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Eficiencia técnica y eficiencia económica La eficiencia técnica examina la relación entre el producto o resultado generado y la cantidad de un determinado insumo utilizado en su generación. En contraste, la eficiencia económica analiza la relación entre el producto o resultado generado y el valor (o costo) de los diversos insumos y recursos utilizados en su generación.
Eficiencia y eficacia Si la eficacia mide el grado en que se cumplen los objetivos y la eficiencia, el grado en que se cumplen los objetivos de una iniciativa al menor costo posible, uno podría concluir que para ser eficiente, una iniciativa tiene que ser eficaz. Concretamente, nosotros consideramos que la eficacia es necesaria (sin ser suficiente) para lograr la eficiencia. efi ciencia. Indicadores de eficacia y eficiencia
Las definiciones de eficacia y eficiencia que hemos propuesto señalan que cualquier indicador de eficacia tendrá que incorporar alguna evidencia o medición de logro o resultado y los indicadores de eficiencia tendrán que incluir esas mediciones y los estimativos de los costos asociados. Como tal, indicadores de eficacia pueden ser insumos a la formulación y estimación de indicadores de eficiencia. En la entrega de servicios educativos, hay amplia tradición en el manejo de indicadores de eficacia: tasas de cobertura o matriculación, tasas de repitencia y mediciones objetivas del aprendizaje. Un sistema educativo podrá ser juzgado como más o menos eficaz, según los indicadores de esta naturaleza. Vale la pena considerar algunos. En la entrega de servicios de salud, se suele documentar los logros por medio de unos indicadores de acceso a los servicios de salud y por indicadores de d e salud que son considerados aproximaciones al estado general de salud de la población. incluyen tasas de mortalidad y morbilidad, tasas de acceso de la la población a servicios de salud, etc.
Un ejemplo de análisis de eficacia y eficiencia: los fondos de inversión social
Los múltiples estudios y análisis de los fondos de inversión social en América Latina nos arrojan ejemplos de aplicaciones de los conceptos de eficacia y eficiencia en el dialogo y debate sobre la bondad de determinadas estrategias para promover el desarrollo social. En su corta historia, los fondos de inversión han sido criticados por no ser eficaz en el logro de los objetivos que le dieron razón de ser, han sido aplaudidos por ser eficientes en la satisfacción de otras necesidades (no necesariamente los objetivos de los primeros fondos) y han sido sujetos de una redefinición de objetivos, de tal manera que se rescaten las bondades (eficiencias) del fondo en la satisfacción de algunas necesidades básicas de las poblaciones pobres de América Latina y el Caribe.
Equidad El concepto de equidad se fundamenta en tres valores sociales: igualdad, cumplimiento de derechos y justicia. justicia. Estos valores son lo suficientemente aceptados que el concepto de "equidad" – por lo menos retóricamente – goza de cierta aceptación universal. Hay amplio consenso con
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públicas. No obstante, la aceptación universal se sostiene en parte por la ambigüedad con que típicamente entendemos estos valores. De estas definiciones, se puede concluir que el entendimiento de la equidad depende de una interpretación del derecho natural, de las leyes y/o del concepto de "justicia". Por ende, es un concepto que va a ser interpretado según los valores, las tradiciones y la ética social. La interpretación de la equidad se puede tratar en términos filosóficos, valorativos v alorativos y jurídicos, en su aplicación al análisis de derechos humanos y desarrollo de la ciudadanía. Asimismo, se puede desarrollar en el contexto económico, refiriéndose a la propiedad, los ingresos y el consumo. Este trabajo propone aplicar el concepto de la equidad al análisis de políticas y programas sociales. En el contexto de políticas y programas sociales, se ha asociado el concepto de equidad típicamente con algún concepto de igualdad. No obstante, se han propuesto diferentes interpretaciones de la igualdad asociada con equidad. Específicamente, se ha hecho referencia a la "equidad vertical" – el tratamiento igual para todos los diversos grupos e individuos de la sociedad y a la "equidad horizontal" – "igual tratamiento para iguales". La promoción de la equidad vertical insinúa que la equidad es equivalente a la igualdad absoluta. En contraste, la equidad horizontal abre la puerta a la tolerancia de tratamientos diferenciados, con el raciocinio de que los individuos y grupos son diferentes y pueden ser tratados en forma diferenciada sin ser "injusto". Es más, la equidad horizontal podría conducirnos a pensar que el tratamiento diferenciado es justo, ya que podría tener el fin de corregir o ajustar diferencias ya existentes entre diversos grupos o individuos. Intervenciones desigualitarias (por ejemplo, focalizadas en poblaciones pobres) por parte de organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales resultarían consistentes con sus roles de correctores y compensadores de inequidades existentes en la distribución de ingresos y riquezas. El contraste entre la equidad vertical y la horizontal es fundamental en nuestras sociedades actuales, caracterizadas por grandes desigualdades entre diversos individuos y grupos sociales. En estos contextos, el "tratamiento igual" de toda la sociedad podría resultar "igualitario" sin ser "equitativo". Es decir, sería "igualitario" sin necesariamente ser "justo". En ese sentido, la equidad resulta ser un término que no tiene una definición técnicamente precisa, pues no es sinónimo de "igualdad", particularmente en contextos que se caracterizan por desigualdades entre diferentes segmentos de la población. La interpretación de la "equidad" depende de algunos juicios valorativos de la sociedad. No obstante, e independientemente de la interpretación "horizontal" o "vertical" que se elija, la discusión de equidad involucra algún análisis o alguna referencia a la igualdad o desigualdad. Por tanto, un desafío pendiente para la interpretación del concepto de equidad radica en preguntar ¿igualdad de qué?. Asimismo, nos vemos obligados a preguntar preguntar ¿igualdad hasta qué punto? punto? Recordando que nuestra referencia a la igualdad aparece como una primera aproximación a la equidad, nos obligamos a cuestionar si la igualdad que se busca es absoluta o si, por el contrario, se propone que todos los individuos – por igual – logren cierto nivel "socialmente aceptable" del derecho u oportunidad que se busca garantizar. La coexistencia de sistemas públicos de entrega de servicios sociales y sistemas privados de mejor mej or calidad a mayor precio para el usuario indica que nuestras sociedades no están pretendiendo generar igualdad absoluta. La coexistencia de los dos sistemas refleja una tolerancia de desigualdades, siempre y cuando los ciudadanos logren un nivel "aceptable" de oportunidades, insumos, acceso, capacidad de uso y/o resultados.
