ERP a book from wikipedia for GGSIPU
PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 19 Oct 2011 20:59:01 UTC
Contents Articles UNIT 1
1
Introduction
2
Enterprise resource planning
UNIT 2 systems in ERP
2 9
10
Management information system
10
Operations support system
14
Operations management
17
Decision support system
19
Transaction processing system
24
Online transaction processing
31
Online analytical processing
33
Object Process Methodology
38
ERP modeling
41
UNIT 3
42
Resource Management
43
Customer relationship management
43
Supply chain management
55
Project management
67
Access control
79
Manufacturing resource planning
91
Business process management
95
Document automation
100
Enterprise feedback management
103
Enterprise planning systems
104
Manufacturing operations management
109
Warehouse management system
109
Quality management
111
Six Sigma
117
Contents Articles UNIT 1
1
Introduction
2
Enterprise resource planning
UNIT 2 systems in ERP
2 9
10
Management information system
10
Operations support system
14
Operations management
17
Decision support system
19
Transaction processing system
24
Online transaction processing
31
Online analytical processing
33
Object Process Methodology
38
ERP modeling
41
UNIT 3
42
Resource Management
43
Customer relationship management
43
Supply chain management
55
Project management
67
Access control
79
Manufacturing resource planning
91
Business process management
95
Document automation
100
Enterprise feedback management
103
Enterprise planning systems
104
Manufacturing operations management
109
Warehouse management system
109
Quality management
111
Six Sigma
117
Quality control
126
Quality investing
128
Quality engineering
130
Business process reengineering
130
Product lifecycle management
137
UNIT 4
146
ERP Issues
147
ERP system selection methodology
147
List of ERP software packages
150
References Article Sources and Contributors
155
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
159
Article Licenses License
161
1
UNIT 1
2
Introduction Enterprise resource planning Enterprise resource planning (ERP) integrates internal and external management information across an entire
organization, embracing finance/accounting, manufacturing, sales and service, customer relationship management, etc. ERP systems automate this activity with an integrated software application. Its purpose is to facilitate the flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders.[1] ERP systems can run on a variety of hardware and network configurations, typically employing a database as a repository for information. [2]
Characteristics ERP systems typically include the following characteristics: • • • •
An integrated system that operates in real time (or next to real time), without relying on periodic updates. A common database, which supports all applications. A consistent look and feel throughout each module. Installation of the system without elaborate application/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department.[3]
Finance/Accounting General ledger, payables, cash management, fixed assets, receivables, budgeting, consolidation Human resources payroll, training, benefits, 401K, recruiting, diversity management Manufacturing Engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, quality control, cost management, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, activity based costing, product lifecycle management Supply chain management Order to cash, inventory, order entry, purchasing, product configurator, supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, inspection of goods, claim processing, commissions Project management Costing, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management Customer relationship management Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center support Data services Various "self – service" interfaces for customers, suppliers and/or employees Access control Management of user privileges for various processes
Enterprise resource planning
History Origin of "ERP" In 1990 Gartner Group first employed the acronym ERP [4] as an extension of material requirements planning (MRP), later manufacturing resource planning [5] [6] and computer-integrated manufacturing. Without supplanting these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole, reflecting the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.[7] Not all ERP packages were developed from a manufacturing core. Vendors variously began with accounting, maintenance and human resources. By the mid – 1990s 1990s ERP systems addressed all core functions of an enterprise. Beyond corporations, governments and non – profit profit organizations also began to employ ERP systems. [8]
Expansion ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s because of the year 2000 problem and introduction of the Euro disrupted legacy systems. Many companies took this opportunity to replace such systems with ERP. This rapid growth in sales was followed by a slump in 1999 after these issues had been addressed. [9] ERP systems initially focused on automating back office functions that did not directly affect customers and the general public. Front office functions such as customer relationship management (CRM) dealt directly with customers, or e – business business systems such as e – commerce, commerce, e – government, government, e – telecom, telecom, and e – finance, finance, or supplier relationship management (SRM) became integrated later, when the Internet simplified communicating with external parties. "ERP II" was coined in the early 2000s. It describes web – based based software that allows both employees and partners – time (such as suppliers and customers) real – time access to the systems. "Enterprise application suite" is an alternate name for such systems.
Components • • • • • • • • •
Trans Transac acti tion onal al data databa base se Manage Managemen mentt portal portal/da /dashb shboar oardd Busin Busines esss intelli intellige genc ncee syste system m Custo Customi miza zabl blee rep repor orti ting ng External External access access via techno technology logy such as web web services services Search Docu Docume ment nt mana manage geme ment nt Messa Messagi ging ng/c /cha hat/ t/wi wiki ki Work Wo rkfl flow ow mana manage geme ment nt
Best practices Best practices are
incorporated into most ERP systems. This means that the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in the convenience with which the customer can modify these practices. [10] Companies that implemented industry best practices reduced time – consuming consuming project tasks such as configuration, documentation, testing and training. In addition, best practices reduced risk by 71% when compared to other software implementations. [11]
The use of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as IFRS, Sarbanes-Oxley, or Basel II. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as electronic funds transfer. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses who share that business requirement.
3
Enterprise resource planning
Modularity Most systems are modular to permit automating some functions but not others. Some common modules, such as finance and accounting, are adopted by nearly all users; others such as human resource management are not. For example, a service company probably has no need for a manufacturing module. Other companies already have a system that they believe to be adequate. Generally speaking, the greater the number of modules selected, the greater the integration benefits, but also the greater the costs, risks and changes involved.
Connectivity to plant floor information – time ERP systems connect to real – time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions. Direct integration —ERP systems connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product
offering. This requires the vendors to offer specific support for the plant floor equipment that their customers operate. ERP vendors must be expert in their own products, and connectivity to other vendor products, including competitors. Database integration —ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant
floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator. —These devices communicate directly with plant floor Enterprise appliance transaction modules (EATM) —
equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, Web Services, or system – specific specific program interfaces (APIs). The benefit of an EATM is that it offers an off – the the – shelf shelf solution. —Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the Custom –integration solutions —
highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom – integrated integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server class computers. Standard protocols — —Communications drivers are available for plant floor equipment and separate products have
the ability to log data to staging tables. Standards exist within the industry to support interoperability between software products, the most widely known being OPC [12]
Implementation ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices. [13] Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes —consulting, customization, and support. [13] Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise consumes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants. [14] Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years. Customization can substantially increase implementation times. [14]
4
Enterprise resource planning
Process preparation Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes. [15] Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure. [16] It is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze business processes before implementation. This analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that the risk of business process mismatch is decreased by: • linking linking current current processes processes to to the organizatio organization's n's strateg strategy; y; • analyz analyzing ing the the effecti effectiven veness ess of each each proces process; s; • unders understan tandin dingg existing existing automa automated ted soluti solutions. ons.[17] [18] ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies and decision centers. [19] This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g. linking via Master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific needs. A potential disadvantage is that adopting "standard" processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one area often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage. [20] [21]
Configuration Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the customer wants the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically build many changeable parameters that modify system operation. For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accounting —FIFO or LIFO —to employ, whether to recognize revenue by geographical unit, product line, or distribution channel and whether to pay for shipping costs when a customer returns a purchase.
Customization ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices and are intended to be deployed "as is" [22] [23] . ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that allow organizations to incorporate their own business rules but there are often functionality gaps remaining even after the configuration is complete. ERP customers have several options to reconcile functionality gaps, each with their own pros/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered functionality, writing a homegrown bolt-on/add-on module within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. All three of these options are varying degrees of system customization, with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain [24] . Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices and/or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP functionality. Key differences between customization and configuration include: • Customization Customization is always always optional, optional, whereas whereas the software software must always be configure configuredd before use (e.g., (e.g., setting up cost/profit center structures, organisational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.) • The software software was designed designed to handle various various configuration configurations, s, and behaves behaves predictably predictably in any allowed allowed configuration. • The effect of configura configuration tion changes changes on system behavior behavior and performan performance ce is predictable predictable and is the responsibili responsibility ty of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable, is the customer's responsibility and increases testing activities. • Configuration Configuration changes changes survive survive upgrades upgrades to new software software versions. versions. Some customizati customizations ons (e.g. code code that uses pre – defined defined "hooks" that are called before/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g. those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten
5
Enterprise resource planning during upgrades and must be reimplemented [25] . Customization Advantages: • Improves user acceptance[26] • Offers the potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-à-vis companies using only standard features. Customization Disadvantages: • Increases time and resources required to both implement and maintain [27] . • Inhibits seamless communication between suppliers and customers who use the same ERP system uncustomized.
Extensions ERP systems can be extended with third – party software. ERP vendors typically provide access to data and functionality through published interfaces. Extensions offer features such as: • archiving, reporting and republishing; • capturing transactional data, e.g. using scanners, tills or RFID • access to specialized data/capabilities, such as syndicated marketing data and associated trend analytics.
Data migration Data migration is the process of moving/copying and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning: [28] • • • • • •
Identify the data to be migrated Determine migration timing Generate the data templates Freeze the toolset Decide on migration-related setups Define data archiving policies and procedures.
Comparison to special –purpose applications Advantages The fundamental advantage of ERP is that integrating the myriad processes by which businesses operate saves time and expense. Decisions can be made more quickly and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include [29] : • • • •
Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment Revenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)
ERP systems centralize business data, bringing the following benefits: • They eliminate the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems —consolidation of finance, marketing and sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications • They enable standard product naming/coding. • They provide a comprehensive enterprise view (no "islands of information"). They make real – time information available to management anywhere, any time to make proper decisions. • They protect sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure. [30]
6
Enterprise resource planning
Disadvantages • Customization is problematic. • Re – engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness and/or divert focus from other critical activities • ERP can cost more than less integrated and/or less comprehensive solutions. • High switching costs increase vendor negotiating power vis a vis support, maintenance and upgrade expenses. • Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention. • Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies. • Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations. The limitations of ERP have been recognized sparking new trends in ERP application development, the four significant developments being made in ERP are, creating a more flexible ERP, Web-Enable ERP, Interenterprise ERP and e-Business Suites, each of which will potential address the fallbacks of the current ERP.
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Bidgoli, Hossein, (2004). The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 707. Khosrow – Puor, Mehdi. (2006). Emerging Trends and Challenges in Information Technology Management. Idea Group, Inc. p. 865. Sheilds, Mureell G., E-Business and ERP: Rapid Implementation and Project Planning. (2001) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 9-10. L. Wylie, "A Vision of Next Generation MRP II", Scenario S-300-339, Gartner Group, April 12, 1990 Anderegg, Travis. "MRP/MRPII/ERP/ERM — Confusting Terms and Definitions for a Murkey Alphabet Soup" (http://www.wlug.org.nz/ EnterpriseSpeak). . Retrieved 2007-10-25 [6] "ERP" (http://www.erp.com/component/content/article/324-erp-archive/4407-erp. html). . Retrieved 2009-10-07. [7] Sheilds, Mureell G., E – Business and ERP: Rapid Implementation and Project Planning. (2001) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 9. [8] Chang, SI; Guy Gable; Errol Smythe; Greg Timbrell (2000). "A Delphi examination of public sector ERP implementation issues" (http:// portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=359640.359793). International Conference on Information Systems. Atlanta: Association for Information Systems. pp. 494 – 500. ISBN ICIS2000-X. . Retrieved September 9, 2009. [9] Monk, Ellen; Wagner, Bret (2006). Concepts in Enterprise Resource Planning (Second ed.). Boston: Thomson Course Technology. ISBN 0619216638 [10] Monk, Ellen and Wagner, Brett."Concepts in Enterprise Resource Planning" 3rd.ed.Course Technology Cengage Learning.Boston, Massachusetts.2009 [11] "Enhanced Project Success Through SAP Best Practices – International Benchmarking Study". ISBN 1-59229-031-0. [12] OPC is managed by the OPC Foundation. [13] What is ERP?, http://www.tech-faq.com/erp.shtml [14] http://carl.sandiego.edu/gba573/critical_issues_affecting_an_erp.htm CRITICAL ISSUES AFFECTING AN ERP IMPLEMENTATION [15] Turban et al. (2008). Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy . Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 300 – 343. ISBN 978-0-471-78712-9 [16] Brown, C., and I. Vessey, "Managing the Next Wave of Enterprise Systems: Leveraging Lessons from ERP," MIS Quarterly Executive , 2(1), 2003. [17] King. W., "Ensuring ERP implementation success," Information Systems Management , Summer 2005. [18] Yusuf, Y., A. Gunasekaran, and M. Abthorpe, "Enterprise Information Systems Project Implementation: A Case Study of ERP in Rolls-Royce," International Journal of Production Economics , 87(3), February 2004. [19] "Requirements Engineering for Cross-organizational ERP Implementation: Undocumented Assumptions and Potential Mismatches" (http:// www.vital-project.org/papers/Daneva-Wieringa-Camera-Ready-RE-Paper.pdf) (PDF). University of Twente. . Retrieved 2008-07-12. [20] Turban et al. (2008). Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy . Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 320. ISBN 978-0-471-78712-9 [21] Dehning,B. and T.Stratopoulos, 'Determinants of a Sustainable Competitive Advantage Due to an IT-enabled Strategy,' Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 12, 2003 [22] Kraemmerand, P.; et al. (2003). "ERP implementation: an integrated process of radical change and continuous learning". Production Planning & Control 14 (4): 228 – 248. [23] Vilpola, Inka Heidi (2008). "A method for improving ERP implementation success by the principles and process of user-centred design". Enterprise Information Systems 2 (1): 47 – 76. [24] Fryling, Meg (2010). "Estimating the impact of enterprise resource planning project management decisions on post-implementation maintenance costs: a case study using simulation modelling". Enterprise Information Systems 4 (4): 391 – 421. [25] Yakovlev, I.V. (2002). "An ERP implementation and business process reengineering at a Small University". Educause Quarterly 2: 52 – 57.
7
Enterprise resource planning [26] Fryling, Meg (2010). Total Cost of Ownership, System Acceptance and Perceived Success of Enterprise Resource Planning Software: Simulating a Dynamic Feedback Perspective of ERP in the Higher Education Environment . ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. pp. 403. ISBN 9781109744286. [27] Fryling, Meg (2010). "Estimating the impact of enterprise resource planning project management decisions on post-implementation maintenance costs: a case study using simulation modelling". Enterprise Information Systems 4 (4): 391 – 421. [28] Ramaswamy V K (2007-09-27). "Data Migration Strategy in ERP" (http://research.ittoolbox.com/white-papers/backoffice/erp/ data-migration-strategies-in-erp-4620/). . Retrieved 2008-04-08. [29] Arnold, Vikki (2010). Emerald Group Publishing Limited . Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-0-85724-137-5. [30] Walsh, Katherine (January 2008). "The ERP Security Challenge" (http://www.csoonline.com/article/216940/ The_ERP_Security_Challenge). CSOonline. CXO Media Inc. . Retrieved 2008-01-17.
Further reading • Grant, David; Richard Hall, Nick Wailes, Christopher Wright (March 2006). "The false promise of technological determinism: the case of enterprise resource planning systems". New Technology, Work & Employment 21 (1): 2 – 15. doi:10.1111/j.1468-005X.2006.00159.x. • Loh, Tee Chiat; Lenny Koh Siau Ching (September 2004). "Critical elements for a successful ERP implementation in SMEs". International Journal of Production Research 42 (17): 3433 – 3455. doi:10.1080/00207540410001671679. • Shaul, Levi; Tauber Doron (September 2010). "Hierarchical examination of success factors across ERP life cycle" (http://aisel.aisnet.org/mcis2010/79/). MCIS 2010 Proceedings.: 79. • Head, Simon (2005). The New Ruthless Economy. Work and Power in the Digital Age . Oxford UP. ISBN 0195179838. • Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1992). Principles of Computer Integrated Manufacturing. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ISBN 047193450X. • Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1990). Les nouvelles perspectives de la production . Paris: DUNOD BORDAS. ISBN 9782040198206. • Lequeux, Jean-Louis (2008). Manager avec les ERP, Architecture Orientée Services (SOA) . Paris: EDITIONS D'ORGANISATION. ISBN 9782212540949. • CIO Magazine's ABCs of ERP (http://www.cio.com/article/40323) • History Of ERP (http://opensourceerpguru.com/2009/02/25/erp-history/) • Clemons, E.K.; Kimborough (1986). "IS for Sustainable Competitive Advantage". Information & Management 11 (3): 131 – 136. doi:10.1016/0378-7206(86)90010-8. • Henderson, Ian ERP From the Frontline MBE ISBN 978-1-898822-05-9 Making ERP Work (http://www.mlg. uk.com/html/erpfrontline.htm) • Software Advice's 4-Part Series on the History of Enterprise Software (http://blog. softwareadvice.com/articles/ enterprise/software-history-pt1-1082411/)
8
9
UNIT 2
10
systems in ERP Management information system A management information system (MIS) is a system that provides information needed to manage organizations efficiently and effectively. [1] Management information systems involve three primary resources: technology, information, and people. It's important to recognize that while all three resources are key components when studying management information systems, the most important resource is people. Management information systems are regarded as a subset of the overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the organization.[2] Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. decision support systems, expert systems, and executive information systems. [2]
Overview Initially in businesses and other organizations, internal reporting was made manually and only periodically, as a by-product of the accounting system and with some additional statistic(s), and gave limited and delayed information on management performance. Previously, data had to be separated individually by the people as per the requirement and necessity of the organization. Later, data was distinguished from information, and so instead of the collection of mass of data, important and to the point data that is needed by the organization was stored. Earlier, business computers were mostly used for relatively simple operations such as tracking sales or payroll data, often without much detail. Over time, these applications became more complex and began to store increasing amount of information while also interlinking with previously separate information systems. As more and more data was stored and linked man began to analyze this information into further detail, creating entire management reports from the raw, stored data. The term "MIS" arose to describe these kinds of applications, which were developed to provide managers with information about sales, inventories, and other data that would help in managing the enterprise. Today, the term is used broadly in a number of contexts and includes (but is not limited to): decision support systems, resource and people management applications, enterprise resource planning (ERP), enterprise performance management (EPM), supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM), project management and database retrieval applications. "The five eras are general-purpose mainframe and minicomputer computing, personal computers, client/server networks, enterprise computing, and cloud computing."(Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, 11th Edition. Prentice Hall/CourseSmart, 12/30/2008. p. 164). The first era was ruled by IBM and their mainframe computers, these computers would often take up whole rooms and require teams to run them, IBM supplied the hardware and the software. As technology advanced these computers were able to handle greater capacities and therefore reduce their cost. By 1965 microprocessors began to take the market away from mainframe computers. This technology allowed small desktop computers to do the same work that it previously would have taken a room full of computers. This also decentralized computing power from large data centers to smaller offices. In the late 1970s minicomputer technology gave way to personal computers. Now for a relatively low cost anyone could have a computer in his own home. This allowed for businesses to give their employees access to computing power that 10 years before would have cost tens of thousands of dollars. This proliferation of computers also helped
Management information system create a need to connect these computers together on a network giving birth to the Internet. As technology has increased and cheapened the need to share information across a large company had also grown, this gave way to the client/server era. With this era computers on a common network were able to access shared information on a server. This allows for large amounts of data to be accessed by thousands and even millions of people simultaneously. The latest evolution of Information Systems is cloud computing a recent development, cloud computing lets users access data stored on a server, where they can not only see the data but also edit, save, download or upload. This along with high speed networks has led to a much more mobile view of MIS. In cloud computing the manager does not have to be at a desk to see what their employees are working on but instead can be on a laptop, tablet pc, or even smartphone. An 'MIS' is a planned system of the collection, processing, storage and dissemination of data in the form of information needed to carry out the management functions. In a way, it is a documented report of the activities that were planned and executed. According to Philip Kotler "A marketing information system consists of people, equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute needed, timely, and accurate information to marketing decision makers." [3] The terms MIS and information system are often confused. Information systems include systems that are not intended for decision making. The area of study called MIS is sometimes referred to, in a restrictive sense, as information technology management. That area of study should not be confused with computer science. IT service management is a practitioner-focused discipline. MIS has also some differences with ERP which incorporates elements that are not necessarily focused on decision support. The successful MIS must support a business's Five Year Plan or its equivalent. It must provide for reports based upon performance analysis in areas critical to that plan, with feedback loops that allow for titivation of every aspect of the business, including recruitment and training regimens. In effect, MIS must not only indicate how things are going, but why they are not going as well as planned where that is the case. These reports would include performance relative to cost centers and projects that drive profit or loss, and do so in such a way that identifies individual accountability, and in virtual real-time. Any time a business is looking at implementing a new business system it is very important to use a system development method such as system development life cycle. The life cycle includes analysis, requirements, design, development, testing and implementation.
Types of management information systems There are many types of management information systems in the market that provide a wide range of benefits for companies. •
Transaction processing systems (TPS) collect and record the routine transactions of an organization. Examples of
such systems are sales order entry, hotel reservations, payroll, employee record keeping, and shipping. •
Management information systems (MIS)
produce fixed, regularly scheduled reports based on data extracted and summarized from the firm’s underlying transaction processing systems (TPS) to middle and operational level managers to provide answers to structured and semi-structured decision problems.
•
Decision-support systems (DSS) are computer program applications used by middle management to compile
information from a wide range of sources to solve problems and make decisions. •
is a reporting tool that provides quick access to summarized reports coming from all company levels and departments such as accounting, human resources and operations. • Expert system (ES) is a knowledge about a specific area to act as an expert consultant to the user. It is no the replacement of human being rather they help them in using their expertise more efficiently and effectively. When we join the concept of artificial intelligence with information system, the result is an Expert System. Executive support systems (ESS)
11
Management information system •
Office automation systems (OAS) are meant for improving the communication and productivity of people in the
enterprise. They attempt to automate office procedures and remove bottlenecks, lacuna in the secretarial work. These systems are helpful to all levels of management.
Advantages of management information systems The following are some of the benefits that can be attained for different types of management information systems. [4] • The company is able to highlight their strength and weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports, employee performance records etc. The identification of these aspects can help the company to improve their business processes and operations. • Giving an overall picture of the company and acting as a communication and planning tool. • The availability of the customer data and feedback can help the company to align their business processes according to the needs of the customers. The effective management of customer data can help the company to perform direct marketing and promotion activities. • Information is considered to be an important asset for any company in the modern competitive world. The consumer buying trends and behaviors can be predicted by the analysis of sales and revenue reports from each operating region of the company.
Enterprise applications •
Enterprise systems, also known as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems provide an organization with
integrated software modules and a unified database which enable efficient planning, managing, and controlling of all core business processes across multiple locations. Modules of ERP systems may include finance, accounting, marketing, human resources, production, inventory management and distribution. •
Supply chain management (SCM)
systems enable more efficient management of the supply chain by integrating the links in a supply chain. This may include suppliers, manufacturer, wholesalers, retailers and final customers.
•
Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help businesses manage relationships with potential and
current customers and business partners across marketing, sales, and service. •
helps organizations facilitate the collection, recording, organization, retrieval, and dissemination of knowledge. This may include documents, accounting records, and unrecorded procedures, practices and skills.
Knowledge Management System (KMS)
Developing Information Systems "The actions that are taken to create an information system that solves an organizational problem are called system development (Laudon & Laudon, 2010)". These include system analysis, system design, programming, testing, conversion, production and finally maintenance. These actions usually take place in that specified order but some may need to repeat or be accomplished concurrently. System analysis is accomplished on the problem the company is facing and is trying to solve with the information system. Whoever accomplishes this step will identify the problem areas and outlines a solution through achievable objectives. This analysis will include a feasibility study, which determines the solutions feasibility based on money, time and technology. Essentially the feasibility study determines whether this solution is a good investment. This process also lays out what the information requirement will be for the new system. System design shows how the system will fulfill the requirements and objectives laid out in the system analysis phase. The designer will address all the managerial, organizational and technological components the system will address and need. It is important to note that user information requirements drive the building effort. The user of the system must be involved in the design process to ensure the system meets the users need and operations.
12
Management information system Programming entails taking the design stage and translating that into software code. This is usually out sourced to another company to write the required software or company ’s buy existing software that meets the systems needs. The key is to make sure the software is user friendly and compatible with current systems. Testing can take on many different forms but is essential to the successful implementation of the new system. You can conduct unit testing, which tests each program in the system separately or system testing which tests the system as a whole. Either way there should also be acceptance testing, which provides a certification that the system is ready to use. Also, regardless of the test a comprehensive test plan should be developed that identifies what is to be tested and what the expected outcome should be. Conversion is the process of changing or converting the old system into the new. This can be done in four ways: Parallel strategy – Both old and new systems are run together until the new one functions correctly (this is the safest approach since you do not lose the old system until the new one is “bug” free). Direct cutover – The new system replaces the old at an appointed time. Pilot study – Introducing the new system to a small portion of the operation to see how it fares. If good then the new system expands to the rest of the company. Phased approach – New system is introduced in stages. Anyway you implement the conversion you must document the good and bad during the process to identify benchmarks and fix problems. Conversion also includes the training of all personnel that are required to use the system to perform their job. Production is when the new system is officially the system of record for the operation and maintenance is just that. Maintain the system as it performs the function it was intended to meet.
References [1] http://www.occ.treas.gov/handbook/mis.pdf [2] O’Brien, J (1999). Management Information Systems – Managing Information Technology in the Internetworked Enterprise . Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071123733. [3] Kotler, Philip; Keller, Kevin Lane (2006). Marketing Management (12 ed.). Pearson Education. [4] Pant, S., Hsu, C., (1995), Strategic Information Systems Planning: A Review, Information Resources Management Association International Conference, May 21 – 24, Atlanta.
(Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, 11th Edition. Prentice Hall/CourseSmart, 12/30/2008.) Laudon, K., & Laudon, J. (2010). Management information systems: Managing the digital firm. (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
External links • Computer and Information Systems Managers (http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos258.htm) (U.S. Department of Labor) • Index of Information Systems Journals (http://lamp.infosys.deakin.edu.au/journals/) • MIS Web sites (http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/resources/ism_web.html) (Bournemouth University) • MIS Links (http://www.chris-kimble.com/Courses/mis/mis_links. html) (University of York) • Executive Information Systems: Minimising the risk of development (http://www.chris-kimble.com/Research/ Executive-Information-Systems.html)
13
Operations support system
Operations support system Operations support systems (also called operational support systems or OSS) are computer systems used by
telecommunications service providers. The term OSS most frequently describes "network systems" dealing with the telecom network itself, supporting processes such as maintaining network inventory, provisioning services, configuring network components, and managing faults. The complementary term business support systems or BSS is a newer term and typically refers to “business systems” dealing with customers, supporting processes such as taking orders, processing bills, and collecting payments. The two systems together are often abbreviated OSS/BSS, BSS/OSS or simply B/OSS. Different subdivisions of the BSS/OSS systems are made, depending on whether they follow the TM Forum's diagrams and terminology, industry research institutions or BSS/OSS vendors own view. Nevertheless in general, an OSS covers at least the application areas: • • • • •
Network management systems Service delivery Service fulfillment, including the network inventory, activation and provisioning Service assurance Customer care
History and development of OSS Before about 1970, many OSS activities were performed by manual administrative processes. However, it became obvious that much of this activity could be replaced by computers. In the next 5 years or so, the telephone companies created a number of computer systems (or software applications) which automated much of this activity. This was one of the driving factors for the development of the Unix operating system and the C programming language. The Bell System purchased their own product line of PDP 11 computers from Digital Equipment Corporation for a variety of OSS applications. OSS systems used in the Bell System include AMATPS, CSOBS, EADAS, RMAS, Switching Control Center System (SCCS), Service Evaluation System (SES), Trunks Integrated Record Keeping System (TIRKS), and many more. OSS systems from this era are described in the Bell System Technical Journal, Bell Labs Record, and Telcordia Technologies (formerly Bellcore) Special Report SR-2275, Telcordia Notes on the Networks. [1] Many OSS systems were initially not linked to each other and often required manual intervention. For example, consider the case where a customer wants to order a new telephone service. The ordering system would take the customer's details and details of their order, but would not be able to configure the telephone exchange directly — this would be done by a switch management system. Details of the new service would need to be transferred from the order handling system to the switch management system — and this would normally be done by a technician re-keying the details from one screen into another — a process often referred to as "swivel chair integration". This was clearly another source of inefficiency, so the focus for the next few years was on creating automated interfaces between the OSS applications — OSS integration. Cheap and simple OSS integration remains a major goal of most telecom companies.
14
Operations support system
A brief history of OSS architecture A lot of the work on OSS has been centered on defining its architecture. Put simply, there are four key elements of OSS: • Processes • the sequence of events • Data • the information that is acted upon • Applications • the components that implement processes to manage data • Technology • how we implement the applications During the 1990s, new OSS architecture definitions were done by the ITU-T in its TMN model. This established a 4-layer model of TMN applicable within an OSS: • • • •
Business Management Level (BML) Service Management Level (SML) Network Management Level (NML) Element Management Level (EML)
(Note: a fifth level is mentioned at times being the elements themselves, though the standards speak of only four levels) This was a basis for later work. Network management was further defined by the ISO using the FCAPS model - Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance and Security. This basis was adopted by the ITU-T TMN standards as the Functional model for the technology base of the TMN standards M.3000 - M.3599 series. Although the FCAPS model was originally conceived and is applicable for an IT enterprise network, it was adopted for use in the public networks run by telecommunication service providers adhering to ITU-T TMN standards. A big issue of network and service management is the ability to manage and control the network elements of the access and core networks. Historically, many efforts have been spent in standardization fora (ITU-T, 3GPP) in order to define standard protocol for network management, but with no success and practical results. On the other hand IETF SNMP protocol (Simple Network Management Protocol) has become the de-facto standard for internet and telco management, at the EML-NML communication level. From 2000 and beyond, with the growth of the new broadband and VoIP services, the management of home networks is also entering the scope of OSS and network management. DSL Forum TR-069 specification has defined the CPE WAN Management Protocol (CWMP), suitable for managing home networks devices and terminals at the EML-NML interface.
TM Forum (formerly the TeleManagement Forum) TM Forum [2] is an international membership organization of communications service providers and suppliers to the communications industry. While OSS is generally dominated by proprietary and custom technologies, TM Forum is regarded as the most authoritative source for standards and frameworks in OSS. TM Forum has been active in proving a framework and discussion forum for advancements in OSS and BSS. By 2005, recent developments in OSS architecture were the results of the TM Forum's New Generation Operations Systems and Software (NGOSS) program, which was established in 2000. This established a set of principles that OSS integration should adopt, along with a set of models that provide standardized approaches.
15
Operations support system
NGOSS models • An information model (the Shared Information/Data model, or SID) - now more commonly referred to as the Information Framework, • A process model (the enhanced Telecom Operation Map, or eTOM) - now more commonly known as the Business Process Framework, • An application model (the Telecom Applications Map) - now known as the Application Framework, an architecture (the Technology Neutral Architecture) and a lifecycle model.
NGOSS architectural standards The TM Forum describes NGOSS as an architecture that is: • "loosely coupled" • distributed • component based The components interact through a common communications vehicle (using an information exchange infrastructure; e.g., EAI, Web Services, EJB). The behavior can be controlled through the use of process management and/or policy management to orchestrate the functionality provided by the services offered by the components.
History The early focus of the TM Forum's NGOSS work was on building reference models to support a business stakeholder view on process, information and application interaction. Running in parallel were activities that supported an implementation stakeholder view on interface specifications to provide access to OSS capability (primarily MTNM). The MTNM work evolved into a set of Web Services providing Multi-Technology Operations System Interfaces MTOSI. Most recently, the OSS through Java initiative (OSS/J) [3] joined the TMF to provide NGOSS-based BSS/OSS APIs.
Future work Considerable work remains, primarily in building out the system stakeholder reference models, which are needed to support a business process driven and SOA styled approach to using model driven development for specifying the additional implementation stakeholder interface specs (for SOA Web Services, EJB and EAI). These are required to meet the demands of Service Providers operating using the IMS architectural framework and NGN communications networks.
External links • • • • • • • • •
TeleManagement Forum [4] OSS through Java initiative [3] OSS News Review [5] OSS Observer landing page of Analysys Mason [6] Pipeline Magazine [7] InsideTelephony OSS/BSS [8] Billing & OSS World [9] OSS Line [10] Telcordia SR-2275, Telcordia Notes on the Networks [1]
16
Operations support system
References [1] http://telecom-info.telcordia.com/site-cgi/ido/docs2. pl?ID=&page=notn [2] http://www.tmforum.org [3] http://www.ossj.org/ [4] http://www.tmforum.org/ [5] http://www.ossnewsreview.com/ [6] http://www.analysysmason.com/Research/OSS-Observer-redirect-landing-page/ [7] http://www.pipelinepub.com/ [8] http://www.insidetelephony.com/telecom-oss-bss/ [9] http://www.billingworld.com/ [10] http://www.ossline.com/
Operations management Operations management is an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing, and redesigning business
operations in the production of goods and/or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as little resources as needed, and effective in terms of meeting customer requirements. It is concerned with managing the process that converts inputs (in the forms of materials, labor, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services). The relationship of operations management to senior management in commercial contexts can be compared to the relationship of line officers to the highest-level senior officers in military science. The highest-level officers shape the strategy and revise it over time, while the line officers make tactical decisions in support of carrying out the strategy. In business as in military affairs, the boundaries between levels are not always distinct; tactical information dynamically informs strategy, and individual people often move between roles over time. According to the U.S. Department of Education, operations management is the field concerned with managing and directing the physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization, particularly those relating to development, production, and manufacturing. Operations managemen t programs typically include instruction in principles of general management, manufacturing and production systems, plant management, equipment maintenance management, production control, industrial labor relations and skilled trades supervision, strategic manufacturing policy, systems analysis, productivity analysis and cost control, and materials planning. [1] [2] Management, including operations management, is like engineering in that it blends art with applied science. People skills, creativity, rational analysis, and knowledge of technology are all required for success.
Origins The origins of operations management can be trace d back through cultural changes of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, including the Industrial Revolution, the development of interchangeable manufacture, the Waltham-Lowell system, the American system of manufacturing, Fayolism, scientific management, [3] the development of assembly line practice and mass production, industrial engineering, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, operations research, the Toyota Production System, lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma. Combined, these ideas allow for the standardization of best practices balanced with room for further innovation through continuous improvement of production processes. Key features of these production systems are the departure from craft production to a more thorough divisi on of labor and the transfer of knowledge from within the minds of skilled, experienced workers into the systems of equipment, documentation, and semiskilled workers, often with an average of less tenure and less experience. The disciplines of organizational studies, industrial and organizational psychology, program management, project management, and management information systems all ideally inform optimal operations management, although most smart people who work in the corporate world can empirically observe that the reality often falls far short of the ideal in ways that the market nevertheless rewards,
17
Operations management based mostly on the fact that in markets, "good-enough-to-scrape-by" methods tend to defeat "proper" ones on cost. There is a strong tradition of recruiting operations managers simply by promoting the most effective workers, which does work, although its main systemic flaw is the Peter Principle. One of the reasons why competition doesn't kill businesses that operate this way is that few operate in any more ideal way. Typically the Peter Principle is so pervasive throughout an industry that similarly afflicted businesses face a field of competitors who are more or less equally hobbled by it (the "same circus, different clowns" problem). There are scores of people who can be viewed as thought leaders whose life's work laid the foundations for operations management (only some of which have name recognition among the general population). A very cursory list would include (in approximate chronological order) Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, Louis de Tousard, Honoré Blanc, Eli Whitney, John H. Hall, Simeon North, Henri Fayol, Frederick Winslow Taylor, Henry Gantt, Henry Ford, Sakichi Toyoda, Alfred P. Sloan and Bill Knudsen of GM, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Tex Thornton and his Whiz Kids team, and W. Edwards Deming and the developers of the Toyota Production System (Taiichi Ohno, Shigeo Shingo, Eiji Toyoda, Kiichiro Toyoda, and others). Whereas some influences place primary importance on the equipment and too often viewed people as recalcitrant impediments to systems (e.g., Taylor and Ford), over time the need to view production operations as sociotechnical systems, duly considering both humans and machines, was increasingly appreciated and addressed. [4] [5] [6] Historically, the body of knowledge stemming from industrial engineering formed the basis of the first MBA programs, and is central to operations management as used across diverse business sectors, industry, consulting and non-profit organizations.
Organizations The following organizations support and promote operations management: • Association for Operations Management (APICS) which supports the Production and Inventory Management Journal
• European Operations Management Association (EurOMA) which supports the International Journal of Operations & Production Management • Production and Operations Management Society (POMS) which supports the journal: Production and Operations Management
• Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) • The Manufacturing and Service Operations Management Society (MSOM) which supports the journal: Manufacturing & Service Operations Management • Institute of Operations Management (UK) • Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering (ATMAE)
Publications The following academic journals are concerned with Operations Management issues: • • • • • • •
Management Science Journal of Operations Management International Journal of Operations & Production Management Manufacturing & Service Operations Management Production and Operations Management Production and Inventory Management Journal Journal of Modelling in Operations Management
18
Operations management
Links • Operations management journal ranking [7]
References [1] U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences: Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP). Retrieved on October 26, 2009 from CIP 2000 - CIP Lookup to Occupational Crosswalks (http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/cip2000/occupationallookup6d.ASP?CIP=52. 0205) [2] ATMAE Membership Venn Diagram (http://atmae.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=227&Itemid=48) [3] Alan Pilkington, Jack Meredith, “The Evolution of the Intellectual Structure of Operations Management —1980-2006: A Citation/Co-Citation Analysis,” (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jom.2008.08.001) Journal of Operations Management, (2009) Vol. 27, No. 3, pp.185-202. [4] Hartness, James (1912). The Human Factor in Works Management (http://books.google. com/books?id=QB41AAAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover&dq=James+Hartness+Human+Factor+in+Works+Management). New York and London: McGraw-Hill. . Republished by Hive Publishing Co (Hive management history series, no. 46) (ISBN 978-0879600471) [5] James M. Wilson, (1995) An historical perspective on Operations Management , Production and Inventory Management Journal [6] Richard Chase, F. Robert Jacobs, Nicholas Aquilano, et al., Operations Management for Competitive Advantage, (2001), ISBN 0072506369 [7] http://scmresearch.org/2011/09/19/operations-management-journal-ranking/
Decision support system A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance. DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a Example of a Decision Support System for John Day Reservoir. combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions. Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present are: • inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts), • comparative sales figures between one period and the next, • projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.
19
Decision support system
History According to Keen (1978), [1] the concept of decision support has evolved from two main areas of re search: The theoretical studies of organizational decision making done at the Carnegie Institute of Technology during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the technical work on interactive computer systems, mainly carried out at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960s. It is considered that the concept of DSS became an area of research of its own in the middle of the 1970s, before gaining in intensity during the 1980s. In the middle and late 1980s, executive information systems (EIS), group decision support systems (GDSS), and organizational decision support systems (ODSS) evolved from the single user and model-oriented DSS. According to Sol (1987) [2] the definition and scope of DSS has been migrating over the years. In the 1970s DSS was described as "a computer based system to aid decision making". Late 1970s the DSS movement started focusing on "interactive computer-based systems which help decision-makers utilize data bases and models to solve ill-structured problems". In the 1980s DSS should provide systems "using suitable and available technology to improve effectiveness of managerial and professional activities", and end 1980s DSS faced a new challenge towards the design of intelligent workstations. [2] In 1987 Texas Instruments completed development of the Gate Assignment Display System (GADS) for United Airlines. This decision support system is credited with significantly reducing travel delays by aiding the management of ground operations at various airports, beginning with O'Hare International Airport in Chicago and Stapleton Airport in Denver Colorado. [3] [4] Beginning in about 1990, data warehousing and on-line analytical processing (OLAP) began broadening the realm of DSS. As the turn of the millennium approached, new Web-based analytical applications were introduced. The advent of better and better reporting technologies has seen DSS start to emerge as a critical component of management design. Examples of this can be seen in the intense amount of discussion of DSS in the education environment. DSS also have a weak connection to the user interface paradigm of hypertext. Both the University of Vermont PROMIS system (for medical decision making) and the Carnegie Mellon ZOG/KMS system (for military and business decision making) were decision support systems which also were major breakthroughs in user interface research. Furthermore, although hypertext researchers have generally been concerned with information overload, certain researchers, notably Douglas Engelbart, have been focused on decision makers in particular
Taxonomies As with the definition, there is no universally-accepted taxonomy of DSS either. Different authors propose different classifications. Using the relationship with the user as the criterion, Haettenschwiler [5] differentiates passive, active, and cooperative DSS . A passive DSS is a system that aids the process of decision making, but that cannot bring out explicit decision suggestions or solutions. An active DSS can bring out such decision suggestions or solutions. A cooperative DSS allows the decision maker (or its advisor) to modify, complete, or refine the decision suggestions provided by the system, before sending them back to the system for validation. The system again improves, completes, and refines the suggestions of the decision maker and sends them back to him for validation. The whole process then starts again, until a consolidated solution is generated. Another taxonomy for DSS has been created by Daniel Power. Using the mode of assistance as the criterion, Power differentiates communication-driven DSS , data-driven DSS , document-driven DSS , knowledge-driven DSS , and [6] model-driven DSS . • A communication-driven DSS supports more than one person working on a shared task; examples include integrated tools like Microsoft's NetMeeting or Groove [7] • A data-driven DSS or data-oriented DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a time series of internal company data and, sometimes, external data.
20
Decision support system
21
• A document-driven DSS manages, retrieves, and manipulates unstructured information in a variety of electronic formats. • A knowledge-driven DSS provides specialized problem-solving expertise stored as facts, rules, procedures, or in similar structures.[6] • A model-driven DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation of a statistical, financial, optimization, or simulation model. Model-driven DSS use data and parameters provided by users to assist decision makers in analyzing a situation; they are not necessarily data-intensive. Dicodess is an example of an open source model-driven DSS generator. [8] Using scope as the criterion, Power [9] differentiates enterprise-wide DSS and desktop DSS . An enterprise-wide DSS is linked to large data warehouses and serves many managers in the company. A desktop, single-user DSS is a small system that runs on an individual manager's PC.
Components Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are: [5] [6] [10] [11] [12] 1. the database (or knowledge base), 2. the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and 3. the user interface. The users themselves important components architecture.[5] [12]
are of
also the
Development Frameworks DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require a structured approach. Such a framework includes people, technology, and the development approach. [10]
Design of a Drought Mitigation Decision Support System.
DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may include: 1. The actual application that will be used by the user. This is the part of the application that allows the decision maker to make decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that particular problem. 2. Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to easily develop specific DSS applications. This level makes use of case tools or systems such as Crystal, AIMMS, and iThink. 3. Tools include lower level hardware/software. DSS generators including special languages, function libraries and linking modules An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesigned at various intervals. Once the system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised for the desired outcome.
Decision support system
Classification There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly into one of the categories, but may be a mix of two or more architectures. Holsapple and Whinston [13] classify DSS into the following six frameworks: Text-oriented DSS, Database-oriented DSS, Spreadsheet-oriented DSS, Solver-oriented DSS, Rule-oriented DSS, and Compound DSS. A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS. It is a hybrid system that includes two or more of the five basic structures described by Holsapple and Whinston. [13] The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated categories [14] : Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support. DSS components may be classified as: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze User Knowledge and Expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the user Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria
DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are based on artificial intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are called Intelligent Decision Support Systems (IDSS). The nascent field of Decision engineering treats the decision itself as an engineered object, and applies engineering principles such as Design and Quality assurance to an explicit representation of the elements that make up a decision.
Applications As mentioned above, there are theoretical possibilities of building such systems in any knowledge domain. One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis. Other examples include a bank loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to know if they can be competitive with their costs. DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and other business performance software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources. A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in agricultural production, marketing for sustainable development. For example, the DSSAT4 package, [15] [16] developed through financial support of USAID during the 80's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural production systems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farm and policy levels. There are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption on DSS in agriculture. [17] DSS are also prevalent in forest management where the long planning time frame demands specific requirements. All aspects of Forest management, from log transportation, harvest scheduling to sustainability and ecosystem protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. A comprehensive list and discussion of all available systems in forest management is being compiled under the COST action Forsys [18] A specific example concerns the Canadian National Railway system, which tests its equipment on a regular basis using a decision support system. A problem faced by any railroad is worn-out or defective rails, which can result in hundreds of derailments per year. Under a DSS, CN managed to decrease the incidence of derailments at the same time other companies were experiencing an increase.
22
Decision support system
Benefits 1. Improves personal efficiency 2. Speed up the process of decision making 3. Increases organizational control 4. Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker 5. Speeds up problem solving in an organization 6. Facilitates interpersonal communication 7. Promotes learning or training 8. Generates new evidence in support of a decision 9. Creates a competitive advantage over competition 10. Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space 11. Helps automate managerial processes
References [1] Keen, P. G. W. (1978). Decision support systems: an organizational perspective . Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ISBN 0-201-03667-3 [2] Henk G. Sol et al. (1987). Expert systems and artificial intelligence in decision support systems: proceedings of the Second Mini Euroconference, Lunteren, The Netherlands, 17 – 20 November 1985. Springer, 1987. ISBN 9027724377. p.1-2. [3] Efraim Turban, Jay E. Aronson, Ting-Peng Liang (2008). Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems . p. 574. [4] "Gate Delays at Airports Are Minimised for United by Texas Instruments' Explorer" (http://www.cbronline.com/news/ gate_delays_at_airports_are_minimised_for_united_by_texas_instruments_explorer). Computer Business Review. 1987-11-26. . [5] Haettenschwiler, P. (1999). Neues anwenderfreundliches Konzept der Entscheidungsunterstützung. Gutes Entscheiden in Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft. Zurich, vdf Hochschulverlag AG: 189-208. [6] Power, D. J. (2002). Decision support systems: concepts and resources for managers. Westport, Conn., Quorum Books. [7] Stanhope, P. (2002). Get in the Groove: building tools and peer-to-peer solutions with the Groove platform. New York, Hungry Minds [8] Gachet, A. (2004). Building Model-Driven Decision Support Systems with Dicodess. Zurich, VDF. [9] Power, D. J. (1997). What is a DSS? The On-Line Executive Journal for Data-Intensive Decision Support 1(3). [10] Sprague, R. H. and E. D. Carlson (1982). Building effective decision support systems. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-130-86215-0 [11] Haag, Cummings, McCubbrey, Pinsonneault, Donovan (2000). Management Information Systems: For The Information Age. McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited: 136-140. ISBN 0-072-81947-2 [12] Marakas, G. M. (1999). Decision support systems in the twenty-first century. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall. [13] Holsapple, C.W., and A. B. Whinston. (1996). Decision Support Systems: A Knowledge-Based Approach. St. Paul: West Publishing. ISBN 0-324-03578-0 [14] Hackathorn, R. D., and P. G. W. Keen. (1981, September). "Organizational Strategies for Personal Computing in Decision Support Systems." MIS Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 3. [15] DSSAT4 (pdf) (http://www.aglearn.net/resources/isfm/DSSAT.pdf) [16] The Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (http://www.icasa.net/dssat/) [17] Stephens, W. and Middleton, T. (2002). Why has the uptake of Decision Support Systems been so poor? In: Crop-soil simulation models in developing countries. 129-148 (Eds R.B. Matthews and William Stephens). Wallingford:CABI. [18] http://fp0804.emu.ee
Further reading • Delic, K.A., Douillet,L. and Dayal, U. (2001) "Towards an architecture for real-time decision support systems:challenges and solutions (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=938098). • Diasio, S., Agell, N. (2009) "The evolution of expertise in decision support technologies: A challenge for organizations," cscwd, pp. 692 – 697, 13th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design, 2009. http://www.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/CSCWD. 2009.4968139 • Gadomski, A.M. et al.(2001) "An Approach to the Intelligent Decision Advisor (IDA) for Emergency Managers", Int. J. Risk Assessment and Management, Vol. 2, Nos. 3/4. • Gomes da Silva, Carlos; Clímaco, João; Figueira, José. European Journal of Operational Research.
23
Decision support system • Ender, Gabriela; E-Book (2005 – 2011) about the OpenSpace-Online Real-Time Methodology: Knowledge-sharing, problem solving, results-oriented group dialogs about topics that matter with extensive conference documentation in real-time. Download http://www. openspace-online.com/ OpenSpace-Online_eBook_en.pdf • Jiménez, Antonio; Ríos-Insua, Sixto; Mateos, Alfonso. Computers & Operations Research. • Jintrawet, Attachai (1995). A Decision Support System for Rapid Assessment of Lowland Rice-based Cropping Alternatives in Thailand. Agricultural Systems 47: 245-258. • Matsatsinis, N.F. and Y. Siskos (2002), Intelligent support systems for marketing decisions, Kluwer Academic Publishers. • Power, D. J. (2000). Web-based and model-driven decision support systems: concepts and issues. in proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems, Long Beach, California. • Reich, Yoram; Kapeliuk, Adi. Decision Support Systems., Nov2005, Vol. 41 Issue 1, p1-19, 19p. • Sauter, V. L. (1997). Decision support systems: an applied managerial approach. New York, John Wiley. • Silver, M. (1991). Systems that support decision makers: description and analysis. Chichester ; New York, Wiley. • Sprague, R. H. and H. J. Watson (1993). Decision support systems: putting theory into practice. Englewood Clifts, N.J., Prentice Hall.
Transaction processing system A transaction processing system is a type of information system. TPSs collect, store, modify, and retrieve the transactions of an organization. A transaction is an event that generates or modifies data that is eventually stored in an information system. To be considered a transaction processing system the computer must pass the ACID test. The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state, e.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be both withdrawn from one account and added to the other; it cannot complete only one of those steps. Either both must occur, or neither. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures. Transaction Processing is not limited to application programs. The 'journaled file system' provided with IBMs AIX Unix operating system employs similar techniques to maintain file system integrity, including a journal.
24
Transaction processing system
Types Contrasted with batch processing Batch processing is not transaction processing. Batch processing involves processing several transactions at the same time, and the results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is being entered; HSC there is a time delay. Transactions are accumulated for a certain period (say for day) where updates are made especially after work.
Real-time and batch processing There are a number of differences between real-time and batch processing. These are outlined below: Each transaction in real-time processing is unique. It is not part of a group of transactions, even though those transactions are processed in the same manner. Transactions in real-time processing are stand-alone both in the entry to the system and also in the handling of output. Real-time processing requires the master file to be available more often for updating and reference than batch processing. The database is not accessible all of the time for batch processing. Real-time processing has fewer errors than batch processing, as transaction data is validated and entered immediately. With batch processing, the data is organised and stored before the master file is updated. Errors can occur during these steps. Infrequent errors may occur in real-time processing; however, they are often tolerated. It is not practical to shut down the system for infrequent errors. More computer operators are required in real-time processing, as the operations are not centralised. It is more difficult to maintain a real-time processing system than a batch processing system.
Features Rapid response Fast performance with a rapid response time is critical. Businesses cannot afford to have customers waiting for a TPS to respond, the turnaround time from the input of the transaction to the production for the output must be a few seconds or less.
Reliability Many organizations rely heavily on their TPS; a breakdown will disrupt operations or even stop the business. For a TPS to be effective its failure rate must be very low. If a TPS does fail, then quick and accurate recovery must be possible. This makes well – designed backup and recovery procedures essential.
25
Transaction processing system
Inflexibility A TPS wants every transaction to be processed in the same way regardless of the user, the customer or the time for day. If a TPS were flexible, there would be too many opportunities for non-standard operations, for example, a commercial airline needs to consistently accept airline reservations from a range of travel agents, accepting different transactions data from different travel agents would be a problem.
