessar# water to the point where the ,ath or ,asin are to ,e installed ,ut e'cludes the ,ath or ,asin5 suppl# and fit 771mm main drain+ 4o suppl# the piping and couplers2 dig a trench to la# the pipe in2 and la# the pipe to the ,uilding inspector9s satisfaction+5 install a ge#ser onl#+ 4Fit a ge#ser2 connect the piping to it and chec& for lea&s+ his would e'clude the costs of a ge#ser and pressure valve as well as the electrical installation+5 suppl# and fit a ge#ser+ 4his would include the suppl# and installation of the ge#ser and related items to a stage where the ge#ser would ,e deemed operational5
B/%#D%)+ !"+/#(%O)S ()D ,%)%,/, SP"C%F%C(%O)S Plum,ing specifications and regulations are pro,a,l# the most comple' and certainl# contain
volumes of information+ .nder this section we have included regulations of a general nature+ he SABS 111 = 7JJ1 document is comprehensive and a cop# is essential for those who re;uire more detail on specifications and ,uilding regulations+ It is wise to alwa#s chec& specifications with local authorities ,efore designing and certainl# ,efore construction+ Some regulations var# from authorit# to authorit#+ "=tract from a bank5s minimum re>uirements +utters and downpipes utters2 downpipes and rainwater goods shall compl# with SABS specifications and fi'ed in accordance with the manufacturer9s specifications+ All rainwater to ,e discharged awa# from the walls ,elow the DPC level+ ?here gutters and downpipes are omitted2 a concrete apron of at least 7 metre wide 4this is to ,e approved on site5 must ,e cast around the ,uildings to discharge water awa# from the ,uildings+ alle#s2 ,o' gutters and soa&ers shall ,e of an approved material2 si-e and design and fi'ed in accordance with the SABS specifications+ Flas$ings Flashing shall ,e an approved and of dura,le material and fi'ed in accordance with the manufacturer9s specifications+ Water suppl3 he water suppl# s#stem shall ,e in accordance with the 3ocal Authorit# re;uirements+ At least one stand pipe shall ,e erected in a suita,le position and all materials and fittings used shall compl# with SABS E1J+ ?here water is not availa,le from the local authorit#2 water from a ,orehole for domestic use must meet with the necessar# health re;uirements+ Borehole water for domestic use shall provide a #ield of at least 7E11 litres per hour+ A valid test certificate of the water #ield must ,e furnished+ Drains All drainage wor& to ,uildings shall ,e carried out ,# a registered plum,er and drains shall ,e accuratel# laid to lines and gradients shown on the drainage drawings as approved ,# the local authorit#+ All drains shall ,e tested and passed in accordance with the
engineer9s specifications+ Septic and conservanc3 tanks Septic and conservanc# tan&s shall ,e designed and constructed in accordance with deemed8 to8satisf# rules of part P of SABS 111+ Frenc$ drains and soakage pits An# french drain to ,e used on a site to receive effluent shall ,e designed and constructed in accordance with deemed8to8satisf# rules of part P of SABS 111+ Drainage clearance certificate he ,an& ma# re;uest that a drainage clearance certificate ,e furnished for an# t#pe of drain+ "=tract from S(BS @A@@?@ Plumbing installation drawings and particulars ?here such details on more than one floor of an# ,uilding are identical2 the# ma# ,e indicated on the drawings of one such floor onl#L provided that where such details are so indicated2 the drawings of other floors concerned shall ,e suita,l# annotated to indicate where such details ma# ,e found+ An# drawing of a fire installation shall contain as man# plans2 sections and elevations as ma# ,e necessar# to show2 where relevant2 the following) •
•
the location and si-e of an# e'isting or proposed communication pipe serving or intending to serve an# ,uilding or siteL the location of an# pipe2 the si-e of such pipe and the material of which it is manufacturedL
•
the location and capacit# of an# storage tan&L
•
the location of an# overflowL
•
the location of an# pumpL and
•
the pressure for which the installation has ,een designed+
An# drawing of a drainage installation shall contain as man# plans2 sections and elevations as ma# ,e necessar# to show2 where relevant2 the following) •
the location2 si-e and gradient of an# drain and an# connection point to such drain2 in relation to a datum esta,lished on the site and the level of the ground relative theretoL
•
the location of an# point of access to the interior of the drainL
•
the location of an# trapped gull#L
•
•
•
the location and details of an# septic tan&2 conservanc# tan&2 private sewage treatment plant or sewage pumpL the location of an# percolation test hole e'cavated on the site and of an# french drainL the location and arrangement of an# sanitar# fi'ture served ,# the drainage installationL
•
the location and si-e of an# soil pipe2 waste pipe and ventilating pipe or deviceL
Control of plumber and plumbing work
•
•
where an# particular occupanc#2 separate sanitar# facilities are provided for each se'2 the num,er of sanitar# fi'tures installed for them shall ,e ,ased on the population of that particular se' for which such facilities are intended2 and if the num,er of persons of each se' cannot ,e determined it shall ,e assumed that the# are in e;ual proportionsL where fi'tures are to ,e situated in separate groups2 the num,ers of fi'tures in an# group shall ,e ,ased on the calculation of that portion of the total population for which the group is intendedL an# ,uilding for which the population cannot ,e determined shall2 where such ,uilding
contains one or more ha,ita,le rooms2 ,e provided with at least 7 wc pan and 7 wash,asin+ he minimum num,er of sanitar# fittings to ,e provided in an# ,uilding shall) •
•
,e situated in places which are convenient of accessL and where necessar# shall ,e designated for the use of males or females or ,othL provided that an# room containing f i'tures designated for the use of ,oth se'es shall ,e capa,le of ,eing loc&ed from inside+
Stormwater disposal An# means of stormwater disposal on an# site shall include) •
•
In the case of an# ,uilding on such site2 roof valle#s and gutters and downpipes or2 where gutters and downpipes have not ,een provided2 other means of ensuring that stormwater from an# roof is controlled and will flow awa# from such ,uildingL and An# surface stormwater drains2 channels or ,elow8 ground stormwater drains that ma# ,e necessar# to conve# stormwater awa# from such site or from one part to another part of such site+
(ccess to Stormwater drains On an# stormwater drain read# means of access shall ,e installed at such intervals that no part of such drain2 measured along the line of such drain2 is more than 1m from such means of access+ Connection to stormwater sewer ?here an# stormwater sewer is availa,le in an# street or servitude a,utting an# site to ,e provided with stormwater drainage2 the owner of such site shall2 if so re;uired ,# the local authorit#2 at his own cost2 install one or more stormwater drains to ,e connected ,# the local authorit# to such stormwater sewer+ /se of street surface drainage s3stem ?here the local authorit# considers the capacit# of an # street surface drainage s#stem to ,e ade;uate to accept the discharge of stormwater from an# site2 it ma# permit such stormwater to ,e so dischargedL provided that the owner of such site shall2 where so re;uired ,# the local authorit#2 at his own cost provide one or more conduits to conve# such stormwater to such street drainage s#stem+
S()%(!9W(!" ()D F%%)+S he product list of sanitar#ware and fittings is so large2 the more ,asic2 ever#da# products have ,een listed+ he following ta,le will give a clear indication of si-es+ here is a wide variet# of local and imported items2 which can ,e viewed in showrooms throughout the countr#+ !'tensive product catalogues can ,e o,tained from manufacturers and importers+ Planning a bat$room It is easier to rectif# pro,lems on paper whilst still in the planning phase+ r# to visualise the space availa,le and thin& #our ,athroom through+ he ,athroom la#out should attend to specific needs and purposes+ hings to focus on) •
Find a focal point = ,ath2 shower2 vanit#2 etc+
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
If #ou have a large window2 place the ,ath underneath in order to present a smart picture when #ou window dressing is done+ It is also charming and rela'ing to loo& into a garden af ter a tough da# at wor&+ A ,athroom could ,e made l u'urious ,# adding a spa ,ath+ In a small ,athroom2 the shower is the most e'pensive item in the room = show it off $ide the toilet+ If #our ,athroom space allows for it put this sensitive item ,ehind a door+ he more private2 the ,etter+ Add screening walls = vanit# height or the ceiling to add dimensions to the space availa,le+ he various items = ,ath2 shower vanit#2 should flow together+ r# to avoid putting each item in a corner+ he main ,athroom should have a dou,le vanit#2 if space allows2 as well as a ,idet+ If space onl# allows for a shower2 special touches can ,e added2 for e'ample2 a few side jets2 two shower arms and roses and a shower rail in order to adjust the height of the shower rose+ If the second ,athroom has to cater for more than one person2 tr# to attend to their needs = for e'ample2 separate pac&ing space in which each person can &eep their ,elongings+ Create a space for laundr#+ Add a couple of hoo&s to hang wet*used towels2 or ro,es+ Create space for e'tra towels = various ,athroom accessories are freel# availa,le+ Allow for a good si-e mirror a,ove the ,asin+ It does not matter ho w minor2 ,ut tr# to follow one chosen theme throughout the ,athroom = for e'ample2 ensure that the tap colour com,ination is the same as that for ,athroom accessories+ .se the same tap range throughout the house+ If the vanit# has frosted glass panel2 used matching frosted glass on the shower door+
If #ou are ,uilding a house with resale value in mind2 have a su,tle scheme that is not too specific+ %emem,er that it is generall# the ,athroom and &itchen that sells a house+ rends var# from time to time2 ,ut ,asic things li&e white sanitar#ware2 chrome taps and accessories and su,tle tile colours will alwa#s ,e accepta,le+ #ocal S( Bat$ %nstallation Procedures Over JE/ of South African $ouses have concrete floors+ A sand and cement ,ed 4mortar ,ed5 is used to install the ,ath and shower tra#+ he recommended ratio mi' of sand and cement is E)7 4five parts sand to one part cement5+ Ma&e sure that the area around the waste is free of all materials so the waste fittings can ,e attached+ Decide on the ,ath9s height+ Appro'imatel# 7E1mm higher than the height of the ,ath2 or tiles high2 mar& a plum,line on the wall at the height #ou have decided+ Securel# mount the wall ,attens on the plum,line that has ,een mar&ed+ Ma&e sure that the plum,ing is read# for the ne't step Mi' the mortar,ed2 using spaced ,ric& ,ed rows2 under the ,ath9s ,ase2 ma&ing sure that the
first row is close to the waste+ Connect up the plum,ing •
Fill the ,ath half wa# with water and allow the mortar,ed to set
•
Bric& and plaster up the front and end of the ,ath
•
ile up the re;uired area
•
.sing a mildew resistant silicone2 seal the area ,etween the top edge of the ,ath and tiles
•
Clean ,ath and chec& for scratches
•
Small scratches ma# ,e removed ,# using a metal polish2 e+g+ Brasso+
•
Deeper scratches ma# ,e removed ,# using 7011 grade water paper and polished up with a metal polish 4ru,,ing compound5+
(C!9#%C B(HS It should ,e noted that man# companies sell fi,reglass ,aths as acr#lic ,aths+ his can ,e ver# misleading2 as the ;ualit# of acr#lic is far superior+ Alwa#s remem,er to state acr#lic9 ,ath and differentiate acr#lic from fi,reglass ,aths+ Fi,reglass ,aths are made out of fi,reglass with a thin 47mm5 coat surface+ Acr#lic ,aths are made using a Emm acr#lic shell2 which is heavil# reinforced with fi,reglass+ herefore2 one actuall# has two ,aths2 one of acr#lic and the second of fi,reglass2 which are then ,onded together+ Acr#lic is a far superior material for the production of sanitar#ware and is accepted throughout the world as the most popular t#pe of ,ath installed in homes+
F%%)+ ( +"9S"! ?ith the valve correctl# installed into the plum,ing s#stem 411&Pa52 no terminal fittings are opened and the s#stem is filled with water and the pressure control valve is in the closed position+ ?hen a terminal fitting is opened on the outlet side2 the downstream of the pressure control valve can fill a ,ath or a washing machine+ he water pressure drops on the outlet side 4A05 causing a pressure drop under the diaphragm+ he regulating spring defeats the lo wer pressure and forces the valve to open2 allowing water to flow through the regulating seat2 regulating the income mains from :11&Pa to 11&Pa while the water flows through the valve+ ?hen the terminal fitting is closed the water pressure under the diaphragm ,uilds up forcing the regulating spring ,ac& and the regulating seat shuts off+ A pressure control valve ,asicall# uses two components to operate2 the# are) he ,ig2 regulating spring to open the valve and to regulate the pressure through the valve+ he diaphragm to close the valve+
