U S MILITARY EQUIPMENT
Contents 1
2
.45 ACP
1
1.1
Design and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.2
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.4
Load variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.5
Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1.6
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.7
Related rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
.50 BMG
6
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.3
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.4
Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
2.5
Links used for feeding machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
2.6
Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
2.7
Typical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8
Partial list of .50 BMG firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.1
Carbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.2
Rifles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.3
Machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.8.4
Pistols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
5.56×45mm NATO
13
3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.2
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.9
3
i
ii
CONTENTS 3.3.1
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.3.2
Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.3.3
Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.56 mm NATO versus .223 Remington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.1
Brass case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.2
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.3
Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.5
5.56 mm NATO versus 7.62 mm NATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6
Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6.1
SS109/M855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.6.2
M855A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.6.3
Mk 262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.6.4
Mk318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.6.5
5.6mm Gw Pat 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7
Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.62×51mm NATO
30
4.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.3
Military cartridge types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
4.4
Department Of Defense Identification Codes (DODIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4
4
5
9×19mm Parabellum
37
5.1
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2
Popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.3
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.4
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.5
Improvements and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.3
Swedish m/39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.4
9×19mm +P variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.6
Russian military overpressure variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.7
9mm major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
CONTENTS 5.5.8
6
7
iii Other variants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.6
USA data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.7
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Anti-materiel rifle
44
6.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.3
List of anti-materiel rifles by country of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Anti-tank warfare
46
7.1
Tank threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2
First World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2.1
Anti-tank weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2.2
Anti-tank tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.3
Development between the world wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
7.4
Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
7.4.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
7.4.2
Field artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.3
Anti-tank guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.4
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
7.4.5
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.5
Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.6
Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.2
Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.3
Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.4
Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.5
Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.6
Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.7
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.8
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.7.1
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.7
iv 8
9
CONTENTS Armored car (military)
60
8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.1
Armed car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.2
First armored cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.3
World War I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.1.4
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.2
Military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
Armoured personnel carrier
65
9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
9.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.1
Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.2
Armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.3
Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.3
Medical use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4.1
Infantry Fighting vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4.2
Infantry Mobility Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
9.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
10 Armoured recovery vehicle
69
10.1 Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.1 Early models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.2 Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.1.3 Postwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.2 Characteristics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3 List of ARVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.2 Czechoslovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.3 France
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.4 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.5 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.7 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.8 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.9 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.10 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
CONTENTS
v
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.12 Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.13 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
10.3.14 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
11 Assault rifle
74
11.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
11.3 Assault rifle gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
11.4 Assault rifles vs. assault weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
11.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
12 Attack helicopter
80
12.1 Background and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
12.1.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
12.1.3 People's Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
12.1.4 France, Germany and Spain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.1.6 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.1.7 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.2 In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
12.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.2 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
12.1.5 India
13 Carbine 13.1 History
89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 Word origin
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
13.1.2 Early history: before the 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
vi
CONTENTS 13.1.3 Shorter rifles, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
13.1.4 After World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
13.2 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.2.1 Contemporary military forces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.2.2 Special forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3.1 Pistol-caliber carbines (PCC)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
13.3.2 Pistol conversion carbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.4 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.4.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
13.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
13.7 References
94
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Cargo aircraft
95
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
14.2 Types of cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
14.2.1 Derivatives of non-cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.2.2 Dedicated civilian cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
14.2.3 Joint civil-military cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.3 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.1 Early air mail and airlift logistics aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.2 Civilian cargo/freight aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4.3 Light aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.4.4 Military cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.4.5 Experimental cargo aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.4.6 Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 14.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 15 Cartridge (firearms)
101
15.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 15.1.3 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 15.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 15.2.1 Integrated paper cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 15.2.2 Metal cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 15.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 15.4 Centerfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
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15.5 Rimfire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 15.6 Semi-automatic vs. revolver cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 15.7 Bullet design types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 15.8 Common cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 15.9 Reloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 15.10Caseless ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 15.11Trounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 15.12Blank ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 15.13Drill rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 15.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 15.15Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 15.16References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 15.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 16 CBRN defense
114
16.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 16.2 By country or region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 16.2.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 16.2.2 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.4 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.5 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.6 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.7 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.8 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.9 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 16.2.10 The Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 16.3 CBRN Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 16.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 16.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 16.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 17 Combat engineer
118
17.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 17.2 Practices and techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 17.3 Equipment and vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 17.4 Combat Engineering Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 17.5 Historical Publications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
17.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 17.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 17.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
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CONTENTS
18 Designated marksman rifle
123
18.1 Compared to sniper rifles, battle rifles, and assault rifles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 18.1.1 Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 18.1.2 Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 18.1.3 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 18.1.4 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 18.2 Designated marksman rifles in service by nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 18.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 19 Electronic warfare
127
19.1 The electromagnetic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 19.1.1 Electronic warfare applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 19.2 Subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 19.2.1 Electronic attack (EA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 19.2.2 Electronic Protection (EP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 19.2.3 Electronic warfare support (ES)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
19.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 19.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 19.6 General references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 20 Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles
131
20.1 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 20.1.1 Trucks
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
20.1.2 Trailers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 20.1.3 FMTV dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.2 Model gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.3 Gallery 20.4 Statistics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
20.5 2009 procurement and protest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.6 Further sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.7 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 20.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 21 Firearm
134
21.1 Types of firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 21.1.1 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 21.1.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 21.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
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21.2.1 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 21.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 22 General-purpose machine gun
146
22.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 22.2 Notable post-WWII examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 22.3 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 22.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 22.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
23 Grenade launcher
148
23.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 23.1.1 Grenade discharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 23.1.2 Muzzle-fired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 23.1.3 Standalone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 23.1.4 Attached . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 23.1.5 Automatic
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
23.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 23.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
23.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 24 Heavy machine gun
152
24.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 24.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
24.3 Various designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 24.3.1 Light machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 24.3.2 Medium models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 24.4 World War II and later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 24.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 25 Helicopter 25.1 History
155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
25.1.1 Early design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
25.1.2 First flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 25.1.3 Early development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 25.1.4 Autogyro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 25.1.5 Birth of an industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 25.1.6 Turbine age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 25.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 25.3 Design features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
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CONTENTS 25.3.1 Rotor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 25.3.2 Anti-torque features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.3.3 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 25.3.4 Flight controls
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
25.4 Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 25.4.1 Hover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 25.4.2 Transition from hover to forward flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 25.4.3 Forward flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 25.5 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 25.5.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 25.5.2 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 25.5.3 Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 25.5.4 Deadliest crashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 25.6 World records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 25.7 Types and makes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 25.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 25.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
25.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 25.9.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 25.9.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 25.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 26 HK 4.6×30mm
170
26.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 26.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 26.3 Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 26.4 Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 26.4.1 2 g DM11 Penetrator Ultimate Combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 26.4.2 2 g Action Law Enforcement Hollow Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 26.4.3 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.6×30mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 26.4.4 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 26.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 26.5.1 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 26.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 26.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 27 Infantry
174
27.1 History and etymology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
27.2 Combat role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 27.3 Organization 27.4 Doctrine 27.5 Operations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
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27.6 Day to day service
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
27.7 Equipment and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 27.7.1 Protective equipment and survival gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 27.8 Other infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 27.9 Descriptions of infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 27.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 27.11Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 27.12References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
27.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 28 Infantry fighting vehicle 28.1 History 28.2 Doctrine 28.3 Design
183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
28.3.1 Protection
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
28.3.2 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 28.3.3 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 28.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 28.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 29 Iraq War
187
29.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 29.1.1 Iraq disarmament and pre-war intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 29.1.2 Weapons of mass destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 29.1.3 Preparations for Iraq war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 29.1.4 Opposition to invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 29.2 The invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 29.3 Post-invasion phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 29.3.1 2003: Beginnings of insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 29.3.2 2004: Insurgency expands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 29.3.3 2005: Elections and transitional government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 29.3.4 2006: Civil war and permanent Iraqi government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 29.3.5 2007: U.S. troops surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 29.3.6 2008: Civil war continues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 29.3.7 2009: Coalition redeployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 29.3.8 2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
29.3.9 2011: U.S. withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 29.4 Aftermath – post U.S.-withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 29.5 Casualty estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 29.6 Criticism and cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 29.6.1 Financial cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 29.7 Humanitarian crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
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CONTENTS 29.8 Human rights abuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 29.8.1 Iraqi government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 29.8.2 Coalition forces and private contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 29.8.3 Insurgent groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 29.9 Public opinion on the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 29.9.1 International opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 29.9.2 Iraqi opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 29.10Relation to the Global War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 29.11Foreign involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 29.11.1 Role of Saudi Arabia and non-Iraqis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 29.11.2 Iranian involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 29.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 29.13Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 29.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 29.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 29.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
30 Joint Special Operations Command
226
30.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 30.1.1 Special Mission Units
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
30.1.2 Advanced Force Operations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
30.1.3 JSO Package / Rotational Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 30.2 Security support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 30.3 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 30.3.1 Operations in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 30.3.2 Operations in Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 30.3.3 Operations in Iraq
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
30.3.4 Operations in Somalia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
30.3.5 Operations in Yemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 30.4 List of JSOC commanders
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
30.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 30.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
30.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 30.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 31 Light machine gun
231
31.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 31.1.1 Ammunition feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 31.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 31.3 Selected examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 31.3.1 1900s–1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 31.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
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32 Machine gun
234
32.1 Overview of modern automatic machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 32.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 32.3.1 Early rapid-firing weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 32.3.2 Interwar era and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 32.3.3 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 32.4 Human interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 32.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 32.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 32.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 33 Magazine (firearms)
242
33.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 33.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 33.2.1 Gravity magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 33.2.2 Tubular magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 33.2.3 Internal box magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 33.2.4 Detachable box magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 33.3 Function and types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 33.3.1 Tubular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 33.3.2 Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 33.3.3 Rotary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 33.3.4 Pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 33.3.5 Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 33.3.6 Helical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 33.3.7 Hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 33.4 STANAG magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 33.5 High-capacity magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 33.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 33.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 33.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 34 Main battle tank
253
34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 34.1.1 Previous concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 34.1.2 Trial by fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 34.1.3 Emergence of the MBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 34.1.4 Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 34.1.5 Persian Gulf War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 34.1.6 Asymmetrical warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 34.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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CONTENTS 34.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 34.2.2 Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 34.2.3 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 34.2.4 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 34.2.5 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 34.3 Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 34.4 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 34.5 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 34.5.1 Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 34.5.2 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 34.5.3 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 34.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 34.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
35 Military helicopter
262
35.1 Types and roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 35.1.1 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 35.1.2 Attack helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 35.1.3 Transport helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 35.1.4 Observation helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 35.1.5 Maritime helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 35.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 35.1.7 Training helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 35.2 Tactics and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 35.2.1 High intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 35.2.2 Low intensity warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 35.3 Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 35.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 35.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 35.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 35.6.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 35.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 36 Pistol
268
36.1 History and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 36.2 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 36.2.1 Single shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 36.2.2 Multi-barreled (non-rotating) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 36.2.3 Harmonica pistol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 36.2.4 Revolver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 36.2.5 Semi-automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 36.3 3D printed pistol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
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36.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 37 Reconnaissance vehicle
271
37.1 Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
37.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
37.3 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 37.4 List of contemporary reconnaissance vehicles 37.5 References 38 Rifle
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 274
38.1 Historical overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 38.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 38.2.1 Muzzle-loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 38.2.2 Breech loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 38.2.3 Revolving Rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 38.2.4 Cartridge storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 38.3 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 38.4 3D printed rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 38.5 Youth rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 38.6 Technical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 38.6.1 Rifling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 38.6.2 Barrel wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 38.6.3 Rate of fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 38.6.4 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 38.6.5 Bullet Rotational Speed (RPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 38.6.6 Caliber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 38.6.7 Types of rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 38.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 38.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 38.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 39 Shotgun
282
39.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 39.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 39.2.1 Sporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 39.2.2 Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 39.2.3 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 39.2.4 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 39.2.5 Home and personal defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 39.3 Design features for various uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 39.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 39.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
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CONTENTS 39.5.1 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 39.5.2 Hammerless shotguns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 39.5.3 John Moses Browning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 39.5.4 World wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 39.5.5 Late 20th century to present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 39.6 Design factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 39.6.1 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 39.6.2 Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 39.6.3 Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 39.6.4 Pattern and choke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 39.6.5 Barrel length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 39.7 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 39.7.1 Specialty ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 39.8 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 39.8.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 39.8.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 39.8.3 UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 39.8.4 US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 39.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 39.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 39.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
40 Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
299
40.1 Service history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 40.1.1 Follow-On To SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 40.1.2 SMAW II program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 40.1.3 SMAW II Serpent
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
40.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 40.2.1 Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 40.3 Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 40.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 40.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 41 Sniper rifle
302
41.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 41.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 41.2.1 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 41.2.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 41.3 Distinguishing characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 41.3.1 Telescopic sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 41.3.2 Action
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
41.3.3 Cartridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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41.3.4 Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 41.3.5 Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 41.3.6 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 41.4 Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 41.4.1 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 41.4.2 Maximum effective range
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
41.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 41.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 41.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
41.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 42 Submachine gun
310
42.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 42.1.1 1900s to 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 42.1.2 1930s to 1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 42.1.3 1950s to 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 42.1.4 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 42.2 Personal defense weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 42.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 42.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 42.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 43 Surveillance aircraft 43.1 Definitions 43.2 History
316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
43.2.1 Pre World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 43.2.2 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.2.3 World War II and later . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.3 Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.3.1 Maritime patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.3.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.3.3 Battlefield and airspace surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.4 Current use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 43.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 43.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 43.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 44 United States Army
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44.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 44.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 44.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 44.2.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
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CONTENTS 44.2.3 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 44.2.4 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
44.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 44.3.1 Army components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 44.3.2 Army commands and army service component commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 44.3.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 44.3.4 Regular combat maneuver organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 44.3.5 Special operations forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 44.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 44.4.1 Commissioned officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 44.4.2 Warrant officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 44.4.3 Enlisted personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 44.4.4 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 44.5 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 44.5.1 Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 44.5.2 Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 44.5.3 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 44.5.4 Tents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 44.5.5 3D printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 44.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 44.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 44.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 44.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 45 United States Marine Corps
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45.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 45.1.1 Historical mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 45.1.2 Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 45.1.3 Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 45.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 45.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 45.2.2 Interim: American Civil War to World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 45.2.3 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 45.2.4 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 45.2.5 Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 45.2.6 Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 45.2.7 Interim: Vietnam War to the War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 45.2.8 Global War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 45.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 45.3.1 Relationship with other services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 45.3.2 Air-ground task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 45.3.3 Special Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
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45.3.4 Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 45.3.5 Marine Corps bases and stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 45.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 45.4.1 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 45.4.2 Rank structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 45.4.3 Military Occupational Specialty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 45.4.4 Initial training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 45.5 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 45.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 45.6.1 Official traditions and customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 45.6.2 Unofficial traditions and customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 45.6.3 Veteran Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 45.6.4 Martial arts program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 45.7 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 45.7.1 Infantry weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 45.7.2 Ground vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 45.7.3 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 45.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 45.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 45.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 45.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 46 United States Special Operations Command
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46.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 46.1.1 Operation Earnest Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 46.1.2 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 46.1.3 Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 46.2 Current role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 46.2.1 War in Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 46.2.2 Global presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 46.3 Subordinate Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 46.3.1 Joint Special Operations Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 46.3.2 Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 46.3.3 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 46.3.4 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 46.3.5 Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 46.3.6 Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 46.4 List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 46.5 USSOCOM medal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 46.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 46.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 46.7.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
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CONTENTS 46.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 46.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
47 Utility aircraft
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47.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 47.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 47.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 47.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 47.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 47.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Chapter 1
.45 ACP For the movie with the same name, see .45 (film). Not to be confused with .45 Colt.
Cartridge, it ended up using a 230 grain (15 g) bullet fired at about 850 ft/s (260 m/s). The resulting .45-caliber cartridge, named the .45 ACP, was similar in performance to the .45 Schofield cartridge, and only slightly less powerful The .45 ACP (11.43×23mm) (Automatic Colt Pistol), also known as the .45 Auto by C.I.P. or 45 Auto by (but significantly shorter) than the .45 Colt cartridges the Cavalry was using. SAAMI, is a cartridge designed by John Browning in 1904, for use in his prototype Colt semi-automatic .45 By 1906, bids from six makers were submitted, among pistol and eventually the M1911 pistol adopted by the them Browning's design, submitted by Colt. Only DWM, United States Army in 1911.* [2] Savage, and Colt made the first cut. DWM, which submitted two Parabellum P08s chambered in .45 ACP, withdrew from testing after the first round of tests, for unspecified reasons.* [4]
1.1 Design and history
In the second round of evaluations in 1910, the Colt design passed the extensive testing with no failures, while the Savage design suffered 37 stoppages or parts failures.* [4] The resulting weapon was adopted as the Model 1911.
The U.S. Cavalry had been buying and testing various handguns in the late 1890s and early 20th century. The .45 Colt Single Action Army (SAA) had largely been replaced, even by some double action versions of the same. The Cavalry had fielded some double action revolvers in .38 Long Colt. They determined the .38 caliber round was significantly less effective against determined opponents, such as the warriors encountered in the Moro Rebellion of the Philippine–American War, than the .45 Colt. The current issue rifle at the time, the .30-40 Krag, had also failed to stop Moro warriors effectively;* [3] the British had similar issues switching to the .303 British, which resulted in the development of the dum-dum bullet. This experience, and the Thompson-LaGarde Tests of 1904 led the Army and the Cavalry, to decide a minimum of .45 caliber was required in the new handgun. Thompson and Major Louis Anatole LaGarde of the Medical Corps arranged tests on cadavers and animal remains in the Chicago stockyards, resulting in the finding that .45 was the most effective pistol cartridge. They noted, however, training was critical to make sure a soldier could score a hit in a vulnerable part of the body.
The cartridge/pistol combination was quite successful but not satisfactory for U.S. military purposes. Over the next few years a series of improved designs were offered, culminating in the adoption in 1911 of the “Cal. .45 Automatic Pistol Ball Cartridge, Model of 1911”, a 1.273 in (32.3 mm) long round with a bullet weight of 230 grains. The very first production, at Frankford Arsenal, was marked “F A 8 11”, for the August 1911 date. The cartridge was designed by John Browning of Colt, but the most influential person in selecting the cartridge was Army Ordnance member Gen. John T. Thompson. Thompson insisted on a real“man stopper”pistol, following the poor showing of the Army's .38 Long Colt pistols during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).
Colt had been working with Browning on a .41 caliber cartridge in 1904, and in 1905 when the Cavalry asked for a .45 caliber equivalent Colt modified the pistol de1.2 Cartridge dimensions sign to fire an enlarged version of the prototype .41 round. The result from Colt was the Model 1905 and the new .45 ACP cartridge. The original round that passed the testing fired a 200 grain (13 g) bullet at 900 ft/s (275 m/s), but af- (Diagram not to scale) ter a number of rounds of revisions between Winchester The .45 ACP has 1.62 ml (25 grains H2 O) cartridge case Repeating Arms, Frankford Arsenal, and Union Metallic capacity. 1
2
CHAPTER 1. .45 ACP thrust helps extend service life of weapons in which it is used. The only drawback for large scale military operations is the cartridge's large size, weight, and the increased material cost of manufacture compared to the smaller 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge. Even in its non-expanding full metal jacket (FMJ) version, the .45 ACP cartridge has a reputation for effectiveness against human targets because its large diameter creates a deep and substantial permanent wound channel which lowers blood pressure more rapidly.* [8] The wounding potential of bullets is often characterized in terms of a bullet's expanded diameter, penetration depth, and energy. Bullet energy for .45 ACP loads varies from roughly 350 to 500 ft·lbf (470 to 680 J).
.45 ACP maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions.* [5] All sizes in millimeters (mm). The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406mm (1 in 16 in), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 11.23mm, Ø grooves = 11.43mm, land width = 3.73mm and the primer type is large pistol. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case at the L3 datum reference.* [6] According to the official Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives guidelines the .45 ACP case can handle up to 131 MPa (19,000 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP is set at 21,000 psi (140 MPa), piezo pressure,* [7] while the SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP +P is set at 23,000 psi (160 MPa), piezo pressure.
1.3 Performance The .45 ACP is an effective combat pistol cartridge that combines accuracy and stopping power for use against human targets.* [8] The cartridge also has relatively low muzzle blast and flash, as well as moderate recoil. The standard issue military .45 ACP round has a 230 grain bullet that travels at approximately 830 feet per second when fired from the government issue M1911A1 pistol and approximately 950 feet per second from the M1A1 Thompson sub-machine gun. The cartridge also comes in various specialty rounds of varying weights and performance levels. It operates at a relatively low maximum chamber pressure rating of 21,000 psi (145 MPa) (compared to 35,000 psi/241 MPa for 9mm Parabellum and .40 S&W, 37,500 psi/259 MPa for 10mm Auto, 40,000 psi/276 MPa for .357 SIG), which due to a low bolt
Because of its large diameter and straight-walled design, the .45 ACP geometry is the highest power-per-pressure production, repeating round in existence. This is because of the higher powers achievable with .45 Super, and +P loads. Because of these inherent low pressures of the standard pressure round however, compensators and brakes have little effect until +P and Super loads are utilized.* [9] The table below shows common performance parameters for several .45 ACP loads. Bullet weights ranging from 185 to 230 grains are common. Penetration depths from 11 inches to over 27 inches are available for various applications and risk assessments. Key: Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin). Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin). PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI method). TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin). (gr for grains, and g for grams) The .45 ACP's combination of stopping power and controlled penetration makes it practical for police use, although numerous issues, including the resulting decrease in magazine capacity and the larger size and weight of pistols chambered in this caliber, have led more police departments in the USA to adopt sidearms in 9×19mm, .40 S&W, and .357 SIG. With standard (not extended) single-stack magazines, pistols chambered in .45 ACP usually hold 8 rounds or less (exceptions to this include the 9-round .45 ACP versions of the Smith & Wesson SW99 and the Beretta Px4 Storm* [11]). However, many modern versions of .45 ACP handguns have double-stack magazines capable of holding as many as 14 rounds, such as the .45 ACP versions of the FN FNP and FN FNX, though this greatly increases the pistol's bulk and with that lowers maneuverability.* [12] Many US tactical police units still use the .45 pistol round, including the FBI's Hostage Rescue Team.* [13]* [14]* [15] While high capacity firearms are available in .45 ACP, the greater length and diameter of the .45 ACP means that the grip of the pistol must be longer and wider than the grip of a comparable pistol of
1.4. LOAD VARIANTS
3
audible as a loud “crack”, literally a small sonic boom, while they travel through the air. Suppressors reduce the audible“report”by slowing and channeling the high speed gas generated by the burning/expanding gunpowder before it exits the muzzle resulting in a muffled “cough” . Suppressors cannot act on a supersonic shock wave continuously generated by a bullet exceeding the 1,087 ft/s (331 m/s) speed of sound at 32 °F (0 °C) ambient cold temperatures, as this shock wave is continuously produced throughout the entire flight path over which the bullet is supersonic, which extends long after it exits the barrel. The downside to the use of .45 ACP in suppressed weapons is that increasing the diameter of the passage through a suppressor decreases the suppressor's efficiency; thus, while .45 ACP is among the most powerful suppressed pistol rounds, it is also one of the loudest. Most .45 suppressors must be fired “wet”(with an ablative medium, usually water) to bring sound levels * .45 ACP hollowpoint (Federal HST) with two .22LR cartridges down to“hearing-safe”(under 140 dB, generally). [16] for comparison
Side on view of Sellier & Bellot .45 ACP cartridge with a metric ruler for scale
a smaller caliber; this increase in grip size can make the pistol difficult to use for shooters with smaller hands. Today, most NATO militaries use sidearms chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, but the effectiveness of the .45 ACP cartridge has ensured its continued popularity with large caliber sport shooters, especially in the United States.* [2] In addition, select military and police units around the world still use firearms firing the .45 ACP.* [2] In 1985, the .45 ACP M1911A1 pistol was replaced by the Beretta M9 9mm pistol as the main sidearm of the U.S. military, although select Special Operations units continue to use the M1911A1 or other .45 ACP pistols. Because standard pressure and load .45 ACP rounds fired from handguns or short barreled submachine guns are inherently subsonic, it is one of the most powerful pistol calibers available for use in suppressed weapons since subsonic rounds are quieter than supersonic rounds. The latter inevitably produce a highly compressed shock wave,
Base of Sellier & Bellot .45 ACP cartridge, showing lacquered primer
1.4 Load variants Rounds are available from 68 grains to 255 grains (4.4 g to 16.5 g) with a common load being the standard military loading of a 230-grain (15 g) FMJ bullet at around 850 ft/s (259 m/s). Specialty rounds are available in weights under 100 grains (6.5 g) and over 260 grains (16.8 g); popular rounds among reloaders and target shooters include 185-grain and 230-grain (12 g and 15 g) bullets. Hollow-point rounds intended for maximum effectiveness against live targets are designed to expand upon im-
4
CHAPTER 1. .45 ACP Marine Corps air crew. Tracer ammunition was identified by painting the bullet tip red.* [17] Most ammunition manufacturers also market what are termed "+P”(pronounced “plus P”) loadings in pistol ammunition, including the .45 ACP. This means the cartridge is loaded to a higher maximum pressure level than the original SAAMI cartridge standard, generating higher velocity and more muzzle energy. In the case of the .45 ACP, the standard cartridge pressure is 21,000 PSI and the SAAMI .45 ACP +P standard is 23,000 PSI. This is a common practice for updating older cartridges to match the better quality of materials and workmanship in modern firearms.* [2]
Several .45ACP variants: Hollow Point, FMJ, WW2 Era Military Issue Birdshot
A Target Handload With Cast 200- Grain Semi Wadcutter Bullet
The terminology is generally given as ".45 ACP +P”, and appears on the headstamp. It is important to note that +P cartridges have the same external dimensions as the standard-pressure cartridges and will chamber and fire in all firearms designed for the standard-pressure loadings. However, it should be noted that the inner dimensions of the +P cartridge are different from the standard-pressure cartridge dimensions and thus allows for higher pressures to be safely achieved in the +P cartridge. If +P loadings are used in firearms not specifically designed for them they may cause damage to the weapon and injuries to the operator. Popular derivative versions of the .45 ACP are the .45 Super and .460 Rowland.* [2] The Super is dimensionally identical to the .45 ACP, however, the cartridge carries a developer established pressure of 28,500 PSI and requires minor modification of quality firearms for use. The Rowland case is 0.057”longer specifically to prevent it from being chambered in standard .45 ACP firearms. The Rowland operates at a developer established 40,000 c.u.p. and may only be used within a select group of firearms significantly modified for this purpose. Brass cases for each of these cartridges carry the applicable name within the headstamp. The Super provides approximately 20% greater velocity than the .45 ACP +P; the Rowland approximately 40% greater velocity than the .45 ACP +P.* [2]
1.5 Timeline • 1899/1900: Self-loading pistols test: Colt M1900 of .38 caliber entered. A Modern 230-Grain Jacketed Hollow Point Bullet Recovered From Raw Beef.
pact with soft tissue, increasing the size of the permanent cavity left by the bullet as it passes through the target. Tracer ammunition for the .45 ACP was manufactured by Frankford Arsenal and by Remington Arms. This ammunition was available to the United States Border Patrol as early as 1940 and was used through World War II for emergency signalling by downed United States Navy and
• 1904: Thompson-LaGarde Tests ̶caliber of new handgun should be at least .45. • 1906–1907: Handgun trials̶Colt enters with .45 ACP design. • 1910: Final tests ̶Colt pistol (designed by John Browning) out-performs Savage. • March 29, 1911: The Colt pistol is officially adopted as the Model 1911̶and with it the .45 ACP cartridge.
1.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
1.6 Synonyms • .45 Automatic / .45 Auto
5
[9] McAlpine, Alex. “Pressure to power of combat cartridges”. BrainLubeOnline.com. Retrieved November 10, 2013.
• .45 M1911 (US Military)
[10] Marshall and Sanow, Street Stoppers, Appendix A, Paladin 2006
• .450 Semi-Automatic / .450 S.A. (Commonwealth Military; Ball Mark 1z was Australian production and Ball Mark 2z was American production)
[11] “Beretta Px4 Storm Full Size .45ACP”. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
• [11.43×23mm] (Metric)
[12] Ayoob, Massad. “Choose your ammo ... police style”. Backwoods Home Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 February 2007. Retrieved February 21, 2007.
1.7 Related rounds
[13] Diez, Octavio. Special Police Task Forces. Lima Publications. p. 40. ISBN 978-84-95323-43-9
• .38/.45 Clerke • .400 Corbon • .45 Auto Rim • .45 G.A.P. • .45 Winchester Magnum • .45 Peters-Thompson shot cartridge* [18] • .50 GI
[14] Hogg, Ian. Jane's Gun Recognition Guide, 2nd Edition. Harper Collins Publishers. p. 113. [15] Hopkins, Cameron (2000). “Most Wanted”. American Handgunner (Publishers Development Corporation). Retrieved February 21, 2007. [16] Truby, J. David(1987)Silencers, Snipers, and Assassins...an Overview of Whispering Death, Paladin Press, Boulder, CO, 216 pp. ISBN 0-87364-012-8 [17] Andrews, Dave 45 ACP Tracers on page 20 of February 2002 American Rifleman magazine [18]
1.8 See also • List of .45 caliber handguns • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
1.10 External links • .45 ACP Videos • Ballistics By The Inch .45ACP results.
1.9 References [1] Ayoob, Massad (2003). “The .45 ACP approaches its centennial - Handguns”. Guns Magazine. [2] Barnes, Frank C.; Skinner, Stan (2003). Cartridges of the World: 10th Edition, Revised and Expanded. Krause Publications. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-87349-605-6. [3] 1911 History [4] Background [5] “C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables - free current C.I.P. CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)". Archived from the original on 2009-06-06. Retrieved October 17, 2008. [6] Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.229. Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943. ISBN 0-935632-89-1 [7] “SAAMI Pressures”. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007. Retrieved November 29, 2007. [8] Marshall, EP, Sanow, EJ: Street Stoppers: The Latest Handgun Stopping Power Street Results, Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1996. ISBN 0-87364-872-2.
• SAAMI Specification
Chapter 2
.50 BMG The .50 Browning Machine Gun (.50 BMG) or 12.7×99mm NATO is a cartridge developed for the Browning .50 caliber machine gun in the late 1910s. Entering service officially in 1921, the round is based on a greatly scaled-up .30-06 cartridge. Under STANAG 4383, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.* [1] The cartridge itself has been made in many variants: multiple generations of regular ball, tracer, armor piercing, incendiary, and saboted sub-caliber rounds. The rounds intended for machine guns are linked using metallic links.
than lower quality rounds.
2.1 History John Browning had the idea for this round during World War I in response to a need for an anti-aircraft weapon, based on a scaled-up .30-06 Springfield design, used in a machine gun based on a scaled-up M1919/M1917 design that Browning had initially developed around 1900 (but which was not adopted by the U.S. military until 1917, hence the model designation). Armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds were especially effective against aircraft, and the AP rounds and API rounds were excellent for destroying concrete bunkers, structures, and lighter AFVs. The API and APIT rounds left a flash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on enemy targets.* [6]
The .50 BMG cartridge is also used in long-range target and sniper rifles, as well as other .50-caliber machine guns. The use in single-shot and semi-automatic rifles has resulted in many specialized match-grade rounds not used in .50-caliber machine guns. A McMillan Tac-50 .50 BMG sniper rifle was used by Canadian Army Corporal Rob Furlong of the PPCLI to achieve what was then the longest-range confirmed sniper kill in history, when he shot a Taliban combatant at 2,430 meters (2,657 yards) during the 2002 campaign in the Afghanistan War.* [2] This record was surpassed in 2009 in Afghanistan by a British sniper with 2,475 meters (2,707 yards) though using a .338 Lapua Magnum (8.58×70 mm) rifle.* [3]* [4]
The development of the .50 BMG round is sometimes confused with the German 13.2 mm TuF, which was developed by Germany for an anti-tank rifle to combat British tanks during WWI; however, the development of the U.S. .50 caliber round was started before this later German project was completed or even known to the Allied countries. When word of the German anti-tank round spread, there was some debate as to whether it should be copied and used as a base for the new machine gun cartridge; after some analysis the German ammunition was ruled out, both because performance was inferior to the scaled-up .30-06 Springfield round and because it was a semi-rimmed cartridge, making it sub-optimal for an automatic weapon. The round's dimensions and ballistic traits are totally different. Instead, the M2HB Browning with its .50 caliber armor-piercing cartridges went on to function as an anti-aircraft and anti-vehicular machine gun, with a capability of completely perforating 0.875”(22.2 mm) of face-hardened armor steel plate at 100 yards (91 m), and 0.75”(19 mm) at 547 yards (500 m).* [7]
A former record for a confirmed long-distance kill was set by U.S. Marine sniper Carlos Hathcock in 1967, at a distance of 2,090 metres (2,286 yd);* [5] Hathcock used the .50 BMG in an M2 Browning Machine Gun equipped with a telescopic sight. This weapon was used by other snipers, and eventually purpose-built sniper rifles were developed specifically for this round.
DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) has contracted with Lockheed Martin to develop the EXACTO program, including .50-caliber bullets complete with microprocessors and steering vanes that allow the bullet to adjust its trajectory mid-flight to stay on target when the flight path has been altered by uncontrollable variables, as well as weapons that fire these rounds and monitor their flight. The weapon system is expected to be available in 2015. Decades later, the .50 BMG was chambered in highA wide variety of ammunition is available, and the avail- powered rifles as well. The concept of a .50 caliber ability of match grade ammunition has increased the use- machine gun was not an invention of this era; this calfulness of .50 caliber rifles by allowing more accurate fire iber (.50) had been used in Maxim machine guns and in a number of manual rapid fire guns such as the origi6
2.3. CARTRIDGE DIMENSIONS nal Gatling, although these were much lower power cartridges.
7
2.3 Cartridge dimensions
The .50 BMG cartridge.
During World War II the .50 BMG was primarily used in the M2 Browning machine gun for anti-aircraft purposes. An upgraded variant of the M2 Browning machine gun used during World War II is still in use today. Since the mid-1950s, some armored personnel carriers and utility vehicles have been made to withstand 12.7 mm machine gun fire, thus making it a much less flexible weapon. It still has more penetrating power than lighter weapons such as general-purpose machine guns, though it is significantly heavier and more cumbersome to transport. Its range and accuracy, however, are superior to light machine guns when fixed on tripods, and it has not been replaced as the standard caliber for western vehicle mounted machine guns (Soviet and CIS armoured vehicles mount the 12.7mm DShK NSV, which is ballistically very similar to the .50 BMG, but 14.5 mm KPV machine guns have significantly superior armor penetration compared to any 12.7 mm round. The Barrett M82 .50 caliber rifle and later variants were born during the 1980s and have upgraded the antimateriel power of the military sniper. A skilled sniper can effectively neutralize an infantry unit by eliminating several targets (soldiers or equipment) without revealing his precise location. The long range (1 mile+) between firing position and target allows time for the sniper to avoid enemy retribution by either changing positions repeatedly, or by safely retreating.
The 50 BMG 12.7 × 99 NATO cartridge has a capacity of 290 grains H2 O (19 ml). The round is a scaled up 2.2 Power version of the .30-06 Springfield but uses a case wall with a long taper to facilitate feeding and extraction in various A common method for understanding the actual power weapons. of a cartridge is by comparing muzzle energies. The .30-06 Springfield, the standard caliber for American sol- The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 1 in 15 diers in both World Wars and a popular caliber amongst in (380 mm), with 8 lands and grooves. The primer type American hunters, can produce muzzle energies between specified for this ammunition is Boxer primer that has 2,000 and 3,000 foot-pounds of energy (between 3 and a single centralized ignition point (US and NATO coun4 kilojoules). The .50 BMG round can produce between tries). However, some other countries produce the am10,000 and 15,000 foot pounds (between 14 and 18 kilo- munition with Berdan primers that have two flash holes. joules), depending on its powder and bullet type, as well The average chamber pressure in this round as listed in as the weapon it was fired from. Due to the high ballistic TM43-0001-27,* [8] the U.S. Army Ammunition Data coefficient of the bullet, the .50 BMG's trajectory also Sheets ̶Small Caliber Ammunition, not including plassuffers less “drift”from cross-winds than smaller and tic practice, short cased spotter, or proof/test loads, is lighter calibers, making the .50 BMG a good choice for 54,923 psi (378,680 kPa). The proof/test pressure is high-powered sniper rifles. listed as 65,000 psi (450,000 kPa).
8
2.4 Military cartridge types
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG round, against armored, flammable targets, with a tracer element for observation purposes. This cartridge is effectively a variant of the M8 ArmorPiercing Incendiary with the added tracer element. Can be fired from the M82/M107 series of rifles. This bullet has a red tip with a ring of aluminum paint. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, Headlight, M21 Tracer for use in observing fire during air-to-air combat. Designed to be more visible, the M21 is 3 times more brilliant than the M1 tracer. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Incendiary, M23 This cartridge is used against unarmored, flammable targets. The tip of the bullet is painted blue with a light blue ring.
Left to right, rear: Mk211, Spotter, Silver tip (Armor Piercing Incendiary), Blue tip (Incendiary), Black tip (Armor Piercing), SLAP-T, SLAP, Tracer, and Ball. Front row are 5.56×45mm NATO and .500 S&W Magnum for size comparison
.50 BMG cartridges are also produced commercially with a plethora of different bullets and to a number of different specifications. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M1 Tracer for observing fire, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. This bullet has a red tip. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Incendiary, M1 This cartridge is used against unarmored, flammable targets. The incendiary bullet has a light blue tip.
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, M33 This cartridge is used against personnel and unarmored targets. Can be fired from the M82/M107 series of rifles. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Saboted Light Armor Penetrator, M903 This cartridge has a 355 – 360 gr (23.00 – 23.33 g) heavy metal (tungsten) penetrator that is sabotlaunched at a muzzle velocity of 4,000 ft/s (1,219 m/s). The 0.50 in (12.7 mm) diameter sabot is designed to separate after leaving the muzzle, releasing the 0.30 (7.7 mm) penetrator. It is injection molded of special high strength plastic and is reinforced with an aluminum insert in the base section. The cartridge is identified by an amber sabot (Ultem 1000). For use only in the M2 series of machine guns. This round can penetrate 19mm of steel armor at 1500 yards.* [9]
Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, M2 This cartridge is used against personnel and unarmored targets. This bullet Cartridge, Caliber .50, Saboted Light Armor has an unpainted tip. Penetrator-Tracer, M962 Like the M903, this is a Saboted Light Armor PenCartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing, M2 This etrator (SLAP) round, with the only difference cartridge is used against lightly armored vehicles, being that the M962 also has a tracer element for protective shelters, and personnel, and can be observing fire, target designation, and incendiary identified by its black tip. purposes. It uses red colored plastic sabot for identification. For use only in the M2 series of Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiary, M8 machine guns. This cartridge is used, in place of the armor-piercing round, against armored, flammable targets. The Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, XM1022 A long-range bullet has a silver tip. match cartridge specifically designed for long range work using the M107 rifle. Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M10 Tracer for observing fire, signaling, target designation, and incendiary purposes. Designed to be less intense than the Cartridge, Caliber .50, M1022 Long Range Sniper The .50 Caliber M1022 has an olive green bullet M1 tracer, the M10 has an orange tip. coating with no tip ID coloration. The projectile is Cartridge, Caliber .50, Tracer, M17 Tracer for obof standard ball design. It is designed for long-range serving fire, signaling, target designation, and incensniper training and tactical use against targets that diary purposes. Can be fired from the M82/M107 do not require armor-piercing or incendiary effect. series of rifles. It exhibits superior long range accuracy and is trajectory matched to MK211 grade A. The M1022 Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiaryis ideal for use in all .50 Caliber bolt-action and Tracer, M20 This cartridge is used, in place of the armor-piercing semi-automatic sniper platforms.* [10] The bullet
2.5. LINKS USED FOR FEEDING MACHINE GUNS remains supersonic out to 1,500 m (1,640 yd) to 1,600 m (1,750 yd).* [11]
9
2.5 Links used for feeding machine guns
Cartridge, Caliber .50, High-Explosive ArmorPiercing-Incendiary (HEIAP), Mk 211 Mod 0 A so-called “combined effects”cartridge, the Mk 211 Mod 0 High-Explosive-Incendiary-ArmorPiercing (HEIAP) cartridge contains a .30 caliber tungsten penetrator, zirconium powder, and Composition A explosive. It can be used in any .50 caliber weapon in US inventory with the exception of the M85 machine gun. Cartridge is identified by a green tip with a grey ring.