Controlled processing The processing in a TPS must support an organization's operations. For example if an organization allocates roles and responsibilities to particular employees, then the TPS should enforce and maintain this requirement. An example of this is an ATM transaction.
ACID test properties: first definition Atomicity A transaction’s changes to the state are atomic: either all happen or none happen. These changes include database changes, messages, and actions on transducers. Gray.26ReuterTPOverview
Consistency Consistency: A transaction is a correct transformation of the state. The actions taken as a group do not violate any of the integrity constraints associated with the state. This requires that the transaction be a correct program! [2]
Isolation Even though transactions execute concurrently, it appears to each transaction T, that others executed either before T or after T, but not both.[2]
Durability Once a transaction completes successfully (commits), its changes to the state survive failures. [2]
Concurrency Ensures that two users cannot change the same data at the same time. That is, one user cannot change a piece of data before another user has finished with it. For example, if an airline ticket agent starts to reserve the last seat on a flight, then another agent cannot tell another passenger that a seat is available.
Storing and retrieving Storing and retrieving information from a TPS must be efficient and effective. The data are stored in warehouses or other databases, the system must be well designed for its backup and recovery procedures.
26
Transaction processing system
27
Databases and files The storage and retrieval of data must be accurate as it is used many times throughout the day. A database is a collection of data neatly organized, which stores the accounting and operational records in the database. Databases are always protective of their delicate data, so they usually have a restricted view of certain data. Databases are designed using hierarchical, network or relational structures; each structure is effective in its own sense. • Hierarchical structure: organizes data in a series of levels, hence why it is called hierarchal. Its top to bottom like structure consists of nodes and branches; each child node has branches and is only linked to one higher level parent node. • Network structure: Similar to hierarchical, network structures also organizes data using nodes and branches. But, unlike hierarchical, each child node can be linked to multiple, higher parent nodes. • Relational structure: Unlike network and hierarchical, a relational database organizes its data in a series of related tables. This gives flexibility as relationships between the tables are built.
A hierarchical structure.
A network structure.
A relational structure.
The following features are included in real time transaction processing systems: • Good data placement: The database should be designed to access patterns of data from many simultaneous users. • Short transactions: Short transactions enables quick processing. This avoids concurrency and paces the systems. • Real-time backup: Backup should be scheduled between low times of activity to prevent lag of the server. • High normalization: This lowers redundant information to increase the speed and improve concurrency, this also improves backups. • Archiving of historical data: Uncommonly used data are moved into other databases or backed up tables. This keeps tables small and also improves backup times. • Good hardware configuration: Hardware must be able to handle many users and provide quick response times. In a TPS, there are 5 different types of files. The TPS uses the files to store and organize its transaction data: • Master file: Contains information about an organization ’s business situation. Most transactions and databases are stored in the master file. • Transaction file: It is the collection of transaction records. It helps to update the master file and also serves as audit trails and transaction history. • Report file: Contains data that has been formatted for presentation to a user. • Work file: Temporary files in the system used during the processing. • Program file: Contains the instructions for the processing of data.
Transaction processing system
28
Data warehouse A data warehouse is a database that collects information from different sources. When it's gathered in real-time transactions it can be used for analysis efficiently if it's stored in a data warehouse. It provides data that are consolidated , subject-oriented , historical and read-only: • Consolidated: Data are organised with consistent naming conventions, measurements, attributes and semantics. It allows data from a data warehouse from across the organization to be effectively used in a consistent manner. • Subject-oriented: Large amounts of data are stored across an organization, some data could be irrelevant for reports and makes querying the data difficult. It organizes only key business information from operational sources so that it's available for analysis. • Historical: Real-time TPS represent the current value at any time, an example could be stock levels. If past data are kept, querying the database could return a different response. It stores series of snapshots for an organisation's operational data generated over a period of time. • Read-only: Once data are moved into a data warehouse, it becomes read-only, unless it was incorrect. Since it represents a snapshot of a certain time, it must never be updated. Only operations which occur in a data warehouse are loading and querying data.
Backup procedures Since business organizations have become very dependent on TPSs, a breakdown in their TPS may stop the business' regular routines and thus stopping its operation for a certain amount of time. In order to prevent data loss and minimize disruptions when a TPS breaks down a well-designed backup and recovery procedure is put into use. The recovery process can rebuild the system when it goes down. Recovery process A Dataflow Diagram of backup and recovery procedures.
A TPS may fail for many reasons. These reasons could include a system failure, human errors, hardware failure, incorrect or invalid data, computer viruses, software application errors or natural or man-made disasters. As it's not possible to prevent all TPS failures, a TPS must be able to cope with failures. The TPS must be able to detect and correct errors when they occur. A TPS will go through a recovery of the database to cope when the system fails, it involves the backup, journal, checkpoint, and recovery manager: • Journal: A journal maintains an audit trail of transactions and database changes. Transaction logs and Database change logs are used, a transaction log records all the essential data for each transactions, including data values, time of transaction and terminal number. A database change log contains before and after copies of records that have been modified by transactions. • Checkpoint: The purpose of checkpointing is to provide a snapshot of the data within the database. A checkpoint, in general, is any identifier or other reference that identifies at a point in time the state of the database. Modifications to database pages are performed in memory and are not necessarily written to disk after every update. Therefore, periodically, the database system must perform a checkpoint to write these updates which are held in-memory to the storage disk. Writing these updates to storage disk creates a point in time in which the database system can apply changes contained in a transaction log during recovery after an unexpected shut down or crash of the database system. If a checkpoint is interrupted and a recovery is required, then the database system must start recovery from a previous successful checkpoint. Checkpointing can be either transaction-consistent or non-transaction-consistent
Transaction processing system (called also fuzzy checkpointing). Transaction-consistent checkpointing produces a persistent database image that is sufficient to recover the database to the state that was externally perceived at the moment of starting the checkpointing. A non-transaction-consistent checkpointing results in a persistent database image that is insufficient to perform a recovery of the database state. To perform the database recovery, additional information is needed, typically contained in transaction logs. Transaction consistent checkpointin g refers to a consistent database, which doesn't necessarily include all the latest committed transactions, but all modifications made by transactions, that were committed at the time checkpoint creation was started, are fully present. A non-consistent transaction refers to a checkpoint which is not necessarily a consistent database, and can't be recovered to one without all log records generated for open transactions included in the checkpoint. Depending on the type of database management system implemented a checkpoint may incorporate indexes or storage pages (user data), indexes and storage pages. If no indexes are incorporated into the checkpoint, indexes must be created when the database is restored from the checkpoint image. • Recovery Manager: A recovery manager is a program which restores the database to a correct condition which can restart the transaction processing. Depending on how the system failed, there can be two different recovery procedures used. Generally, the procedures involves restoring data that has been collected from a backup device and then running the transaction processing again. Two types of recovery are backward recovery and forward recovery: • Backward recovery: used to undo unwanted changes to the database. It reverses the changes made by transactions which have been aborted. It involves the logic of reprocessing each transaction, which is very time-consuming. • Forward recovery: it starts with a backup copy of the database. The transaction will then reprocess according to the transaction journal that occurred between the time the backup was made and the present time. It's much faster and more accurate. Types of back-up procedures
There are two main types of Back-up Procedures: Grandfather-father-son and Partial backups: Grandfather-father-son
This procedure refers to at least three generations of backup master files. thus, the most recent backup is the son, the oldest backup is the grandfather. It's commonly used for a batch transaction processing system with a magnetic tape. If the system fails during a batch run, the master file is recreated by using the son backup and then restarting the batch. However if the son backup fails, is corrupted or destroyed, then the next generation up backup (father) is required. Likewise, if that fails, then the next generation up backup (grandfather) is required. Of course the older the generation, the more the data may be out of date. Organizations can have up to twenty generations of backup. Partial backups
This only occurs when parts of the master file are backed up. The master file is usually backed up to magnetic tape at regular times, this could be daily, weekly or monthly. Completed transactions since the last backup are stored separately and are called journals, or journal files. The master file can be recreated from the journal files on the backup tape if the system is to fail. Updating in a batch
This is used when transactions are recorded on paper (such as bills and invoices) or when it's being stored on a magnetic tape. Transactions will be collected and updated as a batch at when it's convenient or economical to process them. Historically, this was the most common method as the information technology did not exist to allow real-time processing. The two stages in batch processing are:
29
Transaction processing system • Collecting and storage of the transaction data into a transaction file - this involves sorting the data into sequential order. • Processing the data by updating the master file - which can be difficult, this may involve data additions, updates and deletions that may require to happen in a certain order. If an error occurs, then the entire batch fails. Updating in batch requires sequential access - since it uses a magnetic tape this is the only way to access data. A batch will start at the beginning of the tape, then reading it from the order it was stored; it's very time-consuming to locate specific transactions. The information technology used includes a secondary storage medium which can store large quantities of data inexpensively (thus the common choice of a magnetic tape). The software used to collect data does not have to be online - it doesn't even need a user interface. Updating in real-time
This is the immediate processing of data. It provides instant confirmation of a transaction. This involves a large amount of users who are simultaneously performing transactions to change data. Because of advances in technology (such as the increase in the speed of data transmission and larger bandwidth), real-time updating is possible. Steps in a real-time update involve the sending of a transaction data to an online database in a master file. The person providing information is usually able to help with error correction and receives confirmation of the transaction completion. Updating in real-time uses direct access of data. This occurs when data are accessed without accessing previous data items. The storage device stores data in a particular location based on a mathematical procedure. This will then be calculated to find an approximate location of the data. If data are not found at this location, it will search through successive locations until it's found. The information technology used could be a secondary storage medium that can store large amounts of data and provide quick access (thus the common choice of a magnetic disk).
References 1. TPS Example (http://web.cs.wpi.edu/~gpollice/cs562-s05/TPS-1_990913.pdf) 2. a b c WICS TP Chapter 2 (http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:fK7dQdEJB7AJ:research.microsoft.com/ ~gray/WICS_99_TP/01_WhirlwindTour.ppt+"ACID+Properties:+First+Definition"&hl=en&gl=ca& ct=clnk&cd=1)
Further reading • Gerhard Weikum, Gottfried Vossen, Transactional information systems: theory, algorithms, and the practice of concurrency control and recovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2002, ISBN 1558605088
30
Online transaction processing
Online transaction processing Online transaction processing, or OLTP, refers to a class of systems that facilitate and manage
transaction-oriented applications, typically for data entry and retrieval transaction processing. The term is somewhat ambiguous; some understand a "transaction" in the context of computer or database transactions, while others (such as the Transaction Processing Performance Council) define it in terms of business or commercial transactions. [1] OLTP has also been used to refer to processing in which the system responds immediately to user requests. An automatic teller machine (ATM) for a bank is an example of a commercial transaction processing application.
Requirements OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) is a methodology to provide end users with access to large amounts of data in an intuitive and rapid manner to assist with deductions based on investigative reasoning. Online Analytical Processing Online transaction processing increasingly requires support for transactions that span a network and may include more than one company. For this reason, new online transaction processing software uses client or server processing and brokering software that allows transactions to run on different computer platforms in a network. In large applications, efficient OLTP may depend on sophisticated transaction management software (such as CICS) and/or database optimization tactics to facilitate the processing of large numbers of concurrent updates to an OLTP-oriented database. For even more demanding Decentralized database systems, OLTP brokering programs can distribute transaction processing among multiple computers on a network. OLTP is often integrated into service-oriented architecture (SOA) and Web services.
Benefits Online Transaction Processing has two key benefits: simplicity and efficiency. Reduced paper trails and the faster, more accurate forecasts for revenues and expenses are both examples of how OLTP makes things simpler for businesses.
Disadvantages As with any information processing system, security and reliability are considerations. Online transaction systems are generally more susceptible to direct attack and abuse than their offline counterparts. When organizations choose to rely on OLTP, operations can be severely impacted if the transaction system or database is unavailable due to data corruption, systems failure, or network availability issues. Additionally, like many modern online information technology solutions, some systems require offline maintenance which further affects the cost-benefit analysis.
31
Online transaction processing
See Also • • • • • • • • •
Data mart Data warehouse OLAP ETL Transaction processing Database transaction Derby in-memory Java Database IBM Customer Information Control System Pervasive DataRush
Contrasted To • Batch Processing • Grid Computing
References [1] Transaction Processing Performance Council website (http://www.tpc.org/)
External links • H-store Project (http://db.cs.yale.edu/hstore/) (architectural and application shifts affecting OLTP performance) • IBM CICS official website (http://www.ibm.com/cics) • Transaction Processing Performance Council (http://www.tpc.org/) • OLTP Schema (http://dbms.knowledgehills.com/What-is-Online-Transaction-Processing-(OLTP)-Schema/ a32p2) • Transaction Processing: Concepts & Techniques Management (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1558601902)
32
Online analytical processing
33
Online analytical processing In computing, online analytical processing, or OLAP ( / ˈoʊlæp/), is an approach to swiftly answer [1] multi-dimensional analytical (MDA) queries. OLAP is part of the broader category of business intelligence, which also encompasses relational reporting and data mining. [2] Typical applications of OLAP include business reporting for sales, marketing, management reporting, business process management (BPM), [3] budgeting and forecasting, financial reporting and similar areas, with new applications coming up, such as agriculture. [4] The term OLAP was created as a slight modification of the traditional database term OLTP (Online Transaction Processing). [5] OLAP tools enable users to interactively analyze multidimensional data from multiple perspectives. OLAP consists of three basic analytical operations: consolidation, drill-down, and slicing and dicing. [6] Consolidation involves the aggregation of data that can be accumulated and computed in one or more dimensions. For example, all sales offices are rolled up to the sales department or sales division to anticipate sales trends. In contrast, the drill-down is a technique that allows users to navigate through the details. For instance, users can access to the sales by individual products that make up a region ’s sales. Slicing and dicing is a feature whereby users can take out (slicing) a specific set of data of the cube and view (dicing) the slices from different viewpoints. Databases configured for OLAP use a multidimensional data model, allowing for complex analytical and ad-hoc queries with a rapid execution time. [7] They borrow aspects of navigational databases, hierarchical databases and relational databases. The core of any OLAP system is an OLAP cube (also called a 'multidimensional cube' or a hypercube). It consists of numeric facts called measures which are categorized by dimensions. The cube metadata is typically created from a star schema or snowflake schema of tables in a relational database. Measures are derived from the records in the fact table and dimensions are derived from the dimension tables. Each measure can be thought of as having a set of labels, or meta-data associated with it. A describes these labels; it provides information about the measure. A simple example would be a cube that contains a store's sales as a Sale has a Date/Time label that describes more about that sale.
measure,
dimension
and Date/Time as a
is what
dimension.
Each
Any number of dimensions can be added to the structure such as Store, Cashier, or Customer by adding a foreign key column to the fact table. This allows an analyst to view the measures along any combination of the dimensions. For example: Sales Fact Table +-------------+----------+ | sale_amount | time_id
|
+-------------+----------+ |
2008.10|
Time Dimension
1234 |---+
+-------------+----------+
+---------+-------------------+
|
| time_id | timestamp
|
+---------+-------------------+
+---->|
1234
|
| 20080902 12:35:43 |
+---------+-------------------+
Online analytical processing
Multidimensional databases Multidimensional structure is defined as “a variation of the relational model that uses multidimensional structures to organize data and express the relationships between data ”.[8] The structure is broken into cubes and the cubes are able to store and access data within the confines of each cube. “Each cell within a multidimensional structure contains aggregated data related to elements along each of its dimensions ”.[9] Even when data is manipulated it remains easy to access and continues to constitute a compact database format. The data still remains interrelated. Multidimensional structure is quite popular for analytical databases that use online analytical processing (OLAP) applications (O’Brien & Marakas, 2009). Analytical databases use these databases because of their ability to deliver answers to complex business queries swiftly. Data can be viewed from different angles, which gives a broader perspective of a problem unlike other models. [10]
Aggregations It has been claimed that for complex queries OLAP cubes can produce an answer in around 0.1% of the time required for the same query on OLTP relational data. [11] [12] The most important mechanism in OLAP which allows it to achieve such performance is the use of aggregations. Aggregations are built from the fact table by changing the granularity on specific dimensions and aggregating up data along these dimensions. The number of possible aggregations is determined by every possible combination of dimension granularities. The combination of all possible aggregations and the base data contains the answers to every query which can be answered from the data . [13] Because usually there are many aggregations that can be calculated, often only a predetermined number are fully calculated; the remainder are solved on demand. The problem of deciding which aggregations (views) to calculate is known as the view selection problem. View selection can be constrained by the total size of the selected set of aggregations, the time to update them from changes in the base data, or both. The objective of view selection is typically to minimize the average time to answer OLAP queries, although some studies also minimize the update time. View selection is NP-Complete. Many approaches to the problem have been explored, including greedy algorithms, randomized search, genetic algorithms and A* search algorithm.
Types OLAP systems have been traditionally categorized using the following taxonomy. [14]
Multidimensional MOLAP is the 'classic' form of OLAP and is sometimes referred to as just OLAP. MOLAP stores this data in an
optimized multi-dimensional array storage, rather than in a relational database. Therefore it requires the pre-computation and storage of information in the cube - the operation known as processing.
Relational ROLAP works directly with relational databases. The base data and the dimension tables are stored as relational
tables and new tables are created to hold the aggregated information. Depends on a specialized schema design.This methodology relies on manipulating the data stored in the relational database to give the appearance of traditional OLAP's slicing and dicing functionality. In essence, each action of slicing and dicing is equivalent to adding a "WHERE" clause in the SQL statement.
34
Online analytical processing
Hybrid There is no clear agreement across the industry as to what constitutes "Hybrid OLAP", except that a database will divide data between relational and specialized storage. For example, for some vendors, a HOLAP database will use relational tables to hold the larger quantities of detailed data, and use specialized storage for at least some aspects of the smaller quantities of more-aggregate or less-detailed data.
Comparison Each type has certain benefits, although there is disagreement about the specifics of the benefits between providers. • Some MOLAP implementations are prone to database explosion, a phenomenon causing vast amounts of storage space to be used by MOLAP databases when certain common conditions are met: high number of dimensions, pre-calculated results and sparse multidimensional data. • MOLAP generally delivers better performance due to specialized indexing and storage optimizations. MOLAP also needs less storage space compared to ROLAP because the specialized storage typically includes compression techniques.[15] • ROLAP is generally more scalable.[15] However, large volume pre-processing is difficult to implement efficiently so it is frequently skipped. ROLAP query performance can therefore suffer tremendously. • Since ROLAP relies more on the database to perform calculations, it has more limitations in the specialized functions it can use. • HOLAP encompasses a range of solutions that attempt to mix the best of ROLAP and MOLAP. It can generally pre-process swiftly, scale well, and offer good function support.
Other types The following acronyms are also sometimes used, although they are not as widespread as the ones above: • WOLAP - Web-based OLAP • DOLAP - Desktop OLAP • RTOLAP - Real-Time OLAP
APIs and query languages Unlike relational databases, which had SQL as the standard query language, and widespread AP Is such as ODBC, JDBC and OLEDB, there was no such unification in the OLAP world for a long time. The first real standard API was OLE DB for OLAP specification from Microsoft which appeared in 1997 and introduced the MDX query language. Several OLAP vendors - both server and client - adopted it. In 2001 Microsoft and Hyperion announced the XML for Analysis specification, which was endorsed by most of the OLAP vendors. Since this also used MDX as a query language, MDX became the de-facto standard. [16] Since September-2011 LINQ can be used to query SSAS OLAP cubes from Microsoft .NET [17] .
Products History The first product that performed OLAP queries was Express, which was released in 1970 (and acquired by Oracle in 1995 from Information Resources).[18] However, the term did not appear until 1993 when it was coined by Edgar F. Codd, who has been described as "the father of the relational database". Codd's paper [1] resulted from a short consulting assignment which Codd undertook for former Arbor Software (later Hyperion Solutions, and in 2007 acquired by Oracle), as a sort of marketing coup. The company had released its own OLAP product, Essbase, a year
35
Online analytical processing
36
earlier. As a result Codd's "twelve laws of online analytical processing" were explicit in their reference to Essbase. There was some ensuing controversy and when Computerworld learned that Codd was paid by Arbor, it retracted the article. OLAP market experienced strong growth in late 90s with dozens of commercial products going into market. In 1998, Microsoft released its first OLAP Server - Microsoft Analysis Services, which drove wide adoption of OLAP technology and moved it into mainstream.
Product comparison See: Comparison of OLAP Servers.
Market structure Below is a list of top OLAP vendors in 2006, with figures in millions of US Dollars. [19] Vendor
Microsoft Corporation
Global Revenue
1,806
Hyperion Solutions Corporation 1,077 Cognos
735
Business Objects
416
MicroStrategy
416
SAP AG
330
Cartesis SA
210
Applix
205
Infor
199
Oracle Corporation
159
Others
152
Total
5,700
Microsoft was the only vendor that continuously exceeded the industrial average growth during 2000-2006. Since the above data was collected, Hyperion has been acquired by Oracle, Cartesis by Business Objects, Business Objects by SAP, Applix by Cognos, and Cognos by IBM. [20]
Bibliography • Daniel Lemire (2007-12). "Data Warehousing and OLAP-A Research-Oriented Bibliography" [21]. • Erik Thomsen. (1997). OLAP Solutions: Building Multidimensional Information Systems, 2nd Edition . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471149316. • Ling Liu and Tamer M. Özsu (Eds.) (2009). "Encyclopedia of Database Systems [22], 4100 p. 60 illus. ISBN 978-0-387-49616-0. • O’Brien, J. A., & Marakas, G. M. (2009). Management information systems (9th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Online analytical processing
References [1] Codd E.F., Codd S.B., and Salley C.T. (1993). "Providing OLAP (On-line Analytical Processing) to User-Analysts: An IT Mandate" (http:// www.fpm.com/refer/codd.html). Codd & Date, Inc. . Retrieved 2008-03-05. [2] Deepak Pareek (2007). Business Intelligence for Telecommunications (http://books.google.com/?id=M-UOE1Cp9OEC). CRC Press. pp. 294 pp. ISBN 0849387922. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. [3] Apostolos Benisis (2010). Business Process Management:A Data Cube To Analyze Business Process Simulation Data For Decision Making (http://www.google.com/products?q=9783639222166). VDM Verlag Dr. Müller e.K.. pp. 204 pp. ISBN 978-3-639-22216-6. . [4] Abdullah, Ahsan (2009). "Analysis of mealybug incidence on the cotton crop using ADSS-OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) tool , Volume 69, Issue 1". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 69 (1): 59 – 72. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2009.07.003. [5] "OLAP Council White Paper" (http://www.symcorp.com/downloads/OLAP_CouncilWhitePaper.pdf) (PDF). OLAP Council. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. [6] O'Brien & Marakas, 2011, p. 402-403 [7] Hari Mailvaganam (2007). "Introduction to OLAP - Slice, Dice and Drill!" (http://www.dwreview.com/OLAP/Introduction_OLAP.html). Data Warehousing Review. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. [8] O'Brien & Marakas, 2009, pg 177 [9] O'Brien & Marakas, 2009, pg 178 [10] Williams, C., Garza, V.R., Tucker, S, Marcus, A.M. (1994, January 24). Multidimensional models boost viewing options. InfoWorld, 16(4) [11] MicroStrategy, Incorporated (1995). "The Case for Relational OLAP" (http://www.cs.bgu.ac.il/~dbm031/dw042/Papers/ microstrategy_211.pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2008-03-20. [12] Surajit Chaudhuri and Umeshwar Dayal (1997). "An overview of data warehousing and OLAP technology" (http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/ 248603.248616). SIGMOD Rec. (ACM) 26 (1): 65. doi:10.1145/248603.248616. . Retrieved 2008-03-20. [13] Gray, Jim; Chaudhuri, Surajit; Layman, Andrew; Reichart, Hamid; Venkatrao; Pellow; Pirahesh (1997). "Data Cube: {A} Relational Aggregation Operator Generalizing Group-By, Cross-Tab, and Sub-Totals" (http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/gray97data.html). J. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 1 (1): 29 – 53. . Retrieved 2008-03-20. [14] Nigel Pendse (2006-06-27). "OLAP architectures" (http://www.olapreport.com/Architectures.htm). OLAP Report. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [15] Bach Pedersen, Torben; S. Jensen, Christian (December 2001). "Multidimensional Database Technology" (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/ 2/20936/00970558.pdf) (PDF). Distributed Systems Online (IEEE): 40 – 46. ISSN 0018-9162. . [16] Nigel Pendse (2007-08-23). "Commentary: OLAP API wars" (http://www.olapreport.com/Comment_APIs.htm). OLAP Report. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. [17] "SSAS Entity Framework Provider for LINQ to SSAS OLAP" (http://www.agiledesignllc.com/Products). . [18] Nigel Pendse (2007-08-23). "The origins of today’s OLAP products" (http://olapreport.com/origins.htm). OLAP Report. . Retrieved November 27, 2007. [19] Nigel Pendse (2006). "OLAP Market" (http://www.olapreport.com/market.htm). OLAP Report. . Retrieved 2008-03-17. [20] Nigel Pendse (2008-03-07). "Consolidations in the BI industry" (http://www.olapreport.com/consolidations.htm). . Retrieved 2008-03-18. [21] http://www.daniel-lemire.com/OLAP/ [22] http://www.springer.com/computer/database+management+&+information+retrieval/book/978-0-387-49616-0
37
Object Process Methodology
Object Process Methodology Object Process Methodology (OPM) is an approach to designing information systems by depicting them using
object models and process models. OPM was conceived and developed by Prof. Dov Dori, at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. A paper that first presented ideas underlying OPM was published in 1995. The comprehensive resource is Dori's book Object-Process Methodology - A Holistic Systems Paradigm [1]
Language design Object-Process Methodology (OPM) is a modeling language. OPM combines a minimal set of building blocks – stateful objects and processes that transform them – with a dual graphic-textual representation in a single diagram type. OPM uses two types of elements: entities and links. Entities are used to express "physical" or "informational" elements which can be inside or outside of the system being designed, i.e. "systemic" or "environmental". [1] The entities used in OPM are objects, states and processes. An object is a thing existing for a period of time. A state is a situation an object can be in. A process is a phenomenon that transforms one or more objects by creating them, altering their states or destroying/consuming them. The links used in OPM are structural links and procedural links. A structural link forms a relation between two objects and is persistent. A procedural link is used to link a process to an object - in which case it indicates a change in the state of the object - or to another process - in which case it indicates the launching of the second process when the first ends.
Cardinality OPM supports cardinality constraints, meaning a way to indicate to what extent two objects can relate to each other. In OPM these constraints are called participation constraints. The following constraints can be formulated: • • • • • •
1 to 1 ( Example: 1 man can marry 1 woman ) 1 to many 1 to fixed number many to many fixed number to fixed number Optional (expressed as: ?)
Features Object Process Diagram Objects, processes and links between them are depicted by using the Object Process Diagram (OPD). The OPD treats complexity by using three refinement and abstraction mechanisms: • Zooming in and out • Folding and Unfolding • State expression and suppression Having only one diagram, this methodology knows no multiplicity in depicting objects and processes, which improves exchangeability between different diagrams and even different methods. The graphical representation of the OPM elements in an OPD is as follows:
38
Object Process Methodology
39
OPM Entities Object
An object is a thing that exists.
Process
A process defines how objects are transformed.
State
A state is a situation an object can be at.
OPM Fundamental Structural Relations Symbol Meaning Relates a whole to its parts Relates an exhibitor to its attributes Relates a general thing to its specializations
Example uses of the OPM structural links: Aggregation
A consists of B and C
Exhibition
A exhibits B as well as C
Generalization
B is an A. C is an A
OPM Procedural Links Symbol Meaning The source object/state is an agent of the target process
The source object/state is an instrument of the target process
The source/target process yields/consumes the target/source object
The source object is The source process affected by the invocates the target target process process when it is finished
Object Process Methodology
Object Process Language Another feature of Object Process Methodology is the Object Process Language - an OPD can be translated in sentences, telling the storyline of the diagram. The power of OPL lies in the fact that it is readable by humans but also interpretable by computers, thus making it an inter-exchangeable language.
Object-Process Case Tool Modeling through OPM is possible with a specialized tool called Object-Process Case Tool. The application has several strong features, which are listed below. • Syntax checking: The creator of an OPD is immediately warned when an illegal OPD construction is being created. The application refers to the issue and explains the error. • OPL generator: Modeling an OPD automatically creates the corresponding natural text, formatted in OPL. This way, the creator can use the generated OPL additionally to check his work during the composition of the model. • Exchangeability with UML: The application has the capability to export an OPD to many UML diagrams, namely: • • • • • •
Use case diagram Sequence diagram State diagram Class diagram Deployment diagram Activity diagram
Further Use Case Maps (UCM) have some similar goals as OPM. [2]
References [1] Object-Process Methodology (http://www.amazon.com/Object-Process-Methodology-Dov-Dori/dp/3540654712), Dov Dori, Springer, 2002. [2] About Use Case Maps (http://jucmnav.softwareengineering.ca/twiki/bin/view/UCM/AboutUseCaseMaps)
Further reading • D. Dori (1995). Object-Process Analysis: Maintaining the Balance between System Structure and Behavior. Journal of Logic and Computation, 5, 2, pp. 227-249.
• D. Dori (2002). Object-Process Methodology - A Holistic Systems Paradigm . Springer Verlag, New York. • Daniel Amyot, Gunter Mussbacher (2001). "Bridging the requirements/Design Gap in Dynamic Systems with Use Case Maps (UCMs)" (http://jucmnav.softwareengineering.ca/twiki/bin/viewfile/UCM/ VirLibICSE01?rev=1.1;filename=icse01.pdf) • I. Reinhartz-Berger and D. Dori (2004). "Object-Process Methodology (OPM) vs. UML: A Code Generation Perspective" (http://mis.hevra.haifa.ac.il/~iris/research/Conferences/ OPMvsUML_EMMSAD04_elaborated.pdf)
40
Object Process Methodology
External links • Object-Process Methodology and Its Application to the Visual Semantic Web (http://www.er.byu.edu/er2003/ slides/ER2003PT1Dori.pdf), presentation by Dov Dori, 2003. • www.opcat.com (http://www.opcat.com)
ERP modeling ERP modeling, abbreviated to ERP, is the process of reverse engineering an Enterprise Resource Planning software
package in order to align it to an organizational structure.
Usage Although ERP modeling could possibly be performed by several methodologies, this entry deals with ERP modeling using Object Process Methodology, or OPM. OPM appears to be a usable methodology for modeling ERP systems, as the methodology focuses on optionality within objects and processes of an ERP system. ERP modeling is done by analyzing the optionality within an ERP system to identify the different functions of the system that the end-using company needs, regarding its organizational structure. Reverse engineering both ERP system and organizational structure to the same level of granularity makes both layers compatible for aligning the package in the organization.
Theory A Global Business Process Model is created which represents the whole ERP software product. This model is layered in 3 deeper levels. • The first level is the System Configuration Level, which scopes on high-level optionality on the entire system. Option definition is therefore static: once a high-level option of the ERP system is chosen to be used within the organization, the choice cannot be made undone. • One level deeper is the Object Level, which scopes on single data objects. The optionality on this level is more dynamic. • The deepest level is the Occurrence level, which analyses single process occurrences. Because this level elaborates on object parameters, the optionality is very dynamic, meaning that options can easily be altered. The meta model below depicts the optionality levels of ERP modeling. The optionality leveling is used to reverse engineer the ERP system and the organizational structure to its full extent. Once properly mapped, both aspects are fully alignable or at least compatible to be matched. The correct way to align both ERP and organizational models is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Convert the ERP system database to an object model Construct a global business process model Identify the system configuration-level business process alternatives Identify the object-level variants of the business processes Expose the occurrence-level business process options
41
42
UNIT 3
43
Resource Management Customer relationship management Customer relationship management (CRM) is a widely implemented strategy for managing a company ’s
interactions with customers, clients and sales prospects. It involves using technology to organize, automate, and synchronize business processes —principally sales activities, but also those for marketing, customer service, and technical support.[1] The overall goals are to find, attract, and win new clients, nurture and retain those the company already has, entice former clients back into the fold, and reduce the costs of marketing and client service. [2] Customer relationship management describes a company-wide business strategy including customer-interface departments as well as other departments. [3] Measuring and valuing customer relationships is critical to implementing this strategy.[4]
Benefits of CRM A CRM system may be chosen because it is thought to provide the following advantages: • • • • •
Quality and efficiency Decrease in overall costs Decision support Enterprise agility Customer Attention
Challenges Successful development, implementation, use and support of customer relationship management systems can provide a significant advantage to the user, but often, there are obstacles that obstruct the user from using the system to its full potential. Instances of a CRM attempting to contain a large, complex group of data can become cumbersome and difficult to understand for an ill-trained user. Additionally, an interface that is difficult to navigate or understand can hinder the CRM ’s effectiveness, causing users to pick and choose which areas of the system to be used, while others may be pushed aside. This fragmented implementation can cause inherent challenges, as only certain parts are used and the system is not fully functional. The increased use of customer relationship management software has also led to an industry-wide shift in evaluating the role of the developer in designing and maintaining its software. Companies are urged to consider the overall impact of a viable CRM software suite and the potential for good or harm in its use.
Complexity Tools and workflows can be complex, especially for large businesses. Previously these tools were generally limited to simple CRM solutions which focused on monitoring and recording interactions and communications. Software solutions then expanded to embrace deal tracking, territories, opportunities, and the sales pipeline itself. Next came the advent of tools for other client-interface business functions, as described below. These tools have been, and still are, offered as on-premises software that companies purchase and run on their own IT infrastructure.
Customer relationship management
Poor usability One of the largest challenges that customer relationship management systems face is poor usability. With a difficult interface for a user to navigate, implementation can be fragmented or not entirely complete. The importance of usability in a system has developed over time. [5] Customers are likely not as patient to work through malfunctions or gaps in user safety, [5] and there is an expectation that the usability of systems should be somewhat intuitive: “it helps make the machine an extension of the way I think — not how it wants me to think. ” An intuitive design can prove most effective in developing the content and layout of a customer relationship management system.[6] Two 2008 case studies show that the layout of a system provides a strong correlation to the ease of use for a system and that it proved more beneficial for the design to focus on presenting information in a way that reflected the most important goals and tasks of the user, rather than the structure of the organization. [6] This “ease of service ” is paramount for developing a system that is usable. [7] In many cases, the growth of capabilities and complexities of systems has hampered the usability of a customer relationship management system. An overly complex computer system can result in an equally complex and non-friendly user interface, thus not allowing the system to work as fully intended. [7] This bloated software can appear sluggish and/or overwhelming to the user, keeping the system from full use and potential. A series of 1998 research indicates that each item added to an information display can significantly affect the overall experience of the user.[8]
Fragmentation Often, poor usability can lead to implementations that are fragmented — isolated initiatives by individual departments to address their own needs. Systems that start disunited usually stay that way: siloed thinking and decision processes frequently lead to separate and incompatible systems, and dysfunctional processes. A fragmented implementation can negate any financial benefit associated with a customer relationship management system, as companies choose not to use all the associated features factored when justifying the investment. [9] Instead, it is important that support for the CRM system is companywide. [9] The challenge of fragmented implementations may be mitigated with improvements in late-generation CRM systems. [10]
Business reputation Building and maintaining a strong business reputation has become increasingly challenging. The outcome of internal fragmentation that is observed and commented upon by customers is now visible to the rest of the world in the era of the social customer; in the past, only employees or partners were aware of it. Addressing the fragmentation requires a shift in philosophy and mindset in an organization so that everyone considers the impact to the customer of policy, decisions and actions. Human response at all levels of the organization can affect the customer experience for good or ill. Even one unhappy customer can deliver a body blow to a business. [11] Some developments and shifts have made companies more conscious of the life-cycle of a customer relationship management system.[7] Companies now consider the possibility of brand loyalty and persistence of its users to purchase updates, upgrades and future editions of software. [7] Additionally, CRM systems face the challenge of producing viable financial profits, with a 2002 study suggesting that less than half of CRM projects are expected to provide a significant return on investment. [12] Poor usability and low usage rates lead many companies to indicate that it was difficult to justify investment in the software without the potential for more tangible gains. [12]
44
Customer relationship management
Security concerns A large challenge faced by developers and users is found in striking a balance between ease of use in the CRM interface and suitable and acceptable security measures and features. Corporations investing in CRM software do so expecting a relative ease of use while also requiring that customer and other sensitive data remain secure. This balance can be difficult, as many believe that improvements in security come at the expense of system usability. [13] Research and study show the importance of designing and developing technology that balances a positive user interface with security features that meet industry and corporate standards. [14] A 2002 study shows, however, that security and usability can coexist harmoniously. [13] In many ways, a secure CRM system can become more usable. Researchers have argued that, in most cases, security breaches are the result of user-error (such as unintentionally downloading and executing a computer virus). In these events, the computer system acted as it should in identifying a file and then, following the user ’s orders to execute the file, exposed the computer and network to a harmful virus. Researchers argue that a more usable system creates less confusion and lessens the amount of potentially harmful errors, in turn creating a more secure and stable CRM system. [13] Technical writers can play a large role in developing customer relationship management systems that are secure and easy to use. A series of 2008 research shows that CRM systems, among others, need to be more open to flexibility of technical writers, allowing these professionals to become content builders. [15] These professionals can then gather information and use it at their preference, developing a system that allows users to easily access desired information and is secure and trusted by its users.
Types/variations Sales force automation Sales force automation (SFA) involves using software to streamline all phases of the sales process, minimizing the time that sales representatives need to spend on each phase. This allows a business to use fewer sales representatives to manage their clients. At the heart of SFA is a contact management system for tracking and recording every stage in the sales process for each prospective client, from initial contact to final disposition. Many SFA applications also include insights into opportunities, territories, sales forecasts and workflow automation, quote generation, and product knowledge. Modules for Web 2.0 e-commerce and pricing are new, emerging interests in SFA. [2]
Marketing CRM systems for marketing help the enterprise identify and target potential clients and generate leads for the sales team. A key marketing capability is tracking and measuring multichannel campaigns, including email, search, social media, telephone and direct mail. Metrics monitored include clicks, responses, leads, deals, and revenue. Alternatively, Prospect Relationship Management (PRM) solutions offer to track customer behaviour and nurture them from first contact to sale, often cutting out the active sales process altogether. In a web-focused marketing CRM solution, organizations create and track specific web activities that help develop the client relationship. These activities may include such activities as free downloads, online video content, and online web presentations.
45
Customer relationship management
Customer service and support Recognizing that service is an important factor in attracting and retaining customers, organizations are increasingly turning to technology to help them improve their clients ’ experience while aiming to increase efficiency and minimize costs.[16] Even so, a 2009 study revealed that only 39% of corporate executives believe their employees have the right tools and authority to solve client problems. [17]
Appointment Creating and scheduling appointments with customers is a central activity of most customer oriented businesses. Sales, customer support, and service personnel regularly spend a portion of their time getting in touch with customers and prospects through a variety of means to agree on a time and place for meeting for a sales conversation or to deliver customer service. Appointment CRM is a relatively new CRM platform category in which an automated system is used to offer a suite of suitable appointment times to a customer via e-mail or through a web site. An automated process is used to schedule and confirm the appointment, and place it on the appropriate person's calendar. Appointment CRM systems can be an origination point for a sales lead and are generally integrated with sales and marketing CRM systems to capture and store the interaction.
Analytics Relevant analytics capabilities are often interwoven into applications for sales, marketing, and service. These features can be complemented and augmented with links to separate, purpose-built applications for analytics and business intelligence. Sales analytics let companies monitor and understand client actions and preferences, through sales forecasting and data quality. Marketing applications generally come with predictive analytics to improve segmentation and targeting, and features for measuring the effectiveness of online, offline, and search marketing campaigns. Web analytics have evolved significantly from their starting point of merely tracking mouse clicks on Web sites. By evaluating “buy signals,” marketers can see which prospects are most likely to transact and also identify those who are bogged down in a sales process and need assistance. Marketing and finance personnel also use analytics to assess the value of multi-faceted programs as a whole. These types of analytics are increasing in popularity as companies demand greater visibility into the performance of call centers and other service and support channels, [16] in order to correct problems before they affect satisfaction levels. Support-focused applications typically include dashboards similar to those for sales, plus capabilities to measure and analyze response times, service quality, agent performance, and the frequency of various issues.
Integrated/collaborative Departments within enterprises — especially large enterprises — tend to function with little collaboration. [18] More recently, the development and adoption of these tools and services have fostered greater fluidity and cooperation among sales, service, and marketing. This finds expression in the concept of collaborative systems that use technology to build bridges between departments. For example, feedback from a technical support center can enlighten marketers about specific services and product features clients are asking for. Reps, in their turn, want to be able to pursue these opportunities without the burden of re-entering records and contact data into a separate SFA system.
46
Customer relationship management
Small business For small business, basic client service can be accomplished by a contact manager system: an integrated solution that lets organizations and individuals efficiently track and record interactions, including emails, documents, jobs, faxes, scheduling, and more. These tools usually focus on accounts rather than on individual contacts. They also generally include opportunity insight for tracking sales pipelines plus added functionality for marketing and service. As with larger enterprises, small businesses are finding value in online solutions, especially for mobile and telecommuting workers.
Social media Social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn and Facebook are amplifying the voice of people in the marketplace and are having profound and far-reaching effects on the ways in which people buy. Customers can now research companies online and then ask for recommendations through social media channels, making their buying decision without contacting the company. People also use social media to share opinions and experiences on companies, products and services. As social media is not as widely moderated or censored as mainstream media, individuals can say anything they want about a company or brand, positive or negative. Increasingly, companies are looking to gain access to these conversations and take part in the dialogue. More than a few systems are now integrating to social networking sites. Social media promoters cite a number of business advantages, such as using online communities as a source of high-quality leads and a vehicle for crowd sourcing solutions to client-support problems. Companies can also leverage client stated habits and preferences to "hyper-target" their sales and marketing communications. [19] Some analysts take the view that business-to-business marketers should proceed cautiously when weaving social media into their business processes. These observers recommend careful market research to determine if and where the phenomenon can provide measurable benefits for client interactions, sales and support. [20] It is stated that people feel their interactions are peer-to-peer between them and their contacts, and resent company involvement, sometimes responding with negatives about that company.
Non-profit and membership-based Systems for non-profit and membership-based organizations help track constituents and their involvement in the organization. Capabilities typically include tracking the following: fund-raising, demographics, membership levels, membership directories, volunteering and communications with individuals. Many include tools for identifying potential donors based on previous donations and participation. In light of the growth of social networking tools, there may be some overlap between social/community driven tools and non-profit/membership tools.
47
Customer relationship management
Custom CRM Custom CRM software is developed specifically for one client. The advantage of Custom CRM software is that it will have all required functionality, exactly as a client needs it to be. With Custom CRM software, modifications will not be needed. Pre-written software sometimes has missing functionality, causing companies to use multiple software systems.
Strategy For larger-scale enterprises, a complete and detailed plan is required to obtain the funding, resources, and company-wide support that can make the initiative of choosing and implementing a system successfully. Benefits must be defined, risks assessed, and cost quantified in three general areas: • Processes: Though these systems have many technological components, business processes lie at its core. It can be seen as a more client-centric way of doing business, enabled by technology that consolidates and intelligently distributes pertinent information about clients, sales, marketing effectiveness, responsiveness, and market trends. Therefore, a company must analyze its business workflows and processes before choosing a technology platform; some will likely need re-engineering to better serve the overall goal of winning and satisfying clients. Moreover, planners need to determine the types of client information that are most relevant, and how best to employ them. [3] • People: For an initiative to be effective, an organization must convince its staff that the new technology and workflows will benefit employees as well as clients. Senior executives need to be strong and visible advocates who can clearly state and support the case for change. Collaboration, teamwork, and two-way communication should be encouraged across hierarchical boundaries, especially with respect to process improvement. [21] • Technology: In evaluating technology, key factors include alignment with the company ’s business process strategy and goals, including the ability to deliver the right data to the right employees and sufficient ease of adoption and use. Platform selection is best undertaken by a carefully chosen group of executives who understand the business processes to be automated as well as the software issues. Depending upon the size of the company and the breadth of data, choosing an application can take anywhere from a few weeks to a year or more. [3]
Implementation Implementation issues Increases in revenue, higher rates of client satisfaction, and significant savings in operating costs are some of the benefits to an enterprise. Proponents emphasize that technology should be implemented only in the context of careful strategic and operational planning. [22] Implementations almost invariably fall short when one or more facets of this prescription are ignored: • Poor planning: Initiatives can easily fail when efforts are limited to choosing and deploying software, without an accompanying rationale, context, and support for the workforce. [23] In other instances, enterprises simply automate flawed client-facing processes rather than redesign them according to best practices. • Poor integration: For many companies, integrations are piecemeal initiatives that address a glaring need: improving a particular client-facing process or two or automating a favored sales or client support channel. [24] Such “point solutions” offer little or no integration or alignment with a company ’s overall strategy. They offer a less than complete client view and often lead to unsatisfactory user experiences. • Toward a solution: overcoming siloed thinking. Experts advise organizations to recognize the immense value of integrating their client-facing operations. In this view, internally-focused, department-centric views should be discarded in favor of reorienting processes toward information-sharing across marketing, sales, and service. For example, sales representatives need to know about current issues and relevant marketing promotions before attempting to cross-sell to a specific client. Marketing staff should be able to leverage client information from
48
Customer relationship management sales and service to better target campaigns and offers. And support agents require quick and complete access to a client’s sales and service history.[24]
Adoption issues Historically, the landscape is littered with instances of low adoption rates. Many of the challenges listed above offer a glimpse into some of the obstacles that corporations implementing a CRM suite face; in many cases time, resources and staffing do not allow for the troubleshooting necessary to tackle an issue and the system is shelved or sidestepped instead. Why is it so difficult sometimes to get employees up to date on rapidly developing new technology? Essentially, your employees need to understand how the system works, as well as understand the clients and their needs. No doubt this process is time consuming, but it is well worth the time and effort, as you will be better able to understand and meet the needs of your clients. CRM training needs to cover two types of information: relational knowledge and technological knowledge.
Statistics In 2003, a Gartner report estimated that more than $1 billion had been spent on software that was not being used. More recent research indicates that the problem, while perhaps less severe, is a long way from being solved. According to CSO Insights, less than 40 percent of 1,275 participating companies had end-user adoption rates above 90 percent.[25] Additionally, many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis, thus missing opportunities for effective marketing and efficiency. [26] In a 2007 survey from the U.K., four-fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. Further, 43 percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing system; 72 percent indicated they would trade functionality for ease of use; 51 percent cited data synchronization as a major issue; and 67 percent said that finding time to evaluate systems was a major problem.[27] With expenditures expected to exceed $11 billion in 2010, [27] enterprises need to address and overcome persistent adoption challenges. The amount of time needed for the development and implementation of a customer relationship management system can prove costly to the implementation as well. Research indicates that implementation timelines that are greater than 90 days in length run an increased risk in the CRM system failing to yield successful results. [12]
Increasing usage and adoption rates Specialists offer these recommendations [25] for boosting adoptions rates and coaxing users to blend these tools into their daily workflow: Additionally, researchers found the following themes were common in systems that users evaluated favorably. These positive evaluations led to the increased use and more thorough implementation of the CRM system. Further recommendations include[28] • “Breadcrumb Trail”: This offers the user a path, usually at the top of a web or CRM page, to return to the starting point of navigation. This can prove useful for users who might find themselves lost or unsure how they got to the current screen in the CRM. • Readily available search engine boxes: Research shows that users are quick to seek immediate results through the use of a search engine box. A CRM that uses a search box will keep assistance and immediate results quickly within the reach of a user. • Help Option Menu: An outlet for quick assistance or frequently asked questions can provide users with a lifeline that makes the customer relationship management software easier to use. Researchers suggest making this resource a large component of the CRM during the development stage.
49
Customer relationship management A larger theme is found in that the responsiveness, intuitive design and overall usability of a system can influence the users’ opinions and preferences of systems. [29] Researchers noted a strong correlation between the design and layout of a user interface and the perceived level of trust from the user.[30] The researchers found that users felt more comfortable on a system evaluated as usable and applied that comfort and trust into increased use and adoption.
Help menus One of the largest issues surrounding the implementation and adoption of a CRM comes in the perceived lack of technical and user support in using the system. Individual users — and large corporations — find themselves equally stymied by a system that is not easily understood. Technical support in the form of a qualified and comprehensive help menu can provide significant improvement in implementation when providing focused, context-specific information.[31] Data show that CRM users are oftentimes unwilling to consult a help menu if it is not easily accessible and immediate in providing assistance. [31] A 1998 case study found that users would consult the help menu for an average of two or three screens, abandoning the assistance if desired results weren ’t found by that time. [31] Researchers believe that help menus can provide assistance to users through introducing additional screenshots and other visual and interactive aids. [32] A 2004 case study concluded that the proper use of screenshots can significantly support a user’s “developing a mental model of the program ” and help in “identifying and locating window elements and objects.”[32] This research concluded that screen shots allowed users to “learn more, make fewer mistakes, and learn in a shorter time frame, ” which can certainly assist in increasing the time frame for full implementation of a CRM system with limited technical or human support. [32] Experts have identified five characteristics to make a help menu effective: [33] • “context-specific” — the help menu contains only the information relevant to the topic that is being discussed or sought • “useful“ — in conjunction with being context-specific, the help menu must be comprehensive in including all of the information that the user seeks • “obvious to invoke “ — the user must have no trouble in locating the help menu or how to gain access to its contents • “non-intrusive“ — the help menu must not interfere with the user ’s primary path of work and must maintain a distance that allows for its use only when requested • “easily available“ — the information of the help menu must be accessible with little or few steps required
Development Thoughtful and thorough development can avoid many of the challenges and obstacles faced in using and implementing a customer relationship management system. With shifts in competition and the increasing reliance by corporations to use a CRM system, development of software has become more important than ever. [34] Technical communicators can play a significant role in developing software that is usable and easy to navigate. [35]
Clarity One of the largest issues in developing a usable customer relationship management system comes in the form of clear and concise presentation. Developers are urged to consider the importance of creating software that is easy to understand and without unnecessary confusion, thus allowing a user to navigate the system with ease and confidence. Strong writing skills can prove extremely beneficial for software development and creation. A 1998 case study showed that software engineering majors who successfully completed a technical writing course created capstone
50
Customer relationship management experience projects that were more mindful of end user design than the projects completed by their peers. [36] The case study yielded significant results: • Students who completed the technical writing course submitted capstone projects that contained more vivid and explicit detail in writing than their peers who did not complete the course. Researchers note that the students appeared to weigh multiple implications on the potential user, and explained their decisions more thoroughly than their peers. • Those participating in the writing course sought out test users more frequently to add a perspective outside their own as developer. Students appeared sensitive of the user ’s ability to understand the developed software. • The faculty member overseeing the capstone submissions felt that students who did not enroll in the technical writing class were at a significant disadvantage when compared to their peers who did register for the course. In the case study, researchers argue for the inclusion of technical writers in the development process of software systems. These professionals can offer insight into usability in communication for software projects. [36] Technical writing can help build a unified resource for successful documentation, training and execution of customer relationship management systems. [37]
Test users In many circumstances, test users play a significant role in developing software. These users offer software developers an outside perspective of the project, oftentimes helping developers gain insight into potential areas of trouble that might have been overlooked or passed over because of familiarity with the system. Test users can also provide feedback from a targeted audience: a software development team creating a customer relationship management software system for higher education can have a user with a similar profile explore the technology, offering opportunities to cater the further development of the system. Test users help developers discover which areas of the software perform well, and which areas require further attention. [38] Research notes that test users can prove to be most effective in providing developers a structured overview of the software creation.[38] These users can provide a fresh perspective that can reflect on the state of the CRM development without the typically narrow or invested focus of a software developer. A 2007 study suggests some important steps are needed in creating a quality and effective test environment for software development. [39] In this case study, researchers observed a Danish software company in the midst of new creating new software with usability in mind. The study found these four observations most appropriate: • The developers must make a conscious effort and commitment to the test user. Researchers note that the company had dedicated specific research space and staff focused exclusively on usability. • Usability efforts must carry equal concern in the eyes of developers as other technology-related concerns in the creation stage. The study found that test users became discouraged when items flagged as needing attention were marked as lower priority by the software developers. • Realistic expectations from both test users and software developers help maintain a productive environment. Researchers note that developers began to limit seeking input from test users after the test users suggested remedies the developers felt were improbable, leading the developers to believe consulting the test users would only prove to be more work. • Developers must make themselves available to test users and colleagues alike throughout the creation process of a software system. The researchers note that some of the best instances of usability adjustments can be made through casual conversation, and that oftentimes usability is bypassed by developers because these individuals never think to consult test users. Allowing users to test developing products can have its limits in effectiveness, as the culture of the industry and desired outcomes can affect the effect on CRM creation, [40] as a 2008 case study suggests that the responsiveness of test users can vary dramatically depending on the industry and field of the user. Research suggests that test users can rate the importance or severity of potential software issues in a significantly different fashion than
51
Customer relationship management
52
software developers.[38] Similarly so, researchers note the potential for costly delay if developers spend too much time attempting to coerce hesitant test users from participating. [39] Additionally, involving too many test users can prove cumbersome and delay the development of a CRM system. [39] Additional research notes that test users may be able to identify an area that proves challenging in a software system, but might have difficulty explaining the outcome. A related 2007 case study noted that test users were able to describe roughly a third of the usability problems. [38] Further, the language used by test users in many circumstances proves to be quite general and lacking the specific nature needed by developers to enact real change.