Pressure relief valve ?hat is the purpose@ o protect the hot water c#linder from over pressurising when water is heated+ SABS specification 7J687JJ0 operating pressures ,etween 61 to 11&Pa 411&Pa s#stem5+ W$at is t$eir application to $ot water c3linders; ?hen cold water is heated i t e'pands+ ?hen water e'pands in a concealed container2 it creates pressure+ ?hen this pressure rises a,ove the wor&ing rate of the hot water c#linder ] 11&Pa the pressure relief valve will open to discharge the e'cessive pressure+ ?hen the pressure inside the c#linder drops to ,elow 11&Pa the valve will close automaticall#+ his whole process is controlled ,# the thermostat that regulates the electric power to the element ,# switching on at low temperature and off when the water reaches the set temperature+ How does it work; he incoming water mains are regulated ,# the pressure control valve in 11&Pa s#stem at 11&Pa+ his is the set pressure of the pressure control valve for a 11&Pa hot water c#linder s#stem+ he pressure relief valve is set at 11&Pa allowing a pressure gap of 711&Pa ,etween the set pressure of the pressure control valve 411&Pa5 and set pressure of the relief valve+ ?hen the pressure inside the hot water c#linder rises2 due to the heating process2 the relief valve will open up when the pressure reaches 11&Pa+ he e'panded water is allowed to discharge to atmosphere preventing the water pressure from e'ceeding the s#stem pressure+ A pressure relief valve must alwa#s ,e installed ,etween the pressure control valve and the hot water c#linder+
Could drop the water level partl# in the c#linder to the level of hot water c#linder inlet e'posing the element and thermostat+ his will cause the element to ,urn out2
,ecause the element and thermostat are not immersed in the water+ Could drop the water level partl# in the c#linder leaving the (P valve9s 4safet#5 pro,e not immersed in the water2 which could cause a potential dangerous situation as the (P valve will lag to open under e'treme temperatures if the thermostat goes fault#+ this could cause a flash steam e'plosion+
•
Cause hot water to ,ac&flow and come out of the cold water fittings plum,ed upstream of the hot water c#linder+ his could result in scalding water users at cold taps+
•
It sill prevent siphonage from hand showers l#ing in ,aths and washing machines2 which could contaminate drin&ing water
•
$ot Side •
•
It could prevent c#linder implosion when the pressure drops ,elow atmospheric2 eg2 the draw off of water e'ceeds the suppl# and ,# draining a c#linder+ Prevents inter floor siphonage2 where the ge#ser is serving more than one floor
Pressure control valve Pressure reducing valves are of the pressure ,alanced t#pe2 which means that the set pressure 4outlet5 is unaffected ,# changes in the suppl# pressure 4inlet5+ he set pressure to the hot water c#linder will remain constant+ Pressure control valve to ,e plum,ed with the arrow on the ,od# in the direction of water flow Pressure control valve must ,e of the same pressure rating as the hot water c#linder+ 711&Pa hot water c#linder ] 711&Pa pressure control valve 4la,el 011&Pa hot water c#linder ] 011&Pa pressure control valve 4la,el 11&Pa hot water c#linder ] 11&Pa pressure control valve 4la,el 11&Pa hot water c#linder ] 11&Pa pressure control valve 4la,el
colour = ,lue5 colour = ,lac&5 colour = red5 colour = green5
Distance ,etween the pressure control valve and hot water c#linder pipe length) 711&Pa 011&Pa 11&Pa 11&Pa
s#stem s#stem s#stem s#stem
] ] ] ]
7m m 7Em 1m
"=pansion relief valve !'pansion relief valve drain to ,e plum,ed to a suita,le visi,le place of discharge2 not to ,e a potential nuisance and not into drip tra#
a minimum diameter of 01mm+ uirements all pipes must ,e flushed ,efore commissioning of the s#stem all valves and terminal fittings to ,e removed prior to flushing an inline strainer is to ,e fitted2 where water ;ualit# cannot ,e guaranteed+ he strainer cartridge should ,e removed ,efore the pipes are flushed do not install a stopcoc& or non8return valve ,etween the hot water c#linder and the pressure8 reducing valve+ Do not install a stopcoc& or non8return valve ,etween the hot water c#linder and the vacuum ,rea&er on the hot or cold side+ All valves must ,e plum,ed in a servicea,le position+ Allow a minimum clearance of 711mm for removal of parts
Ceilings & Partitioning
() %)!OD/C%O) O C"%#%)+S & P(!%%O)%)+ From magnificentl# painted ceilings in some churches2 pressed metal ceilings2 plastered and moulded ceilings to ver# plain ,oard+ Ceilings can ,e wor&s of art or form an integral and structural component in a ,uilding+ Suspended ceilings in modern offices are not onl# aestheticall# pleasing ,ut form a cover to ducting and wiring with eas# access+ Building %egulations and Minimum Specifications Building regulations are straight forward with regard to ceilings+ One must consult SABS regulations and professional help when ceiling specifications call for fire proofing+ %oom heights 4e'tract from SABS 11187JJ15 he height of an# room or space contemplated in the ta,le ,elow shall not ,e less than that prescri,ed for such room or space and shall ,e the vertical dimension from the top of the finished floor to) 7+ the underside of the ceilingL 0+ the underside of the roof covering where there is no ceilingL + the underside of an# structural mem,ers where such structural mem,ers project ,elow such a ceiling or a roof covering and the plan area of such projections e'ceed 1/ of the plan area of the room+
projects ,elow the level of the ceiling or2 where there is no ceiling ,elow the level of the roof covering2 the height to such projection shall not ,e less than 0+7m+ Ceilings shall ,e of an approved material2 fi'ed in an accepta,le manner+ ?here applica,le2 cornices shall ,e of a suita,le material2 neatl# fi'ed in long lengths+ At least one trap door of minimum si-e 11 ' 11mm shall ,e provided and ceiling heights shall compl# with the
)/"C C"%#%)+S
!H%)OW(## %hinowall is a s#stem designed for internal residential walling applicationsL it has ,een tested ,# SABS and conforms to the re;uirements of the ,uilding code+ %hinowall can ,e descri,ed as a lightweight fast trac& walling s#stem2 which ideall# fits the re;uirements of ,uilders in this rushed world+ S(F"9 our famil#Xs safet# is of prime importance when choosing a ,uilding product for #our home2 after all #our home is pro,a,l# the ,iggest investment #ou will ever ma&e so #ou need to ,e sure that the components are approved and will give #our famil# the protection the # need+ Destruction ,# fire is one of the most common pro,lems in South Africa and million of %ands are paid out each #ear ,# insurance compan#Xs for fire related damage+ he regulations re;uire certain levels of resistance and all our %hinowall s#stems compl# with these re;uirements+ In fact our standard 7Emm %hinowall will &eep fire at ,a# for a full hour2 thatXs three times more than the re;uirement and preferred ,# firemen when fighting a ,la-e+ he secret is in the g#psum core2 Zg#psum does not ,urnZ was a slogan used in all the developed mar&ets where plaster,oard walls are used2 we can localise that to Z%hinowall does not ,urn+Z CO,FO! %hinowall is inert at normal am,ient temperatures and is an e'cellent thermal insulator2 ,# using %hinowall the am,ient temperature in #our home is more constant and #our winter heating re;uirements far less than normal2 #ou see %hinowall does not soa& up the heat in #our house it merel# contains it in the area #ou want+ he reverse is just as valid on a hot summerXs da#2 so #ou see %hinowall provides a comforta,le environment in #our home+ SP""D A further aspect to consider is that #ou will avoid all the rauma associated wth ,uilding renovations if #ou use %hinowall2 a %hinowall house is easil# changed with no mess2 hassle2 ru,,le2 other damages to frustrate #ou during construction ,ut whatXs more important is that it
will ,e done in less than half the time ta&en using conventional methods+ !H%)OW(## %)S(##(%O) $aving decided to use %hinowall who will do the installation2 %hinowall is as eas# as pie to install there is no m#sti;ue to it+ $a,itat for $umanit# SA ,uilt 711 houses in one wee& in Dur,an using %hinowall installed ,# volunteers from all over the world+ hatXs right volunteers2 pensioners2 students2 housewives2 e'ecutives2 teachers2 and people from all wal&s of life and ,ac&ground+ he# used tim,er framing which made the s#stem reall# eas# to install using onl# ,asic tools vi-+2 hammer and nails+ our ,uilders carpenter can do the same+ im,er framing is common in developed mar&ets2 ,ut in South Africa one alwa#s has to compare the cost of tim,er to that of steel as it will var# on the pro'imatel# to tim,er sources+ Steel framing is comprised of light gauge speciall# rolled C sections+ Steel framing is easil# cut with tin snips and ,oards re fi'ed with a special dr#wall screwdriver or ,# a varia,le speed drill+ here is a vast pool of dr#wall erectors throughout S+A and man# will wor& on a la,our onl# ,asis+ ?hatever #our choice BPB will gladl# offer free training to an#one who wants to ac;uire the s&ill+ raining videoXs are also freel# availa,le+ !H%)OW(## %) B(H!OO,S %hinowall is suita,le for ,athrooms and showers provided the manufacturers specifications and recommendations are adhered to+ %hino,oard cut ends should never rest on the floor alwa#s 7187E mm a,ove+ Bath and hand,asin splash ,ac&s must ,e sealed with silicon where the# a,ut the ,oard+ A full shower specification is availa,le from BPB #psum+ iles should ,e of good ;ualit# and should ,e grouted with waterproof grout+ C/PBO(!DS & SH"#'"S
im,er prices are however varia,le depending on areas and pro'imit# to sawmills2 alwa#s compare steel stud costs to that of tim,er ,ef ore proceeding with #our %hinowall+ #(BO/!*!(%)%)+ Firstl# lets ta&e the m#sti;ue out dr#wall2 itXs a simple s#stem of lightweight walling used throughout the world man# of them DI8ers+ In SA however it is seen as a specialist s&ill that commands a high price+ he #psum Academ#2 located in an 3ingen Street2 ermiston2 will train #our ,ric&la#er or carpenter to install %hinowall at no cost to #ou+ he #psum Academ#9s vision is to create a pool of highl# trained BPB #psum product professionals to impact on the professional use of finishing of our products+ his training will complement the e'isting free step8,#8step guide and free step8,#8step video availa,le+ he course will ,e registered with S!A+ ")'%!O),")(# %SS/"S BPB is conscious of the environment and have satisfied the re;uirements of ISO 7111+ %hinowall is composed of g#psum 4plaster of Paris52 paper and steel and com,ined re;uire less energ# to produce than the e;uivalent masonr# structure+ he paper used on %hino,oard consists of 711/ rec#cled waste whilst the g#psum is slowl# solu,le over several #ears and in fact g#psum powder is used as a soil condition in man# countries including South Africa+ he light gauge steel is rec#cled as scrap metal+ Overall the waste from %hinowall is non8ha-ardous and non to'ic and has a neutral p$+ he fact that there is less to disposed of means that it does not fill up our disposal sites as fast+ %hinowall the choice is #ours2 ,ut we call a wall ,# its name %$I
%ronmonger3 () %)!OD/C%O) O %!O),O)+"!9 Ironmonger# can ,e descri,ed as hardware9 t#picall# used for the hanging2 closing and loc&ing of doors and the swinging and closing of windows+ Ironmonger# includes items such as loc&s2 hinges2 and closers2 mostl# made of mild steel or ,rass2 ,ut also availa,le of aluminium2 n#lon and other plastics+ Ironmonger# is a highl# specialised field2 which has advanced tremendousl# in the last decade and includes items other than the ones descri,ed a,ove+
#OC2S A num,er of loc& cases have varied dimensions in respect of the ,ac&set and centres e+g+ a standard upright mortice loc& has a ,ac&set of E:mm and a narrow stile upright mortice loc& has a ,ac&set of mm+ he actual widths of the casing and stri&er plate al so differ with certain loc& cases+ Dead loc A loc& which is wor&ed from ,oth sides ,# a &e# onl# and t#picall# fitted within the door leaf thic&ness 4mortice t#pe5+ It usuall# has no door &no,s and so ma# need a door pull+ !ortice loc A loc& set in a mortice 4within the door leaf thic&ness5 the loc& is hidden and the joiner# needs