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de salud y de bienestar que podrían ser demandados. En algún determinado momento, la sociedad se ve obligada a delimitar lo que está en capacidad de garantizar. Por tanto, la equidad deja de asociarse tan estrechamente con "igualdad" y empieza a dominar el concepto de "justicia". La sociedad se obliga a interpretar lo que resulta ser "aceptable". Hoy en día, las sociedades están explícitamente tomando estas decisiones en la medida que reconocen explícitamente que los recursos públicos nunca serán suficientes para atender todas las demandas sociales. Por tanto, se ven en la obligación de delimitar lo que la sociedad quiere garantizar para todos sus ciudadanos y/o residentes y lo que va a reservar para quienes trabajen para lograrlo y/o para quienes tengan recursos suficientes para conseguir por p or sus propios medios. Ahora bien, la discusión de las igualdades de insumos, acceso, capacidad de uso y resultados y la reflexión sobre "¿igualdad hasta dónde?" nos permiten regresar al análisis de equidad vertical y equidad horizontal. Algunas sociedades parecer proponer estrategias de promoción de equidad horizontal con tolerancia de desigualdades entre diversos grupos sociales al nivel de insumos y/o acceso, con el fin de buscar una mayor igualdad al nivel de capacidad de uso y/o de resultados. A manera de ejemplo, podemos contemplar los sistemas educativos que proponen programas focalizados en las poblaciones de menores ingresos y que incluyen atención pre-escolar, escolarización o sensibilización de padres de familia, programas nutricionales y superación del fracaso escolar. Explícitamente, hay desigualdades de acceso y de insumos a ciertas actividades asociadas con el proceso educativo. Por supuesto, se diseñan de manera progresiva – para beneficiar a los que están en desventaja en la distribución de ingresos y riquezas, esperando así lograr una equidad a nivel de capacidad de uso y una aproximación a la eq uidad de resultado.
Sostenibilidad "Sostenibilidad" ha sido un criterio de moda desde el auge del pensamiento ambientalista en los sesenta, y de allí surge el cuestionamiento de la armonía de diversas iniciativas asociadas con el crecimiento y el desarrollo con el ámbito físico y biológico. Posteriormente, surge una nueva dimensión de sostenibilidad, en lo que se refiere a la necesidad de contar con el apoyo continuado de determinados actores cuyo poder, participación y/o aportes resulta indispensable para que una iniciativa o una estrategia puedan mantenerse en el tiempo. Asimismo, la crisis de la deuda externa y las crisis fiscales de los años ochenta introducen otro elemento de la preocupación por sostenibilidad: la capacidad de una iniciativa de mantener un adecuado flujo de recursos financieros para así garantizar la continuidad de los efectos esperados. Como consecuencia del auge en el financiamiento provisto por la banca multilateral y los donantes bilaterales, los análisis de sostenibilidad también llegan a incorporar el cuestionamiento de la capacidad de una determinada iniciativa a mantenerse una vez que no se cuente con nuevas inyecciones del financiamiento internacional. Rápidamente se puede observar que la sostenibilidad tiene múltiples dimensiones; diversas percepciones de la sostenibilidad en las últimas décadas han enfatizado una u otra dimensión. Como consecuencia, el uso de la palabra "sostenibilidad" puede evocar ideas e imágenes muy distintas entre diversos individuos. La palabra "sostener" significa significa "sustentar, mantener firme una cosa". cosa". La definición más amplia de la sostenibilidad resulta tautológica: la sostenibilidad es la capacidad de mantenerse o sostenerse. Una iniciativa es sostenible si logra sostenerse en el tiempo. En general, la sostenibilidad ha sostenibilidad ha sido definida de manera ambigua en sus aplicaciones a la política pública. Tal como sucede con el concepto de equidad , la ambigüedad del concepto ha sido un
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que se puede considerar deseable universalmente. Difícilmente se levantan objeciones a que una iniciativa sea capaz de mantenerse a través del tiempo, aún cuando se agrega que la sostenibilidad demanda que se mantenga en armonía con otras dinámicas y otras iniciativas de su entorno. El concepto se define en forma tan ambiciosa que casi todo el mundo puede identificarse con alguna interpretación de la sostenibilidad. Una forma útil de clasificar las diversas definiciones podría ser por su unidad de análisis: un primer grupo de conceptualizaciones y de definiciones de la sostenibilidad tiene como unidad de análisis el modelo macro o la estrategia generalizada de consumo, crecimiento y desarrollo de la sociedad o de los grupos dominantes en la sociedad; un segundo grupo de interpretaciones de la sostenibilidad se enfoca en una unidad de análisis más micro – un determinado proceso, programa o proyecto. A continuación, vamos a mirar cada uno de estos conjuntos de definiciones.
Sostenibilidad con una visión macro El criterio de sostenibilidad llegó a adquirir un lugar permanente en la jerga de los diálogos sobre política pública a partir de los análisis críticos de los modelos de consumo, crecimiento y desarrollo que no garantizan ninguna capacidad de sostener unas condiciones de vida parecidas a las actuales en un largo plazo. Estos análisis se enfocaban en las estrategias globales o nacionales de desarrollo y cuestionaban la capacidad de seguir sobre las sendas de desarrolla trazadas por las mismas. Un conjunto amplio de definiciones de esta naturaleza tiene una preocupación predominante en la dimensión ambiental. Su unidad de análisis es macro, pues se refiere a los patrones de desarrollo o el proceso social en su conjunto y a las implicaciones intergeneracionales de los mismos.
Las definiciones "micros" de la sostenibilidad Otras definiciones de sostenibilidad se asocian principalmente en la literatura de las organizaciones multilaterales de financiamiento de proyectos y programas de desarrollo. Estas definiciones surgen a raíz del cuestionamiento del verdadero impacto del financiamiento multilateral y bilateral sobre el desarrollo, particularmente porque se cuestiona la capacidad de los programas y proyectos financiados para mantenerse una vez que se acabe el período de financiamiento internacional. Por tanto, su unidad de análisis es más delimitado – más micro – que las definiciones anteriores: •
•
el término de ‘sostenibilidad del programa’ significa la capacidad del programa para llevar a cabo sus actividades y servicios de manera continua, en búsqueda del cumplimiento de sus objetivos…". Shahidur R. Khandker, Baqui Khalily y Zahed Khan. 1995. Grameen Bank: Performance and Sustainability. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Discussion Papers, No. 306. p. 36. "para los propósitos de este análisis, la sostenibilidad se define como la continuidad por parte del programa en la entrega de sus servicios o en el mantenimiento de sus beneficios, después de terminar el apoyo técnico, gerencial y financiero del donante". Agencia para el Desarrollo Internacional. 1987. Development Assistance and Health Programs: Issues of Sustainability , Washington, D.C.: AID Program Evaluation Discussion Paper No. 23.
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•
•
"el término ‘sostenibilidad’ describe la capacidad de un proyecto para mantener un nivel aceptable de flujos de beneficios durante toda su vida económica". Banco Mundial, 1986. Sustainability of Projects: Review of Experience in the Fertilizer Subsector. "el grado de sostenibilidad de un proyecto se mide por el porcentaje de los bienes y servicios iniciados por el proyecto que todavía se entrega y se mantiene cinco años después de la terminación de recursos del donante, la continuación de la acción local estimulada por el proyecto y la generación de servicios e iniciativas sucesores como resultado de la capacidad local construida por el proyecto." George Honadle y Gerry VanSant. 1985. Implementation for Sustainability: Lessons from Integrated Rural Development. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.