Privacy and data security system One of the primary functions of these tools is to collect information about clients, thus a company must consider the desire for privacy and data security, as well as the legislative and cultural norms. Some clients prefer assurances that their data will not be shared with third parties without their prior consent and that safeguards are in place to prevent illegal access by third parties.
Market structures This market grew by 12.5 percent in 2008, from revenue of $8.13 billion in 2007 to $9.15 billion in 2008. [41] The following table lists the top vendors in 2006-2008 (figures in millions of US dollars) published in Gartner studies. [42] [43] Vendor
2008 Revenue
2008 Share (%)
2007 Revenue
2007 Share (%)
2006 Revenue
2006 Share (%)
SAP
2,055
22.5 (-2.8)
2,050.8
25.3
1,681.7
26.6
Oracle
1,475
16.1
1,319.8
16.3
1,016.8
15.5
Salesforce.com 965
10.6
676.5
8.3
451.7
6.9
Microsoft CRM 581
6.4
332.1
4.1
176.1
2.7
Amdocs
451
4.9
421.0
5.2
365.9
5.65
Others
3,620
39.6
3,289.1
40.6
2,881.6
43.7
Total
9,147
100
8,089.3
100
6,573.8
100
Related trends Many CRM vendors offer Web-based tools (cloud computing) and software as a service (SaaS), which are accessed via a secure Internet connection and displayed in a Web browser. These applications are sold as subscriptions, with customers not needing to invest in purchasing and maintaining IT hardware, and subscription fees are a fraction of the cost of purchasing software outright. The era of the "social customer" [44] refers to the use of social media (Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, Yelp, customer reviews in Amazon etc.) by customers in ways that allow other potential customers to glimpse real world experience of current customers with the seller's products and services. This shift increases the power of customers to make purchase decisions that are informed by other parties sometimes outside of the control of the seller or seller's network. In response, CRM philosophy and strategy has shifted to encompass social networks and user communities, podcasting, and personalization in addition to internally generated marketing, advertising and webpage design. With the spread of self-initiated customer reviews, the user experience of a product or service requires increased attention to design and simplicity, as customer expectations have risen. CRM as a philosophy and strategy is growing to encompass these broader components of the customer relationship, so that businesses may anticipate and innovate to better serve customers, referred to as "Social CRM".
Customer relationship management Another related development is vendor relationship management, or VRM, which is the customer-side counterpart of CRM: tools and services that equip customers to be both independent of vendors and better able to engage with them. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society and Identity Commons' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of CRM Magazine.[45] In a 2001 research note, META Group (now Gartner) analyst Doug Laney first proposed, defined and coined the term Extended Relationship Management (XRM).[46] . He defined XRM as the principle and practice of applying CRM disciplines and technologies to other core enterprise constituents, primarily partners, employees and suppliers... as well as other secondary allies including government, press, and industry consortia. Microsoft markets its Dynamics CRM as "xRM" for its extensibility for potential XRM-ish uses beyond customer data.
Notes [1] Shaw, Robert, Computer Aided Marketing & Selling (1991) Butterworth Heinemann ISBN 9780750617079 [2] Gartner, Inc. (6 June 2009) What's 'Hot' in CRM Applications in 2009 (http://www.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?&id=1004212) [3] DestinationCRM.com (2002) What Is CRM? (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/CRM-News/Daily-News/What-Is-CRM-46033. aspx) [4] Shaw, Robert, Measuring and Valuing Customer Relationships (2000) Business Intelligence ISBN 9781898085331 [5] Desbarats, Gus. 1995. "Usability: form that says function." Industrial Management & Data Systems 95, no. 5:3-6. [6] Hart-Davidson, William, Grace Bernhardt, Michael McLeod, Martine Rife, and Jeffrey T. Grabill. 2008. "Coming to Content Management: Inventing Infrastructure for Organizational Knowledge Work." Technical Communication Quarterly 17, no. 1: 10-34 [7] Desbarats, Gus. 1995. Usability: form that says function. Industrial Management & Data Systems 95, no. 5:3-6. [8] Kostelnick, Charles. "Conflicting Standards for Designing Data Displays: Following, Flouting, and Reconciling Them." Technical Communication 45, no. 4 (November 1998): 473 [9] Pennington, Lori L. 2007. "Surviving the Design and Implementation of a Content-Management System." Journal of Business & Technical Communication 21, no. 1:62-73. [10] Joachim, David. "CRM tools improve access, usability." (cover story). B to B 87 , no. 3 (March 11, 2002): 1. [11] Mei Lin Fung, "You can learn from Dell Hell, Dell did" customerthink.com (http://www.customerthink.com/article/ you_can_learn_dell_hell_dell_did) [12] Goldberg, Harold. "10 ways to avoid CRM pitfalls." B to B 86, no. 17 (September 17, 2001): 11. [13] Ka-Ping, Yee. "User Interaction Design for Secure Systems." Information and Communication Security 2513, no. (2002): 278-290. [14] Cieslak, David, and Bob Gaby. "Programs Provide Extensive Tools For Adaptability And Customization."CPA Technology Advisor 16, no. 8 (December 2006): 38. [15] Whittemore, Stewart. "Metadata and Memory: Lessons from the Canon of Memoria for the Design of Content Management Systems." Technical Communication Quarterly 17, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 88-109. [16] SAP Insider (15 November 2007) Still Struggling to Reduce Call Center Costs Without Losing Customers? (http://www.sdn.sap.com/irj/ scn/go/portal/prtroot/docs/library/uuid/e044e180-8375-2a10-a2b2-b5709ea68ccb) [17] Strativity Group, Inc. (2009) Global Customer Experience Management Benchmark Study (http://www.strativity.com/products/ 2009-05-26.aspx) [18] InsideCRM (2007) Get It Together with Collaborative CRM (http://www.insidecrm.com/features/collaborative-crm-112907/) [19] DestinationCRM.com (2009) Who Owns the Social Customer? (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/Editorial/Magazine-Features/ Who-Owns-the-Social-Customer-54028.aspx) [20] Clara Shih, DestinationCRM.com (2009) Sales and Social Media: No One’s social (Yet) (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/ Editorial/Magazine-Features/Sales-and-Social-Media-No-Oneâ s-Social-(Yet)-54767.aspx) [21] TechTarget (2009) Strategy Checklist: Planning for CRM and Customer Service Success (http://searchcrm.techtarget.com/feature/ CRM-strategy-checklist-Planning-for-CRM-and-customer-service-success?offer=briefcaseCRM) [22] Lior Arussy (2005). "Understanding the Fatal Mistakes". Passionate and Profitable. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 0471721344. [23] " Avoid the Four Perils of CRM ". Harvard Business Review . [24] SAP white paper (2003) CRM Without Compromise (http://www.sap.com/about/newsroom/press.epx?PressID=6250) [25] Jim Dickie, CSO Insights (2006) Demystifying CRM Adoption Rates (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/Columns-Departments/ Reality-Check/Demystifying-CRM-Adoption-Rates-42496.aspx) [26] Joachim, David. "CRM tools improve access, usability." (cover story). B to B 87, no. 3 (March 11, 2002): 1 [27] David Sims, TMC.net (2007) CRM Adoption ‘Biggest Problem’ in 83 Percent of Cases (http://blog.tmcnet.com/telecom-crm/2007/11/ 30/crm-adoption-biggest-problem-in-83-percent-of-cases-wigan-gets-crm-tre.asp) [28] Cappel, James J., and Huang Zhenyu. "A Usability Analysis of Company Websites." Journal of Computer Information Systems 48, no. 1 (Fall2007 2007): 117-123.
53
Customer relationship management [29] Gefen, David, and Catherine M. Ridings. "Implementation Team Responsiveness and User Evaluation of Customer Relationship Management: A Quasi-Experimental Design Study of Social Exchange Theory." Journal of Management Information Systems 19, no. 1 (Summer 2002): 47-69. [30] Roy, Marie Christine; Dewit, Olivier; Aubert, Benoit A. 2001. "The impact of interface usability on trust in Web retailers." Internet Research 11, no. 5:388-398. [31] Grayling, Trevor. "Fear and loathing of the help menu: A usability test of online help." Technical Communication 45, no. 2 (May 1998): 168. [32] Gellevij, Mark, and Hans Van Der Meij. "Empirical Proof for Presenting Screen Captures in Software Documentation." Technical Communication 51, no. 2 (May 2004): 224-238. [33] Grayling, Trevor. "If We Build It, Will They Come? A Usability Test of Two Browser-based Embedded Help Systems."Technical Communication 49, no. 2 (May 2002): 193. [34] Desbarats, Gus. 1995. Usability: form that says function. Industrial Management & Data Systems 95, no. 5:3-6 [35] Whittemore, Stewart. "Metadata and Memory: Lessons from the Canon of Memoria for the Design of Content Management Systems." Technical Communication Quarterly 17, no. 1 (Winter2008 2008): 88-109 [36] Mirel, Barbara, and Leslie A. Olsen. "Social and cognitive effects of professional communication on software usability." Technical Communication Quarterly 7, no. 2 (Spring98 1998): 197 [37] Pennington, Lori L. 2007. Surviving the Design and Implementation of a Content-Management System. Journal of Business & Technical Communication 21, no. 1:62-73 [38] Høegh, Rune Thaarup, and Janne Jul Jensen. "A case study of three software projects: can software developers anticipate the usability problems in their software?." Behaviour & Information Technology 27, no. 4 (July 2008): 307-312. [39] Høegh, R. Th. "Case study: integrating usability activities in a software development process." Behaviour & Information Technology 27, no. 4 (July 2008): 301-306. [40] Iivari, N. "‘Representing the User’ in software development —a cultural analysis of usability work in the product development context." Interacting with Computers 18, no. 4 (July 2006): 635-664 [41] DestinationCRM.com (2009) CRM Market Grows for Fifth Straight Year (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/CRM-News/ Daily-News/CRM-Market-Grows-for-Fifth-Straight-Year-55275.aspx) [42] "Gartner Says Worldwide Customer Relationship Management Market Grew 23 Percent in 2007" (http://www.gartner.com/it/page. jsp?id=715308) (Press release). Gartner, Inc. 2008-09-12. . Retrieved 2008-08-15. [43] "Gartner Says Worldwide CRM Market Grew 12.5 Percent in 2008" (http://www.gartner.com/it/page. jsp?id=1074615) (Press release). Gartner, Inc. 2009-06-15. . Retrieved 2009-10-27. [44] Greenberg, Paul, CRM at the Speed of Light, McGraw Hill 4th Edition, page 7 [45] Destinationcrm.com (http://www.destinationcrm.com/Issue/1776-May-2010.htm) CRM Magazine: May, 2010 [46] xRM.com xRM Defined (http://www.xrm.com/xrm/xrm_defined.aspx)
54
Supply chain management
Supply chain management Supply chain management (SCM) is
the management of a network of interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by end customers (Harland, 1996). [2] Supply chain management spans all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption (supply chain). Another definition is provided by the APICS Dictionary when it defines SCM as the "design, planning, execution, control, and monitoring of Supply chain management is aimed at managing complex and dynamic supply and supply chain activities with the [1] demand networks. (cf. Wieland/Wallenburg, 2011) objective of creating net value, building a competitive infrastructure, leveraging worldwide logistics, synchronizing supply with demand and measuring performance globally."
Definitions More common and accepted definitions of supply chain management are: • Supply chain management is the systematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole (Mentzer et al., 2001).[3] • A customer focused definition is given by Hines (2004:p76) "Supply chain strategies require a total systems view of the linkages in the chain that work together efficiently to create customer satisfaction at the end point of delivery to the consumer. As a consequence costs must be lowered throughout the chain by driving out unnecessary costs and focusing attention on adding value. Throughout efficiency must be increased, bottlenecks removed and performance measurement must focus on total systems efficiency and equitable reward distribution to those in the supply chain adding value. The supply chain system must be responsive to customer requirements."[4] • Global supply chain forum - supply chain management is the integration of key business processes across the supply chain for the purpose of creating value for customers and stakeholders (Lambert, 2008). [5] • According to the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), supply chain management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics management. It also includes the crucial components of coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third-party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies. More recently, the loosely coupled, self-organizing network of businesses that cooperate to provide product and service offerings has been called the Extended Enterprise.
55
Supply chain management A supply chain, as opposed to supply chain management, is a set of organizations directly linked by one or more of the upstream and downstream flows of products, services, finances, and information from a source to a customer. Managing a supply chain is 'supply chain management' (Mentzer et al., 2001).[3] Supply chain management software includes tools or modules used to execute supply chain transactions, manage supplier relationships and control associated business processes. Supply chain event management (abbreviated as SCEM) is a consideration of all possible events and factors that can disrupt a supply chain. With SCEM possible scenarios can be created and solutions devised.
Problems addressed by supply chain management Supply chain management must address the following problems: • Distribution Network Configuration: number, location and network missions of suppliers, production facilities, distribution centers, warehouses, cross-docks and customers. • Distribution Strategy: questions of operating control (centralized, decentralized or shared); delivery scheme, e.g., direct shipment, pool point shipping, cross docking, DSD (direct store delivery), closed loop shipping; mode of transportation, e.g., motor carrier, including truckload, LTL, parcel; railroad; intermodal transport, including TOFC (trailer on flatcar) and COFC (container on flatcar); ocean freight; airfreight; replenishment strategy (e.g., pull, push or hybrid); and transportation control (e.g., owner-operated, private carrier, common carrier, contract carrier, or 3PL). • Trade-Offs in Logistical Activities: The above activities must be well coordinated in order to achieve the lowest total logistics cost. Trade-offs may increase the total cost if only one of the activities is optimized. For example, full truckload (FTL) rates are more economical on a cost per pallet basis than less than truckload (LTL) shipments. If, however, a full truckload of a product is ordered to reduce transportation costs, there will be an increase in inventory holding costs which may increase total logistics costs. It is therefore imperative to take a systems approach when planning logistical activities. These trade-offs are key to developing the most efficient and effective Logistics and SCM strategy. • Information: Integration of processes through the supply chain to share valuable information, including demand signals, forecasts, inventory, transportation, potential collaboration, etc. • Inventory Management: Quantity and location of inventory, including raw materials, work-in-process (WIP) and finished goods. • Cash-Flow: Arranging the payment terms and methodologies for exchanging funds across entities within the supply chain. Supply chain execution means managing and coordinating the movement of materials, information and funds across the supply chain. The flow is bi-directional.
Activities/functions Supply chain management is a cross-function approach including managing the movement of raw materials into an organization, certain aspects of the internal processing of materials into finished goods, and the movement of finished goods out of the organization and toward the end-consumer. As organizations strive to focus on core competencies and becoming more flexible, they reduce their ownership of raw materials sources and distribution channels. These functions are increasingly being outsourced to other entities that can perform the activities better or more cost effectively. The effect is to increase the number of organizations involved in satisfying customer demand, while reducing management control of daily logistics operations. Less control and more supply chain partners led to the creation of supply chain management concepts. The purpose of supply chain management is to improve trust and collaboration among supply chain partners, thus improving inventory visibility and the velocity of inventory movement.
56
Supply chain management Several models have been proposed for understanding the activities required to manage material movements across organizational and functional boundaries. SCOR is a supply chain management model promoted by the Supply Chain Council. Another model is the SCM Model proposed by the Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF). Supply chain activities can be grouped into strategic, tactical, and operational levels. The CSCMP has adopted The American Productivity & Quality Center (APQC) Process Classification Framework SM a high-level, industry-neutral enterprise process model that allows organizations to see their business processes from a cross-industry viewpoint. [6]
Strategic level • Strategic network optimization, including the number, location, and size of warehousing, distribution centers, and facilities. • Strategic partnerships with suppliers, distributors, and customers, creating communication channels for critical information and operational improvements such as cross docking, direct shipping, and third-party logistics. • Product life cycle management, so that new and existing products can be optimally integrated into the supply chain and capacity management activities. • Information technology chain operations. • Where-to-make and make-buy decisions. • Aligning overall organizational strategy with supply strategy. • It is for long term and needs resource commitment.
Tactical level • • • • •
Sourcing contracts and other purchasing decisions. Production decisions, including contracting, scheduling, and planning process definition. Inventory decisions, including quantity, location, and quality of inventory. Transportation strategy, including frequency, routes, and contracting. Benchmarking of all operations against competitors and implementation of best practices throughout the enterprise. • Milestone payments. • Focus on customer demand and Habits.
Operational level • Daily production and distribution planning, including all nodes in the supply chain. • Production scheduling for each manufacturing facility in the supply chain (minute by minute). • Demand planning and forecasting, coordinating the demand forecast of all customers and sharing the forecast with all suppliers. • Sourcing planning, including current inventory and forecast demand, in collaboration with all suppliers. • Inbound operations, including transportation from suppliers and receiving inventory. • Production operations, including the consumption of materials and flow of finished goods. • Outbound operations, including all fulfillment activities, warehousing and transportation to customers. • Order promising, accounting for all constraints in the supply chain, including all suppliers, manufacturing facilities, distribution centers, and other customers. • From production level to supply level accounting all transit damage cases & arrange to settlement at customer level by maintaining company loss through insurance company.
57
Supply chain management
Importance of supply chain management Organizations increasingly find that they must rely on effective supply chains, or networks, to compete in the global market and networked economy. [7] In Peter Drucker's (1998) new management paradigms, this concept of business relationships extends beyond traditional enterprise boundaries and seeks to organize entire business processes throughout a value chain of multiple companies. During the past decades, globalization, outsourcing and information technology have enabled many organizations, such as Dell and Hewlett Packard, to successfully operate solid collaborative supply networks in which each specialized business partner focuses on only a few key strategic activities (Scott, 1993). This inter-organizational supply network can be acknowledged as a new form of organization. However, with the complicated interactions among the players, the network structure fits neither "market" nor "hierarchy" categories (Powell, 1990). It is not clear what kind of performance impacts different supply network structures could have on firms, and little is known about the coordination conditions and trade-offs that may exist among the players. From a systems perspective, a complex network structure can be decomposed into individual component firms (Zhang and Dilts, 2004). Traditionally, companies in a supply network concentrate on the inputs and outputs of the processes, with little concern for the internal management working of other individual players. Therefore, the choice of an internal management control structure is known to impact local firm performance (Mintzberg, 1979). In the 21st century, changes in the business environment have contributed to the development of supply chain networks. First, as an outcome of globalization and the proliferation of multinational companies, joint ventures, strategic alliances and business partnerships, significant success factors were identified, complementing the earlier "Just-In-Time", "Lean Manufacturing" and "Agile Manufacturing" practices. [8] Second, technological changes, particularly the dramatic fall in information communication costs, which are a significant component of transaction costs, have led to changes in coordination among the members of the supply chain network (Coase, 1998). Many researchers have recognized these kinds of supply network structures as a new organization form, using terms such as "Keiretsu", "Extended Enterprise", "Virtual Corporation", "Global Production Network", and "Next Generation Manufacturing System". [9] In general, such a structure can be defined as "a group of semi-independent organizations, each with their capabilities, which collaborate in ever-changing constellations to serve one or more markets in order to achieve some business goal specific to that collaboration" (Akkermans, 2001). The security management system for supply chains is described in ISO/IEC 28000 and ISO/IEC 28001 and related standards published jointly by ISO and IEC.
Historical developments in supply chain management Six major movements can be observed in the evolution of supply chain management studies: Creation, Integration, and Globalization (Movahedi et al., 2009), Specialization Phases One and Two, and SCM 2.0. 1. creation era
The term supply chain management was first coined by a U.S. industry consultant in the early 1980s. However, the concept of a supply chain in management was of great importance long before, in the early 20th century, especially with the creation of the assembly line. The characteristics of this era of supply chain management include the need for large-scale changes, re-engineering, downsizing driven by cost reduction programs, and widespread attention to the Japanese practice of management. 2. integration era
This era of supply chain management studies was highlighted with the development of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) systems in the 1960s and developed through the 1990s by the introduction of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. This era has continued to develop into the 21st century with the expansion of internet-based collaborative systems. This era of supply chain evolution is characterized by both increasing value-adding and cost reductions through integration.
58
Supply chain management In fact a supply chain can be classified as a Stage 1, 2 or 3 network. In stage 1 type supply chain, various systems such as Make, Storage, Distribution, Material control, etc. are not linked and are independent of each other. In a stage 2 supply chain, these are integrated under one plan and is ERP enabled. A stage 3 supply chain is one in which vertical integration with the suppliers in upstream direction and customers in downstream direction is achieved. An example of this kind of supply chain is Tesco. 3. globalization era
The third movement of supply chain management development, the globalization era, can be characterized by the attention given to global systems of supplier relationships and the expansion of supply chains over national boundaries and into other continents. Although the use of global sources in the supply chain of organizations can be traced back several decades (e.g., in the oil industry), it was not until the late 1980s that a considerable number of organizations started to integrate global sources into their core business. This era is characterized by the globalization of supply chain management in organizations with the goal of increasing their competitive advantage, value-adding, and reducing costs through global sourcing. 4. specialization era — phase one: outsourced manufacturing and distribution
In the 1990s, industries began to focus on “core competencies ” and adopted a specialization model. Companies abandoned vertical integration, sold off non-core operations, and outsourced those functions to other companies. This changed management requirements by extending the supply chain well beyond company walls and distributing management across specialized supply chain partnerships. This transition also re-focused the fundamental perspectives of each respective organization. OEMs became brand owners that needed deep visibility into their supply base. They had to control the entire supply chain from above instead of from within. Contract manufacturers had to manage bills of material with different part numbering schemes from multiple OEMs and support customer requests for work -in-process visibility and vendor-managed inventory (VMI). The specialization model creates manufacturing and distribution networks composed of multiple, individual supply chains specific to products, suppliers, and customers who work together to design, manufacture, distribute, market, sell, and service a product. The set of partners may change according to a given market, region, or channel, resulting in a proliferation of trading partner environments, each with its own unique characteristics and demands. 5. specialization era — phase two: supply chain management as a service
Specialization within the supply chain began in the 1980s with the inception of transportation brokerages, warehouse management, and non-asset-based carriers and has matured beyond transportation and logistics into aspects of supply planning, collaboration, execution and performance management. At any given moment, market forces could demand changes from suppliers, logistics providers, locations and customers, and from any number of these specialized participants as components of supply chain networks. This variability has significant effects on the supply chain infrastructure, from the foundation layers of establishing and managing the electronic communication between the trading partners to more complex requirements including the configuration of the processes and work flows that are essential to the management of the network itself. Supply chain specialization enables companies to improve their overall competencies in the same way that outsourced manufacturing and distribution has done; it allows them to focus on their core competencies and assemble networks of specific, best-in-class partners to contribute to the overall value chain itself, thereby increasing overall performance and efficiency. The ability to quickly obtain and deploy this domain-specific supply chain expertise without developing and maintaining an entirely unique and complex competency in house is the leading reason why supply chain specialization is gaining popularity. Outsourced technology hosting for supply chain solutions debuted in the late 1990s and has taken root primarily in transportation and collaboration categories. This has progressed from the Application Service Provider (ASP) model from approximately 1998 through 2003 to the On-Demand model from approximately 2003-2006 to the Software as
59
Supply chain management a Service (SaaS) model currently in focus today. 6. supply chain management 2.0 (SCM 2.0)
Building on globalization and specialization, the term SCM 2.0 has been coined to describe both the changes within the supply chain itself as well as the evolution of the processes, methods and tools that manage it in this new "era". Web 2.0 is defined as a trend in the use of the World Wide Web that is meant to increase creativity, information sharing, and collaboration among users. At its core, the common attribute that Web 2.0 brings is to help navigate the vast amount of information available on the Web in order to find what is being sought. It is the notion of a usable pathway. SCM 2.0 follows this notion into supply chain operations. It is the pathway to SCM results, a combination of the processes, methodologies, tools and delivery options to guide companies to their results quickly as the complexity and speed of the supply chain increase due to the effects of global competition, rapid price fluctuations, surging oil prices, short product life cycles, expanded specialization, near-/far- and off-shoring, and talent scarcity. SCM 2.0 leverages proven solutions designed to rapidly deliver results with the agility to quickly manage future change for continuous flexibility, value and success. This is delivered through competency networks composed of best-of-breed supply chain domain expertise to understand which elements, both operationally and organizationally, are the critical few that deliver the results as well as through intimate understanding of how to manage these elements to achieve desired results. Finally, the solutions are delivered in a variety of options, such as no-touch via business process outsourcing, mid-touch via managed services and software as a service (SaaS), or high touch in the traditional software deployment model.
Supply chain business process integration Successful SCM requires a change from managing individual functions to integrating activities into key supply chain processes. An example scenario: the purchasing department places orders as requirements become known. The marketing department, responding to customer demand, communicates with several distributors and retailers as it attempts to determine ways to satisfy this demand. Information shared between supply chain partners can only be fully leveraged through process integration. Supply chain business process integration involves collaborative work between buyers and suppliers, joint product development, common systems and shared information. According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), operating an integrated supply chain requires a continuous information flow. However, in many companies, management has reached the conclusion that optimizing the product flows cannot be accomplished without implementing a process approach to the business. The key supply chain processes stated by Lambert (2004) [10] are: • • • • • • • •
Customer relationship management Customer service management Demand management style Order fulfillment Manufacturing flow management Supplier relationship management Product development and commercialization Returns management
Much has been written about demand management. Best-in-Class companies have similar characteristics, which include the following: a) Internal and external collaboration b) Lead time reduction initiatives c) Tighter feedback from customer and market demand d) Customer level forecasting One could suggest other key critical supply business processes which combine these processes stated by Lambert such as: a. Customer service management b. Procurement
60
Supply chain management c. d. e. f. g. h.
Product development and commercialization Manufacturing flow management/support Physical distribution Outsourcing/partnerships Performance measurement Warehousing management
a) Customer service management process Customer Relationship Management concerns the relationship between the organization and its customers. Customer service is the source of customer information. It also provides the customer with real-time information on scheduling and product availability through interfaces with the company's production and distribution operations. Successful organizations use the following steps to build customer relationships: • determine mutually satisfying goals for organization and customers • establish and maintain customer rapport • produce positive feelings in the organization and the customers b) Procurement process Strategic plans are drawn up with suppliers to support the manufacturing flow management process and the development of new products. In firms where operations extend globally, sourcing should be managed on a global basis. The desired outcome is a win-win relationship where both parties benefit, and a reduction in time required for the design cycle and product development. Also, the purchasing function develops rapid communication systems, such as electronic data interchange (EDI) and Internet linkage to convey possible requirements more rapidly. Activities related to obtaining products and materials from outside suppliers involve resource planning, supply sourcing, negotiation, order placement, inbound transportation, storage, handling and quality assurance, many of which include the responsibility to coordinate with suppliers on matters of scheduling, supply continuity, hedging, and research into new sources or programs. c) Product development and commercialization Here, customers and suppliers must be integrated into the product development process in order to reduce time to market. As product life cycles shorten, the appropriate products must be developed and successfully launched with ever shorter time-schedules to remain competitive. According to Lambert and Cooper (2000), managers of the product development and commercialization process must: 1. coordinate with customer relationship management to identify customer-articulated needs; 2. select materials and suppliers in conjunction with procurement, and 3. develop production technology in manufacturing flow to manufacture and integrate into the best supply chain flow for the product/market combination. d) Manufacturing flow management process The manufacturing process produces and supplies products to the distribution channels based on past forecasts. Manufacturing processes must be flexible to respond to market changes and must accommodate mass customization. Orders are processes operating on a just-in-time (JIT) basis in minimum lot sizes. Also, changes in the manufacturing flow process lead to shorter cycle times, meaning improved responsiveness and efficiency in meeting customer demand. Activities related to planning, scheduling and supporting manufacturing operations, such as work-in-process storage, handling, transportation, and time phasing of components, inventory at manufacturing sites and maximum flexibility in the coordination of geographic and final assemblies postponement of physical distribution operations. e) Physical distribution
61
Supply chain management This concerns movement of a finished product/service to customers. In physical distribution, the customer is the final destination of a marketing channel, and the availability of the product/service is a vital part of each channel participant's marketing effort. It is also through the physical distribution process that the time and space of customer service become an integral part of marketing, thus it links a marketing channel with its customers (e.g., links manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers). f) Outsourcing/partnerships This is not just outsourcing the procurement of materials and components, but also outsourcing of services that traditionally have been provided in-house. The logic of this trend is that the company will increasingly focus on those activities in the value chain where it has a distinctive advantage, and outsource everything else. This movement has been particularly evident in logistics where the provision of transport, warehousing and inventory control is increasingly subcontracted to specialists or logistics partners. Also, managing and controlling this network of partners and suppliers requires a blend of both central and local involvement. Hence, strategic decisions need to be taken centrally, with the monitoring and control of supplier performance and day-to-day liaison with logistics partners being best managed at a local level. g) Performance measurement Experts found a strong relationship from the largest arcs of supplier and customer integration to market share and profitability. Taking advantage of supplier capabilities and emphasizing a long-term supply chain perspective in customer relationships can both be correlated with firm performance. As logistics competency becomes a more critical factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage, logistics measurement becomes increasingly important because the difference between profitable and unprofitable operations becomes more narrow. A.T. Kearney Consultants (1985) noted that firms engaging in comprehensive performance measurement realized improvements in overall productivity. According to experts, internal measures are generally collected and analyzed by the firm including 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Cost Customer Service Productivity measures Asset measurement, and Quality.
External performance measurement is examined through customer perception measures and "best practice" benchmarking, and includes 1) customer perception measurement, and 2) best practice benchmarking. h) Warehousing management As a case of reducing company cost & expenses, warehousing management is carrying the valuable role against operations. In case of perfect storing & office with all convenient facilities in company level, reducing manpower cost, dispatching authority with on time delivery, loading & unloading facilities with proper area, area for service station, stock management system etc. Components of supply chain management are as follows: 1. Standardization 2. Postponement 3. Customization
62
Supply chain management
Theories of supply chain management Currently there is a gap in the literature available on supply chain management studies: there is no theoretical support for explaining the existence and the boundaries of supply chain management. A few authors such as Halldorsson, et al. (2003), Ketchen and Hult (2006) and Lavassani, et al. (2009) have tried to provide theoretical foundations for different areas related to supply chain by employing organizational theories. These theories include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Resource-Based View (RBV) Transaction Cost Analysis (TCA) Knowledge-Based View (KBV) Strategic Choice Theory (SCT) Agency Theory (AT) Institutional theory (InT) Systems Theory (ST) Network Perspective (NP) Materials Logistics Management (MLM) Just-in-Time (JIT) Material Requirements Planning (MRP) Theory of Constraints (TOC) Total Quality Management (TQM) Agile Manufacturing Time Based Competition (TBC) Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM) Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Requirements Chain Management (RCM) Available-to-promise (ATP) and many more
Supply chain centroids In the study of supply chain management, the concept of centroids has become an important economic consideration. A centroid is a place that has a high proportion of a country ’s population and a high proportion of its manufacturing, generally within 500 mi (805 km). In the U.S., two major supply chain centroids have been defined, one near Dayton, Ohio and a second near Riverside, California. The centroid near Dayton is particularly important because it is closest to the population center of the US and Canada. Dayton is within 500 miles of 60% of the population and manufacturing capacity of the U.S., as well as 60 percent of Canada ’s population.[11] The region includes the Interstate 70/75 interchange, which is one of the busiest in the nation with 154,000 vehicles passing through in a day. Of those, anywhere between 30 percent and 35 percent are trucks hauling goods. In addition, the I-75 corridor is home to the busiest north-south rail route east of the Mississippi.[11]
Tax efficient supply chain management Tax Efficient Supply Chain Management is a business model which consider the effect of Tax in design and
implementation of supply chain management. As the consequence of Globalization, business which is cross-nation should pay different tax rates in different countries. Due to the differences, global players have the opportunity to calculate and optimize supply chain based on tax efficiency [12] legally. It is used as a method of gaining more profit for company which owns global supply chain.
63
Supply chain management
Supply chain sustainability Supply chain sustainability is a business issue affecting an organization ’s supply chain or logistics network and is frequently quantified by comparison with SECH ratings. SECH ratings are defined as social, ethical, cultural and health footprints. Consumers have become more aware of the environmental impact of their purchases and companies’ SECH ratings and, along with non-governmental organizations(NGOs), are setting the agenda for transitions to organically-grown foods, anti-sweatshop labor codes and locally-produced goods that support independent and small businesses. Because supply chains frequently account for over 75% of a company ’s carbon footprint many organizations are exploring how they can reduce this and thus improve their SECH rating. For example, in July, 2009 the U.S. based Wal-Mart corporation announced its intentions to create a global sustainability index that would rate products according to the environmental and social impact made while the products were manufactured and distributed. The sustainability rating index is intended to create environmental accountability in Wal-Mart's supply chain, and provide the motivation and infrastructure for other retail industry companies to do the same. [13] More recently, the US Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act [14] signed into law by President Obama in July 2010, contained a supply chain sustainability provision in the form of the Conflict Minerals law. This law requires SEC-regulated companies to conduct third party audits of the company supply chains, determine whether any tin, tantalum, tungsten or gold (together referred to as "conflict minerals") is made of up ore mined/sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo(DRC), and create a report (available to the general public and SEC) detailing the supply chain due diligence efforts undertaken and the results of the audit. [15] Of course, the chain of suppliers/vendors to these reporting companies will be expected to provide appropriate supporting information.
Components of supply chain management integration The management components of SCM
The SCM components are the third element of the four-square circulation framework. The level of integration and management of a business process link is a function of the number and level, ranging from low to high, of components added to the link (Ellram and Cooper, 1990; Houlihan, 1985). Consequently, adding more management components or increasing the level of each component can increase the level of integration of the business process link. The literature on business process re-engineering, [16] buyer-supplier relationships,[17] and SCM[18] suggests various possible components that must receive managerial attention when managing supply relationships. Lambert and Cooper (2000) identified the following components: • • • • • • • • •
Planning and control Work structure Organization structure Product flow facility structure Information flow facility structure Management methods Power and leadership structure Risk and reward structure Culture and attitude
However, a more careful examination of the existing literature [19] leads to a more comprehensive understanding of what should be the key critical supply chain components, the "branches" of the previous identified supply chain business processes, that is, what kind of relationship the components may have that are related to suppliers and customers. Bowersox and Closs states that the emphasis on cooperation represents the synergism leading to the highest level of joint achievement (Bowersox and Closs, 1996). A primary level channel participant is a business that
64
Supply chain management is willing to participate in the inventory ownership responsibility or assume other aspects of financial risk, thus including primary level components (Bowersox and Closs, 1996). A secondary level participant (specialized) is a business that participates in channel relationships by performing essential services for primary participants, including secondary level components, which support primary participants. Third level channel participants and components that support the primary level channel participants and are the fundamental branches of the secondary level components may also be included. Consequently, Lambert and Cooper's framework of supply chain components does not lead to any conclusion about what are the primary or secondary (specialized) level supply chain components (see Bowersox and Closs, 1996, p. 93). That is, what supply chain components should be viewed as primary or secondary, how should these components be structured in order to have a more comprehensive supply chain structure, and how to examine the supply chain as an integrative one (See above sections 2.1 and 3.1). Reverse supply chain Reverse logistics is the process of managing the return of goods. Reverse logistics is also
referred to as "Aftermarket Customer Services". In other words, any time money is taken from a company's warranty reserve or service logistics budget one can speak of a reverse logistics operation.
Supply chain systems and value Supply chain systems configure value for those that organize the networks. Value is the additional revenue over and above the costs of building the network. Co-creating value and sharing the benefits appropriately to encourage effective participation is a key challenge for any supply system. Tony Hines defines value as follows: “Ultimately it is the customer who pays the price for service delivered that confirms value and not the producer who simply adds cost until that point”[4]
Global supply chain management Global supply chains pose challenges regarding both quantity and value: Supply and value chain trends • • • • •
Globalization Increased cross border sourcing Collaboration for parts of value chain with low-cost providers Shared service centers for logistical and administrative functions Increasingly global operations, which require increasingly global coordination and planning to achieve global optimums • Complex problems involve also midsized companies to an increasing degree, These trends have many benefits for manufacturers because they make possible larger lot sizes, lower taxes, and better environments (culture, infrastructure, special tax zones, sophisticated OEM) for their products. Meanwhile, on top of the problems recognized in supply chain management, there will be many more challenges when the scope of supply chains is global. This is because with a supply chain of a larger scope, the lead time is much longer. Furthermore, there are more issues involved such as multi-currencies, different policies and different laws. The consequent problems include:1. different currencies and valuations in different countries; 2. different tax laws (Tax Efficient Supply Chain Management); 3. different trading protocols; 4. lack of transparency of cost and profit.
65
Supply chain management
References [1] cf. Andreas Wieland, Carl Marcus Wallenburg (2011): Supply-Chain-Management in stürmischen Zeiten. Berlin. [2] Harland, C.M. (1996) Supply Chain Management, Purchasing and Supply Management, Logistics, Vertical Integration, Materials Management and Supply Chain Dynamics. In: Slack, N (ed.) Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Operations Management. UK: Blackwell. [3] Mentzer, J.T. et. al. (2001): Defining Supply Chain Management, in: Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2001, pp. 1– 25 [4] Hines, T. 2004. Supply chain strategies: Customer driven and customer focused. Oxford: Elsevier. [5] Cooper et. al., 1997 [6] CSCMP Supply Chain Management Process Standards [7] Baziotopoulos, 2004 [8] MacDuffie and Helper, 1997; Monden, 1993; Womack and Jones, 1996; Gunasekaran, 1999 [9] Drucker, 1998; Tapscott, 1996; Dilts, 1999 [10] Lambert, Douglas M. Supply Chain Management: Processes, Partnerships, Performance (http://www.scm-institute.org), 3rd edition, 2008. [11] Doug Page, "Dayton Region a Crucial Hub for Supply Chain Management" (http://www.daytondailynews.com/business/ dayton-region-a-crucial-hub-for-supply-chain-managment-457836.html), Dayton Daily News, 2009-12-21. [12] Investor Words definition of "tax efficient" (http://www.investorwords.com/4893/tax_efficient.html) [13] Wal-Mart's Sustainability Index and Supply Chain Green Standards (http://retailindustry.about.com/b/2009/07/20/ u-s-green-retailing-update-will-wal-mart-profit-from-high-supply-chain-standards-while-its-own-environmental-standards-are-low.htm) [14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodd–Frank_Wall_Street_Reform_and_Consumer_Protection_Act [15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_minerals [16] Macneil ,1975; Williamson, 1974; Hewitt, 1994 [17] Stevens, 1989; Ellram and Cooper, 1993; Ellram and Cooper, 1990; Houlihan, 1985 [18] Cooper et al., 1997; Lambert et al.,1996; Turnbull, 1990 [19] Zhang and Dilts, 2004 ;Vickery et al., 2003; Hemila, 2002; Christopher, 1998; Joyce et al., 1997; Bowersox and Closs, 1996; Williamson, 1991; Courtright et al., 1989; Hofstede, 1978
• Cooper, M.C., Lambert, D.M., & Pagh, J. (1997) Supply Chain Management: More Than a New Name for Logistics. The International Journal of Logistics Management Vol 8, Iss 1, pp 1 – 14 • FAO, 2007, Agro-industrial supply chain management: Concepts and applications. AGSF Occasional Paper 17 Rome. (http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/publications/docs/AGSF_OccassionalPapers/agsfop17.pdf) • Haag, S., Cummings, M., McCubbrey, D., Pinsonneault, A., & Donovan, R. (2006), Management Information Systems For the Information Age (3rd Canadian Ed.), Canada: McGraw Hill Ryerson ISBN 0-072-81947-2 • Halldorsson, Arni, Herbert Kotzab & Tage Skjott-Larsen (2003). Inter-organizational theories behind Supply Chain Management – discussion and applications, In Seuring, Stefan et al. (eds.), Strategy and Organization in Supply Chains, Physica Verlag. • Halldorsson, A., Kotzab, H., Mikkola, J. H., Skjoett-Larsen, T. (2007). Complementary theories to supply chain management. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Volume 12 Issue 4, 284-296. • Handfield and Bechtel, 2001; Prater et al., 2001; Kern and Willcocks, 2000; Bowersox and Closs, 1996; Christopher, 1992; Bowersox, 1989 • Hines, T. 2004. Supply chain strategies: Customer driven and customer focused. Oxford: Elsevier. • Kaushik K.D., & Cooper, M. (2000). Industrial Marketing Management. Volume29, Issue 1, January 2000, Pages 65 – 83 • Ketchen Jr., G., & Hult, T.M. (2006). Bridging organization theory and supply chain management: The case of best value supply chains. Journal of Operations Management, 25(2) 573-580. • Kouvelis, P.; Chambers, C.; Wang, H. (2006): Supply Chain Management Research and Production and Operations Management: Review, Trends, and Opportunities. In: Production and Operations Management, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 449 – 469. • Larson, P.D. and Halldorsson, A. (2004). Logistics versus supply chain management: an international survey. International Journal of Logistics: Research & Application, Vol. 7, Issue 1, 17-31. • Movahedi B., Lavassani K., Kumar V. (2009) Transition to B2B e-Marketplace Enabled Supply Chain: Readiness Assessment and Success Factors, The International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, Volume 5, Issue 3, pp. 75 – 88.
66
Supply chain management
67
• Lavassani K., Movahedi B., Kumar V. (2009) Developments in Theories of Supply Chain Management: The Case of B2B Electronic Marketplace Adoption, The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management, Volume 9, Issue 6, pp. 85 – 98. • Mentzer, J.T. et al. (2001): Defining Supply Chain Management, in: Journal of Business Logistics, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2001, pp. 1 – 25 • Simchi-Levi D.,Kaminsky P., Simchi-levi E. (2007), Designing and Managing the Supply Chain, third edition, Mcgraw Hill
External links • CIO Magazine's ABCs of supply chain management (http://www.cio.com/article/40940)
Project management Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, securing, and managing resources to achieve specific
goals. A project is a temporary endeavor with a defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or deliverables), [1] undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, [2] typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with business as usual (or operations),[3] which are repetitive permanent, or semi-permanent functional activities to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies. The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals [4] and objectives while honoring the preconceived constraints. [5] Typical constraints are scope, time, and budget. [1] The secondary —and more ambitious —challenge is to optimize the allocation and integrate the inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.
History Project management has been practiced since early civilization. Until 1900 civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects, engineers, and master builders themselves, among those for example Vitruvius (1st century BC), Christopher Wren (1632 – 1723), Thomas Telford (1757 – 1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 – 1859).[6] It was in the 1950s that organizations started to systematically apply project management tools and techniques to complex engineering projects.[7] Roman soldiers building a fortress, Trajan's Column 113 AD
Project management
68
As a discipline, Project Management developed from several fields of application including civil construction, engineering, and heavy defense activity.[8] Two forefathers of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, [9] who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a project management tool; and Henri Fayol for his creation of the 5 management functions which form the foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management. [10] Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern project management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation. The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern Project Management era where core engineering fields come together working as one. Project Henry Gantt (1861 – 1919), the father of planning and control techniques. management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with engineering model. [11] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. And the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, was developed by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program; [12] These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises. At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and project management (Total Cost Management Framework).
PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestones
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967, [13] as a federation of several national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and now includes member associations on every continent except Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certification program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline (ICB). [14] The ICB covers technical competences, contextual competences, and behavioral competences. In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA. [15] PMI publishes A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), which describes project management practices that are common to "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers multiple certifications.
Project management
Approaches There are a number of approaches to managing project activities including agile, interactive, incremental, and phased approaches. Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and stakeholders.
The traditional approach A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", five developmental components of a project can be distinguished (four stages plus control): • • • • •
initiation; planning and design; execution and construction; monitoring and controlling systems; completion.
Not all the projects will visit every stage as projects can be terminated Typical development phases of an engineering project before they reach completion. Some projects do not follow a structured planning and/or monitoring stages. Some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times. Many industries use variations on these project stages. For example, when working on a brick and mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model, [16] i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development works well for small, well defined projects, but often fails in larger projects of undefined and ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product. In projects where requirements have not been finalized and can change, requirements management is used to develop an accurate and complete definition of the behavior of software that can serve as the basis for software development. [17] While the terms may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow common steps to problem solving —"defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."
Critical chain project management Critical chain project management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing projects that puts more emphasis on the resources (physical and human) needed in order to execute project task s. The most complex part involves engineering professionals of different fields (Civil, Electrical, Mechanical etc.) working together. It is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the rate of throughput (or completion rates) of projects in an organization. Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects is identified as are the resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain. Regardless of project type, the project plan should undergo Resource leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks should be identified as the critical chain. In multi-project environments, resource leveling
69
Project management
70
should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" resource —a resource that acts as a constraint across projects —and stagger projects based on the availability of that single resource.
Extreme project management In critical studies of project management it has been noted that several PERT based models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of today. Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and currently all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects. Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases . Instead, project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Agile Project Management methods including Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum techniques.
Planning and feedback loops in Extreme programming (XP) with the time frames of the multiple loops.
The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management principles of human interaction management.
Event chain methodology Event chain methodology is another method that complements critical path method and critical chain project management methodologies. Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused on identifying and managing events and event chains that affect project schedules. Event chain methodology helps to mitigate the negative impact of psychological heuristics and biases, as well as to allow for easy modeling of uncertainties in the project schedules. Event chain methodology is based on the following principles. • Probabilistic moment of risk: An activity (task) in most real-life processes is not a continuous uniform process. Tasks are affected by external events, which can occur at some point in the middle of the task. • Event chains: Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. Quantitative analysis is used to determine a cumulative effect of these event chains on the project schedule. • Critical events or event chains: The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events. ” They can be determined by the analysis. • Project tracking with events: Even if a project is partially completed and data about the project duration, cost, and events occurred is available, it is still possible to refine information about future potential events and helps to forecast future project performance. • Event chain visualization: Events and event chains can be visualized using event chain diagrams on a Gantt chart.
Project management
71
PRINCE2 PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project management, released in 1996 as a generic project management method. [18] It combined the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE methodology) with IBM's MITP (managing the implementation of the total project) methodology. PRINCE2 provides a method for managing projects within a clearly defined framework. PRINCE2 describes procedures to coordinate people and activities in a project, how to design and supervise the project, and what to do if the project has to be adjusted if it does not develop as planned.
The PRINCE2 process model
In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with specific goals and activities to be carried out. This allows for automatic control of any deviations from the plan. Divided into manageable stages, the method enables an efficient control of resources. On the basis of close monitoring, the project can be carried out in a controlled and organized way. PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in the project. The various management roles and responsibilities involved in a project are fully described and are adaptable to suit the complexity of the project and skills of the organization.
Process-based management Also furthering the concept of project control is the incorporation of process-based management. This area has been driven by the use of Maturity models such as the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see this example of a predecessor) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE – software process improvement and capability estimation).
Agile project management Agile project management approaches based on the principles of human interaction management are founded on a process view of human collaboration. This contrasts sharply with the traditional approach. In the agile software development or flexible product development approach, the project is seen as a series of relatively small tasks conceived and executed as the situation demands in an adaptive manner, rather than as a completely pre-planned process.
Project management
72
Processes Traditionally, project management includes a number of elements: four to five process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management processes will be used. Major process groups generally include: [20] • • • • •
initiation planning or development production or execution monitoring and controlling closing
In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., research and development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is the stage-gate model.
[19] The project development stages
Initiating The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project.[21] If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business ’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and [19] Initiating process group processes making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them. The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas: • • • • •
analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals reviewing of the current operations financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule
Project management
73
Planning and design After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail (see example of a flow-chart). [19] The main purpose is to plan time, cost and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals. Project planning generally consists of [22] • • • • • • • • • • •
determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave); developing the scope statement; selecting the planning team; identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure; identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence; estimating the resource requirements for the activities; estimating time and cost for activities; developing the schedule; developing the budget; risk planning; gaining formal approval to begin work.
Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable. For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activities.
Executing Executing consists of the processes used to complete the work defined in the project plan to accomplish the project's requirements. Execution process involves coordinating people and resources, as well as integrating and performing the activities of the project in accordance with the project management plan. The deliverables are produced as outputs from the processes performed as defined in the project management plan and other frameworks that might be applicable to the type of project at hand.
[19] Executing process group processes
Project management
74
Monitoring and controlling Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan. Monitoring and controlling includes: [23]
[19] Monitoring and controlling process group processes
• Measuring Measuring the the ongoing ongoing project project activities activities ('where ('where we are'); • Monitoring Monitoring the project project variables variables (cost, effort, effort, scope, scope, etc.) against against the project project management management plan and the project project performance baseline ( where we should be); • Identify Identify correctiv correctivee actions actions to address address issues issues and and risks properly properly ( How How can we get on track again ); • Influencing Influencing the factors factors that could could circumvent circumvent integrated integrated change change control control so only approved approved changes changes are implemented In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan. Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes: [20] • Continu Continuing ing support support of end-use end-users rs • Corr Correc ecti tion on of err error orss • Update Updatess of the softwar softwaree over over time time In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved. Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was Monitoring and controlling cycle actually constructed. This is referred to as change management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “as built.” The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project.
Project management
Closing Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof. Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons learned. This phase consists of: [20] [19] • Project close: Finalize all activities across all of Closing process group processes. the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase • Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase.