more s&ill to fi t than that of a rim loc&+ Rim loc A loc&a,le %im latchG usuall# opened ,# a &e# from the outside and ,# a &no, from the insideL which was commonl# referred to as a ale loc&G in the :19s and 619s 4ale was then the actual manufacturer of this t#pe of loc&5+ Rim latch A door latch which is fi'ed to the surface of a door leaf 4surface mounted5 on the edge of the shutting stile2 with a matching casing on the door jam, to encase the latch+ Cylinder A loc& with a c#linder which can ,e turned once the right &e# is inserted in a slot2 raising pin tum,lers or disc tum,lers to the right height+ he cam in the centre then turns and releases the ,olt of the loc&ing case 4opening the loc&5+ Le"er loc Could ,e descri,ed as the traditional mortice loc& to which man# refer to as a 0 lever or lever loc&+ he &e# must move several levers to release the ,olt when it is shot or withdrawn e+g+ a lever loc& will have levers to move+ he term 3oc&set indicates a com,ination of a loc& 4and c#linder where appropriate5 and a pair of lever handles+ !ebate Set 2its 3oc&s fitted to dou,le leaf doors with re,ated meeting stiles re;uire %e,ate Conversion Sets*Hits+ he Figure to the right illustrates the two component parts of a t#pical %e,ate Conversion Set2 namel# the stri&ing plate portion which is fitted to the inactive leaf and the forend strip which is fi tted ,ehind the forend plate of the loc& in the active leaf+ %e,ate Conversion Sets*Hits t#picall# suit doors with 7mm deep re,ated meeting stiles+ Availa,le in the following finishesL K Satin Chrome 4SC5 K Brass 4P35
?idths of loc&s also differ as followsL K 1mm2 1mm2 E1mm2 1mm2 :1mm with some loc&s going up to J1mm he shac&le heights of padloc&s differ su,stantiall# depending on the widthL standard padloc&s have the following t#pical shac&le heights which increase with the width of the loc& i+e+ the ,igger the loc& the higher the shac&le+ K 7:mm2 0mm2 0:mm2 :mm2 and 1mm with e'tra long shac&le var#ing from 61 to 011mm Panic locks hese are loc&s in which the handle or panic device 4panic ,ar5 withdraws the latch and dead,olt simultaneousl# in a panic situation+ hese are t#picall# onl# found in pu,lic places or fi re escapes and can also ,e classed as emergenc# loc&s+ "mergenc3 locks hese are t#picall# used onl# on e'it routes in pu,lic places and to doors which usuall# have no access and are onl# there in the case of emergenc#+ he# are t#picall# inopera,le from the outside as man# emergenc# e'ists are directed to the e'terior of ,uilding or access corridors*passages+ 4See Panic loc&s a,ove5+ Securit3 locks Securit# loc&s can ,e descri,ed as loc&s that are used to prevent illegal entr# particularl# for e'ternal doors and have loc& cases manufactured from thic&er material with hardened steel or composite latches and dou,le throw dead,olts+ Cupboard locks Are a lot smaller than a t#pical mortice or rim loc& and are fi tted on the inner face of the cup,oard door+ he# act more as a means of loc&ing the cup,oard to prevent unwanted access rather than for securit# reasons+ he# are availa,le as 720 and lever t#pe loc&sL with loc& case si-es of E7mm2 mm and :mm and as c#linder t#pe loc&s with different c#linder lengths+ Also availa,le are cam loc&s which can ,e used for cup,oard doors ,ut are t#picall# used for drawers+
H%)+"S $inges can ,e descri,ed as two fl aps joined together ,# a pin through their &nuc&les2 used for hanging a door leaf from its frame+ he most commonl# used hinges in ,uilding are ,utt hinges2 sin&less 4nonmortice5 hinges2 parliament hinges2 and ,ac&8fl ap hinges2 which are s#mmetrical and not handed+ All other t#pes of hinges are handed2 including lift off hinges and rising ,utt hinges2 for which the hand must ,e stated+ For wide and heav# swing doors other hanging devices can ,e used i+e+ a pivot hinge+ he normal rule of thum, for the num,er of 4711mm_5 ,utt hinges to use per door is descri,ed ,elow2 however2 it also depends on the weight of the door e+g+ a purpose made solid hardwood entrance door 467 ' 010mm5 would re;uire at least three hinges to swing the door+ K .p to 67 ' 010mm8 4standard door leaf si-e5 one pair of hinges 405 K .p to J11 ' 0E11mm8 one and a half pairs of hinges 45 K .p to 7111 ' 111mm 8 two pairs of hinges 45 _711mm Butt hinges are normall# used for hanging doors Butt $inge Butt hinges are the most commonl# used hinge for doorsL when the door is shut the two halves are folded tightl# together+ !ach flap is usuall# morticed 4counter sun&5 one into the door f rame and the other into the hanging stile of the door leaf+ Sinkless $inge
Sin&less hinges can also ,e referred to as non8mortice or surface fi'ed 4flush5 hinges+ A sin&less hinge is a ,utt hinge which when closed is onl# as thic& as the metal in one of its flapsL the flaps are cut to fit one inside the other+ Sin&less hinges are not recommended for hanging solid core t#pe doors+ Parliament $inge A hinge with two lengthened 8shaped fl aps2 joined to form an $+ he &nuc&le 4the middle of the cross8,ar of the $5 projects ,e#ond the face of the closed door or shutter2 allowing the door to clear the architrave or as in steel French doors the ,ric& reveal2 and to lie flat against the wall when opened+ #picall# used for steel French doors2 window and door shutters+ Pro6ection $inge A Projection hinge is ,asicall# a ,utt hinge with wide flaps and a &nuc&le that stic&s out2 allowing the door to swing open to more than J1Q+ Similar in function to that of a parliament hinge e'cept a projection hinge is used for heav# dut# applications and recommended for hanging solid doors where the door is re;uired to clear the architrave or the ,ric& reveal Back?flap $inge A hinge with wide flaps2 screw fi'ed to the face of a door and frame2 usuall# used on a door too thin to ,e carried on ,utt hinges e+g+ chip,oard or Supawood doors+ !ising butt $inge $inges which cause a door to rise a,out 71mm as it opens+ he# have a helical ,earing surface ,etween the two flaps+ he door therefore tends to close automaticall# as well as to clear a carpet when opening Door Handles he following information on door handles is intended to illustrate the t#pes availa,le and the categories to which the# fall under+ he product range per categor# is too vast to cover in this pu,lication and we suggest #ou contact one of the suppliers listed in this section for further information+ #ever $andles he following information on door handles is intended to illustrate the t#pes availa,le and the categories to which the# fall under+ he product range per categor# is too vast to cover in this pu,lication and we suggest #ou contact one of the suppliers listed in this section for further information+ 2nobs Can ,e descri,ed as a door handle in the shape of a &no,2 it is more compact than a lever handle2 ,ut more difficult to turn+ Hno,s are availa,le in the following com,inations) •
Hno, on rose with separate escutcheon
•
Hno, with plate
•
Hno, on ,ac&plate
•
Hno, with ?C latch
Pull $andles A pull handle is t#picall# used for opening a door fitted with a dead loc& or to open a drawer2 &itchen cup,oard or BIC doorL with the following t#pes of Pull handles availa,le) •
Bac& to ,ac&
•
Bolt through
•
Face fi'ed
•
Finger pulls
•
Flush
Painting & Wallcoatings () %)!OD/C%O) O P(%)%)+ he man in the street is often discouraged ,# poor results in underta&ing a do8it8#ourself paint jo,+ he reason is that there is more to painting than just the paint itself+ he ;ualit# of paint is critical2 there is no such thing as cheap paint+ If #ou have to paint 0 coats of poor ;ualit# paint as opposed to one coat of high ;ualit#2 #our coverage is E1/ of the high ;ualit# paint or rather2 the price of the poor ;ualit# paint is dou,le that of the high ;ualit#+ he situation is made worse ,# the fact that #ou will also pa# dou,le la,our+ Do8it8#ourself painting can ,e rewarding if we &eep the golden rules of a good pain jo, in mind+
(PP#%C(%O)S & :/()%%"S Selecting t$e correct paint s3stem he selection of the correct paint to ,e used on specific su,strate 4for e'ample2 plaster2 wood2 galvanised steel and so forth5 is complicated ,ecause of the large num,er and varieties of coatings availa,le2 as well as man# different trade names+ Before setting out to ,u# the paint2 ,ear in mind that a paint s#stem normall# consists of a primer2 an undercoat and a finishing coat+ Once #ou have esta,lished what su,strate #ou are going to deal with2 one can decide on the t#pe of finishing coat+ Depending on the choice of finishing coat2 #ou ma# need a particular primer and undercoat+ At this stage #ou must also give thought to the ;ualit# of the paint that #ou intend ,u#ing+ It is ,etter to have a long term point of view rather than ,u#ing the cheapest paint availa,le+ %emem,er2 penn# wise2 pound foolish+ our paint stoc&ist should give #ou professional guidance in selecting the right grade of paint+ If the# canXt2 dont ,u# from them+ Correct >uantit3 of paint Do not waste mone# ,# ,u#ing too much paint or ris& spoiling the jo, ,# ,u#ing too little+ he first step in estimating the ;uantit# needed is to esta,lish the si-e of the surface area2 for e'ample2 measure the length2 width and height of the walls2 windows and doors+ Calculate the total area of walls and su,tract total area of windows and doors+ For a roof2 gutter end and slope must ,e measured+ A correction factor must2 however2 ,e introduced for profiled surfaces2 e+g+ IB% sheeting and corrugated iron2 to allow for the e'tra area created ,# the profile+ .suall#2 an addition of one third of the area is sufficient+ he second step is to esta,lish the practical spreading rate of the paint to ,e used2 ta&ing into
account wastage2 variation in surface profile2 application techni;ue2 a,sor,enc# of surface and so forth+ A practical spreading rate can ,e o,tained from #our local Paint Stoc&ist+ he third and final step is to calculate the ;uantit# of paint re;uired+ $aving determined the area and the practical spread rate2 the ;uantit# of paint re;uired will ,e) "uantit# 4litres5 ] Area m0 Practical spreading rate 4ms*l5 Correct application method ?e must assure ourselves of the correct method of application in terms of) 7+ he application techni;ue and the e;uipment top ,e used2 for e'ample2 ,rush2 roller or spra#+ 0+ he correct dr#ing and overcoating times i+e+ the previous coat must ,e dr# ,efore appl#ing the su,se;uent coat+ + he correct environment conditions+ One does not appl# paint in cold wet weather or paint a galvanised roof in the heat of the da#+ + a&e the necessar# precaution steps to minimise the mess and spillage we ma# unavoida,l# ma&e while stripping2 cleaning and painting the surface+ 3oc&s2 door handles and similar fittings should ,e removed or mas&ed and refitted when the painting is completed+ Also cover carpets2 furniture and fittings which cannot ,e removed+ Drop sheets are heav# dut# , # 0 metre plastic protective cover sheets and are ideal for this purpose+ E+ $ave the correct tools hand# for surface preparation 4paint scraper2 wire ,rush2 putt# &nife2 sandpaper and so forth52 application 4,rush2 roller or spra#5 and cleaning e;uipment+ Brushes should ,e cleaned with a multi8purpose solvent which ma# ,e used repeata,l# ensuring ma'imum life for ,rushes+ + Paint must ,e thoroughl# stirred ,efore use unless other wise stated+ Brushes and rollers must ,e of a suita,le ;ualit# for the specific paint s#stem to ,e applied+ !;uipment must ,e cleaned with the appropriate cleaner for each t#pe of paint+ ?here paint is allowed to age2 ,efore finishing2 the surface must ,e prepared ,# a light sanding followed ,# dusting and scru,,ing with ,ristle ,rushes and cleaner and allowed to dr # ,efore overcoating+ !ach coat of paint must ,e allowed to dr# and all dirt and other surface contaminants must ,e removed ,efore the ne't coat is applied+
CO(%)+S S#eciali$ed %all coatings Speciali-ed wall coatings are suita,le for all commercial and residential wor&+ he ,enefits of wall coatings include the following) •
Products are water8resistantL
•
Cover all hairline crac&sL
•
%etain their colour over timeL
•
Provide a variet# of te'turesL
•
Don9t peel or fl a&e2 and
•
Are suita,le for interior and e'terior walls and ceilings+
Apart from their decorative good loo&s2 coatings offer the ,est protection to surfaces due to their strength2 thic&ness and dura,ilit#+ Coatings are t#picall# applied ,# trowel or spra#ed on up to Emm in thic&ness and come in various te'tures and in a variet# of colours+ Coatings can ,e applied to an# su,strate that is smooth and hard+ 4rowelled products are covered in plastering5 Speciali-ed wall coatings are usuall# applied ,# the manufacturer or ,# an approved applicator+ Cementitious coatings Cementitious coatings provide a tough2 decorative2 coloured2 waterproof and dura,le cement fi nish that slowl# weathers and agesL and depending upon the method of application and the num,er of coats applied2 patchiness2 strea&ing and uneven colouring is achieva,le over time+ Cementitious coatings are designed to meet the rigorous demands of African conditions+ ?ith a ,ase of Portland cement2 the# are ultra violet resistant2 economical and e'tremel# dura,le+ .suall# supplied in powder form and onl# re;uiring the addition of clean water ,efore ,eing applied with a large ,loc& ,rush+ (pplication %ecommended for ,oth interior and e'terior use and applied in a two coat application2 which can ,e applied directl# to ,ric&2 ,loc& or plastered walls2 in accordance with the manufacturer9s instructions+ Cementitious coatings also allow fle'i,ilit# in te'ture2 from smooth to course depending upon the mi' used+ Surfaces should ,e clean2 hard and dr# at time of application+