Two distinct and non-compatible metallic links have been used for the .50 BMG cartridge, depending upon the machine gun which will be firing the cartridges. The M2 and M9 links, “pull-out”designs, are used in the Browning M2 and M3 machine guns. Pull-out cloth belts were also used at one time, but have been obsolete since 1945. The M15-series “push-through”links were used in the M85 machine gun. When the M85 was taken out of service, large stocks of ammunition linked with the M15 link remained in US military storage because of the ease with Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor Piercing Incendiary which linked ammunition can be de-linked and re-linked Dim Tracer (API-DT), Mk 257 The .50 Caliber Mk 257 API-DT has a purple bul- with different (i.e. in service) links. let tip. The bullet has a hardened steel core and incendiary tip. The .50 Caliber MK257 is used in machine guns M2, M3, and M85. Dim trace 2.6 Legal issues reduces the possibility of the weapon being located during night fire and is visible with night vision The specified maximum diameter of an unfired .50 BMG devices only.* [10] bullet is 0.510-inch (13.0 mm); while this appears to be over Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing (AP), Mk 263 Mod 2 the .50 inch (12.7 mm) maximum allowed for The .50 Caliber Mk 265 has a black tip. The bullet non-sporting Title In small arms under the U.S. National has a hardened steel core. It is used in machine Firearms Act, the barrel of a .50 BMG rifle is only .50 inch (12.7 mm) across the rifling lands and slightly larger guns M2, M3, and M85. in the grooves. The oversized bullet is formed to the bore Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Incendiary- size upon firing, forming a tight seal and engaging the Tracer (API-T), Mk 300 Mod 0 rifling, a mechanism which in firearms terms is known As with the Mk 211 Mod 0, but with a tracer com- as engraving. Subject to political controversy due to the ponent. This cartridge likely can be used in any .50 great power of the cartridge (it is the most powerful comcaliber weapon in US inventory with the exception monly available cartridge not considered a destructive deof the M85 machine gun, as with the Mk 211 Mod vice under the National Firearms Act), it remains popular 0. among long-range shooters for its accuracy and external Cartridge, Caliber .50, Armor-Piercing-Explosive- ballistics. While the .50 BMG round is able to deliver accurate shot placement (if match grade ammunition is Incendiary (APEI), Mk 169 Mod 2 This cartridge is used against hardened targets such used) at ranges over 1,000-yard (910 m), smaller caliber as bunkers, for suppressive fire against lightly rifles produce better scores and tighter groups in 1,000armored vehicles, and ground and aerial threat yard (910 m) competitions.* [16] suppression. It is generally fired either from In response to legal action against the .50 BMG in the pilot-aimed aircraft-mounted guns or anti-aircraft United States and Europe, an alternative chambering was platforms both produced by FN Herstal.* [12] It is developed. The .510 DTC Europ uses the same bullet, identified by a gray over yellow tip.* [13] A tracer but has slightly different case dimensions. .510 DTC variant of it also exists. cases can be made by fire-forming .50 BMG cases in a Cartridge, Caliber .50, Ball, Mk 323 Mod 0 Created by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, this cartridge uses M33 ball projectiles in a polymer case instead of brass. It has a clear polymer case, with a standard brass head fused at the bottom. The Mk 323 can be fired from M2HB/M2A1 machine guns and GAU-21/A aircraft guns with the same performance. It gives a 25 percent weight savings over brass-cased ammunition and allows 40 percent more ammunition to be carried for the same weight. The Mk 323's polymer casing will be applied to tracer, AP, API, and SLAP projectiles.* [14]* [15]
.510 DTC chambered rifle. The new round has almost identical ballistics, but because of the different dimensions, rifles chambered for .50 BMG cannot fire the .510 DTC, and therefore rifles chambered for .510 DTC do not fall under many of the same legal prohibitions. Barrett offers a similar alternative, the .416 Barrett, which is based on a shortened .50 BMG case necked down to .416 caliber (10.3 mm). A 1999 Justice Department Office of Special Investigations briefing on .50 caliber rifle crime identified several instances of the .50 BMG being involved in criminal activities.* [17] Most of the instances of criminal activity cited in the Office of Special Investigations briefing in-
10 volved the illegal possession of a .50 BMG rifle. The briefing did not identify any instance of a .50 BMG rifle being used in the commission of a murder.
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG
2.8 Partial list firearms
of
.50
BMG
Within the United Kingdom, it is legal to own a .50 BMG 2.8.1 Carbines rifle with a section 1 Firearms Certificate.* [18] Applications requesting firearms in this caliber are not subject to • Barrett M82CQ (a carbine version of the M82A3) any extra scrutiny compared to smaller calibers.* [19] • Bushmaster BA50 carbine (22”barrel version of the There have been persistent reports of a belief among BA50) some members of the United States Armed Forces that the use of .50 BMG in a direct antipersonnel role is somehow prohibited by the laws of war. This is incorrect and 2.8.2 Rifles has been characterized as a myth; writing for the Marine Corps Gazette, Maj. Hays Parks states that “No treaty • Accuracy International AS50 language exists (either generally or specifically) to support a limitation on [the use of .50 BMG] against per• Accuracy International AW50 sonnel, and its widespread, longstanding use in this role • Accuracy International AX50 suggests that such antipersonnel employment is the customary practice of nations.”Parks theorizes that the myth • Anzio Iron Works Anzio-50 originated in historical doctrine discouraging the use of the M8C spotting rifle ̶an integral .50-caliber aiming • Armalite AR-50 aid for the M40 recoilless rifle̶in the antipersonnel role. • Arms Tech Ltd. TTR-50* [22] This limitation was entirely tactical in nature, having been intended to help conceal the vulnerable M40 and its crew • Barrett M82/M107 from the enemy before the main anti-tank gun could be fired, but some personnel may have erroneously assumed • Barrett M95 the existence of a legal limitation on the use of .50-caliber • Barrett M99 projectiles more generally.* [20] • Bluegrass Armory Viper* [23] • Bohica MK III AR-15 Upper* [24]*
2.7 Typical uses The primary military use of this round is in the Browning M2HB heavy machine gun.
• Bushmaster BA50* [25] • ČZW-127 • Desert Tactical Arms HTI • DSR-50
The U.S. Coast Guard uses .50 BMG rifles to disable outboard engines from armed helicopters during interdictions. Similarly, .50 BMG weapons have attracted attention from law enforcement agencies; they have been adopted by the New York City Police Department as well as the Pittsburgh Police. A .50 BMG round can effectively disable a vehicle when fired into the engine block. If it is necessary to breach barriers, a .50 BMG round will penetrate most commercial brick walls and concrete cinder blocks.
• East Ridge / State Arms Gun Co. Inc.* [26]
In addition to long-range and anti-materiel sniping, the U.S. military uses .50 BMG weapons to detonate unexploded ordnance from a safe distance. The Raufoss Multipurpose round has sufficient terminal performance to disable most unarmored and lightly armored vehicles, making .50 BMG caliber weapons helpful in antiinsurgency operations.
• POLY-Technologies M99-II* [29] and M99BII* [30]
Some civilians use .50 caliber rifles for long-range target shooting: the US-based Fifty Caliber Shooters Association holds .50 BMG shooting matches.* [21]
• Robar RC-50
• EDM Arms Windrunner* [27] • Gepard anti-materiel rifle • L.A.R. Manufacturing, Inc. Grizzly Big Boar • McMillan Tac-50 • OM 50 Nemesis* [28]
• PGM Hecate II • Pindad SPR-2 and Pindad SPR-3* [31] • Ramo M600 and M650* [32]
• Safety Harbor Firearms SHF/R50* [33]
2.10. REFERENCES
11
• Serbu Firearms BFG-50 (single-shot bolt-action) and BFG-50A (semi-automatic) • Spider Firearms Ferret 50
• NATO EPVAT testing • Gun laws in the United States (by state) • .50 Caliber BMG Regulation Act of 2004
• Steyr HS .50 • TGR Co. LLC $1599 Noreen 50 BMG* [34]
2.10 References
• Ultralite50/Ligamec Corp. [35] *
• Vigilance Rifles Inc. M14 (semi-automatic)* [36] • Vulcan Armament V50* [37] • WKW Wilk • Zastava M93 Black Arrow • Zel Custom Manufacturing/Tactilite* [35]
2.8.3
Machine guns
• CIS 50MG • GAU-19 • M2 Browning machine gun • M85 machine gun
[1] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand Capability Group 1 - Dismounted Soldier NATO Army Armaments Group [2] Michael Friscolanti (May 15, 2006). “Friscolanti, Michael (May 15, 2006). “We were abandoned”, Macleans 119 (20)". Macleans.ca. Archived from the original on February 23, 2011. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [3] Michael Smith (May 2, 2010). “Hotshot sniper in oneand-a-half mile double kill”. The Sunday Times (UK). Retrieved August 27, 2010. [4] Michael Sheridan (May 3, 2010). “British sniper Craig Harrison (The Silent Assassin) breaks record, kills target from 1.5 miles away”. Daily News. New York. Archived from the original on October 18, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
• MAC-58 - did not enter production
[5] Henderson, Charles (2003). Silent Warrior (2003 ed.). Berkley Books. p. 181. ISBN 0-425-18864-7.
• Rolls-Royce Experimental Machine Gun - only built as prototype
[6] Dunlap, Roy F., Ordnance Went Up Front, Samworth Press (1948), pp. 311–312.
• WKM-B • XM312
2.8.4
Pistols
• Triple Action Thunder
2.9 See also • .50 caliber handguns • 12 mm caliber • 12.7×108mm • 14.5×114mm • List of firearms • List of rifle cartridges • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges • High Explosive Incendiary/Armor Piercing Ammunition • .510 DTC EUROP
[7] Barnes, Frank C., Cartridges of the World, U.S. Army .50 BMG Cartridge Specifications, DBI Books (1989), ISBN 978-0-87349-033-7, p. 432. [8] “Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Small Caliber Ammunition”(PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. April 1994. p. 150. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [9] “albums/oo255/FEDE_EL_SOMALI/1-15”. i381.photobucket.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [10] “Small Caliber Ammunition” (PDF). ATK. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [11] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Rifles by Anthony G Williams [12] Janes listing of the FN Herstal .50 cal M3P coaxial weapon system (Belgium). Archived June 7, 2011 at the Wayback Machine [13] Igman Ammunition Cal. 12.7 x 99 mm, APEI, M 02. [14] Crane Using Lightweight .50 Cal Ammo - Kitup. Military.com, 11 September 2011 [15] Jarod Stoll and Kathryn Hunt (21 May 2012).“Advancements in Lightweight .50 Caliber Ammunition” (PDF). Retrieved July 28, 2014. [16] GunWeek.com. “SHOT Show 2006 New Rifles, Shotguns, Pistols Offer Enhanced Performance”.
12
[17] General Accounting Office.“Weaponry: .50 Caliber Rifle Crime,”GAO Office of Special Investigations letter”. [18] “Home”. fcsa.co.uk. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [19] Home Office (June 2014). “Guide on firearms licensing law” (PDF). Retrieved July 28, 2014. [20] Parks, Maj W. Hays (January 1988). “Killing A Myth” . Marine Corps Gazette. Retrieved February 20, 2014. [21] Match dates at the Fifty Caliber Shooters Association Archived August 2, 2008 at the Wayback Machine [22] “Arms Tech Ltd. TTR-50”. [23] “Good Time Outdoors, Inc”. Bluegrassarmory.com. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [24] “Bohica Arms”. Bohica Arms. Archived from the original on August 17, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [25] “Bushmaster Firearms”. Bushmaster Firearms International. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011. [26] “East Ridge Gun Company Inc. Homepage”. Statearms.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [27] “M96 .50 Cal BMG”. E.D.M. Arms. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [28] Chris L. Movigliatti. “A.M.S.D. Sa”. Amsd.ch. Archived from the original on September 13, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [29] “POLY-Technologies M99 anti-matériel rifle series on Modern Firearms.net”. World.guns.ru. Archived from the original on August 19, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [30] “POLY-Technologies M99b anti-matériel rifle series on Modern Firearms.net”. World.guns.ru. Archived from the original on August 8, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [31] “PT. Pindad (Persero) - Home”. pindad.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [32] “RAMO DEFENCE M650 and M600”. Securityarms.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [33] “Safety Harbor Firearms, Inc”. Safetyharborfirearms.com. Archived from the original on July 27, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [34] “only long range”. Archived from the original on April 19, 2009. Retrieved March 24, 2009. [35] “Zel Custom Mfg.”. Archived from the original on January 30, 2011. Retrieved August 27, 2010. [36] “Vigilance Rifles Semi-automatic Rifles”. Retrieved September 10, 2014. [37] “Vulcan Armament Inc.”. Vulcanarmament.com. Archived from the original on August 22, 2010. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
CHAPTER 2. .50 BMG
2.11 External links • TM43-0001-27 US Army Ammunition Data Sheets – Small Caliber Ammunition, HQ Department of the Army, 6/81, Including changes (Not to be used as reloading data) • .50 Caliber Browning (12.7 × 99 mm) Ammunition
Chapter 3
5.56×45mm NATO The 5.56×45mm NATO (official NATO nomenclature 5.56 NATO) is an intermediate cartridge developed in the United States and originally chambered in the M16 rifle. Under STANAG 4172, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.* [3] It is derived from, but not identical to, the .223 Remington cartridge.
3.1 History
when the selection of the 7.62×51mm NATO was made. The FN company had also been involved.* [5] The concerns about recoil and effectiveness were effectively overruled by the US within NATO, and the other NATO nations accepted that standardization was more important at the time than selection of the ideal cartridge. However, while the 7.62×51mm NATO round became NATO standard, the US was already engaged in research of their own, which ultimately led to the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge. During the late 1950s, ArmaLite and other U.S. firearm designers started their individual Small Caliber/High Velocity (SCHV) assault rifle experiments using the commercial .222 Remington cartridge. When it became clear that there was not enough powder capacity to meet U.S. Continental Army Command's (CONARC) velocity and penetration requirements, ArmaLite contacted Remington to create a similar cartridge with a longer case body and shorter neck. This became the .222 Remington Special. At the same time, Springfield Armory's Earle Harvey had Remington create an even longer cartridge case then known as the .224 Springfield. Springfield was forced to drop out of the CONARC competition, and thus the .224 Springfield was later released as a commercial sporting cartridge known as the .222 Remington Magnum. To prevent confusion among all of the competing .222 cartridge designations, the .222 Remington Special was renamed the .223 Remington. With the U.S. military adoption of the ArmaLite M16 rifle in 1963, the .223 Remington was standardized as the 5.56×45mm NATO. As a commercial sporting cartridge the .223 Remington was introduced in 1964.
The 7.62×51mm NATO and 5.56×45mm NATO cartridges compared to an AA battery.
In the 1950s, the 7.62×51mm NATO rifle cartridge (sold commercially as the .308 Winchester rifle cartridge)* [4] was selected to replace the .30-06 Springfield as the standard NATO rifle cartridge. At the time of selection, there had been criticism that the 7.62×51mm NATO was too powerful for light weight modern service rifles, causing excessive recoil, and that the ammunition did not allow for sufficient rate of fire in modern combat. The British had extensive evidence with their own experiments into an intermediate cartridge since 1945 and were on the point of introducing a .280 inch (7 mm) cartridge
The 5.56×45mm cartridge, along with the M16 rifle, were initially adopted by U.S. infantry forces as interim solutions to address the weight and control issues experienced with the 7.62×51mm round and M14 rifle. In the late 1950s, the Special Purpose Individual Weapon program sought to create flechette rounds to allow troops to fire sabot-type projectiles to give a short flight time and flat trajectory with a muzzle velocity of 1,200 metres per second (3,900 ft/s) to 1,500 metres per second (4,900 ft/s). At those speeds, factors like range, wind drift, and target movement would no longer affect performance. Several manufacturers produced varying weapons designs,
13
14 including traditional wooden, bullpup,“space age,”and even multi-barrel designs with drum magazines. All used similar ammunition firing a 1.8 mm diameter dart with a plastic “puller”sabot filling the case mouth. While the flechette ammo had excellent armor penetration, there were doubts about their terminal effectiveness against unprotected targets. Conventional cased ammunition was more accurate and the sabots were expensive to produce. The SPIW never created a weapons system that was combat effective, so the M16 was retained, and the 5.56 mm round was kept as the standard U.S. infantry rifle cartridge.* [5]
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO a steel helmet at 600 meters. This requirement made the SS109 (M855) round less capable of fragmentation than the M193 and was considered more humane.* [12] The 5.56×45mm NATO inspired an international tendency towards relatively small sized, light weight, high velocity military service cartridges that produce relatively low bolt thrust and free recoil impulse, favoring light weight arms design and automatic fire accuracy. Similar intermediate cartridges were developed and introduced by the Soviet Union in 1974 (5.45×39mm) and by the People's Republic of China in 1987 (5.8×42mm).* [5]* [13]
In a series of mock-combat situations testing in the early 1960s with the M16, M14 and AK-47, the Army found that the M16's small size and light weight allowed it to be brought to bear much more quickly. Their final conclusion was that an 8-man team equipped with the M16 would have the same fire-power as a current 11-man team armed with the M14. U.S. troops were able to carry more 3.2 Cartridge dimensions than twice as much 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition as 7.62×51mm NATO for the same weight, which would allow them a better advantage (“battle rattle”) against a The 5.56×45mm NATO has 1.85 ml (28.5 grains H O) 2 typical NVA unit armed with AK-47, AKM or Type 56 cartridge case capacity. assault rifles. (*AK-47/AKM magazines are much heavier than M14 and M16 magazines)
Service rifle cartridges cases: (Left to right) 7.62×54mm R, 7.62×51mm NATO, 7.62×39mm, 5.56×45mm NATO, 5.45×39mm.
In 1977, NATO members signed an agreement to select a second, smaller caliber cartridge to replace the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.* [8] Of the cartridges tendered, the 5.56×45mm NATO was successful, but not the 55 gr M193 round used by the U.S. at that time. The wounds produced by the M193 round were so devastating that many* [9] consider it to be inhumane.* [10]* [11] Instead, the Belgian 62 gr SS109 round was chosen for standardization. The SS109 used a heavier bullet with a steel tip and had a lower muzzle velocity for better longrange performance, specifically to meet a requirement that the bullet be able to penetrate through one side of
5.56×45mm NATO maximum NATO cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimeters (mm).* [14]* [15] Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 = 23 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 178 mm (1 in 7 in) or 229 mm (1 in 9 in), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 5.56 mm, Ø grooves = 5.69 mm, land width = 1.88 mm and the primer type is small rifle. According to the official NATO proofing guidelines the 5.56×45mm NATO case can handle up to 430 MPa (62,366 psi) piezo service pressure. In NATO regulated organizations every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum pressure to certify for service issue. This is equal to the C.I.P. maximum pressure guideline for the .223 Remington cartridge, which is the 5.56×45mm NATO parent cartridge.
3.3. PERFORMANCE
15 fragments.* [19]* [20] These remote wounding effects are known as hydrostatic shock.* [21] SS109/M855 NATO ball can penetrate up to 3 mm (0.12 in) of steel at 600 meters.* [22] According to Nammo, a Norwegian ammunition producer, the 5.56×45mm NATO M995 armour piercing cartridge can penetrate up to 12 mm (0.47 in) of RHA steel at 100 meters.* [23] The US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory measured a ballistic coefficient (G7 BC) of 0.151 and form factor (G7 i) of 1.172 for the SS109/M855 ball projectile.* [24] The Swedish military has measured the bullet velocities of SS109/M855 military cartridges at 4 m (13.1 ft) from the muzzle fired from differing barrel lengths:* [25]
5.56mm NATO shown alongside other cartridges
3.3.1 Criticism
5.56×45mm NATO cartridges in a STANAG magazine.
There has been much debate of the allegedly poor performance of the bullet on target, especially the first-shot kill rate when the muzzle velocity of the firearms used and the downrange bullet deceleration do not achieve the minimally required terminal velocity of over 750 m/s (2,500 ft/s) at the target to cause fragmentation. Many complaints were reported during the Gulf War, Somalia, and in the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. This can be attributed to the change in barrel length, as this cartridge was designed to achieve maximum performance in a 20inch (51 cm) barrel. The 14.5-inch (37 cm) barrel of the U.S. military's M4 carbine generates considerably less muzzle velocity than the longer 20-inch (51 cm) barrel found on the M16 rifle, and terminal performance can be a particular problem with the M4.
3.3 Performance The 5.56×45mm NATO SS109/M855 cartridge (NATO: SS109; U.S.: M855) with standard 62 gr. lead core bullets with steel penetrator will penetrate approximately 38 to 51 cm (15 to 20 in) into soft tissue in ideal circumstances. As with all spitzer shaped projectiles it is prone to yaw in soft tissue. However, at impact velocities above roughly 762 m/s (2,500 ft/s), it may yaw and then fragment at the cannelure (the crimping groove around the cylinder of the bullet).* [16] These fragments can disperse through flesh and bone, inflicting additional internal injuries.* [17] Fragmentation, if and when it occurs, imparts much greater damage to human tissue than bullet dimensions and velocities would suggest. This fragmentation effect is highly dependent on velocity, and therefore barrel length: short-barreled carbines generate less muzzle velocity and therefore lose wounding effectiveness at much shorter ranges than longer-barreled rifles.* [18] Proponents of the hydrostatic shock theory contend that the rapid transfer of energy also results in wounding effects beyond the tissue directly crushed and torn by the bullet and
The 5.56×45mm NATO standard SS109/M855 cartridge was designed for maximum performance when fired from a 508 mm (20.0 in) long barrel, as was the original 5.56 mm M193 cartridge. Experiments with longer length barrels up to 610 mm (24.0 in) resulted in no improvement or a decrease in muzzle velocities for the SS109/M855 cartridge. Shorter barrels produce a greater flash and noise signature, and the addition of a suppressor to a short barreled AR family rifle can make it unreliable, as the reduced time for the propellant to burn in the barrel and higher muzzle pressure levels at the suppressor entrance can cause faster cycling and feeding issues. Unless the gas port can be regulated or adjusted for higher pressures, suppressors for short barreled 5.56×45mm NATO firearms must be larger and heavier than models for standard length rifles to function reliably. SS109/M855 cartridges fired from barrels under about 254 mm (10.0 in) in length do not have enough muzzle velocity energy to cause bullet fragmentation that occurs only at terminal velocities of over 750 m/s (2,500 ft/s) on impact, reducing the wounding capacity.* [26]* [27] Combat operations the past few months have again highlighted terminal performance deficiencies with 5.56×45mm 62 gr. M855
16
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO FMJ. These problems have primarily been manifested as inadequate incapacitation of enemy forces despite them being hit multiple times by M855 bullets. These failures appear to be associated with the bullets exiting the body of the enemy soldier without yawing and fragmenting. This failure to yaw and fragment can be caused by reduced impact velocities as when fired from short barrel weapons or when the range increases. Although all SS109/M855 types must be 62 gr. FMJ bullets constructed with a steel penetrator in the nose, the composition, thickness, and relative weights of the jackets, penetrators, and cores are quite variable, as are the types and position of the cannelures. Because of the significant differences in construction between bullets within the SS109/M855 category, terminal performance is quite variable – with differences noted in yaw, fragmentation, and penetration depths. Luke Haag's papers in the AFTE Journal (33(1):11–28, Winter 2001) also describes this problem. ̶* [28]
Wound profiles in ballistic gelatin Note: images are not to same scale
M16 M193 5.56×45mm
M16A2 SS109/M855 5.56×45mm NATO If 5.56 mm bullets fail to upset (yaw, frag-
ment, or deform) within tissue, the results are relatively insignificant wounds. This is true for all 5.56×45mm bullets, including both military FMJ and OTM (open tip match) and civilian JHP/JSP designs used in law enforcement. As expected, with decreased wounding effects, rapid incapacitation is unlikely: enemy soldiers may continue to pose a threat to friendly forces and violent suspects can remain a danger to law enforcement personnel and the public. This failure of 5.56×45mm NATO bullets to yaw and fragment can be caused by reduced impact velocities as when fired from short-barreled weapons or when the range to the target increases. Failure to yaw and fragment can also occur when the bullets pass through only minimal tissue, such as a limb or the chest of a thin, small statured individual, as the bullet may exit the body before it has a chance to yaw and fragment. Two other yaw issues: Angle-of-Attack (AOA) variations between different projectiles, even within the same lot of ammo, as well as Fleet Yaw variations between different rifles, were elucidated in 2006 by the Joint Service Wound Ballistic Integrated Product Team (JSWB-IPT), which included experts from the military law enforcement user community, trauma surgeons, aero ballisticians, weapon and munitions engineers, and other scientific specialists. These yaw issues were most noticeable at close ranges and were more prevalent with certain calibers and bullet styles ̶the most susceptible being 5.56×45mm NATO FMJ ammunition like SS109/M855 and M193. ̶Dr. Martin Fackler* [29]
Despite complaints that the 5.56×45mm NATO round lacks stopping power, others contend that animal studies of the wounding effects of the 5.56×45mm NATO round versus the 7.62×39mm have found that the 5.56×45mm NATO round is more damaging, due to the post-impact behavior of the 5.56 mm projectile resulting in greater cavitation of soft tissues.* [30] The US Army contended in 2003 that the lack of close range lethality of the 5.56×45mm NATO was more a matter of perception than fact. With controlled pairs and good shot placement to the head and chest, the target was usually defeated without issue. The majority of failures were the result of hitting the target in non-vital areas such as extremities. However, a minority of failures occurred in spite of multiple hits to the chest.* [31] Some have contended that shot placement is the most important parameter in determining the lethality of a bullet. Difficulty with the 5.56×45mm NATO at range has been attributed to training, as few nations other than the US* [32] teach shooting beyond 200–300 meters to regu-
3.3. PERFORMANCE lar soldiers; Swedish ISAF units relied on .50 BMG heavy machine guns for long-range shooting due to resilience to factors such as range and wind drift. Underperformance is thus attributed to errors in range and wind estimation, target lead, firing position, and stress under fire, factors that can be resolved through training.* [25]* [33]
3.3.2
Improvements
Advances have been made in 5.56 mm ammunition. The U.S. military had adopted for limited issue a 77-grain (5.0 g) “Match”bullet, type classified as the Mk 262. The heavy, lightly constructed bullet fragments more violently at short range and also has a longer fragmentation range.* [34] Originally designed for use in the Mk 12 SPR, the ammunition has found favor with special forces* [35] units who were seeking a more effective cartridge to fire from their M4A1 carbines. Commercially available loadings using these heavier (and longer) bullets can be prohibitively expensive and cost much more than military surplus ammunition. Additionally, these heavy-for-caliber loadings sacrifice some penetrative ability compared to the M855 round (which has a steel penetrator tip). Performance of 5.56×45 mm military ammunition can generally be categorized as almost entirely dependent upon velocity in order to wound effectively. Heavy OTM bullets enhance soft tissue wounding ability at the expense of hard-target/barrier penetration. U.S. Special Forces had sought to create a round that had increased power out of carbine M4 barrels and compact SCAR-L barrels, while increasing hard target performance. Developmental efforts led to the creation of the Mk318. The bullet uses an open-tip design to inflict damage on soft tissue, and has a brass rear to penetrate hard targets. The tip and lead core fragments consistently even when using short barrels, while the rear moves through once the front impacts.* [36] It has more consistent performance because it is not yaw-dependent like the M855; the nose fragments upon impact and solid rear penetrator continues to move relatively straight. This makes the Mk318 effective against personnel with or without body armor. The round also increases accuracy, from 3–5 minute of angle (MOA) with the M855 from an M4A1 barrel to 1.71 MOA at 300 yards and 1.67 MOA at 600 yards from a 14 in (360 mm) SCAR-L barrel.* [37]
17 (9.5 mm) of mild steel at 350 meters, which the M855 can only do at 160 meters. The propellant burns faster, which decreases the muzzle flash and gives a higher muzzle velocity, an important feature when fired from a short barreled M4 carbine. Though the M855A1 is more expensive to produce, its performance is considered to compensate. One possible danger is that it generates much greater pressure in the chamber when fired, decreasing service life of parts, and increasing the risk of catastrophic failure of the weapon, though this has yet to occur.* [38]* [39] The U.S. Marines adopted the Mk318 in early 2010 due to delays with the M855A1. This was a temporary measure until the M855A1 was available for them, which occurred in mid-2010 when the Army began to receive the rounds. Both the Mk318 and M855A1 weigh the same and have similar performance, and both have better performance than the M855 against all targets. SOCOM spent less money developing the Mk318 and it is marginally better than the M855A1 in some situations, but costs more per round. The Army spent more developing the M855A1 which performs as well or nearly as well as the Mk318, but is cheaper per round and has the advantage of being lead-free. While SOCOM constantly looks for better equipment, the Army and Marines have far more troops to supply and buy more ammunition than SOCOM.* [40]
3.3.3 Alternatives If the 5.56 mm bullet is moving too slowly to reliably fragment on impact, the wound size and potential to incapacitate a person is greatly reduced. There have been numerous attempts to create an intermediate cartridge that addresses the complaints of 5.56 NATO's lack of stopping power along with lack of controllability seen in rifles firing 7.62 NATO in full auto. Some alternative cartridges like the .270 caliber 6.8mm Remington SPC (6.8×43mm) focused on superior short-range performance by sacrificing long-distance performance due to the relatively short engagement distances typically observed in urban warfare. Others, like the 6.5mm Grendel (6.5×39mm), are attempts at engineering an all purpose cartridge that could replace both the 5.56 and 7.62 NATO rounds. The 300 AAC Blackout (7.62×35mm) round was designed to have the power of the 7.62×39mm for use in an M4 platform using standard M4 magazines, and to easily interchange between subsonic ammunition for suppressed firing and supersonic rounds. All these cartridges have certain advantages over the 5.56×45mm NATO, but they have their own individual tradeoffs to include lower muzzle velocity, less range, decreased magazine capacity, and different internal parts. None of these cartridges have gained any significant traction beyond sport shooting communities.
For general issue, the U.S. Army adopted the M855A1 round in 2010 to replace the M855. The primary reason was pressure to use non-lead bullets. The lead slug is replaced by a copper alloy slug in a reverse-drawn jacket, with a hardened steel penetrator extending beyond the jacket, reducing lead contamination to the environment. The M855A1 offers several improvements other than being lead-free. It is slightly more accurate, has better consistency of effect in regards to wounding ability, and has an increased penetrating capability. The round can bet- By late 2004, the 6.8mm Remington SPC was in limited ter penetrate steel, brick, concrete, and masonry walls, as use with U.S. Special Operators.* [41] However, it was well as body armor and sheet metal. It penetrates 3 ⁄8 in not adopted for widespread use due to resistance from of-
18 ficials on changing calibers.* [42] In 2007, both the U.S. SOCOM and the U.S. Marine Corps decided not to field weapons chambered in 6.8×43mm due to logistical and cost issues.* [43] An unnamed LWRC representative said in January 2014 that the US military is once again taking a look at the 6.8 SPCII after all the commercial development in the last 10 years.* [44]
3.4 5.56 mm NATO versus .223 Remington
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO tocols measuring pressure using a drilled case, rather than an intact case with a conformal piston, along with other differences.* [51] NATO uses NATO EPVAT pressure test protocols for their small arms ammunition specifications. Because of these differences in methodology, the CIP pressure of 430 MPa (62,366 psi) is the same as a SAAMI pressure of 380 MPa (55,114 psi), which is reflected in US Military specifications for 5.56 mm NATO, which call for a mean maximum pressure of 55,000 PSI (when measured using a protocol similar to SAAMI).* [52] These pressures are generated and measured using a chamber cut to 5.56 NATO specifications, including the longer leade. Firing 5.56mm NATO from a chamber with a shorter .223 Remington leade can generate pressures in excess of SAAMI maximums.
The 5.56 mm NATO and .223 Remington cartridges and chamberings are similar but not identical.* [45] While the cartridges are identical other than powder load, the chamber leade, i.e. the area where the rifling begins, is cut to a sharper angle on some .223 commercial chambers. Because of this, a cartridge loaded to generate 5.56mm pressures in a 5.56mm chamber may develop pressures 3.4.3 Chamber that exceed SAAMI limits when fired from a short-leade The 5.56 mm NATO chambering, known as a NATO or .223 Remington chamber. mil-spec chamber, has a longer leade, which is the distance between the mouth of the cartridge and the point at which the rifling engages the bullet. The .223 Rem3.4.1 Brass case ington chambering, known as SAAMI chamber, is alThe dimensional specifications of 5.56 NATO and .223 lowed to have a shorter leade, and is only required to commercial brass cases are identical. The cases tend to be proof tested to the lower SAAMI chamber pressure. have similar case capacity when measured, with varia- To address these issues, various proprietary chambers extions chiefly due to brand, not 5.56 vs .223 designation. ist, such as the Wylde chamber (Rock River Arms)* [53] The result of this is that there is no such thing as “5.56 or the ArmaLite chamber, which are designed to hanbrass”or ".223 brass”, the differences in the cartridges dle both 5.56×45mm NATO and .223 Remington equally lie in pressure ratings and in chamber leade length, not in well. The dimensions and leade of the .223 Remington minimum C.I.P. chamber also differ from the 5.56 mm the shape or thickness of the brass.* [46]* [47] NATO chamber specification. In July 2012, the Army solicited a request for vendors to supply alternative cartridge cases to reduce the weight Using commercial .223 Remington cartridges in a 5.56 of an M855A1 5.56 mm round by at least 10 percent, mm NATO chambered rifle should work reliably, but unas well as for the 7.62 NATO and .50 BMG rounds. til recently, it was believed this was less accurate than The cartridge cases must maintain all performance re- when fired from a .223 Remington chambered gun due to quirements when fully assembled, be able to be used by the longer leade.* [54] Although that may have been true the Lake City Army Ammunition Plant, must be manu- in the early 1960s when the two rounds were developed, factured in quantities totaling approximately 45 million recent testing has shown that with today's ammunition, per year. Polymer-cased ammunition is expected as a rifles chambered in 5.56mm can also fire .223 ammunilikely lightweight case technology.* [48] A hybrid poly- tion every bit as accurately as rifles chambered in .223 mer/metal version of a conventional cartridge case would Remington, and the 5.56mm chamber has the additional be thicker than regular cases and reduce the amount of advantage of being able to safely fire both calibers.* [55] space for the propellant,* [49] although certain polymers Using 5.56 mm NATO mil-spec cartridges (such as the could be thermodynamically more efficient and not lose M855) in a .223 Remington chambered rifle can lead to excessive wear and stress on the rifle and even be unsafe, energy to the case or chamber when fired.* [50] and SAAMI recommends against the practice.* [56]* [57] Some commercial rifles marked as ".223 Remington”are 3.4.2 Pressure in fact suited for 5.56 mm NATO, such as many commercial AR-15 variants and the Ruger Mini-14 (marked C.I.P. defines the maximum service and proof test pres- ".223 cal”, except the Mini-14 “Target”model, which sures of the .223 Remington cartridge equal to the 5.56 only fires .223), but the manufacturer should always be mm NATO, at 430 MPa (62,366 psi). This differs from consulted to verify that this is acceptable before attemptthe SAAMI maximum pressure specification for .223 ing it, and signs of excessive pressure (such as flattening Remington of 380 MPa (55,114 psi), due to CIP test pro- or gas staining of the primers) should be looked for in the
3.6. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES initial testing with 5.56 mm NATO ammunition.* [58] It should also be noted that the upper receiver (to which the barrel with its chamber are attached) and the lower receiver are entirely separate parts in AR-15 style rifles. If the lower receiver has either .223 or 5.56 stamped on it, it does not guarantee the upper assembly is rated for the same caliber, because the upper and the lower receiver in the same rifle can, and frequently do, come from different manufacturers – particularly with rifles sold to civilians or second-hand rifles. In more practical terms, as of 2010 most AR-15 parts suppliers engineer their complete upper assemblies (not to be confused with stripped uppers where the barrel is not included) to support both calibers in order to satisfy market demand and prevent any potential problems.
19 trajectory than a 7.62 NATO round fired from a barrel of equal length, while the 5.56 NATO fired from a 14.5 in (370 mm) barrel has the same trajectory as the 7.62 NATO from a 20 in barrel, as well as the same time of flight. A 7.62 NATO round reaches 50 percent of its velocity within 80 mm (3.1 in) of the barrel when fired, so decreasing the barrel length for close quarters combat results in increased muzzle pressure and greater noise and muzzle flash.* [25]* [33]
3.6 Military cartridge types
3.5 5.56 mm NATO versus 7.62 mm NATO
Images of U.S. 5.56x45mm NATO ammunition
• Cartridge, Ball, F1 (Australia): 5.56×45mm FN SS109 equivalent produced by Thales Australia, formerly Australian Defence Industries (ADI).
Comparison of 7.62mm NATO, 5.56mm NATO and 9mm Parabellum.
Benefits of the 5.56 NATO claimed over the 7.62 NATO include equal lethality, half the mass and volume, reduced recoil and signature, better penetration of metal plates, flatter trajectory and shorter time of flight out to 700 meters, weapons chambered for it are lighter, and better hit probability. Hit probability refers to the ability of a soldier to concentrate on firing in spite of their weapon's recoil and noise, which is noticeably different between the two cartridges. The 7.62 NATO has twice the impact energy of the 5.56 NATO which is needed if a target is protected by armor, but if not both rounds normally penetrate through enemies past 600 meters. A 5.56 NATO round fired from a 20 in (510 mm) barrel has a flatter
• Cartridge, Ball, F1A1 (Australia): 5.56×45mm with optimized projectile having a modified boat tail length and meplat diameter, redesigned case thickness, new primer cup design, and AR2210V01 propellant. [green tip]* [62]* [63] • Cartridge, Blank, F3 (Australia): 5.56×45mm Blank cartridge produced by Thales Australia, formerly Australian Defence Industries (ADI). • Cartridge, Ball, SS109 (Belgium): 5.56×45mm 61-grain [3.95 g]* [64] Semi-Armor-Piercing cartridge w/. steel penetrator produced by Fabrique Nationale. Adopted in 1979 as the NATO standard.* [65] • Cartridge, Ball, C77 (Canada): 5.56×45mm FN SS109 equivalent used in the C7, C8 and C9 type weapons. Made by General Dynamics Canada.
20
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO
• Cartridge, Blank, C79 (Canada): 5.56×45mm blank cartridge used in the C7, C8 and C9 type weapons. Also made by General Dynamics Canada.
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Blank, M200 (United States): 5.56×45mm violet-tipped blank cartridge.
• Cartridge, Ball, DM11 (Germany): 5.56×45mm 4.1 g dual core ball cartridge w/steel core, produced by RUAG Ammotec. [green tip]
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M202 (United States): 5.56×45mm 58-grain FN SSX822 cartridge.
• Cartridge, Tracer, DM21 (Germany): 5.56×45mm tracer compliment to DM11, also produced by RUAG Ammotec. [orange tip]
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, XM287 (United States): 5.56×45mm 68-grain ball cartridge produced by Industries Valcartier, Inc. An Improved version was also produced designated XM779.