Project controlling and project control systems Project controlling should be established as an independent function in project management. It implements verification and controlling function during the processing of a project in order to reinforce the defined performance and formal goals.[24] The tasks of project controlling are also: • the creation creation of infrastr infrastructur ucturee for the supply supply of the the right informat information ion and its its update update • the establishm establishment ent of a way way to communica communicate te disparities disparities of projec projectt parameters parameters • the developmen developmentt of project information information technol technology ogy based on an intranet intranet or the determinatio determinationn of a project key performance index system (KPI) • divergence divergence analyses analyses and and generation generation of proposals proposals for potentia potentiall project regulati regulations ons [25] • the establishment establishment of methods methods to accomplish accomplish an appropriate appropriate the project structure, structure, project project workflow organiza organization, tion, project control and governance • creation creation of of transpare transparency ncy among the project project paramete parameters rs [26] Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific methods and instruments of project controlling. The following methods of project controlling can be applied: • • • • • • • • • •
inve invest stme ment nt anal analys ysis is cos – benefit analyses t– benefit valu valuee ben benef efit it Anal Analys ysis is expe expert rt surv survey eyss simul simulat atio ionn calc calcul ulat atio ions ns riskrisk-pr prof ofile ile anal analyse ysess surch surchar arge ge calc calcul ulat atio ions ns mile milesto stone ne tren trendd ana analy lysi siss cost cost tren trendd ana analy lysi siss targ target et/a /act ctua uall-co comp mpar ariso isonn[27]
Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-time and within budget. [23] Project control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review, having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Each project should be assessed for the appropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of errors, fixes, and additional audit fees. Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider how important the projects are to the financial statements, how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of development and the quality of the final product may also
75
Project management be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an independent auditor as part of an audit. Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help assure that systems are developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors should review this process to confirm that it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems development plan outlines: • • • • •
A strategy strategy to align align development development with the organi organization zation’s broader objectives Stand Standar ards ds for for new new sys syste tems ms Project Project manageme management nt policie policiess for timing and budgeting budgeting Procedu Procedures res descri describin bingg the the proce process ss Evalua Evaluatio tionn of of qual quality ity of change change
Topics Project managers A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers can have the responsibility of the planning, execution, and closing of any project, typically relating to construction industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields in the production engineering and design engineering and heavy industrial have project managers. A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint for projects, which is cost, time, and scope. A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.
Project management triangle Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope," "time," and "cost". [1] These are also referred to as the "project management triangle", where each side represents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting the others. A further refinement of the constraints separates product "quality" or "performance" from scope, and turns quality into a fourth constraint. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available The project management triangle to complete a project. The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. The scope constraint refers to what must be done to produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often competing constraints: increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost, a tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope.
76
Project management The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and techniques that enable the project team (not just the project manager) to organize their work to meet these constraints.
Work breakdown structure The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of effort required to achieve an objective —for example a program, project, and contract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or process-oriented (see an example in a NASA reporting structure (2001). [28] A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it into manageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, subtasks, and work packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective. [17] The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established. [28]
Project management framework The Program (Investment) life cycle integrates the project management and system development life cycles with the activities directly associated with system deployment and operation. By design, system operation management and related activities occur after the project is complete and are not documented within this guide [19] (see an example of an IT project management framework). For example, see f igure, in the US United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) the program management life cycle is depicted and describe in the overall VA IT PROJECT MANAGEMENT FRAMEwork to address the integration of OMB Exhibit 300 project (investment) management activities and the overall project budgeting process. The VA IT Project Management Framework diagram illustrates Milestone 4 which occurs following the deployment of a system and the closing of the project. The project closing phase activities at the VA continues through system deployment and into system operation for the purpose of illustrating and describing the system activities the VA considers part of the project. The figure illustrates the actions and associated artifacts of the VA IT Project and Program Management process. [19]
International standards There have been several attempts to develop project management standards, such as: • Capability Maturity Model from the Software Engineering Institute. • GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards – an open source standard describing COMPETENCIES for project and program managers. • A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge • HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in Luxembourg and international organizations. • The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems, and the ISO 10006:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for quality management in projects. • PRINCE2, PRojects IN Controlled Environments. • Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge [29] • Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute. • Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio, Program and Project Management. • V-Model, an original systems development method. • The Logical framework approach, which is popular in international development organizations.
77
Project management • IAPPM, The International Association of Project & Program Management, guide to project auditing and rescuing troubled projects.
Project portfolio management An increasing number of organizations are using, what is referred to as, project portfolio management (PPM) as a means of selecting the right projects and then using project management techniques [30] as the means for delivering the outcomes in the form of benefits to the performing private or not-for-profit organization.
References [1] Chatfield, Carl. "A short course in project management" (http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/project/HA102354821033. aspx). Microsoft. . [2] *The Definitive Guide to Project Management . Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. London (Financial Times / Prentice Hall): 2007. ISBN 978 0 273 71097 4 [3] Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8. p.35 and further. [4] Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management . McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-147160-X. p.110. [5] Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide . McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354. [6] Dennis Lock (2007) Project management (9e ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-566-08772-3 [7] Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief history of Project Management". In:The story of managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2 [8] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global project management handbook . "Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management". McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4 [9] Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways . Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited, 2002 ISBN 1-903494-01-X p.xxii [10] Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management . Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-36977-0. p. 96-101. [11] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global project management handbook . McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4. p.1-4 states: " It was in the 1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution arising from the management discipline." [12] Booz Allen Hamilton – History of Booz Allen 1950s (http://www.boozallen.com/about/history/history_5) [13] Bjarne Kousholt (2007). Project Management – . Theory and practice.. Nyt Teknisk Forlag. ISBN 87-571-2603-8. p.59. [14] ipma.ch (http://www.ipma.ch/publication/Pages/ICB-IPMACompetenceBaseline.aspx) [15] F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 0-566-07822-8. p.34. [16] Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems" (http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/spring2003/ cmsc838p/Process/waterfall.pdf) in: In: Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon) August 25 – 28, 1970, Los Angeles, USA. [17] Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005). Applied Software Project Management (http://www.stellman-greene.com/aspm/). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-00948-9. . [18] OGC – PRINCE2 – Background (http://www.ogc.gov.uk/methods_prince_2__background.asp) [19] "Project Management Guide" (http://www.ppoe.oit.va.gov/docs/VA_IT_PM_Guide.pdf). VA Office of Information and Technology . March 3, 2005. . [20] PMI (2010). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge p.27-35 [21] Peter Nathan, Gerald Everett Jones (2003). PMP certification for dummies. p.63. [22] Harold Kerzner (2003). Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling (8th Ed. ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-22577-0. [23] James P. Lewis (2000). The project manager's desk reference: : a comprehensive guide to project planning, scheduling, evaluation, and systems. p.185 [24] Jörg Becker, Martin Kugeler, Michael Rosemann (2003). Process management: a guide for the design of business processes. ISBN 978-3540434993. p.27. [25] Bernhard Schlagheck (2000). Objektorientierte Referenzmodelle für das Prozess- und Projektcontrolling. Grundlagen – Konstruktionen – Anwendungsmöglichkeiten. ISBN 978-3824471621. p.131. [26] Josef E. Riedl (1990). Projekt – Controlling in Forschung und Entwicklung. ISBN 9783540519638. p.99. [27] Steinle, Bruch, Lawa (1995). Projektmanagement. FAZ Verlagsbereich Wirtschaftsbücher. p.136 – 143 [28] NASA NPR 9501.2D (http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?Internal_ID=N_PR_9501_002D_&page_name=Chp2& format=PDF). May 23, 2001. [29] Body of Knowledge 5th edition, Association for Project Management, 2006, ISBN 1-903494-13-3 [30] Albert Hamilton (2004). Handbook of Project Management Procedures. TTL Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7277-3258-7
78
Project management
79
External links • Guidelines for Managing Projects (http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file40647. pdf) from the UK Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) • Max Wideman's "Open Source" Comparative Glossary of Project Management Terms (http://www. maxwideman.com/) • Open Source Project Management manual (http://www.projectmanagement-training. net/book/)
Access control Access control refers to exerting control over who can interact with a resource. Often but not always, this involves
an authority, who does the controlling. The resource can be a given building, group of buildings, or computer-based information system. But it can also refer to a restroom stall where access is controlled by using a coin to open the door. Access control is, in reality, an everyday phenomenon. A lock on a car door is essentially a form of access control. A PIN on an ATM system at a bank is another means of access control. The possession of access control is of prime importance when persons seek to secure important, confidential, or sensitive information and equipment. Item control or electronic key management is
an area within (and possibly integrated with) an access control system which concerns the managing of possession and location of small assets or physical (mechanical) keys.
Physical access Physical access by a person may be allowed depending on payment, authorization, etc. Also there may be one-way traffic of people. These can be enforced by personnel such as a border guard, a doorman, a ticket checker, etc., or with a device such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid circumventing this access control. An alternative of access control in the strict sense (physically controlling access itself) is a system of checking authorized presence, see e.g. Ticket controller (transportation). A variant is exit control, e.g. of a shop (checkout) or a country. Underground entrance to the New York City
In physical security, the term access control refers to the practice of Subway system restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized persons. Physical access control can be achieved by a human (a guard, bouncer, or receptionist), through mechanical means such as locks and keys, or through technological means such as access control systems like the Access control vestibule. Within these environments, physical key management may also be employed as a means of further managing and monitoring access to mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets. Physical access control is a matter of who, where, and when. An access control system determines who is allowed to enter or exit, where they are allowed to exit or enter, and when they are allowed to enter or exit. Historically this was partially accomplished through keys and locks. When a door is locked only someone with a key can enter through the door depending on how the lock is configured. Mechanical locks and keys do not allow restriction of the key holder to specific times or dates. Mechanical locks and keys do not provide records of the key used on any specific door and the keys can be easily copied or transferred to an unauthorized person. When a mechanical key is lost or the key holder is no longer authorized to use the protected area, the locks must be re-keyed. Electronic access control uses computers to solve the limitations of mechanical locks and keys. A wide range of credentials can be used to replace mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on the
Access control credential presented. When access is granted, the door is unlocked for a predetermined time and the transaction is recorded. When access is refused, the door remains locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will also monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after being unlocked.
Access control system operation When a credential is presented to a reader, the read er sends the credential’s information, usually a number, to a control panel, a highly reliable processor. The control panel compares the credential's number to an access control list, grants or denies the presented request, and sends a transaction log to a database. When access is denied based on the access control list, the door remains locked. If there is a match between the credential and the access control list, the control panel operates a relay that in turn unlocks the door. The control panel also ignores a door open signal to prevent an alarm. Often the reader provides feedback, such as a flashing red LED for an access denied and a flashing green LED for an access granted. The above description illustrates a single factor transaction. Credentials can be passed around, thus subverting the access control list. For example, Alice has access rights to the server room but Bob does not. Alice either gives Bob her credential or Bob takes it; he now has access to the server room. To prevent this, two-factor authentication can be used. In a two factor transaction, the presented credential and a second factor are needed for access to be granted; another factor can be a PIN, a second credential, operator intervention, or a biometric input. There are three types (factors) of authenticating information: • something the user knows, e.g. a password, pass-phrase or PIN • something the user has, such as smart card • something the user is, such as fingerprint, verified by biometric measurement Passwords are a common means of verifying a user's identity before access is given to information systems. In addition, a fourth factor of authentication is now recognized: someone you know, where another person who knows you can provide a human element of authentication in situations where systems have been set up to allow for such scenarios. For example, a user may have their password, but have forgotten their smart card. In such a scenario, if the user is known to designated cohorts, the cohorts may provide their smart card and password in combination with the extant factor of the user in question and thus provide two factors for the user with missing credential, and three factors overall to allow access.
Credential A credential is a physical/tangible object, a piece of knowledge, or a facet of a person's physical being, that enables an individual access to a given physical facility or co mputer-based information system. Typically, credentials can be something you know (such as number or PIN), something you have (such as an access badge), something you are (such as a biometric feature) or some combination of these items. The typical credential is an access card, key fob, or other key. There are many card technologies including magnetic stripe, bar code, Wiegand, 125 kHz proximity, 26 bit card-swipe, contact smart cards, and contactless smart cards. Also available are key-fobs which are more compact than ID cards and attach to a key ring. Typical biometric technologies include fingerprint, facial recognition, iris recognition, retinal scan, voice, and hand geometry.
Access control system components An access control point, which can be a door, turnstile, parking gate, elevator, or other physical barrier where granting access can be electronically controlled. Typically the access point is a door. An electronic access control door can contain several elements. At its most basic there is a stand-alone electric lock. The lock is unlocked by an operator with a switch. To automate this, operator intervention is replaced by a reader. The reader could be a keypad where a code is entered, it could be a card reader, or it could be a biometric reader. Readers do not usually make an access decision but send a card number to an access control panel that verifies the number against an access list. To
80
Access control
81
monitor the door position a magnetic door switch is used. In concept the door switch is not unlike those on refrigerators or car doors. Generally only entry is controlled and exit is uncontrolled. In c ases where exit is also controlled a second reader is used on the opposite side of the door. In cases where exit is not controlled, free exit, a device called a request-to-exit (RTE) is used. Request-to-exit devices can be a push-button or a motion detector. When the button is pushed or the motion detector detects motion at the door, the door alarm is temporarily ignored while the door is opened. Exiting a door without having to electrically unlock the door is called mechanical free egress. This is an important safety feature. In cases where the lock must be electrically unlocked on exit, the request-to-exit device also unlocks the door.
Access control topology Access control decisions are made by comparing the credential to an access control list. This lookup can be done by a host or server, by an access control panel, or by a reader. The development of access control systems has seen a steady push of the lookup out from a central host to the edge of the system, or the reader. The predominate topology circa 2009 is hub and spoke with a control panel as the hub and the readers as the spokes. The lookup and control functions are by the control panel. The spokes communicate through a serial connection; usually RS485. Some manufactures are pushing the decision making to the edge by placing a controller at the door. The controllers are IP enabled and connect to a host and database using standard networks.
Types of readers
Typical access control door wiring
Access control readers may be classified by functions they are able to perform: • Basic (non-intelligent) readers: simply read card number or PIN and forward it to a control panel. In case of biometric identification, such readers output ID number of a user. Typically Wiegand protocol is used for transmitting data to the control panel, but other options such as RS-232, RS-485 and Clock/Data are not uncommon. This is the most popular type of access control readers. Examples of such readers are RF Tiny by RFLOGICS, ProxPoint by HID, and P300 by Farpointe Data. • Semi-intelligent readers: have all inputs and outputs necessary to control door hardware (lock, door contact, exit button), but do not Access control door wiring when using intelligent make any access decisions. When a user presents a card or enters readers PIN, the reader sends information to the main controller and waits for its response. If the connection to the main controller is interrupted, such readers stop working or function in a degraded mode. Usually semi-intelligent readers are connected to a control panel via an RS-485 bus. Examples of such readers are InfoProx Lite IPL200 by CEM Systems and AP-510 by Apollo. • Intelligent readers: have all inputs and outputs necessary to control door hardware, they also have memory and processing power necessary to make access decisions independently. Same as semi-intelligent readers they are connected to a control panel via an RS-485 bus. The control panel sends configuration updates and retrieves events from the readers. Examples of such readers could be InfoProx IPO200 by CEM Systems and AP-500 by Apollo. There is also a new generation of intelligent readers referred to as "IP readers". Systems with IP readers usually do not have traditional control panels and readers communicate directly to PC that acts as a host.
Access control
82
Examples of such readers are PowerNet IP Reader by Isonas Security Systems [1], ID08 by Solus has the built in webservice to make it user friendly, Edge ER40 reader by HID Global, LogLock and UNiLOCK by ASPiSYS Ltd, BioEntry Plus reader by Suprema Inc. and 4G V-Station by Bioscrypt Inc. Some readers may have additional features such as LCD and function buttons for data collection purposes (i.e. clock-in/clock-out events for attendance reports), camera/speaker/microphone for intercom, and smart card read/write support. Access control readers may also be classified by the type of identification technology.
Access control system topologies 1. Serial controllers. Controllers are connected to a host PC via a
serial RS-485 communication line (or via 20mA current loop in some older systems). External RS-232/485 converters or internal RS-485 cards have to be installed as standard PCs do not have RS-485 communication ports. Advantages: • RS-485 standard allows long cable runs, up to 4000 feet (1200 m) Access control system using serial controllers • Relatively short response time. The maximum number of devices on an RS-485 line is limited to 32, which means that the host can frequently request status updates from each device and display events almost in real time. • High reliability and security as the communication line is not shared with any other systems. Disadvantages: • RS-485 does not allow Star-type wiring unless splitters are used • RS-485 is not well suited for transferring large amounts of data (i.e. configuration and users). The highest possible throughput is 115.2 kbit/s, but in most system it is downgraded to 56.2 kbit/s or less to increase reliability. • RS-485 does not allow host PC to communicate with several controllers connected to the same port simultaneously. Therefore in large systems transfers of configuration and users to controllers may take a very long time and interfere with normal operations. • Controllers cannot initiate communication in case of an alarm. The host PC acts as a master on the RS-485 communication line and controllers have to wait till they are polled. • Special serial switches are required in order to build a redundant host PC setup. • Separate RS-485 lines have to be installed instead of using an already existing network infrastructure. • Cable that meets RS-485 standards is significantly more expensive than the regular Category 5 UTP network cable. • Operation of the system is highly dependent on the host PC. In case the host PC fails, events from controllers are not retrieved and functions that required interaction between controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working. 2. Serial main and sub-controllers. All door hardware is connected to
sub-controllers (a.k.a. door controllers or door interfaces). Sub-controllers usually do not make access decisions, and forward all requests to the main controllers. Main controllers usually support from 16 to 32 sub-controllers. Advantages: • Work load on the host PC is significantly reduced, because it only needs to communicate with a few main controllers. • The overall cost of the system is lower, as sub-controllers are usually simple and inexpensive devices.
Access control system using serial main and sub-controllers
Access control • All other advantages listed in the first paragraph apply. Disadvantages: • Operation of the system is highly dependent on main controllers. In case one of the main controllers fails, events from its sub-controllers are not retrieved and functions that require interaction between sub controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working. • Some models of sub-controllers (usually lower cost) have no memory and processing power to make access decisions independently. If the main controller fails, sub-controllers change to degraded mode in which doors are either completely locked or unlocked and no events are recorded. Such sub-controllers should be avoided or used only in areas that do not require high security. • Main controllers tend to be expensive, therefore such topology is not very well suited for systems with multiple remote locations that have only a few doors. • All other RS-485-related disadvantages listed in the first paragraph apply. 3. Serial main controllers & intelligent readers. All door hardware is
connected directly to intelligent or semi-intelligent readers. Readers usually do not make access decisions, and forward all requests to the main controller. Only if the connection to the main controller is unavailable, the readers use their internal database to make access Access control system using serial main decisions and record events. Semi-intelligent reader that have no controller and intelligent readers database and cannot function without the main controller should be used only in areas that do not require high security. Main controllers usually support from 16 to 64 readers. All advantages and disadvantages are the same as the ones listed in the second paragraph. 4. Serial controllers with terminal servers. In spite of the rapid
development and increasing use of computer networks, access control manufacturers remained conservative and did not rush to introduce network-enabled products. When pressed for solutions with network connectivity, many chose the option requiring less efforts: addition of a terminal server, a device that converts serial data for transmission via LAN or WAN. Advantages: • Allows utilizing existing network infrastructure for connecting separate segments of the system. • Provides convenient solution in cases when installation of an RS-485 line would be difficult or impossible. Disadvantages: • Increases complexity of the system. • Creates additional work for installers: usually terminal servers have to be configured independently, not through the interface of the access control software. • Serial communication link between the controller and the terminal Access control systems using serial controllers server acts as a bottleneck: even though the data between the host and terminal servers PC and the terminal server travels at the 10/100/1000Mbit/s network speed it then slows down to the serial speed of 112.5 kbit/s or less. There are also additional delays introduced in the process of conversion between serial and network data. All RS-485-related advantages and disadvantages also apply.
83
Access control
84
5. Network-enabled main controllers. The topology is nearly the
same as described in the second and third paragraphs. The same advantages and disadvantages apply, but the on-board network interface offers a couple valuable improvements. Transmission of configuration and users to the main controllers is faster and may be done in parallel. This makes the system more responsive and does not interrupt normal operations. No special hardware is required in order to achieve redundant host PC setup: in case the primary host PC fails, the secondary host PC may start polling network controllers. The disadvantages introduced by terminal servers (listed in the fourth paragraph) are also eliminated. Access control system using network-enabled main controllers
6. IP controllers. Controllers are connected to a host PC via Ethernet
LAN or WAN. Advantages: • An existing network infrastructure is fully utilized, there is no need to install new communication lines. • There are no limitations regarding the number of controllers (32 per line in case of RS-485). Access control system using IP controllers • Special RS-485 installation, termination, grounding and troubleshooting knowledge is not required. • Communication with controllers may be done at the full network speed, which is important if transferring a lot of data (databases with thousands of users, possibly including biometric records). • In case of an alarm controllers may initiate connection to the host PC. This ability is important in large systems because it allows to reduce network traffic caused by unnecessary polling. • Simplifies installation of systems consisting of multiple sites separated by large distances. Basic Internet link is sufficient to establish connections to remote locations. • Wide selection of standard network equipment is available to provide connectivity in different situations (fiber, wireless, VPN, dual path, PoE) Disadvantages: • The system becomes susceptible to network related problems, such as delays in case of heavy traffic and network equipment failures. • Access controllers and workstations may become accessible to hackers if the network of the organization is not well protected. This threat may be eliminated by physically separating the access control network from the network of the organization. Also it should be noted that most IP controllers utilize either Linux platform or proprietary operating systems, which makes them more difficult to hack. Industry standard data encryption is also used. • Maximum distance from a hub or a switch to the controller (if using a copper cable) is 100 meters (330 ft). • Operation of the system is dependent on the host PC. In case the host PC fails, events from controllers are not retrieved and functions that require interaction between controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working. Some controllers, however, have peer-to-peer communication option in order to reduce dependency on the host PC.
Access control
85
7. IP readers. Readers are connected to a host PC via Ethernet LAN or
WAN. Advantages: • Most IP readers are PoE capable. This feature makes it very easy to provide battery backed power to the entire system, including the locks and various types of detectors (if used). • IP readers eliminate the need for controller enclosures.
Access control system using IP readers
• There is no wasted capacity when using IP readers (i.e. a 4-door controller would have 25% unused capacity if it was controlling only 3 doors). • IP reader systems scale easily: there is no need to install new main or sub-controllers. • Failure of one IP reader does not affect any other readers in the system. Disadvantages: • In order to be used in high-security areas IP readers require special input/output modules to eliminate the possibility of intrusion by accessing lock and/or exit button wiring. Not all IP reader manufacturers have such modules available. • Being more sophisticated than basic readers IP readers are also more expensive and sensitive, therefore they should not be installed outdoors in areas with harsh weather conditions or high possibility of vandalism, unless specifically designed for exterior installation. A few manufacturers make such models. The advantages and disadvantages of IP controllers apply to the IP readers as well.
Security risks The most common security risk of intrusion of an access control system is simply following a legitimate user through a door. Often the legitimate user will hold the door for the intruder. This risk can be minimized through security awareness training of the user population or more active means such as turnstiles. In very high security applications this risk is minimized by using a sally port, sometimes called a security vestibule or mantrap where operator intervention is required presumably to assure valid identification. The second most common risk is from levering the door open. This is surprisingly simple and effective on most doors. The lever could be as small as a screw driver or big as a crow bar. Fully implemented access control systems include forced door monitoring alarms. These vary in effectiveness usually failing from high false positive alarms, poor database configuration, or lack of active intrusion monitoring.
Access control door wiring when using intelligent readers and IO module
Similar to levering is crashing through cheap partition walls. In shared tenant spaces the divisional wall is a vulnerability. Along the same lines is breaking sidelights. Spoofing locking hardware is fairly simple and more elegant than levering. A strong magnet can operate the solenoid controlling bolts in electric locking hardware. Motor locks, more prevalent in Europe than in the US, are also susceptible to this attack using a donut shaped magnet. It is also possible to manipulate the power to the lock either by removing or adding current. Access cards themselves have proven vulnerable to sophisticated attacks. Enterprising hackers have built portable readers that capture the card number from a user ’s proximity card. The hacker simply walks by the user, reads the card, and then presents the number to a reader securing the door. This is possible because card numbers are sent in the clear, no encryption being used.
Access control Finally, most electric locking hardware still have mechanical keys as a fail-over. Mechanical key locks are vulnerable to bumping. The need-to-know principle
The need to know principle can be enforced with user access controls and authorization procedures and its objective is to ensure that only authorized individuals gain access to information or systems necessary to undertake their duties. See Principle of least privilege.
Computer security In computer security, access control includes authentication, authorization and audit. It also includes measures such as physical devices, including biometric scans and metal locks, hidden paths, digital signatures, encryption, social barriers, and monitoring by humans and automated systems. In any access control model, the entities that can perform actions in the system are called subjects, and the entities representing resources to which access may need to be controlled are called objects (see also Access Control Matrix). Subjects and objects should both be considered as software entities, rather than as human users: any human user can only have an effect on the system via the software entities that they control. Although some systems equate subjects with user IDs, so that all processes started by a user by default have the same authority, this level of control is not fine-grained enough to satisfy the Principle of least privilege, and arguably is responsible for the prevalence of malware in such systems (see computer insecurity). In some models, for example the object-capability model, any software entity can potentially act as both a subject and object. Access control models used by current systems tend to fall into one of two classes: those based on capabilities and those based on access control lists (ACLs). In a capability-based model, holding an unforgettable reference or capability to an object provides access to the object (roughly analogous to how possession of your house key grants you access to your house); access is conveyed to another party by transmitting such a capability over a secure channel. In an ACL-based model, a subject's access to an object depends on whether its identity is on a list associated with the object (roughly analogous to how a bouncer at a private party would check your ID to see if your name is on the guest list); access is conveyed by editing the list. (Different ACL systems have a variety of different conventions regarding who or what is responsible for editing the list and how it is edited.) Both capability-based and ACL-based models have mechanisms to allow access rights to be granted to all members of a group of subjects (often the group is itself modeled as a subject). Access control systems provide the essential services of identification and authentication ( I&A), authorization, and accountability where: • identification and authentication determine who can log on to a system, and the association of users with the software subjects that they are able to control as a result of logging in; • authorization determines what a subject can do; • accountability identifies what a subject (or all subjects associated with a user) did.
Identification and authentication (I&A) Identification and authentication (I&A) is the process of verifying that an identity is bound to the entity that makes an assertion or claim of identity. The I&A process assumes that there was an initial validation of the identity, commonly called identity proofing. Various methods of identity proofing are available ranging from in person validation using government issued identification to anonymous methods that allow the claimant to remain anonymous, but known to the system if they return. The method used for identity proofing and validation should provide an assurance level commensurate with the intended use of the identity within the system. Subsequently, the
86
Access control
87
entity asserts an identity together with an authenticator as a means for validation. The only requirements for the identifier is that it must be unique within its security domain. Authenticators are commonly based on at least one of the following four factors: •
Something you know, such as a password or a personal identification number (PIN). This assumes that only the
owner of the account knows the password or PIN needed to access the account. • Something you have, such as a smart card or security token. This assumes that only the owner of the account has the necessary smart card or token needed to unlock the account. • Something you are, such as fingerprint, voice, retina, or iris characteristics. • Where you are, for example inside or outside a company firewall, or proximity of login location to a personal GPS device.
Authorization Authorization applies to subjects. Authorization determines what a subject can do on the system. Most modern operating systems define sets of permissions that are variations or extensions of three basic types of access: • Read (R): The subject can • Read file contents • List directory contents • Write (W): The subject can change the contents of a file or directory with the following tasks: • Add • Create • Delete • Rename • Execute (X): If the file is a program, the subject can cause the program to be run. (In Unix systems, the 'execute' permission doubles as a 'traverse directory' permission when granted for a directory.) These rights and permissions are implemented differently in systems based on and mandatory access control ( MAC ).
discretionary access control ( DAC )
Accountability Accountability uses such system components as audit trails (records) and logs to associate a subject with its actions. The information recorded should be sufficient to map the subject to a controlling user. Audit trails and logs are important for • Detecting security violations • Re-creating security incidents If no one is regularly reviewing your logs and they are not maintained in a secure and consistent manner, they may not be admissible as evidence. Many systems can generate automated reports based on certain predefined criteria or thresholds, known as clipping levels. For example, a clipping level may be set to generate a report for the following: • More than three failed logon attempts in a given period • Any attempt to use a disabled user account These reports help a system administrator or security administrator to more easily identify possible break-in attempts.
Access control
Access control models Access control models are sometimes categorized as either discretionary or non-discretionary. The three most widely recognized models are Discretionary Access Control (DAC), Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and Role Based Access Control (RBAC). MAC and RBAC are both non-discretionary. Attribute-based access control
In attribute-based access control (ABAC), access is granted not based on the rights of the subject associated with a user after authentication, but based on attributes of the user. The user has to prove so called claims about his attributes to the access control engine. An attribute-based access control policy specifies which claims need to be satisfied in order to grant access to an object. For instance the claim could be "older than 18" . Any user that can prove this claim is granted access. Users can be anonymous as authentication and identification are not strictly required. One does however require means for proving claims anonymously. This can for instance be achieved using anonymous credentials or XACML (extensible access control markup language). Discretionary access control
Discretionary access control (DAC) is an access policy determined by the owner of an object. The owner decides who is allowed to access the object and what privileges they have. Two important concepts in DAC are • File and data ownership: Every object in the system has an owner . In most DAC systems, each object's initial owner is the subject that caused it to be created. The access policy for an object is determined by its owner. • Access rights and permissions: These are the controls that an owner can assign to other subjects for specific resources. Access controls may be discretionary in ACL-based or capability-based access control systems. (In capability-based systems, there is usually no explicit concept of 'owner', but the creator of an object has a similar degree of control over its access policy.) Mandatory access control
Mandatory access control refers to allowing access to a resource if and only if rules exist that allow a given user to access the resource. It is difficult to manage but its use is usually justified when used to protect highly sensitive information. Examples include certain government and military information. Management is often simplified (over what can be required) if the information can be protected using hierarchical access control, or by implementing sensitivity labels. What makes the method "mandatory" is the use of either rules or sensitivity labels. • Sensitivity labels: In such a system subjects and objects must have labels assigned to them. A subject's sensitivity label specifies its level of trust. An object's sensitivity label specifies the level of trust required for access. In order to access a given object, the subject must have a sensitivity level equal to or higher than the requested object. • Data import and export: Controlling the import of information from other systems and export to other systems (including printers) is a critical function of these systems, which must ensure that sensitivity labels are properly maintained and implemented so that sensitive information is appropriately protected at all times. Two methods are commonly used for applying mandatory access control: • Rule-based (or label-based) access control: This type of control further defines specific conditions for access to a requested object. A Mandatory Access Control system implements a simple form of rule-based access control to determine whether access should be granted or denied by matching: • An object's sensitivity label • A subject's sensitivity label • Lattice-based access control: These can be used for complex access control decisions involving multiple objects and/or subjects. A lattice model is a mathematical structure that defines greatest lower-bound and least
88
Access control
89
upper-bound values for a pair of elements, such as a subject and an object. Few systems implement MAC; XTS-400 and SELinux are examples of systems that do. The computer system at the company in the movie Tron is an example from the prior century. Role-based access control
Role-based access control (RBAC) is an access policy determined by the system, not the owner. RBAC is used in commercial applications and also in military systems, where multi-level security requirements may also exist. RBAC differs from DAC in that DAC allows users to control access to their resources, while in RBAC, access is controlled at the system level, outside of the user's control. Although RBAC is non-discretionary, it can be distinguished from MAC primarily in the way permissions are handled. MAC controls read and write permissions based on a user's clearance level and additional labels. RBAC controls collections of permissions that may include complex operations such as an e-commerce transaction, or may be as simple as read or write. A role in RBAC can be viewed as a set of permissions. Three primary rules are defined for RBAC: 1. Role assignment: A subject can execute a transaction only if the subject has selected or been assigned a role. 2. Role authorization: A subject's active role must be authorized for the subject. With rule 1 above, this rule ensures that users can take on only roles for which they are authorized. 3. Transaction authorization: A subject can execute a transaction only if the transaction is authorized for the subject's active role. With rules 1 and 2, this rule ensures that users can execute only transactions for which they are authorized. Additional constraints may be applied as well, and roles can be combined in a hierarchy where higher-level roles subsume permissions owned by sub-roles. Most IT vendors offer RBAC in one or more products.
Telecommunication In telecommunication, the term meanings:
access control
is defined in U.S. Federal Standard 1037C [2] with the following
1. A service feature or technique used to permit or deny use of the components of a communication system. 2. A technique used to define or restrict the rights of individuals or application programs to obtain data from, or place data onto, a storage device. 3. The definition or restriction of the rights of individuals or application programs to obtain data from, or place data into, a storage device. 4. The process of limiting access to the resources of an AIS to authorized users, programs, processes, or other systems. 5. That function performed by the resource controller that allocates system resources to satisfy user requests. This definition depends on several other technical terms from Federal Standard 1037C.
Access control
Public policy In public policy, access control to restrict access to systems ("authorization") or to track or monitor behavior within systems ("accountability") is an implementation feature of using trusted systems for security or social control.
References • • • •
U.S. Federal Standard 1037C U.S. MIL-STD-188 U.S. National Information Systems Security Glossary Harris, Shon, All-in-one CISSP Exam Guide, Third Edition, McGraw Hill Osborne, Emeryville, California, 2005.
[1] http://www.isonas.com [2] http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/other/a. pdf
• "Integrated Security Systems Design" - Butterworth/Heinenmann - 2007 - Thomas L. Norman, CPP/PSP/CSC Author • Government Open Source Access Control —Next Generation (GOSAC-N) (http://www.gosac-n.org)
External links • eXtensible Access Control Markup Language. (http://xml.coverpages.org/xacml.html) An OASIS standard language/model for access control. Also XACML.
90
Manufacturing resource planning
91
Manufacturing resource planning Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)
is defined by APICS as a method for the effective planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. Ideally, it addresses operational planning in units, financial planning, and has a simulation capability to answer "what-if" questions and extension of closed-loop MRP. This is not exclusively a software function, but a marriage of people skills, dedication to data base accuracy, and computer resources. It is a total company management concept for using human resources more productively.
Key functions and features MRP II is not a proprietary software system and can thus take many forms. It is almost impossible to visualize an MRP II system that does not use a computer, but an MRP II system can be based on either purchased – licensed or in-house software. Almost every MRP II system is modular in construction. Characteristic basic modules in an MRP II system are: • • • • • • • • • • •
Master production schedule (MPS) Item master data (technical data) Bill of materials (BOM) (technical data) Production resources data (manufacturing technical data) Inventories and orders (inventory control) Purchasing management Material requirements planning (MRP) Shop floor control (SFC) Capacity planning or capacity requirements planning (CRP) Standard costing (cost control) Cost reporting / management (cost control)
together with auxiliary systems such as: • • • • • •
Manufacturing Resource Planning (or MRP2) - Around 1980, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as the unsuitability of the parameters fixed by the system, led MRP (Material Requirement Planning) to evolve into a new concept : Manufacturing [1] Resource Planning (e.g. MRP 2)
Business planning Lot traceability Contract management Tool management Engineering change control Configuration management
Manufacturing resource planning • Shop floor data collection • Sales analysis and forecasting • Finite capacity scheduling (FCS) and related systems such as: • • • • • • • • • • •
General ledger Accounts payable (purchase ledger) Accounts receivable (sales ledger) Sales order management Distribution requirements planning (DRP) Automated warehouse management Project management Technical records Estimating Computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) CAPP
The MRP II system integrates these modules together so that they use common data and freely exchange information, in a model of how a manufacturing enterprise should and can operate. The MR P II approach is therefore very different from the “point solution” approach, where individual systems are deployed to help a company plan, control or manage a specific activity. MRP II is by definition fully integrated or at least fully interfaced.
Industry specifics MRP II systems have been implemented in most manufacturing industries. Some industries need specialised functions e.g. lot traceability in regulated manufacturing such as pharmaceuticals or food. Other industries can afford to disregard facilities required by others e.g. the tableware industry has few starting materials – mainly clay – and does not need complex materials planning. Capacity planning is the key to success in this as in many industries, and it is in those that MRP II is less appropriate.
MRP and MRPII: History and evolution Material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) are predecessors of enterprise resource planning (ERP), a business information integration system. The development of these manufacturing coordination and integration methods and tools made today ’s ERP systems possible. Both MRP and MRPII are still widely used, independently and as modules of more comprehensive ERP systems, but the original vision of integrated information systems as we know them today began with the development of MRP and MRPII in manufacturing. The vision for MRP and MRPII was to centralize and integrate business information in a way that would facilitate decision making for production line managers and increase the efficiency of the production line overall. In the 1980s, manufacturers developed systems for calculating the resource requirements of a production run based on sales forecasts. In order to calculate the raw materials needed to produce products and to schedule the purchase of those materials along with the machine and labor time needed, production managers recognized that they would need to use computer and software technology to manage the information. Originally, manufacturing operations built custom software programs that ran on mainframes. Material requirements planning (MRP) was an early iteration of the integrated information systems vision. MRP information systems helped managers determine the quantity and timing of raw materials purchases. Information systems that would assist managers with other parts of the manufacturing process, MRPII, followed. While MRP was primarily concerned with materials, MRPII was concerned with the integration of all aspects of the
92
Manufacturing resource planning manufacturing process, including materials, finance and human relations. Like today’s ERP systems, MRPII was designed to integrate a lot of information by way of a centralized database. However, the hardware, software, and relational database technology of the 1980s was not advanced enough to provide the speed and capacity to run these systems in real-time, [2] and the cost of these systems was prohibitive for most businesses. Nonetheless, the vision had been established, and shifts in the underlying business processes along with rapid advances in technology led to the more affordable enterprise and application integration systems that big businesses and many medium and smaller businesses use today (Monk and Wagner).
MRP and MRPII: General concepts Material requirements planning (MRP) and manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) are both incremental information integration business process strategies that are implemented using hardware and modular software applications linked to a central database that stores and delivers business data and information. MRP is concerned primarily with manufacturing materials while MRPII is concerned with the coordination of the entire manufacturing production, including materials, finance, and human relations. The goal of MRPII is to provide consistent data to all players in the manufacturing process as the product moves through the production line. Paper-based information systems and non-integrated computer systems that provide paper or disk outputs result in many information errors, including missing data, redundant data, numerical errors that result from being incorrectly keyed into the system, incorrect calculations based on numerical errors, and bad decisions based on incorrect or old data. In addition, some data is unreliable in non-integrated systems because the same data is categorized differently in the individual databases used by different functional areas. MRPII systems begin with MRP, material requirements planning. MRP allows for the input of sales forecasts from sales and marketing. These forecasts determine the raw materials demand. MRP and MRPII systems draw on a master production schedule, the breakdown of specific plans for each product on a line. While MRP allows for the coordination of raw materials purchasing, MRPII facilitates the development of a detailed production schedule that accounts for machine and labor capacity, scheduling the production runs according to the arrival of materials. An MRPII output is a final labor and machine schedule. Data about the cost of production, including machine time, labor time and materials used, as well as final production numbers, is provided from the MRPII system to accounting and finance (Monk and Wagner).
Manufacturing Management Software For the companies that want to integrate their other departments with their manufacturing management, ERP softwares are necessary. In this respect, OpenERP give companies the possibility to plan and control your supply chain through different applications in the Manufacturing module. Personalize your master data, configure planning, manage your manufacturing and work orders. • Scheduling Schedulers automatically organise manufacturing orders, launch purchase orders & reserve products in stock. • Manage materials and HR Define and plan efficiently the working time and capacity of your resources. • Bar Code Support Use our bar code support to record time and operations on different work orders. • Master Data OpenERP supports: multi-level Bill of Materials, push & pull logistic rules, advanced routings. • Stock Alerts
93
Manufacturing resource planning Get your stock alerts generated in real time to avoid shortages at any given time. • Stock Track the evolution of the stock value, according to the level of manufacturing activities as they progress in the transformation process.
Benefits MRP II systems can provide: • Better control of inventories • Improved scheduling • Productive relationships with suppliers For design / engineering: • Improved design control • Better quality and quality control For financial and costing: • Reduced working capital for inventory • Improved cash flow through quicker deliveries • Accurate inventory records
Criticism Authors like Pochet and Wolsey [3] argue that MRP and MRP II, as well as the planning modules in current APS and ERP systems, are actually sets of heuristics. Better production plans could be obtained by optimization over more powerful mathematical programming models, usually integer programming models. While they acknowledge that the use of heuristics, like those prescribed by MRP and MRP II, were necessary in the past due to lack of computational power to solve complex optimization models, this is no longer true.
References [1] Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1992). CIM: Principles of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index. php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=047193450X). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. p47. ISBN 047193450X. [2] Shum, Paul (2003). Knowledge and Innovation Culture as Determinants of Financial Performance in New Product Development (http://ijm. cgpublisher.com/product/pub.28/prod.422). Australia: The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management. . [3] Wolsey, Laurence (2006). Production Planning by Mixed Integer Programming. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-29959-4.
• Monk, E. and Wagner, B., Concepts in Enterprise Resource Planning, 2nd Edition, 2006, Editor, Mac Mendelsohn, Canada: Thomson Course Technology.
94
Business process management
95
Business process management Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach
[1]
focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. An empirical study by Kohlbacher (2009) indicates that BPM helps organizations to gain higher customer satisfaction, product quality, delivery speed and time-to-market speed. [2]
Overview A business process comprises a "series or network of value-added activities, performed by their relevant roles or collaborators, to purposefully achieve the common business goal." [3] These processes are critical to any organization, as they can generate revenue and often represent a significant proportion of costs. As a managerial approac h, BPM considers processes to be strategic assets of an organization that must be understood, managed, and improved to deliver value added products and services to clients. This foundation is very similar to other Total Quality Management or Continuous Improvement Process methodologies or approaches. BPM goes a step further by stating that this approach can be supported, or enabled, through technology to ensure the viability of the managerial approach in times of stress and change. In fact, BPM is an approach to integrate an organizational "change capability" that is both human and technological. As such, many BPM articles and pundits often discuss BPM from one of two viewpoints: people and/or technology. Roughly speaking, the idea of business process is as traditional as concepts of tasks, department, production, outputs. The current management and improvement approach, with formal definitions and technical modeling, has been around since the early 1990s (see business process modeling). Note that in the IT community, the term 'business process' is often used as synonymous of management of middleware processes; or integrating application software tasks. This viewpoint may be overly restrictive - a limitation to keep in mind when reading software engineering papers that refer to "business processes" or to "business process modeling". Although the initial focus of BPM was on the automation of business processes with the use of information technology, it has since been extended to integrate human-driven processes in which human interaction takes place in series or parallel with the use of technology. For example (in workflow systems), when individual steps in the business process require human intuition or judgment to be performed, these steps are assigned to appropriate members within the organization. More advanced forms such as human interaction management are in the complex interaction between human workers in performing a workgroup task. In this case, many people and systems interact in structured, ad-hoc, and sometimes completely dynamic ways to complete one to many transactions. BPM can be used to understand organizations through expanded views that would not otherwise be available to organize and present, such as relationships between processes. When included in a process model, these relationships provide for advanced reporting and analysis. BPM is regarded by some as the backbone of enterprise content management. Because BPM allows organizations to abstract business process from technology infrastructure, it goes far beyond automating business processes (software) or solving business problems (suite). BPM enables business to respond to changing consumer, market, and regulatory demands faster than competitors - creating competitive advantage. As of 2010 technology has allowed the coupling of BPM to other methodologies, such as Six Sigma. BPM tools allow users to: • Vision - strategize functions and processes
Business process management • • • • •
Define - baseline the process or the process improvement Model - simulate the change to the process. Analyze - compare the various simulations to determine an optimal improvement Improve - select and implement the improvement Control - deploy this implementation and by use of User defined dashboards monitor the improvement in real time and feed the performance information back into the simulation model in preparation for the next improvement iteration. • Re-engineer - revamp the processes from scratch for better results This brings with it the benefit of being able to simulate changes to business processes based on real-life data (not assumed knowledge). Also, the coupling of BPM to industry methodologies allows users to continually streamline and optimize the process to ensure that it is tuned to its market need. [4]
BPM life-cycle Business process management activities can be grouped into six categories: vision, design, modeling, execution, monitoring, and optimization.
Vision Functions are designed around the strategic vision and goals of an organization. Each function is attached with a list of processes. Each functional head in an organization is responsible for certain sets of processes made up of tasks which are to be executed and reported as planned. Multiple processes are aggregated to function accomplishments and multiple functions are aggregated to and achieve organizational goals. 1.Function plays a vital role. 2.Function are attached to the list of Process.
Design Process Design encompasses both the identification of existing processes and the design of "to-be" processes. Areas of focus include representation of the process flow, the actors within it, alerts & notifications, escalations, Standard Operating Procedures, Service Level Agreements, and task hand-over mechanisms. Good design reduces the number of problems over the lifetime of the process. Whether or not existing processes are considered, the aim of this step is to ensure that a correct and efficient theoretical design is prepared. The proposed improvement could be in human-to-human, human-to-system, and system-to-system workflows, and might target regulatory, market, or competitive challenges faced by the businesses.
96
Business process management
97
Modeling Modeling takes the theoretical design and introduces combinations of variables (e.g., changes in rent or materials costs, which determine how the process might operate under different circumstances). It also involves running "what-if analysis" on the processes:
"What if I have 75% of resources to do the same task?"
"What if I want to do the same job for 80% of the current cost?" .
Execution One of the ways to automate processes is to develop or purchase an application that executes the required steps of the process; however, in practice, these applications rarely execute all the steps of the process accurately or completely. Another approach is to use a combination of software and human intervention; however this approach is more complex, making the documentation process difficult. As a response to these problems, software has been developed that enables the full business process (as developed in the process design activity) to be defined in a computer language which can be directly executed by the computer. The system will either use services in connected applications to perform business operations (e.g. calculating a repayment plan for a loan) or, when a step is too complex to automate, will ask for human input. Compared to either of the previous approaches, directly executing a process definition can be more straightforward and therefore easier to improve. However, automating a process definition requires flexible and comprehensive infrastructure, which typically rules out implementing these systems in a legacy IT environment. Business rules have been used by systems to provide definitions for governing behaviour, and a business rule engine can be used to drive process execution and resolution.
Monitoring Monitoring encompasses the tracking of individual processes, so that information on their state can be easily seen, and statistics on the performance of one or more processes can be provided. An example of the tracking is being able to determine the state of a customer order (e.g. ordered arrived, awaiting delivery, invoice paid) so that problems in its operation can be identified and corrected. In addition, this information can be used to work with customers and suppliers to improve their connected processes. Examples of the statistics are the generation of measures on how quickly a customer order is processed or how many orders were processed in the last month. These measures tend to fit into three categories: cycle time, defect rate and productivity. The degree of monitoring depends on what information the business wants to evaluate and analyze and how business wants it to be monitored, in real-time, near real-time or ad-hoc. Here, business activity monitoring (BAM) extends and expands the monitoring tools generally provided by BPMS. Process mining is a collection of methods and tools related to process monitoring. The aim of process mining is to analyze event logs extracted through process monitoring and to compare them with an a priori process model. Process mining allows process analysts to detect discrepancies between the actual process execution and the a priori model as well as to analyze bottlenecks.
Business process management
98
Optimization Process optimization includes retrieving process performance information from modeling or monitoring phase; identifying the potential or actual bottlenecks and the potential opportunities for cost savings or other improvements; and then, applying those enhancements in the design of the process. Overall, this creates greater business value. [5]
Re-engineering When the process becomes too noisy and optimization is not fetching the desire output, it is recommended to re-engineer the entire process cycle. BPR has become an integral part of manufacturing organization to achieve efficiency and productivity at work.
BPM Suites on market Forrester Research, Inc recognize the BPM suite space through three different lenses: • human-centric BPM, e.g. Software AG webMethods • integration-centric BPM (Enterprise Service Bus), e.g. Microsoft BizTalk Server • document-centric BPM (Dynamic Case Management), e.g. Microsoft SharePoint Server However, over the past few years, standalone integration-centric and document-centric offerings have matured into separate, standalone markets that include BPM plus much more.
Practice While the steps can be viewed as a cycle, economic or time constraints are likely to limit the process to only a few iterations. This is often the case when an organization uses the approach for short to medium term objectives rather than trying to transform the organizational culture. True iterations are only possible through the collaborative efforts of process participants. In a majority of organizations, complexity will require enabling technology (see below) to support the process participants in these daily process management challenges.
Example of Business Process Management (BPM) Service Pattern: This pattern shows how business process management (BPM) tools can be used to implement business [6] processes through the orchestration of activities between people and systems.
To date, many organizations often start a BPM project or program with the objective to optimize an area that has been identified as an area for improvement. In the financial sector, BPM is critical to make sure the system delivers a quality service while maintaining regulatory compliance. [7] Currently, the international standards for the task have limited BPM to the application in the IT sector, and ISO/IEC 15944 covers the operational aspects of the business. However, some corporations with the culture of best practices do use standard operating procedures to regulate their operational process. [8] Other standards are currently being worked upon to assist in BPM implementation (BPMN, Enterprise Architecture, Business Motivation Model).
Business process management
BPM technology Some define the BPM System or Suite (BPMS) as "the whole of BPM." Others relate the important concept of information moving between enterprise software packages and immediately think of Service Oriented Architecture (SOA). Still others limit the definition to "modeling" (see Business modeling). BPM is now considered a critical component of Operational Intelligence (OI) solutions to deliver real-time, actionable information. This real-time information can be acted upon in a variety of ways - alerts can be sent or executive decisions can be made using real-time dashboards. OI solutions use real-time information to take automated action based on pre-defined rules so that security measures and or exception management processes can be initiated. These are partial answers and the technological offerings continue to evolve. The BPMS term may not survive. Today it encompasses the concept of supporting the managerial approach through enabling technology. The BPMS should enable all stakeholders to have a firm understanding of an organization and its performance. The BPMS should facilitate business process change throughout the life cycle stated above. This assists in the automation of activities, collaboration, integration with other systems, integrating partners through the value chain, etc. For instance, the size and complexity of daily tasks often requires the use of technology to model efficiently. These models facilitate automation and solutions to business problems. These models can also become executable to assist in monitoring and controlling business processes. As such, some people view BPM as "the bridge between Information Technology (IT) and Business.". In fact, an argument can be made that this "holistic approach" bridges organizational and technological silos. There are four critical components of a BPM Suite: • Process Engine – a robust platform for modeling and executing process-based applications, including business rules • Business Analytics — enable managers to identify business issues, trends, and opportunities with reports and dashboards and react accordingly • Content Management — provides a system for storing and securing electronic documents, images, and other files • Collaboration Tools — remove intra- and interdepartmental communication barriers through discussion forums, dynamic workspaces, and message boards BPM also addresses many of the critical IT issues underpinning these business drivers, including: • • • • •
Managing end-to-end, customer-facing processes Consolidating data and increasing visibility into and access to associated data and information Increasing the flexibility and functionality of current infrastructure and data Integrating with existing systems and leveraging emerging service oriented architecture (SOAs) Establishing a common language for business-IT alignment
Validation of BPMS is another technical issue that vendors and users need to be aware of, if regulatory compliance is mandatory.[9] The validation task could be performed either by an authenticated third party or by the users themselves. Either way, validation documentation will need to be generated. The validation document usually can either be published officially or retained by users. [10]
99
Business process management
References [1] vom Brocke, J.HKVJH & Rosemann, M. (2010), Handbook on Business Process Management: Strategic Alignment, Governance, People and Culture (http://www.bpm-handbook.com) (International Handbooks on Information Systems) (Vol. 1). Berlin: Springer [2] Kohlbacher, M. (2009): The Effects of Process Orientation on Customer Satisfaction, Product Quality and Time-Based Performance. Paper presented at the 29th International Conference of the Strategic Management Society, Washington DC, October 11 – 14, Conference Website (http://dc.strategicmanagement.net). [3] Ryan K. L. Ko (2009). A computer scientist's introductory guide to business process management (BPM) (http://portal.acm.org/citation. cfm?id=1558897.1558901&coll=ACM&dl=ACM&CFID=86325717&CFTOKEN=44883106), ACM Crossroads 15(4), ACM Press [4] Coupling BPM with Six Sigma (ftp://ftp.software.ibm.com/common/ssi/sa/wh/n/wsw14044usen/WSW14044USEN. PDF) [5] S-Cube Knowledge Model: Business Process Optimization (http://www.s-cube-network.eu/km/terms/b/business-process-optimization). [6] NIH (2007). Business Process Management (BPM) Service Pattern (http://enterprisearchitecture.nih.gov/ArchLib/AT/TA/ WorkflowServicePattern.htm). Accessed 29 Nov 2008. [7] Oracle.com Business Process Management in the Finance Sector (http://www.oracle.com/industries/financial_services/BPM_WP_final. pdf). Accessed 16 July 2008. [8] NTAID (2008). Invoice Processing Procedures for Contracts (http://www.niaid.nih.gov/ncn/sop/contracts/invoice. htm) Accessed 17 Sept 2008. [9] "Guidance for Industry. Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures — Scope and Application" (http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/UCM072322.pdf) (PDF). Food and Drug Administration. August 2003. . Retrieved 2009-07-20. [10] Mettler Toledo Efficient system validation (http://us.mt.com/mt_ext_files/Editorial/Generic/6/ Datasheet_LabX_Validation_0x000248d2000263da00091312_files/LabX_validation_datasheet_e.pdf). Accessed 17 march 2008.