La unidad de análisis micro de estas definiciones facilita una reflexión sobre la sostenibilidad de un determinado programa, iniciativa o proceso. No obstante, resultan limitadas a unos intereses particulares de los actores involucrados en las decisiones sobre el financiamiento externo. Aún manteniendo la unidad de análisis más micro, podríamos ampliar la definición de sostenibilidad para contemplar diversas fuentes de vulnerabilidad de una determinada iniciativa de desarrollo a diversos eventos o dinámicas que podrían afectar la continuidad en su capacidad de mantener la oferta de sus beneficios. benefici os. Esta definición de la sostenibilidad, que viene de la agricultura, reconoce que iniciativas productivas de muy alto rendimiento pueden depender de prácticas que resultan insostenibles en el sentido agrónomo o ecológico. Asimismo, una iniciativa en los sectores sociales que inicialmente genera soluciones concretas puede resultar insostenible frente a resistencias políticas, incapacidad de mantener el interés en la población objetivo o incapacidad de mantener el aporte de mano de obra voluntario (a manera de ejemplo). Definir la sostenibilidad así es equivalente a plantear una hipótesis con respecto a los factores de riesgo de la iniciativa que se está analizando. Esta visión de la sostenibilidad se enfoca en la definición de los factores externos al control de los gestores de una iniciativa que amenacen contra el mantenimiento de la capacidad de seguir generando los be neficios del mismo. Esta visión de sostenibilidad se enfoca en una relación uni-direccional de la sostenibilidad: analiza los impactos del entorno (multi-dimensional) sobre el programa o proyecto. Así, se visualiza el entorno como la fuente de riesgos y la sostenibilidad resulta de la capacidad de reaccionar y asimilar lo que el entorno genere. En 1990, el Banco Mundial publica una nueva interpretación de la sostenibilidad que no incorpora referencias al concepto de riesgos o vulnerabilidades. Propone que "la mayoría de las operaciones de desarrollo incorpora seis tipos de capital: humano, natural, cultural, institucional, físico y financiero." Un análisis de la experiencia con más de 550 operaciones muestra que su sostenibilidad depende del logro de un equilibrio equilibrio apropiado entre los varios varios tipos de capital. Para ejemplificar plantea "un proyecto que crea nuevo capital físico (tal como obras de riego o infraestructura escolar) tendrá poca probabilidad de sostenerse si no hay suficiente capital institucional y humano (personal capacitado y organizado de manera que pueda trabajar eficientemente) para q ue pueda aprovechar la nueva infraestructura.""(Banco i nfraestructura.""(Banco Mundial, Mundial, 1990). Esta interpretación de la sostenibilidad reconoce que las vulnerabilidades de una iniciativa no se limitan a la dimensión financiera. Además, permite ver una relación de doble vía entre el entorno y la iniciativa que se analiza. Es decir, permite entender que la sostenibilidad no va a depender tan sólo del impacto del entorno sobre la iniciativa, sino también depende de impactos de la
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Esta interpretación, entonces, extiende un puente con las definiciones más macros de la sostenibilidad. Indica que para que una determinada iniciativa sea sostenible, el entorno tiene que ser consistente con las necesidades de la iniciativa; pero, también pone demandas sobre la iniciativa, que sea armoniosa con el entorno. La sostenibilidad, entonces, depende de determinados características y comportamientos del entorno y de la iniciativa – y la armonía de los dos. Aplicación de los criterios en los procesos de formación y gestión de las políticas y programas sociales Esta reflexión sobre eficacia, eficiencia, equidad y sostenibilidad tiene su justificación en esclarecer el significado y las múltiples interpretaciones de estos términos, para que sean utilizables y utilizadas en los procesos de formación y gestión de las políticas y programas sociales. La discusión sobre sus significados se quedará en un ejercicio semántico y académico si los criterios no son aplicados a los análisis y los diálogos que apoyan la formación y la gestión. Hasta ahora, la utilización de los criterios ha sido típicamente inconsistente e insuficiente. El criterio más comúnmente aplicado es la eficacia. Es frecuente el análisis del cumplimiento de los objetivos, particularmente de los objetivos operativos. Por ejemplo, en esfuerzos de capacitación, es muy común hacer seguimiento del número de cursos y de capacitados. Recientemente, surge un movimiento de insistir no solo en la eficacia medida por cumplimiento de objetivos operacionales, sino de los intermedios y los finales, también. Esto implicaría que habrá que hacer también un seguimiento de comportamientos e impactos de la capacitación en la vida de los capacitados. El criterio de eficiencia ha recibido el tratamiento de saludo de bandera. En muchos casos, se analiza la eficiencia en el proceso inicial, cuando se compara una alternativa con otras; pero, pocas veces se revisa la eficiencia para cuestionar si las proyecciones iniciales efectivamente representaban la eficiencia de la alternativa seleccionada. Asimismo, en años recientes, los llamados por mejor uso de los recursos públicos han creado una mayor conciencia sobre la eficiencia, sin todavía haber traducido el análisis de la eficiencia en una herramienta cotidiana de los formadores y gerentes de las políticas y programas sociales. Nuevamente, cuando se ha prestado atención a la eficiencia, ha sido particularmente en relación con los objetivos operativos. Por ejemplo, se conoce el costo por metro cuadrado de construcciones escolares o el costo de capacitación por enfermera capacitada. Poco se ha hecho para mirar relaciones entre los costos y sus correspondientes impactos. (CEPAL, 1995). La equidad es un criterio que más y más se utiliza para justificar las intervenciones en los sectores sociales. No obstante, típicamente nos referimos a la equidad en términos abstractos y suponemos que unas iniciativas particularmente localizadas en los pobres contribuirán a una mejor equidad. Curiosamente, entonces, en búsqueda de la equidad, estamos reforzando separaciones ya existentes y proponiendo soluciones particulares para los grupos que queremos recompensar por inequidades existentes e históricas. La especificación de lo que se busca en la equidad, definiendo la igualdad ¿de qué? apoya la capacidad de analizar opciones y examinar las
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Trabajo individual 1. Realice un cuadro comparativo entre eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad, identifique sus similitudes y diferencias. 2. ¿Para Usted, de los cuatro principios citados, cuál es el más importante y por qué? 3. Con las políticas públicas identificadas previamente en su comunidad, proceda a hacer una evaluación rápida, para determinar si han cumplido con los principios o criterios de eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad. 4. Resuelva el caso “San Cristóbal El Llano” 5. Resuelva el caso “El programa de fertilizantes” Autoevaluación 1. ¿Con qué cosas de la lectura no está de acuerdo y por qué? 2. ¿Qué importancia tiene para un gerente ser eficaz, eficiente, equitativo y favorecer la sostenibilidad? 3. ¿Cómo considera que una gerente social puede ser eficiente efi ciente y eficaz?
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DECIMA QUINTA SEMANA LECTURA ESTADO, DEMOCRACIA, CIUDADANIA Y DESCENTRALIZACIÓN El Estado es un segmento geográficamente limitado de la sociedad humana unido por una común obediencia a un único soberano. El término puede hacer referencia tanto a una sociedad en su conjunto, como, de modo más específico, a la autoridad soberana que la controla. Según indica la anterior definición, el concepto de Estado está íntimamente relacionado con el concepto de soberanía, que fue desarrollado con anterioridad por la teoría jurídica. Se basa en la hipótesis, esencialmente legalista, de que toda sociedad política está o debe estar unida bajo una determinada autoridad jurídica. Puesto que las normas que emanan de diversas autoridades entrarán verosímilmente en conflicto, es lógico que no pueda existir una legalidad establecida en el país si no hay en el mismo una autoridad legislativa suprema, cuyas decisiones sean definitivas. Por otra parte, si el derecho de este país debe prevalecer, ha de estar respaldado por sanciones efectivas. Así, el poder coercitivo al igual que la autoridad jurídica, son ambos esenciales en el concepto jurídico de soberanía. El Estado es un territorio en el que una única autoridad ejerce poderes soberanos tanto de jure como de facto. En la historia del pensamiento político el término Estado ha tenido amplia aceptación, tanto como concepto normativo como concepto descriptivo. Los teóricos normativos, convencidos de que la concentración de poderes coercitivos en manos de una sola autoridad establecida es indispensable para el mantenimiento del orden público en un territorio determinado, han tratado de demostrar a menudo que la obediencia al Estado es la forma más elevada de obligación política. Los teóricos descriptivos, sin adherirse necesariamente a la proposición normativa de que el Estado tiene un valor supremo, se han mostrado dispuestos casi siempre a singularizarlo, entre todas las demás instituciones, sociales, como la única que es específicamente “política”, y a considerar la descripción y el análisis del Estado como el problema central de la ciencia política. A lo largo de este artículo se estudiará el papel de ambas concepciones, en primer lugar la normativa y después la descriptiva, en el desarrollo del d el pensamiento político moderno.