• Cartridge, Ball, L2A1 (United Kingdom): 5.56×45mm M193 equivalent produced by Radway Green.* [66] • Cartridge, Ball, L2A2 (United Kingdom): 5.56×45mm FN SS109 equivalent produced by Radway Green.
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, XM288 (United States): 5.56×45mm 68-grain tracer cartridge produced by Industries Valcartier, Inc. An Improved version was also produced designated XM780.
• Cartridge, Tracer, L1A1 (United Kingdom): 5.56×45mm tracer compliment to L2A1, produced by Radway Green. [red tip]
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Grenade, M755 (United States): 5.56×45mm grenade launching blank specifically for the M234 launcher.
• Cartridge, Tracer, L1A2 (United Kingdom): 5.56×45mm tracer compliment to L2A2, produced by Radway Green. [red tip]
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, XM777 (United States): 5.56×45mm ball cartridge. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, XM778 (United States): 5.56×45mm tracer cartridge. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M855 (United States): 5.56×45mm 62-grain FN SS109-equivalent ball cartridge with a steel penetrator tip over a lead core in a partial copper jacket. [green tip] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M855 Lead Free (United States): 62-grain bullet with a steel penetrator tip over a tungsten-composite core in a partial copper jacket. Primarily used during training in countries with strict lead disposal laws. [green tip]* [67]
M855 and M856 cartridges in an ammunition belt using M27 disintegrating links.
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M193 (United States): 5.56×45mm 55-grain [3.56 g] ball cartridge. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Grenade, M195 (United States): 5.56×45mm grenade launching blank. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M196 (United States): 5.56×45mm 54-grain [3.43 g] tracer cartridge. [red or orange tip]. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Dummy, M199 (United States): 5.56×45mm dummy cartridge, non firing, indented case.
• Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Ball, M855A1 (United States): 62-grain bullet w/ a 19-grain steel penetrator tip over a copper alloy core. [bronze tip]* [68] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M856 (United States): 5.56×45mm 63.7-grain FN L110 tracer cartridge. Provides red visible light and lacks a steel penetrator. [orange tip]* [67] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, M856A1 (United States): 5.56×45mm 56-grain Lead Free Slug (LFS) Tracer with similar ballistic performance to the M855A1 and improved trace to range consistency.* [69] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Plastic, Practice, M862 (United States): Short Range Training Ammo (SRTA) has a smaller charge than standard ball, reducing its aimed range to 250 meters, and fires a
3.6. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES plastic bullet. The M2 training bolt must be used in the M16 Rifle / M4 Carbine when using SRTA for the weapon to cycle properly due to its lower power. It is used during training on shooting ranges near built-up or populated areas. [Brass primer, Aluminum case and Blue plastic projectile]. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Armor Piercing, M995 (United States): 5.56×45mm 52-grain AP cartridge with a tungsten core. [black tip]. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Tracer, XM996 (United States): 5.56×45mm so-called “Dim Tracer”with reduced effect primarily for use with night vision devices. [red tip?] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Frangible, MK 255 Mod 0 (United States): 5.56×45mm 62-grain Reduced Ricochet Limited Penetration (RRLP) round with copper/polymer composite core for training and operational use.* [70] • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, Special Ball, Long Range, Mk 262 Mod 0/1 (United States): 5.56×45mm 77-grain Open-Tipped Match/HollowPoint Boat-Tail cartridge. Mod 0 features Sierra Matchking bullet, while Mod 1 features either Nosler or Sierra bullet. • Cartridge, Caliber 5.56 mm, MK318 MOD 0 enhanced 5.56 mm ammunition (United States): 5.56×45mm 62-grain Open-Tipped Match BoatTail cartridge.* [71]* [72]
21 600 meters. The SS109 had a steel tip and lead rear and was not required to penetrate body armor. Barrels required at least a 1:9 in rifle twist, but needed a 1:7 in rifle twist to fire tracer ammunition.* [25]* [33]* [37] The U.S. designated the SS109 cartridge the M855 and first used it in the M16A2 rifle. The 62-grain round was heavier than the previous 55-grain M193. While the M855 had better armor penetrating ability, it is less likely to fragment after hitting a soft target. This lessens kinetic energy transfer to the target and reduces wounding capability.* [73] The M855 is yaw dependent, meaning it depends on the angle upon which it hits the target. If at a good angle, the round turns as it enters soft tissue, breaking apart and transferring its energy to what it hits. If impacting at a bad angle, it could pass through and fail to transfer its full energy.* [39] The SS109 was made to pierce steel helmets at long range from the Minimi, not improve terminal performance on soft tissue from rifles or carbines.* [29] In Iraq, troops that engaged insurgents at less than 150 yards found that M855 rounds did not provide enough stopping power. In addition to not causing lethal effects with two or more rounds, they did not effectively penetrate vehicle windshields, even with many rounds fired at extremely close range.* [74] In Afghanistan, troops found that M855 rounds also suffered at long ranges. Although 5.56 mm rifles have an effective range of 450–600 meters, the M855 bullet's performance falls off sharply beyond 300 meters. The ranges are even shorter for short-barreled carbines. Half of small-arms attacks were launched from 300–900 meter ranges.* [75] An M855 fired from an M4 Carbine has severely degraded performance beyond 150 meters.* [29]
• Cartridge, 5.56 mm, Ball, MLU-26/P (United States): Early USAF designation for 5.56×45mm The maximum effective point target range of an M4 carbine with M855 rounds is 500 meters, with a maximum ball cartridge produced by Remington. effective area target range of 600 meters. These mark • Cartridge, 5.56 x 45 mm, Ball, M1A3 (South the greatest distances the rounds can be expected to acAfrica): 56-grain FMJ Ball round based on the curately hit the target, not the ranges that they have termiM193 cartridge. It was used with the R4 assault ri- nal effectiveness against them. Because the M855 is yaw fle. dependent it requires instability in flight to deform upon • Cartridge, 5.56 x 45 mm, semi-jacketed fran- hitting the target. It is the most stable in flight between gible, MK 311 Mod 0 Reduced Ricochet Lim- 150–350 meters, potentially lessening its effectiveness if ited Penetration (RRLP) round, intended for training. it strikes an enemy between those distances. In addition Headstamp: WCC11, produced by Western Cartridge to this, tests have shown that 5.56 mm bullets fragment most reliably when traveling faster than 2,500 ft/s (760 Company, loaded in 2011. m/s). From full-length 20 in rifle and machine gun barrels, rounds are kept above this velocity out to 200 meters. An M855 from an M4 has a muzzle velocity of 2,970 ft/s 3.6.1 SS109/M855 (910 m/s), but that is reduced to 2,522 ft/s (769 m/s) by In 1970, NATO decided to standardize a second rifle 150 meters. Even if it impacts at optimum speeds, 70 caliber. Tests were conducted from 1977 to 1980 us- percent of 5.56 mm bullets will not begin to yaw until ing U.S. XM177 5.56 mm, Belgian SS109 5.56 mm, 4.7 in (120 mm) of tissue penetration. 15 percent more British 4.85x49mm, and German 4.7x33mm caseless. begin to yaw after that distance, so up to 85 percent of No weapon could be agreed upon, as many were proto- rounds that hit do not start to fragment until nearly 5 in types, but the SS109 was found to be the best round and of penetration. Against small statured or thin combatstandardized on October 28, 1980. The SS109 was de- ants, the M855 has little chance of yawing before passveloped in the 1970s for the FN FNC rifle and the FN ing through cleanly and leaving a wound cavity no bigger Minimi machine gun. To increase the range of the Min- than the bullet itself. The factors of impact angle and imi, the round was created to penetrate 3.5 mm of steel at velocity, instability distance, and penetration before yaw
22
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO
reduce the round's predictable effectiveness considerably the rearward-drawn jacket can create an uneven boat tail in combat situations.* [76] leading to uneven airflow and more affected dispersion. It also was not optimized for use in short-barreled rifles. The M855 was originally made to burn and accelerate 3.6.2 M855A1 from the 20 in (510 mm) barrel of the M249 SAW; then it was repurposed to the M16A2 for ammunition compatibility. When fired from a short-barreled M4, lower muzzle velocity led to decreased terminal effectiveness, and unburned propellant fired from the end of the barrel created a brighter muzzle flash and caused more combustion debris to be pushed back in the gas tube, dirtying the weapon.* [77] Alternative 5.56 mm rounds in use were considered, like the Mk 262 open-tipped match cartridge. The Mk 262 was more accurate and had better soft target performance, and both Army and Marine units were using large quantities in Iraq deployments for designated marksman rifles. However, the Mk 262 was not adequate as a general-purpose round and cost four times more than the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round and its environmentally M855, so it could not be produced at the volumes refriendly projectile. quired for 5.56 mm ammunition (up to 1 billion rounds annually). It was also found that performance suffered when fired from standard barrels, so match grade barDevelopment rels would be needed for optimum performance. The M995 armor-piercing round had high accuracy and tarIn mid-2005, a meeting was held at the Lake City Army get penetration, but was eight times more expensive than Ammunition Plant as part of Phase II of the U.S. Army's the M855. Commercial alternatives were found to have Green Ammunition replacement program and attended the same yaw sensitivity issues as the M855.* [77] by representatives from several military sectors and contractors. The objective was to create an environmentally- A number of objectives were desired for the new round, friendly small arms training round after the Army had including more lethal, or at least more consistent, soft tarbeen required, in part by stronger state regulations, to get effects and less shot dispersion. It must not be speremove lead from their bullets to reduce lead accumula- cialized for any one task to have general-purpose perfortion at stateside training ranges. Initially, Phase I efforts mance, and if improvement in any one area resulted that created the M855 “green tip”5.56 mm round that re- would be considered a secondary benefit. As the services placed the lead core with one made of tungsten, but it was were purchasing large numbers of optics, it could not found that the round would become unstable in flight and require a different reticle pattern, but re-zeroing sights fly sideways through a target; furthermore, research was would be acceptable. Optimization for short-barreled risuggesting that tungsten was not environmentally better fles was needed, as the Army and Special Forces' main than lead. Phase II efforts focused on creating an alter- weapon was the M4 carbine; a flash-suppressed propelnative round that did not contain either metal. As the lant was also required. Optimizing the round to perform Iraq War was happening at the same time, participants within the pressure limits for short barrels would cause decided to use the opportunity to redirect their efforts performance loss in longer barrels (causing complaints from just making a“green”training round to creating an from the Marine Corps), but analysis showed that a short entirely new general-purpose rifle round to address com- barrel-optimized round would have less performance loss fired from a long barrel than vice versa. The round also plaints encountered in the field.* [77] had to be cost-competitive and meet environmental stanComplaints had surfaced about the poor lethality of stan- dards.* [77] dard M855 rounds against soft targets, although while some units claimed they had virtually no effect others The initial M855A1 design began testing in late-2007. Its said they were having no problems. The problem was alloy core had no toxic metals and could be cheaply pro“yaw sensitivity,”where rounds experiencing swing in duced. Materials and production methods, like a reverseflight have varying effects when they hit a target based drawn jacket for a clean boat tail, led to yaw insensitivon the degree of yaw, resulting in unpredictable lethality ity, improved soft target performance, and consistent diseffects. The makeup and design of the bullet affected ac- persion. The steel penetrator was retained and, through curacy. The copper jacket is formed first at the point, then greater velocity and better composition and placement, a steel penetrator is inserted into the jacket and the pro- substantially improved hard target performance. It met jectile is crimped shut. Error in the penetrator placement short-barrel optimization, ballistic similarity, and procan change flight performance and affect dispersion, and ducibility requirements; it cost slightly more than the
3.6. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES M855, but far less than the Mk 262. Production proveout testing would take time, as over a million rounds had to be test-fired to ensure instances of failure would not occur at the 1 billion rounds per year scale. As information began to be made public, the original program objective to create a“green round”led to confusion and criticism that the Army was focusing more on environmental safety than on performance. Just as testing was being completed and the first production lots were being prepared in 2009, the rounds were found to fail at high temperatures. This caused a one-year delay to replace the bullet core, which solved the temperature problem and also improved cost and producibility.* [77]
23 to as "green ammo" because it fires a lead free projectile.* [68]* [69]* [79]* [80]* [81]* [82] It is not necessarily more lethal than the M855, but performs more consistently every time it hits a soft target and retains its performance at longer distances. The EPR can penetrate a 3 ⁄8 in (9.5 mm) thick steel barrier from an M4 at 350 meters and from an M16 at 400 meters. Ballistics for both rounds are similar and don't require weapons to be re-zeroed, but if they are the EPR can be slightly more accurate. The steel-tip penetrator of the M855A1 is noticeably separated from the jacket of the bullet and can spin, but this is part of the design and does not affect performance. The M855A1 costs only 5 cents more per round than the M855.* [83] The M855A1 bullet has a 1 ⁄8 in (3.2 mm) greater length than the M855.* [84] Because steel and copper are less dense than lead, the bullet is lengthened inside the case to achieve the same weight as its predecessor.* [5] The longer bullet and reverse-drawn jacket make it more stable and accurate in-flight. Its steel tip is exposed from the jacket and bronzed for corrosion resistance. The tip is serrated and larger than the M855's steel tip. The M855A1's bullet composition, better aerodynamics, and higher proof pressures give it an extended effective range for penetration and terminal performance.* [85] While effectiveness at different ranges is increased, the M855A1 does not increase the effective ranges at which weapons are expected to hit their targets. The Enhanced Performance Round was made to nearly match the trajectory of the M855 to aid in training consistency - the SS109/M855 ballistic coefficient (G7 BC) of 0.151 was improved to 0.152 for the M855A1* [86] - but the ranges to get desired effects are greatly extended.* [87]
In December 2014, small ammunition company Liberty Ammunition won a $15.6 million lawsuit against the Army for passing on proprietary data and specifications for its lead-free copper-core, steel-tipped bullet design to other vendors. The company founder presented his idea for an enhanced performance incapacitative composite (EPIC) 5.56 mm round to Army officials and gave technical and performance data to SOCOM in 2005, during Phase II of the green ammunition program, after a nondisclosure agreement was signed protecting proprietary information. Liberty Ammunition was formed to produce the EPIC round and received a SOCOM contract to test it, completed in 2007. The round's design patent was approved in 2010, the same year the M855A1 was fielded. A suit was filed claiming the Army shared confidential information to potential vendors, and the U.S. Court of Federal Claims found that the Army had violated three non-disclosure agreements. The court also ordered the Army to pay 1.4 cents to the company for every M855A1 round produced until its patent expires in 2027, totally between $2.2 million to $5.3 million per The M855A1 was put on hold in August 2009 due to the year.* [78] experimental bismuth-tin alloy core exhibiting undependable ballistics at high temperatures. The US Army has since replaced the bismuth-tin alloy core with one of solid copper eliminating the heat issue. The United States MaDeployment rine Corps purchased 1.8 million rounds in 2010, with On June 24, 2010, the United States Army announced it plans to adopt the round to replace the interim MK318 began shipping its new 5.56 mm cartridge, the M855A1 SOST rounds used in Afghanistan when the M855A1 * Enhanced Performance Round (EPR), to active com- project was delayed. [88] bat zones. During testing, the M855A1 performed better On a media day at Aberdeen Proving Ground on May than M80 7.62×51mm NATO ball ammunition against 4, 2011, reports were given about the M855A1's percertain types of targets (particularly hardened steel), blur- formance in the field since it was issued 11 months earring the performance differences that previously sepa- lier. One primary advantage given by the round is its rated the two cartridges. The US Army Picatinny Ar- consistent performance against soft targets. While the senal stated that the new M855A1 offers improved hard older M855 was yaw-dependant, which means its effectarget capability, more consistent performance at all dis- tiveness depends on its yaw angle when it hits a target, tances, enhanced dependability, improved accuracy, re- the M855A1 delivers the same effectiveness in a soft tarduced muzzle flash, and higher velocity compared to the get no matter its yaw angle. The new SMP-842 propelM855 round. Further, the Army stated the new M855A1 lant in the round burns quicker in the shorter M4 carbine ammunition is tailored for use in M4 carbines, but should barrel, ensuring less muzzle flash and greater muzzle vealso give enhanced performance in M16 rifles and M249 locity. The M855A1 was able to penetrate 3 ⁄8 inch (9.5 light machine guns. The new 62-grain (4 g) projectile mm) of steel plate at 300 meters. The round even penor bullet used in the M855A1 round has a copper core etrated concrete masonry units, similar to cinder blocks, with a 19-grain (1.2 g) steel “stacked-cone”penetrat- at 75 meters from an M16 and at 50 meters from an M4, ing tip. The M855A1 cartridge is sometimes referred
24 which the M855 could not do at those ranges. Its accuracy is maintained and sometimes increased, as it was able to shoot a 2-inch group at 600 meters. February 2011 was the first time the M855A1 was used more than the M855, and approximately 30 million M855A1 rounds have been fielded from June 2010 to May 2011.* [89]* [90] The M855A1 was put to the test at the 2012 National Rifle Association's National High-Power Rifle Championship at Camp Perry, Ohio in August 2012. The shooter for the Army was Rob Harbison, a contractor supporting small caliber ammunition capability development at Fort Benning Georgia. This was a special event for the Project Manager for Maneuver Ammunition Systems and the Army's Maneuver Center of Excellence as it was an opportunity to showcase the capabilities of the Enhanced Performance Round. With an M16 loaded with M855A1 ammo, Harbison fired a perfect 200 points in the Coast Guard Trophy Match, which is 20 shots fired from the sitting position at 200 yards, finishing 17th out of 365 competitors. He also scored a perfect 100 on the final string of ten shots during the Air Force Cup Trophy Match, fired at 600 yards from the prone position, which is 10 shots in a row within the 12-inch, 10-point ring at 600 yards with combat ammunition. Harbison was happy with the performance of the EPR, with his scores showing that the Army's newest general purpose round is accurate enough to go toe-to-toe in the competition with the best ammo that can be bought or hand-loaded. Harbison even said, “I don't think I could have scored any higher if I was using match-grade competition ammunition.”* [91] It should be noted that the M855A1 was not fired from 1:7 in rifled barrels used in standard Army rifles, but special Army Marksmanship Unit (AMU) match-grade 1:8 in rifled barrels, which produce more accurate results when firing 62-grain rounds.* [84] From fielding in June 2010 to September 2012, Alliant Techsystems delivered over 350 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds.* [92] Since its introduction, the M855A1 has been criticized for its propellant causing increased fouling of the gun barrel. Post-combat surveys have reported no issues with the EPR in combat. A series of tests found no significant difference in fouling between the old M855 and the M855A1. However, manufacturers have reported “severe degradation”to barrels of their rifles using the M855A1 in tests.* [93] The Army attributes pressure and wear issues with the M855A1 to problems with the primer, which they claim to have addressed with a newly designed primer.* [94] It uses a modified four-pronged primer anvil for more reliable powder ignition,* [85] with a stab crimp rather than a circumferential crimp to better withstand the new loadʼs higher chamber pressure,* [84] increased from 55,000 psi (379.2 MPa) to 62,000 psi (427.5 MPa).* [49] During Army carbine testing, the round caused“accelerated bolt wear”from higher chamber pressure and increased bore temperatures. Special Operator testing saw cracks appear on locking lugs
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO and bolts at cam pin holes on average at 6,000 rounds, but sometimes as few as 3,000 rounds during intense automatic firing. Firing several thousand rounds with such high chamber pressures can lead to degraded accuracy over time as parts wear out; these effects can be mitigated through a round counter to keep track of part service life. Weapons with barrel lengths shorter than the M4 firing the M855A1 also experience 50 percent higher pressures than a full-length M16 rifle barrel, which can cause port erosion that can boost the automatic fire rate, increasing the likelihood of jams.* [84] From June 2010 to June 2013, issuing of the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round removed 1,994 metric tons of lead from the waste stream. 2.1 grams (32 gr) of lead are eliminated from each M855A1 projectile.* [95]
3.6.3 Mk 262 The Mk 262 is a match quality round manufactured by Black Hills Ammunition made originally for the Special Purpose Rifle (SPR). It uses a 77-grain (5.0 g) Sierra MatchKing bullet that is more effective at longer ranges than the standard issue M855 round. In 1999, SOCOM requested Black Hills Ammunition to develop ammunition for the Mk 12 SPR that SOCOM was designing. For the rifle to be accurate out to 600 yards, Black Hills “militarized”a cartridge that used the Sierra 77 grain OTM (Open Tip Match) projectile; it switched from a .223 Remington to 5.56 mm case, increased pressure loading, crimped and sealed the primer, and added a flash retardant to the powder. The Mk 262 Mod 0 was adopted in 2002. Issues came up in development including reliability problems in different temperatures and when the weapon got dirty, and cycling issues in cold weather due to the slightly shorter barrel of the SPR compared to the full-length M16A2 barrel. The problems were addressed with a slower burning powder with a different pressure for use in the barrel, creating the Mk 262 Mod 1 in 2003. During the product improvement stage, the new propellant was found to be more sensitive to heat in weapon chambers during rapid firings, resulting in increased pressures and failure to extract. This was addressed with another powder blend with higher heat tolerance and improved brass. Also during the stage, Black Hills wanted the bullet to be given a cannelure, which had been previously rejected for fear it would affect accuracy. It was eventually added for effective crimping to ensure that the projectile would not move back into the case and cause a malfunction during auto-load feeding. Although the temperature sensitive powder and new bullet changed specifications, the designation remained as the Mod 1.* [96] According to US DoD sources, the Mk 262 round is capable of making kills at 700 meters. Ballistics tests found that the round caused “consistent initial yaw in soft tissue”between 3-4 in at ranges from 15 feet to
3.6. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES 300 meters. Apparently it is superior to the standard M855 round when fired from an M4 or M16 rifle, increasing accuracy from 3-5 minute of angle to 2 minute of angle. It evidently possesses superior stopping power, and can allow for engagements to be extended to up to 700 meters when fired from an 18-inch barrel. It appears that this round can drastically improve the performance of any AR-15 platform weapon chambered to .223/5.56 mm. Superior accuracy, wounding capacity, stopping power and range power has made this the preferred round of many Special Forces operators, and highly desirable as a replacement for the older, Belgiandesigned 5.56×45mm SS109/M855 NATO round. In one engagement, a two-man special forces team reported 75 kills with 77 rounds.* [97]* [98] The Mk 262 has a higher ballistic coefficient than the M855 of (G7) 0.181, meaning it loses less velocity at long-range.* [86]
3.6.4
Mk318
Following early engagements in Afghanistan and Iraq, U.S. Special Operations Forces reported that M855 ammunition used in M4A1 rifles was ineffective. In 2005, the Pentagon issued a formal request to the ammunition industry for “enhanced”ammunition. The only business that responded was the Federal Cartridge Company, owned by Alliant Techsystems. Working with the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division, the team created performance objectives for the new ammo: increased consistency from shot to shot regardless of temperature changes, accuracy out of an M4A1 better than 2 minute of angle (2 inches at 100 yards, 3.9 inches at 300 yards), increased stopping power after passing through “intermediate barriers”like walls and car windshields, increased performance and decreased muzzle flash out of shorter barrel FN SCAR rifles, and costs close to the M855. The first prototypes were delivered to the government in August 2007. Increased velocity and decreased muzzle flash were accomplished by the type of powder used. The design of the bullet was called the Open Tip Match Rear Penetrator (OTMRP). The front of it is an open tip backed up by a lead core, while the rear half is solid brass. When the bullet hits a hard barrier, the front half of the bullet smooshes against the barrier, breaking it so the penetrating half of the bullet can go through and hit the target. With the lead section penetrating the target and the brass section following, it was referred to as a “barrier blind”bullet.* [36]* [99]
25 In February 2010, the U.S. Marine Corps adopted the Mk318 for use by infantry. To be fielded by an entire branch of the military, the round is classified as having an “open-tip”bullet, similar to the M118LR 7.62 NATO round. The SOST bullet uses a “reverse drawn” forming process. The base of the bullet is made first, the lead core is placed on top of it, and then the jacketing is pulled up around the lead core from bottom to tip. Conventional, and cheaper, bullets are made with the method of the jacket drawn from the nose to an exposed lead base. The reverse drawn technique leaves an open tip as a byproduct of the manufacturing process, and is not specifically designed for expansion or to affect terminal ballistics. The Pentagon legally cleared the rounds for Marine use in late January. The Marines fielded the Mk318 gradually and in small numbers. Initial studies showed that insurgents hit by it suffered larger exit wounds, although information was limited. SOST rounds were used alongside M855 rounds in situations where the SOST would be more effective.* [36]* [99]* [100] In July 2010, the Marines purchased 1.8 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds, in addition to millions of Mk318 rounds in service, as part of its effort to replace its M855 ammo.* [101] As of May 2015, Marine combat units still deploy with a mixture of both SOST and M855 rounds.* [102] As the issue of environmentally friendly ammo grew, the Marines looked to see if the Mk318's lead could be replaced while still meeting specifications. They found that by replacing the lead with copper and slightly stretching the jacket around to crimp the nose even more, the bullet's ballistic coefficient increased. To avoid visual confusion with the Mk 262 round, the bullet was entirely nickel-plated for a silver color; the enhanced silvercolored copper jacketed, open tip match, 62-grain projectile was named the Mk318 Mod 1. The Marine Corps will make a decision as whether to field the Mk 318 Mod 1 or M855A1 as its standard rifle round.* [103]
3.6.5 5.6mm Gw Pat 90
Officially designated the Mk318 Mod 0 “Cartridge, Caliber 5.56mm Ball, Carbine, Barrier”, and called SOST (Special Operations Science and Technology) ammunition, the 62-grain bullet fragments consistently, even out of a 10.5 in barrel. The lead portion fragments in the first few inches of soft tissue, then the solid copper rear penetrates 18 in of tissue (shown though ballistic gelatin) while tumbling. Out of a 14 in barrel, the Mk318 has a Swiss Army 50-round Gw Pat 90 ammunition box. muzzle velocity of 2,925 fps.* [36]* [99]
26
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO The Gw Pat 90 is used both in the Swiss military and in sport shooting. The very high level of individual training in the Swiss militia (every single soldier bearing a weapon has to shoot for qualification once a year; see Gun politics in Switzerland) and the overall use of the Gw Pat 90 by the many Swiss citizens who shoot in competitions and for amusement has resulted in significant input on its usage. Over 1 billion cartridges had been produced as of 2005.
3.7 Use Main article: List of 5.56x45mm NATO firearms Swiss Army Gw Lsp Pat 90 tracer rounds.
The 5.6mm Gw Pat 90 or GP 90 (5.6 mm Rifle Cartridge 90), is the standard round used by the Swiss military in its rifle, the SIG SG 550. The cartridge is also known as the Cart 5.6mm 90 F to the French and Italian speaking Swiss militiamen. The Swiss refer to the round as the 5.6 mm Gw Pat 90, although it is interchangeable with the 5.56×45mm NATO and .223 Remington round. The Gw Pat 90 round firing a 4.1 g (63 gr) FMJ bullet is optimized for use in 5.56 mm (.223 in) caliber barrels with a 254 mm (1:10 in) twist rate. The Gw Pat 90 was designed for the SIG SG 550 when it came into production in 1987, replacing the SIG SG 510. Previous experience of a change in standard rifle had proved that changing the distance of fire for the training ranges was more expensive than the design of a new ammunition; this prompted the design of a cartridge nominally capable at 300 meters. The cartridge was also designed to reduce pollution by controlling lead emissions.* [104] The bullet was originally clad with a nickel alloy jacket, however, this was found to cause excessive barrel wear, so in 1998 the nickel jackets were replaced with tombac jackets. In addition, in 1999 a copper plug was added to the base of the bullet to address environmental concerns.* [104] The ammunition is currently (2009) produced by RUAG Ammotec, a subsidiary of the RUAG group.* [105] The ammunition is manufactured in three variations: the standard FMJ round, the tracer round, and a blank round. The FMJ cartridge has a Copper-Zinc alloy case and uses a double base propellant. The bullet is a 4.1 g (63 gr) tombac jacketed FMJ projectile with a G1 ballistic coefficient of 0.331 (ICAO) / 0.337 (Army Metro). The projectile contains approximately 95% Pb, 2% Sb, 3% Cu, and was designed for terminal ballistic instability. The required accuracy for Gw Pat 90 ammunition out of factory test barrels is 63 mm (0.72 MOA) for 10 rounds (100% radius measurement method) out to 300 m. The Gw Pat 90 cartridge dimensions are in accordance with the civilian C.I.P. standards for the .223 Remington C.I.P. chambering.* [106]
3.8 See also • 5.45×39mm • 5.8×42mm • 7.62×39mm • 5 mm caliber • Express (weaponry) • NATO EPVAT testing • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges • List of rifle cartridges
3.9 References [1] “C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables – free current C.I.P. CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)". Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-17. [2] US Mil-spec MIL-C-9963F [3] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand Capability Group 1 – Dismounted Soldier NATO Army Armaments Group [4] Barnes, Frank C. (1972). Cartridges of the World. Northfield Il: DBI Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-695-80326-3. [5] Assault Rifles and Their Ammunition: Prospects by Anthony G. Williams
History and
[6] Dockery, Kevin (2007). Future Weapons. p. 102. ISBN 0-425-21750-7. [7] “Ak 47 Technical Description - Manual”. Scribd.com. 2010-09-30. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [8] Jane's Infantry Weapons 1986–1987, pg. 362
3.9. REFERENCES
27
[9] International Legal Initiatives to Restrict Military Small Arms Ammunition W. Hays Parks∗ Copyright 2010 by W. Hays Parks International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) pages 1–18”(Which list International Committee of the Red Cross, Austria, Argentina, Belgium, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Burundi, Cambodia, Cyprus, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mauritius, Mexico, Romania, Samoa, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, etc. as parties that consider the 55 gr M193 round to be inhumane)
[29] “Do We Need a New Service Rifle Cartridge?", Small Arms Defense Journal, 6 January 2012
[10] Ian V. Hogg, Military Small Arms of the 20th Century, 1981
[33] “Is There a Problem with the Lethality of the 5.56 NATO Caliber?", Small Arms Defense Journal, 6 January 2012
[11] International Legal Initiatives to Restrict Military Small Arms Ammunition W. Hays Parks∗ Copyright 2010 by W. Hays Parks International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) page 1-18” [12] The Small Arms Review vol.10, no.2 November 2006. [13] Intermediate power ammunition for automatic assault rifles [14] NATO EPVAT testing [15] QuickLOAD
[30] Acta Chir Scand Suppl. 1982;508:211–21. [31] PROJECT MANAGER SOLDIER WEAPONS SOLDIER WEAPONS ASSESSMENT TEAM REPORT 603 [32] “Army Weapons Qualification Course”. military.com. Wiley Publishing. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
[34] The Small Arms Review vol.10, no.2 November 2006 [35] Jane's International Defense Review: IDR., Volume 39, Issues 1–6. p. 86. (2006). [36] Mk 318 Mod 0: A Better Bullet, No Matter What They Call It - Cheaperthandirt.com, 27 November 2011 [37] “A Way Forward in Contemporary Understanding of the 1899 Hague Declaration on Expanding Bullets”, Small Arms Defense Journal, 7 October 2013 [38] M855A1 – Strategypage.com, August 10, 2012
[16] Wound Ballistics: Basics and Applications edited by Beat P. Kneubuehl. p. 128. (2011)
[39] http://usarmy.vo.llnwd.net/e2/c/downloads/215919.pdf
[17] “Reading Gunshot Patterns”. NIH.gov. National Institute of Health. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
[40] PC Bullets Survive Afghanistan - Strategypage.com, 13 May 2011
[18] PATTERNS OF MILITARY RIFLE BULLETS by Martin L. Fackler
[41] John Pike. “6.8x43mm SPC (Special Purpose Cartridge)". Globalsecurity.org.
[19] Chamberlin FT, Gun Shot Wounds, in Handbook for Shooters and Reloaders, Vol. II, Ackley PO, ed., Plaza Publishing, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966.
[42] Another 7.62mm Bullet For M-16s - Strategypage.com, 8 January 2012
[20] Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Effects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579–596, 1998. [21] American Rifle: A Biography, Alexander Rose (2009) p. 375-376 [22] Pd Igman D.D. Konjic Bosnia And Herzegovina : Ammunition. Igman.co.ba. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[43] Dan Lamothe.“Corps to pass on Army upgrades to M4”. Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved 13 September 2010. [44] LWRC: 6.8 SPC is the New 300 Blackout [45] .223 Remington and 5.56x45mm NATO Chamber dimensions differences [46] 6mmbr.com. “223 Rem + 223 AI Cartridge Guide”.
[23] 5.56mm (.22 Cal), nammo.com [24] The Case for a General-Purpose Rifle and Machine Gun Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams [25] Is there a problem with the lethality of the 5.56 NATO caliber? [26] “Barrel Length Studies in 5.56mm NATO Weapons”, Small Arms Defense Journal, 8 February 2012 [27] EFFECTS OF BARREL LENGTH ON BORE PRESSURE, PROJECTILE VELOCITY and SOUND MEASUREMENT by Philip H. Dater, MD GEMTECH Boise, ID and Jason M. Wong Firearms Law Group Seattle, WA 2010 at US DEFENSE TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER (DTIC) [28] Wounding Info
[47] "http://www.luckygunner.com/labs/5-56-vs-223/". Retrieved 13 June 2013. [48] Army wants lightweight cartridge cases - Thefirearmblog.com, 20 July 2012 [49] The Armyʼs Individual Carbine Competition: Whatʼs Next? - SAdefensejournal.com, 24 October 2013 [50] The 6.5×40 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16 - SAdefensejournal.com, 26 March 2014 [51] “Cartridge Pressure Standards”. Retrieved 14 June 2013. [52] US Mil-spec MIL-C-9963F, MIL-C-9963G, and MIL-C63989A(AR) [53] Rock River Arms
28
CHAPTER 3. 5.56×45MM NATO
[54] News and Press Releases: .223 Rem VS 5.56mm, winchester.com, 5/4/2001 [55] Patrick Sweeney,“Chamber Reality Check”, Peterson's Rifle Shooter, Volume 16, Issue 2, March/April 2013, pp. 32–36. [56] "Unsafe Arms and Ammunition Combinations" at SAAMI web site [57] SAAMI on 5.56 v. .223 Remington. The Gun Zone. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[78] Ammunition Inventor Wins $15 Million Patent Infringement Case Against Army - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, 14 January 2015 [79] Army begins shipping improved 5.56mm cartridge [80] Military.com: 'Green Ammo' Heads to Afghanistan [81] U.S. Army Issues New M855A1 Ammo to Troops in Afghanistan [82] “Green”bullets from Picatinny Arsenal in NJ to be used in Afghanistan
[58] TECHNICAL NOTE 45: 5.56 NATO vs SAAMI .223 REMINGTON CHAMBERS, armalite.com, December 4, 2002
[83] Infantry Weapons Conference Report - SAdefensejournal.com, 9 January 2012
[59] 5.56mm (5.56 × 45 mm) Ammunition. (2005-05-03). Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
Inetres.com
[84] Testing The Armyʼs M855A1 Standard Ball Cartridge Americanrifleman.org, 21 May 2014
[60] KE = 1/2mv2 , where m is in kilograms and v is in metres per second.
[85] New M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round smashing expectations - Guns.com, 6 September 2012
[61] 7.62mm (7.62 × 51 mm) Ammunition. Inetres.com. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[86] The 6.5×40 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16 by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014.
[62] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2011smallarms/ WednesdayInter12397Evenden.pdf [63] Testing & Evaluating the EF88 Assault Rifle - SAdefensekournal.com, 4 March 2013 [64] Jane's Infantry Weapons 1986–1987 pg.363 [65] Jane's Infantry Weapons 1986–1987 pg.362 [66] British Military Cartridges: The 5.56x45mm [67] Gary's US Infantry Weapons Reference Guide: 5.56mm (5.56 x 45 mm) Ammunition [68] M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round (EPR) [69] Small Caliber Ammunition Enhancing Capabilities, 20 May 2010 [70] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2006smallarms/kim.pdf [71] Corps to use more lethal ammo in Afghanistan at www. marinecorpstimes.com [72] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements [73] “How Reliable Is the M-16 Rifle?", New York Times, 2 November 2009 [74] “Army won't field deadlier Corps round”, Army Times, 2 April 2010 [75] FUTURE INFANTRY SMALL ARMS by Anthony G Williams [76] Ehrhart, Thomas P. Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry Half Kilometer. p. 30–33 [77] Dean, Gleen (3 March 2012). “In Search of Lethality: Green Ammo and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round”. Smashwords.com.
[87] Evolution of the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round - Army.mil, 26 November 2010 [88] Lamothe, Dan; Cox, Matthew (12 July 2010). “Corps takes a new look at green bullet”. Marine Corps Times. Archived from the original on 16 July 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2010. [89] Lopez, Todd. "'Green bullet' as effective as M855 round – consistently.” US Army News Service, 8 May 2011. [90] Picatinny's Enhanced Performance Round as effective as M855 round – consistently – Picatinny Arsenal press release, May 9, 2011 [91] Army's Newest General Purpose Round Shows Accuracy In Rifle Competition – Army.mil, August 28, 2012 [92] ATK Delivers More than 350 Million 5.56mm Enhanced Performance Rounds – ATK press release, September 13, 2012 [93] Army Killed New Carbine Because It Wasnʼt Twice As Reliable As Current M4 - Breakingdefense.com, 14 June 2013 [94] Data Dump: Army ʻBlack Kitup.Military.com, 5 May 2011
TipʼAmmo
-
[95] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded Army.mil, 1 July 2013 [96] Black Hills Ammunition - SAdefensejournal.com, 5 March 2014 [97] http://archives.gunsandammo.com/content/evolution-ar [98] AA53, Cartridge, Caliber 5.56mm Special Ball, Long Range Mk 262 Mod 0. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved on 2011-01-08. [99] USMC adopt new 5.56mm MK318 MOD 0 ammunition - Thefirearmblog.com, 17 February 2010
3.11. EXTERNAL LINKS
[100] Marines slow to field new ammo - Thefirearmblog.com, 27 May 2010 [101] Marines take a look at the new M855A1 round - Thefirearmblog.com, 14 July 2010 [102] Army, Marines face new pressure to use same ammunition - Militarytimes.com, 4 May 2015 [103] Sal Fanelli: The Interview - SAdefensejournal.com, 30 January 2015 [104] Swiss Ammunition Enterprise [105] About The Swiss Ammunition Enterprise Corp. (SM) [106] RUAG Ammotec Sintox SWISS ORDNANCE cartridge fact sheet
3.10 Further reading • Stan Christ, “5.56mm NATO Alternatives”, Special Weapons Magazine, Semi-Annual #50 2007, pp. 52–59.
3.11 External links • “brochure on 5.56mm F1 ball ammunition to NATO STANAG 4172” (PDF). ADI Thales. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-07-21.
29
Chapter 4
7.62×51mm NATO The 7.62×51mm NATO (official NATO nomenclature tridge allows a slight reduction in the size and weight of 7.62 NATO) is a rimless bottlenecked rifle cartridge de- firearms that chamber it, and somewhat better cycling in veloped in the 1950s as a standard for small arms among automatic and semi-automatic rifles. NATO countries. It should not be confused with the similarly named Russian 7.62×54mmR cartridge, a slightly longer rimmed cartridge. 4.2 Development It was introduced in U.S. service in the M14 rifle and M60 machine gun in the late 1950s. The M14 was superseded in U.S. service as the infantry adopted the 5.56×45mm NATO M16. However, the M14 and many other firearms that use the 7.62×51 round remain in service, especially in the case of various sniper rifles, medium machine guns such as the M240, and various rifles in use by special operations forces. The cartridge is used both by infantry and on mounted and crew-served weapons mounted to vehicles, aircraft and ships. Although not identical, the 7.62×51mm NATO and the commercial .308 Winchester cartridges are similar enough that they can be loaded into rifles chambered for the other round, but the Winchester .308 cartridges are typically loaded to higher pressures than 7.62×51mm NATO cartridges for use in long-distance hunting of big-game animals. Even though the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) does not consider it unsafe to fire the commercial round in weapons chambered for the NATO round, there is significant discussion* [3]* [4]* [5] about compatible chamber and muzzle pressures between the two cartridges based on powder loads and wall thicknesses on the military vs. commercial rounds. While the debate goes both ways, the ATF recommends checking the stamping on the barrel; if one is unsure, one can consult the maker of the firearm.* [6]* [7]
Velocity comparison between the 7.62×51mm NATO, .30-06 Springfield, and .300 Winchester Magnum for common bullet weights.