Document automation Document automation (also known as document assembly) is the design of systems and workflow that assist in the
creation of electronic documents. These include logic based systems that use segments of pre-existing text and/or data to assemble a new document. This process is increasingly used within certain industries to assemble legal documents, contracts and letters. Document automation system can also be used to automate all conditional text, variable text, and data contained within a set of documents. Automation systems allow companies to minimize data entry, reduce the time spent proof-reading, and reduce the risks associated with human error. Additional benefits include; savings due less paper handling, document loading, storage, distribution, postage/shipping, faxes, telephone, labour and waste.
Document automation in supply chain management & logistics There are many documents used in logistics. They are called; invoices, packing lists/slips/sheets (manifests), pick tickets, forms/reports of many types (e.g. MSDS, damaged goods, returned goods, detailed/summary, etc.), import/export, delivery, bill of lading (BOL), etc. These documents are usually the contracts between the consignee and the consignor, so they are very important for both parties and any intermediary, like a third party logistics company (3PL) and governments. Document handling w ithin logistics, supply chain management and distribution centers is usually performed manual labor or semiautomatically using bar code scanners, software and tabletop laser printers. There are some manufacturers of high speed document automation systems that will automatically compare the laser printed document to the order and either insert or automatically apply an enclosed wallet/pouch to the shipping container (usually a flexible polybag or corrugated fiberboard/rigid container). See below for external website video links showing these document automation systems. Protection of Privacy and Identity Theft are major concerns, especially with the increase of e-Commerce, Internet/Online shopping and Shopping channel (other, past references are catalogue shopping and mail order shopping) making it more important than ever to guarantee the correct document is married or associated to the correct order or shipment every time. Software that produce documents are; ERP, WMS, TMS, legacy middleware and most accounting packages.
100
Document automation
The document automation/assembly industry Document assembly was pioneered in the late 1970s in Utah. The basic functions are to replace the cumbersome manual filling in of repetitive documents with template-based systems where the user answers software-driven interview questions or data entry screen. The information collected then populates the document to form a good first draft'.[1] Today's more advanced document automation systems allow users to create their own data and rules (logic) without the need for programming. While document automation software is used primarily in the legal, financial services, and risk management industries, it can be used in any industry that creates transaction-based documents. Popular document automation solutions on the market today include Xinnovation, Business Integrity, Exari, HotDocs, Intelledox, Rapidocs and XpressDox. A good example of how document automation software can be used is with commercial mortgage documents. A typical commercial mortgage transaction can include several documents including: • • • • •
promissory note environmental indemnity trust deed mortgage guaranty
Some of these documents can contain as many as 80 to 100 pages, with hundreds of optional paragraphs and data elements. Document automation software has the ability to automatically fill in the correct document variables based on the transaction data. In addition, some document automation software has the ability to create a document suite where all related documents are encapsulated into one file, making updates and collaboration easy and fast. Simpler software applications that are easier to learn can also be used to automate the preparation of documents, without undue complexity. Clipboard managers such as textBEAST allow the user to save frequently-used text fragments, organize them into logical groups, and then quickly access them to paste into final documents.
Document automation in the legal services market The role of automation technology in the production of legal documents has been widely recognised. For example, Richard Susskind’s book ‘The End of Lawyers’ looks at the use of document automation software that enables clients to generate employment contracts and Wills with the use of an online interview or decision tree [2] . Susskind regards Document Assembly as one of 10 'disruptive technologies' that are altering the face of the legal profession [3] . In large law firms document assembly systems are increasingly being used to systemise work, such as complex term sheets and the first drafts of credit agreements [4] [5] . With the liberalisation of the UK legal services market spearheaded by the Legal Services Act 2007 large institutions have broadened their services to include legal assistance for their customers [6] [7] . Most of these companies use some element of document automation technology to provide legal document services over the Web [8] . This has been seen as heralding a trend towards commoditisation whereby technologies like document automation result in high volume, low margin legal services being ‘packaged’ and provided to a mass-market audience [9] [10] [11] .
101
Document automation
References [1] Article: Disrupting Conventional Law Firm Business Models using Document Assembly (http://ijlit.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/ abstract/15/2/170) Mountain, Int J Law Info Tech., 2006; 0: eal019v1 [2] Article Who's afraid of computer generation? (http://www.lawgazette.co.uk/blogs/in-business-blog/ who039s-afraid-computer-generation) Eduardo Reyes (Thursday 28 October 2010) [3] The End of Lawyers?: Rethinking the Nature of Legal Services Richard Susskind OBE Oxford University Press, USA (January 15, 2009) [4] Article: Swift Justice (http://www.information-age.com/channels/information-management/features/1307743/part_3/swift-justice. thtml) Pete Swabey (20 December 2010) [5] Article: Client services - Distance relationships (http://www.legaltechnologyjournal.co.uk/content/view/31/50/) Marc-Henri Chamay Legal Technology Journal [6] Article: Braced for the big bang and Tesco law (http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law/article6921906. ece) Jon Robins The Times [7] Article: A trip to the shops can end in divorce (http://www.epoq.co. uk/ep/press-images/2007-07-08-HalifaxLegalServicesFTArticle.pdf) Ellen Kelleher The Financial Times [8] Article: Why big brand legal services are bad news for solicitors (http://www.guardian.co.uk/law/2010/nov/02/ aa-saga-legal-services-solicitors) Neil Rose The Guardian (Tuesday 2 November 2010) [9] Article: Commoditisation of Legal Services - What It Means for the Future of Legal Practice (http://www.lawgazette.com.sg/2007-6/ legal.htm) Sylvia Lowe Law Gazette [10] Article: From bespoke to commodity (http://www.legaltechnologyjournal.co.uk/content/view/21/51/) Professor Richard Susskind OBE Legal Technology Journal (2006) [11] Article: The commodities business (http://www.lawgazette.co.uk/features/the-commodities-business) Professor Richard Susskind OBE The Law Society Gazette (Thursday 13 April 2006)
Vendors • Epoq Group • Exari • HotDocs
External links • Fall in Line With Document Assembly (http://www.capstonepractice.com/loc2006.pdf) • First, Do No Harm (http://www.pmpnews.com/article/first-do-no-harm) article about documentation within Pharmaceutical Industry
102
Enterprise feedback management
Enterprise feedback management Enterprise feedback management (EFM) is a system of processes and software that enables organizations to
centrally manage deployment of surveys while dispersing authoring and analysis throughout an organization. EFM systems typically provide different roles and permission levels for different types of users, such as novice survey authors, professional survey authors, survey reporters and translators. EFM can help an organization establish a dialogue with employees, partners, and customers regarding key issues and concerns and potentially make customer specific real time interventions. EFM consists of data collection, analysis and reporting. Prior to EFM, survey software was typically deployed in departments and lacked user roles, permissions and workflow. EFM enables deployment across the enterprise, providing decision makers with important data for increasing customer satisfaction, loyalty and lifetime value. EFM enables companies to look at customers "holistically" and to better respond to customer needs. [1] Gartner projected that 40 percent of total feedback system deployments would be EFM solutions in 2008. [2] Its worth noting that the motivation to pilot/deploy EFM is often to reduce the reliance on (or reduce the costs of) traditional satisfaction research. Esteban Kolsky, when a research director at Gartner, described the market structure as follows: "The market for these tools is a highly fragmented one, with no single provider. It's going to jumpstart a bunch of acquisitions as larger vendors look to work EFM and surveying into their growth strategy." The EFM market grew 60% to 70% in 2005 and 2006. [3]
Background EFM applications support complex survey design, with features such as question and page rotation, quota management and advanced skip patterns and branching. The software typically offers advanced reporting with statistical analysis and centralized panel management. EFM applications are often integrated with external platforms, most typically with CRM systems but also with HRIS systems and generic web portals. Unlike low-end survey tools, EFM applications provides a workflow process with user roles and permissions, so that users may be able to author a survey but require another user to approve it before it is published. Such workflow ensures consistent survey quality and enforces respondent privacy and IT security policies. Applications of EFM vary widely from HR, IT, Marketing, Sales and continues to expand on its corporate implementation and scope. Departments within an organization can collaborate on feedback initiatives, sharing results and gaining insights that enable the organization to listen, learn and react to the needs of their key stakeholders. A key part of the value of an EFM deployment is the development of the business rules (i.e. who needs to see what feedback info) and which parts of the customer / employee / partner facing process needs to be measured.
Management • • • • • • • • •
Customer engagement Business intelligence Customers Customer Intelligence Customer relationship management Customer satisfaction Enterprise relationship management Customer feedback management services Customer data management
103
Enterprise feedback management
References [1] How to Improve the Customer Experience (http://www.gartner.com/resources/154100/154195/ how_to_improve_the_customer__154195.pdf) [2] SDCExec.com - Article - Corporations, Government Adopt Enterprise Feedback Management (http://www.sdcexec.com/web/online/ Trends/Corporations--Government-Adopt-Enterprise-Feedback-Management/20$6932) [3] Angry and bored? You must be a customer: finding out what customers really think is a crucial first step toward an improved bottom line. New technology may help. | CFO, The Ma... (http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-15926678_ITM)
Enterprise planning systems Enterprise planning systems cover the methods of planning for the internal and external factors that affect an
enterprise. These factors generally fall under PESTLE. PESTLE refers to political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors. Regularly addressing PESTLE factors fall under operations management. Meanwhile, addressing any event, opportunity or challenge in any one or many factors for the first time will involve project management. As opposed to enterprise resource planning (ERP), enterprise planning systems have broader coverage. Enterprise planning systems address the resources that are available or not available to an enterprise and its ability to produce products or resources and/or provide services. It also considers those factors that will positively or negatively affect the firm's ability to run these actions. Enterprise planning systems will tend to vary and are flexible. These are due to the periodic and adaptive nature of strategy formation. These will also have tactical aspects. Typically, enterprise planning systems are part of a firm's knowledge base or corporate structure whether it formally identified and structured or simply executed these when the need appeared.
Enterprise planning system purposes An enterprise planning system will address at least three basic purposes to help the enterprise: • survive • compete • thrive
Addressing survival An enterprise will plan for tactical moves for quick reaction to the PESTLE threats that affect its survival. For instance, right after Japan's Fukushima nuclear power plant has experienced explosions due to the earthquake and the tsunami that followed, several enterprises (within and outside of Japan) have publicly announced their course of actions to address the emergency. [1]
104
Enterprise planning systems
Addressing competition Meanwhile, an enterprise will plan for longer term strategic actions to address its competition or improve its competitiveness. For instance, enterprises will plan for, set budgets, implement and use strategic information systems as “information systems or information technology investments can be a source of competitive advantage ”.[2]
Addressing opportunities Most significantly, an enterprise will plan for using the PESTLE opportunities that are available to it. The profit and benefit motives justify most enterprise planning systems. [3]
Addressing vulnerabilities A fourth noteworthy purpose for enterprise planning systems is preparedness against terrorist attacks. As noted in the US Presidential Directive for Critical infrastructure protection, terrorist groups are likely to attack commercial infrastructure for economic sabotage. Enterprises that are providing products or services that are critical to the economic system of a nation are potential targets of extremists.
Strategic planning guide for enterprises Two major characteristics of enterprise planning systems are: these are varied and flexible. For instance, technological risks abound as even enterprise software are prone to obsolescence and disruptive innovations. Technology is not stagnant. Thus, systems variety and flexibility work to the advantage of a strategically adaptive or agile enterprise as PESTLE conditions change. To illustrate this some more, ERP software prescribes processes to realize its promised benefits. However, compliance to these rigid, prescribed processes is often assumed rather than real. In many cases, the ERP software is accepted but the practices within the enterprise reflect inconsistencies with the prescribed processes of the software. In a sense, variety and flexibility in a standard ERP implementation will still manifest in many ways such as "workarounds, shadow systems, various forms of unintended improvisations, and organizational 'drift'" as the knowledge workers in the enterprise adapt to the realities of daily activities. [4] With changing real world conditions, at least three components can structure enterprise strategy. These are: • analytical frameworks for the evaluation of PESTLE data at a given time • geographic coverage of operations to manage risks or maximize benefits from macroeconomic forces or government regulations • projects integration to efficiently support enterprise operations
Enterprise strategy via analysis Frameworks of analysis usually drive a firm's strategy. These enable the firm to cope with the actions of its competitors, demands of its consumers or clients, nature of its operating environments, effects of government regulations in the places where it does business, or opportunities that are available among other factors. [5] Here, team planning is crucial. One group will normally specialize in one aspect like operations or government regulations. Managing the interrelation of PESTLE factors requires team work in the enterprise planning process. A sample framework for general analysis is the SWOT analysis. Another is the Balanced Scorecard for performance measurement analysis.[6]
105
Enterprise planning systems
Enterprise strategy via geography Enterprise strategy can also refer to the mix of structured actions that address the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors that affect a business or firm. These structured actions can be local, transnational, global or combination of local, transnational or global. [7] Hence, enterprises can have any of the following geographic strategies in their plans: • • • • •
local strategy regional strategy (Europe, North America, Asia-Pacific, etc.) international strategy global strategy global and local strategy[8]
Enterprise strategy via projects integration Moreover, since management actions occur simultaneously in an enterprise, strategic planners can consider operations or projects portfolio management (PPM) as crucial elements in an enterprise's strategic planning guide. For instance, the need to have strategic priorities across many projects in companies with multiple product development projects have made executives borrow principles from investment portfolio management to better manage the distribution of resources compared with the assessed risks for each project. [9] Thus, PESTLE factors lead to strategy formation that will enable the enterprise to adapt to changing conditions. Meanwhile, the strategies that have been formed from the analytical framework processes of evaluating an enterprise's condition will lead to detailed plans which could be part of a firm's manual of operations or projects portfolio thrusts for funding and execution across the units or geographic coverage of the enterprise.
Enterprise planning and budgeting Enterprise planning and budgeting go hand-in-hand as the wherewithal to execute plans will determine the success or failure of an enterprise strategy. In another light, expanding or limiting the budget for a particular operations aspect of the enterprise or an ongoing project in favor of another will signal changes to an enterprise's strategy. [10] Hence, planning and budgeting are integral parts of any enterprise planning systems as these impact the strategic directions of the enterprise. For instance, enterprise projects tend to be mutually dependent with other projects to leverage a firm's engineering, financial and technology resources. [11] A market research project will trigger a research, development and engineering (RD&E) project for a new product. In turn, this RD&E project could trigger a production strategy project to manufacture the new product at the most efficient locations to bring it closer to its target consumers. [12] Hence, cutting the RD&E project budget in half or increasing it twice will have profound effects in the long term direction of an enterprise as this will affect the other units of the firm undertaking projects that are linked to the RD&E project.
106
Enterprise planning systems
Classifications Enterprise planning and budgeting can be generally classified into: • centralized • devolved • hybrid Centralized. Headquarters or executive management directs all planning and budgets from the top then downwards
in the organization hierarchy. It will closely follow Frederick Winslow Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management. Devolved. Middle managers set plans effectively steering the enterprise's strategic direction. Executive management
takes into account that the enterprise has knowledge workers that are experts in their respective fields. The Management Board approves the proposed strategic direction under certain financial constraints such as expected returns on investment or equity. Hybrid. Executive management determines and sets the strategic direction of the enterprise based on the inputs of
middle managers and the rank and file. In this set up, plans and budgets are negotiated. Essentially, enterprise plans and budgets can be detailed in a top-down approach, generalized in a bottom-up approach, or combined in a top-down and bottom-up approach.
Enterprise group planning Enterprise group planning will typically refer to the involvement of the major units of an enterprise such as the finance, marketing, production or technology departments. It can also refer to the involvement of the geographic units of a transnational or global firm. Some enterprises also involve external parties in their group planning where inputs from the crucial parts of the supply chain, cooperation and collaboration, or outsiders-looking-in are part of the firm's strategy.[13] [14] Enterprise group planning will usually manifest in regular board of directors' or management committee' meetings with varying frequencies such as monthly, quarterly or annually. Traditional meetings have required the physical presences of representatives from the various business units of the enterprise. With improvements in telecommunications, enterprise group planning can be conducted through video conferencing where participants may be dispersed geographically. However, video conferencing still appears to be an inadequate substitute when warm, interpersonal relations are part of the firm's culture. Yet for fast-paced events like natural disasters or a meltdown of the financial markets that require immediate action from the enterprise, video conferencing might be the only option. Troubleshooting that requires the major resources of the enterprise will also entail enterprise group planning. Here, enterprise planning systems take a tactical form rather than a strategic focus to preserve the stability or ensure the survival of the enterprise.
Enterprise transition plan Enterprise transition plans will generally refer to change management-related actions in the case of mergers or in the implementation of an enterprise-wide project. The transition plan will cover the elimination of redundant functions in the case of a merger or the incorporation of new processes into business operations in the case of a technology project.
Enterprise planning software Enterprise planning software will have varied or depth of coverage but will not essentially refer to enterprise resource planning software. This will include planning-centric software and the tools to support strategic planning for and across the enterprise, such as: • strategy formation software
107
Enterprise planning systems • • • •
performance measurement and evaluation software project management software scenario planning software data warehouse or business intelligence software
References [1] Adam Gabbatt, Richard Adams and Ben Quinn. "Japan tsunami and nuclear alert - Monday 14 March part two" (http://www.guardian.co. uk/world/blog/2011/mar/14/japan-tsunami-nuclear-alert-live). guardian.co.uk . Guardian News and Media Limited. . Retrieved 30 April 2011. [2] John Ward and Joe Peppard (2002). Strategic Planning for Information Systems 3rd Edition. West Sussex PO19 1UD, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 23 – 43. ISBN 0-470-84147-8. [3] Massood Samii. "Project Financial Evaluation" (http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental-engineering/ 1-040-project-management-spring-2009/lecture-notes/). Lecture Notes MIT OpenCourseWare . Massachusetts Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 30 April 2011. [4] Berente, Nicholas; Danail Ivanov and Betty Vandenbosch (2007). "Process Compliance and Enterprise System Implementation". IEEE Computer Society 40th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences : 1530 – 1605. [5] Williams, Kevan. Strategic Management . 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, United States of America: DK Publishing. pp. 16 – 32. ISBN 978-0-7566-4859-6. [6] Kaplan, Robert S.; David P. Norton (January – February 1996). "Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System". Harvard Business Review . [7] Mellahi, K., Frynas, J.G. & Finlay, P. (2005). Global Strategic Management . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 7 – 18. ISBN 9780199266159. [8] HSBC. "The world's local bank" (http://www.hsbc.com/1/2/). 2011. HSBC Holdings plc 2011. . Retrieved March 3, 2011. [9] McGrath, Michael E. (2004). Next Generation Product Development: How to Increase Productivity, Cut Costs, and Reduce Cycle Times. United States of America: McGraw-Hill. pp. 229 – 232, Chapter 17. ISBN 0071435123. [10] Fraser, et al., Xiall M. (2009). Global Engineering Economics: Financial Decision Making for Engineers. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Education Canada. pp. 90 – 110. ISBN 9780132071611. [11] Kentaro Nobeoka; Michael A. Cusumano (11). "Multi-Project Management: Strategy and Organization in Automobile Product Development" (http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/2492/SWP-3609-29056920. pdf?sequence=1). WP-3609-93 BPS . MIT Sloan School of Management. . Retrieved April 27, 2011. [12] Fujimoto, Takahiro. "Production Strategy" (http://ocw.u-tokyo.ac. jp/wp-content/uploads/lecture-notes_eng/Eco_02/ BusinessAdministration2_07.pdf). Department of Economics, University of Tokyo. . Retrieved 16 March 2011. [13] Usoro, Abel; Abbas Abid, Matthew Kuofie (December 2008). "Scales Construction for Organisational Variables that Influence the Use Of ICT for Global Planning". International Journal of Global Business . 1 1: 242. [14] Koch, Richard (2001). The Natural Laws of Business: How to Harness the Power of Evolution, Physics, and Economics to Achieve Business Success. New York, USA: Doubleday, Random House Inc.. pp. 107 – 108. ISBN 0385501595.
108
Manufacturing operations management
Manufacturing operations management Manufacturing operations management (MOM) is a methodology for viewing an end-to-end manufacturing
process with a view to optimizing efficiency. [1] There are many types of MOM software, including for production management, performance analysis, quality and compliance, and human machine interface (HMI). Production management software provides real-time information about jobs and orders, labor and materials, machine status, and product shipments. Performance analysis software displays metrics at the machine, line, plant and enterprise level for situational or historical analysis. Quality and compliance software is used to promote compliance with standards and specifications for operational processes and procedures. HMI software is a form of manufacturing operations management (MOM) software that enables operators to manage industrial and process control machinery using a computer-based interface. [2]
References [1] "Market Scope for Manufacturing Operations Management, 2007" (http://mediaproducts.gartner.com/reprints/oracle/152278. html). Gartner. . [2] "About Manufacturing Operations Management (MOM) Software" (http://www.globalspec.com/LearnMore/ Industrial_Engineering_Software/Manufacturing_Operations_Management_MOM_Software). GlobalSpec. .
External links • ANSI/ISA-95.00.03-2005 Enterprise-Control System Integration, Part 3: Models of Manufacturing Operations Management (http://www.isa.org/Template.cfm?Section=Standards8&template=/Ecommerce/ ProductDisplay.cfm&ProductID=7906)
Warehouse management system A warehouse management system, or WMS, is a key part of the supply chain and primarily aims to control the movement and storage of materials within a warehouse and process the associated transactions, including shipping, receiving, putaway and picking. The systems also direct and optimize stock putaway based on real-time information about the status of bin utilization. Warehouse management systems often utilize Auto ID Data Capture (AIDC) technology, such as barcode scanners, mobile computers, wireless LANs and potentially Radio-frequency identification (RFID) to efficiently monitor the flow of products. Once data has been collected, there is either a batch synchronization with, or a real-time wireless transmission to a central database. The database can then provide useful reports about the status of goods in the warehouse. The objective of a warehouse management system is to provide a set of computerized procedures to handle the receipt of stock and returns into a warehouse facility, model and manage the logical representation of the physical storage facilities (e.g. racking etc.), manage the stock within the facility and enable a seamless link to order processing and logistics management in order to pick, pack and ship product out of the facility. Warehouse management systems can be stand alone systems, or modules of an ERP system or supply chain execution suite. The primary purpose of a WMS is to control the movement and storage of materials within a warehouse – you might even describe it as the legs at the end-of-the line which automates the store, traffic and shipping management. In its simplest form, the WMS can data track products during the production process and act as an interpreter and message buffer between existing ERP and WMS systems. Warehouse Management is not just managing within the
109
Warehouse management system boundaries of a warehouse today, it is much wider and goes beyond the physical boundaries. Inventory management,inventory planning, cost management, IT applications & communication technology to be used are all related to warehouse management. The container storage, loading and unloading are also covered by warehouse management today.Warehouse management today is part of SCM and demand management. Even production management is to a great extent dependent on warehouse management. Efficient warehouse management gives a cutting edge to a retail chain distribution company. Warehouse management does not just start with receipt of material but it actually starts with actual initial planning when container design is made for a product. Warehouse design and process design within the warehouse (e.g. Wave Picking) is also part of warehouse management. Warehouse management is part of Logistics and SCM. Warehouse Management monitors the progress of products through the warehouse. It involves the physical warehouse infrastructure, tracking systems, and communication between product stations. Warehouse management deals with receipt, storage and movement of goods, normally finished goods, to intermediate storage locations or to final customer. In the multi-echelon model for distribution, there are levels of warehouses, starting with the Central Warehouse(s), regional warehouses serviced by the central warehouses and retail warehouses serviced by the regional warehouses and so on. The objective of warehouse management is to help in optimal cost of timely order fulfillment by managing the resources economically. Warehouse management = "Management of storage of products and services rendered on the products within the four walls of a warehouse"
Warehouse management software For the companies that want to integrate their other departments with their warehouse management, ERP softwares are necessary. In this respect, OpenERP invented the double-entry inventory management system which allows to manage complex needs very easily: tracking stocks of suppliers/customers, full traceability, accounting links, etc. OpenERP supports multi-warehouse management based on hierarchical locational structure. Manage your own internal locations, external locations, customers, suppliers or manufacturing inventories.
External links • Building Business Case for Warehouse Management System [1]
References [1] http://logistics-book.blogspot.com/2011/01/wms-software-building-business-case-for. html
110
Quality management
Quality management The term Quality management has a specific meaning within many business sectors. This specific definition, which does not aim to assure 'good quality' by the more general definition (but rather to ensure that an organisation or product is consistent), can be considered to have four main components: quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement. [1] Quality management is focused not only on product/service quality, but also the means to achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control of processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality.
Quality management evolution Quality management is a recent phenomenon. Advanced civilizations that supported the arts and crafts allowed clients to choose goods meeting higher quality standards than normal goods. In societies where art responsibilities of a master craftsman (and similarly for artists) was to lead their studio, train and supervise the on, the importance of craftsmen was diminished as mass production and repetitive work practices were instituted. The aim was to produce large numbers of the same goods. The first proponent in the US for this approach was Eli Whitney who proposed (interchangeable) parts manufacture for muskets, hence producing the identical components and creating a musket assembly line. The next step forward was promoted by several people including Frederick Winslow Taylor a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is sometimes called "the father of scientific management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and part of his approach laid a further foundation for quality management, including aspects like sta ndardization and adopting improved practices. Henry Ford was also important in bringing process and quality management practices into operation in his assembly lines. In Germany, Karl Friedrich Benz, often called the inventor of the motor car, was pursuing similar assembly and production practices, although real mass production was properly initiated in Volkswagen after World War II. From this period onwards, North American companies focused predominantly upon production against lower cost with increased efficiency. Walter A. Shewhart made a major step in the evolution towards quality management by creating a method for quality control for production, using statistical methods, first proposed in 1924. This became the foundation for his ongoing work on statistical quality control. W. Edwards Deming later applied statistical process control methods in the United States during World War II, thereby successfully improving quality in the manufacture of munitions and other strategically important products. Quality leadership from a national perspective has changed over the past five to six decades. After the second world war, Japan decided to make quality improvement a national impera tive as part of rebuilding their economy, and sought the help of Shewhart, Deming and Juran, amongst others. W. Edwards Deming championed Shewhart's ideas in Japan from 1950 onwards. He is probably best known for his management philosophy establishing quality, productivity, and competitive position. He has formulated 14 points of attention for managers, which are a high level abstraction of many of his deep insights. They should be interpreted by learning and understanding the deeper insights. These 14 points include key concepts such as: • • • • •
Break down barriers between departments Management should learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership Supervision should be to help people and machines and gadgets to do a better job Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement
In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese goods were synonymous with cheapness and low quality, but over time their quality initiatives began to be successful, with Japan achieving very high levels of quality in products from the 1970s onward. For example, Japanese cars regularly top the J.D. Power customer satisfaction ratings. In the 1980s Deming
111
Quality management was asked by Ford Motor Company to start a quality initiative after they realized that they were falling behind Japanese manufacturers. A number of highly successful quality initiatives have been invented by the Japanese (see for example on this page: Taguchi, QFD, Toyota Production System. Many of the methods not only provide techniques but also have associated quality culture (i.e. people factors). These methods are now adopted by the same western countries that decades earlier derided Japanese methods. Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in products and services. Suppliers recognize that quality can be an important differentiator between their own offerings and those of competitors (quality differentiation is also called the quality gap). In the past two decades this quality gap has been greatly reduced between competitive products and services. This is partly due to the contracting (also called outsourcing) of manufacture to countries like India and China, as well internationalization of trade and competition. These countries amongst many others have raised their own standards of quality in order to meet International standards and customer demands. The ISO 9000 series of standards are probably the best known International standards for quality management. There are a huge number of books available on quality management. In recent times some themes have become more significant including quality culture, the importance of knowledge management, and the role of leadership in promoting and achieving high quality. Disciplines like systems thinking are bringing more holistic approaches to quality so that people, process and products are considered together rather than independent factors in quality management. The influence of quality thinking has spread to non-traditional applications outside of walls of manufacturing, extending into service sectors and into areas such as sales, marketing and customer service. [2]
Principles Quality management adopts a number of management principles [3] that can be used by top management to guide their organizations towards improved performance. The principles include:
Customer focus Since the organizations depend on their customers, therefore they should understand current and future customer needs, should meet customer requirements and try to exceed the expectations of customers. [4] An organization attains customer focus when all people in the organization know both the internal and external customers and also what customer requirements must be met to ensure that both the internal and external customers are satisfied. [5]
Leadership Leaders of an organization establish unity of purpose and direction of it. They should go for creation and maintenance of such an internal environment, in which people can become fully involved in achieving the organization's quality objective. [4]
Involvement of people People at all levels of an organization are the essence of it. Their complete involvement enables their abilities to be used for the benefit of the organization. [4]
112
Quality management
Process approach The desired result can be achieved when activities and related resources are managed in an organization as process.[4]
System approach to management An organization's effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its quality objectives are contributed by identifying, understanding and managing all interrelated processes as a system. [4]
Continual improvement One of the permanent quality objectives of an organization should be the continual improvement of its overall performance.[4]
Factual approach to decision making Effective decisions are always based on the data analysis and information. [4]
Mutually beneficial supplier relationships Since an organization and its suppliers are interdependent, therefore a mutually beneficial relationship between them increases the ability of both to add value. [4] These eight principles form the basis for the quality management system standard ISO 9001:2008. [4]
Quality improvement There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement: 1. ISO ISO 9004 9004:2 :200 0088 — guidelines for performance improvement. 2. ISO ISO 1550 155044-4: 4: 200 20055 — information technology — process assessment — Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process capability determination. 3. QFD — quality function deployment, also known as the house of quality approach. 4. Kaizen — 改 善 , Japanese for change for the better; the common English term is continuous improvement . 5. Zero Zero Defe Defect ct Prog Progra ram m — created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based upon statistical process control and one of the inputs for the inventors of Six Sigma. 6. Six Six Sigm Sigmaa — 6σ, Six Sigma combines established methods such as statistical process control, design of experiments and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) in an overall framework. 7. PDCA — plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. (Six Sigma's DMAIC method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control) may be viewed as a particular implementation of this.) 8. Qual Qualit ityy circ circle le — a group (people oriented) approach to improvement. 9. Tagu Taguch chii meth method odss — statistical oriented methods including quality robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications. 10. The Toyot Toyotaa Product Production ion System System — reworked in the west into lean manufacturing. 11. Kansei Kansei Engine Engineeri ering ng — an approach that focuses on capturing customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement. 12. TQM — total quality management is a management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and adapted in USA as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and in Europe as the European Foundation for Quality Management award (each with their own variations).
113
Quality management 13. TRIZ — meaning "theory of inventive problem solving" 14. BPR — business process reengineering, a management approach aiming at 'clean slate' improvements (That is, ignoring existing practices). 15. OQM — Object-oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management. [6] Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach, which forms the basis of ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management System standard, duly driven from the 'Eight principles of Quality managagement', process approach being one of them. Thareja [7] writes about the mechanism and benefits: "The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in its applicability. While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful". [8] The more complex Quality improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted. For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to service enterprises. Each of these approaches and methods has met with success but also with failures. Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating enterprises have won the national quality awards. There have been well publicized failures of BPR, as well as Six Sigma. Enterprises therefore need to consider carefully which quality improvement methods to adopt, and certainly should not adopt all those listed here. It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in selecting a quality improvement approach. Any improvement (change) takes time to implement, gain acceptance and stabilize as accepted practice. Improvement must allow pauses between implementing new changes so that the change is stabilized and assessed as a real improvement, before the next improvement is made (hence continual improvement, not continuous improvement). Improvements that change the culture take longer as they have to overcome greater resistance to change. It is easier and often more effective to work within the existing cultural boundaries and make small improvements (that is Kaizen) than to make major transformational changes. Use of Kaizen in Japan was a major reason for the creation of Japanese industrial and economic strength. On the other hand, transformational change works best when an enterprise faces a crisis and needs to make major changes in order to survive. In Japan, the land of Kaizen, Carlos Ghosn led a transformational change at Nissan Motor Company which was in a financial and operational crisis. Well organized quality improvement programs take all these factors into account when selecting the quality improvement methods.
114
Quality management
Quality standards The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Quality Management System (QMS) standards in 1987. They were the ISO 9000:1987 series of standards comprising ISO 9001:1987, ISO 9002:1987 and ISO 9003:1987; which were applicable in different types of industries, based on the type of activity or process: designing, production or service delivery. The standards are reviewed every few years by the International Organization for Standardization. The version in 1994 was called the ISO 9000:1994 series; consisting of the ISO 9001:1994, 9002:1994 and 9003:1994 versions. The last major revision was in the year 2008 and the series was called ISO 9000:2000 series. The ISO 9002 and 9003 standards were integrated into one single certifiable standard: ISO 9001:2008. After December 2003, organizations holding ISO 9002 or 9003 standards had to complete a transition to the new standard. ISO released a minor revision, ISO 9001:2008 on 14 October 2008. It contains no new requirements. Many of the changes were to improve consistency in grammar, facilitating translation of the standard into other languages for use by over 950,000 certified organisations in the 175 countries (as at Dec 2007) that use the standard. The ISO 9004:2009 document gives guidelines for performance improvement over and above the basic standard (ISO 9001:2000). This standard provides a measurement framework for improved quality management, similar to and based upon the measurement framework for process assessment. The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant to certify the processes and the system of an organization, not the product or service itself. ISO 9000 standards do not certify the quality of the product or service. In 2005 the International Organization for Standardization released a standard, ISO 22000, meant for the food industry. This standard covers the values and principles of ISO 9000 and the HACCP standards. It gives one single integrated standard for the food industry and is expected to become more popular in the coming years in such industry. ISO has also released standards for other industries. For example Technical Standard TS 16949 defines requirements in addition to those in ISO 9001:2008 specifically for the automotive industry. ISO has a number of standards that support quality management. One group describes processes (including ISO 12207 & ISO 15288) and another describes process assessment and improvement ISO 15504. The Software Engineering Institute has its own process assessment and improvement methods, called CMMi (Capability Maturity Model — integrated) and IDEAL respectively.
Quality software The software used to track the three main components of quality management through the use of databases and/or charting applications.
Quality terms • Quality Quality Improvement Improvement can be distinguish distinguished ed from Quality Quality Control in that Quality Quality Improveme Improvement nt is the purposeful purposeful change of a process to improve the reliability of achieving an outcome. • Quality Quality Control is the ongoing ongoing effort to maintain maintain the integrity integrity of a process process to maintain the reliabili reliability ty of achieving achieving an outcome. • Quality Quality Assurance Assurance is the planned or systematic systematic actions actions necessary necessary to provide provide enough confidenc confidencee that a product or service will satisfy the given requirements.
115
Quality management
Academic resources • International Journal of Productivity and Quality Management, ISSN 1746-6474, Inderscience • International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, ISSN: 0265-671X, Emerald Publishing Group
References [1] Rose, Kenneth H. (July, 2005). Project Quality Management: Why, What and How (http://books.google.com/?id=b5F08Z0QRosC& pg=PA41&dq=Quality+management+quality+planning+quality+control#v=onepage&q=Quality management quality planning quality control&f=false). Fort Lauderdale, Florida: J. Ross Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 1-932159-48-7. . [2] Paul H. Selden (December 1998). "Sales Process Engineering: An Emerging Quality Application ". Quality Progress: 59 – 63. [3] Quality Management Strategy (http://www.pmhut.com/quality-management-strategy), May 2010 [4] Cianfrani, Charles A.; West, John E. (2009). Cracking the Case of ISO 9001:2008 for Service: A Simple Guide to Implementing Quality Management to Service Organizations (http://books.google.com/?id=-XtbQNGhGmMC&pg=PA5&dq=quality+management+eight+ principles+ISO+9001:2008#v=onepage&q=quality management eight principles ISO 9001:2008&f=false) (2nd ed.). Milwaukee: American Society for Quality. pp. 5- 7. ISBN 978-0-87389-762-4. . [5] Westcott, Russell T. (2003). Stepping Up To ISO 9004: 2000 : A Practical Guide For Creating A World-class Oraganization (http://books. google.com/?id=zk-mlLY__wkC&pg=PA17&dq=ISO+9004+Focus+internal+customer+and+external+customers#v=onepage&q=ISO 9004 Focus internal customer and external customers&f=false). Paton Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-9713231-7-8. . [6] "Object Oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management." (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/QAF_comments/Object Oriented Quality Management.pdf). Statistics Netherlands, The Hague. . [7] http://ssrn.com/abstract=1488690 "Thareja" [8] Thareja P(2008), "Total Quality Organization Thru’ People, Each one is Capable", FOUNDRY, Vol. XX, No. 4, July/Aug 2008
Further reading • Juran, Joseph M. and Joseph A. De Feo, "Juran's Quality Handbook", 2010, ISBN 9780071629737 • Process Assessment and Improvement ISBN 0-387-23182-X • Pyzdek, T, "Quality Engineering Handbook", 2003, ISBN 0824746147
116
Six Sigma
117
Six Sigma
The often-used Six Sigma symbol.
Part of a series of articles on
Industry
Manufacturing methods Batch production • Job production Continuous production Improvement methods LM • TPM • QRM • VDM TOC • Six Sigma • RCM Information & communication ISA-88 • ISA-95 • ERP SAP • IEC 62264 • B2MML Process control PLC • DCS
Six Sigma is a business management strategy originally developed by Motorola, USA in 1986.
[1] [2]
As of 2010, it is
widely used in many sectors of industry, although its use is not without controversy. Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. [3] It uses a set of quality management methods, including statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization ("Black Belts", "Green Belts", etc.) who are experts in these methods. [3] Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified financial targets (cost reduction and/or profit increase). [3] The term Six Sigma originated from terminology associated with manufacturing, specifically terms associated with statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield, or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the products manufactured are statistically expected to be free of defects (3.4 defects per million). Motorola set a goal of "six sigma" for all of its manufacturing operations, and this goal became a byword for the management and engineering practices used to achieve it.
Six Sigma
Historical overview Six Sigma originated as a set of practices designed to improve manufacturing processes and eliminate defects, but its application was subsequently extended to other types of business processes as well. [4] In Six Sigma, a defect is defined as any process output that does not meet customer specifications, or that could lead to creating an output that does not meet customer specifications. [3] The core of Six Sigma was “born” at Motorola in the 1970s out of senior executive Art Sundry's criticism of Motorola’s bad quality.[5] As a result of this criticism, the company discovered a connection between increases in quality and decreases in costs of production. At that time, the prevailing view was that quality costs extra money. In fact, it reduced total costs by driving down the costs for repair or control. [6] Bill Smith subsequently formulated the particulars of the methodology at Motorola in 1986. [1] Six Sigma was heavily inspired by the quality improvement methodologies of the six preceding decades, such as quality control, TQM, and Zero Defects, [7] [8] based on the work of pioneers such as Shewhart, Deming, Juran, Ishikawa, Taguchi and others. Like its predecessors, Six Sigma doctrine asserts that: • Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results (i.e., reduce process variation) are of vital importance to business success. • Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be measured, analyzed, improved and controlled. • Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire organization, particularly from top-level management. Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include: • A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any Six Sigma project. [3] • An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support. [3] • A special infrastructure of "Champions," "Master Black Belts," "Black Belts," "Green Belts", etc. to lead and implement the Six Sigma approach. [3] • A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data, rather than assumptions and guesswork.[3] The term "Six Sigma" comes from a field of statistics known as process capability studies. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing processes to produce a very high proportion of output within specification. Processes that operate with "six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO). [9] [10] Six Sigma's implicit goal is to improve all processes to that level of quality or better. Six Sigma is a registered service mark and trademark of Motorola Inc. [11] As of 2006 Motorola reported over US$17 billion in savings[12] from Six Sigma. Other early adopters of Six Sigma who achieved well-publicized success include Honeywell (previously known as AlliedSignal) and General Electric, where Jack Welch introduced the method.[13] By the late 1990s, about two-thirds of the Fortune 500 organizations had begun Six Sigma initiatives with the aim of reducing costs and improving quality. [14] In recent years, some practitioners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean manufacturing to create a methodology named Lean Six Sigma. [15] The Lean Six Sigma methodology views lean manufacturing, which addresses process flow and waste issues, and Six Sigma, with its focus on variation and design, as complementary disciplines aimed at promoting "business and operational excellence". [15] Companies such as IBM use Lean Six Sigma to focus transformation efforts not just on efficiency but also on growth. It serves as a foundation for innovation throughout the organization, from manufacturing and software development to sales and service delivery functions.
118
Six Sigma
Methods Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Deming's Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle. These methodologies, composed of five phases each, bear the acronyms DMAIC and DMADV. [14] • DMAIC is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process.[14] DMAIC is pronounced as "duh-may-ick". • DMADV is used for projects aimed at creating new product or process designs.[14] DMADV is pronounced as "duh-mad-vee".
DMAIC The DMAIC project methodology has five phases: • • •
the problem, the voice of the customer, and the project goals, specifically. M easure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data. Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Seek out root cause of the defect under investigation. • I mprove or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability. • C ontrol the future state process to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Implement control systems such as statistical process control, production boards , visual workplaces, and continuously monitor the process. Define
DMADV or DFSS The DMADV project methodology, also known as DFSS (" Design For Six Sigma"),[14] features five phases: • •
design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy. M easure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), product capabilities, production process capability, and risks. • Analyze to develop and design alternatives, create a high-level design and evaluate design capability to select the best design. • Design details, optimize the design, and plan for design verification. This phase may require simulations. • V erify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to the process owner(s). Define
Quality management tools and methods used in Six Sigma Within the individual phases of a DMAIC or DMADV project, Six Sigma utilizes many established quality-management tools that are also used outside of Six Sigma. The following table shows an overview of the main methods used.
119
Six Sigma
120
•
5 Whys
•
Pareto analysis
•
Accelerated life testing
•
Pareto chart
•
Analysis of variance
•
Pick chart
•
ANOVA Gauge R&R
•
Process capability
•
Axiomatic design
•
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
•
Business Process Mapping
•
Quantitative marketing research through use of Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM) systems
•
Cause & effects diagram (also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagram)
•
Regression analysis
•
Check sheet
•
Root cause analysis
•
Chi-squared test of independence and fits
•
Run charts
•
Control chart
•
Scatter diagram
•
Correlation
•
SIPOC analysis (Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, Customers)
•
Cost-benefit analysis
•
Stratification
•
CTQ tree
•
Taguchi methods
•
Design of experiments
•
Taguchi Loss Function
•
Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
•
TRIZ
•
General linear model
•
Histograms
Implementation roles One key innovation of Six Sigma involves the "professionalizing" of quality management functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely relegated to the production floor and to statisticians in a separate quality department. Formal Six Sigma programs adopt a ranking terminology (similar to some martial arts systems) to define a hierarchy (and career path) that cuts across all business functions. Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation. [16] •
• •
•
•
includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the other role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough improvements. Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management. Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts. Master Black Belts, identified by champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, they spend their time on ensuring consistent application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments. Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma. Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black Belts. Executive Leadership
Some organizations use additional belt colours, such as Sigma tools.
Yellow Belts,
for employees that have basic training in Six
Six Sigma
121
Certification Corporations such as early Six Sigma pioneers General Electric and Motorola developed certification p rograms as part of their Six Si x Sigma implementation, implementation, verifying individuals' command of the Six Sigma Si gma methods at the relevant r elevant skill level (Green Belt, Black Belt etc.). Following this approach, many organizations in the 1990s starting offering Six Sigma certifications to their employees. [14] [17] Criteria for Green Belt and Black Belt certification vary; some companies simply require participation in a course and a Six Sigma project. [17] There is no standard certification body, and different certification services are offered by various quality associations and other providers against a fee.[18] [19] The American Society for Quality for example requires Black Belt applicants to pass a written exam and to provide a signed affidavit stating that they have completed two projects, or one project combined with three years' practical experience in the body of knowledge. [17] [20] The International Quality Federation offers an online certification exam that organizations can use for their internal certification programs; it is statistically more demanding than the ASQ certification. [17] [19] Other providers offering certification services include the Juran Institute, Six Sigma Qualtec, Air Academy Associates and others. [18]
Origin and meaning of the term "six sigma process" The term "six sigma process" comes from the notion that if one has six standard deviations between the process mean and the nearest specification limit, as shown in the graph, practically no items will fail to meet specifications. [10] This is based on the calculation method employed in process capability studies. Capability studies measure the number of standard deviations between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in sigma units. As process standard deviation goes up, or the mean of the process moves away from the center of the tolerance, fewer standard deviations will fit between the mean and the nearest specification limit, decreasing the sigma number and increasing the likelihood of items outside specification.[10]
Role of the 1.5 sigma shift
Graph of the normal distribution, which underlies the statistical assumptions of the Six Sigma model. The Greek letter σ (sigma) marks the distance on the horizontal horizontal axis between between the mean, µ, and the curve's inflection point. The greater this distance, the greater is the spread of values encountered. For the curve shown above, µ = 0 and σ = 1. The upper and lower specification limits (USL, LSL) are at a distance of 6σ from the mean. Because of the properties of the normal distribution, values lying that far away from the mean are extremely unlikely. Even if the mean were to move right or left by 1.5σ at some point in the future (1.5 sigma shift), there is still a good safety cushion. This is why Six Sigma aims to have processes where the mean is at least 6σ away from the nearest specification limit.
Experience has shown that processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they do in the short term. [10] As a result, the number of sigmas that will fit between the process mean and the nearest specification limit may well drop over time, compared to an initial short-term study.[10] To account for this real-life increase in process variation over time, an empirically-based 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the calculation. [10] [21] According to this idea, a process that fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in a short-term study will in the long term only fit 4.5 sigma – either because the process mean will move over time, or because the long-term standard deviation of the process will be greater than that observed in the short term, or both. [10] Hence the widely accepted definition of a six sigma process is a process that produces 3.4 defective parts per million opportunities (DPMO). This is based on the fact that a process that is normally distributed will have 3.4 parts per million beyond a point that is 4.5 standard deviations above or below the mean (one-sided capability study). [10] So the 3.4 DPMO of a six sigma process in fact corresponds to 4.5 sigma, namely 6 sigma minus the 1.5-sigma shift introduced to account for long-term variation. [10] This allows for the fact that special causes may result in a deterioration in process performance over time, and is designed to prevent underestimation of the defect levels likely to be encountered in real-life operation. [10]
Six Sigma
122
Sigma levels The table[22] [23] below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma levels. It must be understood that these figures assume that the process mean will shift by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the critical specification limit. In other words, they assume that after the initial study determining the short-term sigma level, the long-term C pk value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-term Cpk value. So, for example, the DPMO figure given for 1 sigma assumes that the long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specification limit (Cpk = – 0.17), 0.17), rather than 1 sigma within it, as it was in the short-term study (Cpk = 0.33). Note that the defect percentages only indicate defects exceeding the specification limit to which the process mean is nearest. Defects beyond the far specification limit are not included in the percentages.
A control chart depicting a process that experienced a 1.5 sigma drift in the process mean toward the upper specification limit starting at midnight. Control charts are used to maintain 6 sigma quality by signaling when quality professionals should investigate a process to find and eliminate special-cause variation.