El concepto normativo El valor fundamental del concepto “Estado” en el orden histórico reside en su contribución normativa al desarrollo inicial de las instituciones políticas occidentales. Cuando la palabra “Estado”
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occidental fue acentuadamente pluralista. Teóricamente, el sistema político medieval era dualista, basándose en la idea de que el papa y el emperador, como vicarios de Cristo, eran conjuntamente responsables del gobierno de la Cristiandad, siendo el primero la autoridad suprema en las cuestiones espirituales, y el segundo, en las seculares. En la práctica, sin embargo, la división de la autoridad fue más lejos. Especialmente, el reino secular se fragmentó en una compleja red de jurisdicciones superpuestas, cada una de las cuales era reconocida como titular de derechos prescriptivos o contractuales propios. En estas condiciones, ningún gobernante territorial tenía el poder ni la autoridad para mantener un dominio efectivo del derecho. El conflicto y la inseguridad eran endémicos en el sistema. El Estado moderno es el producto de una larga y, finalmente, victoriosa lucha para superar todas estas dificultades. Ello se logró mediante el aumento gradual de los poderes de los príncipes territoriales, a expensas de otras autoridades. Hacia el siglo XIV, los reyes de Francia habían recorrido ya un largo camino hacia la reducción de los poderes independientes de la Iglesia y hacia el control de los magnates feudales. Otros reyes, en grados diversos, obtuvieron éxitos similares. Esto supuso la violación de muchos derechos adquiridos y encontró mucha resistencia. Sin embargo, dado el carácter sacral de su cargo, los reyes tenían una gran ventaja sobre la mayoría de sus rivales en esta competencia generalizada. Como fruto de sus esfuerzos, la fundación del Estado moderno estaba ya muy avanzada a finales de l a Edad Media. Maquiavelo. Sin embargo, hasta el siglo XVI no logró aceptación general el término “Estado”. Nicolás Maquiavelo fue el hombre que introdujo la palabra, en su sentido moderno, en el vocabulario de la política. Su utilización del término reflejaba los problemas concretos con los que se enfrentaba entonces su Italia natal. En muchos aspectos, Italia había sido protagonista del desarrollo de las instituciones políticas modernas. Por diversas razones, el feudalismo nunca floreció en este país. Esto significaba que eran relativamente escasos los intereses tradicionales que se oponían a una concentración eficaz del poder. Pero la forma que esta concentración revistió en Italia fue muy peculiar. Como tradicional campo de liza entre los papas y los emperadores, el país carecía de un rey capaz de servir como centro para la creación de un solo Estado. La Italia del Renacimiento era un mosaico de repúblicas y principados que rivalizaban entre sí en una lucha despiadada por el poder.
Este fue el mundo que conoció Maquiavelo, el mundo que halló su expresión en su teoría del Estado. La “razón de Estado” fue el principio básico del pensamiento de Maquiavelo. Aunque esta frase no aparece en sus obras, la idea está implícita en todo lo que escribió. Según este principio, la política consiste esencialmente en una lucha total por el poder. El objetivo propio de la acción política era aumentar al máximo el poder del Estado. Todo está permitido, con la única condición de que haya sido “racionalmente” concebido para alcanzar el objetivo. Como muchos hombres del Renacimiento, Maquiavelo estaba lleno de confianza en la posibilidad de alcanzar un fin mediante la utilización de técnicas racionales. El Estado era para él un artefacto, una obra de arte
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Bodino. Fue Jean Bodin el primero que acertó a formular el concepto de “Estado” de una manera aceptable. Bodino era francés, y sus concepciones políticas se hallaban en gran medida condicionadas por la situación de Francia en el siglo XVI. A diferencia de las repúblicas y principados italianos, la monarquía francesa era un típico Estado en gran escala, y sus problemas eran ya típicamente modernos.
En este país, las tradiciones e instituciones pluralistas de la Edad Media, aunque muy afectadas por la expansión del poder real, todavía eran mucho más importantes de lo que habían sido en la Italia renacentista. Se llegó así, con la Reforma, a una grave crisis política. De acuerdo con las tradiciones del dualismo cristiano, la Iglesia tenía el derecho y el deber de defender la fe verdadera contra los reyes heréticos. En una época de desunión religiosa, en que la pretensión de ortodoxia estaba en disputa entre dos o más iglesias rivales, ningún gobernante podía evitar aparecer como hereje ante los ojos de una parte de la población. Esto significaba, en el caso de Francia, que una fuerte minoría protestante se sentía justificada para disputar la autoridad a sus reyes católicos. Algunos de estos súbditos, denominados monarcómacos, llegaron incluso a mantener que los gobernantes heréticos debían ser derrocados por la fuerza y, si era preciso, asesinados. Aunque los protestantes eran incapaces de dominar todo el país, tenían fuerza suficiente para dominar una serie de parlamentos provinciales y otros organismos locales que habían sobrevivido al período feudal, y para utilizar los privilegios tradicionales de estos organismos como justificación jurídica de su resistencia al rey. Así, la unidad del reino quedó efectivamente rota, y el país se vio abocado a un periodo largo y agotador de guerras religiosas. La teoría de Bodino sobre la soberanía, que había de hacer época, era una idea cuyo desarrollo respondía a tal situación. Se adhirió a la posición de los politiques, grupo laxo de teóricos y políticos que lamentaban la tendencia hacia el extremismo religioso y que creían que el derecho y el orden eran valores políticos que debían ser protegidos a cualquier costo. Esto le condujo a la conclusión de que debía haber en cada Estado un solo legislador reconocido, o soberano, a cuyas decisiones se atribuyera la autoridad suprema. Contra el soberano no podía prevalecer legítimamente ningún derecho adquirido, ningún tipo de jurisdicción, secular o espiritual. Para Bodino, la soberanía no es tanto una cuestión de poder como de derecho. El valor de un orden legal coherente era la premisa de la que dedujo la necesidad de una autoridad soberana. A diferencia de Maquiavelo, su concepción del Estado se encontraba plenamente alineada en la tradición occidental de respeto a la norma jurídica. Fue obra suya que se estableciera firmemente el concepto en el repertorio del pensamiento político occidental. El culto al Estado alcanzó su cima en los siglos XVII y XVIII. Desde finales de la guerra de los Treinta Años hasta la Revolución francesa, la monarquía absoluta dominó, prácticamente sin adversario, como forma normal de organización política. Después de más de un siglo de guerras de religión, la mayor parte de las personas estaban dispuestas a aceptar la tesis de Bodino como única base posible de mantenimiento del orden público. La más importante limitación de la autoridad de los príncipes había sido eliminada por el Tratado de Westfalia en 1648, el cual confirmó expresamente el derecho de los soberanos seculares a determinar los deberes religiosos de sus súbditos. También se reconoció generalmente su supremacía en materias seculares. Es cierto que