Work that would eventually develop the 7.62×51mm NATO started just after World War I when the large, powerful .30-06 cartridge proved difficult to adapt to semi-automatic rifles. A less-powerful cartridge would allow a lighter firing mechanism. At the time the most promising design was the .276 Pedersen. When it was eventually demonstrated that the .30-06 was suitable for semi-automatic rifles, the .276 was dropped.
Thus when war appeared to be looming again only a few decades later, the .30-06 was the only round available and the M1 Garand provided U.S. troops with greater 4.1 Overview firepower than their bolt action-armed opponents. The The cartridge itself offers similar ballistic performance in Garand performed so well that the U.S. saw little need to most firearms to the .30-06 Springfield that it replaced in replace it during World War II and the .30-06 served well U.S. service. Though shorter, standard loadings fire sim- beyond the Korean War and into the mid-1960s. ilar bullet weights with only a slight reduction in veloc- During the 1940s and early 1950s several experiments ity. Modern propellants allowed for similar performance were carried out to improve the Garand. One of the most from a case with less capacity. The smaller case requires common complaints was the limited capacity 8-round enless brass and yields a shorter cartridge. This shorter car- bloc clip and many experimental designs modified the 30
4.2. DEVELOPMENT
31
weapon with a detachable box magazine. Springfield Armory's T20 rifle was a fully automatic version. Though not adopted, experience with a fully automatic Garand laid the groundwork for its replacement.
Comparison of 7.62 mm NATO, 5.56 mm NATO and 9 mm NATO. .50 BMG, .300 Winchester Magnum, .308 WIN (7.62 NATO), 7.62×39mm, 5.56 NATO, and .22 LR.
G1. The Germans soon transitioned to a modified version of the Spanish CETME rifle by Heckler & Koch that was adopted as the G3. With all three of these firearms, it was clear that the 7.62 mm NATO could not be fired controllably in fully automatic because of recoil. Both the M14s and FAL would later go through several variations intended to either limit fully automatic selection through semi-auto version or selector locks or to improve control with bipods or heavier barrels.
The test program continued for several years, including both the original .30-06 round and a modified .300 Savage (then known as the T65). In the end, the T65 cartridge demonstrated power roughly equal to the original .30-06, firing a 147-grain (9.5 g) bullet at 2,750 feet per second (840 m/s) but was approximately 1 ⁄2 inch (13 mm) shorter. The eventual result of this competition was the T44 rifle. While this was going on, the U.S. Project SALVO conWhen the United States developed the T65 cartridge, the cluded that a burst of four rounds into a 20-inch (51 cm) British military took a different route. They had spent circle would cause twice the number of casualties as a considerable time and effort developing the intermediate- fully automatic burst by one of these rifles, regardless power .280 British (7 mm) cartridge with an eye towards of the size of the round. They suggested using a much controllable fully automatic fire. The U.S. held to its de- smaller .22 caliber cartridge with two bullets per cartridge sire not to reduce the effectiveness of individual aimed (a duplex load), while other researchers investigated the shots. The American philosophy was to use automatic fire promising flechette rounds that were lighter but offered for emergencies only and continue to use semi-automatic better penetration than even the .30-06. These studies fire the majority of the time. After considerable debate, were kept secret to prevent the British from using them the Canadian Army announced they would be happy to as evidence in favour of their smaller rounds. use the .280 but only if the U.S. did as well. It was clear When the M14 arrived in Vietnam, it was found to the U.S. was not going to use the .280. The British did have a few disadvantages. The rifle's overall length was start introducing the .280 along with the bull-pup Rifle not well suited for jungle warfare. Also, the weight of No. 9, but the process was stopped in the interests of 7.62×51mm cartridges limited the total amount of amharmonization across NATO. The T65E5 [7.62 x 51mm] munition that could be carried in comparison with the was chosen as the NATO standard cartridge in 1954. 7.62×39mm cartridge of the Type 56 and AK-47 assault Winchester Ammunition (a division of the Olin Corporation) saw the market for a civilian model of the T65 cartridge and released it commercially in 1952 as the .308 Winchester, two years prior to adoption of the cartridge by NATO.
rifles, which the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army soldiers were equipped with. In addition, the originally issued wooden stocked versions of the M14 were susceptible to warping from moisture in tropical environments, producing“wandering zeroes”and other accuracy probThe T44 was adopted as the M14 in 1957. Around the lems, which caused the adoption of fiberglass stocks. same time Britain and Canada adopted the Belgian FN Fighting between the big-round and small-round groups FAL as the L1 followed by West German army as the reached a peak in the early 1960s, when test after test
32
CHAPTER 4. 7.62×51MM NATO
showed the .223 Remington cartridge fired from the AR15 allowed an 8-soldier unit to outgun an 11-soldier unit armed with M14s at ranges closer than 300 meters. U.S. troops were able to carry more than twice as much 5.56×45mm ammunition as 7.62×51mm for the same weight, which allowed them an advantage against a typical N.V.A. unit armed with Type 56-1s. (*AK-47 magazines are much heavier than M14 and M16 magazines) In 1964, the U.S. Army started replacing their M14s with the M16, incurring another series of complaints from the British. Regardless of the M14 having disadvantages in jungle warfare, 7.62×51mm NATO rifles stayed in military service around the world due to several factors. The 7.62×51mm NATO has proved much more effective than 5.56×45mm at long ranges, and has since found popularity as a sniping round. For instance, M14 variants such as the Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle and M25 Sniper Rifle were utilized in the United States military as designated The 7.62×51mm NATO and 5.56×45mm NATO cartridges commarksman and sniper rifles. Shorter, easier to handle pared to an AA battery. 7.62mm rifles like the Heckler & Koch G3 stayed in service due to their accuracy, range, cartridge effectiveness and reliability. distances of these effects over the M80. The bullet is reSpecialized loadings were created for 7.62×51mm designed with a copper jacket and exposed hardened steel NATO-chambered sniper rifles. They used heavier and penetrator, eliminating 114.5 grains (7.4 g) of lead with * more streamlined bullets that had a higher ballistic coef- production of each M80A1 projectile. [10] The M80A1 * ficient than standard ball rounds, meaning they shed ve- began fielding in September 2014. [11] locity at longer ranges more gradually. Loss of velocity is important for accurate long-range shots because dropping from supersonic to transonic speeds disturbs the flight 4.3 Military cartridge types of the bullet and adversely affects accuracy. The standard M80 ball round weighs 147 gr and has a muzzle velocity 200 ft/s (61 m/s) faster than the M118LR 175 gr sniping round. However, the M80 drops to subsonic velocity around 875 m (957 yd), while the initially slower M118LR is supersonic out to 950 m (1,040 yd) due to its low-drag bullet.* [9] The 7.62×51mm NATO round nevertheless met the designer's demands for fully automatic reliability with a fullpower round. It remained the main machine gun round for almost all NATO forces well into the 1990s, even being used in adapted versions of older .30-06 machine guns such as the Browning M1919A4 from the WWII era. These have been replaced to a considerable extent in the light machine gun role by 5.56×45mm NATO weapons, such as the widespread use of the M249 SAW, but the 7.62 round is still the standard chambering for most general-purpose machine guns such as the M60E4, the M240 and the German HK21 and MG3, and flexible mountings such as helicopters, jeeps, and tanks. The U.S. Army has developed an improved version of the M80 ball 7.62 mm round, called the M80A1. The M80A1 incorporates changes found in the M855A1 5.56 mm round. Like the M855A1, the M80A1 is expected to have better hard-target penetration, more consistent per- Three recovered 7.62×51mm NATO bullets (next to an unfired formance against soft targets, and significantly increased cartridge (Tracer ammunition), showing rifling marks
4.3. MILITARY CARTRIDGE TYPES
33 • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Grenade, M64 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO grenade launching blank. The cartridge is identified by a rose-petal (rosette-crimp) closure of the cartridge case mouth and sealed with red lacquer. The cartridge provides pressure upon functioning to project rifle grenade to a desired target when using a grenade projectile adapter and dragon missile launch effect trainer (LET).
7.62mm, NATO, Orange-tipped tracer ammunition, M62: 142grain (9.2 g) tracer cartridge.
• Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, M80 (United States): 147-grain (9.5 g) 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge. The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory measured a ballistic coefficient (G7 BC) of 0.200 and form factor (G7 i) of 1.105 for the M80 ball projectile.* [12] Another source mentions a slightly higher ballistic coefficient (G7 BC) of 0.209.* [13] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, M80A1 (United States): M80 Lead Free (LF) 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge.* [14] 114.5grain (7.4 g) of lead eliminated per M80A1 projectile.* [10]
The 7.62mm M118 long range cartridge.
• Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, M59 (United States): 150.5-grain (9.8 g) 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge. A further development of the initial T65 cartridge. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, High Pressure Test, M60 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO test cartridge. The cartridge is not for field issue, but is used for proof firing of weapons during manufacture, test, or repair. The cartridge is identified by a stannic-stained (silvered) case. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Armor Piercing, M61 (United States): 150.5-grain (9.8 g) 7.62×51mm NATO armor-piercing round, black cartridge tip. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer, M62 (United States): 142-grain (9.2 g) tracer cartridge, orange cartridge tip. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Dummy, M63 (United States): The cartridge is used for practice in loading 7.62mm weapons for simulated firing to detect flinching of personnel during firing and for inspecting and testing the weapon mechanism. The cartridge is identified by six longitudinal corrugations (flutings) on the cartridge case. There is no primer and no vent hole in the primer pocket.
• Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Blank, M82 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge is used in rifles and machine guns equipped with blank firing attachments to simulate firing in training exercises and for saluting purposes. The cartridge is identified by its double tapered (bottle nose) neck and absence of a bullet. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Silent, XM115 (United States): Little is known of this round, but it was an attempt to quiet the round. Never adopted. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Match, M118 (United States): 173-grain (11.2 g) 7.62×51mm NATO Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail round specifically designed for Match purposes. The round was introduced as the XM118 match in 1963 and was produced at both Frankford Arsenal and Lake City Army Ammunition Plant. It was standardized as M118 match in mid-1965. It used the same bullet as the .30-06 Springfield M72 Match Ball round, match-grade brass cartridges, and used fitted No. 43 primers. Production ceased at Frankford in 1965 but continued at Lake City until the early 1980s. Lake City used dedicated equipment to produce the ammo up until the mid-1970s and during that time the quality of the ammunition was quite good. When they ceased using dedicated machinery the quality of the ammo had a very noticeable decline.* [15] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Special, M118 (United States): 173-grain (11.2 g) 7.62×51mm NATO Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail
34
CHAPTER 4. 7.62×51MM NATO round specifically designed for match purposes. Produced by Lake City Army Ammunition Plant. This is an interim match round which utilized standard M80 ball brass cartridges with the 173grain (11.2 g) Full-Metal Jacketed Ball Boat Tailed (FMJBT) bullet and staked No. 34 or No. 36 primers. During this period in the early to late 1980s the performance of the round declined. Powder, primer, and brass were the same as standard ball rounds; bullets and powder charges varied in weight due to worn machinery and poor quality control. Since it couldn't be called“Match”due to its erratic trajectory, it was renamed“Special Ball”. Snipers used to test shoot batches of ammo, find a batch that shot well (or at least consistently), then zeroed their weapon to that batch and tried to procure as much of that ammo as possible.* [15]
NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge using a solid, turned, GM bullet. These were developed to supposedly make the OFA cartridges safer since there would be no small pieces of bullet that could separate and fall on the troops. Never adopted. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer, Overhead Fire, XM179 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge using a solid, turned, GM bullet. These were developed to supposedly make the OFA cartridges safer since there would be no small pieces of bullet that could separate and fall on the troops. XM179/XM180 difference is the amount of trace mixture. Never adopted. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer, Overhead Fire, XM180 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Overhead Fire Application (OFA) cartridge using a solid, turned, GM bullet. These were developed to supposedly make the OFA cartridges safer since there would be no small pieces of bullet that could separate and fall on the troops. XM179/XM180 difference is the amount of trace mixture. Never adopted. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Blank, XM192 (United States): 7.62×51mm Short case rose crimped dummy. Never adopted.
Linked belts of Lake City 7.62 mm M80 Ball ammunition.
• Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Special, M118LR (United States): 175-grain (11.3 g) 7.62×51mm NATO Match-grade round specifically designed for long-range sniping. It uses a 175-grain (11.3 g) Sierra Match King Hollow Point Boat Tail bullet. Produced at Lake City Army Ammunition Plant. The propellant's noticeable muzzle flash and temperature sensitivity led to the development of the MK 316 MOD 0 for Special Operations use. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Frangible, M160 (United States): 108.5-grain (7.0 g) 7.62×51mm NATO frangible bullet, upon striking a target, disintegrates, leaving a mark at the point of impact. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Dummy, M172 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge is inert and is used to test the mechanism and metallic link belts of 7.62mm weapons. The cartridge is identified by a black oxide finish over the entire round and has no primer. There is no vent hole in the primer pocket. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Overhead Fire, XM178 (United States): 7.62×51mm
• Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Duplex, M198 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO duplex round with two 84-grain (5.4 g) bullets. The developmental designation was T314E3. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Low Recoil, XM256 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Single 82-grain (5.3 g) bullet from M198 round. Another attempt to control the M14 in full auto mode or for small stature troops. Never adopted. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer, M276 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO socalled“Dim Tracer”with reduced effect primarily for use with night vision devices, green cartridge tip with pink ring. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Match, M852 (United States): 168-grain (10.9 g) 7.62×51mm NATO Hollow-Point Boat-Tail cartridge, specifically designed for use in National Match competitions. It was dubbed “Mexican Match”because it was based on the International Match loading used at the Pan-Am Games in Mexico. It used standard brass, primer, and propellant, but used a match-grade bullet. It was later approved by U.S. Army JAG in the 1990s for combat use by snipers. It replaced the M118SB as the standard Match round. The bullet was very accurate at
4.4. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION CODES (DODIC) around 2300 meters (competition match ranges) but suffered at longer ranges. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Saboted Light Armor Penetrator, M948 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Saboted Light Armor Penetrator cartridge. Never adopted.* [16] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Saboted Light Armor Penetrator Tracer, M959 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Saboted Light Armor Penetrator cartridge with tracer element. Never adopted.* [16] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Training, M973 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO SRTA ball training round. Has air brake to reduce the range the bullet will fly* [17] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Tracer, Training, M974 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO SRTA tracer training round. Has air brake to reduce the range the bullet will fly* [17] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Armor Piercing, M993 (United States): 126.6 grains (8.2 g) 7.62×51mm NATO armor-piercing round, black cartridge tip. • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm Special Ball, Long Range, MK 316 MOD 0 (United States): A 175grain (11.3 g) round specifically designed for longrange sniping consisting of Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail projectiles, Federal Cartridge Company match cartridge cases and Gold Medal Match primers. The Propellant has been verified as IMR 4064 (per NSN 1305-01-567-6944 and Federal Cartridge Company Contract/Order Number N0016408DJN28 and has a charge weight per the specs of 41.745-grain (2.7 g).* [18] • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Barrier, T762TNB1 MK319 MOD 0 (United States): 7.62×51mm NATO Enhance Behind barrier performance Enhance Function & casualty and muzzle flash requirements in short barrel carbines, 130 grains (8.4 g).* [18] • Cartridge, Grenade, L1A1 (United Kingdom): 7.62×51mm grenade-launching cartridge with one subvariant (L1A2). • Cartridge, Ball, L2A1 (United Kingdom): 7.62×51mm ball cartridge, with three subvariants (A2-A4).
35
• Cartridge, Ball, L42A1 (United Kingdom): 7.62×51mm ball cartridge, 155-grain (10.0 g) round • Cartridge, Ball, L44A1 (United Kingdom): 7.62×51mm ball cartridge, 144-grain (9.3 g) round • Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, F4 (Australia): 144-grain (9.3 g) 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge. Australian equivalent to U.S. M80 round. In service with the Australian Defence Force. • Patrone AB22, 7.62mm × 51, DM41, Weichkern (“Soft-core”), (West Germany): 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge; Berdan primed, copperwashed steel jacket. German equivalent to U.S. 7.62×51mm M80 round. Standard service round for the G3 battle rifle. • Patrone AB22, 7.62mm × 51, DM111, Weichkern, (Germany): 147-grain (9.5 g) 7.62×51mm NATO ball cartridge, cupronickel-coated steel jacket. German equivalent to U.S. M80 round. In service with the German military. Known for severe fragmentation in human tissue due to its thin jacket, particularly around the cannelure.* [19] • Patrone, 7.62mm × 51, DM111A1, (Germany): Further development of the DM111. Retained “green”primer in place of lead acid primer and lead core capped with closure disc. Instead of steel jacket with gilding metal plating, the DM111A1 has a gilding metal jacket. Fragments in soft tissue, sometimes including the closure disc separating from the projectile base.* [20] • Patrone AM31, 7.62mm × 51, DM28A2, Manöver (“Maneuver”), (Germany): Blanks, olive colored plastic with a brass base. • Patrone AM32, 7.62mm × 51, DM18A1B1, Übung (“Practice”), (Germany): 10-grain (0.6 g) 7.62×51mm NATO plastic training cartridge, plastic case cartridge colored light blue with an extraordinary light 10-grain plastic bullet which is fired with a high initial velocity. Extremely accurate (spot-on up to 2280 meters or 2493 yards), non-corrosive, steel base with lead free primer. Developed from the Norwegian NM8 and NM127 short range practice rounds made by Bakelittfabrikken. Non-reloadable due to the plastic case.
4.4 Department Of Defense Identi-
• Cartridge, Tracer, L5A1 (United Kingdom): fication Codes (DODIC) 7.62×51mm tracer cartridge, designed to last out to 1,000 metres (1,100 yd). Four subvariants exist, with brighter ignition (A2), tracer reduced to 750 This US Armed Forces and NATO code is used to idenmetres (820 yd) (A3), with a pistol powder charge tify the cartridge, the cartridge type, and the packing method (carton, clips, link belt, or bulk) used. (A4), and with improved ballistics (A5).
36
CHAPTER 4. 7.62×51MM NATO
• A111 (7.62mm Blank M82 Linked): 100-round [13] The 6.5×40 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16 by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014. M13 linked belt (M82 Blank). • A165: (7.62mm NATO Linked): 750-round M13 linked belt (4 x M80 Ball : 1 M62 Tracer). Used in 7.62 mm miniguns.
[14] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010armament/ ThursdayLandmarkBJeffreyWoods.pdf [15] SniperCentral.com History of the M118 Ammunition
• AA11 (7.62mm Ball M118LR): Long Range Ball. [16] M962 Saboted Light Armor Penetrator Tracer (SLAPT) 20-round carton. Used in precision match, desig- Globalsecurity.org nated marksman, and sniper rifles.
4.5 See also • 7.62 mm caliber • .276 Pedersen • Caliber conversion sleeve • NATO EPVAT testing • STANAG (Standardization Agreements of NATO)
[17] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ munitions/images/srta.jpg 7.62MM M973 and M973 SRTA-T
SRTA
[18] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements 7.62MM Special Ball, Long Range, NAVSEA Warfare Centers Crane. [19] Martin L. Fackler (1989).“Wounding patterns of military rifle bullets”. International Defense Review (1/1989): 59– 64. [20] A Way Forward in Contemporary Understanding of the 1899 Hague Declaration on Expanding Bullets - SAdefensejournal.com, 7 October 2013
• List of rifle cartridges • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
4.6 References [1] Slickguns.com M80 data [2] Long range sniper ammunition, U.S. Armor. [3] http://forums.gunboards.com/showthread.php? 945-FAQ-Difference-between-308-amp-7-62-X51-% 28NATO%29 [4] http://www.snipershide.com/forum/ubbthreads.php? ubb=showflat&Number=769781 [5] http://www.sksboards.com/smf/index.php?topic=79015. 0 [6] http://www.saami.org/specifications_and_information/ publications/download/SAAMI_ITEM_211-Unsafe_ Arms_and_Ammunition_Combinations.pdf [7] http://www.ATF.gov. [8] Miller, David (2003), Illustrated Directory of 20th Century Guns, Zenith Press, ISBN 978-0-7603-1560-6 [9] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Rifles by Anthony G Williams [10] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded – Army.mil, 1 July 2013 [11] M80A1 7.62 mm Cartridge - Office of the Director, Operational Test & Evaluation. 2014 [12] The Case for a General-Purpose Rifle and Machine Gun Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams
4.7 External links • Various photos of 7.62×51 NATO ammunition
Chapter 5
9×19mm Parabellum “9mm”redirects here. For other cartridges with 9mm calibers in military sidearms led to Luger to develop the bullets, see 9 mm caliber. For other uses, see 9mm 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge for his new pistol. This was achieved by removing the bottleneck shape of the (disambiguation). 7.65×21mm Parabellum case, resulting in a tapered rimThe 9×19mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9mm, 9mmP, less cartridge encasing a bullet that was 9mm in diameter. 9×19mm or 9×19) cartridge was designed by Georg Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons manufacturer Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken (DWM) for their Luger semi-automatic pistol.* [5] For this reason, it is designated as the 9mm Luger / 9mm Luger +P by the SAAMI* [6] and the 9 mm Luger by the C.I.P. (differentiating it from the 9mm Makarov and 9mm Browning cartridges). Under STANAG 4090, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.* [7] The name Parabellum is derived from the Latin: Si vis pacem, para bellum “ ( If you seek peace, prepare for war” ), which was the motto of DWM.* [8]* [9]
In 1902, Luger presented the new round to the British Small Arms Committee as well as three prototype versions to the U.S. Army for testing at Springfield Arsenal in mid-1903. The Imperial German Navy adopted the cartridge in 1904 and in 1906 the German Army adopted it as well.* [10] The ogive of the bullet was slightly redesigned in the 1910s in order to improve feeding. To conserve lead during World War II in Germany, the lead core was replaced by an iron core encased with lead. This bullet, identified by a black bullet jacket, was designated as the 08 mE (mit Eisenkern̶"with iron core” ). By 1944, the black jacket of the 08 mE bullet was dropped and these bullets were produced with normal copper-colored jackets. Another wartime variation was designated the 08 sE bullet and identified by its dark gray jacket, and was created by compressing iron powder at high temperature into a solid material (Sintereisen ̶"sintered iron”).* [13]
According to the 2006 edition of Cartridges of the World, the 9×19mm Parabellum is “the world's most popular and widely used military handgun cartridge.”* [10] In addition to being used by over 60% of police in the U.S., Newsweek credits 9×19mm Parabellum pistol sales with making semi-automatic pistols more popular than revolvers.* [11] The popularity of this cartridge can be attributed to the widely held conviction that it is effective 5.2 Popularity in police and self-defense use.* [12] Its low cost and wide availability contribute to the caliber's continuing popularAfter World War I, acceptance of the 9×19mm Parabelity. lum chambering increased, and 9×19mm Parabellum pistols and submachine guns were adopted by military and police users in many countries.* [14] The 9×19mm Parabellum has become the most popular caliber for U.S. law 5.1 Origins enforcement agencies, primarily due to the availability of compact pistols with large magazine capacities that use Georg Luger developed the 9×19mm Parabellum car- the cartridge.* [15] tridge from his earlier 7.65×21mm Parabellum round, which itself was derived from the original 7.65×25mm Worldwide, the 9×19mm Parabellum is one of the more Borchardt cartridge in the Borchardt C-93 pistol. Short- popular pistol cartridges where it is legal (some countries ening the length of the cartridge case used in the Bor- ban civilian use of weapons that chamber current or forchardt pistol allowed him to improve the design of mer military service cartridges), and cartridges in this calthe toggle lock and to incorporate a smaller, angled iber are generally available anywhere pistol ammunition grip. Luger's work on the Borchardt design evolved is sold. into the Luger pistol, first patented in 1898 and cham- From the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, there was a sharp bered in 7.65×21mm Parabellum. Demand for larger increase in the popularity of semi-automatic pistols in 37
38 the USA, a trend foreshadowed by the adoption of the Smith & Wesson Model 39 by the Illinois State Police in 1968. In addition, the Beretta M9 (a military version of the Beretta Model 92) was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1985. Previously, most American police departments issued .38 Special caliber revolvers with a six-shot capacity. The .38 Special was preferred to other weapons such as variants of the M1911 because it offered low recoil, was small and light enough to accommodate different shooters, and was relatively inexpensive.* [16] The 9mm is ballistically superior to the .38 Special revolver cartridge,* [17] is shorter overall, and being an autoloader cartridge, it is stored in flat magazines, as opposed to cylindrical speedloaders. This, coupled with the advent of the so-called“wonder nines”led to many U.S. police departments exchanging their revolvers for some form of 9mm semi-automatic handguns by the 1980s.* [16]
5.3 Cartridge dimensions
CHAPTER 5. 9×19MM PARABELLUM 9×19mm Parabellum maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions.* [3] All sizes in millimeters (mm). The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case.* [18] The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 250 mm (1 in 9.84 in), 6 grooves, ø lands = 8.82 mm, ø grooves = 9.02 mm, land width = 2.49 mm and the primer type is small pistol. According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge case can handle up to 235.00 MPa (34,084 psi) Pmax piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that 9×19mm Parabellum chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2014) proof tested at 305.50 MPa (44,309 psi) PE piezo pressure.* [3] The SAAMI pressure limit for the 9×19mm Parabellum is set at 241.32 MPa (35,001 psi) piezo pressure.* [19] The SAAMI pressure limit for the 9×19 mm Parabellum +P is set at 265.45 MPa (38,500 psi) piezo pressure. Empty case with primer weighs approximately 4 g (0.14 oz).
5.4 Performance
Three projectile types: unjacketed (lead), full metal jacket, and hollow point.
The 9×19mm Parabellum has 0.86 ml (13.3 grains H2 O) cartridge case capacity.
An expanded 124 grain 9×19mm Parabellum jacketed hollow point.
The round was originally designed to be lethal to 50 m, but the bullet travels and is lethal at longer ranges.* [20] The 9 mm cartridge combines a flat trajectory with moderate recoil. According to the 1986 book Handloading: “the modern science of wound ballistics has established beyond reasonable doubt that the 9mm cartridge is highly effective.”* [12]
5.5. IMPROVEMENTS AND VARIATIONS
39
5.5 Improvements and variations
involving non-signatories to the Hague Convention, including paramilitary and other non-governmental fighting * In addition to the traditional pressure values for this car- forces. [23] tridge, there are two main variants that offer different pressure standards than the SAAMI or C.I.P require5.5.3 Swedish m/39 ments.
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard
The Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark Iz (9 m/m BALL MK 1z) was the standard Imperial 9-mm Parabellum round in World War Two and was produced from December 1941 to 1944. It was meant for use in semiauto pistols like the Inglis Browning Hi-Power. Bullet weight was 115 grains [7.45 grams]. Velocity was 1200 feet/second [365 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It is noted by its purple annulus around a standard gold-colored primer. The higher-powered Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark 9 mm live ammunition m/39 (left, with black seal) and m/39B IIz (9m/m Ball MK 2z) was in production from Septem- (right, with red seal and a slightly more pointed shape). ber, 1943 to 1988 and was graded as NATO standard in 1962. It was designed for use in submachineguns like the Lanchester, STEN, and Sterling. Bullet weight is 115 grains [7.45 grams] over a charge of 6 grains [0.388 grams] of Du Pont SR.4898 or Dynamit-Nobel Parabellum Powder. Velocity is 1300 feet/second [396 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It can be distinguished from the 9-mm Ball MK 1z by its purple annulus around a silver primer. India and Pakistan manufactured 9-mm Parabellum ammunition to this standard after independence. Canada's Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m CDN Mark I (9-mm Ball CDN MK 1), made from 1955, had similar ballistics.
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard
The 9 mm cartridge has been manufactured by, or for, more than 70 different countries and has become a standard pistol caliber for NATO and other military forces around the world. Its official nomenclature among NATO members is “9 mm NATO”. The 9 mm NATO can be considered as an overpressure variant of the 9×19mm Parabellum that is defined by NATO standards.* [21] The service pressure Pmax of the 9 mm NATO is rated at 252 MPa (36,500 psi) where C.I.P. rates the 9 mm Luger PTmax somewhat lower at 235 MPa (34,100 psi). The 315 MPa (45,700 psi) proofing test pressure used in the 9 mm NATO proof test however equals the proofing test pressure used in the 9 mm Luger C.I.P. proof test. While the NATO standards do not specify the type of bullet to be used, Declaration III of the Hague Convention of 1899 prohibits the use of expanding ammunition in warfare by signatories, and therefore official 9 mm NATO ammunition is FMJ“ball”bullets.* [22] It should be noted that Declaration III does not apply in conflicts
9 mm live ammunition m/39 and m/39B in their boxes
The 9mm Parabellum entered Swedish service as m/39 with the import of the Kulsprutepistol m/39 from Austria, with a bullet weight of 7.5 gram (115 grain).* [24] During the Congo Crisis, the Swedish UN-contingent issued complaints about the performance of the m/39 cartridge (regular 9mm Parabellum) used, which resulted in a commission of the Swedish Army establishing in 1962 that a new round was needed for the Carl Gustav m/45. The resulting m/39B had a tombac-plated steel jacket surrounding the lead core. While the lands of the barrel can cut into the tombac, the steel jacket resists deformation and thus causes the gas pressure to rise higher than the previous soft-jacketed m/39, giving the 6,8 gram (106 grain) bullet a Vₒ of 420 m/s (1,378 ft/s)* [25] and an impact energy of 600 joules<. The mantle also acts like a penetrator when striking a target, going through up to 50 layers of kevlar, 7 cm bricks or 25 cm of wood, allowing the bullet to defeat body armour up to Type IIIA. The downside is the higher wear on the weapon, ultimately causing the service pistol m/40 to be withdrawn from service. The m/39
40
CHAPTER 5. 9×19MM PARABELLUM
is also available as chamber round – kammarpatron m/39 – black with blue tip, for indoor gallery shooting, and as blank round – lös patron m/39 – which has the metal bullet replaced with one in red, hard plastic intended to disintegrate into dust when fired.
5.5.4
9×19mm +P variant
The United States Military uses red and blue marking rounds in the 9mm caliber known as Special Effects Small Arms Marking Systems (SESAMS). Commonly used for training simulations, these rounds are comparable in function to the paintballs used in paintball markers, except they are fired with a powder charge, and can be shot in Beretta M9 service pistols with only a barrel modification (The Glock 19-series 9mm pistol, common among police departments, has a similar available modification). The 9mm SESAMS rounds are fired from specially modified pistols as well as M16 and M4 rifles, which are incapable of chambering standard live ammunition.
A 9mm Luger cartridge variant.
Attempts to improve ballistics of the cartridge came in the early 1990s with the widespread availability of high pressure loadings of the 9 mm cartridge. Such overpressure cartridges are labeled "+P”or in the case of very high pressure loadings "+P+".* [26] Ballistic performance of these rounds was moderately improved over the standard loadings. In addition, improvements in jacketed hollow point bullet technology have produced bullet designs that are more likely to expand and less likely to fragment than earlier iterations, giving a 9 mm bullet better terminal effectiveness.* [27]
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS
Box of“Cartridge, 9mm FX Blue Marking (DODIC AA21) with a modified Beretta M9 pistol
SESAMS weapons or components are normally painted blue or otherwise clearly marked, in order to denote their inert status and avoid a potentially catastrophic mixup with live-fire weapons.* [28] This allows the armed forces to train with nearly identical equipment as used in real life situations.* [29] The brand name for this ammunition, which is sold commercially and to law enforcement, is Simunition.
5.5.6 Russian military overpressure variants The Russian military has developed specialized 9×19mm cartridges that utilize relatively light bullets at high muzzle velocities for both pistols and submachine guns to defeat
5.6. USA DATA body armour.* [30] Besides enhanced penetration capabilities, these overpressure variants offer a flatter trajectory and lessened recoil. The increase in service pressure causes a rise in bolt thrust, so the use of this overpressure ammunition induces more stress on critical weapon parts during firing. After initial research, conducted since the late 1980s under the codename “Grach”, the Russian armed forces adopted two specialized 9×19mm variants.* [31]* [32] • R50 at 25 m (27 yd) means the closest 50 percent of the
41 jor”power factor in those competitions, something that very few commercial self-defense loads do. Such loads are only rarely within the limits defined by SAAMI or CIP, exceeding even +P loads. Usually, they are loaded with relatively large charges of a low volume slow-burning powder. Sometimes they are made longer than standard OAL to allow more capacity with heavier bullets. Since they can be used with common 9×19 brass, they are considered a more economical alternative to .38 Super. This ammunition should only be fired from barrels that have fully supported chambers. Guns not specifically designed to handle the excess pressure could catastrophically fail.
shot group will all be within a circle of 25 mm (1.0 in) radius at 25 m (27 yd).
5.5.8 Other variants The 7N21 (Cyrillic: 7Н21) 9×19 mm overpressure variant features an armour piercing bullet and generates a peak pressure of 280 MPa (41,000 psi).* [31] The 7N21 bullet features a hardened (sub-caliber) steel penetrator core, enclosed by a bimetal jacket. The space between the core and jacket is filled with polyethylene, and the tip of the penetrator is exposed at the front of the bullet, to achieve better penetration. The penetration range for body armor is specified at up to 40 m. The MP-443 Grach and GSh-18 pistols and PP-19−01, PP-90M1 and PP2000 submachine guns were designed for usage with this overpressure cartridge. Jane's Infantry Weapons stated in 2003 that the 7N21 cartridge combines the 9×19mm Parabellum dimensions with a 9×21mm Gyurza bullet design and was developed specifically for the penetration of body armor and for the MP-443 Grach pistol, the latest Russian service pistol.* [33] The 7N31 (Cyrillic: 7Н31) / PBP 9×19mm overpressure variant uses the same concept with a similar but lighter bullet that achieves higher muzzle velocity. The penetration of an 8 mm thick steel plate is specified at up to 10 m. The 7N31 cartridge was developed in the late 1990s for the GSh-18 pistol. The 7N31 was adopted for the PP-90M1 and PP-2000 submachine guns. Its maximum service pressure remains unclear. The method of construction of the two rounds allows them to be effective against both unarmored and armored targets. If the bullet strikes an unarmored target, it holds together to produce a wide wound channel. If the bullet strikes an armored target, the sleeve is stripped away and the core penetrates alone. The disadvantage of the rounds is that high impact velocities are needed for them to work effectively, so the bullets are relatively light to maximize their muzzle velocity. This means they will lose velocity relatively quickly, limiting their effective range.* [34]
VBR-B produces specialized bullets for this cartridge, a 2-part controlled fragmenting projectile and an armorpiercing bullet that features a brass sabot and a hardened steel penetrator. These are designed for increasing the content of the permanent wound cavity and double the chance to hit a vital organ.* [35]
5.6 USA data The energy delivered by most 9 mm loads allows for significant expansion and penetration with premium JHP bullets. Illinois State Police, Border Patrol, Federal Air Marshals and United States Secret Service favored and used 7.5 g (115 gr) +P+ 9 mm loads at 400 m/s (1,300 ft/s) for years with excellent results.* [27] Massad Ayoob has stated that the “Tried, Tested, and True” 7.5 g (115 gr) +P or +P+ is the best self-defense load in this caliber.* [27] Proponents of the hydrostatic shock theory contend that the energy of the 9mm cartridge is capable of imparting remote wounding effects known as hydrostatic shock, in human-sized living targets.* [36]* [37]* [38] 9×19mm Parabellum pistols with standard (not extended) double-stack magazines can hold up to 19 rounds, such as the Springfield XD* M−9. The table below shows common performance parameters for several 9×19mm loads. Bullet weights ranging from 115 to 147 gr (7.5 to 9.5 g) are common. Loads are available with energies from just over 400 J (300 ft·lb) to 680 J (500 ft·lb), and penetration depths from 200 mm (8 in) to over 1.0 m (40 in) are available for various applications and risk assessments.
Key: Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin). Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin). “9mm major”is a term common among handloaders in PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI IPSC and USPSA competitions in the open division. It method). describes a 9×19mm loaded to reach or surpass the“ma- TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin).
5.5.7
9mm major
42
5.7 Synonyms • 9×19 • 9 mm • 9 mm Luger • 9 mm NATO • 9×19mm • 9×19mm NATO • 9 mm Parabellum • 9 mm Para
5.8 See also • 7.65×21mm Parabellum • 9 mm caliber • List of firearms • List of handgun cartridges • List of rifle cartridges • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges • NATO EPVAT testing
5.9 References [1] “Sellier & Bellot”. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
CHAPTER 5. 9×19MM PARABELLUM
[9] Sweeney, Patrick (17 November 2009). Gun Digest Big Fat Book of the .45 ACP. Gun Digest Books. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4402-0219-3. Retrieved 17 December 2011. Georg Luger looked at his design, took the .30 Luger case and expanded it to hold a 9mm bullet. ... From the Latin phrase Si vic pacem, para bellum came parabellum. Translated it means “If you desire peace, prepare for war. [10] Barnes, Frank (2006). Skinner, Stan, ed. Cartridges of the World. 11th Edition. Cartridges of the World. Gun Digest Books. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-89689-297-2. [11] Adler, Jerry, et al. “Story of a Gun.”Newsweek 149.18 (30 April 2007): 36–39. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO. Dallas Public Library, Dallas, TX. retrieved 10 June 2009. Newsweek online edition [12] Davis, William C. (1986). Handloading, Second Printing: National Rifle Association. ISBN 0-935998-34-9 p242243 [13] Dunlap, Roy (1948). Ordnance went up front: some observations and experiences of a sergeant of Ordnance, who served throughout World War II with the United States Army in Egypt, the Philippines and Japan, including way stations. Small-Arms Technical Pub. Co. pp. 43–45. [14] Shideler, Dan (2010). “The Luger Pistol”. The Greatest Guns of Gun Digest. Krause Publications. p. 24. ISBN 1-4402-1414-X. [15] CCI/Speer Inc. (2007). Reloading Manual #14. ISBN 978-0-9791860-0-4. [16] Clede, Bill (1985). Police Handgun Manual: How to Get Street-Smart Survival Habits. Stackpole Books. pp. 116– 118. ISBN 978-0-8117-1275-0. [17] “Ballistics by the inch”. Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
[3] C.I.P. TDCC sheet 9 mm Luger
[18] Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.239. Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943.
[4] “Cor-Bon”. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
[19] “SAAMI Pressures”. Retrieved 29 November 2007.
[5] Hogg, Ian V.; Weeks, John S. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century (7th Edition), p.40. Krause Publications, 2000
[20] “How Far Will a 9mm Kill?". YouTube. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
[2] “Buffalo Bore”. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
[6] SAAMI 9mm Luger / 9mm Luger +P cartridge and chamber drawings
[21] “Proof of Ordnance, Munitions, Armour and Explosives, Ministry of Defence Defence Standard 05–101 Part 1” (PDF). Retrieved 14 November 2014.
[7] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand Capability Group 1 – Dismounted Soldier NATO Army Armaments Group
[22] “Sniper Use of Open-Tip Ammunition”. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
[8] James, Frank (15 December 2004). Effective Handgun Defense: A Comprehensive Guide to Concealed Carry. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-87349-899-9. Retrieved 17 December 2011. The word “Parabellum”is derived from the Latin phrase Si Vis Pacem Para Bellum or “If you want Peace, Prepare for War”. It naturally followed this new cartridge would be commonly referred to as the 9mm Parabellum
[24]“Hemvärnet 1940–1990, 1990. Red. Bo Kjellander s. 259–260.