Sigma level
DPMO Percent Percent defective defective
Percentage Percentage yield Short-term Short-term C
1
6 9 1,4 6 2 6 9 %
31 %
0 .3 3
– 0.17 0.17
2
3 0 8,5 3 8 3 1 %
69 %
0 .6 7
0. 1 7
3
6 6 ,8 0 7
6.7 %
9 3 .3 %
1 .0 0
0. 5
4
6,210
0.6 2 %
9 9 .3 8 %
1 .3 3
0. 8 3
5
23 3
0.0 2 3 %
9 9 .9 7 7 %
1 .6 7
1. 1 7
6
3. 4
0.00034%
99.99966%
2.00
1. 5
7
0.019
0.0 0 0 0 0 1 9 %
9 9 .9 9 9 9 9 8 1 %
2 .3 3
1.83
pk
Long-term C
pk
Application Six Sigma mostly finds application in large organizations. [24] An important factor in the spread of Six Sigma was GE's 1998 announcement of $350 million in savings thanks to Six Sigma, a figure that later grew to more than $1 billion.[24] According to industry consultants like Thomas Pyzdek and John Kullmann, companies with fewer than 500 employees are less suited to Six Sigma implementation, or need to adapt the standard approach to make it work for them.[24] This is due both to the infrastructure of Black Belts that Six Sigma requires, and to the fact that large organizations present more opportunities for the kinds of improvements Six Sigma is suited to bringing about. [24]
Six Sigma
Criticism Lack of originality Noted quality expert Joseph M. Juran has described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality improvement", stating that "there is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call facilitators. They've adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with different colors. I think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful. Again, that's not a new idea. The American Society for Quality long ago established certificates, such as for reliability engineers." [25]
Role of consultants The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has (controversially) fostered an industry of training and certification. Critics argue there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a number of consulting firms, many of which claim expertise in Six Sigma when they only have a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved.[3]
Potential negative effects A Fortune article stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma programs, 91 percent have trailed the S&P 500 since". The statement was attributed to "an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a competing quality-improvement process)." [26] The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is effective at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process" and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies." Advocates of Six Sigma have argued that many of these claims are in error or ill-informed. [27] [28] A BusinessWeek article says that James McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at 3M had the effect of stifling creativity and reports its removal from the research function. It cites two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innovation at the expense of blue skies research. [29] This phenomenon is further explored in the book, Going Lean, which describes a related approach known as lean dynamics and provides data to show that Ford's "6 Sigma" program did little to change its fortunes. [30]
Based on arbitrary standards While 3.4 defects per million opportunities might work well for certain products/processes, it might not operate optimally or cost effectively for others. A pacemaker process might need higher standards, for example, whereas a direct mail advertising campaign might need lower standards. The basis and justification for choosing 6 (as opposed to 5 or 7, for example) as the number of standard deviations is not clearly explained. In addition, the Six Sigma model assumes that the process data always conform to the normal distribution. The calculation of defect rates for situations where the normal distribution model does not apply is not properly addressed in the current Six Sigma literature.[3]
Criticism of the 1.5 sigma shift The statistician Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shift as "goofy" because of its arbitrary nature. [31] Its universal applicability is seen as doubtful. [3] The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention, described as a "six sigma process." [10] [32] The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot be equated to actual normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard deviations, and this has been a key bone of contention about how Six Sigma measures are defined. [32] The fact that it
123
Six Sigma is rarely explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that Six Sigma is a confidence trick. [10]
References [1] "The Inventors of Six Sigma" (http://web.archive.org/web/20051106025733/http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3079,00.html). Archived from the original (http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3079,00.html) on November 6, 2005. . Retrieved January 29, 2006. [2] Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services (http://books.google.com/?id=O6276jidG3IC& printsec=frontcover#PPA6,M1). Gower Publishing, Ltd.. p. 6. ISBN 0566083744. . [3] Antony, Jiju. "Pros and cons of Six Sigma: an academic perspective" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080723015058/http://www. onesixsigma.com/node/7630). Archived from the original (http://www.onesixsigma.com/node/7630) on July 23, 2008. . Retrieved August 5, 2010. [4] "Motorola University - What is Six Sigma?" (http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3088,00.html). . Retrieved 2009-09-14. "[...] Six Sigma started as a defect reduction effort in manufacturing and was then applied to other business processes for the same purpose." [5] Schroeder, Richard A.; MIKEL PHD HARRY (2006). Six Sigma: The Breakthrough Management Strategy Revolutionizing the World's Top Corporations. Sydney: Currency. p. 9. ISBN 0-385-49438-6. [6] Harry, M., Schroeder, R., Six Sigma – Prozesse optimieren, Null-Fehler-Qualität schaffen, Rendite radikal steigern, Frankfurt / Main, 2000 [7] Stamatis, D. H. (2004). Six Sigma Fundamentals: A Complete Guide to the System, Methods, and Tools. New York, New York: Productivity Press. p. 1. ISBN 9781563272929. OCLC 52775178. "The practitioner of the six sigma methodology in any organization should expect to see the use of old and established tools and approaches in the pursuit of continual improvement and customer satisfaction. So much so that even TQM (total quality management) is revisited as a foundation of some of the approaches. In fact, one may define six sigma as "TQM on steroids."" [8] Montgomery, Douglas C. (2009). Statistical Quality Control: A Modern Introduction (6 ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 23. ISBN 9780470233979. OCLC 244727396. "During the 1950s and 1960s programs such as Zero Defects and Value Engineering abounded, but they had little impact on quality and productivity improvement. During the heyday of TQM in the 1980s, another popular program was the Quality Is Free initiative, in which management worked on identifying the cost of quality..." [9] "Motorola University Six Sigma Dictionary" (http://web.archive.org/web/20060128110005/http://www.motorola.com/content/ 0,,3074-5804,00.html#ss). Archived from the original (http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3074-5804,00. html#ss) on January 28, 2006. . Retrieved January 29, 2006. [10] Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services (http://books.google.com/?id=O6276jidG3IC& printsec=frontcover#PPA25,M1). Gower Publishing, Ltd.. pp. 25. ISBN 0566083744. . [11] "Motorola Inc. - Motorola University" (http://www.motorola.com/motorolauniversity). . Retrieved January 29, 2006. [12] "About Motorola University" (http://web.archive.org/web/20051222081924/http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3071-5801,00. html). Archived from the original (http://www.motorola.com/content/0,,3071-5801,00.html) on December 22, 2005. . Retrieved January 28, 2006. [13] "Six Sigma: Where is it now?" (http://scm.ncsu.edu/public/facts/facs030624.html). . Retrieved May 22, 2008. [14] De Feo, Joseph A.; Barnard, William (2005). JURAN Institute's Six Sigma Breakthrough and Beyond - Quality Performance Breakthrough Methods. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 0-07-059881-9. [15] Kieran Walshe; Gill Harvey; Pauline Jas (15 November 2010). Connecting Knowledge and Performance in Public Services: From Knowing to Doing (http://books.google.com/books?id=IjBozd3KJ1cC&pg=PA175). Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-19546-1. . Retrieved 22 August 2011. [16] Harry, Mikel; Schroeder, Richard (2000). Six Sigma. Random House, Inc. ISBN 0-385-49437-8. [17] Paul A. Keller; Paul Keller (16 December 2010). Six Sigma Demystified (http://books.google.com/books?id=nhYCH-69v7cC& pg=PA40). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-07-174679-3. . Retrieved 20 September 2011. [18] Larry Webber; Michael Wallace (15 December 2006). Quality Control for Dummies (http://books.google.com/ books?id=9BWkxto2fcEC&pg=PA292). For Dummies. pp. 292 – . ISBN 978-0-470-06909-7. . Retrieved 20 September 2011. [19] R. Leroy Coryea; Carl E. Cordy; LeRoy R. Coryea (27 January 2006).Champion's Practical Six Sigma Summary (http://books.google. com/books?id=MugP3-3U_F8C&pg=PA65). Xlibris Corporation. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4134-9681-9. . Retrieved 20 September 2011. [20] "Certification - ASQ" (http://www.asq.org/certification/index.html). Milwaukee, Wisconsin: American Society for Quality. . Retrieved 2011-09-09. [21] Harry, Mikel J. (1988). The Nature of six sigma quality. Rolling Meadows, Illinois: Motorola University Press. p. 25. ISBN 9781569460092. [22] Gygi, Craig; DeCarlo, Neil; Williams, Bruce (2005). Six Sigma for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, Inc.. pp. Front inside cover, 23. ISBN 0-7645-6798-5. [23] El-Haik, Basem; Suh, Nam P.. Axiomatic Quality . John Wiley and Sons. p. 10. ISBN 9780471682738. [24] Dirk Dusharme, "Six Sigma Survey: Breaking Through the Six Sigma Hype" (http://www.qualitydigest.com/nov01/html/ sixsigmaarticle.html), Quality Digest
124
Six Sigma [25] Paton, Scott M. (August 2002). Juran: A Lifetime of Quality (http://www.qualitydigest. com/aug02/articles/01_article.shtml). 22. pp. 19 – 23. . Retrieved 2009-04-01. [26] Morris, Betsy (2006-07-11). "Tearing up the Jack Welch playbook" (http://money.cnn.com/2006/07/10/magazines/fortune/rule4. fortune/index.htm). Fortune. . Retrieved 2006-11-26. [27] Richardson, Karen (2007-01-07). "The 'Six Sigma' Factor for Home Depot" (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB116787666577566679. html). Wall Street Journal Online. . Retrieved October 15, 2007. [28] Ficalora, Joe; Costello, Joe. "Wall Street Journal SBTI Rebuttal" (http://www.sbtionline.com/files/Wall_Street_Journal_SBTI_Rebuttal. pdf) (PDF). Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.. . Retrieved October 15, 2007. [29] Hindo, Brian (6 June 2007). "At 3M, a struggle between efficiency and creativity" (http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/ 07_24/b4038406.htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index_best+of+bw). Business Week. . Retrieved June 6, 2007. [30] Ruffa, Stephen A. (2008). Going Lean: How the Best Companies Apply Lean Manufacturing Principles to Shatter Uncertainty, Drive Innovation, and Maximize Profits (http://books.google.com/?id=_Q7OGDd61hkC). AMACOM (a division of American Management Association). ISBN 0-8144-1057-X. . [31] Wheeler, Donald J. (2004). The Six Sigma Practitioner's Guide to Data Analysis. SPC Press. p. 307. ISBN 9780945320623. [32] *Pande, Peter S.; Neuman, Robert P.; Cavanagh, Roland R. (2001).The Six Sigma Way: How GE, Motorola, and Other Top Companies are Honing Their Performance (http://books.google.com/?id=ybOuvzvcqTAC&pg=PA229&lpg=PA229&dq="key+bones+of+contention+ amongst+the+statistical+experts+about+how+Six+Sigma+measures+are+defined"). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 229. ISBN 0071358064. .
Further reading • Adams, Cary W.; Gupta, Praveen; Charles E. Wilson (2003). Six Sigma Deployment (http://books.google.com/ ?id=0lY_bhMBzLwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Adams+Gupta). Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0750675233. • Breyfogle, Forrest W. III (1999). Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods (http:// books.google.com/?id=leQvoUXM9L0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Breyfogle+Implementing). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471265721. • De Feo, Joseph A.; Barnard, William (2005). JURAN Institute's Six Sigma Breakthrough and Beyond - Quality Performance Breakthrough Methods (http://books.google.com/?id=0VHaTb6LJ4QC&printsec=frontcover& dq="six+sigma"). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071422277. • Hahn, G. J., Hill, W. J., Hoerl, R. W. and Zinkgraf, S. A. (1999) The Impact of Six Sigma Improvement-A Glimpse into the Future of Statistics, The American Statistician, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 208 – 215. • Keller, Paul A. (2001). Six Sigma Deployment: A Guide for Implementing Six Sigma in Your Organization (http:// books.google.com/?id=izjUAAAACAAJ&dq=Keller+Six+Sigma). Tucson, AZ: Quality Publishing. ISBN 0930011848. • Pande, Peter S.; Neuman, Robert P.; Roland R. Cavanagh (2001). The Six Sigma Way: How GE, Motorola, and Other Top Companies are Honing Their Performance (http://books.google.com/?id=ybOuvzvcqTAC& pg=PP1&dq=Pande+Six+Sigma+Way). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071358064. • Pyzdek, Thomas and Paul A. Keller (2009). The Six Sigma Handbook, Third Edition (http://books.google.com/ ?id=5CCcw4j2gkgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pyzdek+Six+Sigma&q=). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071623388. • Snee, Ronald D.; Hoerl, Roger W. (2002). Leading Six Sigma: A Step-by-Step Guide Based on Experience with GE and Other Six Sigma Companies (http://books.google.com/?id=_BRYIS31iwUC&printsec=frontcover& dq=Snee+Hoerl). Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press. ISBN 0130084573. • Taylor, Gerald (2008). Lean Six Sigma Service Excellence: A Guide to Green Belt Certification and Bottom Line Improvement (http://books.google.com/?id=1VdYNwAACAAJ&dq). New York, NY: J. Ross Publishing. ISBN 978-1604270068. • Tennant, Geoff (2001). SIX SIGMA: SPC and TQM in Manufacturing and Services (http://books.google.com/ ?id=O6276jidG3IC&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1). Aldershot, UK: Gower Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0566083744.
125
Quality control
126
Quality control Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review
the quality of all factors involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects: 1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes, [1] [2] performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records 2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications 3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organizational culture, motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.
Maintenance check of electronic equipment on a U.S. Navy aircraft.
Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny product release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production (and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues which led to the defect(s) in the first place. For contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a contract.[3]
Total quality control "Total quality control", also called total quality management, is an approach that extends beyond ordinary statistical quality control X-ray zoom series of a network adapter card. techniques and quality improvement methods. It implies a complete overview and re-evaluation of the specification of a product, rather than just considering a more limited set of changeable features within an existing product. If the original specification does not reflect the correct quality requirements, quality cannot be inspected or manufactured into the product. For instance, the design of a pressure vessel should include not only the material and dimensions, but also operating, environmental, safety, reliability and maintainability requirements, and documentation of findings about these requirements.
Quality control
Quality control in project management In project management, quality control requires the project manager and the project team to inspect the accomplished work to ensure it's alignment with the project scope. [4] In practice, projects typically have a dedicated quality control team which focuses on this area.
Notes [1] Adsit, D. (2007) What the call center industry can learn from manufacturing: Part I, In Queue, http://www.nationalcallcenters.org/pubs/ In_Queue/vol2no21.html [2] Adsit, D. (2007) What the call center industry can learn from manufacturing: Part II, In Queue, http://www.nationalcallcenters.org/pubs/ In_Queue/vol2no22.html [3] Position Classification Standard for Quality Assurance Series, GS-1910, http://www.opm.gov/fedclass/gs1910.pdf [4] Phillips, Joseph (November 2008). "Quality Control in Project Management" (http://www.pmhut.com/ quality-control-in-project-management). .
References •
document "Federal Standard 1037C" (http://www. its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c. htm) (in support of MIL-STD-188). This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration
• Godfrey, A. B., Juran's Quality Handbook , 1999. ISBN 007034003. • Pyzdek, T., Quality Engineering Handbook , 2003. ISBN 0824746147.
Further reading •
•
•
• • •
OSDL Data Base Test Suite Backgrounder (http://web.archive.org/web/20040605173457/http://www.osdl.
org/newsroom/press_releases/2003/2003_03_03_beaverton_backgrounder. html), Press releases, Open Source Development Labs, 3 March 2003, archived from the original (http://www. osdl.org/newsroom/press_releases/ 2003/2003_03_03_beaverton_backgrounder.html) on 5 June 2004, retrieved 29 June 2009 QACity: Resources for Busy Testers (http://web.archive.org/web/20041009213226/http://www. qacity.com/ front.htm), LogiGear, archived from the original (http://www.qacity.com/front.htm) on 9 October 2004, retrieved 29 June 2009 Home (http://web.archive.org/web/20040810002450/http://www. saksoft.com/sak_feb/testing_services. htm), Saksoft, 29 May 2004, archived from the original (http://www. saksoft.com/sak_feb/testing_services. htm) on 10 August 2004, retrieved 29 June 2009 The Quality Assurance Journal (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/15634/home), 01 April 2010, retrieved 2 May 2010 Quality Progress Magazine (http://www.asq.org/qualityprogress/index. html), 01 April 2010, retrieved 2 May 2010 Quality Assurance in the View of a Commercial Analytical Laboratory (http://www.springerlink.com/content/ q922ehvpaq49pw6q/), 01 April 2010, retrieved 2 May 2010
127
Quality investing
Quality investing Quality investing is an investment strategy based on clearly defined fundamental factors that seeks to identify
companies with outstanding quality characteristics. The quality assessment is made based on soft (e.g. management credibility) and hard criteria (e.g. balance sheet stability). Quality Investing supports best overall rather than best-in-class approach.
History The idea for quality investing originated in the bond and real estate investing, where both the quality and price of potential investments are determined by ratings and expert attestations. Later the concept was applied to enterprises in equity markets. Benjamin Graham, the founding father of value investing, was the first to recognize the quality problem among equities back in the 1930s. Graham classified stocks as either quality or Low quality. He also observed that the greatest losses result not from buying quality at an excessively high price, but from buying Low quality at a price that seems good value. [1] The quality issue in a corporate context attracted particular attention in the management economics literature following the development of the BCG matrix in 1970. Using the two specific dimensions of life cycle and the experience curve concept, the matrix allocates a company's products – and even companies themselves – to one of two quality classes (Cash Cows and Stars) or two Non-quality classes (question Marks and Dogs). Other important works on quality of corporate business can be found primarily among the US management literature. These include, for example, "In Search of Excellence" by Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman [2] , "Built to Last" by Jim Collins and Jerry Porras[3] , and "Good to Great" by Jim Collins [4] . Quality investing gained credence in particular after the burst of the Dot-com bubble in 2001 when investors witnessed the spectacular failures of companies such as Enron and Worldcom. These corporate collapses focused investors’ awareness on quality, which may vary from stock to stock. Investors started to pay more attention to quality of balance sheet, earnings quality , information transparency, corporate governance quality.
Identification of Corporate quality As a rule, systematic quality investors identify quality stocks using a defined schedule of criteria that they have generally developed themselves and revise continually. Selection criteria that demonstrably influence and/or explain a company's business success or otherwise can be broken down into five categories: [5] 1. Market Positioning: quality company possesses an economic moat, which distinguishes it from peers and allows
to conquer leading market position. The company operates in the industry which offers certain growth potential and has global trends (e.g. ageing population for pharmaceuticals industry) as tailwinds. 2. Business model: According to the BCG matrix, the business model of a quality company is usually classified as
star (growing business model, large capex) or cash cow (established business model, ample cash flows, attractive dividend yield). Having a competitive advantage, quality company offers good product portfolio, well-established value chain and wide geographical span. 3. Corporate Governance: Evaluation of corporate management execution is mainly based on soft-criteria
assessment. Quality company has professional management, which is limited in headcount (6-8 members in top management) and has a low turnover rate. Its corporate governance structure is transparent, plausible and accordingly organized. 4. Financial Strength: Solid balance sheet, high capital and sales profitability, ability to generate ample cash flows
are key attributes of quality company. Quality company tends to demonstrate positive financial momentum for
128
Quality investing several years in a row. Earnings are of high quality, with operating cash flows exceeding net income, inventories and accounts receivables not growing faster than sales etc. 5. Attractive valuation: Valuation ultimately is related to quality, which is similar to investments in real estate.
Attractive valuation, which is defined by high discounted cash flow (DCF), low P/E ratio and P/B ratio, becomes an important factor in quality investing process. According to a number of studies the company can sustain its quality for about 11 months in average, which means that quantitative and qualitative monitoring of the company is done systematically.
Comparison to other investment models Quality investing is an investment style that can be viewed independent of value investing and growth Investing. A quality portfolio may therefore also contain stocks with Growth and Value attributes. Nowadays, Value Investing is based first and foremost on stock valuation. Certain valuation coefficients, such as the price/earnings and price/book ratios, are key elements here. Value is defined either by valuation level relative to the overall market or to the sector, or as the opposite of Growth. An analysis of the company's fundamentals is therefore secondary. Consequently, a Value investor will buy a company's stock because he believes that it is undervalued and that the company is a good one. A quality investor, meanwhile, will buy a company's stock because it is an excellent company that is also attractively valued. Modern Growth Investing centers primarily on Growth stocks. The investor's decision rests equally on experts' profit forecasts and the company's earnings per share. Only stocks that are believed to generate high future profits and a strong growth in earnings per share are admitted to a Growth investor's portfolio. The share price at which these anticipated profits are bought, and the fundamental basis for growth, are secondary considerations. Growth investors thus focus on stocks exhibiting strong earnings expansion and high profit expectations, regardless of their valuation. Quality investors, meanwhile, favor stocks whose high earnings growth is rooted in a sound fundamental basis and whose price is justified.
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
Benjamin Graham (1949). The Intelligent Investor , New York: Collins. ISBN 0-06-055566-1. Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence . ISBN 0-06-015042-4 Jim Collins and Jerry Porras (1994). Built to Last . ISBN 978-0887307393 Jim Collins (2001). Good to Great . ISBN 978-0-06-662099-2 Weckherlin, P. / Hepp, M. (2006). Systematische Investments in Corporate Excellence, Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung. ISBN 3-03823-278-5.
129
Quality engineering
130
Quality engineering Quality engineering may refer to:
• Quality assurance • Quality Engineering, an academic journal
Business process reengineering Business process re-engineering is the analysis and
design of workflows and processes within an organization. According to Davenport (1990) a business process is a set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome. Re-engineering is the basis for many recent developments in management. The cross-functional team, for example, has become popular because of the desire to re-engineer separate functional tasks into complete cross-functional processes. Also, many recent management information systems developments aim to integrate a wide number of business functions. Enterprise resource planning, supply chain management, knowledge management systems, groupware and collaborative systems, Human Resource Management Systems and customer relationship management. Business Process Reengineering Cycle.
Business process re-engineering is also known as business process redesign, business transformation, or business process change management.
Overview Business process re-engineering (BPR) began as a private sector technique to help organizations fundamentally rethink how they do their work in order to dramatically improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors. A key stimulus for re-engineering has been the continuing development and deployment of sophisticated information systems and networks. Leading organizations are becoming bolder in using this technology to support innovative business processes, rather than refining current ways of doing work. [1]
Business process reengineering
131
Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) is basically the fundamental re-thinking and radical re-design, made to an organization's existing resources. It is more than just business improvising. It is an approach for redesigning the way work is done to better support the organization's mission and reduce costs. Reengineering starts with a high-level assessment of the organization's mission, strategic goals, and customer needs. Basic questions are asked, such as "Does our mission need to be redefined? Are our strategic goals aligned with our mission? Who are our customers?" An organization may find that it is operating on questionable assumptions, particularly in terms of the wants and needs of its customers. Only after the organization rethinks what it should be doing, does it go on to decide how best to do it.[1] Reengineering guidance and relationship of Mission and Work
Within the framework of this basic assessment of mission Processes to Information Technology. and goals, re-engineering focuses on the organization's business processes —the steps and procedures that govern how resources are used to create products and services that meet the needs of particular customers or markets. As a structured ordering of work steps across time and place, a business process can be decomposed into specific activities, measured, modeled, and improved. It can also be completely redesigned or eliminated altogether. Re-engineering identifies, analyzes, and re-designs an organization's core business processes with the aim of achieving dramatic improvements in critical performance measures, such as cost, quality, service, and speed. [1] Re-engineering recognizes that an organization's business processes are usually fragmented into subprocesses and tasks that are carried out by several specialized functional areas within the organization. Often, no one is responsible for the overall performance of the entire process. Re-engineering maintains that optimizing the performance of subprocesses can result in some benefits, but cannot yield dra matic improvements if the process itself is fundamentally inefficient and outmoded. For that reason, re-engineering focuses on re-designing the process as a whole in order to achieve the greatest possible benefits to the organization and their customers. This drive for realizing dramatic improvements by fundamentally re-thinking how the organization's work should be done distinguishes re-engineering from process improvement efforts that focus on functional or incremental improvement.[1]
History In 1990, Michael Hammer, a former professor of computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), published an article in the Harvard Business Review, in which he claimed that the major challenge for managers is to obliterate non-value adding work, rather than using technology for automating it. [2] This statement implicitly accused managers of having focused on the wrong issues, namely that technology in general, and more specifically information technology, has been used primarily for automating existing processes rather than using it as an enabler for making non-value adding work obsolete. Hammer's claim was simple: Most of the work being done does not add any value for customers, and this work should be removed, not accelerated through automation. Instead, companies should reconsider their processes in order to maximize customer value, while minimizing the consumption of resources required for delivering their product or service. A similar idea was advocated by Thomas H. Davenport and J. Short in 1990, [3] at that time a
Business process reengineering member of the Ernst & Young research center, in a paper published in the
132 Sloan Management Review
This idea, to unbiasedly review a company ’s business processes, was rapidly adopted by a huge number of firms, which were striving for renewed competitiveness, which they had lost due to the market entrance of foreign competitors, their inability to satisfy customer needs, and their insufficient cost structure. Even well established management thinkers, such as Peter Drucker and Tom Peters, were accepting and advocating BPR as a new tool for (re-)achieving success in a dynamic world. During the following years, a fast growing number of publications, books as well as journal articles, were dedicated to BPR, and many consulting firms embarked on this trend and developed BPR methods. However, the critics were fast to claim that BPR was a way to dehumanize the work place, increase managerial control, and to justify downsizing, i.e. major reductions of the work force, [4] and a rebirth of Taylorism under a different label. Despite this critique, reengineering was adopted at an accelerating pace and by 1993, as many as 65% of the Fortune 500 companies claimed to either have initiated reengineering efforts, or to have plans to do so. This trend was fueled by the fast adoption of BPR by the consulting industry, but also by the study Made in America, conducted by MIT, that showed how companies in many US industries had lagged behind their foreign counterparts in terms of competitiveness, time-to-market and productivity.
Development after 1995 With the publication of critiques in 1995 and 1996 by some of the early BPR proponents, coupled with abuses and misuses of the concept by others, the reengineering fervor in the U.S. began to wane. Since then, considering business processes as a starting point for business analysis and redesign has become a widely accepted approach and is a standard part of the change methodology portfolio, but is typically performed in a less radical way as originally proposed. More recently, the concept of Business Process Management (BPM) has gained major attention in the corporate world and can be considered as a successor to the BPR wave of the 1990s, as it is evenly driven by a striving for process efficiency supported by information technology. Equivalently to the critique brought forward against BPR, BPM is now accused of focusing on technology and disregarding the people aspects of change.
Business process reengineering topics Definition Different definitions can be found. This section contains the definition provided in notable publications in the field: • "... the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service, and speed." [5] • "encompasses the envisioning of new work strategies, the actual process design activity, and the implementation of the change in all its complex technological, human, and organizational dimensions." [6] Additionally, Davenport (ibid.) points out the major difference between BPR and other approaches to organization development (OD), especially the continuous improvement or TQM movement, when he states: "Today firms must seek not fractional, but multiplicative levels of improvement – 10x rather than 10%." Finally, Johansson [7] provide a description of BPR relative to other process-oriented views, such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Just-in-time (JIT), and state: • "Business Process Reengineering, although a close relative, seeks radical rather than merely continuous improvement. It escalates the efforts of JIT and TQM to make process orientation a strategic tool and a core competence of the organization. BPR concentrates on core business processes, and uses the specific techniques within the JIT and TQM ”toolboxes” as enablers, while broadening the process vision."
Business process reengineering
133
In order to achieve the major improvements BPR is seeking for, the change of structural organizational variables, and other ways of managing and performing work is often considered as being insufficient. For being able to reap the achievable benefits fully, the use of information technology (IT) is conceived as a major contributing factor. While IT traditionally has been used for supporting the existing business functions, i.e. it was used for increasing organizational efficiency, it now plays a role as enabler of new organizational forms, and patterns of collaboration within and between organizations. BPR derives its existence from different disciplines, and four major areas can be identified as being subjected to change in BPR - organization, technology, strategy, and people - where a process view is used as common framework for considering these dimensions. The approach can be graphically depicted by a modification of "Leavitt’s diamond".[8] Business strategy is the primary driver of BPR initiatives and the other dimensions are governed by strategy's encompassing role. The organization dimension reflects the structural elements of the company, such as hierarchical levels, the composition of organizational units, and the distribution of work between them. Technology is concerned with the use of computer systems and other forms of communication technology in the business. In BPR, information technology is generally considered as playing a role as enabler of new forms of organizing and collaborating, rather than supporting existing business functions. The people / human resources dimension deals with aspects such as education, training, motivation and reward systems. The concept of business processes - interrelated activities aiming at creating a value added output to a customer - is the basic underlying idea of BPR. These processes are characterized by a number of attributes: Process ownership, customer focus, value adding, and cross-functionality.
The role of information technology Information technology (IT) has historically played an important role in the reengineering concept [9] . It is considered by some as a major enabler for new forms of working and collaborating within an organization and across organizational borders. Early BPR literature [10] identified several so called disruptive traditional wisdom about how work should be performed. • • • • • • • •
technologies
that were supposed to challenge
Shared databases, making information available at many places Expert systems, allowing generalists to perform specialist tasks Telecommunication networks, allowing organizations to be centralized and decentralized at the same time Decision-support tools, allowing decision-making to be a part of everybody's job Wireless data communication and portable computers, allowing field personnel to work office independent Interactive videodisk, to get in immediate contact with potential buyers Automatic identification and tracking, allowing things to tell where they are, instead of requiring to be found High performance computing, allowing on-the-fly planning and revisioning
In the mid 1990s, especially workflow management systems were considered as a significant contributor to improved process efficiency. Also ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) vendors, such as SAP, JD Edwards, Oracle, PeopleSoft, positioned their solutions as vehicles for business process redesign and improvement.
Business process reengineering
134
Research and methodology Although the labels and steps differ slightly, the early methodologies that were rooted in IT-centric BPR solutions share many of the same basic principles and elements. The following outline is one such model, based on the PRLC (Process Reengineering Life Cycle) approach developed by Guha. [11] Benefiting from lessons learned from the early adopters, some BPR practitioners advocated a change in emphasis to a customer-centric, as opposed to an IT-centric, methodology. One such methodology, that also incorporated a Risk and Impact Assessment to account for the impact that BPR can have on jobs and operations, was described by Lon Roberts (1994). Roberts also stressed the use of change management tools to proactively address resistance to change —a factor linked to the demise of many reengineering initiatives that looked good on the drawing board. Some items to use on a process analysis checklist are: Reduce handoffs, Centralize data, Reduce delays, Free resources faster, Combine similar activities. Also within the management consulting industry, a significant number of methodological approaches have been developed. [12]
Critique
Simplified schematic outline of using a business process approach, examplified for pharmceutical R&D: 1. Structural organization with functional units 2. Introduction of New Product Development as cross-functional process 3. Re-structuring and streamlining activities, removal of non-value adding tasks
Reengineering has earned a bad reputation because such projects have often resulted in massive layoffs. This reputation is not altogether unwarranted, since companies have often downsized under the banner of re-engineering. Further, reengineering has not always lived up to its expectations. The main reasons seem to be that: • Reengineering assumes that the factor that limits an organization's performance is the ineffectiveness of its processes (which may or may not be true) and offers no means of validating that assumption. • Reengineering assumes the need to start the process of performance improvement with a "clean slate," i.e. totally disregard the status quo. • According to Eliyahu M. Goldratt (and his Theory of Constraints) reengineering does not provide an effective way to focus improvement efforts on the organization's constraint. There was considerable hype surrounding the introduction of Reengineering the Corporation (partially due to the fact that the authors of the book reportedly bought numbers of copies to promote it to the top of bestseller lists). Abrahamson (1996) showed that fashionable management terms tend to follow a lifecycle, which for Reengineering peaked between 1993 and 1996 (Ponzi and Koenig 2002). They argue that Reengineering was in fact nothing new (as e.g. when Henry Ford implemented the assembly line in 1908, he was in fact reengineering, radically changing the way of thinking in an organization). Dubois (2002) highlights the value of signaling terms as Reengineering, giving it a name, and stimulating it. At the same there can be a danger in usage of such fashionable concepts as mere ammunition to implement particular reform. Read Article by Faraz Rafique. The most frequent and harsh critique against BPR concerns the strict focus on efficiency and technology and the disregard of people in the organization that is subjected to a reengineering initiative. Very often, the label BPR was used for major workforce reductions. Thomas Davenport, an early BPR proponent, stated that: "When I wrote about "business process redesign" in 1990, I explicitly said that using it for cost reduction alone was not a sensible goal. And consultants Michael Hammer and James Champy, the two
Business process reengineering names most closely associated with reengineering, have insisted all along that layoffs shouldn't be the point. But the fact is, once out of the bottle, the reengineering genie quickly turned ugly." [13] Hammer similarly admitted that: "I wasn't smart enough about that. I was reflecting my engineering background and was insufficient appreciative of the human dimension. I've learned that's critical." [14] Other criticism brought forward against the BPR concept include • It never changed management thinking, actually the largest causes of failure in an organization • lack of management support for the initiative and thus poor acceptance in the organization. • exaggerated expectations regarding the potential benefits from a BPR initiative and consequently failure to achieve the expected results. • underestimation of the resistance to change within the organization. • implementation of generic so-called best-practice processes that do not fit specific company needs. • overtrust in technology solutions. • performing BPR as a one-off project with limited strategy alignment and long-term perspective. • poor project management.
References [1] Business Process Re-engineering Assessment Guide (http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/bprag/bprag.pdf), United States General Accounting Office, May 1997. [2] (Hammer 1990) [3] (Thomas H. Davenport and J. Short, 1990) [4] (Greenbaum 1995, Industry Week 1994) [5] Hammer and Champy (1993) [6] Thomas H. Davenport (1993) [7] Johansson et al. (1993) [8] (Leavitt 1965). [9] Business efficiency: IT can help paint a bigger picture, Financial Times, featuring Ian Manocha, Lynne Munns and Andy Cross (http://www. ft.com/cms/s/0/aca0b8dc-dfc0-11df-bed9-00144feabdc0. html#axzz1VySiR5f7) [10] e.g. Hammer & Champy (1993), [11] Guha et al. (1993) [12] A set of short papers, outlining and comparing some of them can be found here, followed by some guidelines for companies considering to contract a consultancy for a BPR initiative: • Overview (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/intro.pdf) • Andersen Consulting (now Accenture) (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/ac.pdf) • Bain & Co. (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/bain. pdf) • Boston Consulting Group (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/bcg.pdf) • McKinsey & Co. (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/mck. pdf) • Comparison (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/comparison.pdf) • Guidelines for BPR consulting clients (http://www.instant-science.net/pub/guidelines.pdf) [13] (Davenport, 1995) [14] (White, 1996)
135
Business process reengineering
136
Further reading • Abrahamson, E. (1996). Management fashion, Academy of Management Review , 21, 254-285. • Champy, J. (1995). Reengineering Management , Harper Business Books, New York. • Davenport, Thomas & Short, J. (1990), The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign, in: Sloan Management Review, Summer 1990, pp 11 – 27 • Davenport, Thomas (1993), Process Innovation: Reengineering work through information technology, Harvard Business School Press, Boston • Davenport, Thomas (1995), Reengineering - The Fad That Forgot People, Fast Company, November 1995. (http:/ /www.rotman.utoronto.ca/~evans/teach363/fastco/reengin. htm) • Drucker, Peter (1972), Work and Tools, in: W. Kranzberg and W.H. Davenport (eds), Technology and Culture, New York • Dubois, H. F. W. (2002). Harmonization of the European vaccination policy and the role TQM and reengineering could play, Quality Management in Health Care, 10(2): pp. 47 – 57. "PDF" (http://www.qmhcjournal.com/pt/ re/qmhc/abstract.00019514-200210020-00009. htm;jsessionid=FBLJvhQdtm2LjZ9gVv9nkLtcG2ptdJVgPn8pxtJWmRWc6Gw1Vkxk!-42534952!-949856144!8091!-1) • Greenbaum, Joan (1995), Windows on the workplace, Cornerstone • Guha, S.; Kettinger, W.J. & Teng, T.C., Business Process Reengineering: Building a Comprehensive Methodology, Information Systems Management, Summer 1993 • Hammer, M., (1990). "Reengineering Work: Don't Automate, Obliterate", Harvard Business Review, July/August, pp. 104 – 112. • Hammer, M. and Champy, J. A.: (1993) Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution, Harper Business Books, New York, 1993. ISBN 0-06-662112-7. • Hammer, M. and Stanton, S. (1995). "The Reengineering Revolution", Harper Collins, London, 1995. • Hansen, Gregory (1993) "Automating Business Process Reengineering", Prentice Hall. • Hussein, Bassam (2008), PRISM: Process Re-engineering Integrated Spiral Model, VDM Verlag (http://www. amazon.com/dp/3639087909) • Industry Week (1994), De-engineering the corporation, Industry Week article, 4/18/94 • Johansson, Henry J. et al. (1993), Business Process Reengineering: BreakPoint Strategies for Market Dominance, John Wiley & Sons • Leavitt, H.J. (1965), Applied Organizational Change in Industry: Structural, Technological and Humanistic Approaches, in: James March (ed.), Handbook of Organizations, Rand McNally, Chicago • Loyd, Tom (1994), Giants with Feet of Clay, Financial Times, Dec 5 1994, p 8 • Malhotra, Yogesh (1998), Business Process Redesign: An Overview, IEEE Engineering Management Review, vol. 26, no. 3, Fall 1998. (http://www.kmbook.com/bpr.htm) • Ponzi, L. and Koenig, M. (2002). "Knowledge management: another management fad?", Information Research, 8(1). • "Reengineering Reviewed", (1994). The Economist , 2 July 1994, pp 66. • Roberts, Lon (1994), Process Reengineering: The Key To Achieving Breakthrough Success, Quality Press, Milwaukee. • Rummler, Geary A. and Brache, Alan P. Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space in the Organization Chart, ISBN 0-7879-0090-7. • Taylor (1911), Frederick, The principles of scientific management, Harper & Row, New York (http://www. ibiblio.org/eldritch/fwt/ti.html) • Thompson, James D. (1969), Organizations in Action, MacGraw-Hill, New York • White, JB (1996), Wall Street Journal. New York, N.Y.: Nov 26, 1996. pg. A.1 • Business Process Redesign: An Overview (http://www.brint.com/papers/bpr.htm) , IEEE Engineering Management Review .
Business process reengineering
137
External links • BPR Articles (http://www.bpubs.com/Management_Science/Business_Process_Reengineering/) • Hammering Hammer (http://danwardonline.googlepages.com/rpl1hammeringhammer) (A Critical Analysis of Michael Hammer's Process Enterprise approach.) • BPR : Decision engineering in a strained industrial and business environment (http://iegd.institut.online.fr/ ART02-B-ADSc-BPR-en.htm)
Product lifecycle management In industry, product lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal. [1] PLM integrates people, data, processes and business systems and provides a product information backbone for companies and their extended enterprise.[2] Product lifecycle management (PLM) should be distinguished from 'Product life cycle management (marketing)' (PLCM). PLM describes the engineering aspect of a product, from managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life; whereas, PLCM refers to the commercial management of life of a product in the business market with respect to costs and sales measures.
A generic lifecycle of products
Product lifecycle management is one of the four cornerstones of a corporation's information technology structure. [3] All companies need to manage communications and information with their customers (CRM-customer relationship management), their suppliers (SCM-supply chain management), their resources within the enterprise (ERP-enterprise resource planning) and their planning (SDLC-systems development life cycle). In addition, manufacturing engineering companies must also develop, describe, manage and communicate information about their products. One form of PLM is called people-centric PLM. While traditional PLM tools have been deployed only on release or during the release phase, people-centric PLM targets the design phase. As of 2009, ICT development (EU-funded PROMISE project 2004 – 2008) has allowed PLM to extend beyond traditional PLM and integrate sensor data and real time 'lifecycle event data' into PLM, as well as allowing this information to be made available to different players in the total lifecycle of an individual product (closing the information loop). This has resulted in the extension of PLM into closed-loop lifecycle management (CL 2M).
Product lifecycle management
Benefits Documented benefits of product lifecycle management include: [4] [5] • • • • • • • • • • •
Reduced time to market Improved product quality Reduced prototyping costs More accurate and timely request for quote generation Ability to quickly identify potential sales opportunities and revenue contributions Savings through the re-use of original data A framework for product optimization Reduced waste Savings through the complete integration of engineering workflows.. Documentation that can assist in proving compliance for RoHS or Title 21 CFR Part 11 Ability to provide contract manufacturers with access to a centralized product record
Areas of PLM Within PLM there are five primary areas; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Systems engineering (SE) Product and portfolio management (PPM) Product design (CAx) Manufacturing process management (MPM) Product Data Management (PDM)
Note: While application software is not required for PLM processes, the business complexity and rate of change requires organizations execute as rapidly as possible.
Systems engineering is focused on meeting all requirements, primary meeting customer needs, and coordinating the systems design process by involving all relevant disciplines. Product and portfolio management is focused on managing resource allocation, tracking progress vs. plan for projects in the new product development projects that are in process (or in a holding status). Portfolio management is a tool that assists management in tracking progress on new products and making trade-off decisions when allocating scarce resources. Product data management is focused on capturing and maintaining information on products and/or services through their development and useful life.
138
Product lifecycle management
Introduction to development process The core of PLM (product lifecycle management) is in the creations and central management of all product data and the technology used to access this information and knowledge. PLM as a discipline emerged from tools such as CAD, CAM and PDM, but can be viewed as the integration of these tools with methods, people and the processes through all stages of a product ’s life.[6] It is not just about software technology but is also a business strategy. [7] For simplicity the stages described are shown in a traditional sequential engineering workflow. The exact order of event and tasks will vary according to the product and industry in question but the main processes are: [8] • Conceive • Specification • Concept design • Design • Detailed design • Validation and analysis (simulation) • Tool design • Realize • Plan manufacturing • Manufacture • Build/Assemble • Test (quality check) • Service • • • •
Sell and deliver Use Maintain and support Dispose
The major key point events are: • • • • •
Order Idea Kick-off Design freeze Launch
The reality is however more complex, people and departments cannot perform their tasks in isolation and one activity cannot simply finish and the next activity start. Design is an iterative process, often designs need to be modified due to manufacturing constraints or conflicting requirements. Where exactly a customer order fits into the time line depends on the industry type, whether the products are for example build to order, engineer to order, or assemble to order.
139
Product lifecycle management
History Inspiration for the burgeoning business process now known as PLM came when American Motors Corporation
(AMC) was looking for a way to speed up its product development process to compete better against its larger competitors in 1985, according to François Castaing, Vice President for Product Engineering and Development. [9] After introducing its compact Jeep Cherokee (XJ), the vehicle that launched the modern sport utility vehicle (SUV) market, AMC began development of a new model, that later came out as the Jeep Grand Cherokee. The first part in its quest for faster product development was computer-aided design (CAD) software system that make engineers more productive. The second part in this effort was the new communication system that allowed conflicts to be resolved faster, as well as reducing costly engineering changes because all drawings and documents were in a central database. The product data management was so effective, that after AMC was purchased by Chrysler, the system was expanded throughout the enterprise connecting everyone involved in designing and building products. While an early adopter of PLM technology, Chrysler was able to become the auto industry's lowest-cost producer, recording development costs that were half of the industry average by the mid-1990s. [9]
Phases of product lifecycle and corresponding technologies Many software solutions have developed to organize and integrate the different phases of a product ’s lifecycle. PLM should not be seen as a single software product but a collection of software tools and working methods integrated together to address either single stages of the lifecycle or connect different tasks or manage the whole process. Some software providers cover the whole PLM range while others a single niche application. Some applications can span many fields of PLM with different modules within the same data model. An overview of the fields within PLM is covered here. It should be noted however that the simple classifications do not always fit exactly, many areas overlap and many software products cover more than one area or do not fit easily into one category. It should also not be forgotten that one of the main goals of PLM is to collect knowledge that can be reused for other projects and to coordinate simultaneous concurrent development of many products. It is about business processes, people and methods as much as software application solutions. Although PLM is mainly associated with engineering tasks it also involves marketing activities such as product portfolio management (PPM), particularly with regards to new product development (NPD). There are several life-cycle models in industry to consider, but most are rather similar. What follows below is one possible life-cycle model; while it emphasizes hardware-oriented products, similar phases would describe any form of product or service, including non-technical or software-based products:
Phase 1: Conceive Imagine, specify, plan, innovate
The first stage in idea is the definition of its requirements based on customer, company, market and regulatory bodies’ viewpoints. From this specification of the products major technical parameters can be defined. Parallel to the requirements specification the initial concept design work is carried out defining the aesthetics of the product together with its main functional aspects. For the industrial design, Styling, work many different media are used from pencil and paper, clay models to 3D CAID computer-aided industrial design software. In some concepts, the investment of resources into research or analysis-of-options may be included in the conception phase – e.g. bringing the technology to a level of maturity sufficent to move to the next phase. However, life-cycle engineering is iterative. It is always possible that something doesn't work well in any phase enough to back up into a prior phase – perhaps all the way back to conception or research. There are many examples to draw from.
140
Product lifecycle management
Phase 2: Design Describe, define, develop, test, analyze and validate
This is where the detailed design and development of the product ’s form starts, progressing to prototype testing, through pilot release to full product launch. It can also involve redesign and ramp for improvement to existing products as well as planned obsolescence. The main tool used for design and development is CAD. This can be simple 2D drawing / drafting or 3D parametric feature based solid/surface modeling. Such software includes technology such as Hybrid Modeling, Reverse Engineering, KBE (knowledge-based engineering), NDT (Nondestructive testing), Assembly construction. This step covers many engineering disciplines including: mechanical, electrical, electronic, software (embedded), and domain-specific, such as architectural, aerospace, automotive, ... Along with the actual creation of geometry there is the analysis of the components and product assemblies. Simulation, validation and optimization tasks are carried out using CAE (computer-aided engineering) software either integrated in the CAD package or stand-alone. These are used to perform tasks such as:- Stress analysis, FEA (finite element analysis); kinematics; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); and mechanical event simulation (MES). CAQ (computer-aided quality) is used for tasks such as Dimensional tolerance (engineering) analysis. Another task performed at this stage is the sourcing of bought out components, possibly with the aid of procurement systems.
Phase 3: Realize Manufacture, make, build, procure, produce, sell and deliver
Once the design of the product ’s components is complete the method of manufacturing is defined. This includes CAD tasks such as tool design; creation of CNC Machining instructions for the product ’s parts as well as tools to manufacture those parts, using integrated or separate CAM computer-aided manufacturing software. This will also involve analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, molding, and die press forming. Once the manufacturing method has been identified CPM comes into play. This involves CAPE (computer-aided production engineering) or CAP/CAPP – (production planning) tools for carrying out factory, plant and facility layout and production simulation. For example: press-line simulation; and industrial ergonomics; as well as tool selection management. Once components are manufactured their geometrical form and size can be checked against the original CAD data with the use of computer-aided inspection equipment and software. Parallel to the engineering tasks, sales product configuration and marketing documentation work will be taking place. This could include transferring engineering data (geometry and part list data) to a web based sales configurator and other desktop publishing systems.
Phase 4: Service Use, operate, maintain, support, sustain, phase-out, retire, recycle and disposal
The final phase of the lifecycle involves managing of in service information. Providing customers and service engineers with support information for repair and maintenance, as well as waste management/recycling information. This involves using tools such as Maintenance, Repair and Operations Management (MRO) software. It is easy to forget that there is an end-of-life to every product. Whether it be disposal or destruction of material objects or information, this needs to be considered since it may not be free from ramifications.
141
Product lifecycle management
All phases: product lifecycle Communicate, manage and collaborate
None of the above phases can be seen in isolation. In reality a project does not run sequentially or in isolation of other product development projects. Information is flowing between different people and systems. A major part of PLM is the co-ordination of and management of product definition data. This includes managing engineering changes and release status of components; configuration product variations; document management; planning project resources and timescale and risk assessment. For these tasks graphical, text and metadata such as product bills of materials (BOMs) needs to be managed. At the engineering departments level this is the domain of PDM – (product data management) software, at the corporate level EDM (enterprise data management) software, these two definitions tend to blur however but it is typical to see two or more data management systems within an organization. These systems are also linked to other corporate systems such as SCM, CRM, and ERP. Associated with these system are project management Systems for project/program planning. This central role is covered by numerous collaborative product development tools which run throughout the whole lifecycle and across organizations. This requires many technology tools in the areas of conferencing, data sharing and data translation. The field being product visualization which includes technologies such as DMU (digital mock-up), immersive virtual digital prototyping (virtual reality) and photo-realistic imaging. User skills
The broad array of solutions that make up the tools used within a PLM solution-set (e.g., CAD, CAM, CAx...) were initially used by dedicated practitioners who invested time and effort to gain the required skills. Designers and engineers worked wonders with CAD systems, manufacturing engineers became highly skilled CAM users while analysts, administrators and managers fully mastered their support technologies. However, achieving the full advantages of PLM requires the participation of many people of various skills from throughout an extended enterprise, each requiring the ability to access and operate on the inputs and output of other participants. Despite the increased ease of use of PLM tools, cross-training all personnel on the entire PLM tool-set has not proven to be practical. Now, however, advances are being made to address ease of use for all participants within the PLM arena. One such advance is the availability of “role” specific user interfaces. Through tailorable UIs, the commands that are presented to users are appropriate to their function and expertise.
Product development processes and methodologies A number of established methodologies have been adopted by PLM and been further advanced. Together with PLM digital engineering techniques, they have been advanced to meet company goals such as reduced time to market and lower production costs. Reducing lead times is a major factor as getting a product to market quicker than the competition will help with higher revenue and profit margins and increase market share. These techniques include:• • • • • • • • • •
Concurrent engineering workflow Industrial design Bottom – up design Top – down design Front-loading design workflow Design in context Modular design NPD new product development DFSS design for Six Sigma DFMA design for manufacture / assembly
142
Product lifecycle management • • • •
Digital simulation engineering Requirement-driven design Specification-managed validation Configuration management
Concurrent engineering workflow Concurrent engineering (British English: simultaneous engineering) is a workflow that, instead of working
sequentially through stages, carries out a number of tasks in parallel. For example: starting tool design before the detailed designs of the product are finished, or starting on detail design solid models before the concept design surfaces models are complete. Although this does not necessarily reduce the amount of manpower required for a project, it does drastically reduce lead times and thus time to market. Feature-based CAD systems have for many years allowed the simultaneous work on 3D solid model and the 2D drawing by means of two separate files, with the drawing looking at the data in the model; when the model changes the drawing will associatively update. Some CAD packages also allow associative copying of geometry between files. This allows, for example, the copying of a part design into the files used by the tooling designer. The manufacturing engineer can then start work on tools before the final design freeze; when a design changes size or shape the tool geometry will then update. Concurrent engineering also has the added benefit of providing better and more immediate communication between departments, reducing the chance of costly, late design changes. It adopts a problem prevention method as compared to the problem solving and re-designing method of traditional sequential engineering.
Bottom –up design Bottom – up design (CAD-centric) occurs where the definition of 3D models of a product starts with the construction of individual components. These are then virtually brought together in sub-assemblies of more than one level until the full product is digitally defined. This is sometimes known as the review structure showing what the product will look like. The BOM contains all of the physical (solid) components; it may (but not also) contain other items required for the final product BOM such as paint, glue, oil and other materials commonly described as 'bulk items'. Bulk items typically have mass and quantities but are not usually modelled with geometry. Bottom – up design tends to focus on the capabilities of available real-world physical technology, implementing those solutions which this technology is most suited to. When these bottom – up solutions have real-world value, bottom – up design can be much more efficient than top – down design. The risk of bottom – up design is that it very efficiently provides solutions to low-value problems. The focus of bottom – up design is "what can we most efficiently do with this technology?" rather than the focus of top – down which is "What is the most valuable thing to do?"
Top –down design Top – down design is focused on high-level functional requirements, with relatively less focus on existing implementation technology. A top level spec is decomposed into lower and lower level structures and specifications, until the physical implementation layer is reached. The risk of a top – down design is that it will not take advantage of the most efficient applications of current physical technology, especially with respect to hardware implementation. Top – down design sometimes results in excessive layers of lower-level abstraction and inefficient performance when the Top – down model has followed an abstraction path which does not efficiently fit available physical-level technology. The positive value of top – down design is that it preserves a focus on the optimum solution requirements. A part-centric top – down design may eliminate some of the risks of top – down design. This starts with a layout model, often a simple 2D sketch defining basic sizes and some major defining parameters. Industrial design, brings creative ideas to product development. Geometry from this is associatively copied down to the next level, which represents different subsystems of the product. The geometry in the sub-systems is then used to define more detail in
143
Product lifecycle management levels below. Depending on the complexity of the product, a number of levels of this assembly are created until the basic definition of components can be identified, such as position and principal dimensions. This information is then associatively copied to component files. In these files the components are detailed; this is where the classic bottom – up assembly starts. The top – down assembly is sometime known as a control structure. If a single file is used to define the layout and parameters for the review structure it is often known as a skeleton file. Defense engineering traditionally develops the product structure from the top down. The system engineering process[10] prescribes a functional decomposition of requirements and then physical allocation of product structure to the functions. This top down approach would normally have lower levels of the product structure developed from CAD data as a bottom – up structure or design.
Both-ends-against-the-middle design Both-ends-against-the-middle (BEATM) design is a design process that endeavors to combine the best features of top – down design, and bottom – up design into one process. A BEATM design process flow may begin with an emergent technology which suggests solutions which may have value, or it may begin with a top – down view of an important problem which needs a solution. In either case the key attribute of BEATM design methodology is to immediately focus at both ends of the design process flow: a top – down view of the solution requirements, and a bottom – up view of the available technology which may offer promise of an efficient solution. The BEATM design process proceeds from both ends in search of an optimum merging somewhere between the top – down requirements, and bottom – up efficient implementation. In this fashion, BEATM has been shown to genuinely offer the best of both methodologies. Indeed some of the best success stories from either top – down or bottom – up have been successful because of an intuitive, yet unconscious use of the BEATM methodology. When employed consciously, BEATM offers even more powerful advantages.
Front loading design and workflow Front loading is taking top – down design to the next stage. The complete control structure and review structure, as well as downstream data such as drawings, tooling development and CAM models, are constr ucted before the product has been defined or a project kick-off has been authorized. These assemblies of files constitute a template from which a family of products can be constructed. When the decision has been made to go with a new product, the parameters of the product are entered into the template model and all the associated data is updated. Obviously predefined associative models will not be able to predict all possibilities and will require additional work. The main principle is that a lot of the experimental/investigative work has already been completed. A lot of knowledge is built into these templates to be reused on new products. This does require additional resources “up front” but can drastically reduce the time between project kick-off and launch. Such methods do however require organizational changes, as considerable engineering efforts are moved into “offline” development departments. It can be seen as an analogy to creating a concept car to test new technology for future products, but in this case the work is directly used for the next product generation.