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intensa erosión. Sin duda, el proceso comenzó a principios del siglo XVIII. Una vez que se hubo desvanecido el miedo a las guerras de religión, la gente comenzó a pensar que no bastaba con el mantenimiento del derecho y del orden, considerado en sí mismo, para justificar la acción política. La felicidad individual y la justicia social se convirtieron también en valores reconocidos, en nombre de los cuales era lícito plantear exigencias. En el siglo XVIII, la principal inspiración de tales exigencias fue la filosofía de la Ilustración. La igualdad ante la ley, la libertad intelectual y la economía del laissez-faire fueron las ideas liberales que dieron por primera vez a los hombres la visión de un mundo futuro mejor. El nacionalismo y el socialismo, posteriormente, desencadenaron esperanzas similares. Para quienes se inspiraban en estas ideas ya no era aceptable la obediencia al Estado como forma más elevada de obligación política. Si los soberanos accedían a convertirse en reformadores, nada había que objetar; pero, en otro caso, la reforma habría de realizarse frente a ellos. Aunque los filósofos de la Ilustración mantuvieron durante mucho tiempo la esperanza de realizar sus fines a través del “despotismo ilustrado” de los gobernantes tradicionales, el resultado final de sus esfuerzos fue la Revolución francesa. Este fue solamente el primero de una larga serie de movimientos revolucionarios que condujeron, en el curso de los siglos XIX y XX, a un deterioro acentuado y progresivo de la autoridad del Estado. Anarquismo y socialismo. Una de las consecuencias de la era revolucionaria moderna ha sido el desarrollo del anarquismo filosófico. En la teoría del liberalismo tenía implícito, desde sus orígenes, cierto elemento anarquista. Aunque la mayoría de los liberales reconocían la necesidad de una legalidad garantizada por sanciones coercitivas, daban prioridad a la autorregulación espontánea de la sociedad mediante instituciones no coercitivas, como el mercado libre. Para ellos, el mejor gobierno era el que menos gobernara. Esto redujo considerablemente la dignidad y la importancia del Estado, y llevó a algunos individuos —William Godwin, por ejemplo— a la conclusión extrema de que el mejor gobierno de todos sería aquel gobierno que hubiera dejado de existir.
Pero hasta el siglo XIX, y ya en relación con el auge del socialismo, no floreció realmente el anarquismo. Aunque algunos autores, como Saint-Simon, creían en la utilización de los poderes de gobierno para la realización de la justicia social, los socialistas más importantes concibieron al
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La teoría de la soberanía popular, revolucionaria en sus orígenes, estaba destinada en el curso de los siglos XIX y XX a convertirse en la única base ampliamente aceptada de legitimidad política. Es cierto que, tras la Revolución francesa, algunos teóricos conservadores trataron durante algún tiempo de defender y reforzar la antigua conexión entre la soberanía y el gobierno. Burke, con su insistencia en la importancia de mantener las tradiciones políticas, y Hegel, con su más compleja teoría del Estado como realización definitiva de un “espíritu del mundo” racional, figuran entre los defensores de la antigua concepción. Hubo asimismo intentos, especialmente por parte del papado, de hacer frente a las pretensiones más radicales de la soberanía popular, indicando que Dios es la única fuente de la autoridad legítima y que rebelarse contra el gobierno establecido es un pecado contra el propio Dios. Por otra parte, la teoría de la soberanía popular encontró resistencia incluso entre los liberales. Por ejemplo, la mayoría de los gobiernos liberales se sintieron autorizados para formular derechos imperiales sobre las colonias sin ninguna apelación al consentimiento popular, sobre la base de que los pueblos no europeos no estaban aún maduros para el autogobierno. A largo plazo, sin embargo, la idea de la soberanía popular no había de encontrar oposición eficaz en parte alguna. Durante los siglos XIX y XX los imperios coloniales y, asimismo, las monarquías tradicionales han tenido que hacer en muchas ocasiones concesiones a movimientos que proclaman el derecho imprescriptible a la autodeterminación nacional. La mayoría de los gobiernos de hoy, por muy grande que sea en la práctica la acción opresora de los mismos, se ven obligados a justificarse como representantes del pueblo. En tal sentido, la democracia es la norma universal de buena vecindad de la política contemporánea. Este proceso ha llevado a una acentuada desvalorización del concepto normativo del Estado. En los días en que el soberano era un monarca que gobernaba activamente, todo el poder y el prestigio del Estado se concentraban en su persona. La aureola de la realeza creaba una amplia distancia entre aquel y sus súbditos, y confería una especial dignidad a los funcionarios civiles y militares que ejecutaban su voluntad. En una democracia, esta concepción del Estado como algo distante no es fácil de mantener. Aunque la adhesión a una democracia puede simbolizarse en banderas, himnos y uniformes, o incluso en una familia real, la autoridad a la que hacen referencia estos símbolos ya no es la de un príncipe sobre sus súbditos, sino la de un pueblo soberano, colectivamente, sobre sus propios miembros individuales. En estas circunstancias, el
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soberanía en un sistema de este tipo. tip o. Por consiguiente, a efectos normativos, los conceptos de Estado y de soberanía han perdido mucho de su antiguo significado. Para los juristas, que han de detenerse en algún punto en su búsqueda de una autoridad jurídica suprema, estos conceptos tendrán siempre un significado. Para los pueblos dependientes que existen en el mundo, la idea de un Estado independiente es todavía una meta a la que aspiran. Así, pues, sería una exageración afirmar que los conceptos de Estado y de soberanía han perdido todo su valor normativo. Sin embargo, el hecho es, en todo caso, que la democracia moderna, en todas sus formas, ha significado una devaluación de los mismos. Una gran parte del mundo se encuentra hoy gobernada por regímenes comunistas, que prometen a la larga expresamente una “abolición del Estado” y que justifican su utilización continuada del poder coercitivo en aras de la justicia social y de los intereses del proletariado. Donde no predomina el comunismo, las palabras mágicas son “pueblo”, “país”, “nación” y “raza”. Pocos serían hoy los que considerasen la obediencia al Estado, en sí misma, como la forma más elevada de deber. La teoría de Bodino sobre el Estado como valor supremo de la política prácticamente se ha extinguido. “Democracia” es una palabra que escuchamos a diario a través de la televisión, el radio, los discursos políticos… También surge, de cuando en cuando, en las conversaciones de las personas; la leemos en periódicos, carteles, revistas y hasta en tiras cómicas; es muy utilizada pero, ¿qué quiere decir? De acuerdo con su significado original, la democracia se refiere al gobierno del pueblo.
La democracia como forma de gobierno es sinónimo de soberanía popular, ¿y eso qué significa? Significa que ningún poder o autoridad puede estar por encima de las decisiones del pueblo. ¿Y quién conforma el pueblo? pueblo? El pueblo es un conjunto conjunto de ciudadanos libres e iguales; ciudadanos que, conscientes de su libertad, tienen la facultad de elegir.