[23] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/dec99-03.asp
[25] Arméstabens taktiska avdelning februari 1962 :“Erfarenheterna från striderna i Kongo under september och december 1961” [26] “What is +P and +P+ ammunition?". Retrieved 14 November 2014.
5.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
[27] Ayoob, Massad (2002). The Gun Digest Book of Combat Handgunnery (5 ed.). Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-87349-485-7. [28] Bianco, Michael (4 June 2009) "Marines conduct urban warfare training ", marines.mil, Retrieved 21 December 2009. (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation. org/5mCeN99CA) [29] Senior Master Sgt. Steven Bliss (6 August 2009) "Commando Warrior adds realistic combat training with simunitions " Retrieved 21 December 2009 [30] Russian 9×19mm Pistol Rounds, Land Forces Weapons Export Catalog, page 109 [31] Popenker, Maxim (2005–2008). “Special purpose small arms ammunition of USSR and Russia”. Modern Firearms. World Guns. [32]“9x19 Russian pistol cartridges”. Retrieved 14 November 2014. [33] “9 × 19 mm 7N21 – Jane's Infantry Weapons”. Jane's Information Group. 14 August 2003. Retrieved 16 June 2009. [34] Where Next For PDWs? by Anthony G Williams [35] “General 9×19 mm”. [36] Michael Courtney; Amy Courtney (2008). “Scientific Evidence for Hydrostatic Shock”. arXiv:0803.3051 [physics.med-ph]. [37] Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Effects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579–596, 1998. [38] Courtney, A.; Courtney, M. (2007).“Links between traumatic brain injury and ballistic pressure waves originating in the thoracic cavity and extremities”. Brain Injury 21 (7): 657–662. doi:10.1080/02699050701481571. PMID 17653939. [39] Marshall and Sanow, Street Stoppers, Appendix A, Paladin 2006
5.10 External links • Article on 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge collecting including history with photos and descriptions of variations including headstamps • Ballistics By The Inch 9×19mm Parabellum Results. • Data on the Russian ammo (in Russian)
43
Chapter 6
Anti-materiel rifle launchers, radar equipment, small watercraft, communications equipment, crew served weapons and similar targets. Their value is in being able to precisely target and disable enemy assets from long range for a relatively low cost. The offensive use of anti-materiel rifles or Special Application Scoped Rifles (SASR) is termed hard target interdiction (HTI) by the United States military.* [1] Anti-materiel rifles can also be used in non-offensive roles, e.g.: for safely destroying unexploded ordnance. Steyr HS .50 AM rifle
6.2 Description Anti-materiel rifles are similar in form and appearance to modern sniper rifles and can often serve in that role, though they are usually chambered for cartridges more powerful than are normally required for killing a human and can operate at a greater range. In general, anti-materiel rifles are chambered for 12.7×99mm NATO (.50 BMG), 12.7×108mm Russian, 14.5×114mm Russian, and 20mm cartridges. The large cartridges are required to be able to fire projectiles An anti-materiel rifle (AMR) is a rifle that is designed containing usable payloads, such as explosives, armorfor use against military equipment (materiel), rather than piercing cores, incendiaries, or combinations of these, as found in the Raufoss Mk 211 projectile. against other combatants ("anti-personnel"). US Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal technician with a McMillan Tac-50
6.1 History
The recoil produced by the employed cartridges dictates that these rifles are designed to be fired from the prone position. Bipods and monopods and muzzle brakes are used as accessories to employ these rifles as comfortably and accurately as possible. Firing several 12.7×99mm NATO, 12.7×108mm Russian, or larger caliber shots from the (unsupported) standing position or in a kneeling position would be very uncomfortable for the operator.
The origins of the anti-materiel rifle go back to the First World War, during which the first anti-tank rifles appeared. While modern tanks and most other armored vehicles are too well protected to be affected by antimateriel rifles, the guns are still effective for attack- Due to the considerable size and weight of anti-materiel ing unarmored or lightly armored vehicles. They can rifles and other support equipment, sniper cells operating also be used against stationary enemy aircraft, missile in 2- or 3-man or larger teams have become a necessity. 44
6.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
6.3 List of anti-materiel rifles by country of origin This section lists some anti-materiel rifles, sorted by country where the weapon was originally designed and/or manufactured.
6.4 See also • Anti-tank rifle • High Explosive Incendiary/Armor Piercing Ammunition • List of firearms • Raufoss Mk211 • Sniper rifle • Marksman rifle
6.5 References [1] Hard Target Interdiction, By Michael Haugen - snapshot from the Wayback Machine, dated July 19, 2007 [2] http://www.truvelo.co.za/armoury/content/sniper-rifles
6.6 External links • 20mm AMR – New Use for Unused Ammo, SOF Weapons SectionCrane Division, Naval Surface Warfare CenterSmall Arms Weapons Systems Division, USSOCOM Comparative Testing Office
45
Chapter 7
Anti-tank warfare From the Korean War to the Cold War, The United States, Soviet Union and other countries faced the possibility that a nuclear weapon could be detonated over an area of tank concentration in one strike. While technology was developed to protect crews of armored vehicles from the effects of radiation, the same could not be done for all their supporting arms and the supply train on which tanks depend for spares, fuel and maintenance. In the NATO countries little if any development took place on defining a doctrine of how to use armed forces without the use of tactical nuclear weapons. In the Soviet sphere of influence the legacy doctrine of operational maneuver was being theoretically examined to understand how a tankled force could be used even with the threat of limited use of nuclear weapons on the European battlefield. The solution they arrived at was maneuver warfare while massively increasing the number of anti-tank weapons. To achieve this, Soviet military theorists (such as Vasily Sokolovsky) realized that anti-tank weapons had to assume an offenPARS 3 LR with HEAT warhead of the German Army. sive role rather than the traditionally defensive role of the Great Patriotic War by becoming more mobile. This led to the development of improved guided anti-tank missiles, though similar design work was being performed Anti-tank warfare arose as a result of the need to de- in Western Europe and the United States. velop technology and tactics to destroy tanks during the First World War. Because tanks represent an enemy's The French SS.10 missile was the first successfully used greatest force projection (aside from nuclear artillery and in anti-tank combat̶by the Israel Defense Forces durtank vs. tank engagements), anti-tank warfare has been ing the Suez Crisis of 1956, but the impact of Soviet incorporated into the doctrine of nearly every combat ser- anti-tank missile tactics was not evident until 1973, when Russian 9K11 Malyutka (Sagger) missiles were used by vice since. the Egyptian and Syrian armies during the Yom KipThe predominant anti-tank weapons at the start of the pur War against Israel. The outcome suggested that alSecond World War were the tank-mounted gun, limbered though the French missiles were a threat, they could be (towed) anti-tank guns and anti-tank grenades used by countered. The explosive power delivered by the misthe infantry as well as ground-attack aircraft such as the siles convinced NATO tank designers to continue their Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. emphasis on increased armor, while Soviet designers reAnti-tank warfare evolved rapidly, particularly on the tained their emphasis on mobility of tank-led forces. The Eastern Front, to include new infantry and infantry sup- utility of the light anti-tank weapon was also recognized port weapons such as the bazooka, anti-tank combat engi- by both sides of the Cold War and led to further deneering, specialized anti-tank aircraft and self-propelled velopment of both shoulder-launched and man-portable tank destroyers. Both the Red Army and the German weapons used by the infantry squad, while heavier misArmy developed methods of combating tank-led offen- siles were mounted on dedicated missile tank-destroyers, sives, including deployment of static anti-tank weapons including dedicated anti-tank helicopters, and even heavembedded in in-depth defensive positions, protected by ier guided anti-tank missiles launched from aircraft. Also anti-tank obstacles and minefields, and supported by mo- being developed were new varieties of artillery munitions in the form of top-attack shells, and shells that were used bile anti-tank reserves and ground attack aircraft. 46
7.2. FIRST WORLD WAR
47
to saturate areas with anti-armor bomblets. Helicopters need to cross wide trenches̶although the relationship could be used as well to rapidly deliver scattered anti-tank between ground pressure and soil-vehicle mechanics was mines. not resolved until the Second World War. Turrets were Since the end of the Cold War in 1993, the only major later introduced on medium and light tanks to react to new threat to tanks and other vehicles, has been the re- ambushes during the advance. motely detonated improvised explosive devices (IED's) used in asymmetric warfare though it is really little different from a homemade land mine.
7.1 Tank threat Anti-tank warfare evolved as a countermeasure to the threat of the tank's appearance on the battlefields of the Western Front of the First World War. The tank had been developed to negate the German system of trenches, and allow a return to manoeuver against enemy's flanks and to attack the rear with cavalry. The use of the tank was primarily based on the assumption that once they were able to eliminate the German trench lines with their machine gun and Infantry support gun positions, the Allied infantry would follow and secure the breach, and the cavalry would exploit the breach in the trench lines by attacking into the depth of German-held territory, eventually capturing the field artillery positions and interdicting logistics and reserves being brought up from the rear areas. Naval crews initially used to operate the installed naval guns and machine guns were replaced with Army personnel who were more aware of the infantry tactics with which the tanks were intended to cooperate. However, there was no way to communicate between the tank's crew and the accompanying infantry, or between the tanks participating in combat. Radios were not yet made portable or robust enough to be mounted in a tank, although Morse Code transmitters were installed in some Mark IVs at Cambrai as messaging vehicles,.* [1] Attaching a field telephone to the rear would become a practice only during the next war. With greater use of tanks by both sides it was realized that the accompanying infantry could be forced to ground by ambush fire, thus separating them from the tanks, which would continue to advance, eventually finding themselves exposed to closeassaults by German infantry and sappers. The early tanks were mechanically rudimentary. The 0.23-to-0.47-inch (5.8 to 11.9 mm) armor generally prevented penetration by small arms fire and shell fragments. However, even a near miss from a field artillery or an impact from a mortar HE round easily disabled the tank, or destroyed it if the fuel tank was ruptured, incinerating the tank's crew. The need for a 'male' variant was recognized as a tactical necessity to defeat any infantry field pieces found in the trench lines which could easily disable tank track with the HE ammunition. This was achieved by mounting a QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss light 57 mm naval gun mounted in the hull barbettes. Hull and track engineering was largely dictated by the terrain̶the
7.2 First World War The tank, when it appeared on the Western Front in September 1916, was a total surprise to the German troops, though not to the German General Staff. The French Army Staff was highly critical of the British Army's early fielding of the Mark I vehicles in small numbers because the French trials showed the armored vehicles to be highly unreliable. They judged that large numbers had to be employed to sustain an offensive despite losses to mechanical failure or vehicles being foundered in intractable no man's land terrain. These losses, coupled with those from enemy artillery fire, later amounted to as high as 70% of the starters during some operations. Deploying small numbers of tanks would therefore cause the Allies to lose the element of surprise, allowing Germans to develop countermeasures.
7.2.1 Anti-tank weapons Because the German Army was the only force in need of anti-tank weapons, it was they that had to develop a viable technology to combat the tank. These technologies took three ammunition approaches: use of grenades by infantrymen, including the Geballte Ladung (“Bundled Charge”) of several stick grenades bound together by pioneers; early attempts at the small-caliber anti-tank rifles like the 13 mm Mauser bolt-action; and 3.7 cm TaK Rheinmetall in starrer Räder-lafette 1916 anti-tank gun on a light carriage which could destroy a tank* [2] using large-caliber armor piercing ammunition issued in 1917 to special commands; and the existing 77 mm field guns (such as the 7.7 cm FK 16) of the infantry division's artillery regiment were also eventually issued with special armor piercing (AP) ammunition.
7.2.2 Anti-tank tactics With the appearance of Allied tanks the German Army were quick to introduce new anti-tank defense detachments within the pioneer battalions of the infantry divisions. These were initially issued 1.3 cm caliber long barrel rifles firing solid shot. However these suffered from fouling after 2–3 rounds and had a recoil that was unsustainable by the mechanism or the rifleman. Stick grenades were used to destroy the tracks by individual pioneers, however this required for accompanying machine-gunners to first separate the supporting Allied infantry line from the tanks, which proved difficult. An-
48 other tactic was to lure the tank beyond the German trench-line, re-establishing it just as the Allied infantry approached. The tank would then be engaged by the divisional 7.7 cm guns brought forward, that would try to disable the tracks with ordinary HE shells (and later AP ammunition). If the crews of the disabled tanks refused to surrender, they were engaged with flamethrowers, or a mortar would be fired on the stricken vehicle until a direct hit was achieved on the top surface, usually resulting in an internal fire. Finally, anti-tank obstacles were prepared on the likely approaches by deepening and widening existing ground cratering, the precursors of the antitank trench. Finally in early 1917 the 3.7 cm TaK from Rheinmetall was rushed to the frontline, and proved effective in destroying the tanks despite limited elevation and traverse.
7.3 Development between the world wars Lack of consensus on the design and use of the tank after the First World War also influenced the development of its anti-tank countermeasures. However, because Germany was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its military capability, and there were no other challenges to France and Britain, very little development took place in anti-tank warfare until the 1930s.
Czechoslovak anti-tank gun 3,7cm KPÚV vz. 37 .
The Interwar period was dominated by the strategic thinking with fortified borders at its core. These included obstacles consisting of natural features such as ditches, streams and urban areas, or constructed obstacles such as anti-tank ditches, minefields, dragon's teeth, or log barriers. The pinnacle of this strategic thinking was considered to be the Maginot Line which replaced infantry-filled trenches with artillery-filled bunkers, including casemates housing 37 or 47 mm anti-tank guns, and steel turrets armed with a pair of machine guns and a 25 mm antitank gun, although Germany was forbidden to produce tanks. The construction was partially based on the Allied experience with the Hindenburg Line which was breached with tank support during the battles of Cambrai and St. Quentin Canal, although German Command was
CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE more impressed by the surprise achieved by the Canadian troops at the Battle of the Canal du Nord. This came to influence their planning in 1940. The Maginot line defenses - up to 25 km (16 mi) deep from the forward positions to the rear line - were intended to prevent a surprise attack and delay any attack while the French Army was mobilized. With the relative numerical inferiority between the France and Germany, it was a more effective use of manpower. Within the line passive anti-tank obstacles were supported by anti-infantry and anti-tank bunkers. After Belgium declared neutrality in 1936, France began work on extending the line along the Belgian border. Improved artillery was seen as the quickest solution to anti-tank defense, and one of the earliest post-war antitank gun designs was the 25 mm Hotchkiss model from France. It was intended to replace an Atelier de Puteaux 37 mm weapon designed in 1916 to destroy machine gun positions. Rheinmetall commenced design of a 37 mm anti-tank gun in 1924 and the first guns were produced in 1928 as 3.7 cm Pak L/45,* [3] later adopted in Wehrmacht service as 3.7 cm Pak 36. It made an appearance during the Spanish Civil War, as did the Bofors 37 mm developed in Sweden, and used by many early Second World War combatants. The British Army accepted for service the (40 mm) Ordnance QF 2 pounder which was developed as a tank gun. The Soviet Red Army after the Russian Civil War also begun a search for an antitank gun with a French Hotchkiss 37 mm L.33 tank gun, but soon upgraded this to a higher velocity L.45 Model 1935 while also making a licensed copy of the German 3.7 cm PaK 36. However, the Red Army was almost immediately taught a lesson about anti-tank warfare when a tank battalion sent to aid the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War was almost entirely destroyed in an engagement. At this time the predominant ammunition used against tanks was the armor piercing kinetic energy shell that defeated armor by direct pressure, spiking or punching through it. During the late 1930s shaped charge ammunition was experimented with that used chemical energy for armor penetration. More difficult to manufacture, its advantage was in that on impact it created a high-velocity jet of molten metal which created tremendously high pressures, hydrodynamically deforming the armor. The depth of the penetration, though proportional to the length of the jet and the square root of its density, is also dependent on the strength of the armor. With the development of this new ammunition begun more advanced research into steel manufacturing, and development of spaced armor that caused “jet waver”by detonating prematurely or at the wrong angle to the surface of the main armor. The only significant attempt to experiment in the use of tanks in the late 1920s was that of the British Army's Experimental Mechanized Force that influenced future development of tanks, armored troops and entire armies
7.4. SECOND WORLD WAR of both its future enemies and allies in the next war. In Spain the anti-tank defense of the Nationalists was organized by the Wehrmacht officers, and the anti-tank guns were incorporated into a system of obstacles that were constructed with the intent to stop an attack by tanks by slowing it down, separating them from supporting infantry (advancing on foot) with machine-gun and mortar fire, and forcing tanks to conduct deliberate head-on assaults with engineer support, or seek a less-defended area to attack. Minefields laid with purpose-designed mines were used for the first time, destroying tank tracks, and forcing combat engineers to clear them on foot. Delay meant that Nationalist field artillery could engage the lightly armored Soviet tanks. This meant a change in Republican operational and eventually strategic planning, and a more protracted combat operations, with more casualties at a greater cost. The only change to the German anti-tank tactics of the First World War was that now an effective anti-tank weapon was available to support the defending infantry. However, the Soviet tanks armed with 45 mm guns easily destroyed the German light tanks.
49
7.4 Second World War Two aspects of how the Second World War commenced helped to delay development of anti-tank warfare: resignation and surprise. After Poland was attacked, its allies in the West were resigned to its defeat by a numerically superior Wehrmacht. The little information that was brought out about the conduct of combat during that campaign did nothing to convince either France, Britain or the USSR of the need for improved anti-tank technology and tactics. The reliance on the Maginot Line, and the subsequent surprise of the German offensive left no time to develop existing capabilities and tactics in the West. The British were preparing the stop lines and the anti-tank islands to slow enemy progress and restrict the route of an attack. The Red Army however was fortunate in having several excellent designs for anti-tank warfare that were either in final stages of development for production, or had been rejected earlier as unnecessary and could now be rushed into production. The relative ease with which the older models of Red Army's tank fleet were destroyed by German anti-tank weapons, using tactics already seen in Spain, once and for all focused Stavka attention on anti-tank warfare as Soviet armies were repeatedly encircled by panzer-led strategic pincer maneuvers. Of the three iconic Soviet weapons of the Second World War, two were made exclusively for anti-tank warfare, the T34 and the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik. The former was one of the most manufactured tanks in history, and the latter, itself dubbed the 'flying tank', was one of the most manufactured aircraft. The war also saw the creation and almost immediate abandonment of the self-propelled tank destroyer which would be replaced post war by the anti tank guided missile.
Ironically, in the early 1930s until the Spanish War, German officers were conducting secret testing of a new way of employing tanks, infantry and artillery offensively in the Soviet Union with the cooperation of the Red Army. In Germany these developments eventually culminated in tactics that later came to be known as Blitzkrieg, while in the Soviet Union they formed the core of the deep battle operational doctrine. The successful test of the latter was during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol although the Red Army foundered on the Mannerheim Line in 1940, largely due to the purge in the Officer Corps, claiming many of the senior proponents of the new doctrine. Anti-tank artillery would be included in mobile tank-led Wehrmacht and Red Army units due to the possibility of 7.4.1 encountering enemy tanks in a meeting engagement. The new doctrines of using the tank, were divided into infantry and cavalry schools of thought. The former regarded the tank as a mobile artillery system to be used for infantry support. This suggested that the infantry needed to be armed with integral anti-tank weapons. The latter advocated use of tanks in the traditional cavalry way of high-tempo attacks intended to outflank the enemy infantry and sever its communication lines. This approach suggested that the tank was the best anti-tank system, and only limited anti-tank troops were required to accompany them. For this reason the late 30s tank configurations came in a great diversity, ranging from light tankettes and cavalry tanks to multi-turreted heavy tanks resembling bunkers, all of which had to be considered in training by the anti-tank artillery troops. The development of these doctrines was the most significant influence on the rapid development in anti-tank technology and tactics in the Second World War.
Aircraft
As tanks were rarely used in conflicts between the two World Wars, no specific aircraft or tactics were developed to combat them from the air. One solution adopted by almost all European air forces was to use bomb loads for conventional bombers that were composed from small bombs allowing a higher density during bombing. This created a greater chance of causing a direct impact on the thinner top armor of the tank while also having the ability to damage track and wheels through proximity detonation. The first aircraft capable of engaging tanks were the Junkers Ju-87 “Stuka”using dive bombing to place the bomb close to the target. Some French and German fighters fitted with 20 mm cannon were also able to engage thinner top armor surfaces of the tanks early in the war. The Stuka was also given cannons for anti-armor role though it was obsolete by 1942, and was joined by the Henschel Hs 129 that mounted a podded 30 mm (1.2 in) MK 101 cannon beneath its fuselage, while the Red Army Air Force fielded the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 armed with a pair of 23 mm cannons and unguided rockets, but
50
CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE
armored to enable the pilots to approach German tanks at very low altitude, ignoring small arms, machine-gun and even small anti-aircraft cannon fire that usually provided tanks with protection against the bombers. Il-2s could also carry large numbers of 2.5 kg shaped-charge anti-tank PTAB bombs. To give it more firepower against tanks, the RAF mounted two underwing pod-mounted 40 mm Vickers S cannon on the Hawker Hurricane (as the Mk. IID), which saw service in North Africa in 1942 and the Hawker Typhoon was given HE rockets though these were more effective against other ground vehicles. From March 1943 the Red Army Air Force produced the more agile Yakovlev Yak-9T (37 mm cannon) and K (45 mm cannon) bomber interceptor also used for ground attack, both guns in mounts attached to the engine, that had them Bofors 37 mm anti-tank gun as used by several nations firing through a hollow-center propeller shaft.
7.4.2
Field artillery
Prior to World War II few anti-tank guns had (or needed) calibers larger than 50 mm. Examples of guns in this class include the German 37 mm, US 37 mm (the largest gun able to be towed by the jeep), French 25 mm and 47 mm guns, British QF 2-pounder (40 mm), Italian 47 mm and Soviet 45 mm. All of these light weapons could penetrate the thin armor found on most pre-war and early war tanks.
Field artillery were often the first ground combat arm to engage detected concentration of troops which included tanks through artillery airborne observers, either in assembly areas (for refueling and rearming), during approach marches to the combat zone, or as the tank unit was forming up for the attack. Conventional artillery shells were very effective against the tank's thinner top armor if fired in appropriate density while the tanks were concentrated, enabling direct hits by a sufficiently powerful shell. Even a non-penetrating shell could still disable a tank through dynamic shock, internal armor shattering or simply overturning the tank. More importantly the tanks could be disabled due to damage to tracks and wheels, and their supporting vehicles and personnel could be damaged and killed, reducing unit's ability to fight in the longer term. Because tanks were usually accompanied by infantry mounted on trucks or half-tracked vehicles that lacked overhead armor, field artillery that fired a mix of ground and air-burst ammunition was likely to inflict heavy casualties on the infantry as well. Field guns such as the Ordnance QF 25 pounder were provided German PaK 38 50-mm anti-tank gun with armor-piercing shot for direct engagement of enemy tanks. At the start of World War II many of these weapons were still being used operationally, along with a newer generation of light guns that closely resembled their WWI coun7.4.3 Anti-tank guns terparts. After Soviet T-34 and KV tanks were encountered these guns were recognized as ineffective against See also: Anti-tank gun and Tank gun sloped armor, with the German lightweight 37 mm gun Anti-tank guns are guns designed to destroy armored vequickly nicknamed the “tank door knocker”(German: hicles from defensive positions. In order to penetrate vePanzeranklopfgerät), for revealing its presence without hicle armor they fire smaller caliber shells from longerpenetrating the armor. barreled guns to achieve higher muzzle velocity than field artillery weapons, many of which are howitzers. The higher velocity, flatter trajectory ballistics provide terminal kinetic energy to penetrate the moving/static target's armor at a given range and contact's angle. Any field artillery cannon with barrel length 15 to 25 times longer than its caliber was able also to fire anti-tank ammunition, such as the Soviet A-19.
Germany quickly introduced more powerful anti-tank guns, some which had been in the early stages of development prior to the war. By late 1942 the Germans had an excellent 50-mm high-velocity design, while they faced the QF 6-pounder introduced in the North African Campaign by the British Army, and later adopted by the US Army. By 1943 Wehrmacht was forced to adopt still
7.4. SECOND WORLD WAR larger calibers on the Eastern Front, the 75 mm and the famous 88 mm guns. The Red Army used a variety of 45 mm, 57 mm, and 100 mm guns, as well as deploying general-purpose 76.2 mm and 122-mm guns in the anti-tank role. For the Invasion of Normandy the British produced the QF 17 pounder, whose design had begun before the 6 pounder entered service, which proved to be a highly effective anti-tank gun and was also used on the tank and the tank destroyer.
51 crew protection, though the lack of a turret limited the gun's traverse to a few degrees. This meant that if the TD became immobilized due to engine failure or track damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing tanks, making it an easy target. This vulnerability was later exploited by opposing tank forces. Late in the war, it was not unusual to find even the largest and most powerful tank destroyer abandoned on the field after a battle, having been immobilized by a single high explosive shell to the track or front drive sprocket.
US Army pre-war infantry support doctrines emphasized the use of tank destroyers with open-top fully rotating turrets, featuring less armor than the standard M4 Sherman Main article: Tank destroyer tanks, but with more powerful cannon. A 76 mm longSee also: Panzerjäger and Jagdpanzer As towed anti-tank cannon guns grew in size and weight, barrel tank cannon was fitted to the M10 and M18 designs. Late in 1944, the M36 appeared, equipped with a 90 mm cannon. With rotating turrets and good combat maneuverability, American TD designs generally worked well, although their light armor was no match for enemy tank cannon fire during one on one confrontations. Another disadvantage proved to be the open, unprotected turret, and casualties from artillery fire soon led to the introduction of folding armor turret covers. Near the war's end, a change in official doctrine caused both the self-propelled tank destroyer and the towed antitank gun to fall from favor in U.S. service, increasingly replaced by conventional tanks or infantry level antitank weapons. Despite this change, the M36 tank destroyer continued in service, and was used in combat as late as the Korean War. Self-propelled anti-tank guns
A British Archer tank destroyer, based on the hull of a Valentine tank
7.4.4 Infantry they became less mobile and more cumbersome to maneuver, and required ever larger gun crews, who often had Rifles to wrestle the gun into position while under heavy artillery and/or tank fire. As the war progressed, this disadvantage often resulted in the loss or destruction of both the antitank gun and its trained crew. This gave impetus to the development of the self-propelled, lightly armored "tank destroyer" (TD). The tank destroyer was usually based on the hull of existing tank designs, using either a gun integrated into the hull or a fully rotating turret much like that of a conventional tank. These self-propelled (SP) AT guns were first employed as infantry support weapons in place of towed antitank guns. Later, due to a shortage of tanks, TDs sometimes replaced the former in offensive The Soviet PTRS-41 anti-tank rifle during World War II. armored operations. Early German-designed tank destroyers, such as the Marder I, employed existing light French or Czech design tank chassis, installing an AT gun as part of an armored, turret-less superstructure. This method to reduced both weight and conversion costs. The Soviet Union later adopted this style of self-propelled anti-tank gun or tank destroyer. This type of tank destroyer had the advantage of a reduced silhouette, allowing the crew to more frequently fire from defilade ambush positions. Such designs were easier and faster to manufacture and offered good
See also: Anti-tank rifle Anti-tank rifles were introduced in some armies before the Second World War to provide infantry with a standoff weapon when confronted with a tank assault. The intention was to preserve good morale of the infantry by using a weapon that could actually defeat a tank. Anti-tank rifles were developed in several countries during the 1930s. By the beginning of WW2, anti-tank ri-
52 fle teams could knock out most tanks from a distance of about 500 m, and do so with a weapon that was manportable and easily concealed. Although the AT rifle performance was negated by the increased armor of medium and heavy tanks by 1942, they remained viable against lighter-armored and unarmored vehicles, and against field fortification embrasures.
CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE cessful unguided rocket used extensively in the Siege of Budapest. After the war research on infantry anti-tank weapons continued, with most designers focused on two primary goals: First an anti-tank weapon that could defeat more heavily armored postwar tanks and fighting vehicles, and second a weapon lightweight and portable enough for infantry use.
Notable examples include the Finnish Lahti L-39 (which was also used as a sniper rifle during the Continuation War), the automatic Japanese Type 97 20 mm anti-tank Mines and other explosives rifle, the German Panzerbüchse 38, Panzerbüchse 39, the Main article: Anti-tank mine Polish wz.35 and the Soviet 14.5 mm PTRD and PTRS41. Although by 1943 other armies judged the anti-tank rifle to lack combat effectiveness due to their diminished ability to penetrate the thicker armor of new tanks, the anti-tank rifle remained in Soviet use during the conflict for its place in the system of anti-tank defensive tactics. Rockets and shaped charges
A statue of a Vietminh soldier holding a Lunge AT Mine. In Vietnamese the mine is called bom ba càng, literally means “threeclawed bomb”.
British PIAT
The development of light, man-portable, anti-tank weapons increased during the Second World War. Most were based on the Munroe effect which led to the development of the high explosive shaped charge. These weapons were called High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT). The destructive effect was reliant entirely on the kinetic energy of the explosion rather than the ballistic speed of the round on the damage inflicted to the armor. The effect was also concentrated and could penetrate more armor for a given amount of explosives. The first HEAT rounds were rifle grenades, but better delivery systems were soon introduced: the British PIAT was propelled by an explosive charge combined with a powerful spring, the US Bazooka and the German Panzerschreck used rockets; The German Panzerfaust was a small recoilless gun. The HEAT warhead was retroactively used to give more Sticky bomb in production power to smaller calibre weapons such as in the conversion of the otherwise limited German 37 mm PaK guns to fire a large shell (that fitted over the barrel rather than • Though unsophisticated, the satchel charge was an down in it) to a greater range than the Panzerschreck could effective anti-tank weapon during World War II; the manage. blast could sever the tracks of a tank, damage internal components or injure the crew. The The Hungarian 44M ""Buzogányvető"" was a suc-
7.4. SECOND WORLD WAR
53
• Hawkins mine • The Wehrmacht employed the Goliath tracked mine, an unmanned demolition vehicle. • The Soviet Union employed anti-tank dogs during World War II, with very limited success; as a counterpart to the German Goliath the Teletank was used as a remote-controlled unmanned tank. • The Japanese forces employed suicide attacks with pole-mounted anti-tank mines dubbed Lunge Mines during late World War II.* [4] In Vietnam, similar mines were called bom ba càng due to the three contact points at the head of each mine. Grenades Main article: Antí-tank grenade Regular fragmentation grenades were ineffective against tanks, so many kinds of anti-tank grenades were developed. These ranged from hollow charge designs (e.g., the British No. 68 AT Grenade), to ones that simply contained a lot of explosive (the British No. 73 Grenade). To increase their effectiveness, some grenades were designed so that they adhered to the tank either through an adhesive (sticky bomb) or with a magnet. The Germans used a magnetic grenade, the Hafthohlladung to ensure that the shaped charge would fire at the optimal 90° angle to the armor. There was also a special type of grenade called the Nebelhandgranaten or Blendkörper (“smoke hand grenades” ), which was supposed to be smashed over an air vent and fill the tank with smoke, widely used by both sides in World War II. Molotov cocktails also saw much use, especially in the Winter War, early tanks (such as the T-26) being very vulnerable to them, but later tanks required a well-thrown bottle directly over the engine compartment to have any effect at all.
A Finnish soldier with a Molotov cocktail in the 1939-40 Winter War.
a result of being surprised by the previously unknown Soviet tank designs, forcing introduction of new technologies and new tactics. The Red Army was also faced with a new challenge in anti-tank warfare after losing most of its On the whole, thrown anti-tank weapons suffered from a tank fleet and a considerable part of its anti-tank capable variety of drawbacks. In addition to the inherently short cannons. range, they required careful aim to be effective, and those that relied on explosive force were often so powerful that the user had to take cover immediately.
7.4.5
Tactics
Anti-tank tactics developed rapidly during the war but along different paths in different armies based on the threats they faced and the technologies they were able to produce. Very little development took place in UK because weapons available in 1940 were judged adequate for engaging Italian and German tanks during most of the North African Campaign. Its experience therefore failed to influence US Army's anti-tank doctrine prior to 1944. Examples of Czech hedgehogs deployed on the Atlantic Wall in From 1941 German anti-tank tactics developed rapidly as the vicinity of Calais.
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CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE
Anti-tank tactics during the war were largely integrated with the offensive or defensive posture of the troops being supported, usually infantry. Much of anti-tank tactics depend on the range effectiveness of various weapons and weapon systems available. These are divided as follows: Operational range over the horizon (20–40 km range) – bomber aircraft and long range artillery Tactical staging areas (7–20 km range) – ground attack aircraft and field artillery including MRLs Tactical zone forming-up area and rear combat zone (2–7 km range) – heavy anti-tank guns and mortars Tactical forward combat zone (1–2 km range) – anti-tank guns and tanks deployed in defense Engagement distance (200–1000 m range) – mines and anti-tank rifles Close combat distance (25–200 m range) – infantry anti-tank weapons
their fire until enemy tanks were within the most effective range for their ammunition. Where there were insufficient anti-tank weapons, engineers would construct anti-tank obstacles such as dragon's teeth or czech hedgehog. Towed anti-tank guns were thought to be the primary means of defeating tanks. At the battle of Kursk for example, the Red Army deployed more artillery regiments than infantry regiments and towed gun densities reached over 20 guns per kilometer of defended tactical zone. A towed gun was much cheaper than a tank and could be concealed in a shallow position. When time allowed, dugouts with strong overhead cover could be constructed. Guns deployed on reverse slopes and in flanking positions could take a toll of attacking tanks. However, gun crews were vulnerable to artillery, mortar HE fire and enemy infantry. Their positions had to be carefully selected and once engaged, they generally could not redeploy. Experience strongly suggested that towed AT guns were less effective than self-propelled AT weapons and took heavier casualties.
Tactic of ambushing enemy armor at grazing shot distances was perfected during world war 2. Some combatGround-to-air cooperation was not yet systematic in any ants, like the Soviet Red Army, doctrinalized it and used army of the period, but given sufficient warning ground it to engage heavy German armor at optimal distances and attack aircraft could support ground troops even during angles. an enemy attack in an attempt to interdict the enemy Self-propelled anti-tank guns were rare at the beginning units before they come into tactical combat zone. Various of WW2, although the Belgian Army deployed a few T.15 bomb loads can be used depending on what type of tank tank destroyers and the French army was developing sevunit is engaged in at the time or who its accompanying eral wheeled and tracked designs. The advantages of motroops are. This is an indirect form of anti-tank warfare bility and even thin armor protection were so compelling where the tanks are denied the opportunity to even reach that most armies were using self-propelled AT guns by combat. mid-war. Examples of these weapons included the US Field artillery was particularly effective in firing against M10, German Marder II, and Soviet SU-85. tank formations because although they were rarely able to The British Army had abandoned the anti-tank rifle by destroy a tank by direct penetration, they would severely 1942 and the Wehrmacht by 1943, while the US Army crater the area preventing the tanks from moving therenever adopted the weapon, although the USMC used Boys fore causing them to become nearly stationary targets for anti-tank rifles in the Pacific Theater. The Red Army the ground attack aircraft, or disrupting the enemy scheddid not abandon the anti-tank rifle due to the imporule and allowing own troops more time to prepare their tance it occupied in its doctrine of anti-tank in-depth dedefense. fense, first demonstrated during the defense of Moscow Anti-tank defense proper was by 1942 designed in First and again during the Kursk battles. This became particWorld War fashion with several prepared trench lines ularly true later in the war when the Red Army assumed incorporating anti-tank weapons of different capabili- an almost constant offensive, and anti-tank in-depth deties. Depending on terrain and available line-of-sight, fensive deployments were used for protecting flanks of the longer-ranged guns could begin to fire on approach- the operational breakthroughs against German tactical ing tanks from as far as 2 kilometers, which was also counterattacks. By firing on the lighter armored infantry the range at which German Panther and Tiger tank gun- and support vehicles (e.g. artillery tractors) the antiners were trained to fire. Anti-tank guns were usually de- tank rifle units helped to separate the supporting infantry ployed to cover terrain more suitable for tanks, and were (panzergrenadiers) and artillery of the German tanks and protected by minefields laid at about 500 meters to 1 kilo- so forced the tanks to halt at short distances from the conmeter from their positions by combat engineers. In the cealed anti-tank guns leaving them exposed to fire from Red Army the anti-tank rifle units would be positioned larger, longer ranged anti-tank guns. PTRS-41 semithroughout the forward trench line and would engage the automatic anti-tank rifles were also used for sniping since lighter tanks and any other vehicles, such as infantry half- an additional tracer round enabled rapid fire adjustment tracks in an attempt to separate them from the tanks. The by the gunner. Although optical sniper scopes were tried anti-tank guns deployed further back would often hold
7.5. KOREAN WAR
55
with the PTRS-41, the weapons proved too inaccurate since they were not often provided with long-range antiat sniping distances (800 m or more), and the recoil too tank weapons.* [5] much for effective use of the scopes. In some cases in World War II, a tactic of some infantry was to run directly up to a tank, avoiding their main and machine guns, and pour petroleum over and into the tank Infantry close assault and light it, sometimes blocking the exit, burning the crew alive. In the Japanese army, the use of satchel charges and pole charges was widespread. Although the charges could knock out any allied tank, the tactic was extremely closerange and the sappers were vulnerable to allied weapons. Suicide bombing
Panzerfaust armed German soldiers on the Eastern Front, 1945.
The tank is still vulnerable to infantry, especially in close country or built-up areas. Rough terrain may expose the floor armor, and high ground such as multi-story buildings may expose the top armor. Their large size and loud noise can allow enemy infantry to spot, track and evade tanks until an opportunity presents itself for counter-attack. Because tank crews have limited visibility from inside the tank, infantry can get close to a tank given enough concealment and if the hatches are closed. If tank crewmen unbutton for better visibility they become vulnerable to small arms fire. An infantryman cannot be targeted by a tank's main gun when close as it cannot depress sufficiently. Close defense weapons such as pistol ports, hull, coaxial- and pintle-mounted machine guns gave them some protection however.
Chinese troops in the Second Sino-Japanese War used suicide bombing against Japanese tanks. Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up.* [6] This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank,* [7] and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up.* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12] During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers obliterated four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles.* [13]* [14]
7.5 Korean War The Korean War highlighted the difficulties that can arise with tank forces when vulnerable logistical support is combined with terrain not suitable for tanks. In the early stages of the war, North Korea's well-equipped tank divisions were pushed back to the Yalu River, the border with China, by superior American air power combined with artillery and infantry support. However, when the Chinese entered the war, they managed to reverse the American advances with infantry power alone. Because of the terrain and the need to keep the tanks supplied, American tanks were limited to two main roads. The Chinese merely occupied the land between the roads and harried the American supply lines and troop transports along the road. The Chinese infantry stuck to land that was impassable to tanks, such as rocky prominences and rice paddies, neutralizing the advantage of both American armored divisions and air support.
Whilst many hand-held infantry anti-tank weapons will not penetrate the front armor of a tank, they may penetrate the less heavily armored top, rear, and sides. Damage to the tracks or running gear can inflict a mobility kill. Early WWII tanks had open vision slits which could be fired through to kill the crew. Later tanks' slits had thick glass, as well as sights and periscopes which could still be damaged with powerful small arms such as antitank rifles and heavy machine guns, hampering the crew. If all else fails, the hatch could also be forced open and grenades thrown inside, although later tank designs often have hatches designed to be difficult to open from the In the U.S., the 2.36 in (60 mm) M9A1 bazooka rocket outside. launcher evolved into the more powerful 3.5 in (89 mm) Tanks were also vulnerable to hand-placed anti-tank M20 “Super Bazooka”, which was used to good efmines. Infantry have even immobilized tanks using a set fect against North Korean armored spearheads during the of plates covered with leaves and dirt as dummy mines – Korean War. However, the M20 proved difficult and the ruse being augmented by the crew's obscured vision – cumbersome to portage on foot over long distances. The infantry can then attack the stopped tank. This tactic was Anti-Tank Aircraft Rocket, developed by the navy, also taught to the British Home Guard during World War II proved effective against North Korean tanks.