Design in context Individual components cannot be constructed in isolation. CAD and CaiD models of components are designed within the context of part or all of the product being developed. This is achieved using assembly modelling techniques. Other components’ geometry can be seen and referenced within the CAD tool being used. The other components within the sub-assembly, may or may not have been constructed in the same system, their geometry being translated from other CPD formats. Some assembly checking such as DMU is also carried out using product visualization software.
144
Product lifecycle management
Product and process lifecycle management (PPLM) Product and process lifecycle management (PPLM) is an alternate genre of PLM in which the process by which the product is made is just as important as the product itself. Typically, this is the life sciences and advanced specialty chemicals markets. The process behind the manufacture of a given compound is a key element of the regulatory filing for a new drug application. As such, PPLM seeks to manage information around the development of the process in a similar fashion that baseline PLM talks about managing information around development of the product.
Market size Total spending on PLM software and services was estimated in 2006 to be above $15 billion a year. [11] [12] Market growth estimates are in the 10% area.
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
"About PLM" (http://www.cimdata.com/plm.html). CIMdata. . "What is PLM?" (http://plmtechnologyguide.com/site/?page_id=435). PLM Technology Guide. . Evans, Mike. "The PLM Debate" (http://www.cambashi.com/the-plm-debate---outsourcing-upsets-the-it-integration-pillars). Cambashi. . Day, Martyn (2002.04.15). "What is PLM" (http://www.caddigest.com/subjects/PLM/select/day_plm. htm). Cad Digest. . Hill, Sidney (2006.12.01). "A winning strategy" (http://www.mbtmag.com/current_issues/2006/sept/coverstory1. asp?CategoryID=66). Manufacturing Business Technology. . [6] Teresko, John (2004.01.02). "The PLM Revolution" (http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/Asp/articles. asp?ArticleId=1558). IndustryWeek. . [7] Stackpole, Beth (2003.05.15). "There's a New App in Town" (http://www.cio.com/archive/051503/app. html). CIO Magazine. . [8] Goul, Lawrence (2002.06.05). "Additional ABCs About PLM" (http://www.autofieldguide.com/articles/120506.html). Automotive Design and Production. . [9] Sidney Hill, Jr., "How To Be A Trendsetter: Dassault And IBM PLM Customers Swap Tales From The PLM Front" (http://www.coe.org/ coldfusion/newsnet/may03/technology. cfm), retrieved on March 28, 2008. [10] Incose SYSTEMS ENGINEERING HANDBOOK, A “HOW TO” GUIDE For All Engineers, Version 2.0, July 2000. pg 358 [11] "Comprehensive Information and Analysis of the PLM Market" (http://www.cimdata.com/news_events/press_release. html?press_release_ID=30) (Press release). CIMdata.... 2006-10-11. . [12] "PLM Market Projected to Reach $12 Billion in 2006, Up 14%" (http://www.daratech.com/press/releases/2006/060313a. html) (Press release). Daratech. 2006-03-13. .
Further reading • The Cost of PLM (http://plmtechnologyguide.com/site/?page_id=1184) • Saaksvuori, Antti (3 edition (May, 2008)). Product Lifecycle Management(Hardcover) (http://www.plm-info. com/My_Homepage_Files/Page2.html). Springer. ISBN 3540781730. • SME Product Lifecycle Management Tech Group PLM Matrix (http://www.sme.org/downloads/communities/ techgroups/plm/matrix.pdf) • Grieves, Michael (1 edition (2006)). Product Lifecycle Management: Driving the Next Generation of Lean Thinking (Hardcover). McGraw-Hill. • Stark, John (1 edition (August 27, 2004)). Product Lifecycle Management: 21st century Paradigm for Product Realisation (Hardcover) (http://www.johnstark.com/PLM_Paradigm. html). Springer. ISBN 1-85233-810-5. • Stark, John (1 edition (August 24, 2007)). Global Product: Strategy, Product Lifecycle Management and the Billion Customer Question (Hardcover) (http://www. johnstark.com/PR_090307.html). Springer. ISBN 1-84628-914-9. • Bergsjö, Dag (2009). Product Lifecycle Management – Architectural and Organisational Perspectives (http:// publications.lib.chalmers.se/cpl/record/index.xsql?pubid=92570). Chalmers University of Technology. ISBN 978-91-7385-257-9.
145
146
UNIT 4
147
ERP Issues ERP system selection methodology An ERP system selection methodology is a formal process for selecting an enterprise resource planning (ERP) system. Existing methodologies include: [1] • • • •
SpecIT Independent Vendor Selection Management Kuiper's funnel method Dobrin's 3D decision support tool Clarkson Potomac method
Overview Irrespective of whether the company is a multi-national, multi-million dollar organization or a small company with single digit million turnover, the goal of system selection is to source a system that can provide functionality for all of the business processes; that will get complete user acceptance; management approval and, most importantly, can provide significant return on investment for the shareholders. Since the mid-1970s, when there was widespread introduction of computer packages into leading companies to assist in material requirements planning [2] software companies have striven, and for the most part succeeded, to create packages that assist in all aspects of running a business from manufacturing; supply chain management; human resources; through to financials. This led to the evolution of ERP Systems. Accordingly, a significant number of packages purporting to be ERP systems have entered into the marketplace since 1990 [3] . There are packages at the upper end of the market and a vast quantity of other packages that vendors claim to be ERP Systems. There are also packages that claim to be best of breed for certain processes [such as planning] and sold merely as an add-on to an ERP System. The options are many and this, in reality, creates a problem for the company who has to make a decision. Attempting to select an ERP system is further exacerbated by the fact that some systems are geared for discrete manufacturing environment where a distinct amount of items make up a finished product [4] while others are more suited to process industries such as chemical and food processing where the ingredients are not exact and where there might be re-work and byproducts of a process. In the last decade, companies have also become interested in enhanced functionality such as customer relationship management and electronic commerce capability. Given all of the potential solutions, it is not uncommon for companies to choose a system that is not the best fit for the business and this normally leads to a more expensive implementation. Thus, it is understandable that "ERP Costs can run as high as two or three percent of revenues" [5] . A proper ERP system selection methodology will deliver, within time and budget, an ERP system that is best fit for the business processes and the user in an enterprise.it is used in small scale Enterprises for implement their organization towards the MIS.
ERP system selection methodology
Poor system selection Companies seldom use a fully objective selection methodology when choosing an ERP System. Some common mistakes include: Incomplete requirements Because implementation of a new ERP system "requires people to do their job differently" (Wallace and Kremzar [6] ), it is very important to understand user requirements, not only for current processes, but also future processes (i.e., before and after the new system is installed). Without detailed user requirements, review of systems for functional best-fit rarely succeeds. The requirements must go into sufficient detail for complex processes, or processes that may be unique to a particular business. Reliance on vendor demos Vendor demonstrations tend to focus on very simplistic processes. A typical demonstration shows an ideal order to cash process where a customer orders a quantity of product that is in stock. The reality in most businesses is that most customers have varying and more complex commercial arrangements, and products are not always in stock. Over-emphasis on system cost According to Finlay and Servant, “The differential in purchase price between packages is unlikely to be the dominant factor".[7] While the cost of an ERP system is significant for a company, other important decision criteria, such as functionality; future proofing; underlying infrastructure [network & database]; and e-commerce capability among others, may be understressed. Selection bias It is not unusual that the decision on which system to purchase is made by one individual or by one department within the company. In these situations, an ERP system that may be excellent at one function but weak at other processes may be imposed on the entire enterprise with serious consequences for the business. Failure to use objective professional services One of the main reasons for failure in system selection is the understandable lack of knowledge within the company. Experienced consultants can provide information on all of the packages that are available in the marketplace; the latest functionality available in the most common packages and, most importantly, can assist the user in deciding whether a specific requirement would provide added value to the user and to the business. However, it is worth noting that the professional help must be provided by objective consultants who have no affiliation with ERP system vendors. "If a consultancy has built up an expertise in the use of a particular package then it is in its interest to recommend that package to its client ” [7] Inability to understand offering by ERP vendor "It is estimated that approximately 90% of enterprise system implementations are late or over budget" [8] . A plausible explanation for implementations being late and over budget is that the company did not understand the offering by the vendor before the contract was signed. A typical example of this would be the scenario where a vendor may offer 5 days of services for the purpose of data migration. The reality is that there is a huge amount of work required to input data onto a new system. The vendor will import the data into the new system but expects the company to put the data into a file that is easy to import into the system. The company are also expected to extract the data from the old system; clean the data and add new data that is required by the new system. "ERP, to be successful, requires levels of data integrity far higher than most companies have ever achieved – or even considered. Inventory records, bill of materials (BOM), formulas, recipes, routings, and other data need to become highly accurate, complete and properly structured". [6] This typical scenario is one of many issues that cause implementations to be delayed and invariably lead to requests for more resources.
148
ERP system selection methodology
A proper system selection methodology To address the common mistakes that lead to a poor system selection it is important to apply key principles to the process, some of which are listed hereunder: Structured approach The first step in selection of a new system is to adopt a structured approach to the process. The set of practices are presented to all the stakeholders within the enterprise before the system selection process begins. Everyone needs to understand the method of gathering requirements; invitation to tender; how potential vendors will be selected; the format of demonstrations and the process for selecting the vendor. Thus, each stakeholder is aware that the decision will be made on an objective and collective basis and this will always lead to a high level of co-operation within the process. Focused demonstrations Demonstrations by potential vendors must be relevant to the business. However, it is important to understand that there is considerable amount of preparation required by vendors to perform demonstrations that are specific to a business. Therefore it is imperative that vendors are treated equally in requests for demonstrations and it is incumbent on the company [and the objective consultant assisting the company in the selection process] to identify sufficient demonstrations that will allow a proper decision to be made but will also ensure that vendors do not opt out of the selection process due to the extent of preparation required. Objective decision process "Choosing which ERP to use is a complex decision that has significant economic consequences, thus it requires a multi-criterion approach." [9] . There are two key points to note when the major decision makers are agreeing on selection criteria that will be used in evaluating potential vendors. Firstly, the criteria and the scoring system must be agreed in advance prior to viewing any potential systems. The criteria must be wide-ranging and decided upon by as many objective people as possible within and external to the enterprise. In no circumstance should people with affiliations to one or more systems be allowed to advise in this regard. Full involvement by all personnel The decision on the system must be made by all stakeholders within the enterprise. "It requires top management leadership and participation … it involves virtually every department within the company". [6] Representatives of all users should: • • • •
Be involved in the project initiation phase where the decision making process is agreed; Assist in the gathering of requirements; Attend the Vendor Demonstrations; Have a significant participation in the short-listing and final selection of a vendor.
References [1] Frédéric Adam, David Sammon (2004), The enterprise resource planning decade (http://books.google.com/?id=dlAeqOOZ6WUC& pg=PA94), p. 94, ISBN 9781591402626, [2] Orlicky's material requirements planning by Joseph Orlicky, George W. Plossi 1994 ISBN 0070504598 [3] Daniel Edmund O'Leary, Enterprise resource planning systems: systems, life cycle, electronic commerce, and risk , Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521791529. [4] Thomas E. Vollman, William L. Berry, D. Clay Whyberk, F. and Robert Jacobs, Manufacturing Planning and Control Systems for Supply Chain Management , 2005, page 96. ISBN 007144033X. [5] C. Escalle, M. Cotteleer, and R. Austin, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) , Report No 9-699-020, Harvard Business School, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1999. [6] Thomas F. Wallace and Michael H. Kremzar, ERP: Making it Happen . ISBN 0471392014. [7] Paul N. Finlay and Terence Servant, Financial Packaging Systems , 1987. ISBN 0850125847. [8] Martin, M., 'An ERP Strategy', Fortune , 2 February 1998, pages 95 – 97. [9] Oyku Alanbay, 'ERP Selection using Expert Choice Software', ISAHP 2005, Honolulu, Hawaii, July 8 – 10, 2005.
149
ERP system selection methodology
150
External links • ERP Definitions and Solutions (http://www.cio.com/article/40323/ERP_Definition_and_Solutions)
List of ERP software packages Free and Open Source ERP software ERP Package
Language Base
License
Other Info
Developer Country
Adaxa Suite
Java
GPL
Integrated ERP
Australia/New Zealand
Adempiere
Java
GPL
started as a fork of Compiere
Spain
BlueErp
PHP, MySQL, PostgreSQL
GPL
Compiere
Java
GPL/Commercial
Acquired by Consona Corporation in June 2010
Dolibarr
PHP, MySQL, PostgreSQL
GPL
ERP/CRM for SME, freelancers or foundations
US, France, Belgium, Spain, India, Argentina...
ERP5
Python, Zope, MySQL
GPL
based on unified model
Brazil, France, Germany, Japan Sénégal
Fedena
Ruby
Apache License
ERP for Schools/Universities
India
FrontAccounting PHP, MySQL
GPL
Branched from WebERP
GNU Enterprise Python
GPLv3
HeliumV
Java
AGPL
JFire
Java
LGPL
Kuali Foundation
Java
LedgerSMB
Perl
GPL
OFBiz
Apache, Java
Apache License 2.0
ERP for small and medium businesses
OpenPro
PHP, MySQL
MPL
ERP for small and medium businesses
Openbravo
Java
Openbravo Public License (OBPL), a free software license based on the Mozilla Public License (MPL)
OpenERP
Python, PostgreSQL
AGPLv3, OpenERP Public License
formerly Tiny ERP
Belgium, India, USA
Opentaps
Java
AGPLv3
Can run in the Amazon EC2 [1] cloud
Worldwide
Postbooks
C++, JavaScript, PostgreSQL
CPAL
Produced by XTuple, uses Qt framework
SQL-Ledger
Perl, PostgreSQL
GPL
Tryton
Python
GPLv3
started as a fork of OpenERP
WebERP
PHP, MySQL
GPLv2
LAMP based system
ERP for small and medium businesses
Austria, Germany
USA Spain
List of ERP software packages
Proprietary ERP software • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1C:Enterprise from 1C Company 24SevenOffice Start, Premium, Professional and Custom from 24SevenOffice A1 ERP from Alliance Technologies Accpac from The Sage Group Activant acquired by Epicor Acumatica from Acumatica AIVA 9001 from AIVA SISTEMA AddonSoftware from BASIS International AXIS ERP from Consona Corporation Agresso Business World from Unit4 Baan ERP) from Infor Global Solutions AMS Advantage from CGI Group (formerly American Management Systems) BatchMaster ERP from BatchMaster Software CGram Enterprise from CGram Software Cimnet Systems from Consona Corporation Clear Enterprise from Clear Objective CMiC from CMiC COA Solutions Ltd - Smart Business Suite Coda Financials from Unit4 Comarch Altum from Comarch Comarch Semiramis from Comarch Compass ERP from Transtek Compiere professional edition from Consona Corporation Comprehensive Patient Administrator EFACS from Exel Computer Systems and RAD Software. Encompix ERP from Consona Corporation Epicor Enterprise from Epicor FinancialForce Accounting from FinancialForce.com FinancialForce Professional Services Automation (aka PSA) from FinancialForce.com Fishbowl Inventory from Fishbowl Global Shop Solutions One-System ERP Solutions IFS Applications from Industrial and Financial Systems Infor10 Barcode from Infor Global Solutions Infor10 Discrete iEnterprise (XA) (aka MAPICS) from Infor Global Solutions Infor10 Distribution Business (aka SX.Enterprise) from Infor Global Solutions Infor10 Distribution Express (aka FACTS) from Infor Global Solutions Infor10 ERP Business (aka SyteLine) from Infor Global Solutions Infor10 ERP Express (aka Visual Enterprise) Infor Global Solutions Infor10 ERP Process Business (aka Adage) from Infor Global Solutions Infor ERP Blending (aka BLENDING) from Infor Global Solutions Intacct Intacct and Intacct Accountant Edition Intuitive ERP from Consona Corporation IRIS Exchequer from IRIS Software JD Edwards EnterpriseOne from Oracle JD Edwards World from Oracle Jeeves from Jeeves Information Systems AB
151
List of ERP software packages • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Kingdee from Kingdee kVASy4 from SIV.AG Lawson M3 from Lawson Software earlier * Movex from Intentia Lawson S3 from Lawson Software Log-net from LOG-NET, Inc. Maximo (MRO) from IBM Made2Manage ERP from Consona Corporation MECOMS from Ferranti Computer Systems Microsoft Dynamics AX (formerly Axapta) from Microsoft Microsoft Dynamics GP (formerly Great Plains) from Microsoft Microsoft Dynamics NAV (formerly Navision) from Microsoft Microsoft Dynamics SL (formerly Solomon) from Microsoft Momentum from CGI Group mySAP from SAP MyWorkPLAN from Sescoi NetSuite from NetSuite Inc. Openda QX from Openda OpenMFG from xTuple OpenPro OpenERP Oracle e-Business Suite from Oracle PeopleSoft from Oracle Plex Online from Plex Systems QAD Enterprise Applications (formerly MFG/Pro) from QAD Inc Ramco Enterprise Series 4.x from Ramco Systems Ramco e.Applications from Ramco Systems Ramco On Demand ERP from Ramco Systems Rapid Response Manufacturing from ProfitKey International Sage Business Vision from The Sage Group SAGE ERP ACCPAC from The Sage Group SAGE ERP X3 from The Sage Group Sage MAS 90, MAS 200 and Sage MAS 500 from The Sage Group SAGE PFW ERP from The Sage Group SAGE PRO ERP from The Sage Group SAP Business All-in-One from SAP SAP Business ByDesign from SAP SAP Business One from SAP SAP Business Suite from SAP SYSPRO from Syspro TaskHub from Synergix Technologies Technology One from Technology One UFIDA NC from UFIDA UFIDA ERP-U8 All-in-one from UFIDA UFIDA U9 from UFIDA Visibility.net from Visibility WorkBook Software from WorkBook Software A/S WorkPLAN Enterprise from Sescoi
152
List of ERP software packages
153
ERP vendors The largest vendors worldwide in 2005 according to Gartner Dataquest:
Market share 2005 according to Gartner Dataquest[2] #
Vendor
Revenue
Market
(million $)
share (%)
1
SAP
1949
30.33
2
Oracle Applications
1374
21.38
3
The Sage Group
1121
17.44
4
Microsoft Dynamics
916
14.25
5
[3] SSA Global Technologies
464
7.22
Vendors of popular ERP software (total revenue for the whole company): Vendor
Revenue
[4]
(Native currency)
SAP
Revenue
[5]
Year
(million $)
9.4 billion EUR
12401.4 2006
14.38 billion USD
14380.0 2006
2.1 billion USD
2100.0 2006
935.6 million GBP
1832.0 2006
44.3 billion USD
44282.0 2006
Unit 4 Agresso
352.6 million EUR
465.2 2005
CDC Software
409.1 million USD
409.1 2008
390.776 million USD
390.8 2006
Epicor
384.1 million USD
384.1 2006
Visma
1,907 million NOK
305.5 2005
Industrial and Financial Systems (IFS)
341 million USD
341.0 2009
Comarch
730 million PLN
253.2 2009
QAD
225 million USD
225.0 2006
Cincom Systems
180 million USD
180 2008
COA Solutions Ltd
50.5 million GBP
98.47 2007
193.1 million USD
193.1 2010
177 million SEK
26.5 2010
Oracle Applications Infor Global Solutions The Sage Group Microsoft
Lawson Software
NetSuite Jeeves SIV.AG
14.2 million EUR
18.7 unknown
Technology One
108.8 million AUD
101 2008
Pronto Software
51.1 million AUD
54.9 2008
22 million USD
22 2006
Plex Systems Consona Corporation
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 1984
CMiC
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 1974
Syspro
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 2006
List of ERP software packages
154
OpenPro
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 1998
Openbravo
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 2010
OpenERP
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 2010
A1 ERP
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 2010
Dolibarr
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 2010
ProfitKey International
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 1979
Global Shop Solutions
N/A (Private) USD N/A (Private) 1976
WorkBook Software A/S
N/A (Private) DKK N/A (Private) 2000
References [1] http://www.opentaps.org/cloud [2] Bailor, Coreen (2006-07-05). "For CRM, ERP, and SCM, SAP Leads the Way" (http://www.destinationcrm.com/articles/default. asp?ArticleID=6162). . Retrieved 2007-03-29. [3] Now part of Infor Global Solutions [4] As given in Wikipedia for the complete company [5] Conversion rates (date 12/31/2006): USD:EUR = 1.31930 $/ € USD:GBP = 1.95815 $/£ USD:NOK = 0.16017 $/NOK For Ramco Systems the conversion rate from the annual report is used
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors Enterprise resource planning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455870335 Contributors: 1exec1, Abhishek.cmath, Accountwiki2, Adam McMaster, Adi4094, Adnanbukhari,
Afreytes, Agamemnon2, Aillema, AjeetKhurana, AlMac, Alansohn, Amardesich, Amgadpasha, Amitapa, Andonic, Andreas.ooijer, Andrewspencer, Andyjsmith, Andyman1125, Anilswayin, Antonmind, Antonrojo, Ardafif, Arpabr, Arthena, Asc99c, Ash, Ass12345, Asusean, Ba8inz, Baa, Baboons are cool, Barcelova, BarretBonden, Bellenion, Ben Ben, Bezik, Biblbroks, BinaryTed, Bjdehut, Black Falcon, Blanchardb, Bobdc, Bobo192, Boothy443, Boris.kirzner, Brianga, Brijadmin, Buzzcp02, Bwrs, CART fan, CIS601, Calliopejen1, Camw, Can't sleep, c lown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Cattons, Ch'marr, Chanakal, Chery, Chessphoon, Choclate97, Chris 73, CiTrusD, Clayoquot, Cleared as filed, Closedmouth, Codecutr, Codetiger, Colonel Warden, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Constructive editor, Conversion script, Coolelle, Corruptcopper, Crysb, Cunac, Cureden, Cvcby, Cybercobra, CygnusPius, Cymbalta, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DGaw, DStoykov, DanMS, Dangelow, Danielloh100, Darp-a-parp, David Schaich, DavidJ710, DavidLevinson, Davidmorgan24, Denisarona, DerHexer, Derekcslater, Descendall, Deviator13, Dinarphatak, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Dmb, Dmozer1, Dogtanion, Donert, Doubrown, Dr.Soft, Earthlyreason, El C, Elambeth, Emegeve, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eptin, Erpconsultantajay, Erpgenie, Espoo, Estherschindler, Euryalus, Evercat, Exien, Extransit, Ezeu, Fabrictramp, F eldh, Feraudyh, Fergussa, Ferkelparade, F inell, Fish and karate, Flewis, Fly by Night, Former user 2, Fred Bradstadt, Fsfgnu, Func, Fvilim, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Gbeaubouef, Gbenzie, Geoff Plourde, Gioto, Gladstone, Gnewf, Gogo Dodo, Gool930, Gracenotes, Graham Berrisford, Greensburger, Griot, Gscshoyru, Gunnala, Gurch, Hadal, Haham hanuka, HanH, Harold Hreem, Harr y, Hdahlmo, HighKing, Hmains, Hoo man, HumboldtKritiker, Ikiroid, Ilovshuz, ImperatorExercitus, Imrehg, IndulgentReader, Interiot, Iridescent, Irimar, Irrawaddy, IvanLanin, Izgecen, J.delanoy, J04n, JDBravo, JJ Harrison, JVSN, JaGa, Jamelan, James 45uyh, Jasford, Jay, Jbrowning100, Jbw2, Jean lw lequeux, Jeannie Fung, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jgritz, Jiddisch, Jmejedi, Jni, JoanneB, JoeSmack, Johndci, Johnmarkh, Jorge.baldeon, Jpbowen, Juanpdelat, Julieb1934, KHLehmann, KJDoran, KKramer, KMPLS, KamuiShirou, Kapil bathija, Karenjc, Kavehmz, Kbh3rd, Kenyon, Khalid hassani, Kku, Knguyeniii, KnowledgeOfSelf, Korg, Kozuch, Kubigula, Kuru, Kvng, LOL, Lankiveil, Lathama, Lbertybell, Lfstevens, Lhsfb24, Limit0, LindaDavey, Linkspamremover, Lootzyne, Lootzyne12, Lootzyne21, Loren.wilton, LoveEncounterFlow, Lprice, Lympathy,
[email protected], MER-C, Magnus.de, Mahyt, Maltesedog, MarkJeremy, Martarius, Materialscientist, Matt Deres, Maurreen, Mboverload, Mdd, Meermaid, Mentifisto, Mfstutz, Mggreennc, Michael Hardy, Mikaey, Mikel Gómez, Mirage.maverick, Mitaphane, Mnemeson, Moa3333, Mohammadmorad, Momoricks, Mortense, Mpanosh, Mr Fiscal, MrArt, Mudgen, Mufka, Murattali, Mxn, Myanw, Mydogategodshat, Mìthrandir, N5iln, NHRHS2010, Nahado, Nandssiib, Narayana vvss, NawlinWiki, Nazgul02, Ncw0617, Nelson50, Neobeatnik, NetManage, Nick1nildram, Nickswilliam, Nicolokyle, Ninc, Nino Gonzales, Njethwa, Nktrox, Nomadcowboy, Nva.openerp, Nzd, Ocaasi, Oezdemir, Ohnoitsjamie, Oleg Alexandrov, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, Optakeover, Oxymoron83, PPGMD, Palecitrus, Park3r, Peter.m.ng, Petit.tigre, Pfeller, PhilHibbs, PhilipSmith, Piano non troppo, Picapica, Pinaghosh, Pink Bull, Pmresource, Pointillist, Pol098, Polluxian, Porchcorpter, Poromenos, Poweroid, Prari, Prasad123, Prhartcom, Priyanka tripathi 1385, Prnay, Prunesqualer, Quarl, QueenCake, RJFJR, RM MARTIN, Random name, Ratsystem, Rchilakapati, Recurring dreams, Reedy, Regancy42, Renesis, Rettetast, Rgill, Rhobite, Rich Farmbrough, Richard D. LeCour, RichardVeryard, Rjwilmsi, Robertlo9, Rodii, Ronz, RoyKok, S.K., Sailsbystars, Sam Hocevar, SamJohnston, Sanjiv swarup, Sarefo, Saros136, Saurabh.gupta12, Saxifrage, Schmei, Seanbw, Seanoduinneachair, Seaphoto, SebastianHelm, Sega381, Sempf, Serag4000, Sethop, Shahnavazkazi, Shanes, Shizane, SidP, Sivaraj, Skyezx, Skysmith, Sleepyhead81, Snowded, So God created Manchester, Some jerk on the Internet, SpaceFlight89, Spedoinkle, Splash, Squirepants101, Steevm, Stegop, Storm Rider, Sudhani, Svetovid, Svtuition2009, Swamiyogesh, T.J.V., Tbarr60, Tedickey, Teles, Tendays, The F ifth Horseman, The Master of Mayhem, The Random Editor, The Thing That Should Not Be, ThinkERP, Thumperward, TigerShark, Tkreykes, Tmol42, Tom harrison, Tommy2010, Tomnap, UM 049, Ukexpat, Ultra007, Unyoyega, User27091, Utcursch, Vaishi1110, Van der Hoorn, Van helsing, Veckardt, Veinor, VeniWikiVici, Vercalos, Vidram01, Vinay R Pawar, Wayiran, WhiterRabbit, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wikipkth, Wknight94, Wootah, WurkrB, Xezbeth, Yoenit, Yurik, Zedla, Zfr, Zoicon5, Zzuuzz, 1451 anonymous edits Management information system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456368162 Contributors: 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Aaronbrick, Ab2kgj, Academic Challenger, AdeemM,
AdjustShift, AgnosticPreachersKid, Aitias, Akamad, Alansohn,
[email protected], Alilubna, Allstarecho, Ammiel1, Angela, Anonymous editor, Ansumang, Anwar saadat, Auntof6, BWeynants, Ba8inz, Barcelova, Basawala, Basu ayan3, Beardo, Bellenion, BeverlyCrusher, Bfigura's puppy, Bilby, BillyPreset, Binh Giang, Blainster, Bmgoldbe, Bohumir Zamecnik, Boron, Brc4, Brianlucas, Busiken, CMSimons, CapitalR, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Cels2, Ch'marr, Chanakal, Charles T. Betz, Cheeni, Chimin 07, Chris 73, ChunMort, Chzz, Ckatz, Closedmouth, CommodiCast, Compo, Critic, Cyslo, DXBari, DePiep, Dekisugi, Del 1986, Dirkbb, Djwilliamson2, Doctormarkdraper, Download, Drmies, Drsuebrown, Drydom, Dylan Lake, ESkog, EUpH0rIa, East718, EdH, Eddieblade, Eigenwijze mustang, Ejump82, Ekalbsevi, Ekdamcheap, Epbr123, Erkan Yilmaz, EvanCarroll, ExDeus, Excirial, Exit2DOS2000, Fang Aili, Fco5001, Foxdude333, Fredrik, GChriss, GKS, Gagan 3057, Gaius Cornelius, GamblinMonkey, Gimboid13, GregAsche, Group1and1, Gurch, HBSquall, HamburgerRadio, HasleMere, Hculbertson, Hello32020, Hephaestos, HexaChord, Hjstern, Hmains, Humdhan, Husond, Hylist, IMSoP, Imdeng, Instigator2222, Instinct, Ish ishwar, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, JCLately, JTN, Ja 62, JaGa, Jackfork, Jackofwiki, Japo, JethroElfman, Jleedev, JoanneB, Joeking16, Jojhutton, Jpbowen, Juan A Romero, Juliancolton, Jurema Oliveira, Jw lamp, Kachlydave, KenKendall, Kgorman-ucb, Khalid, Killer puma, Kku, Kmsiever, KrakatoaKatie, KuRiZu, Kukini, Kuru, Kuyabribri, Lea r's Fool, Leinad, Lemmie, Lincolnshep, LittleOldMe, Lolsuper7am1, Lord Pistachio, Lueo, Lunalona, MBisanz, MER-C, Madhero88, Madrone, Manasprakash79, Mandarax, Manop, Marek69, Mark Renier, MartinRe, Materialscientist, Maurreen, Mdd, Meelar, Melizg, Metalflame, Mhering, Michael Devore, Mistiehicks, Mmortal03, Mohannade, Morwen, Mstocklos, Munchi Lee, Mydogategodshat, Nekan, Nimur, Nivektrah, Notinasnaid, Nsarthur, Ntavares, Nzd, OSS, Ohnoitsjamie, Oliver Lineham, Osarius, Oxymoron83, Pan1987, PatrickHadfield, Pgreenfinch, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Plasticup, Pmresource, Poor Yorick, Psantora, PsychoSafari, Qxz, R. fiend, RB972, Ravichandar84, Razorflame, Rdsmith4, Redvers, Rfl, Rgill, RichardSaBoob, Rjwilmsi, Rkr1991, RobertG, Roberto Cruz, RobyWayne, Rocky11111, RoyBoy, Roystonea, Rror, Rustiq, Rxnd, Saintali, Sam Hocevar, Sam Korn, SamJohnston, Samuel, Sanida V., Sanjiv swarup, Schzmo, Secfan, Sengkang, Senorhobo, Seth Nimbosa, Shadowjams, Sharukhbajpai, S hefalibudhwani, Shell Kinney, Shinmawa, Showard, Simon South, Sohan.s, SomeStranger, Soumyasch, Spencer, StaticGull, Stevag, Subsurd, SueHay, Suisui, SuperHamster, Svetovid, Swaroop86, Swat671, Talkativeman, TenPoundHammer, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thedemonhog, Thegsrguy, Thehelpfulone, Three, Tide rolls, Timrogersx, Tommy2010, Tony1, TrioteXNeo, Ttonyb1, Txomin, Uncle Milty, Utcursch, Vary, Veinor, Velella, Versus22, Vikingstad, Vilerage, Vipinhari, Vis123, Vrenator, Wayward, Werdan7, Wiki corection, Wikidudeman, William Avery, Willking1979, Wolfrock, Woogee, Wtmitchell, Yaris678, Yhkhoo, Yhstef, Zhou Yu, Zoicon5, Zzuuzz, Σ, ﺃﺣﻤﺪ.ﻏﺎﻣﺪﻱ.24, 1077 anonymous edits Operations support system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=452653272 Contributors: Aqazhar, BAHSANTOSHTIWARI, Bento00, Bluezy, CapitalR, Centrx, Ceo2000,
Cfaurer, Channasilva2000, Cobaltbluetony, Colonies Chris, Davestow, Decaalv, Dougher, DragonHawk, Elronxenu, Enricog, Fboersma, Frap, Gardar Rurak, Haakon, Hroðulf, Jamespullen, Jim.henderson, Jodypro, Johnuniq, Krymson, Leetribe, Lowrykun, Manscher, Mboverload, Michael Hardy, Mstroh, Nikolay Molchanov, Odysseusmarktwo, Oneiros, Phil Holmes, PrologFan, Rabokay, Radagast83, Radiojon, Rchandra, Renvonvit, Riana, RichardVeryard, Rjmachin, Ronnyrave, SMIC, Sbamberger, Seiyo.chen, Slongoni, Star Trek Man, Telecom eng, Tonkie67, Wj32, Σ, 62 anonymous edits Operations management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=453517045 Contributors: A8UDI, Acidburn24m, Ahoerstemeier, Anna, Astronaut, Benbetts, Bendoly, BirgitteSB,
Bmunden, Bornhj, Bozokhun, CRGreathouse, Caitlin Gilmore, Caravaca, Cathiehops, Cdeverille, Chriss.2, Ciphers, Closedmouth, Czmilner, Damienpower, Deli nk, Der Sporkmeister, Dhollm, Dominus, Ej uk, Erbelc, Facius, FisherQueen, Flowanda, Gary King, Ghoughfner, Group6, Iohannes Animosus, JDiPierro, Jafeluv, Jeff G., Jinky32, JonHarder, Joy, Jpbatabc, Julcia, Kshatriyasandy, Kstouras, Kuru, Lawrencemj, Leszek Jańczuk, Libcub, LindaDavey, Lucianoweb, Luisxx24, Maj IIM, Materialscientist, Mh007, MrOllie, Mvjs, Myleslong, NerdyNSK, Noypi380, Nposs, OEEGuru, Olsenprof, Opsman 1957, Opsman1952, Pandaplodder, Paxse, Pedant, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Piotrus, Rakkerman, Rballiet, Remuel, Robertlo9, Ronz, Ryuujin23, S.K., Saxifrage, SchuminWeb, Sengkang, SluggoOne, Smokizzy, Soliloquial, Spwalker, SueHay, Tcody84, Three-quarter-ten, Tony1, Uncle Milty, Wireless Keyboard, XGarretman, Yhkhoo, 278 anonymous edits Decision support system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=436504159 Contributors: -Midorihana-, 10metreh, AJackl, Academic Challenger, AdultSwim, Alansohn,
Alexsung59, Aligilman, Alkarex, Andreas Kaufmann, Andrefalcao, Anshuk, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, Arpabr, Arthur Rubin, Atlant, B2stafford, Beardo, Berny, BitStrat, Boxplot, Bruce1ee, CalcMan, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chowbok, CommodiCast, Coolcaesar, Crysb, DXBari, Damieng, DePiep, DeadEyeArrow, Disaas, Discospinster, Dlb19338, ESkog, Echuck215, Ehamberg, Ekdamcheap, Emailtonaved, Ettrig, Extremecircuitz, EyeSerene, Falcon Kirtaran, Fieldday-sunday, G.Voelcker, Gachet, Geni, Giftlite, Gmarakas, Hauberg, Hbent, Henry Delforn, Hiner, Informavores, Isaac dealey, J04n, Jackacon, Jauerback, Jdthood, JonHarder, Kduhaime, KenKendall, KrakatoaKatie, Kuru, Landroni, LizardJr8, MER-C, Mark Renier, Masgatotkaca, Maurreen, Mdd, Metalray, Michael Hardy, MooNFisH, MuZemike, Mydogategodshat, Newbyguesses, Ohnoitsjamie, Peter.C, Piano non troppo, Picapica, Power, Prazan, Q uant, Qwertyus, RC, RInstitute, Raymondwinn, RobertG, Robfergusonjr, Ronz, Rsocol, ST47, Salvar, Sanketholey, Sar nholm, Scriberius, Seglea, Simoes, Sindidziwa, StefSybo, Stevage, Stevietheman, Supten, Taichi, TauntingElf, ThomasHofmann, Titoxd, Tomchiukc, Topiarydan, Trbdavies, Ummit, Van helsing, Veinor, WadeSimMiser, Walk&check, WaltBusterkeys, WorldlyWebster, Wtmitchell, Xyzzyplugh, 327 anonymous edits Transaction processing system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455092240 Contributors: Adrian J. Hunter, Alansohn, Aleksd, Andrew1111111, Ary29, Bellenion, Captain
panda, Chris the speller, Cobi, Cory Wilkie, CosineKitty, DJ Bungi, Dacrow, Dialectric, Dreadstar, Ewlyahoocom, Falcon8765, Flewis, Garion96, GregorB, Himayrami, JCLately, JediMooCow, Jwestbrook, KNHaw, Kawasemi, Keilana, Klausness, Kubanczyk, Leszek Jańczuk, MaBoehm, Materialscientist, Miracleworker5263, Music Sorter, OS2Warp, Oliver Lineham, Pankaj.unexpected, Pcap, Pearle, Pharos, Philip Trueman, Pinkadelica, Radagast83, Randomguy17, Rbakels, Regregex, Reinhardtw, Rich257, Rnb, RobertG, Ryan19891, SEWilco, Sandylawn86, ShakingSpirit, Shirik, SirIsaacBrock, Steven Zhang, Sujit kumar, Sukari, Taxman, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thekinkycookie, Ularevalo98, Velvetsmog, Vikalp123123, W Nowicki, Wackywace, Wickey-nl, Wikipelli, Wptoler, Zundark, 125 anonymous edits Online transaction processing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=447496755 Contributors: 28nebraska, 2openminds, Aapo Laitinen, Aeonx, AlonB, Ayushi13nov, Bovineone,
ChadMeista, Cometstyles, Craig Stuntz, Curtis, Discospinster, Edgar181, Ekey-kbrophy, Evert r, Fsiler, Gogo Dodo, GregorB, Gscshoyru, Insouciance, JCLately, Jfredrickson, Jklin, Kubanczyk, Lethe, Macgregorf, Mark Renier, Mcvearry, Microcell, Modify, NapoliRoma, Nom du Clavier, Omar10101971, Piet Delport, Public Menace, RTNM, Renox, Rmp, SQGibbon, Shashark, Snezzy, Soliloquial, SqlPac, Stephenb, The Thing That Should Not Be, TimSwast, Vao, Yesbaby, Zhenqinli, Zundark, 104 anonymous edits Online analytical processing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455564977 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 7, AK Auto, Afraietta, AlanUS, AlexAnglin, Alfio, Alvarezdebrot, Anwar
saadat, Arcann, Beardo, Beland, Bitterpeanut, Bunnyhop11, COnFlIcT.sYs, CambridgeBayWeather, Campingcar, Cffrost, ChanciOly, Charleca, Chris lavigne, CommodiCast, Crysb,
155
Article Sources and Contributors Csp987654321, DePiep, Deflective, Degroffdo, Djoni, Dll99, Dmsar, Dmuzza, DocendoDiscimus, Drewgut, Dturner46, EbenVisher, Elsendero, Elvis, Elwikipedista, Epbr123, FatalError, Flankk, Foot, Founder DIPM Institute, Gary a mason, Germanseneca, Goethean, Grand ua, Gree nrd, Gscshoyru, Gspofford, Hanacy, Howcheng, Imhogan, JEB90, Jagyanseni, Jarda-wien, Jay, Jay-Jay, Jbecher, Jcarroll, JesseHogan, Jgiam, Jherm, Jmcc150, Jmd wiki99, John Vandenberg, Jon Awbrey, JonHarder, Kerenb, Kgrr, Kher122, Kronostos, Kuru, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, Larkspurs, Leandrod, Lemmie, Lingliu07, Livingthingdan, Lovedemon84, Magnabonzo, Mark Renier, Mark T, Markham, Masterpra2002, Maurreen, Mboverload, Mbowen, Mcvearry, Metaeducation, Miaow Miaow, Michael Hardy, Michaell, Mikeblas, Modify, MrDolomite, MrJones, Mydogategodshat, Ndenison, Numbsyd, Oaf2, Object01, Ohnoitsjamie, Oxymoron83, Pasquale, Pcb21, Pearle, Pgan002, Plasticup, Playmobilonhishorse, Psb777, Qxz, Ramki, Ratarsed, Retired username, Richmaddox, Ringbang, Rjwilmsi, S.K., S1199, Sally Ku, Sam Korn, Sansari13, Sarnholm, Saulat78, Selah28, Slposey, SqlPac, Sspecter, Stefan, Tbsdy lives, Tcloonan, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theo10011, Tikiwont, Tobycat, Tonyproctor, Tsjustme, TwoOneTwo, Vargabor, Veinor, Wikiolap, Winterst, Woohookitty, WorldsEndGirl, Writerguy71, Yabdulkarim, Zanaq, Zhenqinli, ZimZalaBim, 376 anonymous edits Object Process Methodology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=450823961 Contributors: CloudNine, Cmdrjameson, D0nj03, David-Sarah Hopwood, Dovdori, Gaius
Cornelius, Grumpycraig, Hervegirod, JubalHarshaw, Jvanreijsen, Leonarbe, Mdd, Mitizhi, Pearle, Ruud Koot, Seb az86556, Sfarrell77, Styne666, Vainolo, Wolfling, 23 anonymous edits ERP modeling Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=339746989 Contributors: AlMac, Gurch, Jvanreijsen, Pigman, SoberEmu, Witchinghour, X42bn6, 16 anonymous edits Customer relationship management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455010885 Contributors: -- April, 12mst, 212.153.190.xxx, 24hrcs, A papalexandris, A. B., AAAAA,
Aardvark92, Achopra01, Acssm, Adityafastguy, AdnanHasan, Ahoerstemeier, Aiam83, Akkida, Alansohn, Aldie, AlexHorovitz, Alfio, Alpha0, Altesys, Ambrish.shrivastava, Anakin101, Andrewspencer, AndriuZ, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Anuragdby1, Anwar saadat, Ap, Apparition11, Argon233, Armoreno10, Arthurrohan, Asbestos, Asocall, AtticusX, Ausinha, Avoided, Azangela01, Azuris, B2B user, Bala2442, Bansipatel, Bavinothkumar, Bazzer palm, Beetstra, Bevo, Bharatcit, BluePaladin, Bobet, Bobo192, Bonadea, Boothy443, Bostoys, Brianlucas, Brianoflan, BrightOffice, Bucketsofg, CB, CBM, CStyle, Caliga10, Calltech, Cameron Dewe, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Carabinieri, Carlos Porto, Chanj68, Channasilva2000, Chaojoker, Charuhas100, Ched Davis, Chenzw, Chicoman98, Chuq, ClamDip, Click23, CliffC, Closedmouth, Coastergeekperson04, Codeferret, Colonies Chris, Comboapp, CommodiCast, Conversion script, Covati, Craig Stuntz, Craigb81, Creabiz, Crmguru, Crocodile Punter, Crysb, Crzrussian, Csagum, Csalomonlee, Cst17, Cummingsbu, Curema, CyrillicNews, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DaCropduster, Danny, Dave6, Davejohnsan, David Esrati, David Shay, Davidjhp, Deli nk, DerHexer, Discospinster, Dmsar, Don4of4, Dot back, DougsTech, Draegermeister, DrummondReed, Dsearls, Dtgriffith, Duncanlauder, Dvdpwiki, Dylan Lake, Dyohe, E. Ripley, EWoc, Ecmalthouse, Edcolins, Edubbs, Edward, Edward Vielmetti, Egyptianholiday, Eholmen, Ehsant, Ejb7, Eleannah, Emreturca, Epbr123, Escpg4, Estherschindler, Ethansdad, Ethoslight, Etnies119, Etz Haim, Evercat, ExperientalMarketer, Expertseries, Fairsing, Fbooth, Fedorl, Feezo, F elipeVargasRigo, Femto, Fieldday-sunday, Flewis, Flockmeal, Freek Verkerk, Frontlinessm, Furrever, Fvw, Gadfium, Gail, Gakmo, Gary King, Gawaxay, Geoffmcqueen, Gilliam, Gioto, Glattetre, GollyG, Gpowers, GregAsche, Gronky, Ground, Gschaeffe r, GuyRo, Gwernol, Gwolfe28, Gz33, Gökhan, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Hans Joseph Solbrig, Harland1, Hede2000, HenryLi, Hmains, Hollomis, Hu12, Hubris67, Husond, Hv, IGGy14, Iahklu, I bbn, Ida Shaw, Idea F arm, Ihcoyc, Ilovshuz, IncognitoErgoSum, Ingrid christophersen SQS, Intelligentfool, Invenio, Ireas, Isaac.holeman, Isjoyce, Isnow, Itsjustmee, Iulia za mfir, IvanLanin, Ixnay, J.delanoy, Jadams0710, Jahub, Jamelan, James Arthur Reed, James7862, Jarda-wien, Jasenlee, Jason Potter, Jay, Jcheney, Jclemens, Jeff G., JeffJonez, Jellyware, Jerryseinfeld, Jgritz, Jigargpandya, JimR, Jjamain, Jjoseph, Jncraton, Joe Sewell, Johann Wolfgang, Johndci, Jon Awbrey, JonHarder, Jonawebb, Jose Luis Cirelli, Jprenner, Jsmithy 2007, Justoglez, Jyothish78, JzG, Kanonkas, Katherine, Kellend, Kerotan, Kevin, Khawar.nehal, KickahaOta, Kimberry352, Kimon, Kingsleyj, Kirstieriley, Kkilian72, Kku, Klausness, Kledsky, Kmorozov, Komusou, Koufnac, Krisdickie, Kuru, Kurykh, Kvan1st, L Kensington, Lallenpoole, Lambchop44, Laurelwilliams, Laxmanyadavb, Lazyant, Ldworski, Lennartgoosens, Lightdarkness, Lights, Linkspamremover, LittleOldMe, Llavigne, Llort, Lotje, Lroomberg, Luk, Lycurgus, Lyuben88, MLFungwiki, Madlaxy, Mahdian, Mahdibadiee, Makrom, Mandarax, ManuDR, Maokart444, Marcok, Marcomman, Mark Renier, Markinetic, Martin.demierre, Martin451, Materialscientist, Mathewforyou, Matthew Woodcraft, Maurreen, Mavens08, Max rspct, Maximross, Mdtranhcm, Mekashron, Melissa2009, Mendaliv, Mendicott, Metricopolus, Michael Devore, MichaelJanich, Michig, Miltopia, Misteja, Mitch31122, Mkiaeeha, Mlfung, Mohamedbebars, More2Come, Mormat, Morninj, Moshe.segev, Moyogo, MrOllie, Mschramm, Mtinker86, Mudgen, My76Strat, Mydogategodshat, Nandssiib, Naniwako, Nascentatheist, NavarroJ, Neilcrookes, NellieBly, Neophyteblogger, Nepenthes, NetManage, Netoholic, Netvisionary, Neurolysis, NewGuy5342, Nick, Nick Precision, Nicos interests, Nigholith, Ninc, Nivektrah, Nn123645, NodeHeavy, NortyNort, Notafish, Nov0261, Numbo3, Nuno Tavares, Nunquam Dormio, Odie5533, Ohnoitsjamie, Old Moonraker, Omwebgen, Onebravemonkey, OverlordQ, Ozgod, Pambas, Pandoraholic, Paolovecchi, Paul Legend, Paul Mackay, Paul Tomlinson, Paulkappelle, PeregrinoGris, P erohanych, PeterJ42, Petit Canard, Phatstack, PhilKnight, Phildreth, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pickle41, Pinak pchatterjee, Plasticup, Pm master, Pmsyyz, Pol098, Postoak, Proxy User, Pryzbilla, Purgatory Fubar, QuantumSquirrel, RHaworth, Radagast83, Rahulsheth21, Randomzen, Raruncsejcet, Rashack, Rasmus Faber, Rbrtfish, Rdrapch, Realxutao, Reconsider the static, Redguru, Renvonvit, Requestion, RexNL, Rgill, Rhobite, Rich Fa rmbrough, Rishishringan, Rjwilmsi, Rkboehm, RobASchneider, RobertL30, Robofish, Rogerlarsen, Ronz, Rory096, Rp, Rror, Rusty.pole, Rwcitek, Ryan Norton, Rzelnik, S.K., SOMart, S alesboom, Salvio giuliano, Sam Hocevar, Sanjiv swarup, Saurabh tt, Saxifrage, Scotsworth, ScottW, Sdornan, S ethnessatwikipedia, Sethop, Sevvem, Shadowjams, Sharcho, Sheldon Rampton, Sheldonc, Shot, S iroxo, Sleepyhead81, Sneha.kumar, Sogle, Some jerk on the Internet, SonyMathew, Sophus Bie, Sp3, Sr eejithInfo, Steelsabre, Steevm, Stephen Gilbert, Stevekennett, Stickee, Sturgeonslawyer, Subodhgupta1, Subtractive, Suffusion of Yellow, Suidafrikaan, Superm401, Svetovid, Talkativeman, Tarpenbek, Tbonnie, Teck&TingTing, Tedickey, Tekmox, Tempshill, Terje Arnesen, TerriersFan, Tgruwell, The Hybrid, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheDJ, Thedavedave, Themfromspace, Tide rolls, Tjoshi, Tkynerd, Tobycek, Todd Vierling, Tomtheeditor, Tony1, Transluctent, Travis99, Tregoweth, Tristan Horn, Triwbe, Tutebox, TwilligToves, Tyrenius, Ukhov, Ukpremier, Ukuk, Uncle Dick, UnitedStatesian, Unknownj, Utcursch, UtsavA, Van der Hoorn, Vanator, Vecta1, Veetro001, Versageek, Vicenarian, Viking Gry, Vrenator, Wandering canadian, Wcrosbie, Whoisjohngalt, Whpq, WikHead, Wikiwhacky paul, Willking1979, Winterstein, Wolbo, Woosabi,
[email protected], Wwheeler, Yellowdesk, Yflicker, Yidisheryid, Youthoftoday, Yurik, Zaharous, Zaki Usman, ZimZalaBim, Zouf, Ztyx, Zzuuzz, Žiedas, 1767 anonymous edits Supply chain management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456373306 Contributors: 4dolo, AB, AHRMM, Academic Challenger, Achalmeena, Addshore, AdjustShift,