+la4ing
() %)!OD/C%O) O +#(%)+ lass is a wonder product used e'tensivel# in man# industries toda# without even a thought to how it is made and its man# uses and applications+ lass has developed from merel# gla-ing windows or repairing ,ro&en panes to ,ecoming a ver# practical and safe product as well as considera,l# improving the aesthetics of a ,uilding+ lass is now used in slights2 ,alustrades2 glass doors2 shop fronts2 glass ,ric&s and s;uash courts to mention ,ut a few+ o man#2 glass has often ,een perceived as a dangerous product2and if it is used or handled incorrectl#2 it can ver# well ,e+ $owever2 the large range of glass products availa,le toda# include toughened glass and ,ullet proof glass used for safet# purposes in areas that re;uire visi,ilit# and safet# such as ,an&s2 oven doors2 fire walls2 ,allustrades and roofs+ he ama-ing properties of glass lend it to man# applications+ It can withstand heat and cold2 pressure2 e'tensive wear and tear and is waterproof+ It is also availa,le in a wide variet# of colours and finishes+
B(#/S!(D"S he following are AAAMSA*SAA recommendations for the application of safet# gla-ing materials in ,alustrading+ It is recommended that an # ,alustrade design is confirmed through testing2 or is chec&ed ,# a structural engineer having the appropriate Professional Indemnit# Insurance for compliance with the structural re;uirements of SABS 171+ A ,alustrade guarding the edge of an# ,alcon#2 ,ridge2 flat roof or similar place more than 7 m a,ove the adjacent ground or floor level shall ,e not less than 7 m in height and shall not have an# opening that permits the passage of a 7OOmm diameter ,all+ hese re;uirements also appl# to an# interior ,alcon# or an# me--anine floor 4SABS 111 87JJ1 Part D5+ Balustrading guarding
a swimming pool or swimming ,ath shall not ,e less than 720m high measured from the ground level2 and shall not contain an# opening which will permit the passage of a 711mm diameter ,all+ 4SABS 111 87JJ1 Part D5+ lass in ,alustrading is often applied having two edge support+
WH( %S +#(SS; lass is a solid material giving total through8vision+ ?hen other materials such as metal2 solidif#2 the# ,ecome cr#stalline2 whereas glass 4a super cool li;uid5 is non cr#stalline+ A solid that is transparentN
HOW %S +#(SS ,(D"; lass is made ,# mi'ing raw materials such as sand2 limestone2 soda2 dolomite2 felspar and saltca&e then heating them together at a temperature of over 7E11oC+ ?hen the materials are melted2 the# form a viscous li;uid called the ;uiescent melt+ As this melt cools2 the viscosit# increases until the glass ,ecomes hard+ If the li;uid cools too ;uic&l#2 the glass does not have time to release stresses+ his process is done ,# heat treatment and is called annealing+ Silica sand is the main raw material in glass2 ,ut ver# high temperatures are needed to melt it+ B# adding soda ash2 a flu'ing agent2 the glass can ,e melted at a lower temperature2 ,ut the result is water glass which is solu,le in water+ 3imestone2 a sta,iliser2 is thus added to the silica and soda ash+ Cullet 4scrap glass5 is also added to assist the melting process+
,(2%)+ F#( +#(SS 0H" F#O( P!OC"SS1 he float process of glass manufacture was developed ,# the Pil&ington lass roup 4!ngland5 in 7JEJ+ here are currentl# over 1 float glass plants operating around the world2 some under licence+ In the float process2 a continuous ri,,on of molten glass moves out of a melting furnace 47 E11oC5 and floats along the surface of a ,ath of molten tin+ he ri,,on is cooled down while still advancing across the molten tin until the surfaces are hard enough for it to progress through the annealing lehr without the rollers mar&ing its ,ottom surface+ he glass produced has a uniform thic&ness and ,right fire polished surface2 without the need for further grinding and polishing+
B(S%C 9P"S OF F#( +#(SS /S"D %) H" B/%#D%)+ %)D/S!9 Float +lass 0also known as annealed or raw glass1 his is the finished product as it comes off the float line+ It has a ,right2 fire8polished surface and is opticall# virtuall# distortion free+ It is relativel# ,rittle and will ,rea& when su,jected to a severe ,low or load+ Float glass ,rea& is undesira,le 8 slivers of large pieces ma# cause injur#+ #aminated +lass Consists of two or more pieces of float glass2 firml# united and alternatel# one or more interla#ers of either li;uid resin or pol#vin#l ,ut#ral+ ?ill crac& under impact2 ,ut the fracture does not cause the glass to separate from the interla#er2 therefore will not cause severe injur#+ oug$ened +lass
Wired +lass Incorporation of metal fa,ric in wired glass+ wo ri,,ons of glass converge and meet with a wire netting fed in ,etween them+ ?ired glass is more ,rittle than normal glass of same thic&ness+ Patterned +lass As glass ri,,on passes ,etween rollers2 the pattern*design is pressed onto one surface of glass+ B# changing the one roller2 different patterns are achieved+ his glass has the same ,rea& pattern properties as normal float glass+
Flooring
() %)!OD/C%O) O F#OO!%)+ here are man# t#pes of floor coverings availa,le on the mar&et+ !ach part of a house would have individual floor re;uirements+ It is imperative to note that some areas would re;uire a more dura,le surface that is easil# maintained+ hese would i nclude &itchens2 ,athrooms and garages+
'%)9# %#" & SH"" F#OO!%)+ iles and sheeting are availa,le for numerous applications and var# in thic&ness and dura,ilit# depending on the amount of wear that the# will have to tolerate+ Industrial and commercial environments would favour a more dura,le material as opposed to domestic environments where the covering would not have to ,e as strong+ %nstallation he su,8floor should ,e thoroughl# e'amined ,efore an# wor& is started+ Su,8floors must ,e hard2 dust free2 level and dr#+ If the surface does not a,ide ,# an # of these criteria2 the covering will ultimatel# peel off+ Adhesives used would depend largel# on the t#pe and porosit# of the su,8floor+ An open porous su,8floor would re;uire more adhesive per m0 than a tight2 dense su,8floor+ Adhesives would ,e applied to the floor in small areas so that the tile can ,e laid ,efore the adhesive dries out+ If the area to ,e covered has man# internal walls and openings2 there will ,e a large wastage factor as opposed to an area with no o,structions+ Areas of wastage are where the walls meet the floor and where tiles or sheeting would have to ,e cut to fit the remaining space+ ?hen measuring out a room2 it is wise to measure generousl# allowing for waste+ A percentage factor of E/ is generall# applied to the s;uare metre area that needs to ,e covered+ Purchasing the tiles or sheeting should then ,e done chec&ing that the ,atch num,ers of the material are the same+ If material f rom different ,atches is used2 there is a chance that the colours would var# slightl#2 and this is highl# visi,le once the flooring has ,een laid+ #a3ing vin3l floor tiles Before la#ing the tiles2 the underside of each tile should ,e cleaned with a solvent to remove dirt or grease which could have accumulated there+ he solvent also ma&es the surface more
receptive to adhesives2 ma&ing the ,onding greater+ he area to ,e tiled should ,e mar&ed out with a pen or chal&2 starting with two perpendicular lines through the centre of the room+ Pour sufficient adhesive onto the su,8floor to cover a reasona,le area+ Spread the adhesive evenl# using a trowel with standard si-e notches 47+Emm ' 7+Emm ' 7+Emm at +1mm centres5 and spread using a semi8circular motion+ Ma&e sure not to leave an# ,are spots2 pools or overlapping ridges+ 3a# the first tile at the intersection of the two lines with the edges e'actl# on the lines+ Following tiles will ,e laid against the two adjacent perpendicular lines moving out from the centre+ his creates a ,order which ma&es it easier to la# conse;uent tiles+ Ma&e sure that the tiles are ,utted firml# one against the other with no gaps+ 3eaving gaps will trap water and dirt during use and cause the tiles to lift+ Once the tiles have ,een laid2 and while the adhesive is still in its tac state2 the tiles should ,e rolled over with a 6&g roller2 ensuring a f irmer grip to the su,8 floor and removing an# unwanted air ,u,,les+ #a3ing vin3l s$eeting Sheeting should ,e rolled out ,efore la#ing and left to straighten+ 3a#ing would start along the most prominent wall that can ,e seen from the doorwa#+ !nsure that no joints will occur in a doorwa# as this is a large traffic area and the sheeting ma# shift awa# from the joint+ Allow at least 01mm overlap against all walls so that the sheet ma# ,e trimmed for a perfect fit+ If the sheeting has a pattern on it2 measure the second strip up against the first and mar& the sheet so that the pattern matches e'actl# with the first sheet+ An# joints occurring ,etween sheets should overlap each other so that a perfect joint can ,e attained+ Once all the sheets are laid on the su,8floor2 ta&e the first sheet2 and roll ,ac& a,out 11mm along its length+ Appl# adhesive evenl# and collate that part of the sheet to the su,8floor+ Smooth down the sheeting from one side onl# to avoid the f ormation of air ,u,,les+ Align the second sheet with the first overlapping the two+ ?ith a straight edge and cutting &nife2 cut through ,oth pieces of flooring+ %emove the loose piece of vin#l from under the joint and a perfectl# matching joint will remain+ Fold ,ac& the first panel2 spread adhesive and stic& down+ %epeat the procedure until all the sheets are stuc& to the floor+ ?here joints are encountered2 ma&e sure that the two edges are pushed firml# one against the other+ Once complete2 all joints can ,e further sealed with a seam sealer+ An# e'cess adhesive should ,e removed immediatel# with a damp rag+ Before the adhesive has had a chance to harden2 the sheeting should ,e thoroughl# rolled with a 6&g roller ensuring good adhesive transfer and to eliminate an# further air ,u,,les+
C(!P"%)+ As with vin#l coverings2 thought and planning must ,e given to carpet installation to achieve a good standard of finish as well as ,eing economical and practical+ Again2 when measuring out a room2 a waste factor must ,e allowed for in ,oth la#ing and pattern matching+ Careful consideration must ,e given to areas where there are joints2 moving them as much as possi,le awa# from traffic areas+ Before cutting an# material2 a carpet fitter should la# out the first strip and ta&e note of the pile of the carpet2 colours and patterns+ he ultimate aim of carpet fitting is to create a continuous length and flow2 thus creating the impression when the installation is complete2 that the dividing walls were ,uilt after the carpet was fitted+ Careful attention must ,e paid to the roll num,ers or d#e ,atch num,ers of ever# roll of carpeting to ,e used2 and from which roll each strip is to ,e cut+ his minimises the visi,ilit# joints2 shading and pattern run8out+ he most common method of fitting carpets is the tac&lessG method2 this ,eing where no tac& mar&s are visi,le on the surface of the carpet+ his is achieved through the use of a carpet gripper made of strips of pl #wood mm thic&2 06Emm wide and of var#ing lengths+ Speciall# designed pins penetrate the pl#wood at a 1Q angle facing towards the wall and staggered in
two rows along the length of the pl#wood+ he pins are -inc plated so that the# do not rust and leave stains on the carpet+ he carpet gripper is anchored to the floor+ A pre8heated2 special thermostaticall# controlled joining iron is then inserted under the carpet and moved slowl# underneath the joint+ he joint would ,ond to the molten thermoplastic adhesive and can ,e stretched and manipulated within five to ten minutes depending on the room temperature+ ?hen the joints have cooled2 fitting can commence+ he techni;ue varies slightl# ,etween tufted and woven materials2 ,ut ,asics remain the same) Choose a corner from which to wor& = this could ,e an# place on the floor where two rows of temporar# nails can ,e driven into the floor at right angles+ $oo& the carpet onto the gripper pins from the corner ,# sliding the side of the head of a carpenters claw hammer at a EQ angle from the corner until the head passes onto the line of the gripper+ %epeat this action radiating outward from the corner in each direction for appro'imatel# 11mm+ .sing a ,lunt ,olster or chisel appro'imatel# :Emm wide2 tap the edge of the carpet into the gull# ,etween carpet gripper and wall+ If there is an overlap2 leave this up against the wall at this stage+ he carpet is now firml# held on the gripper pins and can ,e stretched ,# means of a power stretcher or &nee &ic&er down each of the two walls from the corner+ he carpet is first stretched across its width2 alwa#s wor&ing awa# from the starting corner+ he tension is maintained ,# either hoo&ing the carpet onto the gripper pins in the opposite corner2 or ,# the use of temporar# nails he tensioned edge of the carpet is then hoo&ed onto the gripper teeth using the claw hammer %epeat the procedure2 stretching the carpet along its length !nsure that all ripples are out2 patterns and joints straight and all edges hoo&ed onto the gripper pins+ rim the overlap in doorwa#s and other areas where no ;uadrant is fitted using a sharp trimming &nife+ rim an# e'cess carpet leaving an overlap e;uivalent to the thic&ness of the carpet and force this into the gull# ,et ween the gripper and the wall+ his effectivel# tuc&s the carpet under and leaves a clean edge which will not unravel+ uc& the overlap under the lip of the metal edge and tap down with a ru,,er mallet or hammer and wood ,loc&+ he amount of stretch re;uired to achieve the desired ripple free finish would depend on the t#pe of carpet ,eing fitted+ ufted material2 as a general rule2 needs to ,e pulled tighter than woven as shrin&age is minimal when it is su,ject to moisture+ ?hen fitting carpets on stairs2 a good ;ualit# underla# is essential+ ? hen metal stair nosing is used2 the underla# would ,e cut ,ac& appro'imatel# Emm from the edge of the stair+ If no nosing is ,eing used2 then the overla# would have to overlap the stairnose ,# appro'imatel# :Emm+ he underla# would ,e held in place ,# stapling2 tac&ing or pasting+ he pile of the carpet should alwa#s run down the staircase to improve wear+