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CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE
7.6 Cold War
biggest threats to a modern tank. The helicopter can position itself where it is not easily seen from a tank and then In the Cold War era, HEAT became an almost univer- attack from any quarter, exposing the weaker parts of the sal choice outside of artillery and tank units. The British tank's armor. The limited visibility from a closed-down had developed the High explosive squash head (HESH) tank also makes sighting a helicopter harder. warhead as a weapon for attacking fortifications during Most helicopter-launched ATGWs have sufficient range the war, and found it surprisingly effective against tanks. that they can under the right conditions be fired at a range Although these systems allowed infantry to take on even too long for the tank to retaliate with its own weapons. the largest tanks, and, like HEAT, its effectiveness was This may change with the Israelis fielding the Lahat misindependent of range, infantry typically operated at short sile that can be fired from the main gun of the Merkava range. A major influence in anti-tank warfare came with MBT. With both anti-tank and anti-helicopter role, it the development and evolution of anti-tank guided mis- does level the playing field somewhat. The Indian Arjun siles (ATGW) that could be fired by infantry operators, tank has also been modified to fire this missile. The from ground vehicles and by aircraft. Increasing use of People's Republic of China has developed 100 mm guncombined arms tactics allowed the attacking infantry to launched missiles based on Russian designs such as the suppress the anti-tank crews effectively, meaning that GP2 (based on the Russian Bastion). It has been reported they could typically get off only one or two shots before to have successfully engaged aerial targets, as well as bebeing countered or forced to move. ing an anti-tank missile. Similar missiles are available for Chinese tanks equipped with the 105 mm gun. The Russians have also displayed a similar if more advanced sys7.6.1 Aircraft tem in the Reflex. The system involves an automatic targeting of an aerial/land target instigated by a laser warnMain article: Attack aircraft ing system. Cold War aircraft, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II and SU-25 Frogfoot, have been specifically built for close air support, including tank destruction. They can use a variety of weaponry, including large-caliber anti-tank guns, air-to-surface missiles (e.g. AGM-65 Maverick), volleys of unguided rockets, and various bombs (unguided or laser-guided and with or without submunitions such as HEAT bomblets, an example of which would be the CBU-100 Cluster Bomb).
Although putting weapons on helicopters (probably) dates back to 1955 with the Bell 47, the first specific attack helicopter that went into mass production was the Bell AH-1 Cobra in 1966. The AH-1 was equipped with TOW missiles in 1973 for anti-tank capability.* [16]
7.6.3 Artillery
In the last thirty years, however, a variety of artillery projectiles have been developed specifically to attack tanks. These include laser-guided projectiles, such as 7.6.2 Helicopters the US's Copperhead Cannon Launched Guided Projectile (CLGP), which increases the chances of a direct hit. Further information: Attack helicopter Anti-tank missiles were first used in a helicopter- Some of these CLGPs (including the Copperhead) have HEAT warheads instead of common HE. Guided and unguided scatter munitions and submunitions have also been developed: a single artillery shell containing a number of smaller munitions designed to attack a tank. A six-gun battery might be able to fire several hundred submunitions in a minute or two. In one form, the shell bursts in the air above the tank and a number of shaped charge (HEAT) or HEDP (High Explosive Dual Purpose) bomblets or grenades rain down. British Army Westland WAH-64 Apache, an anti-tank helicopter Any that hit the tank have a good chance of causing damborne role by the French in the late 1950s, when they age, since they are attacking the thin top armor. mounted SS.11 wire-guided missiles on Alouette II heli- Another form scatters a number of small anti-tank mines copters.* [15] While, initially, there were many teething in the tank's path, which probably will not penetrate the problems, the possibilities were clear, such as providing armor but can damage a track, leaving the tank immobile the ability to attack the more lightly armored top of the and vulnerable. tank. More sophisticated are submunitions with a homing caThe anti-tank helicopter armed with ATGWs (Anti-Tank pability. Once again the shell explodes above the tank Guided Weapons) or anti-tank cannons is one of the position and dispenses a number of submunitions. The
7.6. COLD WAR
57
munitions contain some circuitry to identify tanks, such as IR or millimeter radar; when a tank is identified, a rocket propellant is fired to shoot the projectile at the tank. These munitions will often descend by parachute, to allow time for target acquisition and attack. All of the above but the CLGP can be fired from medium (122/152/155-mm) artillery, both tube and rocket. There has also been development of large caliber (81 mm and larger) guided mortar munitions with both internal (e.g., IR or radar) or external (i.e., laser designator) guidance.
7.6.4
Missiles
Main article: Anti-tank missile
South African tank gun retrofitted to a towed howitzer carriage.
The development of the wire-guided missile, or AntiTank Guided Weapon (ATGW) systems came into use in the late 1950s and 1960s that could defeat any known tank at ranges beyond that of the guns of the accompanying infantry. The United Kingdom, France, and other NATO countries were among the first to develop such weapons (e.g., the Malkara missile by the UK and Australia in 1958). The Soviet Union, and now Russia, put extensive development into these weapons; the first manportable model to enter service was the AT-3 in 1961. The United States was one of the last, coming up with the BGM-71 TOW in 1970. For a time, it appeared that the tank was a dead end. A small team of infantry with a few missiles in a well-concealed position could take on a number of the largest and most expensive tanks. In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet first-generation wireguided missiles employed by the Egyptian forces inflicted heavy casualties on Israeli tank units, causing a major crisis of confidence for tank designers.
some nations, including South Africa and Israel, grafted obsolete tank guns onto towed carriages for use in that role.* [17]
7.6.6 Mines Owing to greater sophistication of the tank, and engineering support available to tank units to detect and negate minefields, a considerable effort was made to develop more effective anti-tank mine technology in the effort to deny tank-led formations maneuver space, or channel their movement into unsuitable avenues of approach.
7.6.7 Infantry
Active protection systems such as the Russian Arena active protection system are starting to be more common, with similar systems such as the Israeli Iron Fist active protection system. The tank may be on a comeback because of active defense systems, which attack missiles in mid-air. This may allow the tank to be competitive on the battlefield once again.
7.6.5
Guns
Main article: Anti-tank gun Of the world's major armies, only the Soviet Red Army retained anti-tank guns in any significant quantity, mostly in 100 mm, 115 mm, and 125 mm calibers. The 125 mm anti-tank guns are extremely bulky and massive, and require large tractors to tow them for any significant distance. This is offset by their cheapness and potentially deadly effect, particularly now that they have been upgraded with laser rangefinders and depleted uranium ammunition.
Australian Army Land Rover Series 2 “gunbuggy”with a M40 recoilless rifle used in the anti-tank role.
The search for a more suitable, longer-range delivery system took up much of the immediate post-war era. The US invested in the recoilless rifle, delivering a widely used 75 mm design, and less common 90 mm and 106 mm designs (the latter was usually mounted rather than infantryhandled). The 106 mm formed the basis of a dedicated Rather than developing specialized anti-tank artillery, anti-tank vehicle, the Ontos tank, which mounted six 106
58 mm rifles. The Australian Army also fitted M40 recoilless rifles to Land Rover Series 2 vehicles for use in an anti-tank role. The Soviet Union also built recoilless rifles in various calibers intended to be used as anti-tank weapons, most commonly 73 mm, 82 mm, and 110 mm (only the 73 mm remains in service with the Russian military today, though the other two can be found all over the world due to Soviet military aid during the Cold War). The British used a 120 mm (4.7 inch) design to equip infantry units, the BAT series, which served from the 1950s until replaced by MILAN, but it was generally too heavy for infantry use and had to be towed by, or mounted on, a vehicle for maneuverability. The Soviets developed the RPG-2 from the German Panzerfaust 150. Further development led to the ubiquitous RPG-7. The RPG-7 is one of the most widely used anti-tank weapons, favored most by soldiers of irregular militaries. The RPG-7 could fire a range of different warheads, from thermobaric warheads to a single HEAT or tandem-charge HEAT warheads against explosive reactive armor equipped tanks. The RPG-7 has a long combat history, and has been used in most wars from the Vietnam war all the way to present day wars. In modern times, the RPG-7 is generally used in an urban environment, which would enhance their effectiveness due to the close ranges involved. However, the aging RPG-7 has evolved to the even more potent RPG-29 which has proven its worth in conflicts in the Middle East, damaging the Merkava IV,* [18] Challenger 2* [19] and M1 Abrams* [20] main battle tanks.
CHAPTER 7. ANTI-TANK WARFARE
7.6.8 Tactics Changes in the anti-tank tactics since the Second World War mostly came from the appearance of new technologies, and increased firepower of the infantry mounted on fully armored vehicles. The most profound anti-tank technology has been the guided missile, which when coupled with a helicopter can mean that tanks can be engaged beyond ground line of sight (LOS), and at one of their most vulnerable aspect, the top armor.
7.7 Effectiveness The effect of anti-tank warfare is to prevent enemy tanks, and their supporting troops from maneuvering, which is the primary capability of the tanks. In the US Army the degree of effect by an anti-tank weapon on a vehicle is referred to as either "mobility kill", "firepower kill", and "catastrophic kill". In a mobility kill (M-kill), the vehicle loses its ability to move, for example, by breaking a tank track; the target is then immobile, but may retain full use of its weapons and still be able to fight to some extent. A firepower kill (F-kill) is some loss of the vehicle's ability to fire its weapons. M-kills and F-kills may be complete or partial, the latter corresponding to reductions in a target's ability to move or fire. A catastrophic kill (K-kill) removes the tank's ability to fight completely; this may entail complete destruction of the tank or disabling the crew.
7.7.1 Future Although the future of the tank was questioned in the 1960s due to the development of the anti-tank missiles, increases in thickness and composition of armor, and other improvements in tank design meant that infantry operated systems were no longer sufficiently effective by the 1970s, and the introduction of Chobham armor by the British Army and reactive armor by the Soviet Army forced the HEAT rounds to be increased in size, rendering them less portable.
Soviet RPG-7
In the 1960s, the U.S. Army adopted the M72 LAW rocket, a lightweight, collapsible rocket launcher with the ability to penetrate moderate thicknesses of enemy armor. During the Vietnam War, the weapon was used primarily against NVA and Viet Cong defensive works and emplacements, as there were few encounters against enemy armor. Overall, the LAW was regarded as a success, though its ignition system frequently suffered from misfires in the heat and humidity of Vietnamese jungles. The LAW has since been replaced by the AT4 (M136).
Weapon systems like the RPG-29 and FGM-148 Javelin use a Tandem warhead where the first warhead disables reactive armor, while the second warhead defeats the shell armor by means of a HEAT or a shaped charge. Today the anti-tank role is filled with a variety of weapons, such as portable “top attack”artillery ammunition and missiles, larger HEAT missiles fired from ground vehicles and helicopters, a variety of high velocity autocannon, and ever-larger and heavier tank guns. One of the first lessons of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict is the effectiveness of portable rocket propelled grenades, in particular, Russian-made RPG-29, and Metis-M, Kornet and European MILAN anti-tank missiles.
7.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
7.8 See also • Anti-tank grenade • Bumbar • Czech hedgehog • List of anti-tank guns
7.9 References Notes [1] Macksey, K., Tank vs Tank, Grub Street, London, 1999, p.32 [2] John Norris, Anti-tank weapons, p.7 [3] Terry Gander and Peter Chamberlain, Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the Third Reich, MacDonald and Janes, London, 1978, p.107 [4] Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters (U.S. WWII Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945) [5] “Leonard Thomas Piper”. WW2 People's War (article a2504530). Retrieved 20 July 2006. [6] Schaedler, Luc (Accepted in Autumn Semester 2007 On the Recommendation of Prof. Dr. Michael Oppitz). Angry Monk: Reflections on Tibet: Literary, Historical, and Oral Sources for a Documentary Film (PDF) (Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Arts of the University of Zurich For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy). University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts. p. 518. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010/09. Retrieved 24 April 2014. Check date values in: |archivedate=, |date= (help) [7] Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze (illustrated ed.). Casemate. p. 112. ISBN 161200167X. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [8] “Chinese Tank Forces and Battles before 1949”. TANKS! e-Magazine (#4). Summer 2001. Retrieved 2 August 2014. |chapter= ignored (help) [9] Xin Hui (1-8-2002). “Xinhui Presents: Chinese Tank Forces and Battles before 1949:". Newsletter 1-8-2002 Articles. Retrieved 2 August 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help) [10] Ong, Siew Chew (2005). China Condensed: 5000 Years of History & Culture (illustrated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 94. ISBN 9812610677. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [11] Olsen, Lance (2012). Taierzhuang 1938 – Stalingrad 1942. Numistamp (Clear Mind Publishing). ISBN 9780-9838435-9-7. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [12] “STORM OVER TAIERZHUANG 1938 PLAYERʼS AID SHEET”(PDF). grognard.com. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
59
[13] International Press Correspondence, Volume 18. Richard Neumann. 1938. p. 447. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [14] Epstein, Israel (1939). The people's war. V. Gollancz. p. 172. Retrieved 24 April 2014. [15] Helicopters at War, Blitz Editions, p. 63, ISBN 1-85605345-8. [16] Verier, Mike. Bell AH-1 Cobra. Osprey Publishing, 1990. ISBN 0-85045-934-6. [17] Baasjan howitzer (RSA) (Exhibit), South African Armour Museum, Bloemfontein: South African National Defence Force, 2014 [18] Hezbollah anti-tank fire causing most IDF casualties in Lebanon - Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News [19] “Telegraph article”. The Daily Telegraph. [20] NYtimes.com
7.10 External links • A 1987 U.S. Army news archive about light antitank weapon training by the 7th Infantry Division (Light), Fort Ord, Calif.
Chapter 8
Armored car (military)
F.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car. Eland Mk7 light armoured car at the South African Armour Museum, Bloemfontein.
derstood today, as they provided no real protection for their crews against any kind of opposing fire. They were also, by virtue of their small capacity engines, far less efA military armored (or armoured) car is a wheeled light ficient than the cavalry and horse-drawn guns that they armored vehicle, lighter than other armored fighting ve- were intended to complement. hicles, primarily being armored and/or armed for selfdefense of the occupants. Other multi-axled wheeled military vehicles can be quite large, and actually be superior to some smaller tracked vehicles in terms of armor and 8.1.2 First armored cars armament. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured, by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles.
8.1 History
The first armoured car was the Simms' Motor War Car, designed by F.R. Simms and built by Vickers, 8.1.1 Armed car Sons & Maxim of Barrow on a special Coventry-built Daimler chassis* [2] with a German-built Daimler motor The Motor Scout was designed and built by British in- in 1899.* [2] and a single prototype was ordered in April ventor F.R. Simms in 1898. It was the first armed petrol 1899* [2] The prototype was finished in 1902,* [2] too late engine powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a to be used during the Boer War. De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar. An iron shield in front of the The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3.3-litre* [2] 16 hp Cannstatt car protected the driver.* [1] Daimler engine giving it a maximum speed of around 9 Another early armed car was invented by Royal Page miles per hour (14.5 km/h). The armament, consisting Davidson at Northwestern Military and Naval Academy of two Maxim guns, was carried in two turrets with 360° in 1898 with the Davidson-Duryea gun carriage and the traverse.* [3]* [4] It had a crew of four. Simms' Motor later Davidson Automobile Battery armored car. War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, in However, these were not 'armored cars' as the term is un- April 1902.* [5] 60
8.1. HISTORY
F.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the first armored car to be built.
61
A Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 1920 pattern
was achieved by the Belgian Army in August–September 1914. They had placed Cockerill armour plating and a Hotchkiss machine gun on Minerva Armored Cars. Their successes in the early days of the war convinced the Belgian GHQ to create a Corps of Armoured Cars, who would be sent to fight on the Eastern front once the western front immobilized after the Battle of the Yser.* [11]* [12]* [13] The British Royal Naval Air Service dispatched aircraft to Dunkirk to defend the UK from Zeppelins. The officers' cars followed them and these began to be used to rescue downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas. They mounted machine guns on them* [14] and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised boiler plate armoring on the vehicles provided by a local The earliest French armored car - the Charron-Girardot-Voigt shipbuilder. In London Murray Sueter ordered“fighting 1902. cars”based on Rolls-Royce, Talbot and Wolseley chassis. By the time Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars arrived in Another early armoured car of the period was the French December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Sa- was already over.* [15] As described below, they had a lon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March fascinating birth and long and interesting service. 1902.* [6] The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss More tactically important was the development of formed machine gun, and with 7 mm armour for the gun- units of armoured cars, such as the Canadian Automobile ner.* [7]* [8] Machine Gun Brigade, which was the first fully mechanized unit in the history of the British Army. The brigade was established on September 2, 1914 in Ottawa, as Automobile Machine Gun Brigade No. 1 by BrigadierGeneral Raymond Brutinel. The Brigade was originally equipped with 8 Armoured Autocars mounting 2 machine guns. By 1918 Brutinel's force consisted of two 8.1.3 World War I Motor Machine Gun Brigades (each of five gun batteries containing eight weapons apiece).* [16] The brigade, Generally, the armored cars were used by more or less and its armoured cars, provided yeoman service in many independent car commanders. However, sometimes they battles, notably at Amiens.* [17] were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars The Rolls-Royce Armoured Car was famously proposed, were primarily armed with light machine guns. But larger developed, and utilised* [18] by the 2nd Duke of Westunits usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As minster. He took a squadron of these cars to France in air power became a factor, armored cars offered a mobile time to make a noted contribution to the Second Battle platform for anti-aircraft guns.* [10] of Ypres, and thereafter the cars with their master were The Italians used armored cars during the Italo-Turkish War.* [9] A great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways.
The first effective use of an armored vehicle in combat sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British
62
CHAPTER 8. ARMORED CAR (MILITARY)
campaign in Palestine and elsewhere. These cars appear in the memoirs of numerous officers of the BEF during the earlier stages of the Great War - their ducal master often being described in an almost piratical style.
8.1.4
World War II
A Fordson armoured car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place between British officials and representatives of the Iraqi rebel government.
Panzerspähwagen. The Soviet BA-64 was influenced by a captured Leichter Panzerspähwagen before it was first tested in January 1942. In the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured turrets with light guns (40 mm or less) mounted in turrets. As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament and off-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises. American troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris
8.2 Military use
The British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East See also: List of military armored cars was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Mor- A military armored car is a type of armored fighting vehiris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that had been serving in the Middle East since 1915.* [19] In September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF Regiment Company was detached to General Wavellʼs ground forces during the first offensive against the Italians in Egypt. It is said that these armored cars became ʻthe eyes and ears of Wavellʼ. During the actions in the October of that year the Company was employed on convoy escort tasks, airfield defense, fighting reconnaissance patrols and screening operations. During the Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located in the British Mandate of Palestine* [20] were sent to Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars.* [21] “Fordson” armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt. Since the Treaty of Versailles did not mention armored cars, Germany began developing them early. By the start A preserved, World War 2, American M3 Scout Car of the new war, the German army possessed some highly effective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the Schwerer cle having wheels (from four to ten large, off-road wheels)
8.3. SEE ALSO instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars are typically less expensive and on roads have better speed and range than tracked military vehicles. They do however have less mobility as they have less off-road capabilities because of the higher ground pressure. They also have less obstacle climbing capabilities than tracked vehicles. Wheels are more vulnerable to enemy fire than tracks, they have a higher signature and in most cases less armor than comparable tracked vehicles. As a result they are not intended for heavy fighting; their normal use is for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicles.
63 and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored fighting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some regional conflicts these “technicals” are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor and scrounged weapons.
8.3 See also
Light armored cars, such as the British Ferret are armed with just a machine gun. Heavier vehicles are armed with autocannon or a small tank gun. The heaviest armored cars, such as the German, World War II era SdKfz 234 or the modern, US M1128 Mobile Gun System, mount the same guns that arm medium tanks.
A preserved, World War II, German SdKfz 234/4 heavy armored car (German Tank Museum, 2006)
Vehicle built by railway shop workers for the Danish resistance movement, near the end of World War 2
Armored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is said to be more compatible with tight urban Soviet BRDM-2 spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. However they do have a larger turning radius compared to tracked vehicles • Armored bus which can turn on the spot and their tires are vulnerable and are less capable in climbing and crushing obstacles. • Armored personnel carrier However when there is true combat they are easily out• Armored car (VIP) gunned and lightly armored. The threatening appearance of a tank is often enough to keep an opponent from at• Armoring: tacking, whereas a less threatening vehicle such as an ar• Aramid mored car is more likely to be attacked. • Bulletproof glass Many modern forces now have their dedicated armored • Twaron car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Ex• Vehicle armor amples would be the M1117 Armored Security Vehicle of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era • Gun truck in the United Kingdom. • Tankette Alternatively, civilian vehicles may be modified into improvised armored cars in ad hoc fashion. Many militias • Technical (vehicle)
64
8.4 Notes [1] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited, ISBN 085112-204-3. [2] Edward John Barrington Douglas-Scott-Montagu Baron Montagu of Beaulieu; Lord Montagu; David Burgess Wise (1995). Daimler Century: The Full History of Britain's Oldest Car Maker. Haynes Publications. ISBN 978-185260-494-3. [3] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited. p. 256. ISBN 0-85112-204-3. [4] Tucker, Spencer (1999). The European Powers in the First World War. Routledge. p. 816. ISBN 0-8153-3351-X. [5] Armoured Fighting Vehicules of the World, Duncan, p.3 [6] Gougaud, Alain (1987). L'aube de la gloire: les autos mitrailleuses et les chars français pendant la Grande Guerre, histoire technique et militaire, arme blindée, cavalerie, chars, Musée des blindés. p. 11. ISBN 978-2904255-02-1. [7] Early Armoured Cars E. Bartholomew, p.4 [8] Gougaud, p.11-12 [9] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 102 [10] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 25 [11] http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/postal-history/ wwi-belgium-armoured-car-division-in-russia/ [12] http://www.wio.ru/tank/for-rus.htm [13] http://www.greatwardifferent.com/Great_War/Russia/ Russia_00.htm [14] Band of Brigands p 59 [15] First World War - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003, Pg. 59 [16] P. Griffith p 129 “Battle Tactics on the Western Front The British Army's art of attack 1916–18 Yale university Press quoting the Official History 1918 vol.4, p42 [17] Cameron Pulsifer (2007). ' 'The Armoured Autocar in Canadian Service' ', Service Publications [18] Verdin, Lt.-Col. Sir Richard (1971). The Cheshire (Earl of Chester's) Yeomanry. Birkenhead: Willmer Bros. Ltd. pp. 50–51. [19] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 40 [20] Lyman, p. 57 [21] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 25
CHAPTER 8. ARMORED CAR (MILITARY)
8.5 References • Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ, 1976. ISBN 0-89009-058-0.
8.6 External links • WWI armored cars • Modern armored vehicles
Chapter 9
Armoured personnel carrier
The British Mark IX tank was the first specialised armoured personnel carrier. A M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, during the Vietnam War
An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is type of armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) designed to transport infantry to the battlefield. APCs are colloquially referred to as 'battle taxis' or 'battle buses', among other things. Armoured personnel carriers are distinguished from infantry fighting vehicles by the weaponry they carry. The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe defines them as “an armoured combat vehicle which is designed and equipped to transport a combat infantry squad and which, as a rule, is armed with an integral or organic weapon of less than 20 millimeters calibre.”* [1] By con- Czechoslovak and Polish OT-64 SKOT vention, they are not intended to take part in direct-fire battle, but are armed for self-defence and armoured to out infantry support, the tanks were isolated and more provide protection from shrapnel and small arms fire. easily destroyed. In response, the British experimented Examples include the American M113, the French VAB, with carrying a squad of infantry in a lengthened verthe Dutch-German GTK Boxer and the Soviet BTR. sion of the Mark V tank. When that proved unworkable, Britain designed the first purpose built armoured troop transport, the Mark IX ̶but it arrived too late to see combat. 9.1 History The genesis of the armoured personnel carrier was on the Western Front of World War I. In the later stage of the war, Allied tanks could break through enemy lines, but the infantry following ̶who were needed to consolidate the gains ̶still faced small arms and artillery fire. With-
During World War II, half-tracks like the American M3 and German SdKfz 251 played a role similar to post-war APCs. British Commonwealth forces relied on the fulltracked Universal Carrier. Over the course of the war, APCs evolved from simple armoured cars with transport capacity, to purpose built vehicles. Obsolete ar-
65
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CHAPTER 9. ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIER
moured vehicles were also repurposed as APCs, such as the various "Kangaroos" converted from M7 Priest selfpropelled guns and from Churchill, M3 Stuart and Ram tanks.
greatly between vehicles. The maximum swim speed of the M113 is 3.8 mph (6.1 km/h), whereas the LAV-25 and AAVP-7 about double that at 6.5 and 8.2 mph (10.5 and 13.2 km/h), respectively.
During the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. The United States introduced a series of them, 9.2.2 including successors to the wartime Landing Vehicle Tracked; but the most prolific was the M113 armored personnel carrier, of which 80,000 were produced. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing them with newer APCs, many of these wheeled. The Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60 and BTR-80 remain in production. Czechoslovakia and Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT64 SKOT. A cold war example of a “Kangaroo”is the heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, converted from captured T-55s tanks.
Armour
9.2 Design Most armoured personnel carriers use a diesel engine comparable to that used in a large truck or in a typical LVTP-5 amphibious armored fighting vehicles, 1966 city bus. The M113 for instance used the same engine as the standard GM city bus. APCs must provide a minimum amount of protection Weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 against small arms fire to be considered as such, though tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 some provide as much protection as a main battle tank, dismountable troops, although some can carry more than as is the case of the IDF Namer, which is based on a 20. In addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many Merkava tank. Armour is usually composed of steel or aluminium. Some APCs also come with NBC protection, with a gunner and/or commander as well. which is intended to provide protection from weapons of mass destruction.
9.2.1
Mobility
An APC is either wheeled or tracked, or occasionally a combination of the two, as in a half-track. Both systems have advantages and limitations.
Generally APCs will be lighter and less armoured than tanks or IFVs, often being open topped and featuring doors and windows, as seen in the French VAB.
Tracked vehicles have more traction off-road and more 9.2.3 maneuverability, including a minute turn radius. Due to the limited service life of their treads, plus the wear they cause on roads,* [2] tracked vehicles are typically transported cross country by rail, flatbed trucks or purpose built transporters.
Weaponry
Wheeled APCs are faster on road, and can cross long distances. Wheeled vehicles have higher ground pressure than tracked vehicles with a comparable weight, due to tracks having more surface area in contact with the ground. The higher ground pressure increases the likelihood of becoming immobilized by terrains such as mud, snow or sand.* [2] Many APCs are amphibious. Their tracks can propel the APC in the water. Wheeled APCs will include propellers or water jets. Preparation for amphibious operations usually comprises checking the integrity of the hull and fold- The GTK Boxer is a German/Dutch APC. It is an example of the ing down a trim vane in front. Water traverse speed varies modern pattern of 8x8 multirole armoured fighting vehicles.
9.4. VARIANTS
67
An APC carries a primary weapon no larger than a 20mm autocannon, before falling into the "infantry fighting vehicle" sub-classification, and will most likely be outfitted with one or more machine guns ranging from 5.56mm to 7.62mm. The primary weapon is usually on the top of the vehicle, mounted with either a simple pintle mount, in a small turret, or a remote weapon system.
mobile medical units of the Medical Service may in no circumstances be attacked, but at all times be respected and protected by the Parties to the conflict. Although article 22 allows them to carry defensive weaponry, they are typically unarmed. Under Article 39, the emblem of the medical service shall be displayed ... on all equipment employed in the Medical Service. As such, armoured amPintle mounted weapons are now rare, due to the lack of bulances will be marked with ICRC recognized symbols. crew protection. In World War II, the German Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track was equipped with at least one MG42 or MG34, which could only be aimed in a small arc from whichever end of the vehicle the weapon was mounted and offered minimal protection to the gunner. Turrets 9.4 Variants provides a traverse of 360 degrees and operator protection. Most APC turrets include a coaxial machine gun(MG) alongside the primary weapon. A recent ad- 9.4.1 Infantry Fighting vehicle vent, remote weapon systems (RWS) are used in lieu of pintle mounts and provide the same level of operator pro- Main article: Infantry Fighting Vehicle tection as a turret, with the added benefit of increased visibility without increasing the overall profile of the vehicle. However, unlike in a turret, the weapon cannot be reloaded from inside the vehicle. A common primary gun on an APC is a 50 caliber M2 Browning machine gun, or the equivalent 14.5mm KPV heavy machine gun. The Stryker carries an M2 on a CROWS RWS. 7.62mm machine guns are commonly used as coaxial or secondary weapons. Several Eastern personnel carriers have forward facing machine guns, New Zealand LAV or firing ports in the crew compartment. The AAVP7 mounts an M2 50 caliber as a coaxial machine gun, beside a Mark 19 automatic grenade launcher. Occasionally APCs will be equipped with anti-tank missiles.
9.3 Medical use Russian BMP-3 The infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is a derivative of the APC. Various classes of infantry fighting vehicles may be deployed alongside tanks and APCs, in armoured and mechanized forces. The fundamental difference between an APC and IFV, is the role they are designed to serve. The CFE treaty stipulates an infantry fighting vehicle is an APC with a cannon in excess of 20mm, and with this additional firepower the vehicle is more involved in combat, providing fire support to dismounted infantry. Not all infantry fighting vehicles are equivalent. The primary mechanized infantry vehicle of the Canadian armed French medical VAB dsc06842 forces, the lightly armoured LAV-III, is classified as an IFV because it is equipped with a M242 Bushmaster auAPCs may be used as armoured ambulances, to conduct tocannon. The US Army's heavily armoured M2 Bradley evacuations of wounded personnel. These vehicles are carries the same autocannon, plus anti-tank missiles and equipped with stretchers and medical supplies. advanced optics, to serve in armoured divisions alongside According to article 19 of the Geneva Conventions,* [3] M1 Abrams main battle tanks.
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9.4.2
CHAPTER 9. ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIER
Infantry Mobility Vehicle
Main article: Infantry Mobility Vehicle Infantry Mobility Vehicle (IMV) is a new name for the
[3] http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/ icrc-002-0173.pdf
• Bishop, Chris (2006). The Encyclopedia of Tanks and Armored fighting vehicles: From World War I to The Present Day. Grange Book. ISBN 978-159223-626-8 • O'Malley, T. J., Hutchins, Ray (1996). Fighting Vehicles: Armoured Personnel Carriers & Infantry Fighting Vehicles. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367211-4
The Bundeswehr ATF Dingo is an IMV used by several European armed forces.
old concept of an armoured car, with an emphasis on mine resistance. They've been primarily used to protect passengers in unconventional theatres of war. The South African Casspir was first built in the late 1970s. In the 21st century, they gained favour in the post-Soviet geopolitical climate. Identical to earlier Humvees in design and function, the uparmoured M1114 is a clear example of this. The addition of armour grants protection to passengers. M1114s have been largely replaced by purpose built MRAP vehicles. IMVs generally feature a v-shaped underbelly designed to deflect mine blasts outwards, with additional crew protection features such as four-point seat belts, and seats suspended from the roof or sides of the vehicle. Many feature a remote weapon system. Usually 4x4, these IMVs are distinct from both 8, 6, and 4 wheeled APCs (such as the VAB), being closer in appearance to civilian armoured money transporters.
9.5 See also • List of modern armoured fighting vehicles • SWAT vehicle (used by armed police)
9.6 References [1] Treaty on conventional armed forces in Europe. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1989. p. 3. Retrieved 4 April 2013. [2] Skaarup, Harold A. “Ironsides: Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicle Museums and Monuments.”Google Books. N.p., 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2014. page 140
Chapter 10
Armoured recovery vehicle 10.1.3 Postwar After World War II, most countries' MBT models also had corresponding ARV variants. Many ARVs are also equipped with a bulldozer blade that can be used as an anchor when winching or as a stabiliser when lifting, a pump to transfer fuel to another vehicle, and more. Some can even carry a spare engine for field replacement, such as the German Leopard 1 ARV.
10.2 Characteristics A British Conqueror Armoured Recovery Vehicle 2
An armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) is an armoured vehicle used during combat for recovery or repair of battle-damaged and inoperable armoured fighting vehicles. The term “Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle”(ARRV) is also used.
ARVs are normally built on the chassis of a main battle tank (MBT), but some are also constructed on the basis of other armoured fighting vehicles, mostly armoured personnel carriers (APCs). ARVs are usually built on the basis of a vehicle in the same class as they are supposed to recover; a tank-based ARV is used to recover tanks, while an APC-based one recovers APCs (it does not have the power to tow a much heavier tank).
10.1 Development history
Some combat engineering vehicles (CEVs) are based on ARVs.
10.1.1
Early models
10.3 List of ARVs
During World War I, some British Mark IV heavy tanks were fitted with jibs to produce “Salvage Tanks”, but The following is a list of ARVs by country, either dethe majority of their work was at the tank parks in aid of signer/manufacturer or user. maintaining and repairing damaged tanks.* [1]
10.1.2
Second World War
10.3.1 Canada
• Ram ARV (WWII) The first true ARVs were introduced in World War II, of• AVGP Husky (1976–present) ten by converting obsolete or damaged tanks, usually by removing the turret and installing a heavy-duty winch to free stuck vehicles, plus a variety of vehicle repair tools. Some were also purpose-built in factories, using an exist- 10.3.2 Czechoslovakia ing tank chassis with a hull superstructure to accommo• VT-34 ARV (T-34 Chassis) date repair and recovery equipment. Many of the latter type of ARV had an A-frame or crane to allow the vehi• VT-55A ARV (T-55 Chassis) cle's crew to perform heavy lifting tasks, such as removing • VT-72B ARV (T-72 Chassis) - (1987 to 1989) the engine from a disabled tank. 69
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CHAPTER 10. ARMOURED RECOVERY VEHICLE • Type 11 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 10 Hitomaru Tank chassis
10.3.6 Germany
A German Army BPz3 Büffel (2006) M32 TRV, Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
• VPV (BVP-1 Chassis) - (1985 to 1989)
10.3.3
France
• M32 Tank Recovery Vehicle, based on the Sherman tank (from 1944) • M74 Tank Recovery Vehicle (1954–1975)
World War 2 • Bergepanzer III - PzKpfw III chassis • Bergepanzer IV - PzKpfw IV chassis • Bergepanther (SdKfz 179) - PzKpfw V Panther chassis 347 produced (1943 to 1945). • Bergetiger - PzKpfw VI Tiger I chassis
• AMX 30 D (from 1973), based on the AMX 30
• Bergepanzer 38(t) - Jagdpanzer 38 chassis, 170 produced (1944 to 1945).
• Leclerc MARS, based on the AMX-56 Leclerc
• Bergepanzer T-34 - Captured T-34 chassis
10.3.4
Indonesia
• Büffel ARV (Bergepanzer) • Leguan AVLB (Brückenlegepanzer) • Kodiak AEV (Pionierpanzer)
10.3.5
Japan
• Se-Ri Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 97 Chi-Ha Tank chassis • Type 70 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 61 Rokuichi Tank chassis • Type 78 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 74 Nanayon Tank chassis • Type 90 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Type 90 Kyūmaru Tank chassis
Modern • Bergepanzer M74 (Sherman Chassis) - first TRV/ARV of the West German Bundeswehr, 300 used 1956-1960 (see M74 entry under United States). • Bergepanzer 1 - M88 Chassis, the first of 125 entered service in 1962 and a 1985 modernization program replaced the gasoline engine with a diesel and improved the hoist. • Bergepanzer 2 - Leopard 1 tank chassis. Used by the Canadian Forces since the 1990s as Taurus ARV. • Bergepanzer 3 “Büffel” - Leopard 2 chassis • Bergepanzer Wisent - Bergepanzer 2 chassis. Modified and upgraded by Flensburger Fahrzeugbau to support the demands of the future battlefield. Optimised to support the Leopard 1 and 2 main battle tanks.
10.3. LIST OF ARVS
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• Bergepanzer Wisent 2 - Leopard 2 chassis. Succes- 10.3.10 Poland sor of the Wisent. Build by Flensburger Fahrzeug• CW-34 (T-34 Chassis) bau. • WPT-34 (T-34, SU-85 and SU-100 Chassis)
10.3.7
Israel
• WZT-1 (T-54 and T-55 Chassis) • WZT-2 (T-55 Chassis) • WZT-3 (T-72M Chassis) • WZT-4 (PT-91M Chassis) produced for Malaysia • WPT-TOPAS (TOPAS Chassis) • WPT-MORS (MTLB Chassis) • KWZT “MAMMOTH”Heavy Wheeled Evacuation and Technical Rescue Vehicle (TATRA T 815 – 7Z0R9T 44 440 8x8.1R Chassis)
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia A Trail Blazer, Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
• Trail Blazer (Gordon) (Sherman chassis) - An IDF recovery/engineering vehicle based on HVSS equipped M4A1s Sherman tanks, it featured a large single boom crane (as opposed to the A-Frame of the M32) and large spades at the front and rear of the vehicle to assist in lifting. It could also tow up to 72 tons. •“Technical”and“Fitter”- ARVs based on the M113 with crane attached • Nemera - modern recovery vehicle based on A Serbian VIU-55 Munja (2007) Merkava tank chassis. Several prototypes have been • M-84ABI - The ARV based on Yugoslav/Serbian built, but it never fielded in large number in the IDF. M-84 MBT. • The current ARV in IDF use is the American-made • VIU-55 Munja M88 Recovery Vehicle, which is accompanied and assisted by an IDF Caterpillar D9 armoured bulldozer. 10.3.12 Soviet Union
10.3.8
Malaysia
• WZT−4 build by Polish Bumar-Łabędy
The Russian acronym BREM (cyr. БРЭМ) stands for "бронированная ремонтно-эвакуационная машина", literally “armoured repair and recovery vehicle”. • BTS-2 (T-54 Chassis) • BTS-4A (T-54 Chassis)
10.3.9
Mexico
• M32 Chenca (Sherman chassis) - In 1998, Napco International of the USA upgraded M32B1 TRV M4 Sherman-chassis armoured recovery vehicles with Detroit Diesel 8V-92-T diesel engines (see M32 entry under United States).
• BREM-1 (T-72 Chassis) • BREM-2 (BMP-1 Chassis) • BREM-L (BMP-3 Chassis) • BREM-K (BTR-80 Chassis) • BREM-80U (T-80U Chassis)
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CHAPTER 10. ARMOURED RECOVERY VEHICLE • Grant ARV - two Marks, the first was a British conversion, the second was a US M31 TRV in British service • Sherman III ARV I - Amoured Recovery Vehicle conversion of Sherman III (M4A2), similarly“Sherman V ARV Mark I”and “ARV Mark II” • Sherman ARV II - conversion of Sherman V with dummy gun in fixed “turret”, 7.5 ton jib at front, spade earth anchor at rear.* [2] • Sherman II ARV Mk III was a M32B1 TRV (see US ARV). Modern • Centurion ARV
A Grant-based ARV recovers a Daimler Dingo armoured car. Italy, February 1945
• FV219 - on A45 “Universal tank”chassis • FV 220 Conqueror ARV • Chieftain FV4204 ARV/ARRV • FV434 “Carrier, Maintenance, Full Tracked” • M578 • Challenger Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle (CRARRV) • FV106 Samson - complement to the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) series of vehicles • FV513 Warrior Recovery Vehicle - complement to the Warrior tracked armoured vehicles
Centurion MkII ARV,Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
BARV (World War 2 to Modern)
10.3.13
United Kingdom
The British tested their first ARV designs in early 1942. The decision at the time was to focus on the Churchill infantry tank as the basis, but cruiser tank based ARVs were also produced. When the UK received supplies of US medium tanks - first the M3, then M4 Sherman, conversions were made of these to operate alongside and so simplify support. World War 2 • Cavalier ARV • Churchill ARV • Crusader ARV • Centaur Arv • Cromwell ARV
• The BARV is a British military support vehicle, the name coming from“Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle”, for working in shallow water. Various models were based on the M4A2 Sherman, Centurion and Leopard 1A5 “ ( Hippo”)tank chassis. Australia converted a M3A5 Grant to a BARV configuration.