Aerobe, Agricmarketing, Alriode, Arthur Rubin, BMPmanagement, Badgernet, Becky Sayles, Beland, Bellenion, Bendoly, Beren, Bhaskarbanerjee, Bissinger, Bms15, Boing! said Zebedee, Bootstoots, Brendanconway, Brentnlisa, Brianga, C.Fred, C431us, Capricorn42, Cb9, Chemical Engineer, Chester Markel, Chewie103, Chuq, Chuunen Baka, Constructive editor, Conversion script, Corpx, Costkiller, D.c.camero, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMacks, Damienpower, Daniel5127, Darklilac, Dataphile, Daveg0403, Dear cobain, Deepak D'Souza, Dejudicibus, Dekisugi, Dell Adams, Discospinster, Dispatx, Dkaupp, Earth, Ed Wright, the 69th, Edithsl, Edward, Egomorales, Ehsani1, Eleusis, Elogistics, Emana, Epistemophiliac, Espoo, Estherschindler, Euryalus, Everyking, Ezeu, Facius, Fl, F luri, Fredsmith2, Frogmarshall, Funkycora, Fæ, Gaius Cornelius, Garion96, Ghewgill, Ghirsch5454, Giant89, Gioto, Glane23, GraemeL, Grharshman, Grochim, Gyoengyi, Haque simmi, HarlandQPitt, Hashar, Hede2000, HelgaHere, Hu12, Hughcharlesparker, Huva26, Icseaturtles, Igor101, Inniverse, Insat2d, Interorganisational, IrishPete, Isnow, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jac16888, Jamelan, Jamesontai, Jamespfarrell, Jason237, Jasrocks, Jaxsonjo, Jborsum, Jehochman, Jinesh18omy, Jncraton, JoeSmack, JohnXemec001, Johnuniq, Jojhutton, Jonein, Jpo, Jthirdparty, Juxo, KKramer, Karenjc, Kberry, Kguske, Khalid hassani, KimTran22, Kingpin13, Kku, Kmcfadden-balward, Kolichka, Kranix, Krawi, Kuru, Lamro, Latka, Lawrencemj, Leobaz, LilHelpa, Lkinkade, Lkt1126, Lockalsash, Loggedon, Loungeflyer, Lridolfi, Lueo, Luna Santin, M athari anaraki, MBisanz, MER-C, Mahenan, Markchockal, Markperera, Marquez, Mattg82, Mattgirling, Maurreen, Maxbhenry, Maximus Rex, Mdd, Mdl17, Merlissimo, Meysam.maleki, Mghadge, Mh 007, Michael Hardy, MichaelBillington, Michou81, MikeLynch, Mikeonatrike, Mofu, Mopla, MrOllie, Mydogategodshat, Myleslong, N5iln, Nandssiib, Nasnema, Neofirebear, Niamhtrner, Nkshastri, Nzd, Oberiko, Obli, Omnisentry, OwenX, Oxymoron83, P4r4d0x, PatricTimmermans, Paul Accardo, Perfecto, Peter Horn, Petrb, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, P jw2072, Plek, Pmmesp, Pmresource, Ponmayil, Poweroid, Profrock, R'n'B, RMehra, Radagast83, Radiojon, Rahulkamath, Rajat Bhargav, Rcawsey, Rebel, Recognizance, RedCoat1510, Remotelysensed, Rgill, RicDod, Rich Farmbrough, Richardean, Robertlo9, Ronz, Roxis, Roystonea, Rubicon, Rwilli13, S.K., SRMurrayut, Saganaki-, Salesforce, San16 kaul, Sanya3, Sataqvi, Sawgrass, Sa xifrage, SchmuckyTheCat, Scmexpert, Scmzone, Seaphoto, Shahnavazkazi, Shaun F, ShawnAGaddy, Sheehsim, Shemshak, Shenme, Sifaka, Sindy832, SiobhanHansa, Sisterdetestai, Skier Dude, Sleepyhead81, Sonett72, Sonicace, Soosed, SpLoT, Splash, Stanistani, Steven Zhang, Stilwebm, Storm Rider, Sttroy, Stupid Corn, S uchit321, Supernet, SupplyChainGuy, Supplychaineditor, Tamojit.ghosh, Technopilgrim, Tempodivalse, The Random Editor, The Thing That Should Not Be, The TriZ, TheNewPhobia, TheSeer, Thingg, Thomas Larsen, Tiagowright, Tide rolls, Tilmann, Tim1988, TimUrry1, Timotab, Timrem,
[email protected], Tomd1969, Tommy2010, Topbanana, Toplink, Tracy Logistic, Traroth, Travis.a.buckingham, Trickstar, Tripathimanish, Triwbe, Tweet76, Uday Chava, Universityalliance, Valenciano, Van helsing, Vapmachado, Vary, Veinor, Verne Equinox, Vijaymathur, Vrenator, WallyKlatch, Walton One, Weregerbil, What123, Whliang8118, Wickie37, Wikibee500, Woohookitty, WriterListener, YaseminITÜ, Ynotshine, Zengqi321, Zfor, ZimZalaBim, Zzuuzz, 950 ,שלמה anonymous edits Project management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456343200 Contributors: 152.98.195.xxx, 1959frenchy, 4RugbyRd, 62.158.194.xxx, 9Nak, ALargeElk, Aaronbrick,
AbsolutDan, Achalmeena, Acheah, Aeon1006, Aitias, Akbradford, Ale jrb, Alessandro57, Alisha0512, Allstarecho, Alphamu57, Alsuara, Altrock78, Anakin101, Ancheta Wis, AndrewStellman, AndyBrandt, AngelOfSadness, Anitanandi, Anodynomine, Antillarum, Ap, Aranel, ArmadilloFromHell, Arsenikk, Artemis Fowl Rules, Asannuti, Asoucek, AstareGod, Atena.kouchaki, Atif673, Auntof6, Austinm, AxelBoldt, BSJWright, Bananaman68, Barek, BartaS, Bdouthwaite, Beano, Beetstra, Belovedfreak, Bendoly, Benfellows, Bento00, Bernd in Japan, Bertha32, Billaronson, Binafhmz, Blanchardb, Blathnaid, Bmartel, Bmicomp, Bnorrie, Bob Bolin, Bobo192, Bonadea, Boxplot, Brentwills, Brion.finlay, Buissy, Burner0718, Butrain, CALR, CFMWiki1, CPMTutor, Calvadosser, Calvin 1998, Camw, CarlGuass, Ccorpusa, Cerrol, Chadloder, ChemGardener, Chiefwhite, Chris Roy, ChrisG, Chrispreece2007, Christiebiehl, Christopherlin, Christyoc, Chuq, Clad2020, Claidheamohmor, Clf99, Closedmouth, Cloud10pm, Cmaley, Colabtech31, Colin Marquardt, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, ConstructionSoftwareExperts, Conversion script, Craigwb, Creacon, Cst17, Ct31, Cybercobra, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, Dan Polansky, DanielDeibler, Danielhegglin, Dansedmonson, David VS West, David.alex.lamb, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow, Deimos814, Deli nk, Delirium, DeltaOperator, Dendlai, Dennal68, Dennis.wittekind, Derek Ross, Deville, Dghutchinson, Dgmoran, Dickietr, DisneyG, DominikusH, Donreed, Doroli, DougsTech, Dougweller, Dr PDG, Drshields, Dtarver, Dycedarg, ESkog, Earthandfire, Ebe123, EdBever, Edward, Eeekster, Ehheh, Elena1234, Elvismcgrady, Englishman in Provence, Epbr123, Eric Pement, Erkan Yilmaz, EronMain, Escape Orbit, Eshirazi, Exir Kamalabadi, Fabricationary, FactsAndFigures, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon9x5, FalconZero, Fang Aili, Favonian, Firien, Forestsmith, Fpolack, Frankfshsu, Fred Bradstadt, Freeformer, Freeskies, Frontelo, Fullstop, Funatic, Fxsunny, F æ, GAPPS, GESICC, Garrybooker, GeoffWilson, Geoffsauer, GerK, Gerritklaschke, Gfani, Ghaag, Giftlite, Globalprofessor, Goethean, Gop 62, Graeme Bartlett, GraemeL, Graham87, Graibeard, Granite07, Greyskinnedboy, Gruffi, Gsaup, Gunnala, Gurch, Guy Van Hooveld, Gwernol, Hadal, Haikon, HamburgerRadio, HappyCamper, Herbythyme, Himdey njitwill, Hirzel, Hongooi, Howardjp, Hroðulf, Hubbardaie, Hubertus, Hudec, Hux, ICSGlobal, ITServiceGuy, Ian Pitchford, Ian.thomson, Imroy, IngaRea, Inwind, Itgov, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jaberwocky6669, Jackaranga, Jamezbailey, Janbenes, Jburks97, Jcardinal, Jdtoellner, Jeff3000, Jeffmcneill, Jeltz, Jetojedno, Jgritz, Jiang, JimGleaves, Jkhcanoe, Jlao04, Jmciver, Jmi41, Jmlk17, Jnankivel, John Richard Parker, John Vandenberg, JohnManuel, Jojhutton, Jonpro, Jordiferrer, Josemoromelon, Jp361, Judy Payne, Julesd, Jurajv, Just plain Bill, Kaisersoze1, Kanags, Kanojia, Karl-Henner, Kbh3rd, Kcone, Kelemendani, Kenmckinley, Kenstandfield, Ketiltrout, Kevin B12, Khalid, Khalid hassani, Khusroks, Kilmer-san, Kim Kris, KimBecker, Kingpin13, Kinu, Kltownsend, Kokcharov, Krappie, Ktlonergan, Kubigula, Kuru, Kwertii, L3aa-cademy,
156
Article Sources and Contributors LFaraone, LeaveSleaves, Lecard, Leonardo Aloi, Leszek Jańczuk, Levana77, Levineps, Liao, LightAnkh, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, LizardJr8, Lmarinho, Loflabr, Longdongniner, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Luk, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lundholm, Lynbarn, M4gnum0n, MY2sense, Macoykolokoy, MagnaMopus, Mann jess, Manop, Maokart444, Mapador, Marco Krohn, Margeru, Mark Millard, Mark Renier, Mark.murphy, Markkh, Matt Deres, Maurreen, Mav, Mbrylant, Mdd, Media lib, Meitar, Melashri, Mephistophelian, Merovingian, Mgillett, Michael Hardy, MichaelDawin, Mimihitam, Minesweeper, Mini.here, Mkoval, Mlavannis, Mmpubs, Mneser, Monkey Bounce, Moonriddengirl, MorrisRob, Mpleahy, Mr.Z-man, MrKris, MrOllie, Mudgen, Mugunth Kumar, Muminshawaf, Mummy34, Munazanjum, Mwanner, Mwfnwa, Mydogategodshat, Mywikiid99, NOKESS, Nankivel, NawlinWiki, Nazmanager, Ngoult, Nickg, Nicos interests, Nighthawkx15, Nikai, Ninadelis, Nishalegend, Niteowlneils, Nixdorf, Norm, OSUKid7, Oberiko, Oblomoff, Ocrakate, Oicumayberight, Ojigiri, Oldschoolosama, Orange Suede Sofa, Overviewer, Owain.wilson, Padraig1888, Paltpappa, Paradoxic, Parent5446, PatrickWeaver, Paul W, Pavel Vozenilek, Pcremer2270, Pcremerfluno, Pdcook, Pepper, Peter Reusch, Peterbud, Pgauld, Pgreenfinch, PhilHibbs, PhilKnight, Phreed, Pigsonthewing, Pilgaard, Pinkadelica, Pixievamps, Plakhi24, Pm by day, Pm master, Pmtoolbox, Pmyteh, Poli08, Porchcorpter, PrestonH, Project mosaic, Projectmagic, Protr, Psaico, Pstansbu, Pstout, Pukivruki, Pythia90, Qaiassist, Qatestdev, Quadell, RAM, RJASE1, RJBurkhart, RJaguar3, RSedor, Radagast83, Radavi, RainbowOfLight, Rami R, RandyKaelber, Raymundsy, Raywil, Rcannon100, Readysetpass, Reconsider the static, RedHillian, Redux, Reedy, Reliablesources, Renebach, Renesis, Rernst, Research2007, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard Allen, Richard Harvey, RichardF, Richardgush, Richi, Richman9, Rlolsen, Rmp80ind, Ron Richard, Ronhjones, Ronz, RoyHanney, Royallarry, Rrburke, Rrjanbiah, Rror, Rspanton, RuM, Rubysixty6, Ruud Koot, Rwgreen1173, Rwil02, S.K., SE SME, S JP, Salliesatt, Sandymok, Sara050805, Sarah, Sa ros136, Scaevus, Scientizzle, Scjessey, Scmbwis, Sean Whitaker, Seanieboy1974, Seaphoto, Search4Lancer, Sebasanjuan, Securiger, Seraphim, Shadowjams, Shanes, Sharkface217, Shawn in Montreal, Shoeofdeath, Shoessss, Shoy, Sisalto, Skumar.rakesh, Sleepyhead81, S martse, Smiker, Smpickens, Solipsist, Sonialoud, SorenAndersen, SpaceFlight89, Spalding, Spangineer, Spartikus411, Steevm, Stevenwmccrary58, SueHay, Sutanumartand, TVBZ28, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Teammetz, Technopat, Tephlon, Tetraedycal, TetsuoTheRob, That Guy, From That Show!, The Led, The Thing That Should Not Be, The manekin, Thebluemanager, Thebrownell, Theroadislong, Thingg, Thopper, Thrane, ThreePD, Tijuana Brass, Tmopkisn, Tobryant, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tommy2010, Tony1, Tosblt, Toytoy, Transity, Traroth, Trewinpa, Trial, Triz231, Trout001, Truthbro, Tslocum, Tswelch, Turnstep, Twestgard, Tzar tzam, Uqjwhitt, Urbanette, Utcursch, VARies, Vaceituno, Vald,
[email protected], Van der Hoorn, Vanderzyden, Vanished user 39948282, Vans0100, Vcmohanonline, Versageek, Vgranucci, Vigo10, Vincehk, Vineetgandhi, Viokiori, Voyagerfan5761, Vrenator, WJBscribe, WKirschling, Wacko39, Weatherman90, Weregerbil, Weyes, Wgoetsch, Widefox, Wik, WikHead, Wikid77, Wikipelli, Wikke41, Wireless friend, Wissons, Woohookitty, Wrduncan3, Wwmarket, X201, Xavexgoem, Xholyrelicx, Xlynx, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yendor1958, Ykimva, Ylebihan, Yongliang08, Zigger, Zntrip, Zscout370, Zugerbueb, Zzuuzz, උපුල්, 1482 anonymous edits Access control Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456022900 Contributors: Abhinavcambridge, Actatek, Advancesafes55, Americanhero, Amire80, Andreiij, Andriusval,
Animusnovo, Apacheguru, ArielGlenn, Auminski, BAxelrod, BD2412, Back ache, Bderidder, Ben Ben, Binksternet, Borgx, Bostonvaulter, Brankow, Bunnyhop11, CHoltje, Camw, Carlosguitar, Chester Markel, Chris0334, CliffC, DEng, David-Sarah Hopwood, Dekisugi, Delfeye, E-Kartoffel, Edward, El C, Eldub1999, Ellerose, Espoo, EverGreg, Exit2DOS2000, Feptel, FisherQueen, Frap, Gagandeeps117, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galar71, George A. M., Gogo Dodo, Grafen, Guinness man, Gurch, H2g2bob, Hersfold, Hetar, Hu, Hu12, Iancbend, Immunize, Indyaedave, Iwatchwebmaster, Jedonnelley, Jeff3000, Jgeorge60, Jray123, Ka-Ping Yee, Ker nel.package, Knokej, KunjanKshetri, Kuru, LadyAngel89, Leszek Jańczuk, Lightmouse, Lingliu07, Linkspamremover, Luís Felipe Braga, MER-C, Magioladitis, Mark Renier, McGeddon, McGov1258, Memoroid, MikeHobday, Mindmatrix, Mitch Ames, NE2, Nageh, NawlinWiki, Neetij, Nickbernon, Nihiltres, Old Moonraker, Omassey, Patrick, PeregrineAY, P hilip Trueman, Piano non troppo, PrologFan, RISCO Group, Rickfray, Rjwilmsi, Roleplayer, Ruuddekeijzer, RyanCross, SPUI, Scouttle, Secguru1, Sec urityEditor, Securitywiki, Sesha Sayee K V, Sietse Snel, Silly rabbit, Slakr, Soifranc, Ssbabudilip, Stantry, Stephenb, Stewartjohnson229900, Subverted, Swamy.narasimha, Talsetrocks, Testplt75, Texture, Thatcher, The Anome, The Founders Intent, Therepguy, Timo Honkasalo, Tobias Bergemann, Tonypdmtr, Trbdavies, Vaceituno, Vrenator, Web-Crawling Stickler, Welsh, Wikiborg, Willowrock, Woohookitty, Wsimonsen, Wtmitchell, Xaosflux, Yan Kuligin, Zeeshankhuhro, ﻣﺎﻧﻲ, 284 anonymous edits Manufacturing resource planning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=450794034 Contributors: Adolan.wisc, Aepanico, Ahazred8, AlMac, Anthony Appleyard, Arthurrohan,
Aser Ahmad, Avalon, Bellenion, Casito, Charles T. Betz, CommonsDelinker, Davidmorgan24, Dreadstar, Edward, Ej uk, Elwikipedista, Epbr123, Espoo, Facius, Fish and karate, Jayrvox, Jbw2, Joedeshon, John of Reading, Khalid hassani, Kuru, Kzellers, Lofa, Lradrama, Lvildos, Materialscientist, Mdd, Media.miss, Mild Bill Hiccup, Oxymoron83, Paul Foxworthy, Pnm, Postoak, Rgill, Rich Farmbrough, RossPatterson, S.K., Saxifrage, Scaevus, Severo, Singaravelan, Srice13, Stamsofer, SteinerFisher, Thedavedave, Tomnap, Trusilver, Tyler, Van der Hoorn, Vashtihorvat, 71 anonymous edits Business process management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456155459 Contributors: AK Auto, AbsolutDan, Abtinb, Adoble, Aferistas, Ahy1, Akamad, Albates,
Alex43223, Alexmorse, Alfie66, Ammalu, Andyjsmith, Ansell, Antonmind, Apapadop, Ash, Avsnarayan, BD2412, BPMInstitute.org, Barte, Be cool 1st, Begewe, Bjmullan, Blobglob, Blomskoe, Bobinedgewater, Boly38, Bonadea, Boxplot, Bpmsoa, BrotherE, Bryan Derksen, Calabraxthis, Calltech, Canterbury Tail, Cardboardboxman, CatNoir, Cathien, Cbas, Chad.armstrong, ChrisCork, ChristianBk, Christina Silverman, Chuq, CliffC, Cmdrjameson, Craigb81, Crimson117, CrisDias, Cryogenic22, Crysb, Cthorson, Cuixiutao, DanMS, Dancter, Darolew, Darp-a-parp, Dave T Hobbit, DavidMorgan24, DivideByZero14, Dlwl, Dorazio, Doulos Christos, Dpenney55, ESTRATEGA, EWizard, Ehheh, Epbr123, Ericdn, Etherm, Eudymon, Fiorano Software, F ram, FrostyPaw70, Fubar Obfusco, Garima.rai30, Gioto, Goflow6206, GraemeL, Grahamp, Gwernol, Happyfish, Hauganm, Hertsen, Hmrox, Hon12, Hpsaier, Hrgal, Hughch, Husond, Hut 8.5, Ibspublishing, Ihcoyc, Imetrelaras, Iness it, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, JYi, Jamelan, Jase700, Jay.sherry, Jcairn, Jerrycha, Jgritz, Jkraybill, Joanhuang, Joeggi, Joel Alcalay, Joellejojo, Johaver2011, Johnoke, JonRocque, Joydurgin, Jpbowen, Jswihart, Juandev, Jvlock, Keith.harrison-broninski, Keithlard, Kff, Khalid hassani, Kingboyk, Kirk Hilliard, Kku, Knowledgehills, Kribbeh, Krich, Kuru, LOL, Latka, Laurie.verner, Leslie Mateus, Loaferman, M-le-mot-dit, MacTed, Magister Mathematicae, Manu.agl, Marek69, Maria C Mosak, Marlon.dumas, Marouen19, Martin.ashcroft, Maxsonbd, Maylam, Mboverload, Mchaudhry, Mdd, Mellery, Michael Hardy, Moonriddengirl, Mortenmo, Mosshu, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Nathanielpalmer, Naudefj, Nausea, Nbraver100, Nearchus, Nhudspeth, Nickcarr, Nmyers, PabloTavares, Pe ter Campbell, Pethan, Pfzzit, Philippe, Piki12, Pmresource, Pratyeka, Protonk, Psb777, Putchavn, Pvanerk, Rbrisco, Rdsmith4, Reedy, Reinyday, Renesis, Rich Farmbrough, RichardVeryard, Rjwilmsi, Rkwjds, Rmptls, Rnleise, Robert-blatt, Robertbowerman, Ronz, Rossmay, Royalguard11, Ruthstark, Ryan Ko, SBLUCE, Sam2095, Sanjaykalra, Savantconnect, Saxifrage, Sc huminWeb, Sciurinæ, Scleveland99, ScottMainwaring, Shalin420, Shell Kinney, Sing7, SiobhanHansa, Skeltaonline, Slinkygin, Smithh, Snowolf, Sricard, Srobert01, StephanvH, Storace, Stowers, Susurrus, Syiem, Tbucki1, Technopat, Tedickey, Thiseye, ThurnerRupert, Timneu22, Timtamboy, Tony D. Abel, Tzartzam, UltimusPAN, Useight, Uselessjunky, Utuado, Uxorious2, V sara, Van helsing, Venache, Versus22, Vivekksaini, Webflale, Winterst, Woohookitty, Xelan54, Yanksox, Yannickpeeters, Yocto42, Zoz, Zzuuzz, זרם-טבעת, 用 心 阁 , 787 anonymous edits Document automation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456114439 Contributors: Alex43223, Armzak, Asoyfer, Bjoernm, Bradholve, Cander0000, Charldreyer,
CreatureHaven, CultureDrone, Deejmer, Docguru, Doctomation, Document expert, Dutchnick, Edward, Eightyk, Fionta, GFellows, Grafen, HFMClarke, Hbent, Holiver33, Hopkinslauren, IRunOverThings, Iamthenewno2, Jamwod, Kicking222, Klmason, KristiLeaMaster, Kuru, Mandarax, Marketingaia, Marleybern, Melcilliers, MrOllie, Nick HH, Phil marketing, Pvthunderhead, Qwerty nz, RHaworth, Rasmus10, Sae1962, Satiya4, The Anome, Tomnap, Uildriks, VB123, Valcas, W.Sumners, Zarlu, 72 anonymous edits Enterprise feedback management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=450773515 Contributors: Alan Cano, Alan604, Alexf, Bartdemoor, Beetstra, Birth1970, Btanddf,
Camillascholten, Cantaloupe2, Cardsharp1029, Coldicuttj, DAnglFrd, Dlrohrer2003, Efm-expert, Elaine Kerrigan, Elaine777, Espoo, Feedbackuser, Fleddermaus, Gary King, Ian.thomson, Intelligentfool, JLaTondre, JM-Vovici, Jonnybee24, Juhasev, Kuru, LilHelpa, Lingamer8, Lordkada, LrdChaos, Malcolmxl5, Manop, MarcoTolo, Merph, Mindmatrix, Optimus123, Pavel Vozenilek, Pgraca, PromptProofing, Responsetek, Rhombus, Ronz, Sameder, Sanao, Sergiullas, Shokurov, Skier Dude, SteveFarina, S tuart.sinclair, TUAU, Tim1900, Toddst1, Tomcat66 g500, Tony1, Whpq, Wjbrownx, Xyzzyplugh, Yogi, Zompist, 104 anonymous edits Enterprise planning systems Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455878338 Contributors: Kuru, Nima1024, Pmresource, R'n'B, The Blade of the Northern Lights,
Woohookitty Manufacturing operations management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=384569652 Contributors: Earthlyreason, Gbenzie, Jldelcuv, Malcolma, Mccallj, Pointillist,
Rzyzkc, Will Beback, 1 anonymous edits Warehouse management system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456143849 Contributors: 4dolo, Aarnass, Akoves, Alevensalor, Amics2000, Arthena, Athaenara,
Boonanan, CJLL Wright, Ceyockey, Charliearmor, Collins Robert Cramer, Coloradomonkey, Darzren, Dleewh, Dponist, ECHO-07, Elkman, Espoo, Excirial, Finngall, Fredsmith2, Frogmarshall, Giulio.orru, GraemeL, Gyrinaldi, JLaTondre, Jackdragon17, James.mcguiness, Jasper Deng, Jehochman, JonHarder, KGasso, Kafka93, Kawolfe, Kingdingaling77, Kmsiever, Kolonuk, Kuru, Lord Aide, Mandarax, ManuelEhrlich, Marcwulfraat, Martinliljeberg, Mclinch, Midnight Madness, Nandssiib, Nono64, Nzd, OhioTrivium, Pennstump, Petiatil, Philip Trueman, Philippe Nicolai-Dashwood, Pjm1036, Ponmayil, QueenCake, Qwyrxian, Raghunathmenon, Rgill, Rising*From*Ashes, Robertlo9, Ronz, Rza73se, Samsamtor, Tds, Tigah Dude, Tomnap, TouristPhilosopher, VatooVatoo, Vianetic, Vikiçizer, Vrenator, Vzab, Woodsstock, ZH Evers, 153 a nonymous edits Quality management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455870458 Contributors: AOQPresident, AbsolutDan, Adoniscik, Albedo, Andrea Parri, Ash, Asterion, Axlq,
Bebenko, Bjbrowning, Bluez bekztra, Bmxoffspring99, Bobthebuilder8005, Brandon, Bsolomon12, CKCortez, Canterbury Tail, Cebecon, CharlotteWebb, ChrisG, Chrisgearing, Cyrius, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DanMS, DanielPenfield, Darrylv, Dekkanar, Dlu776, Dmalsobrook27, Ehusman, Elwikipedista, Erianna, Erkan Yilmaz, Espoo, Gabrielleww, Gamaliel, Gary King, Gaslan, Genepi2, Gogo Dodo, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Greyskinnedboy, Hanvanloon, Harish431, Helixweb, Inwind, Jayen466, Jim Wade, JmbYx13, John of Reading, Joy1963, Jwestland, Khitish84, Kku, Kontos, Kuru, LeaveSleaves, Linmhall, Loren.wilton, Luckiesdaidai, M4gnum0n, MK8, Mark Renier, Markspace, MarmotteNZ, Master on EN, Mausy5043, Mdd, Mharbort, Mike Rosoft, Morgankevinj huggle, MrOllie, Mrdashboard, NawlinWiki, Neurolysis, Northerlywind, Nthep, Orphan Wiki, PRAVIN RAJPAL, Pinkadelica, Pm master, Pndt, RJBurkhart3, Ray Ballmer, RichardF, Rjstanto, Rlsheehan, Rmelnyck, Rmj03, Ron Richard, Ronz, Rsmann2, RustySpear, Saintswithin, Sami abdelaal, Samw, Samz9959, Sbowers3, S eptagram, Sidmrt1987, Sp3, Swapnildongre, Themfromspace, Thequality, Topbanana, V29, Vanisaac, Vanisheduser12345, Versageek, Vince.meulle, Wafulz, Wavelength, Wine Guy, YaseminITÜ, ZacBowling, Zaps93, Zaui, Zs, ﺳﯽﻌ, 178 anonymous edits Six Sigma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456007877 Contributors: *drew, 21655, 31stCenturyMatt, A2a2a2, Aandu, AbsolutDan, Academic Challenger, Aeon1006,
Aetheling, Alai, Alfpooh, Altenmann, Alvarezking, Andradef, AndriuZ, Anomalocaris, Apostrophe, Apus, Aquraishi, ArthurAdams, Arun vvv, Awakeforever, BBird, Badgernet, BanyanTree,
157
Article Sources and Contributors Barek, Bbpen, BenFrantzDale, BezLocu, Bggoldie, Bklynpoet, BlaiseFEgan, Bobdc, Bobo192, Bogey97, Boogachamp, Bparekh99, Brainmeasures, Brick Thrower, Brighterorange, Brudolph1211, Bryan Derksen, Burpelson AFB, Buzzbeebara, CSumit, Caiaffa, Callaweb, Calvin 1998, Calvinballing, CanadianLinuxUser, Cask05, Catgut, Catradar, Cernen, Ceyockey, Cgayner, Cgburger, Cheftarashetty, Chris9674, ChrisCork, Chriss.2, Closedmouth, Coffmanesq, Cpimbb, Cquels, Craigwb, Craigwbrown, Cst17, Ctbolt, Cybercobra, D.c.camero, DH85868993, DMCer, DMacks, DanSchatz, Dandrake, DanielPenfield, Dave8057, David Haslam, David.mansfield, Davodd, Dcoetzee, Deangano, Deborah new, Decltype, DeeMusil, Deepak D'Souza, Deiz, Denisarona, Denton, DerBorg, Dermeister, Deusnoctum, Dfrg.msc, Dgray xplane, Dhollm, Dicklyon, Dleonard55, DocWatson42, Dogface, Doulos Christos, Dpbsmith, Dr zoidberg590, Dragonbeast, Dreamster4, Drew R. Smith, Dvc214, Dwayne, Dylankhoolim, Dyson1, ESkog, Eastmain, Ed Poor, Eddy4294, Edgar181, Eduthie, Egeller, Elwikipedista, Enchanter, Epbr123, Erechtheus, Eric Kvaalen, Ernst.schnell, EsonLinji, Examplecg, Excirial, Exprexxo, Facius, Fa radayplank, Fastily, Femto, FeralTitan, Finalnight, Finlay McWalter, Fish and karate, Flubbit, Fragglet, Frank LaFrazia, F rebo3, Funandtrvl, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gargoyle888, Gary King, Gateway0602, Gcjb, Geoffr ey.landis, Germxorginal, Gerry Ashton, Giraffedata, Gloriamarie, Gmtress, GoBlueWhite, Goalqpc, Gogo Dodo, Gold Paperclip, Goskan, Greglocock, GregorB, Grstain, Gurudatt, Hdam59, Hello14423, Heman, Hmoul, Horia.S, Howdiedoodie, Hu12, Huesing, HyperTransparency, ISixSigma, IW.HG, Ibbn, Ike9898, I maninjapirate, Immunize, Ion, Ipazos, Irfan5, Isilanes, Isnow, Itera tor12n, Its38, Iwjnichol, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, James086, Jaranda, Jayden54, Jayen466, Jblaze0, Jcardinal, Jcrager, Jctchan, Jerryseinfeld, JethroElfman, Jgt1942, Jhamez84, Jheuristic, JimmB, Jnoguera, Joaopernes, JoeMarfice, Joeinwap, JohnEBredehoft, JohnN66, Jonathan thalberg, Joshuarobertsteiner, Journalist procesverb, Jp314159, Jpfulton, Judae1, K1Bond007, KMcD, Kevinh7777, Khalid, Khaosworks, KimBecker, Kirrages, Kjtobo, Krashlandon, Ksuryan, Kt perry, Kulbhushanamit, Kumarsenthil, Kuru, LMUweb, La P ianista, Lamro, Leanadvisors, Leaner123, Leeked, Leigh, Leonius, Liamlynchl6sigma, LibLord, Lightspeedc, Lindigo, Llh, LnCnslt, Loren.wilton, Lostintherush, Louie81, Luckiesdaidai, MZMcBride, Madir, MalwareSmarts, Manop, Marc T Smith, Mark Asread, MarkSweep, MarkThomas, Martin451, Mastahnke, MathGeek06, MatheoDJ, Matthew Stannard, Matthew Yeager, MauraBuxton, Maurreen, McSly, Mcgrof, Mcorazao, Mdd4696, Mdjain, Mdorohovich, Mephistophelian, MiNombreDeGuerra, Michael Hardy,
[email protected], MikeyChalupa, Miller17CU94, Mindmatrix, Minna Sora no Shita, Mlewan, Mmoitzh, Modest Genius, Moonriddengirl, Mouni1983, MrOllie, Mugunth Kumar, Mydogategodshat, N5iln, Nabiw1, Namazu-tron, NapoliRoma, Nasnema, Naveeniyerkn, Nbarth, Nbraver100, Nelson50, Nemhun, Netwerk14, Nichalp, Nicolasdz, Nigelwalker, Nilakanta srinivasan, Nimrand, Nohope, Nrabinowitz, OEEGuru, OM, Obsidian-fox, Oh Snap, Olff, Oregina, Ozone77, PTJoshua, P addles, Parker j michael, Parvez1, PatLadwig, PaulHanson, Pavankks, P axsimius, Peaceduck, Pgk, Phamtran, Phil Boswell, PhilipR, Pikiwyn, Plastikspork, Pm master, P msyyz, Pol098, Polkdots, Poppy, Pratheepps, Priyatu, Project mosaic, Proofreader77, Prunesqualer, Psiphiorg, Pvosta, Pyroxene, Qbrook, Qualitytimes, Rachitawasthi, Rama's Arrow, Raman.puthiyedath, Ranicol, RaseaC, Raven4x4x, Ravensfan5252, Rednblu, Regardne, Reinyday, RexNL, Rfsmit, Rhdv, Rich Farmbrough, RichardF, RichardVeryard, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Rmelnyck, Rmptls, Robinh, Roderick A Munro, Roderickmunro, Rogerd, Ronz, Rootsie, Rosborneutah, RoyBoy, Rupertb, S Roper, S2000magician, SE7, SNIyer12, Salgueiro, Sander123, Sanjayaksaxena, Satoriforever, Savidan, Sbonacorsi, Scarian, Scheubi84, Sebokmike, Seqsea, Shadowlynk, Shaul1, Shawnc, Shenme, Sigmundur, Sixsigmais, Skillshouse, Skylined69, Slammer111, Slashme, Slocum1946, Smarthu, Smillerurban, Snowded, SoCalSuperEagle, Soarhead77, Sobreira, Sonneborn, Sophie Smiles, Sophus Bie, Soumyadeeplodh, SpacemanSpiff, Spalding, Spangineer, Spdwriter, S pringnuts, Srobert01, Stephenh, Stevey7788, Stifle, Stor, SueHay, Sydneydoc, TC Black Belt, Tapir Terrific, Teles, Tessering, Thanhdieu, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The Letter J, The undertow, The wub, Theda, Thequality, Thingg, Tiptoety, Tjh1234, Tomhubbard, Tommy2010, TomyDuby, Tregoweth, Triona, Tripathimanish, Tristessa de St Ange, Trivialist, TucsonTom, Tyomitch, Ukpremier, Uleepera, Urbancowboy1773, UtterUser, VCJv, VGarner, Vamaro, VanPeel, Veinor, Versus22, Vjmickelson, Vrenator, Vspaceg, Waharry, Wdfarmer, Weregerbil, Wiki3 1415, Wikid77, Will Beback, Winterst, Wtmitchell, Xsmith, Yak99, Yeokaiwei, Zedla, Zepheus, Zfang, 1293 anonymous edits Quality control Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455664790 Contributors: Abbeyvet, AbsolutDan, Adamrice, Adoniscik, Alan Liefting, AndriuZ, Ann Stouter, Anonymous
anonymous, Arhon, ArrowmanCoder, Art LaPella, Avono, Beck, Beland, Bevo74, Biblbroks, Bml013, Bobo192, Bogey97, Brewcrewer, Brim, CALR, Canterbury Tail, Ceyockey, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chuunen Baka, Clooistopherm, Computerjoe, Conan, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCDuring, DMG413, DabMachine, Danger, Danhicks, DanielCD, DanielPenfield, DaveGorman, David Haslam, David Thrale, David.c.h, Dbare foot, DeltaQuad, DennisArter, Dfrg.msc, Dhollm, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Doodledoo, Dpr, Drmies, E Wing, E-pen, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Eggsyntax, El C, Emdee, Enoch the red, Enviroboy, Femto, Folajimi, Frankenpuppy, Frazzydee, Fredrik, FreplySpang, Frostee94, Gary King, Gaslan2, Giftlite, Glanthor Reviol, GlenPeterson, Greenrd, Hanwufu, Heron, Hmoul, Hooperbloob, Hughch, I already forgot, Ileshko, Impala2009, Itemuk, IvanLanin, Ivec, J.delanoy, JLaTondre, JSpung, JakeVortex, Jayantaism, Jenks1987, Jensbn, JeremyBradley, Jfbravoc, Jiang, John, John Fader, Jpbowen, Jpeeling, Juanscott, Jwy, Kaihsu, KatieDOM, Khalid, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Kku, Koavf, Kontos, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kyle Barbour, L Kensington, La Parka Your Car, Lonelydarksky, Mak Thorpe, Mani1, Marcelo1229, Martin451, Maurreen, Mbc362, Mdd, Melcombe, Memobug, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Millsj88, Morlich, Multichill, Mydogategodshat, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Northenpal, Novangelis, Nufy8, Olivier, Oxymoron83, Peterlewis, Phatom87, Philip Trueman, Plasticup, Pm master, Prainog, Professorial, Pshent, Qualitytier, Quarl, Qwfp, Rabqa1, Raploichkin, Reconsider the static, Retropunk, RexNL, Rforsyth, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, RichardF, Richdavi, Ripe, Rkitko, Rlsheehan, Robinh, Robodoc.at, Roderickmunro, Romary, Ron Richard, Rotor DB, Rwong48, S.K., S2000magician, Sabri76, Sam907, Sandstein, S ango123, Sapientij, SchfiftyThree, SchuminWeb, SecretDisc, Shabadsingh, Shantanu1989, Shell Kinney, Shoeofdeath, Shustov, Sixsigmais, Smack, Sniper Elite, StormyJerry, Su huynh, Teixant, Texture, The Photon, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, Thisisjonathanchan, Tom harrison, Tomrosenfeld, Uris, VAcharon, Vaceituno, Velella, Versageek, Versus22, Waggers, Wavelength, Weregerbil, Wiki alf, Yorrose, 431 a nonymous edits Quality investing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=453271942 Contributors: 1quality researcher, Anonymous Dissident, Ceams ch, Freepe, Funandtrvl, Graf en, J04n,
JohnCD, JustAGal, Melaen, Nick Number, R'n'B, Woohookitty, 8 anonymous edits Quality engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378444546 Contributors: Crusio, Fredrik, Headbomb, Ivec, NJBUDD, PFHLai, Rorro, Thue, 2 anonymous edits Business process reengineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=447875899 Contributors: 2help, Abrarlondon, Adz, AjaxSmack, Albedo, Alistaln, AndrewCarey,
AnnMMorgan, Apesofgod, Billdakelski, Brandon, Brossow, CRGreathouse, Clipper471, Crohnie, Cyrus Grisham, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Deleteme42, DerHexer, Diangane, EagleFan, Elwikipedista, Everything counts, Ewlyahoocom, Facius, Fairsing, Famousseamus, Fish and karate, GABaker, HandsomeFella, Hariva, Ian Pitchford, Ihcoyc, Iluvchiken, Jamelan, Jan eissfeldt, Jeffmartincg, Jiang, Jmkim dot com, Jossi, Kai a simon, Kku, Klawdnine, Kmorozov, Kubanczyk, Kuru, LKChrono, LilHelpa, Lonroberts, Lorenjens, LucVerhelst, M.L, MBisanz, Madmedea, Maria C Mosak, Marmelad, MaxSem, Mdd, Michael Hardy, Mr little irish, MrOllie, Mwfnwa, Nick Number, Nickmalik, Oicumayberight, Pakcw, Pearle, Pengo, PhilipSmith, Phoebe, Pion, Playmobilonhishorse, ProcessMgmt, PsychoSafari, R parker jr, RJFJR, Rachitawasthi, Reconsider the static, Reinyday, Rich257, RichardVeryard, Rl, Rmptls, Rockhopper10r, Ryuwoo, SJP, SunCreator, THF, Texpark, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thhuber, Tony D. Abel, Uttam64, Woohookitty, Yourstruly, 209 anonymous edits Product lifecycle management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=455907451 Contributors: Airunp, Alexvanderlinden, Allan McInnes, Andrewa, Antonielly, Archae13,
Arunpurohit, Avenged Eightfold, Bcmchandra, Beland, Bluewaterpro, Bolglvy, C.Fred, CZmarlin, Ca latham, Calloused, Canderra, Captmjc, CharlesC, Chrattac, Chrislk02, Cybercobra, Dangelow, DarkSaber2k, Dcfleck, DiegoTamburini, Distributor1989, Dmanning, DocendoDiscimus, Dogears, Dorimedont, Download, DragonHawk, Dwarfpower, Ehheh, Emma.roach, Eric-Wester, Eric76, EricTalevich, Frap, F reeformer, FreplySpang, Gaius Cornelius, Gbarraco, Gofer246, Gpassey, Grayapple1980, Greyskinnedboy, Grochim, Gurch, Haakon, Heqs, Hideyuki, Hkabla, Hu12, Hult041956, Igfrace, InnovatorM, Inwind, Irishguy, Ixfd64, JMSwtlk, JTBX, Jackvinson, Jasynnash2, Jennifer.m.b, Jim Zizou, Jni, JohnCD, Johnhfox, Jon Awbrey, Kailas katkar, Kalypsolp, Kevinsbennett, Kku, Kordas, KrakatoaKatie, Krawi, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kvenkateeshin, Lfarbo, LilHelpa, Lindenth, Lionbenjamins, Lothartklein, Lyman95, MCG, MER-C, Mac, Manufacturing, MattwikiEN, Mausy5043, Maximus Rex, Mcapitano, Mdd, Metron4, Michael Hardy, Mosca, MrMambo, MrOllie, Mroddey, Msridhar, Murrayo, NZarrow, Nick Number, Nienofer, Normsch, Nrcoopersd, Nzgabriel, Oleg Alexandrov, Omnify, Oracleconnect, Oscarthecat, PLMArchitect, PatricTimmermans, PaulDonnelly, Paulpoisson, Pcbdesigner, Peterloo, Pgdhonde, Phaedrus86, Pointillist, Prithvi k, Pwscottiv, Ramu50, Randallnewton, Raviprakashmba, Renesis, Requestion, ResidueOfDesign, Rettetast, Rjwilmsi, Rob0571, Rohit1001, Ronz, RoyBoy, Ruud Koot, S.K., Saaksvuo, Samantha datastay, Sa ndipjadhav, Sarah Miner, Shell Kinney, SiobhanHansa, Sjhaines, Skinneal, S oftechinc, Somanagesh, Spinacia, Splash, Steel, Steven-arts, Stwalkerster, Sweetpea2007, TVBZ28, TinaCassler, Tony1, UBF2005, Van der Hoorn, Warofdreams, Wayne Riddock, Wayofthemonkey, Wickethewok, Widgetkid, Winterst, Worm That Turned, Xsalia, Zigo1232, Zzuuzz, 392 anonymous edits ERP system selection methodology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=448887520 Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, AvrilWard, Colonel Warden, Dwandelt, Erpconsultantajay,
GerardJNorton, John of Reading, Jordiferrer, Jpbowen, Kuru, LindaDavey, Mggreennc, Miracleworker5263, Nelson50, WikHead, 14 anonymous edits List of ERP software packages Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456022516 Contributors: A584m, Abaker13, Afelfel, Afoofai, Aj robo, Ajju.blr, Akinsoft, AlMac,
Alexius08, Alexk223223, Alinalina, Ankitasdeveloper, Antonmind, Anuragsha, Anzbevrct, Apprise Software, ArchStanton69, Arichnad, Asico, AtilaZeybek, AtlWiki, Bbelfitt, Bcherry1978, BeigeTornado, Bhludzin, Bixwilson, Bizautomation, Bonadea, Brainstorming Silicon, CSuarezdelReal, Caitlin Gilmore, Camw, Carajou, CarlosRuiz, Ccube85, Cdcsw ross, Charlesrathmann, Chaser, Chris2R, Cloud913X, CopaceticOpus, Coyets, Daltenty, Danieldruker, Davelapo555, DavidTurner142, Deankillian, Delerious, Demetrios1975, Diannaa, Dickensas, DigMore, Dondegroovily, Donivamrev, Drilnoth, Drm4wikepidia, Echain, Edcolins, Edward321, Efrosoft, Ejanian, Empty Buffer, Emurphy42, Eric 4g, Erp designer, Erparchitect, Erpwiki, Exilantseamless, ExpandableSoftware, Fidogwokuda, FisherQueen, Formumbaijobs, Fred Bradstadt, Gabatee, Gabdu78, GermanJames, Gertjanvdb, Gnumagnu, Goanookie, Gogo Dodo, Golden in2001, GrahamWikiJones, Grmsinc, Gutheren, Haakon, Hanaman, Hirotanamux, IFSNA, Intertwingled, Ioeth, Ipixsolutions, Irishguy, Isotope23, Iwebtech, JLaTondre, JaGa, Jalagrange, JamesBWatson, Janicemawhinney, Jayakumar, Jcavallero, Jeremymason2.0, Jhonore, Jitendramcu, Johan Dahlin, Johnortt, Joliooo, Jordiferrer, Jordimas, Josebamartos, Jslang25, Juanpdelat, JzG, Karlybree, Kaypos, Kcordina, KimHayward, Kimchi.sg, KirstyBirch, Knightsl, Koroth, Krier.cedric, KristianRother, Kubanczyk, Kuru, Lawbringer, Lbourne4, Le gonchar, Leehongfay, Lefrancaiz, LindaDavey, Liquidcable, Locky130677, Losaltos2008, M0nkeyb0y78, MECU, MM Pastel, Maggiedworkin, Majorly, Martarius, Matthew Yeager, Metoobear, Mettavihari, Mfgadv, Mggreennc, Michael judd, Milbean1, Mitch Briggs561, Mkagwe, Mniinioj, Mr4top, MrOllie, Murrayfife, NEUIS, Nampelkafe, NawlinWiki, Nellermann, Nlmarco, No Bad Name, Nono64, Nora abazed, Nva.openerp, Okuji, Ondra.pelech, Openprojc, PMaloney, PPGMD, Pagrawal, Pasado, Patfett, Pcuta, Pjolep, Pmadhur, Prats100, Premier10, Prhartcom, Psvnaidu, Quickschool, RHaworth, Rahulkhare, Ravichandar84, Rdr2004, RickBeton, RiseRover, Rishab Patel, Rjacik, Rm mainframe, Rpisarenko, Rushabhmehta1, Ruzzdog, Rüdiger Marmulla, S Caballero, S.K., Saigon2010, Sajidhakeem, Samsymon, Sanjeevnath, Sava chankov, Sawa123, Saxifrage, Scerio, Sdeacom, Semiletov, Sergej.leblanc, Shadow3257, Sharkinfo2004, Shaws1131, ShilpK, Shourya mehra, Siddharthmukund, Siradia, Sjb90, Sleepyhead81, Slightlymighty, Sling21012, Smartaccountancy, Soumyab80, Sriraam.a, Steve Whitehouse, Stevenq9, Sudheersoman, Suryakant.goyal, Swdev, TKD, Tctwood, Tdelles09, Terry.g.mason, The last tmnt, TheRealGeorgeKaplan, Theferg2001, Themfromspace, ThinkERP, Thirumalaik, Timitos, Timohear, Tls419, Toddst1,
[email protected], Tomolp, Triunfo12, Trudiec, Tuhl, Upsss, VK3PGR, VOIDKAMPF, Vahik.Reaper, Vcodeit, Vdc ent, Verfication, Vijay123, Vinay R Pawar, Violethill, Viroroi, Vrenator, Waleed-khaleed, Wallyton, WarFox, WbITC, WebNotesWriter, Wickethewok, Wooze19, Wysinotwyg, Ywarnier, Yworo, Zidanenguyen, Zojj,ﻭﺩ ﺣﺒﻮﺑﺔ, 695 anonymous edits
158
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Decision Support System for John Day Reservoir.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Decision_Support_System_for_John_Day_Reservoir.jpg License: Public
Domain
Contributors: USGS: Project contact Michael J. Parsley, U.S. Geological Survey
File:Drought Mitigation Decision Support System.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drought_Mitigation_Decision_Support_System.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA
Image:Hierachical-Diagram.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hierachical-Diagram.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Network-Diagram.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Network-Diagram.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Relational-Diagram.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relational-Diagram.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Backup-DFD.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backup-DFD.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Rimshot, Sukari, 1 anonymous edits File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:OPM Object symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Object_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Vainolo File:OPM Process symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Process_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Vainolo File:OPM Object with State symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Object_with_State_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Aggregation link symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Aggregation_link_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Exhibition link symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Exhibition_link_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Generalization link symbol.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Generalization_link_symbol.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0
Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Aggregation link example.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Aggregation_link_example.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Exhibition link example.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Exhibition_link_example.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Generalization link example.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Generalization_link_example.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0
Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Agent link.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Agent_link.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo File:OPM Instrument link.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Instrument_link.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Vainolo File:OPM Consumption or Result link.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Consumption_or_Result_link.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0
Contributors: User:Vainolo
File:OPM Effect link.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Effect_link.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Vainolo File:OPM Invocation link.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OPM_Invocation_link.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Vainolo File:Supply and demand network (en).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supply_and_demand_network_(en).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0
Contributors: Andreas Wieland, Supply Chain Management Research
File:Trajan's Column (Roman Soldiers Building a Fortress).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trajan's_Column_(Roman_Soldiers_Building_a_Fortress).png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Fikret Yegul
Image:Henri Gannt.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henri_Gannt.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Pert chart colored.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pert_chart_colored.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Jeremykemp at
en.wikipedia Image:Project Management (phases).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_Management_(phases).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Alphamu57
Image:Xp-loop with time frames.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xp-loop_with_time_frames.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Marcel Douwe Dekker
Image:Prince2 procces model .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prince2_procces_model_.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: File:Project development stages.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_development_stages.jpg License: unknown Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF
VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and Technology File:Initiating Process Group Processes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Initiating_Process_Group_Processes.jpg License: unknown Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and Technology File:Executing Process Group Processes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Executing_Process_Group_Processes.jpg License: unknown Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and Technology File:Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monitoring_and_Controlling_Process_Group_Processes.jpg License: unknown Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of I nformation and Technology Image:Project Management (project control).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Project_Management_(project_control).png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Alphamu57 File:Closing Process Group Processes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Closing_Process_Group_Processes.jpg License: unknown Contributors: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Office of Information and Technology Image:The triad constraints.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_triad_constraints.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: John M. Kennedy T. File:NewYorkCitySubwayEntranceInterior.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewYorkCitySubwayEntranceInterior.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Canadaolympic989 File:Access control door wiring.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_door_wiring.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval File:Intelligent access control door wiring.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Intelligent_access_control_door_wiring.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval File:Access control topologies serial controllers.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_serial_controllers.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval File:Access control topologies main controller a.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_main_controller_a.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval File:Access control topologies main controller b.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_main_controller_b.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval File:Access control topologies terminal servers.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_terminal_servers.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Andriusval
159
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Access control topologies IP master.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_IP_master.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
Andriusval File:Access control topologies IP controller.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_IP_controller.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
Andriusval File:Access control topologies IP reader.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_topologies_IP_reader.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
Andriusval File:Access control door wiring io module.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_control_door_wiring_io_module.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
Andriusval Image:MRP2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MRP2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Jean-Baptiste Waldner Image:Business Process Management Life-Cycle.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Business_Process_Management_Life-Cycle.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Aleksander Blomskøld
Image:BPM Workflow Service Pattern.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPM_Workflow_Service_Pattern.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: nih.gov Image:Six sigma-2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Six_sigma-2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Luxo Image:Factory.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Factory.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Howard Cheng Image:6 Sigma Normal distribution.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:6_Sigma_Normal_distribution.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jayen466,
Fleshgrinder Image:Xbar chart for a paired xbar and s chart.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xbar_chart_for_a_paired_xbar_and_s_chart.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: DanielPenfield
File:EA-6B Prowler maintenance check.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EA-6B_Prowler_maintenance_check.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Navy
photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Bradley Evans File:X-Ray Circuit Board Zoom 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X-Ray_Circuit_Board_Zoom_2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: X-Ray_Circuit_Board_Zoom.jpg: SecretDisc derivative work: Emdee (talk) Image:PD-icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Business Process Reengineering Cycle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Business_Process_Reengineering_Cycle.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: FBI Image:Reengineering guidence.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reengineering_guidence.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: United States General Accounting Office Image:Bpr1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bpr1.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Kai A. Simon Kai A. Simon File:Product’s lifecycle.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Product’s_lifecycle.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Product’s_lifecycle.jpg: National Institute of Standards and Technology’s Manufacturing Engineering derivative work: Yzmo (talk) Image:plm1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plm1.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: -
160