WOOD") F#OO!%)+ ()D D"C2S ?ooden flooring is availa,le in strip flooring and par;uet ,loc&s and gives a warm graceful finish to a home+ he maintenance of wood flooring tends to ,e more than that of other flooring due to the fact that it is a natural material and more prone to rot and ,ug infestation+ ?ood should not ,e used in areas where there would ,e a fair amount of damp+ ?ood is availa,le in a num,er of light and dar& colour finishes+ Careful attention must ,e given to the sanding of the floor after it has ,een laid to give an even surface+ It would then ,e polished and coated with a seal to give a good finish+ imber flooring here are man# advantages of tim,er flooring s#stems in modern ,uildings+ •
•
the# are ,eautiful2 warm and need minimal covering the# are resilient and easier to wal& on+ im,er floors have ,een designed for high impact loads such as sports floors
•
the# are low maintenance floors
•
the# have a high strength to weight ratio
•
the# are non8corrosive 8 suita,le for chemical storage
•
the# have a good resistance to wear and tear and can ,e fire and sound rated+
Apart from domestic use in homes2 modern tim,er engineering design can provide practical and economical flooring s#stems for a wide range of applications including warehouses2 wor&shops2 shops2 restaurants2 sports halls2 offices and li ,raries+ Floor ,oards are graded in terms of suita,ilit# for different traffic groups+ Select grade has to ,e used for light traffic conditions as in domestic dwellings+ Prime garde is specified for moderate and heav# uses+ Pedestrian traffic in some pu,lic ,uildings and shops is regarded as moderateG+ $eav# traffic would ,e in places li&e hospitals2 ,an&s and railwa# stations where the floor will have to carr# more than two thousand persons in definite traffic lanes+ imber decks im,er9s natural appeal and strength ma&e it the ideal choice for dec&ing2 not onl # around domestic homes and in gardens2 ,ut also in commercial2 industrial and marine structures+ his would include marinas2 wharves2 ,ridges2 foot ,ridges and l oading doc&s+ Other applications can ,e seen in grandstands and pu,lic wal&wa#s+ im,er dec&s are charming ,ut that is not the onl# reason wh# this material has ,een used for centuries+ im,er is wor&a,le2 cost competitive2 availa,le2 strong2 rust and corrosion free2 dura,le2 impact a,sor,ing and easil# repaired and replaced+
C"!(,%C %#"S hrough the ages cla# has ,een the material used to shape into tiles2 used for ,oth decorative and functional purposes in the home and wor& place+ Ceramic tiles have ,oth a practical and romantic histor#2 spanning the ages from the temples of Ancient China and >apan2 the palaces of the igres8!uphrates alle#2 through the homes and mansions of !urope to the Americas+ In Ital#2 the production of ceramicware came to full ,loom in the Middle Ages with strong %oman and Ara,ic influences2 and so universal was the use of tiles that an old Spanish prover, sa#s that onl# an e'tremel# poor man lived in a house without tiles 9+
Modern ceramic tiles are essentiall# the same as the ancient forms2 ,ut toda#s technolog# has ena,led ceramic tiles to ,e highl # decorative as well as functional whilst still protecting2 h#gienicall# and ph#sicall#2 the surfaces the# cover+ Ceramic tiles for floor and wall covering2 once onl# within the reach of the affluent2 are now afforda,le and indispensa,le to ever#one+ Afforda,le ,ecause of their relativel# low cost when compared to that of other ,uilding materialsL indispensa,le ,ecause their h#gienic and ph#sicall# resistant properties ma&e them an o,vious choice for areas of domestic2 commercial and industrial situations where these features are desira,le+ !ver8changing fashions and re;uirements place increasing demands on the manufacturers to improve their technolog# and2 as a result2 consumers are now ,eing increasingl# assailed with technical terminolog# that threatens confusion in the mar&et place+ his article2 therefore2 is an attempt to clarif# and e'plain what is ,eing offered and to ,e a vital and definitive guide for prospective ,u#ers+ ec$nical information $e bod3 of t$e tile he main component used in the ,od# of the tile 4otherwise &nown as the Bis;ue5 is cla#+ For the purpose of this article we will refer onl# to the ,od# as the cla#9 and not concern ourselves with other components usuall# mi'ed with the cla# such as flu'es2 silica2 and other raw materials which are of no real concern to the la#man+ iles are thin2 flat sla,s of cla#2 which are shaped and then dried and fired at high temperatures+ iles are shaped ,# pressing2 e'truding2 casting or even ,# hand+ here are numerous t#pes of cla# utilisedL in particular2 the red ,odied tiles are trademar&s of Italian manufacture+ ?hat is most important to the would8,e user or specifier2 however2 is to understand the re;uirements for wall as opposed to floor tiles+ ? e will now concern ourselves with the following main manufacturing processes) i1Bicottura Bi9 meaning twice and Cottura 9 the Italian word for coo&ed+ ?e therefore understand that this method refers to tiles that are twice coo&ed or fired+ he cla# is pressed into the re;uired si-e and shape and fired in the &iln at a temperature of onl# a,out :118611 degrees Celsius+ his relativel# low temperature 4in tile firing terms5 ensures that the shape remains uniform with little or no warping2 with near to perfect cali,ration2 characteristics most important when considering the aesthetics re;uired for wall tiles+ Once the tile has ,een ,a&ed it is coated with the gla-e2 then re8,a&ed+ he disadvantages of this method of manufacture are that the cla# is fairl# porous and the ,od# strength is not ma'imised+ It is recommended2 therefore2 that this t#pe of tile is used indoors2 particularl# for walls+ For the la#man it is eas# to recognise this t#pe of tile as follows) K the colour is normall# a ver# light ,rown*pin&ish colour+ K the ,ac& of the tile is characterised ,# protruding nodules+ K water poured onto the ,ac& of the tile will ,e readil# a,sor,ed+ It is also pertinent to point out that some cla#s are Haolin ,ased+ his ,od# has the same characteristics of the a,ove ,ut is in f act white in colour and normall# used for smaller dimensioned tiles such as 7Ecm ' 7Ecm2 7Ecm ' 01cm and 01cm ' 01cm+ ii1,onocottura $ere we have a tile that2 as its name implies2 is once coo&ed+9 his method was originall# conceived to ena,le the tile to ,e fired once at a ver# high temperature 4appro'+7011 degrees Celsius5+ his high firing causes movement in the cla# while in the &iln and one result can ,e that the tiles warp and can ,ecome unevenl# shaped+ Shrin&age also ,ecomes more noticea,le and si-ing irregular+ ?h#2 therefore2 fire at such high temperatures@ he answer is simple) Porosit# and strength Monocottura tiles have a much greater mechanical strength than Bicottura tiles and are thus ideal for use in heav# traffic areas and where the possi,ilit# of impact is greater+ Also2 these tiles are less porous and can ,e used e'ternall#2 particularl# where frost conditions prevail+ It is important to give a word of warning2 however2 in this respect) a tile2 although classified as monocottura2 might not ,e fired at a ver# high temperature and therefore could still ,e porous+ One must ,e ver# careful to ascertain from the seller or manufacturer whether the tile offered is
infact suita,le for frost suscepti,le areas+ (dvantages of monocottura tiles. Advantages of monocottura tiles) single high firing and near8vitrification ma&es the monocottura tile frost proof+ ood mechanical strength ena,les this tile to resist heav# impact2 such as might ,e encountered in industrial situations as the gla-e is applied directl# to the raw2 un,a&ed cla#2 it penetrates deeper into the cla# and the resulting fusion is superior to that of the ,icottura tile2 the gla-e is then less prone to chipping2etc+ his tile is usuall# produced for flooring purposes and gla-es used are normall# harder than those used for wall tiles+ !arl# monocottura manufacturers emplo#ed the use of red cla#s2 from which good results were more difficult to o,tain+ 3ater technolog# perfected the white ,od# monocottura2 which has resulted in a more perfect tile+ herefore2 although perhaps more e'pensive2 the purchase of white ,odied monocottura tiles will normall# ,e more advantageous+ iii1Porcellanato or t$roug$?bodied tiles Porcellanato tiles2 also sometimes &nown as through ,odied tiles2 came to the fore in the mar&et place in the 7J61 9s and were directed particularl# at commercial and industrial applications+ his tile is of the monocottura famil# ,# nature2 as it is onl # once fired+ $owever2 this tile has no gla-ing and derives its name as a through8,od# tile ,ecause the surface material runs through the entire ,od# 8 the a,rasive factors are thus ver# low+ his means that2 ,ecause the tile will not show wearing2 it is ideal for high traffic areas such as shopping malls2 factories and ,an&ing halls+ Although the first models of this t#pe of tile were ver# ordinar# and uninteresting2 modern technolog# has given rise to a vast arra# of colours and finishes such as the stone loo&2 the granite loo& and the mar,le loo&2 amongst others+ +la4e he gla-e on the til e has man# important features2 which include decoration2 colour2 non8 porosit# as well as cleana,ilit#2 thus ensuring a h#gienicall# approved product+ Besides the a,ove important features2 it is also worth remem,ering that different gla-es have different strengths+ his refers to resistance to a,rasion and scratching+ o understand these characteristics is to appreciate e'actl# what application the tile is needed for+ Domestic or industrial@ ?all or Floor@ For wall tiles we have to appreciate that aesthetics such as colour and design are of sole importance2 ,ut for floors we have to ,e more circumspect+ he intended application must ,e carefull# considered and an ade;uatel# gla-ed tile emplo#ed+ he wearing ;ualities of tile gla-es is normall# measured through the method devised ,# the Porcelain !namel Institute of the .SA for classif#ing ceramic tiles2 according to their resistance to a,rasion+ he test is commonl# &nown ,# the initials P!I and classifies tiles into four distinct groupings) P"% Floors su,ject to high traffic ,ut protected from a,rasive and scratching agents such as sand2 gravel2 etc+ In general2 these til es ma# ,e used in ,edrooms2 ,athrooms and private dwellings+ P"% 7 Floors e'posed to medium8light traffic ,ut protected from a,rasive and scratching agents such as sand2 gravel2etc+ In general these tiles ma# ,e used an#where in private houses2 e'cept &itchens+ P"% E Floors e'posed to medium8heav# traffic ,ut protected from a,rasive and scratching agents such as sand2 gravel etc+ In general2 these tiles ma# ,e used in all &inds of private rooms2 including &itchens2 patios2 hotel8rooms and related facilities2 hospital8rooms2 etc P"% A Floors e'posed to medium8heav# traffic and not protected from a,rasive or scratching agents such as sand2 gravel2etc+2 therefore also rooms to which there is direct access from outside+ In general2 these tiles ma# ,e used in restaurants2 hotels2 shops2 schools2 offices2 hospitals2 etc+2