10.3.14 United States • M31 Tank Recovery Vehicle - based on M3 Lee chassis. (sometimes called a T2 tank retriever) • M32 Tank Recovery Vehicle, or M32 TRV, based on the Sherman tank chassis with turret replaced by fixed superstructure, 60,000 lb (27,000 kg) winch and an 18 feet (5.5 m) long pivoting A-frame jib installed. An 81 mm mortar was also added into the hull, primarily for screening purposes. • M32B1 - M32s converted from M4A1s (some converted to M34 artillery prime movers).
10.6. EXTERNAL LINKS • M32A1B1 - M32B1s with HVSS, later removing the 81 mm mortar and incorporating crane improvements. • M32B2 - M32s converted from M4A2s. • M32B3 - M32s converted from M4A3s. • M32A1B3 - M32B3s brought up to M32A1B1 standard. • M32B4 - M32s converted from M4A4s.
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10.6 External links • REME Museum of Technology • Bergepanzer III • Bergepanzer 38(t) Hetzer • Bergepanzer 38(t) Hetzer - in Polish • Bergepanzer Leopard 1
• M74 Tank Recovery Vehicle - Upgrade of the M32 to provide the same capability with regards to heavier post-war tanks, converted from M4A3 HVSS tanks. In appearance, the M74 is very similar to the M32, fitted with an A-Frame crane, a main towing winch, an auxiliary winch, and a manual utility winch. The M74 also has a front mounted spade that can be used as a support or as a dozer blade.
• Leopard 1 ARV in Dutch
• M74B1 - Same as the M74, but converted from M32B3s.
• WZT-3 ARV - in German
• M578 - based on the M110 chassis. • M51 Heavy Recovery Vehicle - based on the M103 heavy tank chassis. • M88 Recovery Vehicle - based on the chassis and parts of the automotive component of the M48 Patton & M60 Patton.
10.4 See also • Allied Technological Cooperation During WW2 • Armoured warfare • Army engineering maintenance • List of AFVs • Tank transporter
10.5 References 10.5.1
Notes
[1] AFV Profile No. 3 Tanks Mark I - V Profile Publishing. [2] Chamberlain and Norman p179
10.5.2
Bibliography
• Peter Chamberlain and Major-General N.W. Duncan. AFV Weapons Profiles No.35 British Armoured Recovery Vehicles + Wheels, Tracks and Transporters (1971) Profile Publishing
• Czechoslovak VT-34 ARV • Czechoslovak VT-55A ARV • Czechoslovak VT-72B ARV - in Czech • Czechoslovak VPV - in Czech]
• BREM-1 ARRV • BREM-K ARV • BREM-L ARV • BREM-80U ARRV
Chapter 11
Assault rifle For the United States legal and political term, see assault 400 metres (1,300 ft) and that contemporary riweapon. fles were over-powered for most small arms comAn assault rifle is a selective fire rifle that uses an bat.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] They sought to develop a selectfire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of a rifle.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] This was done by shortening the standard 7.92×57mm cartridge to 7.92×33mm and giving it a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic fire.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] A smaller lighter cartridge also allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition “to support the higher consumption rate of automatic fire.”* [2] The StG 44, an early German assault rifle, was adopted by the Wehrmacht in 1944. It fires the 7.92×33mm Kurz round.
Currently the most used assault rifle in the world, the AK-47 was first adopted in 1949 by the Soviet Army. It fires the 7.62×39mm M43 round.
The result was the Sturmgewehr 44, which the Germans produced in large numbers; approximately half-a-million were made.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] Unlike previous rifle designs it introduced an over-the-barrel gas system, straight stock and pistol grip to reduce recoil and improve handling characteristics.* [2] “The principle of this weapon...was probably the most important advance in small arms since the invention of smokeless powder.”* [7]
11.1 Definition
The term“Assault Rifle”is generally attributed to Adolf Hitler, who for propaganda purposes used the German word“Sturmgewehr”(which translates to 'assault rifle'), as the new name for the MP43, subsequently known as the Sturmgewehr 44 or StG 44.* [4]* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12] Although, some sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the production order.* [13] The StG 44 is generally considered the first selective fire military rifle to popularize the asThe M16 was first introduced into service in 1964 with the United sault rifle concept. Today, the term assault rifle is used to States Armed Forces. It fires the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge define firearms sharing the same basic characteristics as and is the second most used assault rifle in the world after the the StG 44. AK-47. In a strict definition, a firearm must have at least the intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine.* [1] following characteristics to be considered an assault riAssault rifles are currently the standard service rifles in fle:* [14]* [15]* [16] most modern armies. Examples of assault rifles include the StG 44, AK-47 and the M16 rifle. • It must be an individual weapon The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault ri• It must be capable of selective fire fle concept, during World War II, based upon re• It must have an intermediate-power cartridge: more search that showed that most firefights happen within 74
11.2. HISTORY
75
power than a pistol but less than a standard rifle or and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the battle rifle early 1950s.* [23] Its firepower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the • Its ammunition must be supplied from a detachable Red Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.* [23] The AKbox magazine* [17] 47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with • And it should have an effective range of at least 300 the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing metres (330 yards) out among these with the Type 56).* [23]* [26] Rifles that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are The U.S. Army was influenced by combat experience technically not assault rifles despite frequently being with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and M1 carbine, which enjoyed a significant advantage over called such. enemies armed primarily with bolt-action rifles.* [27] AlFor example: though U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans • Select-fire M2 Carbines are not assault rifles; their and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional effective range is only 200 meters.* [18] views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic rifles.* [6] • Select-fire rifles such as the FN FAL battle rifle are not assault rifles; they fire full-powered rifle car- After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 tridges. Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic • Semi-automatic-only rifles like variants of the Colt Rifle, M3 “Grease Gun” and Thompson submachine AR-15 are not assault rifles; they do not have select- gun.* [6] However, early experiments with select-fire verfire capabilities. sions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.* [28] During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 Carbine largely • Semi-auto rifles with fixed magazines like the SKS replaced submachine guns in US service.* [13] Although, are not assault rifles; they do not have detachable box combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round magazines and are not capable of automatic fire. was underpowered.* [29] American weapons designers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets: The U.S. Army defines assault rifles as “short, compact, an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended selective-fire weapons that fire a cartridge intermediate a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.* [30] in power between submachine gun and rifle cartridges.” However, senior American commanders having * [19] faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War,* [31]* [32]* [33]* [34]* [35] insisted that a single 11.2 History powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault ri- new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in confle concept, during World War II, based upon research current development.* [36]* [37] This culminated in the that showed that most firefights happen within 400 me- development of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and the ters and that contemporary rifles were over-powered for M14 battle rifle* [36] which was basically an improved most small arms combat. The Germans sought to de- select-fire M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine.* [38] velop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.* [36] Its NATO the firepower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 battle rifles, range of a rifle. This was done by shortening the stan- as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs. dard 7.92×57mm cartridge to 7.92×33mm and giving it The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed (assault rifle vs battle rifle) came in the early part of the for more controllable automatic fire. The result was the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 Sturmgewehr 44.* [3]* [6]* [20]* [21] was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not Like the Germans, the Soviets were influenced by ex- carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the perience showing most combat happens within 400 me- AK-47.* [39] A replacement was needed: A medium beters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned tween the traditional preference for high-powered rifles by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles.* [22]* [23] The So- Carbine. viets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 after World War II, they held a design competition to derequest by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of * * velop an assault rifle of their own. [24] [25] The winner the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to de* was the AK-47 assault rifle. [6] It was finalized, adopted
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CHAPTER 11. ASSAULT RIFLE
velop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine.* [6] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.* [40]
bining in the same weapon the bullpup configuration, a polymer housing, dual vertical grips, an optical sight as standard, and a modular design. Highly reliable, light, and accurate, the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potential of the bullpup layout. In 1978, France introduced the 5.56×45mm FAMAS bullpup rifle. In 1985, the British introduced the 5.56×45mm L85 bullpup rifle. In the late This request ultimately resulted in the development of a 1990s, Israel introduced the Tavor TAR-21 and China's People's Liberation Army's adopted QBZ-95. By the scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, called ARturn of the century, the bullpup assault rifle design had * * * 15 rifle. [41] [42] [43] However, despite overwhelming achieved world-wide acceptance. evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle.* [43] In January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the su- 11.3 Assault rifle gallery perior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production.* [43] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle • The German StG 44, the first assault rifle manufacavailable that could fulfill the requirement of a universal tured in significant numbers infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modifica• A Russian AK-47 with machined receiver tions (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear • American 5.56×45mm M16A1 of the receiver),* [42] the new redesigned assault rifle was subsequently adopted as the M16 rifle.* [43]* [44] • Russian 5.45×39mm AK-74 rifle In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56x45mm cartridge.* [45] This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977.* [45] The U.S. offered the 5.56×45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor.* [6] In the end the Belgian 5.56×45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.* [45] The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improved penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).* [6] During the 1970s, the USSR developed the AK-74 assault rifle and the 5.45×39mm cartridge, which has similar physical characteristics to the U.S. 5.56×45mm cartridge.* [46] Also during the 1970s, Finland, Israel, South Africa and Sweden introduced AK type assault rifles in 5.56×45mm.* [47] During the 1990s, the Russians developed the AK-101 in 5.56×45mm NATO for the world export market.* [48]* [49] In addition, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia (i.e., Serbia) have also rechambered their locally produced AK variants to 5.56mm NATO.* [50]* [51] The adoption these cartridges cemented the world-wide trend toward small caliber, high velocity cartridges.
• The Austrian Steyr AUG was one of the first bullpup rifles to enter widespread use. • French FAMAS G2 with bayonet • British SA-80 (L85A1) rifle in 1996. • the Israeli Tavor TAR-21 with Holographic Weapon Sight • China's People's Liberation Army's QBZ-95 • Indian Army's INSAS
11.4 Assault rifles vs. weapons
assault
Main article: Assault weapon The term assault rifle when used in its proper context, militarily or by its specific functionality, has a generally accepted definition with the firearm manufacturing community.* [1] In more casual usage, the term “assault weapon”is sometimes conflated or confused with the term assault rifle.* [52]
In the United States "assault weapons" are usually defined in legislation as semi-automatic firearms that have certain features generally associated with military firearms, including assault rifles. The 1994 Federal Assault Weapons In 1977, Austria introduced the 5.56×45mm Steyr AUG Ban, which expired on September 13, 2004, codified a bullpup rifle, often cited as the first successful bullpup ri- definition of an assault weapon. It defined the rifle type fle, finding service with the armed forces of over twenty of assault weapon as a semiautomatic firearm with the countries. It was highly advanced for the 1970s, com- ability to accept a detachable magazine and two or more of the following:
11.6. NOTES • a folding or telescoping stock • a pistol grip that protrudes conspicuously beneath the action of the weapon • a bayonet mount • a flash suppressor or threaded barrel designed to accommodate a flash suppressor • a grenade launcher Assault weapons legislation does not further restrict weapons capable of fully automatic fire, such as assault rifles and machine guns, which have been continuously and heavily regulated since the National Firearms Act of 1934 was passed. Subsequent laws such as the Gun Control Act of 1968 and the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 also affected the importation and civilian ownership of fully automatic firearms, the latter fully prohibiting sales of newly manufactured machine guns to nonlaw enforcement or SOT (special occupational taxpayer) dealers.* [53]
11.5 See also • Battle rifle • Marksman rifle • Sniper rifle • Carbine • Personal defense weapon • Firearm action • List of assault rifles • List of firearms • List of multiple barrel firearms • List of service rifles of national armies • Comparison of the AK-47 and M16 • Overview of gun laws by nation
11.6 Notes • Rose, Alexander. American Rifle, A Biography. 2008, Bantam Dell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-55380517-8. [1] ""Assault rifle.”Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 July 2010”. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
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[2] http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rifle Case Study. Prepared for the Presidents Blue Ribbon Defense Panel. March 16, 1970. By Richard R. Hallock, Colonel U.S. Army (Retired) [3] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide, Ian Hogg & Terry Gander, HarperCollins Publisher, 2005, p.287 [4] “Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rifle StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57, April 1945”. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23. [5] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.243 [6] Major Thomas P. Ehrhart Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry HalfKilometer. US Army. 2009 [7] http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rifle Case Study. Prepared for the President's Blue Ribbon Defense Panel. March 16, 1970. By Richard R. Hallock, Colonel U.S. Army (Retired) [8] Musgave, Daniel D., and Thomas B. Nelson, The World's Assault Rifles, vol. II, The Goetz Company, Washington, D.C. (1967) [9] Myatt, Major Frederic, Modern Small Arms, Cresent Books, New York (1978): 169 [10] Hogg, Ivan, and John Weeks, Military Small Arms of the 20th Century, third ed., Hippocrene Books, New York (1977): 159 [11] Chris Bishop, The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002, p. 218 [12] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century, 7th Edition, Ian V. Hogg, page 243 [13] Rottman, Gordon. The AK-47: Kalashnikov-series assault rifles. Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-84908-8350. [14] C. Taylor The Fighting Rifle: A Complete Study of the Rifle in Combat, ISBN 0-87947-308-8 [15] F.A. Moyer Special Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook, ISBN 0-87364-009-8 [16] R.J. Scroggie, F.A. Moyer Special Forces Combat Firing Techniques, ISBN 0-87364-010-1 [17] Musgave, Daniel D., and Thomas B. Nelson, The World's Assault Rifles, vol. II, The Goetz Company, Washington, D.C. (1967): 1 [18] Jane's Gun Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 330 [19] “US Army intelligence document FSTC-CW-07-03-70, November 1970”. Gunfax.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26. [20] “Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rifle StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57, April 1945”. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23.
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[21] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.243 [22] Chapter 1. Symbol of violence, war and culture. oneworld-publications.com [23] Weapon Of Mass Destruction. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 2011-11-19. [24] History of AK-47 Gun – The Gun Book Review. Popular Mechanics (2010-10-12). Retrieved on 2012-02-09. [25] “Scribd”. Scribd. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [26] “Worldbank. Post-Conflict Transitions Working Paper No. 10. Weaponomics: The Global Market for Assault Rifles. Phillip Killicoat, Economics, Oxford University. April 2007” (PDF). Retrieved 2010-04-03. [27] Richard R. Hallock, Colonel (retired) of US Army M16 Case Study March 16, 1970 [28] http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf |CUT DOWN in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best Service Rifle, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove Itself. By Philip Schreier, SSUSA, September 2001, p 24–29 & 46 [29] Arms of the Chosin Few. Americanrifleman.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-23. [30] Donald L. Hall An effectiveness study of the infantry rifle (PDF). Report No. 593. Ballistic Research Laboratories. Maryland. March 1952 (released March 29, 1973) [31] Fanaticism And Conflict In The Modern Age, by Matthew Hughes & Gaynor Johnson, Frank Cass & Co, 2005 [32] “An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes”. Pacificwar.org.au. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [33] “South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu”. History.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-08-23. [34] HyperWar: The Big 'L'-American Logistics in World War II. Ibiblio.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
CHAPTER 11. ASSAULT RIFLE
[42] Peter G. Kokalis Retro AR-15. nodakspud.com [43] Danford Allan Kern The influence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rifle. m-14parts.com. A thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE, Military History. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 2006 [44] Report of the M16 assault rifle review panel. Department of the Army. dtic.mil. 1 June 1968 [45] Per G. Arvidsson Weapons & Sensors. NATO Army Armaments Group [46] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. page 271 [47] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. pages 235, 258, 274, 278 [48] LEGION Ltd. – the producer of high quality firearms with period artistic treatment (threading, engraving, incrustation) and improved finishing. izhmash.ru [49] http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp? smallarms_id=256 |The Kalashnikov AK-101 is an export assault rifle in operational service withat least nine nations worldwide [50] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. pages 233, 257, 266, 296 [51] http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_ arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm | Arsenal AR-M1 5.56mm assault rifle
[40] Hutton, Robert (ed.), The .223, Guns & Ammo Annual Edition, 1971.
[52] Joseph P. Tartaro (1995). “The Great Assault Weapon Hoax”. University of Dayton Law Review Symposium, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, vol. 20, no. 2, 1995: 557. Retrieved 201301-03. One of the key elements of the anti-gun strategy to gull the public into supporting bans on the so-called “assault weapons”is to foster confusion. As stated previously, “the public does not know the difference between a full automatic and a semi-automatic firearm.” They have been further hoodwinked by the television charades of people like New York's former Governor Mario Cuomo talking about semi-automatic firearms while the camera shows a full automatic firing. Fully automatic weapons have been strictly regulated and registered since 1934. Real assault weapons are controlled by the 1934 law and by laws in most states. There is no need for a new law on semi-automatic firearms. However, the anti-gunners responsible for the hoax have continued to perpetuate it by exploiting public confusion.
[41] Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World. New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-088029-601-4.
[53] “Full Text of H.R. 1022 (110th): Assault Weapons Ban and Law Enforcement Protection Act of 2007”. GovTrack.us. 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
[35] The Logistics of Invasion. Almc.army.mil. Retrieved on 2011-11-23. [36] Col. E. H. Harrison (NRA Technical Staff) New Service Rifle (PDF). June 1957 [37] Anthony G Williams Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects. Quarry.nildram.co.uk (revised 3 February 2012). Retrieved on 2011-11-23. [38] M14 7.62mm Rifle. Globalsecurity.org (1945-09-20). Retrieved on 2011-11-23. [39] Lee Emerson M14 Rifle History and Development. October 10, 2006
11.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
11.7 Further reading • Crawford, S. (2003). Twenty-First Century Small Arms. MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-76031503-5 • Cutshaw, C. (2006). Tactical Small Arms of the 21st Century. Gun Digest Books. ISBN 0-87349-914-X • Halls, Chris. (1974) Guns in Australia, Paul Hamlyn, Sydney. ISBN 0-600-07291-6 • Lewis, J. (2004). Assault Weapons: An In-Depth Look at the Hottest Weapons Around. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87349-658-2 • Popenker, M. et al. (2004). Assault Rifle: the Development of the Modern Military Rifle and its Ammunition. Wiltshire: The Crowood Press Ltd. ISBN 1-86126-700-2 • Senich, P. (1987). German Assault Rifle: 1935– 1945. Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-400-X • Salo, Pauli (2008) Rynnäkkökivääri (assault rifle)7,62x39. 2. edition. ISBN 978-952-92-1328-3
11.8 External links • Assault Rifles and their Ammunition: History and Prospects • Infantry Magazine on Assault Rifle Cartridges • Pre Sturmgewehr Assault Rifles
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Chapter 12
Attack helicopter
A British Apache fires rockets at insurgents in Afghanistan in 2008.
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armoured fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships. Weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Today's attack helicopter has two main roles: first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops, and the second, in the anti-tank role to destroy enemy armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, an attack helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed.* [1]
12.1 Background and development Low-speed, fixed wing Allied aircraft like the Soviet Polikarpov Po-2 training and utility biplane had been used as early as 1942 to provide night harassment attack capability against the Wehrmacht Heer on the Eastern Front, most effectively in the Battle of the Caucasus as exemplified by the Night Witches all-female Soviet air unit.* [2] Following Operation Overlord in 1944, the military version of the similarly slow-flying Piper J-3 Cub
high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, begun to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S. Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the lift struts,* [3] against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer, armed with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German armored vehicles,* [4] as a pioneering example of taking on heavy enemy armor from a slow-flying aircraft.* [5] This role was something that was also likely to be achievable after World War II, from the increasing numbers of post-war military helicopter designs. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were still very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, could be armed with weapons in order to provide them with limited combat capability. Early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, to this day the pair of most produced helicopter designs in aviation history. These helicopters proved to be moderately successful in these configurations, but due to a lack of armor protection and speed, they were ultimately ineffective platforms for mounting weapons in higher-threat ground combat environments. Since the 1960s various countries around the world started to design and develop various types of helicopters with the purpose of providing a heavily armed and protected aerial vehicle that can perform a variety of combat roles, from reconnaissance to aerial assault missions. By the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly
80
12.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
81
move about the battlefield and launch fleeting “pop-up attacks”, helicopters presented a major threat even with the presence of organic air defenses. The helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission.* [6]
completed its first flight and initial flight evaluations. And while the Cheyenne program suffered setbacks over the next few years due to technical problems, the Cobra was establishing itself as an effective aerial weapons platform, despite its performance shortcomings compared to the AH-56* [7] and design issues of its own. By 1972, when the Cheyenne program was eventually cancelled to make way for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH),* [7] the interim AH-1 “Snake”had built a solid reputation as 12.1.1 United States an attack helicopter. In June 1972 the USMC began deIn the mid-1960s the U.S. Army concluded that a ploying AH-1J SeaCobra Attack Helicopters for combat purpose-built attack helicopter with more speed and fire- operations in South Vietnam. power than current armed helicopters was required in the During the late 1970s the U.S. Army saw the need of face of increasingly intense ground fire (often using heavy more sophistication within the attack helicopter corps, machine guns and anti-tank rockets) from Viet Cong and allowing them to operate in all weather conditions.* [8] NVA troops. Based on this realization, and with the With that the Advanced Attack Helicopter program was growing involvement in Vietnam, the U.S. Army devel- started.* [9] From this program the Hughes YAH-64 oped the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter, came out as the winner. The prototype YAH-64 was first the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS). The flown on 30 September 1975. The U.S. Army selected aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, and later apLockheed's AH-56 Cheyenne.* [7] proved full production in 1982. After purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U.S. Army service in April 1986. Today, the US attack helicopter has been further refined, and the AH-64D Apache Longbow demonstrates many of the advanced technologies being considered for deployment on future gunships. The US Marine Corps also continued to employ attack helicopters in the direct fire support role, in the form of the AH-1 Super Cobra. While helicopters were effective tank-killers in the Middle East, attack helicopters are being seen more in a multipurpose role. Tactics, such as tank plinking, showed that fixedPrototype of the AH-1, the first dedicated attack helicopter, and wing aircraft could be effective against tanks, but helicopters retained a unique low-altitude, low-speed caa canonical example to this day pability for close air support. Other purpose-built heliAs the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack copters were developed for special operations missions, helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over including the MH-6 for extremely close support. the continued use of improvised interim aircraft (such as the UH-1B/C). In late 1965, a panel of high-level offi12.1.2 Soviet Union and its successor states cers was selected to evaluate several prototype versions of armed and attack helicopters to determine which pro- During the early 1960s, Soviet engineers started expervided the most significant increase in capability to the imenting with various designs aimed at producing an UH-1B. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky aerial vehicle that can provide battlefield mobility for inS-61, Kaman H-2 “Tomahawk”, and the Bell AH-1 fantry and provide fire support to army forces on the Cobra, were selected to compete in flight trials conducted ground. The first of these concepts was a mock-up unby the Army's Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion veiled in 1966 in the experimental shop of the Ministry of the flight evaluations, the Test Activity recommended of Aircraft's factory number 329 where Soviet designer, Bell's Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter un- Mikhail Leont'yevich Mil, was head designer. The mocktil the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U.S. up, which was designated V-24, was based on another Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production project, the V-22 utility helicopter, which itself never encontract for 110 AH-1G Cobras.* [7] The Cobra had a tered production. The V-24 had an infantry transport tandem cockpit seating arrangement (vs UH-1 side-by- compartment that could hold eight troops sitting back to side) to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, in- back, and a set of small wings positioned to the top rear creased armor protection, and greater speed. of the passenger cabin, capable of holding up to six misIn 1967, the first AH-1Gs were deployed to Vietnam, siles or rocket pods and a twin-barrel GSh-23L cannon around the same time that the Cheyenne successfully fixed to the landing skid.
82
Mil Mi-24P, a later production variant of the Mi-24. These helicopters were used extensively in the Soviet war in Afghanistan.* [10]
These designs were proposed by Mil to the Soviet armed forces, and while he had the support of a number of strategists, he was opposed by several more senior members of the armed forces who believed that conventional weapons were a better use of resources. Despite the opposition, Mil managed to persuade the defence minister's first deputy, Marshal Andrey A. Grechko, to convene an expert panel to look into the matter. While the panel's opinions were mixed, supporters of the project eventually held sway and a request for design proposals for a battlefield support helicopter was issued.* [11]
CHAPTER 12. ATTACK HELICOPTER
A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50 represented the first dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air Forces in the 1980s.
sign work on the Mi-28 began under Marat Tishchenko in 1980.* [13] In 1981, a design and a mock-up were accepted. The prototype (no. 012) was first flown on 10 November 1982.* [13] In this same time frame, Kamov was also attempting to submit its own designs for a new helicopter to the military, which they had designed throughout the early and mid 1980s. In 1984, the Mi28 completed the first stage of state trials, but in October 1984 the Soviet Air Force chose the more advanced Kamov Ka-50 as the new anti-tank helicopter. The Mi28 development was continued, but given lower priority. In December 1987 Mi-28 production in Rosvertol in Rostov on Don was approved. After several prototypes were built, production ceased in 1993 with additional development continuing into the 21st century. Changes in the military situation after the Cold War made specialized anti-tank helicopters less useful. The advantages of the Mi-28N, like all-weather action ability, lower cost, and similarity to the Mi-24, have become more important. In 2003, the head of Russian Air Force stated that the Mi-28N and Ka-50 attack helicopters will become the standard Russian attack helicopter.* [14] The first serial Mi-28N was delivered to the Army on 5 June 2006.
The development of gunships and attack helicopters by the US Army during the Vietnam War convinced the Soviets of the advantages of armed helicopter ground support doctrine, which had a positive influence on moving forward with the development of the Mil Mi-24. After several mock-ups were produced, a directive was issued on 6 May 1968 to proceed with development of a twinengine design of the helicopter. Work proceeded under Mil until his death in 1970. Detailed design work began in August 1968 under the codename Yellow 24. A fullscale mock-up of the design was reviewed and approved in February 1969. Flight tests with a prototype began on 15 September 1969 with a tethered hover, and four days later the first free flight was conducted. A second proto- 12.1.3 type was built, followed by a test batch of ten helicopters. A number of other design changes were made until the production version Mi-24A entered production in 1970, obtaining its initial operating capability in 1971 and was officially accepted into the state arsenal in 1972.
People's Republic of China
In 1972, following completion of the Mi-24, development began on a unique attack helicopter with transport capability. The new design had a reduced transport capability (3 troops instead of 8) and was called the Mil Mi-28, and that of the Ka-50 attack helicopter, which is smaller and more maneuverable and does not have the large cabin for carrying troops.* [12] In 1977, a preliminary design of the Mil Mi-28 was chosen, in a classic single-rotor layout. Its transport capabil- A CAIC WZ-10 attack helicopter at the 2012 Zhuhai Airshow ity was removed and it lost its similarity to the Mi-24. De-
12.1. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT
83 new design on the light helicopters then in service. The 602nd and 608th Research Institutes started development of the 6-ton class China Medium Helicopter (CHM) program* [15] in 1994. The program was promoted as a civilian project, and was able to secure significant Western technical assistance, such as from Eurocopter (rotor installation design consultancy), Pratt & Whitney Canada (PT6C turboshaft engine) and Agusta Westland (transmission).* [16] The Chinese concentrated on areas where it could not obtain foreign help. The 602nd Research Institute's called its proposed armed helicopter design the WZ-10 (Wu Zhi (武直, literally Armed Helicopter)−10).
A Harbin Z-19 at the China Helicopter Exposition, Tianjin 2013
In 1979, the Chinese military studied the problem of countering large armor formations. It concluded that the best conventional solution was to use attack helicopters. Eight Aérospatiale Gazelle armed with Euromissile HOT were procured for evaluation. By the mid-1980s, the Chinese decided a dedicated attack helicopter was required. At the time, they used civilian helicopters converted for the military; these were no longer adequate in the attack role, and suitable only as scouts. Following this, China evaluated the Agusta A129 Mangusta, and in 1988 secured an agreement with the USA to purchase AH-1 Cobras and a license to produce BGM-71 TOW missiles; the latter was cancelled following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the resulting arms embargo. The color revolutions prevented the purchase of attack helicopters from Eastern Europe in 1990 and 1991; Bulgaria and Russia rejected Chinese offers to purchase the Mil Mi-24. While attempting to import foreign designs failed, war games determined that attack helicopters had to be commanded by the army, rather than the air force. This led to the formation of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force Aircraft (PLAGFAF), with an initial strength of 9 Harbin Z-9s. The PLAGFAF conducted tactical experiments that would help define the future Z-10's requirements. Research also decided that anti-tank missiles like the BGM-71 TOW were inadequate, and favored an analogue to the AGM-114 Hellfire.
The 602nd Research Institute was assigned as the chief designer, while Harbin Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (HAMC) of China Aviation Industry Corporation II (AVIC II) was assigned as the primary manufacturer. Nearly four dozen other establishments participated in the program. According to Chinese sources, the initial test flights were concluded on December 17, 2003, whereas according to other sources they were completed nine months earlier in March 2003. According to Jane's Information Group, a total of 3 prototypes had completed over 400 hours of test flights by this time. By 2004, 3 more prototypes were built, for a total of 6, and a second stage of test flights were concluded on December 15, 2004. In one of the test flights the future commander-inchief of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force Air Force (PLAGAF), Song Xiangsheng (宋湘⽣), was on board the prototype. A third stage of intensive test flights followed, taking place during both day and night. By January 2006 weaponry and sensor tests, including firing of live ammunition, had taken place. The helicopter was introduced to the general public in December 2010 and subsequently entered service with the People's Liberation Army.* [17]
12.1.4 France, Germany and Spain In 1984, the French and West German governments issued a requirement for an advanced multirole battlefield helicopter. A joint venture consisting of Aérospatiale and MBB was subsequently chosen as the preferred supplier.* [18] According to statements by the French Defence Minister André Giraud in April 1986, the collaborative effort had become more expensive than an individual national programme and was forecast to take longer to complete as well. In July 1986, a government report into the project alleged that the development had become distanced from the requirements and preferences of the military customers the Tiger was being developed for.* [18]
The Gulf War highlighted the urgent need for attack helicopters, and revalidated the assessment that a purposebuilt design was needed. (At the time, the Chinese military depended on armed utility helicopters such as the Changhe Z-11 and Harbin Z-9.) Also, it demonstrated that the new attack helicopter would need to be able to defend itself against other helicopters and aircraft. The military perceived that once the new attack helicopter en- Both France and Germany reorganised the programme. tered service, the existing helicopters would be used as Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tiger's scouts. electronic development work, such as the visual systems The Armed Helicopter Developmental Work Team (武 and sensors.* [18] Despite the early development prob装 直 升 机 开 ⼯ 作 ⼩ ) was formed to develop a lems and the political uncertainty between 1984 and new medium helicopter design, as opposed to basing the 1986, the program was formally relaunched in Novem-
84
CHAPTER 12. ATTACK HELICOPTER
ber 1987; it was at this point that a greater emphasis on the attack helicopter's anti-tank capabilities came about.* [19] Much of the project's organisational framework was rapidly redeveloped between 1987 and 1989; such as the installation of a Franco-German Helicopter Office to act as a program executive agency in May 1989.* [20]
India's HAL Light Combat Helicopter under development
12.1.5 India
A French Eurocopter (Panzerabwehrhubschrauber)
Tiger
attack
helicopter
The Indian Army deploys the Mil Mi-35 and HAL Rudra as of 2014. During the Kargil War in 1999, the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army found that there was a need for helicopters that can operate at such high-altitude conditions with ease.* [28] Limitations from operating with high payloads and restricted maneuverability of Mil Mi35 led India to the develop the HAL Light Combat Helicopter and HAL Rudra for multi-role high-altitude combat operations.* [29] These helicopters will be used by the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army's Aviation Corps.
12.1.6 Italy Due to the end of the Cold War and subsequent defence budgets decreases in the 1990s, financial pressures led to further questions regarding the necessity for the entire program. In 1992, Aérospatiale and MBB, among other companies, merged to form the Eurocopter Group; this led to considerable consolidation of the aerospace industry and the Tiger project itself.* [21] A major agreement was struck in December 1996 between France and Germany that cemented the Tiger's prospects and committed the development of supporting elements, such as a series of new generation missile designs for use by the new combat helicopter.* [22] On 18 June 1999, both Germany and France publicly placed orders for an initial batch of 160 Tiger helicopters, 80 for each nation, valued at €3.3 billion.* [23] On 22 March 2002, the first production Tiger was rolled out in a large ceremony held at Eurocopter's Donauworth factory; although production models began initial acceptance trials in 2003, the first official delivery to the French Army took place on 18 March 2005; the first official Tiger delivery to the Germany followed on 6 April 2005.* [24] Germany reduced its order to 57 in March 2013.* [25] In 2008 OCCAR estimated the project cost at €7.3 billion.* [26] France's FY2012 budget put their share of the project at €6.3bn (~US$8.5bn),* [27] implying a programme cost of €14.5bn (~US$19.5bn) to the three main partners. At FY2012 prices, their 40 HAP cost €27m/unit (~US$36m) and their 40 HAD €35.6m/unit (~US$48m), including development costs the French Tigers cost €78.8m (~US$106m) each.* [27]
In 1972, the Italian Army began forming a requirement for a light observation and anti-tank helicopter. Agusta had initially studied the development of a combatorientated derivative of their existing A109 helicopter, however they decided to proceed with the development of a more ambitious helicopter design.* [30] In 1978, Agusta formally began the design process on what would become the Agusta A129 Mangusta.* [31] On 11 September 1983, the first of five A129 prototypes made the type's maiden flight; the fifth prototype would first fly in March 1986. The Italian Army placed an order for a total of 60 A129s.* [30]
12.1.7 South Africa The Rooivalk project began in early 1984 under the auspices of the Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a predecessor of Denel Aviation. Faced with the increasingly conventional nature of the South African Border War, the South African Defence Force recognised the need for a dedicated attack helicopter and accordingly set along the process of developing a suitable aircraft. The Atlas XH-1 Alpha was the first prototype to emerge from the program. It was developed from an Aérospatiale Alouette III airframe, retaining that helicopter's engine and dynamic components, but replacing the original cockpit with a stepped tandem one, adding a 20 mm cannon on the nose and converting the undercarriage to taildragger configuration. The XH-1 first flew on 3 February
12.2. IN ACTION
A Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter, in service with the South African Air Force
85
Above, a U.S Army's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter and below, an OH-58D armed scout helicopter
1985. The results were ultimately good enough to con- cess. Apaches fired the first shots of the war, destroyvince Atlas and the SAAF that the concept was feasible, ing enemy early warning radar and SAM sites with their Hellfire missiles. They were later used successfully in opening the door for the development of the Rooivalk. both of their operational roles, to direct attack against During the Rooivalk's development it was decided to enemy armor and as aerial artillery in support of ground base the aircraft on the dynamic components of the troops. Hellfire missile and cannon attacks by Apache he* Aérospatiale Super Puma, [32] a larger and more powerlicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars. ful helicopter. These components were already used on the Atlas Oryx, a local upgrade and modification of the The“deep attack”role of independently operating attack helicopters came into question after a failed mission, durAérospatiale Puma.* [33] ing the 2003 Gulf War attack on the Karbala Gap.* [39] A Unfortunately the development of the Rooivalk continsecond mission in the same area, four days later, but coued until after the conclusion of the South African Border ordinated with artillery and fixed-wing aircraft,* [40] was War and defence budgets were slashed due to parliamenfar more successful with minimal losses. tary changes to the requirements of the national air force. This resulted in an extensive development and production period beginning in 1990 until 2007, during which 12 aircraft were produced for use by the South African Air Force. These aircraft were subsequently upgraded to the Block 1F standard by 2011. The upgrade involves improved targeting systems and other avionics which enable the helicopter to use guided missiles for the first time. The Mokopa ATGM was qualified as part of the upgrade process.* [34] Gearbox components were improved and cooling problems with the F2 20 mm cannon were also addressed. On 1 April 2011, the South African Air Force received the first five of eleven (one of the twelve aircraft originally delivered to the SAAF was written off after an accident) Block 1F upgraded Rooivalk.* [35]* [36] The ninth and tenth Rooivalk attack helicopters were delivered in September 2012 following their upgrade to the Block 1F initial operating standard.* [37] The eleventh and final Rooivalk was delivered on 13 March 2013.* [38]
European Eurocopter Tiger of the German Army
In 2011, France and Britain sent Eurocopter Tiger and AgustaWestland Apache attack helicopters to Libya. The primary objective of the 2011 military intervention was to protect civilians in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Within days of the Apaches deployment, it had completed a variety of tasks such as destroy12.2 In action ing tanks, checkpoints held by pro-Gaddafi forces and vehicles carrying ammunitions loyal to Muammar Gaddafi. The 1990s could be seen as the coming-of-age for the The attack helicopters were reported to be far more effecU.S. attack helicopter. The AH-64 Apache was used ex- tive than the fighter jets which had previously been given tensively during Operation Desert Storm with great suc- the task of completing the aforementioned tasks.
86
CHAPTER 12. ATTACK HELICOPTER
In 2013, the South African National Defence Force announced that it would deploy Denel Rooivalk attack helicopters to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to support the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This was the first combat deployment for the helicopter.* [41] Three helicopters from 16 Squadron SAAF were deployed to the region and since November 2013 it was involved in heavy fighting alongside the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade, against rebels operating in North Kivu, in particular the M23 militia, which consisted of hardened former government troops equipped with relatively heavy weaponry such as main battle tanks and anti-aircraft weaponry. During its first ever combat mission it proved to be instrumental in routing the rebels from their hilltop strongholds during an offensive by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade and the Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.* [42]* [43]
12.3 Types
• •
TAI/AgustaWestland T129 Bell AH-1 Cobra
•
Bell AH-1 SuperCobra
•
Bell AH-1Z Viper
•
Boeing AH-64 Apache •
AgustaWestland Apache
•
CAIC WZ-10
•
Denel Rooivalk
•
/
•
HAL Light Combat Helicopter
•
Harbin Z-19
•
Kamov Ka-50/Ka-52
•
/
•
Mil Mi-28
/
Eurocopter Tiger
Mil Mi-24 “Hind”
12.4 Comparison 12.4.1 Dimensions 12.4.2 Performance
12.5 See also • Armed helicopter A Russian Ka-50
• Army aviation • Gunship
12.6 References [1] Frank Barnaby (2010). “main+battle+tank"#v=onepage&q="main battle tank"&f=false The role and control of weapons in the 1990's. Psychology Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-203-16831-3. Retrieved 14 February 2011. [2] Noggle, Anne; White, Christine (2001). A Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. Texas A&M University Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN 1-58544-177-5. Above, an Indian HAL Light Combat Helicopter at Aero India show 2011
Modern examples include: •
AgustaWestland AW129
[3] Francis, Devon E., Mr. Piper and His Cubs, Iowa State University Press, ISBN 0-8138-1250-X, 9780813812502 (1973), p. 117. [4] Gantt, Marlene, Riding His Piper Cub Through The Skies Over France, Bazooka Charlie Fought A One-man War, World War II Magazine, September 1987
12.6. REFERENCES
[5] Fountain, Paul, The Maytag Messerschmitts, Flying Magazine, March 1945, p. 90 [6] Mazarella, Mark N. “Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World”. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007. [7] “An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter Program”. Office of the Assistant Vice Chief of Staff of the Army (Department of the Army). 1973. [8] ADVANCED ATTACK HELICOPTER OPERATIONS IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS - Official US Army video at Real Military Flix [9] Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) (1970-1981). Global Security [10] Glantz, David M.“The Triumph of Maneuver War - Soviet Operational Art Since 1936”. US Army Center of Military History. Retrieved July 24, 2012. [11] Culhane, Kevin V. (1977).“Student research report: The Soviet attack helicopter” (PDF). DTIC. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
87
[29] Aero India: India's indigenous combat chopper [30] Donald, David, ed. “Agusta A 129 Mangusta”. The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5. [31] Frawley, Gerald. “AgustaWestland A129 Mangusta” . The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003. Aerospace Publications, 2002. ISBN 1875671-55-2. [32] Dely, Frans (2004). Soaring with Eagles (no page numbers, section on 16 Sqdn). Avpix Publishing Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-620-32806-1. [33] Campbell, Keith (2007-06-08). “What went wrong with the Rooivalk?". Engineering News. [34] “Denelʼ s Mokopa PGM ready for market”. DefenceWeb. 2011-01-26. Retrieved 2013-03-15. [35] “SAAF ceremonially receives Rooivalk”. DefenceWeb. 2011-04-01. Retrieved 2013-03-15. [36] “First five Rooivalk now in service”. DefenceWeb. 201104-04. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[12] Yefim Gordon & Dmitry Komissarov (2001). Mil Mi-24, Attack Helicopter. Airlife.