El concepto descriptivo
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ciudad-Estado era, a un mismo tiempo, suficientemente grande y pequeña como para permitir a los hombres una forma de vida social auténticamente justa y humana. Debido a ello, la ciencia política, para los griegos antiguos, podía comenzar y terminar en la polis. La influencia de esta tradición se refleja claramente en el pensamiento político moderno. Es cierto que el Estado moderno es, en muchos aspectos, totalmente diferente de la antigua polis. Su extensión territorial es normalmente mucho mayor, y su relación con la vida social de sus miembros es, por tanto, menos íntima. En lugar de ser considerado como un aspecto de la vida común de una comunidad de ciudadanos estrechamente ligados entre sí, el Estado moderno se presenta a menudo como un organismo externo de control que gobierna a una serie más o menos heterogénea y desordenada de sujetos individuales. El Imperio Británico y el de los Habsburgo son casos típicos en este sentido. Por diferentes que sean estos conjuntos de la antigua polis, el Estado moderno se parece a su antecesor en aspectos que podrían justificar también su consideración como el objeto central de la ciencia especializada en la política. El punto esencial es que el Estado moderno, al igual que la antigua polis, es, a un mismo tiempo, lo suficientemente grande y lo bastante pequeño como para proporcionar la única forma eficaz de integración social. En todas las sociedades modernas, los derechos y deberes de los hombres están definidos por una amplia diversidad de asociaciones, y su cumplimiento está garantizado por distintos organismos. Algunas, como la familia, son más reducidas que cualquier Estado en particular; otras, como la Iglesia católica, más amplias. En cualquier caso, sean grandes o pequeñas, estas asociaciones “privadas” solo en casos muy raros son autosuficientes. Al tratar de realizar sus respectivos objetivos, plantean exigencias contrapuestas que a menudo provocan conflictos. La función específica del Estado es regular tales conflictos. En los territorios en que existe un soberano que decide entre las exigencias contrapuestas y que hace cumplir sus decisiones, en caso necesario, mediante sanciones coercitivas adecuadas, es posible lograr un grado sustancial de coherencia social. Así, pues, el Estado moderno, al igual que la polis antigua, es una forma de asociación que es preciso distinguir de las restantes en virtud de su capacidad singular para realizar una acción integradora. La idea de que la ciencia política comienza y acaba en el Estado expresa la tesis de que este tipo de acción, y solamente este tipo, es esencialmente político.
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de la política, es natural que la ciencia política y la teoría jurídica vayan estrechamente unidas y que compartan muchos conceptos comunes. Sin embargo, para los especialistas modernos de las ciencias sociales, el enfoque jurídico de los problemas políticos es en buena medida inadecuado. Por importante que sea el derecho en una sociedad, constituye solamente una de las muchas agencias a través de las cuales se controla la conducta social. Los politólogos contemporáneos piensan en general que debe estudiarse el poder político en todas sus manifestaciones, y no únicamente en sus aspectos jurídicos. El Estado no debe definirse, desde luego, en términos jurídicos. Dado el aspecto coercitivo del derecho, la idea de Estado ha ido siempre asociada tanto a la de poder como a la de autoridad. La tradicional distinción entre soberanía de facto y soberanía de jure refleja este hecho. Siendo así, no hay motivo para que los politólogos, con su interés particular por los problemas del poder, hayan de limitar su atención a los aspectos de facto de la soberanía y considerar al Estado exclusivamente en este sentido. Prescindiendo de una referencia a los problemas de la autoridad jurídica, el rasgo específico del Estado, comparado con otras asociaciones, es su intento de monopolizar el poder coercitivo dentro de su propio territorio. Aunque nunca se alcanza en la práctica el caso límite del monopolio absoluto, a menudo se ha llegado a puntos muy próximos. Desde el punto de vista de una ciencia política meramente descriptiva, basta, por tanto, con definir el Estado en relación con ese límite, estudiando las condiciones que acompañan al mayor o menor grado de monopolio alcanzado en un tiempo y en un lugar determinados. Así definido, el concepto de “Estado” no guarda necesariamente relación con la elaboración y la aplicación de las leyes, y es compatible con un enfoque totalmente no jurídico de los problemas de la política. Sin embargo, incluso en esta forma, el concepto apenas se utiliza. El inconveniente es que atribuye excesiva importancia a los aspectos coercitivos de la vida política. En los días de la monarquía absoluta era perfectamente natural que se concibiera la política como una relación unilateral de mando y de obediencia entre un gobernante y sus súbditos. Pero la interacción entre un pueblo soberano y su gobierno no puede comprenderse de esta manera tan simple. Aunque los gobiernos modernos pueden actuar coactivamente, les falta esa identificación en última instancia con el Estado soberano que constituía la fuerza peculiar de las antiguas monarquías. El concepto de “soberanía del pueblo” aún conserva su “gancho” y utilidad, pero es demasiado
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los poderes ideológicos -iglesias, universidades, medios de comunicación, etc.- como a los poderes económicos -grupos financieros, empresariales, corporaciones, etc. - mediante la monopolización de la violencia legítima. Emergió así el Estado político moderno como instancia de defensa de la unidad nacional tanto frente a las amenazas externas como a los peligros internos de disgregación. Para ello dicha instancia tuvo que afirmar su poder como poder soberano, es decir, superior políticamente al de cualquier otro poder, tanto externo como interno. Empero, la configuración de una instancia de tal naturaleza sólo podía tener sentido si se evitaba que su poder fuera arbitrario o abusivo, Por ello, el Estado moderno hubo de configurarse como Estado de derecho, es decir, como un poder encargado de elaborar y hacer cumplir las leyes, pero también un Estado sujeto a las propias leyes establecidas. La soberanía del Estado, del poder político, se transformó así en soberanía de la legalidad, donde las propias instituciones estatales se encuentran jurídicamente limitadas en sus competencias y atribuciones. Con este fin se desarrolló la técnica de la división de los poderes en Ejecutivo, Legislativo y Judicial, de tal manera que se evitara tanto la concentración como la extralimitación o abuso del poder. Al distinguirse al menos tres funciones del Estado en instancias diferentes, cada una debe servir para controlar y evitar los potenciales abusos de las demás. Sin embargo, dicho control del gobierno por el gobierno sólo pudo consolidarse mediante la democratización de la soberanía estatal, esto es, mediante la sustentación del imperio de la
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acerca de la democracia se relacionan con la manera en que se entienden los términos pueblo y popular pues, en los hechos, estos términos son abstracciones, es decir, conceptos generales que no se refieren a objetos empíricos, sino a colectivos relativamente convencionales. Así, en la teoría de la democracia la categoría de pueblo gobernante ha tenido muy diversos significados que nunca han coincidido con el conjunto de los habitantes de una sociedad determinada. es decir, con el pueblo gobernado. g obernado. De esta manera, cuando en las sociedades democráticas modernas se habla del pueblo soberano, esta expresión se refiere exclusivamente al conjunto de los ciudadanos, es decir, de los hombres y mujeres que gozan de derechos políticos y que pueden, por consiguiente, participar de un modo o de otro en la constitución de la voluntad política colectiva. Más adelante se volverá sobre estos derechos y sus presupuestos. Ahora sólo importa destacar que, así definidos, los ciudadanos que forman el pueblo gobernante o soberano siempre son menos que los simples habitantes o miembros de una población. Aun si hoy en día la extensión de los derechos ciudadanos abarca a las mujeres y a los jóvenes mayores de 18 años, quedan todavía fuera los menores de esa edad, los extranjeros, así como los que ven suspendidos tales derechos a causa de la comisión de algún delito. Pero en la práctica no sólo se encuentran excluidos estos grupos. También lo están de facto todos aquellos que por circunstancias económicas, sociales o culturales son incapaces, parcial o totalmente, de ejercer los derechos políticos antes mencionados. Y, finalmente, también quedan