with the onl# e'ception ,eing the area ,eneath des&s and the cash counters of pu,lic places+ he resistance to surface scratches is normall# measured ,# means of a hardness test+ his test applies to the theor# that onl# a harder su,stance can scratch a softer one+ For e'ample2 onl# a diamond can scratch a diamond+ he hardness scale is ;ualified therefore as follows) 7+ alc 0+ #psum + Calcite + Fluorite E+ Apatite + Orthoclase :+ "uart6+ opaJ+ Corundum 71+ Diamond he ratings are from 7 to 71 and it is easil# seen2 therefore2 that a tile with a rating of will ,e relativel# soft and will scratch more easil# than sa# a tile with a rating of 6+ +rading guidelines It is the o,jective of all manufacturers to produce as ,ig a percentage as possi,le of perfect or near8perfect ceramic tiles+ his2 naturall#2 is not alwa#s achieved and most firings will produce their ;uota of second and third grade tiles and some manufacturers even include a fourth or stoc& 9 grade of tile in their lines+ It is desira,le that prospective ,u#ers and users of ceramic tiles should ,e aware of e'actl# what the# are ,u#ing and the following points offer helpful guidelines+ hese guidelines are divided into two sections2 ,icottura and monocottura+ Bicottura First grade: his is a tile with a near8perfect gla-ed finish+ rading allo ws some minute spec&s in the gla-ing ,ut these should not ,e ,ig enough to ,e noticea,le+ Second grade: Small ,lemishes are allowed2 ,ut these should not ,e much larger or more noticea,le than a pinhead+ Pinholes ma# also ,e present and in the case of printed patterns on the tile2 these might ,e slightl# smudged or irregular+
Second grade: his grade is not normall# cali,rated and larger si-e variances can occur as well as a higher degree of ,owing or warpage+ Third grade: Difference in si-e and the warpage factor can ,e ver# noticea,le ,ut with correct selection and la#ing2 certain areas such as court#ards and other outside areas where perfection is not the criterion2 could well ,e tiled with products in this grade+ %nternational markings for grading tiles he following e'plains normall# accepted international mar&ings and how to read them to determine the tile grades as mar&ed on their ,o'es+ First grade: %ed is the &e#note here+ !ither the ,o' is red or the printing on it is red+ Another wa# of signif#ing first grade is with crossed arrows2 usuall# stamped in red+ Some factories also use a figure 7 inside a circle+ Second grade: Blue is the colour to watch for here+ Blue ,o'es or ,o'es printed in ,lue+ Other indications of this grade can ,e a large dot in ,lue or ,lac& or a circle around the figure 0+ Third grade: iles of this grade are usuall# in green ,o'es or have green printing on the ,o'+ If the sign method is used it will depict a triangle in ,lue2 ,lac& or green+ Fourth grade: hese tiles are usuall# in plain white or ,rown ,o'es with no printing or other mar&ings on them2 other than their code num,er+ /seful $ints about tiles ?hen ,u#ing highl# fired tiles2 alwa#s chec& the cali,ration in the case of first grade products to ensure that all the ,o'es show the same cali,ration figure+ If uncertain2 do not hesitate to as& the supplier to chec& them for #ou+ Alwa#s ma&e sure that #ou are ,u#ing the correct strength of tile for the area #ou intend to use it in+ his is particularl# vital in the choice of tiles for flooring+ ?hen la#ing monocottura floor tiles2 alwa#s la# with an open joint+ he si-e of the joint depends on the variation in cali,ration+ It is alwa#s ,est to la# out a metre or two on the floor ,efore fi'ing in order to esta,lish the correct gap to leave for that particular tile+ he larger the si-e variation the larger the gap should ,e+ %emem,er that the gaps have to ,e grouted and that this will tend to hide an# variation in si-e+ Alwa#s ma&e sure #ou are getting the grade of tile for which #ou are pa#ing+ As& what grade the tile is and then chec& the ,o'es to ma&e sure the# tall#+ Before accepting deliver#2 chec& the shade of the tile on displa# to ensure that the tile #ou have chosen is the same2 or similar2 to the one #ou receive+ his is important as ,atches of the same tile from different firings can have different tonalities of shade+ Before ta&ing deliver#2 and particularl# ,efore la#ing the tiles2 ma&e sure that al l ,o'es contain the same shade of tile when ,u#ing the first grade ,o'es+ !ach ,o' is mar&ed with the shade num,er and it is an eas# matter to chec& the ,o'es to see that the shade num,ers are the same+ he shade num,er is usuall# shown ne't to the word tonalit# 9+ If #ou cannot find the num,er referring to the shade then alwa#s as& #our dealer to chec& it for #ou+ In conclusion it can ,e said that there is a ceramic tile for ever# application ,ut it is of paramount importance that the user is satisfied that the technical characteristics of the intended tile full# meet the specifications re;uired for the application the user has in mind+ Onl# ,# dealing with professional people can the user ,e assured of the correct information+ %eputed manufacturers can normall# ,e called upon to produce written technical information pertaining to a specific tile+
Specialised Contractors
(%!CO)D%%O)%)+ In the harsh Southern African conditions air8conditioning has ,ecome more of a necessit# than a lu'ur# item+ %esidential air8conditioning is still a ver# small segment of the mar&et2,ut this ma# ,e due to a lac& of understanding of air8conditioning+ he American Societ# of $eating2 %efrigeration and Air Conditioning !ngineers 4AS$%A!5 defines air8conditioning as) he process of treating air so as to control simultaneousl# its temperature2humidit#2 cleanliness and distri,ution to meet the re;uirements of the conditioned space+G he aim of the a,ove is to create a comforta,le and productive living and wor&ing environment+ ?hen selecting an air conditioning unit a num,er of important factors should ,e considered) 7+ reputa,le2 long standing ,rand in the mar&etL 0+ relia,ilit#L + relia,le spares ,ac&8upL + correct capacit#L E+ power consumptionL + correct t#pe of unit for applicationL :+ maintenance costs+ In a mar&et where cost is of high importance2 one should loo& at the life c#cle cost of the installation2 rather than the i nitial capital outla#+ he running cost of an air conditioner is the part that #ou will ,e reminded of ever# month when #ou loo& at #our electricit# account2 long after #ou have forgotten the initial mone# spent+ All air8conditioners have an indoor section2 situated in the area that has to ,e conditioned2 and an outdoor section2 situated in am,ient conditions+ here are two wa#s of achieving this+ he first is for the outdoor section to protrude through the wall2 if it is a self8contained unit2 and the second is for the indoor and outdoor section to ,e two separate units interconnected with two copper refrigerant lines and the necessar# electrical connections+ ?hen selecting an air8 conditioner #ou have to decide whether #ou would re;uire a cooling onl# machine2 suita,le for areas with moderate winter conditions2 where heating is not re;uired2 or for areas with a constant heat load2 such as computer rooms+ he other t#pe is a cooling and heating air8 conditioner that uses reverse c#cle or heat pump heating+ %everse c#cle heating is for more economical than normal electrical resistance heating as it uses appro'imatel# a third of the power to achieve the same heating capacit#+ he cooling capacit# of an air conditioner is rated in B. &ilowatt or tons of refrigeration and is an indication of the amount of cooling the machine will produce+ he cooling capacit# re;uired of a certain area is determined ,# a num,er of factors such as) 7+ Floor areaL 0+ #pe of roofL + #pe of ceiling insulation2 if an#L + Si-e of windowsL E+ Orientation of windows 4<2S2! or ?est5L + .nconditioned areas adjacent to conditioned areaL :+
,ig capacit# machine will tend to switch on and off continuousl# 4commonl# &nown as short c#cling5 as it ,rings down the temperature ver# rapidl #+
(W)%)+S here are various t#pes2 shapes and si-es of awnings availa,le to suit most applications+ Custom made awnings can also ,e fa,ricated to suit a specific re;uirement+ As a result2 it is not eas# to give an average price for awnings as man# factors have to ,e ta&en into account when estimating a price+ Also ,ecause of the various t#pes of shapes and si-es2 different formulae are used in calculating a price+
BO!"HO#"S Boreholes must ,e registered with the local authorit#+ Permission must ,e first o,tained ,efore drilling+ he position of the ,orehole must ,e clearl# indicated on a drawing showing distance to ,oundaries2 servitudes2 position of ,uildings2 distance to an# french drain or soa& pit+ his drawing must ,e su,mitted to #our local authorit#+ It is compulsor# to have the water from the ,orehole tested2 a lev# will ,e charged for this test+ A ,orehole must ,e at least E1m awa# from a french drain+
C(!PO!S & SH(D" PO!S In the harsh climate of South Africa2 finding shade for ones car ,ecomes of the utmost importance+ !as# to erect2 aestheticall# pleasing and relativel# cost effective2 car and shadeports are an e'cellent alternative to ,uilding garages+
#()DSC(P%)+ Prices for landscaping var# greatl# depending on the t#pe of garden re;uired+ he most popular t#pe of garden is tropical2 which would contain a large selection of tropical plants such as palm trees and delicious monsters and would ,e evergreen2 not re;uiring a large amount of maintenance+ !nglish countr# st#le gardens2 on the other hand2 would contain a mi'ture of evergreens and annual plants+ Although the# would ,e more colourful2 the# would need a fair amount of attention to remove and replant annuals+ Other factors that would influence the cost of landscaping would ,e the t#pe and si-e of pants chosen+ Palm trees for e'ample2 would have to ,e ,igger than saplings or the# will fall eas# pre# to ,irds+ Some gardens would re;uire levelling or the removal of roc&s2 trees2 or conversel#2 importing roc&s and trimming e'isting trees+
2%CH")S F%%)+S & C/PBO(!DS (n %ntroduction to 2itc$ens Hitchens2 cup,oards and appliances form necessar# parts to the finishing of a home+ A practical2 well laid out &itchen with modern appliances can greatl# affect the eventual selling price of a home+ $ouses with ample cup,oard space have ,ecome a more salea,le commodit# and greatl# improve the wor&a,ilit# of the home as well as its aesthetics+ 2itc$en (ppliance (nal3sis &S'
$ow often do #ou use the appliance@ >ust for an occasional dinner at home or si' times a da#@ ?ill children2 elderl# famil# mem,ers2 or people with disa,ilities use it@ Do #ou prefer a free8standing or ,uilt8in design@ If #ou ,uild it in2 #ou canXt ta&e it with #ou when #ou move+ Do #ou prefer an appliance that does the ,asics2 or would #ou ta&e advantage of optional features@ Are #ou low8tech or high8tech@ Are #ou more comforta,le with dials or digits@ S' * ST+L, ?hat cu,ic capacit# or overall si-e do #ou need@ $ow large is #our famil# and how often do #ou coo&2 entertain2 or serve large famil# meals@ ?hat are the space restrictions in #our &itchen@ $eight2 width2 depth+ Ma&e sure #ou allow enough space for proper ventilation and opening doors+ ?hat color and st#ling ,est fit #our &itchen@ Do #ou need to coordinate with current appliances@ .'RF/R!A,C' Does the product have energ#8saving controls or features@ Are controls eas# to read and use@ ?ill the product ,e eas# to clean and maintain@ D'.',DA0LT+ ?hat t#pe of warrant# comes with the product@ Full2 limited2 or a com,ination of the two@ ?hat is the reputation of the manufacturer and dealer@ Is the product made with ;ualit# materials@ 1AS2, !AC2,'S %ust is pro,a,l# the ,iggest enem# #our clothes washer has to face+ After ever# use leave the lid to the clothes washer open so moisture inside it can evaporate+ Chec& to see that the hot and cold water hoses are not &in&ed and that the filters in the ends of the hoses are not clogged with lint+ he washer must ,e level for it to wor& properl#+ If the washer tilts to one side it will cause e'cessive wear to the ,earings that hold the tu, in place+ A unit that is not level will also not spin a full load without tripping the out8of8,alance safet# switch on the washer+ Before #ou perform an# maintenance on the machine2 unplug the washer from its power source+ urn the water off at the hot and cold outlets+ 3oosen the water inta&e hoses at the ,ac& of the machine with a channel loc& pliers and remove them from the hot and cold faucets+ Pull out the small2 round washers containing the fine screen hose filters+ If the# wonXt come out2 pr# them loose with a screwdriver+ If the# show signs of wear or are ,adl# corroded2 ta&e them to the hardware store to ,u# replacement screens+ If the screens are covered with mineral deposits2 wash them out and replace them in the hose+ hen reattach the hose to the hot and cold faucets2 ma&ing sure #ou connect the hot and cold hoses to the corresponding faucet+ If #our washer empties into a wash sin&2 &eep lint from clogging the drain ,# ma&ing a lint strainer from a piece of old pant#hose+ Cut the leg off a,out 70 in+ up from the toe and secure it to the end of the discharge hose with a 7 7*08in+8diameter hose clamp+ o ,rea& down soap scum ,uildup in the machine and its hoses2 run the machine through a full c#cle with warm water and a cup of white vinegar+ %epeat the c#cle with another wash using a cup of household ,leach+ 2itc$en Cupboards Certain ,asin re;uirements are necessar# in a &itchen to ma&e it functional+ Important units would include a sin&2 stove2 fridge and ample wor& surfaces+ Plum,ing and electrical would ,e
integral parts of the construction of a &itchen+ he most efficient &itchen is one where all activities can ,e done in a logical se;uence+ According to most &itchen suppliers2 there are four ,asic t#pes of &itchens) 7+ .8shaped = this is more suited to a small &itchen 0+ 38shaped = the design is functional and re;uires little space22it would also lend itself to a &itchen ta,le + One8wall = the ,asic wor& functions are performed in a straight line ma&ing the design suita,le for an open plan area + Island8units = a wor& surface is set in the middle of the &itchen there,# forming the island+ he island usuall# contains a stove+Special plum,ing arrangements would have to ,e made should a sin& ,e necessar#+ he cost of a &itchen would ,e totall# reliant on the materials used and the si-e of the &itchen+ It is therefore impossi,le to ;uote on the cost of a &itchen in general+ Built?in cupboards Built8in cup,oards can ,e designed in a variet# of modular units to accommodate hanging space and shelving space+ Cup,oards can ,e ,uilt in wall recess openings or can ,e fi'ed against walls2then e'posing cup,oard sides+ Built8in cup,oards are normall# custom made ,ut can also ,e made availa,le in &noc& down form+ ,aterial specification •
•
•
•
•
!conomical cup,oards comprise of normal supreme ;ualit # Bison,ord Particle ,oard to shelves and divisions with Bison,ord 4MFB5 melamine faced ,oard to e'pose side panels2which could also ,e utilised for shelves and divisions which present a more aesthetic feel Standard t#pe doors consist of Melawood 4MFB5in a variet# of fashiona,le colours and edged in matching Formica \ edging Doors can also ,e in Formica \ door frontals incorporating postformed profiles to edges Cup,oards can ,e installed ,# the DI enthusiast2 ,ut it is advisa,le to see& e'pert advice+
Cup,oards2 shelves and wor&ing surfaces should ,e ,oth practical and pleasant to loo& at+ arious heights and depths can ,e used2 although the overall height should never ,e taller than the reach of a user+ Cup,oards can ,e ,ought standard or made to order+he ,asic price for installation is #et again dependent on the t #pe of material used and the amount of wor& involved+ A popular alternative is mirror doors which come in various standard si-es+hese range largel# in price depending on the si-e+ he availa,ilit# of wall space would form an important criteria to the cost of the cup,oards+Should the cup,oards re;uire ,ac&ing2a further material and fitting charge will ,e incurred+ Cupboards Certain ,asic re;uirements are necessar# in a &itchen to ma&e it functional+ Important units would include a sin&2 stove2 fridge and ample wor& surfaces+ Plum,ing and electrical would ,e integral parts of the construction of a &itchen+ he most efficient &itchen is one where all activities can ,e done in a logical se;uence+ According to most &itchen suppliers2 there are four ,asic t#pes of &itchens)
•
•
•
•
.8shaped = this is more suited to a small &itchen 38shaped = the design is functional and re;uires little space2 it would also lend itself to a &itchen ta,le One8wall = the ,asic wor& functions are performed in a straight line ma&ing the design suita,le for an open plan area Island8units = a wor& surface is set in the middle of the &itchen there,# forming the island+ he island usuall# contains a stove+ Special plum,ing arrangements would have to ,e made should a sin& ,e necessar#+
he cost of a &itchen would ,e totall# reliant on the materials used and the si-e of the &itchen+ It is therefore impossi,le to ;uote on the cost of a &itchen in general+ Built?in cupboards Built8in cup,oards can ,e designed in a variet# of modular units to accommodate hanging space and shelving space+ Cup,oards can ,e ,uilt in wall recess openings or can ,e fi'ed against walls2 then e'posing cup,oard sides+ Built8in cup,oards are normall# custom made ,ut can also ,e made availa,le in &noc& down form+ Material specifications •
•
•
•
•
•
!conomical cup,oards comprise of normal supreme ;ualit # Bison,ord Particle ,oard to shelves and divisions with Bison,ord 4MFB5 melamine faced ,oard to e'pose side panels2 which could also ,e utilised for shelves and divisions which present a more aesthetic feel Standard t#pe doors consist of Melawood 4MFB5 in a variet# of fashiona,le colours and edged in matching Formica\ edging Doors can also ,e in Formica\ door frontals incorporating postformed profiles to edges Cup,oards can ,e installed ,# the DI enthusiast2 ,ut it is advisa,le to see& e'pert advice+ Cup,oards2 shelves and wor&ing surfaces should ,e ,oth practical and pleasant to loo& at+ arious heights and depths can ,e used2 although the overall height should never ,e taller than the reach of a user+
Cup,oards can ,e ,ought standard or made to order+ he ,asic price for installation is #et again dependent on the t#pe of material used and the amount of wor& involved+ A popular alternative is mirror doors which come in various standard si-es+ hese range largel# in price depending on the si-e+ he availa,ilit# of wall space would form an important criteria to the cost of the cup,oards+ Should the cup,oards re;uire ,ac&ing2 a further material and fitting charge will ,e incurred+
D"S%+)%)+ ( 2%CH") A &itchen is the heart of a home and most people spend a large amount of time there2 not onl# coo&ing2 ,ut socialising as well = thus turning the &itchen into what is essentiall# a living area+ Modern &itchen designs ta&e this trend into account and &itchens are fast ,ecoming an integral part of and focal point of the home+ Instead of ,eing tuc&ed awa#2 open plan &itchens that are incorporated into the interior design of a home are e'tremel# popular and incorporating a &itchen into #our interior la#out and d`cor does not have to ,e an e'pensive e'ercise+ ?hether one uses a DI &itchen or custom made &itchen2 the design is vital+
P('%)+ his is a tough and hard wearing form of paving with low maintenance+ Concrete ,ric&s and ,loc&s are availa,le in man# shades and patterns+ he# can ,e altered2 repaired2 removed and replaced without major costs and without having to use e'pensive construction e;uipment+ here are three t#pes of segmental paving ,loc&s) 7+ rectangular 0+ interloc&ing + grass ,loc&s he ,loc&9s actual strength is determined ,# its thic&ness2 the minimum strength set down ,# the SABS ,eing 0EMPa+ S$apes and si4es of concrete pavers Concrete ,loc& pavers are manufactured and supplied in a num,er of different shapes and si-es+ he ta,le ,elow shows some of the common shapes together with their trade names2 ,ut there are a num,er of shapes not included in this list+ he ,loc&s are categorised into he following t#pes) Block 3pe S?( Allows geometrical interloc& ,etween all faces of adjacent ,loc&s+ ?hen &e#ed together these ,loc&s resist the spread of joints ,# their plan geometr#+ enerall#2 these ,loc&s can ,e laid in $erring,one pattern parallel to ,oth the longitudinal and transverse a'es of the joints+ Bloc&
t#pe S8A is used on roads and heav#8dut# pavements+ Block t3pe S?B Allows a geometrical interloc& ,etween adjacent faces and relies on its dimensional accurac# of la#ing to develop i nterloc&+ +eneral Bloc& t#pe S8A develop the ,est interloc& and provide the greater resistant to deformation and creep+ $ence these ,loc&s are generall# used for industrial applications+ On the other end of the scale2 the t#pe S8C ,loc&s develop the least interloc& and hence are generall# chosen for aesthetics and used in pedestrian or residential applications+ he si-e of the ,loc&s var# depending on the shape2 ,ut are t#picall# 011 ' 711mm in plan+ he thic&ness of the ,loc&s var# from E181mm for light pedestrian*residential traffic to 61mm for industrial applications+ For areas of ver# high loading2 such as har,ours2 ,loc& thic&ness of up to 701mm have to ,e used+
S29#%+HS Slights can completel# change the feel of a home or office ,# allowing natural light and warmth to flow in2 as well as affording views of the outside environment+ Slights let in2 on average2 five times more light than the e;uivalent area of a vertical window+ Slighting is also a ver# practical and economical complement to electric lighting and correct incorporation of slights into a design can greatl# increase energ# efficienc# in a ,uilding+ here are some important considerations to ,e ta&en into account when incorporating slighting into a ,uilding) Structural ?ind loads can affect slighting in a num,er of wa#s2some of which should alwa#s ,e considered) ?ind can distort the overall shape of a slight and can cause he rafters and other parts of the roof to ,end e'cessivel#+?ind can also cause uplift2possi,l# resulting in the slight ,eing ripped off the ,uilding+ he direction in which the wind is ,lowing has a distinct effect on whether the wind will impose an inward 4pressure5or outward 4suction5force on the s#stem+Both inward and outward forces can cause e'cessive ,ending of the slight+Outward forces can also cause the structure to ,e torn completel# off the ,uilding+ If the pitch of the slight is steep enough2the wind will cause an inward force on the windward side of a slight2and an outward force on the leeward side+ Consideration at design stage should also ,e given to load distri,ution other than wind+hese loads can ,e divided into two groups2namel#)snow or hail loadsLand imposed loads caused ,# people carr#ing out slight maintenance+ Waterproofing he design of gla-ing ,ars on e'trusions should ma&e allowance for water penetration and effective drainage to the outside of the structure 4condensation outlets5+In essence2one of the most important functions of a slight is to resist the penetration of rain+ he most common complaint surrounding slights is lea&age 8a pro,lem that can ,e easil# avoided with correct design and installation methods+On roofs with a pitch more than 7E degrees2 one has the option of pre8made flashing with a lead apron+On slate roofs2a soa&er s#stem is used+ Condensation Condensation is also an important consideration in the design of slight s#stems+hese s#stems should ,e mechanicall# designed through the use of a guttered weep s#stem to control condensation+ (ir #eakage !'cessive air lea&age will cause drafts2wind noise and discomfort to the occupants of the
,uilding and can also ,e a major source of energ# loss in a ,uilding+ +la4ing ,aterial Properties Careful consideration of gla-ing materials to ,e used is of the utmost importance 8some factors to consider are) hic&ness of gla-ing material in relation to wind loadingLweight of gla-ing materialLimpact strengthLfire ris&L,ending propertiesLultra8 violet propertiesLsecurit# ris&+ Durabilit3 & ,aintenance o ,e assured of satisfactor# performance2materials used in the manufacture of a slight should have good structural properties2 e'cellent resistance to corrosion and the a,ilit# to withstand deterioration under climatic and environmental conditions to which it will normall# ,e e'posed+ Material finishes should ,e attractive in appearance and dura,le+ Properl# selected and specified slights can ,e e'pected to perform throughout their life at a relativel# uniform level when given reasona,le care and maintenance+ Maintenance that ma# ,e re;uired includes washing2repairs to and replacement of operating parts 4if an#5and gla-ing material replacement+he homeowner 9s decision on how this is to ,e done ma# affect the choice of slight to ,e used2which in turn affects the maintenance cost+ Design Considerations Proper selection of gla-ing materials = the attention of specifiers is drawn to the proper selection of gla-ing materials for use in slight applications a,ove human traffic in occupied areas+ Definitions = inclined gla-ing includes the fenestration of slights and space enclosures2which are tilted more than 7E degrees from the vertical+Sloped gla-ing s#stems should ,e inclined a minimum of 7E degrees from the hori-ontal to ensure proper condensation and water infiltration control2and to minimise accumulation of dirt a,ove hori-ontal or purlin framing supports+S#stems inclined less than 7E degrees from the hori-ontal ma# re;uire special consideration+ Breakage As the impact strength varies considera,l# from product to product2 this should ,e considered and chec&ed prior to selection+Inclined gla-ing installations ma# ,e situated a,ove areas where people pass or wor&+his raises safet# and lia,ilit# considerations for the owner2designer2gla-ing and slight manufacturer+Brea&age can result from an# of the following causes) !'cessive loading)wind2snow or concentrated Impact loads from f alling 4hailstones5or wind ,orne 4roof gravel5 o,jects+ hermal effects generated within the gla-ing material itself 4i+e+ heat a,sor,ing tinted2reflective5due to inclined position Inade;uatel# designed gla-ing s#stem2which does not provide proper support2clearance or drainage !dge or surface damage to gla-ing material during manufacturing2 handling2installation or maintenance+4In glass products2edges should ,e polished5+ andalism or destructive accidents !ffects of long8term weathering Design #oad he choice of an appropriate material for a given application with regard to uniform load strength is dependent upon the design load in the ,uilding to which the gla-ing material will ,e su,jected+he selection of the re;uired design load is the responsi,ilit# of the specifier in conjunction with the slight designer+ Once the design load has ,een determined2the appropriate gla-ing thic&ness can ,e chosen ,# using pu,lished strength information+ la-ing materials are normall# designed for uniform loads+It is important to note that most pu,lished strength charts are ,ased on a uniform one minute wind loading and ma# not address the additional factors that affect performance in a sloped installation+ +lass he design factor is a minimum statistical factor that is often used ,# the designer in selecting glass for ,uildings+If the situation warrants2the designer ma# choose to use a design factor greater than 0+E2such as E+1+he pro,a,ilit# of glass ,rea&age failure at a design factor of 0+E is 1+6/= or 6 panes per 7111 tested when su,jected to an initial2uniforml# applied wind load+At