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El principio de la mayoría y la defensa de los derechos de las minorías
El poder político en las sociedades se encarga de gobernar, es decir, de tomar decisiones que conciernen y afectan la vida de todos sus integrantes. Ahora bien, cuando las sociedades son grandes y complejas surge el problema de cómo unificar intereses y opiniones no sólo diferentes sino también, con frecuencia, contrarios. Dado que no es posible que este pluralismo contradictorio de intereses y opiniones sea superable absolutamente y que, de pronto, todos estén de acuerdo en lo que debe hacerse políticamente, es necesario que existan procedimientos que permitan unificar democráticamente a los ciudadanos y tomar decisiones públicas legítimas. Uno de estos procedimientos es el que se basa en el principio de la mayoría, que básicamente postula que, en ausencia de unanimidad, el criterio que debe guiar la adopción de las políticas y las decisiones es el de la mayoría de los participantes. Si el pueblo entonces no puede ponerse de acuerdo de manera unánime será necesario que sea su mayoría la que determine el curso a seguir. Bien podría decirse, entonces, que el pueblo gobernante es solamente su parte mayor. Pero de hecho esto no es para nada exacto. En primer lugar porque la mayoría que decide no es ni debe interpretarse como una mayoría orgánica o sustancial, sino la mayoría contingente y temporal que resulta de un procedimiento de votación especifico. En otras palabras, las reglas del juego democrático presuponen que las decisiones se toman por mayoría, pero también que la mayoría
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El principio de la representación política democrática
Las tareas gubernamentales -la elaboración, discusión e implantación de políticas públicassuponen hoy día un alto grado de complejidad y especialización. Los gobiernos contemporáneos tienen que tomar constantemente decisiones de acuerdo con circunstancias cambiantes, asumiendo responsabilidades por las mismas y evaluando sus resultados. Todo ello vuelve inviable, e incluso indeseable, la participación permanente de la ciudadanía en su conjunto, que no sólo desconoce generalmente la complejidad de los problemas en cuestión sino que, por razones evidentes, no puede dedicarse de tiempo completo a las tareas de gobierno. Un Estado que por incrementar la democracia pretendiera poner a discusión y votación del pueblo todas y cada una de las medidas a tomar no sólo caería en políticas incoherentes y contradictorias, sino que también se volvería intolerable para el buen funcionamiento de la sociedad al exigir de los ciudadanos una dedicación total en las cuestiones públicas. p úblicas. Por ello, la democracia moderna sólo puede ser representativa, es decir, basarse en el principio de la representación política. El pueblo -los ciudadanos en su conjunto- no elige de hecho, bajo este principio, las políticas a seguir, las decisiones a tomar, sino que elige a representantes, a políticos, que serán los responsables directos de tomar la mayoría de las decisiones. Ello no anula, por supuesto, la posibilidad de que en algunos casos excepcionales (la aprobación de una ley fundamental o de una medida extraordinaria) se pueda recurrir a un plebiscito, es decir, a
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La democracia moderna es, en suma, un conjunto de procedimientos encargados de hacer viable el principio fundamental de la soberanía popular, el gobierno del pueblo por el pueblo. Se trata, por ende, de una democracia política, en la medida en que es básicamente un método para formar gobiernos y legitimar sus políticas. Se trata de una democracia formal, porque como método es independiente de los contenidos sustanciales, es decir, de las políticas y programas concretos que las diversas fuerzas políticas promuevan. Y se trata, además, de una democracia representativa, por cuanto la legitimidad de dichos gobiernos y políticas debe expresar la voluntad de los ciudadanos o, por lo menos, contar con el consenso explícito de los mismos. Así definida, la democracia moderna ha de entenderse como una democracia procedimental o formal, como un método y no como una política o programa de gobierno particular que pueda identificarse con tal o cual partido, con tal o cual ideología política. La democracia no debe verse, por lo tanto, como una solución de los problemas que aquejan a una sociedad, ni como una «varita mágica» que posibilite la superación de todas las dificultades. Como método, la democracia moderna sólo es capaz de enfrentar un problema -aunque ciertamente se trata de un problema crucial: el de cómo formar gobiernos legítimos y autorizar programas políticos. O, en otras palabras, los procedimientos democráticos sirven no para resolver directamente los problemas sociales, sino para determinar cómo deben plantearse, promoverse e implantarse las políticas que pretendan resolver esos problemas. Importa subrayar este punto, pues no pocas veces se genera la ilusión de que la sola democracia va a permitir la
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Las libertades democráticas
¿Qué significa ser libre en el contexto de nuestras sociedades complejas? Existen al menos dos sentidos decisivos de libertad: el primero remite a la posibilidad de actuar sin interferencias ni amenazas. En este sentido, por libertad se entiende que cada individuo goza del derecho a realizar determinadas actividades sin que nadie -ni el gobierno, ni organización social alguna, ni algún otro individuo se lo impidan. Por ejemplo, todo ciudadano es libre de asistir a la iglesia de su preferencia, de trabajar en tal o cual empleo, de formar una familia, de votar por un partido, etc. Su libertad así entendida puede verse como la posibilidad de elegir entre diversas
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obedece a sí mismo, y no a un poder externo y ajeno. La libertad como participación en las decisiones políticas, la libertad ciudadana en sentido estricto, implica, pues, el derecho, pero también el compromiso ético y político de participar, so pena de que esas decisiones aparezcan como impuestas e ilegítimas. Como en el caso anterior, también la libertad en tanto participación se desarrolla como una serie de derechos o libertades políticas particula1res: de pensamiento, reunión, asociación, manifestación, sufragio, etc., en la medida en que tales actividades se proponen fines propiamente políticos, es decir, concernientes al gobierno y orientación de la sociedad en su conjunto. Por ello, para ser democráticas, la afiliación a un partido, la participación como
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La igualdad política de la democracia
La igualdad jurídica y política de todos los ciudadanos es el segundo valor fundamental de la democracia moderna. Este valor no significa que se cancelen todas las diferencias o incluso desigualdades de corte económico, social, cultural o físico, sino que ninguna de tales diferencias o desigualdades puede legitimar el dominio de unos seres humanos sobre otros y, por ende, la preeminencia política de los primeros sobre los segundos. Por eso, es un principio básico de los procedimientos democráticos que cada ciudadano tenga derecho a un voto y sólo a un voto, y que ningún voto valga más que los demás. De esta manera, en el momento de emitir los sufragios
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ejercicio efectivo de la igualdad ciudadana. Y a la inversa, los procedimientos democráticos favorecen a su vez, cuando son respetados, la promoción de una mayor justicia social y de una mejor integración cultural. La fraternidad como valor democrático
Afirmar el valor de la fraternidad, es decir, afirmar que todos los seres humanos deben tratarse como hermanos significa, en primer lugar, enfatizar los valores antes mencionados de la libertad