a design factor of E+12the pro,a,ilit# is 1+1:/or 7 pane per 7111 tested+ $ermal Factors For most orientations2incident solar radiation or inclined gla-ing applications will ,e su,se;uentl# higher than on vertical gla-ing due to the angle of inclination+Also2thermal stresses ma# ,e higher as the# are dependent on glass centre to edge temperature difference and not solel# on the level of solar radiation+he increased level of solar radiation can affect the performance of the gl a-ing material+ As the thermal performance ,et ween thermoplastics differs considera,l#2from ,etween less than 61 to 701 degrees centigrade2 and as heat ,uil d up in the sheet can reach ver# high temperatures2 the designer should consult with various thermoplastic manufacturers for additional technical information+enerall#2a gla-ing material manufacturer 9s ,rochure will include performance criteria 4shading coefficients2.8values2etc5for the various t#pes and com,inations of gla-ing materials+All gla-ing materials e'pand and contract to a greater or lesser degree Deflection he primar# function of a slight framing s#stem is to provide a structurall# sound support and water control s#stem2which will accommodate the gla-ing i nfill under load+he allowa,le deflection of a glass support8framing mem,er must not e'ceed the length of the span divided ,# 7:E of 3*7:E G+Deflections e'ceeding this limit on two edges can effectivel# reduce glass support from four edge to two edge+For plastics gla-ing materials2the allowa,le deflection must not e'ceed the span divided , # 711 of 3*771 G+ he engineering staff of slight or metal framing s#stem manufacturers should handle deflections and stresses associated with design of the support framing+he structural aspects of the inclined gla-ing s#stem must ,e carefull# integrated with the gla-ing re,ate and drainage details to ensure proper performance+ Annealed2wired2heat8strengthened2tempered and laminated glass of e;ual si-e and thic&ness has the same deflection ,ehaviour under short8term 4one8minute5uniform load conditions+.nder long8term loading and normal temperatures2laminated glass will deflect in proportion with its component ma&e8up+ lass =8greater fle'ural strength or resistance to impact loading does not indicate greater stiffness+he designer should also consider the differences in stiffness ,etween glass and plastic gla-ing materials+ Plastics = under normal use22the deflection does not e'ceed E1mm+ Impact Impact Impact Impact Impact In general2slights are not designed to resist point t#pe loads+he designer should e'amine the surrounding environment for possi,ilities of impact loading 4human2missile2etc5+Precautionar# measures such as handrailing or protective screens are recommended whenever the pro,a,ilit# of an# such loading e'ists+ Point t#pe impact load resistance varies considera,l# from one t#pe of gla-ing material to another+ .ndetected surface or edge damage in gla-ing materials ma#2in some cases2,e incorrectl# assessed as spontaneous or m#sterious ,rea&age+he designer must also consider the ha-ards of human impact or f alling o,ject impact from higher roof areas+In some cases2the designer ma# specif# that a protective white screen2 shield or alternate gla-ing material ,e situated a,ove the slight to protect installation+In some cases2the designer ma# specif# that a protective wire screen2shield or alternate gla-ing material ,e situated a,ove the slight to protect installation+In general2the designer should contact the gla-ing material manufacturer for recommendations regarding impact resistance+ ?hen considering glass or plastic gla-ing2the specifier should ensure that whatever material is chosen complies with relevant ,uilding regulations+he specifier and owner should ,e aware of the potential gla-ing materiel replacement factors and associated costs for the various gla-ing material options2,efore the specification is agreed upon+It should ,e noted that irregular shaped panes or patterns do not easil# lend themselves to efficient high volume production+Specifiers should discuss this matter with designers at an earl# stage in order ascertain an# added pro,lems and e'penses which ma# ,e incurred with custom shape gla-ing units+ he following ta,le outlines the ,asic properties and ,rea&age characteristics of commonl# used gla-ing materials+enerall#2 most gla-ing materials are availa,le in a wide range of transparent tints and in some instances2reflective finishes = manufacturers should ,e consulted in this regard+
#aminated glass here are currentl# two methods of manufacture where,# two or more sheets of ordinar# annealed glass are ,onded together ,# using one or more sheet of a plastic interla#er such as pol#vin#l ,ut#ral 4PB5under heat and pressure2or alternativel#2using a resin li;uid interla#er+he latter is called the cast8in8place method+ 3aminated glass of proper strength and interla#er thic&ness has e'cellent retention capa,ilit#+?hen ,ro&en2the f ragments of glass will tend to the interla#er2there,# affording increased protection against falling glass+If ,ro&en ,# impact2the interla#er will resist penetration of the impacting o,ject+ oug$ened glass his glass is produced ,# su,jecting ordinar# annealed glass to a process of heating and rapid cooling which produces high compression in the surface and compensating tension in the centre of the glass+oughened glass for this reason cannot ,e cut and should not ,e drilled2surface or edge wor&ed+he treatment endows the glass with greatl# increased resistance to impact2 loading and thermal shoc&+oughened glass is = E times the strength of ordinar# annealed glass of the same dimension and thic&ness+ #aminated toug$ened glass his is glass that has alread# ,een pre8stressed 4,# heat and controlled cooling2or chemical treatment5which is then laminated together using PB or resin li;uid Plastic gla4ing materials here are two t#pes of plastics commonl# used in slighting2 namel# acr#lic and pol#car,onate 4perspe'5+he support framing s#stem must ,e properl# designed to accommodate different thermal movement and gla-ing fle'i,ilit# under load as opposed to that re;uired for glass+he designer should consider that there are also differences in stiffness ,etween glass and plastics2and should ,e certain the proper thic&ness is used+%eference should ,e made to appropriate sheet thic&ness ta,les and graphs pu,lished ,# manufacturers once the design load has ,een determined+ ,aterials !'truded aluminium mem,ers2where used2should ,e of the ,est commercial ;ualit# and proper allo# and free from defects impairing strength and*or dura,ilit#+Commercial allo# designation 1 in e'truded form is one of several allo#s2which will meet the a,ove re;uirements+ Aluminium used for sill2flashing2or similar2shall ,e formed from flat sheet+Commercial allo# designation 71 is one of several allo#s2 which will meet the a,ove re;uirements+ If anodised e'posed surfaces shall compl# with SABS JJJ and ,e of 0E8micron thic&ness for coastal areas and a minimum of 7E micros for inland areas+ If powder coated2shall compl# with SABS 70: ?ood mem,ers2where used2should ,e of a suita,le strength material which has a moisture content ,etween /and 70/at the time of fa,rication+ All e'terior wood parts shall ,e treated with a suita,le water8 repellent finish Steel mem,ers2where used2shall conform to either)SABS :0:2 SABS 7011II2or SABS 7011 IIA that will meet the re;uirements of SABS 170 All e'terior steelwor& shall ,e coated with a suita,l# corrosion resistant treatment+ Flas$ings A suita,le corrosion resistant2mallea,le sheet material shall ,e used for flashings2saddles and drainage channels at a,utments2 junctions and valle#s+
compati,le with an# adjoining materials+ Hardware $ardware shall ,e of aluminium2stainless steel or other corrosion resistant materials2and ,e compati,le with an# adjoining materials Weat$er?stripping &+askets ?eather8stripping and gas&ets shall ,e manufactured from an# suita,le material compati,le with adjoining materials2shall withstand atmospheric conditions and mechanicall# function under use+ Sealants Sealants used in the fa,rication2gla-ing or installation of the slight shall ,e compati,le with other materials used in the construction of the slight and shall have the properties necessar# to perform the function for which it is intended+ %nstallations &+la4ing Procedures he slight shall ,e securel# anchored2sealed and undamaged2 ensuring that it will meet with an# performance test necessar#+ la-ing shall ,e carried out i n accordance with SABS 17:+ (ppointed Sk3lig$t Contractor he appointed slight contractor shall) Provide drawings showing design and installation details for approval ,# the specifier Provide a test performance certificate+
SW%,,%)+ POO#S Pool c$ecklist Point out to the ,uilder an# sewer pipes or services that are underground+ (sk t$e builder ?hat it will cost if he hits roc&+ $ow much it will cost to remove the soil+ .suall# more soil than #ou thin&+ Pool contract See that #our pool ,uil der is a paid up mem,er of the Master Builders Association2 or the <+S+P+I+ See that there is a penalt# clause for late completion+ Optional e=tras here are man# optional e'tras) o ,uild in Coloured plaster+ Additional paving+ ?aterfeatures+ o add on later $eaters2 Braais or sunshades Chlorinators Automatic cleaners Building 3our own pool in +unite or Concrete Design criteria 4a5 Ma'imum light 4,5 Ma'imum privac# 4c5 Ma'imum visi,ilit# from the housenear the pool P$ases of construction 4a5 Setout
Plan where the pool is to ,e and mar& it out accordingl# 46m ' m is a popular si-e ,# a minimum of 7E1mm thic& to allow for the pool shell Do not ma&e the pool to ,ig as it appears dou,le in si-e when paved+ 4,5!'cavation his can ,e done manuall# or2 alternativel#2 if the area allows2 a +3+B+ 4,ac&actor5 can ,e used+ he e'cavation process using a +3+B+ should onl# ta&e one da#+ Chec& the depths ,# stringing a line over the pool across two level pegs and measure against the mar&ed depths on a straight edge or plan&+ 4c5 3evels Put pegs at ever# 0m and level them+ Set them 711mm ,elow the top of the finished coping+ !einforcing for +unite pools he minimum reinforcing re;uired is as follows) 4a5 Single la#er of reference 011 high tensile steel fa,ric+ 4,5 An additional la#er of reference 011 high tensile steel fa,ric for the cove which must overlap 7m on ,oth sides+ 4c5 ' 71 high tensile ,ars in ring ,eam spaced 711mm and to ,e continuous or %6 rods placed throughout the pool at 011mm centres+ !einforcing for $and?packed pools 4a5 E&g of steel reinforcing ,ars per 7 m0+ 4,5 he steel ring ,eam must ,e continuous 4c5 Overlap steel at least E1mm at each joint+ Bloc& the steel off the earth with ,ro&en ,ric&s or concrete ,loc&s :Emm+ +unite*$and?pack uniting can ,e su,8contracted to a swimming pool contractor+ For a hand8pac&ed pool2 advice on hand8pac& retarded set and method can ,e o,tained from a %ead# Mi' Cement compan#+ A ma'imum of nine la,ourers will ,e needed to complete this phase+ (ccessories Accessories re;uired include a light2 weir and two inlet no--les which can ,e procured from a pool accessories store+ Coping paving and waterline tile Install perfectl# level and plum,+ Compact the ground ,efore paving and f orm an e'pansion joint ,etween the paving and coping to allow for movement+ Filter Chec& the t#pe of filter re;uired for a certain si-e pool+ Installation would follow manufacturers re;uirements for the particular pump+ "lectrical !lectrical connections which would include the pump2 motor and l ight would ,e performed ,# a registered !lectrician and according to municipal regulations+ ,arble plaster Mar,le plaster is a dura,le coating applied to the shell of the pool+ ?hen appl#ing mar,le plaster2 refer to manufacturers instructions for mi'ing and appl# to a smooth2 even finish+ his is ver# important as algae will gather on an# rough surfaces and will ,e e'tremel# difficult to remove+ his tas& ma# ,e su,contracted to a pool ,uilder or pool service compan#+ Cleaning e>uipment.Cleaning e;uipment purchased from a pool accessories store+