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propuestas de gobierno y de orientación política de la sociedad y, por ende, promover verdaderas soluciones para los agobiantes y complejos problemas sociales. Lo anterior no significa, naturalmente, que la fraternidad democrática anule o supere la inexorable conflictividad de las sociedades modernas. En la medida en que se trata de sociedades plurales, diversificadas, crecientemente complejas, sus políticas sólo pueden ser esencialmente conflictivas, esencialmente competitivas. Pero existen dos modos totalmente opuestos de entender el conflicto y la competencia: como guerra, y por lo tanto como lucha a muerte contra un enemigo irreconciliable, o como lucha civilizada y pacífica entre adversarios capaces de convertir sus propias contradicciones en motor de un debate abierto y racional y, por lo tanto,
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áreas comprendidas en el sistema de bienestar, como son Salud, Vivienda, Educación, Empleo, Recreación y Cultura, Seguridad Social; lo mismo que, abordando todo tipo de problemáticas y poblaciones tanto en el ámbito rural como urbano. Su desarrollo y evolución como profesión, se sustenta en la forma como ha dado respuesta a las necesidades sociales. Desde el asistencialismo, determinado por los países europeos, y el Trabajo Social adaptativo, surgido en Norteamérica, hasta el heterogéneo modelo de Trabajo Social en Latinoamérica, esta profesión ha estado articulada al cambio y al desarrollo. (Reyna de Zuluaga, 1997,110). El Trabajo Social cumple funciones comprendidas dentro de la atención directa a individuos, familias, grupos y comunidades. Para ello, aprende métodos de intervención para abordar las situaciones de caso en el plano de una relación de ayuda terapéutica o de orientación y asesoría; como también, para trabajar con los grupos y comunidades tanto en relaciones terapéuticas, como de organización y fortalecimiento de la participación en función del bien común. Por otra parte, el Trabajador Social es un profesional que investiga los problemas sociales que obstaculizan el desarrollo armónico de estas instancias; propone alternativas de solución basado en el conocimiento y comprensión de la actualidad, de la política social, de los marcos teóricos y metodológicos contemporáneos, de las instituciones y organizaciones comunitarias. En este orden de ideas, desarrolla la capacidad de participar en la interlocución de los problemas que aquejan a la sociedad, especialmente los que tienen que ver con los sectores populares, para así, generar caminos de acción favorables a su bienestar integral. Un Trabajador Social, actúa como mediador entre las necesidades de la población y los recursos existentes para satisfacerlas, y la manera como se viabilizan mediante la formulación, ejecución y evaluación de las políticas y de los proyectos y programas sociales. El Trabajador Social no es el “todero”, como bien lo diría Ander Egg, pero sí el profesional que desarrolla un carisma especial para identificar las carencias y necesidades de las personas, ya individualmente o como parte de grupos o comunidades, en los diversos contextos culturales; las comprende y aborda multidimensionalmente, creando un clima de mutua confianza y apoyo permanente; orienta el clima organizacional hacia el mejoramiento en la relación con el cliente o usuario del servicio. El Trabajador Social es fundamentalmente sensible frente aquellas inquietudes y necesidades ocultas de las personas; tiene especial condición de entrega y disposición para interactuar con las familias aún en las condiciones más adversas. Del Trabajador Social se espera, cumpla una acción política frente a las inequidades y la falta de participación real de las personas en todos t odos los espacios de su intervención. No es un funcionario o empleado más; es un actor en la dinámica del conflicto, entendido éste, como la vida misma en la que convergen los diversos intereses y necesidades, las formas de ver, entender y asumir la realidad. La intervención se basa en la búsqueda de alternativas para la participación, por tanto, para la real inclusión en las decisiones que afectan a los individuos. En la actualidad, al trabajador social se le plantea de acuerdo con las exigencias del paradigma de gerencia de los años noventa, una proyección ya no continental, sino mundial, de su profesión. Es un deber ético, profesional y social, buscar formas innovadoras, creativas de aprovechar los recursos asignados para construir mejores propuestas de orden socioeducativo, terapéutico o asistencial, en la formulación, gestión y ejecución de las políticas sociales. (Molina, Ma). Lorena, 1996,10).
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Trabajo individual 1. Elabore una definición conceptual de su identidad como trabajador o trabajadora social. 2. ¿Cuáles son los aportes de la Gerencia Social al Trabajo Social? 3. ¿Resuelva el caso “Trabajo Social con imaginación gerencial” 4. Resuelva el caso “La decisión crucial” Autoevaluación 1. ¿Qué nuevo descubrió con la realización de la lectura? 2. ¿Qué sentimientos le deja la lectura?
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BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Kliksberg Bernardo gerencia social: dilemas gerenciales y experiencias innovativas, www.pucp.edu.pe/escgrad/gersoc/pres/docs/articulo3. http://indes.iadb.org/verpub.asp http://indes.iadb.org/verpub.asp?docNum=18693#; http://indes.iadb.org/verpub.asp?docNu m=18693#; Vieira b. José Gregorio Gerencia y política social: Análisis de su relación Desafíos de la política social. (Elsy Bonilla Bonilla Castro, Isabel Licha, José R. Molinas. Desafíos de la Gerencia Social en el siglo XXI) Eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad. (Karen Mokate, junio 1,999, INDES. Eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad: ¿Qué queremos decir? Criterios de eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad. (http://www.iadb.org/regions. Eficiencia de los programas sociales. (Medina Giopp, Alejandro. Alejandro. Eficiencia de los los programas programas sociales, análisis de situación y propuestas para su mejoramiento) Indicadores de eficiencia, eficacia, equidad y sostenibilidad en la gestión pública (http://www.iadb.org/) Conceptualización de la ciudadanía (Constantino Urcuyo Fournier, documentos de trabajo del CIAPA, No. 11, Mayo 1,999). Liberalismo, comunitarismo comunitarismo y republicanismo. republicanismo. (Santiago Caburga, Ciudadanía capital social y solidaridad. Marzo 20001, documento documento digitalizado) Municipio y democracia. (Quim Brugué, Joan Font y Ricard Gomá, Participación y Democracia. Documento digitalizado). Identidades étnicas y construcción construcción de ciudadanía. ciudadanía. (Fabian Repeto. La Gerencia Social Social ante los nuevos retos del desarrollo social en América Latina. INDES) Estado y Gestión Pública. (http://infopymes.senati.edu.pe/) Valores y reglas de la democracia. democracia. (http://infopymes.senati.edu.pe/) Democracia representativa y democracia democracia directa. (http://infopymes.senati.edu.pe/) Buen gobierno local. (http://www.iigov.org/revista/12/re10.pdf) Marco Legal de la descentralización en Guatemala. Guatemala. (Leyes de Descentralización de Guatemala) Nuevos enfoques de la gerencia gerencia pública. (Isabel Licha. El Enfoque Enfoque de la Gerencia Social, INDES INDES 1999). Gerencia Social y Concertación. (Isabel Licha. Licha. Concertación Concertación y Gerencia Social. INDES 2003).
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Las Redes Sociales. (Isabel Licha. Licha. Las redes de políticas sociales. Un desafío de la Gerencia Social. INDES 2001). Gerencia pública pública y políticas sociales. (Gloria Guadarrama Guadarrama Sanchez. Sanchez. Gerencia pública pública y política social en Latinoamérica. Documento digitalizado) Fines de la Gerencia Social. (Karen Mokate Mokate y José Jorge Saavedra. Gerencia Social: un enfoque integral para la gestión de políticas y programas sociales. sociales. INDES) El gerente gerente social tipo. tipo. (Bernardo Kliksberg. Dilemas Gerenciales Gerenciales y experiencias innovativas. innovativas. Documento digitalizado). Habilidades del gerente social. (Heloisa Primavera. Gerencia social y epistemología. Documento digitalizado).