[37] David Donald (2012-09-28). “Gripen, Rooivalk Deliveries Bring SAAF up to Strength | Aviation International News”. Ainonline.com. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[13] Frawley, Gerald.“Mil Mi-28”. The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003, p. 128. Aerospace Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[38]“Final Rooivalk Handover Cements Relationship Between Denel and SAAF”. defenceweb.co.za. Retrieved 201303-15.
[14] "Черную Акулу" оставят за бортом 28 October 2004. Lenta.ru
[39] Scarborough, Ryan (April 2003). “Apache operation a lesson in defeat; Army choppers hit without air cover”. Washington Times
[15] Hewson, Robert,“Chinaʼ s Z-10 helicopter built on Western expertise”, Janeʼs Defence Weekly, 13 April 2005 [16] “Jane's Helicopter Markets & Systems”. [17] China's 1st attack helo goes operational? - The DEW Line [18] Krotz 2001, p. 130. [19] Krotz 2011, p. 131. [20] Krotz 2011, p. 133. [21] Krotz 2011, pp. 133-135. [22] Krotz 2011, p. 147.
[40] O'Rourke, Ryan (June 4, 2003).“Iraq War: Defense Program Implications for Congress” (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. CRS–36. Retrieved 2007-12-12 [41] “Exclusive: Rooivalk is going to DRC”. DefenceWeb. 2013-10-11. Retrieved 2013-10-13. [42] Mohlaoli, Tumaole. ""It was clear that the rebels didn't expect us”-- SANDF pilot”. eNCA report. eNCA. Retrieved 14 May 2014. [43] Olivier, Darren (2013-11-05). “Rooivalk attack helicopters perform well in first combat action against M23” . African Defence Review. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
[23] Krotz 2011, pp. 132, 149. [24] Krotz 2011, p. 154.
12.6.1 Further reading
[25]“Germany finalises cuts to NH90, Tiger helicopter orders” . Flightglobal.com, 18 March 2013.
• Duke, R.A., Helicopter Operations in Algeria [Trans. French], Dept. of the Army (1959)
[26] Tran, Pierre.“Eurocopter: Despite Slow Economy, Tiger Helo Deliveries On Track.” Defense News, 29 Jan 2013.
• France, Operations Research Group, Report of the Operations Research Mission on H-21 Helicopter (1957)
[27] “Projet de loi de finances pour 2013 : Défense : équipement des forces” (in French). Senate of France. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 2013-11-07. [28] Light combat copterʼs maiden flight a success
• Leuliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, New York:Houghton Mifflin (1964)
88 • Riley, David, French Helicopter Operations in Algeria Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21– 26. • Shrader, Charles R. The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962 Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers (1999) • Spenser, Jay P., Whirlybirds: A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press (1998)
CHAPTER 12. ATTACK HELICOPTER
Chapter 13
Carbine For other uses, see Carbine (disambiguation). Not to be confused with carbyne or carbene. A carbine (/ˈkɑrbiːn/ or /ˈkɑrbaɪn/),* [1] from French
13.1 History 13.1.1 Word origin Some sources derive the name of the weapon from the name of its first users ̶bernarda troopers called "carabiniers", from the French carabine, from the Old French carabin (soldier armed with a musket), perhaps from escarrabin, gravedigger, which derives from scarabee, scarab beetle.* [3]
13.1.2 Early history: before the 1900s
Various muzzle-loading arms, to scale; numbers 1, 10, and 11 are identified as carbines. (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910)
carabine,* [2] is a long arm firearm but with a shorter barrel than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full length rifles, shooting the same ammunition, while others fire lower-powered ammunition, including those designed for pistols. The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle. They are typically issued to highmobility troops such as special-operations soldiers and paratroopers, as well as to mounted, supply, or other noninfantry personnel whose roles do not require full-sized Carbine model 1793, used by the French Army during the French Revolutionary Wars. rifles. 89
90
CHAPTER 13. CARBINE carbine, both using the same ammunition.
13.1.3 Shorter rifles, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II
Left image: Jean Lepage flintlock carbine named “du Premier Consul" in honour of Napoleon , circa 1800. Right image: Rifling of Lepage carbine. The carbine was originally a lighter, shortened weapon developed for the cavalry. Carbines were short enough to be loaded and fired from horseback but this was rarely done – a moving horse is a very unsteady platform, and once halted a soldier can load and fire more easily if dismounted, which also makes him a smaller target. The principal advantage of the carbine's length was portability. Troops could carry full length muskets comfortably enough on horseback if just riding from A to B (the practice of the original dragoons and other mounted infantry). Cavalry proper (a “Regiment of Horse”) had to ride with some agility and engage in sword-wielding melees with opposing cavalry so carrying anything long would be a dangerous encumbrance. A carbine was typically no longer than a sheathed sabre, both arranged to hang with their tops clear of the rider's elbows and bottoms clear of the horse's legs. Carbines were usually less accurate and less powerful than the longer muskets (and later rifles) of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets fired from the shortened barrel. With the advent of fastburning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of the shorter barrels became less of an issue (see internal ballistics). Eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline, but carbines continued to be issued and used by many who preferred a lighter, more compact weapon even at the cost of reduced long-range accuracy and power. During the 19th century, carbines were often developed separately from the infantry rifles, and in many cases did not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply difficulties. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine. It had a spring-powered magazine in the stock which held seven rounds. In the late 19th century it became common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines was the Winchester lever-action carbine, with several versions using revolver cartridges. This made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, who could carry a revolver and a
M1 Garand and M1 Carbine
In the decades following World War I, the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of full-length rifles. For example, the Russian Model 1891 rifle with an 800 mm (31 in) barrel was shortened to 730 mm (29 in) in 1930, and to 510 mm (20 in) in 1938; the German Mauser 98 rifles went from 740 mm (29 in) in 1898 to 600 mm (24 in) in 1935 as the Karabiner Kurz (K98k or Kar98k), or “short carbine”. The barrel lengths in rifles used by the United States did not change between the bolt-action M1903 rifle of World War I and the World War II M1 Garand rifle, but the 610 mm (24 in) barrel on the M1903 was short for its day. The US M1 Carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a 457.2 mm (18.00 in) barrel, than the M1 Garand rifle. The M1 Carbine was not a shorter version of the M1 Garand, as was typical for rifles vs. carbines in the 19th century, but a wholly different design firing a smaller, less-powerful cartridge.
A Lee-Enfield No. 5 Mk I "Jungle Carbine" rifle, which fired a full-size .303 calibre rifle cartridge.
The United Kingdom also developed a "Jungle Carbine" version of their Lee-Enfield service rifle, featuring a shorter barrel, flash suppressor, and manufacturing modifications designed to decrease the rifle's weight. Officially titled Rifle, No. 5 Mk I, it was introduced in the closing months of World War II, but did not see widespread service until the Korean War, the Mau Mau uprising, and the Malayan Emergency.
13.1. HISTORY
13.1.4
After World War II
Mauser Karabiner 98 Kurz. Translate as Carbine 98 Short or a shortened carbine of the Gewehr 98
91 suppressive fire). These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target. The Germans had experimented with selective-fire carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of World War II. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the recoil of full-power rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in full-automatic fire. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard 7.92x57 Mauser rifle cartridge to create the 7.92x33 Kurz (Short) cartridge. A selective-fire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the Sturmgewehr 44, later translated as "assault rifle". After World War II, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the AK-47, which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon. The United States during World War II also had the M2 Carbine, a selective-fire version of the M1 Carbine firing the same .30 Carbine cartridge. However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2.
Although the NATO countries did not adopt an intermediate-power round, they continued the trend toward shorter and lighter magazine-fed battle rifles. FN FAL rifle - (left) full size, (right) carbine/paratrooper variant NATO adopted the 7.62x51 NATO round (which in reality is only slightly different ballistically to the .308 with a folding stock and shortened barrel Winchester and .303 British cartridges), along with sevA shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a eral rifles such as the FN FAL and M14. truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter or aircraft, and also when engaged in close-range combat. Based on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches, World War II was a highly mobile war, often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in open areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 metres (330 yards), and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover. Most rounds fired were not aimed at an Bullet drop of the M16A2 rifle (yellow) vs M4 carbine (red) enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and firing back (see By the 1960s NATO had adopted the 5.56 NATO car-
92
CHAPTER 13. CARBINE
tridge. This round was even lighter and smaller than the 13.3 Usage Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity. In U.S. service, the M16 assault rifle replaced the M14 as the The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to them easier to handle in close-quarter situations such as be used by designated marksmen. urban engagements, when deploying from military vehiLighter carbines came to be adopted as the standard in- cles, or in any situation where space is confined. The disfantry long rifle. What changed was that only a certain advantages of carbines relative to rifles include inferior number of soldiers now needed to retain longer range long-range accuracy and a shorter effective range. Larger weapons, serving as designated marksmen. Development than a submachine gun, they are harder to maneuver in of lighter assault rifles continued, matched by develop- tight encounters where superior range and stopping power ments in even lighter carbines. At the same time the in- at distance are not great considerations. Firing the same fantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the ammunition as rifles gives carbines the advantage of stanAKS-74U (which fired a Warsaw pact 5.45x39 round) dardization over those personal defense weapons (PDWs) that require proprietary cartridges. and CAR-15 were being developed.
13.2 Modern history 13.2.1
Contemporary military forces
By the 1990s, the US had adopted the M4 carbine, a derivative of the M16 family which fired the same 5.56mm cartridge but was lighter and shorter (in overall length and barrel length), resulting in marginally reduced range and power. Meanwhile, many armies are experiencing a backlash against carbines and lighter rifles in general, and are equipping selected soldiers, usually called Designated Marksmen, or DM, with higher power rifles. While firing a higher quantity of smaller bullets makes it easier to hit a target (and is therefore good for beginner marksmen), it offers very little to more advanced marksmen. Furthermore, the additional range of the heavier weapons has proven to be necessary in open environments such as deserts. As a result, the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with, for example, 7.62 mm NATO firing rifles, such as the U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle variant of the M14, has increased somewhat. A squad of soldiers armed with assault rifles would have a single soldier assigned as DM who would carry a battle rifle for selectively engaging long range targets. The DM differs from the sniper in that the DM moves with his unit, and engages targets at ranges beyond the 500 meter (about 550 yd) effective range of modern assault rifles, but less than the 600 meter (about 650 yd) range which is the optimal engagement range for snipers.
The modern usage of the term carbine covers much the same scope as it always had, namely lighter weapons (generally rifles) with barrels less than 457.2 mm (18.00 in). These weapons can be considered carbines, while rifles with barrels of 457.2 mm (18.00 in) or more are generally not considered carbines unless specifically named so, and depending on the weapon's power. Modern carbines use ammunition ranging from that used in light pistols up to powerful rifle cartridges, with the usual exception of high velocity magnum cartridges. In the more powerful cartridges, the short barrel of a carbine has significant disadvantages in velocity, and the high residual pressure when the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater muzzle blast. Flash suppressors and muzzle brakes are common solutions to this problem, which may ease their acceptance.
13.3.1 Pistol-caliber carbines (PCC)
Marlin Model 1894C ̶.357 Magnum carbine
One of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol caliber carbine or PCC. These first appeared soon after metallic cartridges became common. These were developed as “companions”to the popular revolvers of the day, firing the same cartridge but allowing more velocity and accuracy than the revolver. These were carried by cowboys, lawmen, and others in the Old West. The classic combination would be a Winchester lever action carbine and a Colt revolver in .44-40 or .38-40. During the 20th century, this trend continued with more modern and 13.2.2 Special forces powerful revolver cartridges, in the form of Winchester Special forces need to perform fast, decisive operations. and Marlin lever action carbines chambered in .38 SpeA pistol, though light and quick to operate, is viewed cial/.357 Magnum and .44 Special/.44 Magnum. as not having enough power. Consequently, carbines Modern equivalents also exist, such as the discontinued have gained wide acceptance among SOCOM, UKSF and Ruger Police Carbine, which uses the same magazine as other communities. the Ruger pistols of the same caliber, as well as the (also
13.4. LEGAL ISSUES discontinued) Marlin Camp Carbine (which, in .45ACP, used M1911 magazines). The Beretta Cx4 Storm shares magazines with many Beretta pistols, and is designed to be complementary to the Beretta Px4 Storm pistol. The Hi-Point 995 Carbine is a cheaper, yet reliable alternative to other pistol caliber carbines in the United States and its magazines can be used in the Hi-Point C-9 pistol. Another example is the Kel-Tec SUB-2000 series chambered in either 9 mm Luger or .40S&W which can be configured to accept Glock, Beretta, S&W or SIG pistol magazines. The SUB-2000 also has the unique ability to fold in half.
Kel-Tec SUB-2000 carbine in 9mm.
93 Colt M1911, and the Heckler & Koch VP70. Since these stock additions retain the short pistol barrel (as short as 100 mm (3.9 in)) they are highly restricted in the United States under the NFA unless the shoulder stocks are of original manufacture for the gun and the gun has been “delisted”, as is the case with so-equipped“Broomhandle”Mausers and Lugers.
13.4 Legal issues 13.4.1 United States
A Browning Hi-Power, made for the Finnish military, with attached shoulder stock to turn it into a short carbine
Firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than 406 mm (16.0 in) in length are classified as "short barreled rifles" (under the US National Firearms Act or NFA), and are sometimes restricted in the same way that short barrel shotguns and machine guns are. Because of this, rifles with barrels of less than 406 mm (16.0 in), or pistols with shoulder stocks, are rare. A list of firearms not covered by the NFA due to their antique status may be found here* [4] or due to their Curio and Relic status may be found here;* [5] these lists includes a number of carbines with barrels less than the minimum legal length and firearms that are“primarily collector's items and are not likely to be used as weapons and, therefore, are excluded from the provisions of the National Firearms Act. One less-noted advantage of PCCs is their lower muzzle " Firearms classified as machine guns are also not subject report compared to more powerful rifles; because they are to the barrel length restriction. less noisy when fired, they are less likely to cause permanent hearing damage when fired indoor without hearing Another class of carbine is a semi-automatic version protection - this can be an important consideration during of a submachine gun, with an extended barrel, usually home defense. Compared to “regular”carbines/rifles just over 406 mm (16.0 in) long, which will escape ban (such as those in .223 and 7.62x39mm), pistol-caliber by some assault weapons legislation. While functioncarbines may suffer from a shorter effective range, more ally identical to pistol-caliber carbines, these are banned pronounced trajectory, less power, and less effectiveness in some places as assault weapons based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns. However, they may against body armor. not accept certain parts (such as magazines or collapsing stocks) from the submachine guns that they resemble. 13.3.2 Pistol conversion carbine These are a popular compromise for (American) shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot Kits exist which will convert many pistols into carbines due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying by the addition of a shoulder stock; notable examples a civilian legal submachine gun (full automatics or semiare the long barreled Colt Buntline revolver stock, the automatics with barrels shorter than 16 inches (410 mm) Mauser C96 “Broomhandle”holster/stock, and various are restricted under Title II of the National Firearms Act). others for models such as the Browning Hi-Power, Luger, Many owners may choose to shorten the barrels down to The primary advantages of a carbine over a pistol using the same ammunition are increased accuracy due to the buttstock and longer barrel (and with it, sight radius), relatively low muzzle blast/flash/recoil, higher muzzle velocity and energy of a longer barrel for increased wounding potential and penetration (depending on the particular load used), and (sometimes, but not always) greater adaptability for easily accepting accessories such as optics, lights, and lasers. An example of increased power is the 9mm Luger cartridge reaching .357 magnum velocities out of a carbine. Furthermore, PCCs may not be as legally restricted as comparable handguns, depending on the jurisdiction.
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NFA-lengths, and register them as “short barrel rifles” [3] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition SBRs. Examples of PCCs that are derivatives of submachine guns but are rifles under Title I (Gun Control Act) include the HK USC (derived from the HK .45ACP UMP submachine gun), the HK94 (derived from the MP5), pistolcaliber AR-15s (such as the Bushmaster Carbon 15 9 mm Carbine), semi-automatic only versions of the Thompson by Auto-Ordnance and the FN PS90 (derived from the FN P90 SMG). Unlike the above-mentioned PCCs, these carbines use either magazines from their SMG derivatives, or proprietary magazines (as in the case of the USC). In some historical cases the term machine carbine was the official title for sub-machine guns, such as the British Sten and Australian Owen guns. The semi-automatic only version of the Sterling submachine gun was also officially called a“carbine”. The original Sterling semi-auto would be classed a “short barrel rifle”under the U.S. National Firearms Act, but fully legal long-barrel versions of the Sterling have been made for the U.S. collector market.
13.5 See also • List of carbines • Personal defense weapon • Short-barreled rifle
13.6 Further reading • Beard, Ross E. Carbine : the story of David Marshall Williams. Williamstown, NJ: Phillips, 1997. ISBN 0-932-57226-X OCLC 757855022 • Carbines : cal. .30 carbines M1, M1A1, M2 and M3. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Departments of the Army and the Air Force, 1953. • McAulay, John D. Carbines of the Civil War, 18611865. Union City, TN: Pioneer Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0-913159-45-3 OCLC 8111324 • McAulay, John D. Carbines of the U.S. Cavalry, 1861-1905. Lincoln, RI: Andrew Mowbray Publishers, 1996. ISBN 0-917-21870-1 OCLC 36087526
13.7 References [1] “Carbine”. Dictionary.com. Retrieved October 8, 2014. [2]“carbine.”Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carbine
[4] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3a.htm [5] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3.htm
Chapter 14
Cargo aircraft “Cargo jet”redirects here. airline, see Cargojet.
For the Canadian cargo
A cargo aircraft (also known as freight aircraft, freighter, airlifter, or cargo jet) is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of air cargo, rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities, and generally feature one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by civil passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries (for the latter see military transport aircraft).
A later Ju 290 with the Trapoklappe ramp lowered, first pioneered on the 1939 Junkers Ju 90-note personnel stairway between the vehicular trackways
14.1 History Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of "air mail" as early as 1911. Although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft.
Volga-Dnepr An-124 ready for loading.
Aircraft designed for cargo flight usually have features that distinguish them from conventional passenger aircraft: a wide/tall fuselage cross-section, a high-wing to allow the cargo area to sit near the ground, a large number of wheels to allow it to land at unprepared locations, and a high-mounted tail to allow cargo to be driven directly into and off the aircraft. Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the overall air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD containers in the cargo holds of normal passenger aircraft.
In Britain in the early 1920s, the need was recognized for a freighter aircraft to transport troops and materiel quickly to pacify tribal revolts in the newly occupied territories of the Middle East. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, entered service with the Royal Air Force as the first dedicated troop transport in 1921. In February 1923 this was put to use by the RAF's Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops.* [1]* [2] Vickers Victorias played an important part in the Kabul Airlift of November 1928– February 1929, when they evacuated diplomatic staff and
95
96 their dependents together with members of the Afghan royal family endangered by a civil war.* [3] The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways' Handley Page HP.42 airliners.* [4] The World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, but only a few were built. Most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. One important innovation for future cargo aircraft design was introduced in 1939, with the fifth and sixth prototypes of the Junkers Ju 90 four-engined military transport aircraft, with the earliest known example of a rear loading ramp. This aircraft, like most of its era, used taildragger landing gear which caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. These aircraft introduced the Trapoklappe, a powerful ramp/hydraulic lift with a personnel stairway centered between the vehicle trackway ramps, that raised the rear of the aircraft into the air and allowed easy loading.* [5] A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a somewhat different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped, late WW II era American Budd RB-1 Conestoga twin-engined cargo aircraft. Postwar Europe also served to play a major role in the development of the modern air cargo and air freight industry during what became known as the "Cold War.”It is during the Berlin Airlift at the height of this“Cold War,” when a massive mobilization of aircraft was undertaken by the "free world,”to supply West Berlin residents with food and supplies, in a virtual around the clock air bridge, after the Soviet Union closed and blockaded Berlin's borders, and land links to the west. To rapidly supply the needed numbers of aircraft, many older types, especially the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, were pressed into service. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs.
CHAPTER 14. CARGO AIRCRAFT their own starting with the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy in the 1960s and a number of similar Soviet designs from the 70s and 80s, and culminating in the Antonov An-225, the world's largest aircraft. These designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the same specification as the C-5, but later modified as a design that could be offered as either passenger or all-freight versions. The “bump”on the top of the fuselage allows the crew area to be clear of the cargo containers sliding out of the front in the event of an accident. When the Airbus A380 was announced, the maker originally accepted orders for the freighter version A380F, offering the second largest payload capacity of any cargo aircraft, exceeded only by the An-225.* [6] An aerospace consultant has estimated that the A380F would have 7% better payload and better range than the 747-8F, but also higher trip costs.* [7] However, as of February 2013, production has not started, and firm availability dates have not been announced.
14.2 Types of cargo aircraft Nearly all commercial cargo aircraft presently in the fleet are derivatives or transformations of passenger aircraft. However, there are three other methods to the development of cargo aircraft.* [8]
In the years following the war era a number of new Lockheed C-5 Galaxy custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some “experimental”features. For instance, the US's C-82 Packet featured a removable cargo area, while the C-123 Provider introduced the now-common upswept tail to allow for a much larger rear loading ramp. But it was the introduction of the turboprop that allowed the class to mature, and even one of its earliest examples, the C-130 Hercules, is still the yardstick against which newer military transport aircraft designs are measured. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years, the C-130 continues to improve at a rate that keeps it in production. “Strategic”cargo aircraft became an important class of Lun-class Ekranoplan, possibly meant to be a cargo aircraft.
14.2. TYPES OF CARGO AIRCRAFT
A large military transport aircraft: the Boeing C-17A Globemaster III
97
Airbus Beluga
drawback of existing air cargo aircraft is that they represent older technology; thus their direct operating costs are higher than what might be achieved with current technology. Additionally, since they generally have not been designed specifically for air cargo, loading and unloading can cause problems; the aircraft may be pressurized more than necessary, and there may be apparatus manufactured for passenger safety that is not necessary for cargo.
14.2.2 Dedicated civilian cargo aircraft A Bristol Freighter from the 1960s, with front opening clamshell doors and flight deck bulge
The Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter 'Dreamlifter'
14.2.1
Derivatives of non-cargo aircraft
Existing air cargo derivatives of passenger airplanes have been very fitting. For example, the Boeing-747-200F has proven to be the big payload toiler of the air cargo fleet and could continue unmodified for a number of years. Each derivative freighter has the benefit of having most of its development costs already assessed against the transaction of its passenger equivalent. Furthermore, the financial arrangements for buying the airplane have already been established and there is a quite short lead time before production (as compared to all new aircraft). A main
Excavators inside a C-5
A dedicated commercial air freighter is an airplane which has been designed from the beginning as a freighter, with no restrictions caused by either passenger or military re-
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quirements. Over the years, there has been a dispute concerning the cost effectiveness of such an airplane, with some cargo carriers stating that they could consistently earn a profit if they had such an aircraft. To help resolve this disagreement, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selected two contractors, Douglas Aircraft Co. and Lockheed-Georgia Co., to independently evaluate the possibility of producing such a freighter by 1990. This was done as part of the Cargo/Logistics Airlift Systems Study (CLASS). At comparable payloads, dedicated cargo aircraft was said to provide a 20 percent reduction in trip cost and a 15 percent decrease in aircraft price compared to other cargo aircraft. These findings, however, are extremely sensitive to assumptions about fuel and labor costs and, most particularly, to growth in demand for air cargo services. Further, it ignores the competitive situation brought about by the lower capital costs of future derivative air cargo aircraft.
14.3 Today Most conversions are carried out on older aircraft no longer suitable for passenger use, often due to changing safety or noise requirements, or when the aircraft type is considered to have become uncompetitive in passenger airline service, but there is also a market for new-build freighter designs. Freighter aircraft normally have strengthened cabin floors and the inclusion of a broad top-hinged door on the port fuselage in addition to an absence of passenger cabin windows which are “plugged.”
The Boeing 747 can be ordered in a freighter version with a large nose door which can be raised above the cockpit for loading. The bulged top deck housing the cockpit was originally designed to allow an unobstructed main deck, and to keep cargo from crushing the pilots in the case of an accident. The interior size of the fuselage is matched to the size of a standard shipping container, stacked two The main advantage of the dedicated air freighter is that high and two wide. it can be designed specifically for air freight demand, providing the type of loading and unloading, flooring, Other types of specialized civilian cargo aircraft confuselage configuration, and pressurization which are op- figurations, include the swing-tail Canadair CL-44 and timized for its mission. Moreover, it can make full use of Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter, and the clamshell tail NASAʼs ACEE results, with the potential of significantly CASA CN-235. lowering operating costs and fuel usage. Such a high overhead raises the price of the airplane and its direct operating cost (because of depreciation and insurance costs) and 14.4 Examples increases the financial risks to investors, especially since it would be competing with derivatives which have much 14.4.1 Early air mail and airlift logistics smaller development costs per unit and which themselves aircraft have incorporated some of the cost-reducing technology.
14.2.3
Joint civil-military cargo aircraft
One benefit of a combined development is that the development costs would be shared by the civil and military sectors, and the number of airplanes required by the military could be decreased by the number of civil reserve airplanes purchased by air carriers and available to the military in case of emergency. There are some possible drawbacks, as the restrictions executed by joint development, the punishments that would be suffered by both civil and military airplanes, and the difficulty in discovering an organizational structure that authorizes their compromise. Some features appropriate to a military aircraft would have to be rejected, because they are not suitable for a civil freighter. Moreover, each airplane would have to carry some weight which it would not carry if it were independently designed. This additional weight lessens the payload and the profitability of the commercial version. This could either be compensated by a transfer payment at acquisition, or an operating penalty compensation payment. Most important, it is not clear that there will be an adequate market for the civil version or that it will be cost competitive with derivatives of passenger aircraft.
The Type 158 York
Important "airlift and logistics;"“cargo-liners,”“mailliners,”and “mail aircraft.” • Avro Lancastrian (Transatlantic mail) • Avro York (Berlin Airlift) • Boeing C-7000 • Curtiss JN-4 • Douglas M-2
14.4.2 Civilian cargo/freight aircraft • Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy
14.4. EXAMPLES
99
Air India Airbus A310-304 Two MD-11Fs of World Airways Cargo and Lufthansa Cargo
Cargolux Boeing 747-400F A Qatar Cargo 777F
• Antonov An-12 • Antonov An-26 • Antonov An-124 (the second largest operating cargo aircraft in the world) • Antonov An-225 (the largest and heaviest aircraft in the world) • British Aerospace 146QT (Conversions) Aeroflot Il-76TD
• Aero Spacelines Super Guppy • Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy • Airbus A300
• British Aerospace ATPF (Conversions) • Boeing 727 (Conversions) • Boeing 737 (Conversions) • Boeing 757 • Boeing 767
• Airbus A310
• Boeing 747 Freighter
• Airbus A320 (Conversions)
• Boeing 747-8 Freighter
• Airbus A330
• Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter (Dreamlifter)
• Airbus A380F
• Boeing 777 Freighter
• Airbus A300B4-608ST 'Beluga'
• Douglas DC-3
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14.4.6 Comparisons
• Douglas DC-8 • Douglas DC-9
14.5 See also
• Ilyushin Il-76
• Air transport
• Ilyushin Il-96
• Airlift
• Lockheed L-100 • McDonnell Douglas DC-10 • McDonnell Douglas MD-11 • Tupolev Tu-204
14.4.3
Light aircraft
• Cessna Caravan - freight door and belly pod equipped • Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner
14.6 References [1] Wragg, David Airlift A History of Military Air Transport Shrewsbury Airlife Publishing 1986 ISBN 0-906393-612 p13 [2] Johnson, Brian & Cozens, H. I. Bombers The Weapon of Total War London Methuen 1984 ISBN 0-423-00630-4 p. 38 [3] Andrews and Morgan 1988, pp. 158–159. [4] Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 157
• LET 410 • Shorts 330 - drop ramp and twin tailed vertical stabilizer
14.4.4
• Cargo airline
Military cargo aircraft
[5] Kay, Anthony (2004). Junkers Aircraft and Engines 19131945. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 085177-985-9. [6] “A380 Freighter Specifications”. Airbus. Retrieved 18 April 2010. [7] Andriulaitis, Robert. "B747-8F VS A380F" InterVISTAS, December 2005. Retrieved: 29 September 2012. [8] Future cargo aircraft>"http://www.princeton.edu/~{}ota/ disk3/1982/8231/823105.PDF"
14.7 External links • Airlift Cargo Aircraft • History of the Airmail Service • Indo-Russian Transport Aircraft (IRTA)
A turboprop twin-engined transport aircraft: the Antonov An-32
Further information: Airlift
14.4.5
Military transport aircraft and
Experimental cargo aircraft
• Hughes H-4 Hercules (“Spruce Goose”) • Lockheed R6V Constitution • LTV XC-142
Chapter 15
Cartridge (firearms) This article addresses small-arms cartridges. For car- 15.1.1 Purpose tridges used with larger arms, see Artillery#Ammunition and Shell (projectile). The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions A cartridge (also called a round or a shell) is a type excepting the bore. A firing pin strikes the primer and of ammunition packaging a bullet or shot, a propellant ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates (that is, it substance (usually either smokeless powder or black pow- rapidly burns), it does not detonate. A jet of burning gas der) and a primer within a metallic, paper, or plastic case from the primer ignites the propellant. that is precisely made to fit within the firing chamber of a firearm.* [1] The primer is a small charge of an impactsensitive or electric-sensitive chemical mixture that can be located at the center of the case head (centerfire ammunition), inside a rim (rimfire ammunition), or in a projection such as in a pinfire or teat-fire cartridge. Military and commercial producers also make caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank. One that is completely inert (contains no active primer and no propellant) is called a dummy.
Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall. These propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to this pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the chamber pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been elastically expanded by chamber pressure, contracts slightly. This eases removal of the case from the chamber.
Some artillery ammunition uses the same cartridge con15.1.2 Materials cept as found in small arms. In other cases, the artillery shell is separate from the propellant charge. Brass is a commonly used case material because it is reIn popular use, the term "bullet" is often misused to refer sistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be workto a complete cartridge. hardened to withstand the high pressures of cartridges, and allow for manipulation via extraction and ejection without tearing the metal. The neck and body portion of a brass case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in some military ammunition (mainly from the former Soviet Union and China). Steel is less expensive than brass, A variety of rifle cartridges: 1).17 HM2 2) .17 HMR 3) .22LR but it is not feasible to reload and reuse steel cases. Mil4) .22 WMR 5) .17/23 SMc 6) 5mm/35 SMc 7) .22 Hornet 8) itary forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases .223 Remington 9) .223 WSSM 10) .243 Winchester 11) .243 to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case Winchester Improved (Ackley) 12) .25-06 Remington 13) .270 weight (mass) affects how much ammunition a soldier Winchester 14) .308 Winchester 15) .30-06 Springfield 16) .45- can carry, so the lighter steel cases do have a military 70 Government 17) .50-90 Sharps advantage. Conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements.
15.1 Design
One downside caused by the increased strength of steel in the neck of these cases (compared to the annealed neck of a brass case) is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck and into the chamber. Constituents of these gases condense on the (relatively cold) chamber wall. This solid 101
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CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS)
propellant residue can make extraction of fired cases difficult. This is less of a problem for small arms of the former Warsaw Pact nations, which were designed with much larger chamber tolerances than NATO weapons. Aluminum cased cartridges are available commercially. These are generally not reloaded as aluminum fatigues easily during firing and resizing. Some calibers also have non-standard primer sizes to discourage reloaders from attempting to reuse these cases. Historically paper had been used in the earliest cartridges as detailed further below.
15.1.3
Specifications
Critical cartridge specifications include neck size, bullet weight and caliber, maximum pressure, headspace, overall length, case body diameter and taper, shoulder design, rim type, etc. Generally, every characteristic of a specific cartridge type is tightly controlled and few types are interchangeable in any way. Exceptions do exist but generally, these are only where a shorter cylindrical rimmed cartridge can be used in a longer chamber, (e.g., .22 Short in .22 Long Rifle chamber, and .38 Special in a .357 Magnum chamber). Centerfire primer type (Boxer or Berdan, see below) is interchangeable, although not in the same case. Deviation in any of these specifications can result in firearm damage and, in some instances, injury or death. Similarly, use of the wrong type of cartridge in any given gun can damage the gun, or cause bodily injury.
Historic British handgun cartridges
tube. Thick paper is still known as “cartridge paper” from its use in these cartridges. Another source states the cartridge appeared in 1590.* [4] King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden had his troops use cartridges in the 1600s.* [5] The paper was formed a cylinder with twisted ends; the ball was at one end, and the measured powder filled the rest.* [6]
This cartridge was used with muzzle-loading military firearms, probably more often than for sporting shooting, the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into the barrel, and the paper and bullet rammed down the barrel.* [7] In the Civil War era cartridge, the paper was supposed to be discarded, but soldiers often used it as a wad.* [8] To ignite the charge an Cartridge specifications are determined by several stan- additional step was required where a finer-grained powdards organizations, including SAAMI in the United der called priming powder was poured into the pan of the States, and C.I.P. in many European states. NATO gun to be ignited by the firing mechanism. also performs its own tests for military cartridges for its The evolving nature of warfare required a firearm that member nations; due to differences in testing methods, could load and fire more rapidly, resulting in the flintlock NATO cartridges (headstamped with the NATO cross) musket (and later the Baker rifle), in which the pan was may present an unsafe combination when loaded into a covered by furrowed steel. This was struck by the flint weapon chambered for a cartridge certified by one of the and fired the gun. In the course of loading a pinch of other testing bodies.* [2] powder from the cartridge would be placed into the pan Bullet diameter is measured either as a fraction of an inch (usually in 1/100 or in 1/1000) or in millimetres. Cartridge case length can also be designated in inches or millimetres.
15.2 History Paper cartridges have been in use for nearly as long as hand-held firearms, with a number of sources dating their use back to the late 14th century. Historians note their use by soldiers of Christian I in 1586, while the Dresden Museum has evidence dating their use to 1591, and Capo Bianco wrote in 1597 that paper cartridges had long been in use by Neapolitan soldiers. Their use became widespread by the 17th century.* [3] The 1586 cartridge consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet in a paper
as priming, before the rest of the cartridge was rammed down the barrel, providing charge and wadding. Later developments rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover and hammer. The next important advance in the method of ignition was the introduction of the copper percussion cap. This was only generally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention that made the percussion cap possible was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of priming with a fulminating powder made of potassium chlorate, sulfur, and charcoal, which ignited by concussion. This invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a
15.2. HISTORY
103
steel cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers after.* [12] Pauly made an improved version, protected by and private individuals before coming into general mili- a patent, on 29 September 1812.* [10] tary use nearly thirty years later. Probably no invention connected with firearms has The alteration of the military flint-lock to the percussion wrought such changes in the principle of gun construcmusket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder tion as those effected by the “expansive cartridge case.” pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or This invention has completely revolutionized the art of hammer that held the flint with a smaller hammer that gun making, has been successfully applied to all descriphad a hollow to fit on the nipple when released by the tions of firearms, and has produced a new and important trigger. The shooter placed a percussion cap (now made industry: that of cartridge manufacture. Its essential feaof three parts of potassium chlorate, two of fulminate of ture is preventing gas escaping the breech when the gun mercury and powdered glass) on the nipple. The deto- is fired, by means of an expansive cartridge case containnating cap thus invented and adopted, brought about the ing its own means of ignition. Previous to this inveninvention of the modern cartridge case, and rendered pos- tion shotguns and sporting rifles were loaded by means sible the general adoption of the breech-loading principle of powder flasks and shot bags or flasks, bullets, wads and for all varieties of rifles, shotguns and pistols. This greatly copper caps, all carried separately. One of the earliest efstreamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way ficient modern cartridge cases was the pinfire cartridge, for semi- and full-automatic firearms. developed by French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in * But this big leap forward came at a price. It intro- 1836. [13] It consisted of a thin weak shell made of brass duced an extra component into each round ̶the car- and paper that expanded from the force of the explosion. tridge case ̶which had to be removed before the gun This fit perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efcould be reloaded. While a flintlock, for example, is im- ficient gas check. A small percussion cap was placed in mediately ready to reload once it has been fired, adopting the middle of the base of the cartridge, and was ignited by brass cartridge cases brought in the problems of extrac- means of a brass pin projecting from the side and struck tion and ejection. The mechanism of a modern gun not by the hammer. This pin also afforded the means of exonly must load and fire the piece but also must remove tracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was introduced the spent case, which might require just as many added in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about moving parts. Many malfunctions involve this process, 1845. either through failure to extract a case properly from the chamber or by allowing the extracted case to jam the action. Nineteenth-century inventors were reluctant to accept this added complication and experimented with a variety of caseless or self-consuming cartridges before finally accepting that the advantages of brass cases far outweighed this one drawback.* [9]
15.2.1
Integrated paper cartridges
In the American Civil War (1861–65) a breech-loading rifle, the Sharps, was introduced and produced in large numbers. It could be loaded with either a ball or a paper cartridge. After that war many were converted to the use of metal cartridges. The development by Smith & Wesson (amongst many others) of revolver handguns that used metal cartridges helped to establish cartridge firearms as the standard in the USA by the 1870s although many continue to use percussion revolvers well after that.* [14]
15.2.2 Metal cartridges Early all-metal cartridges were of the pinfire and rimfire types.
Chassepot paper cartridge (1866).
The first integrated cartridge was developed in Paris in 1808 by the Swiss gunsmith Jean Samuel Pauly in association with French gunsmith François Prélat. Pauly created the first fully self-contained cartridges:* [10] the cartridges incorporated a copper base with integrated mercury fulminate primer powder (the major innovation of Pauly), a paper case and a round bullet.* [11] The cartridge was loaded through the breech and fired with a needle. The needle-activated central-fire breech-loading gun would become a major feature of firearms there-
The Frenchman Louis-Nicolas Flobert invented in 1845, for indoor shooting security, the first rimfire metallic cartridge, constituted by a bullet fit in a percussion cap.* [15]* [16] Usually derived in the 6 mm and 9 mm calibres, it is since then called the Flobert cartridge or the Bosquette cartridge but it doesn't contain any powder, the only propellant substance contained in the cartridge is the percussion cap itself.* [17] In English-speaking countries the Flobert cartridge corresponds to .22 BB and .22 CB ammunition. French gunsmith Benjamin Houllier improved the Lefaucheux pinfire cardboard cartridge and patented in Paris in 1846, the first fully metallic cartridge containing powder (and a pinfire), in a metallic shell.* [13]* [18]
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(From Left to Right): A .577 Snider cartridge (1867), a .577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge (1871), a later drawn brass .577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge, and a .303 British Mk VII SAA Ball cartridge.
French Army Fusil Gras mle 1874 metallic cartridge.
The 8 mm Lebel ammunition, developed in 1886, the first smokeless gunpowder cartridge to be made and adopted by any country.
Houllier commercialised his weapons in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard or Charles Robert.* [19]* [20] The 1846 Houllier cartridges were pinfire cartridges as still were the LeMat (1856) and Lefaucheux (1858) revolvers, both used during the American Civil War. In the United States, in 1857, the Flobert cartridge inspired the .22 Short (another rimfire), especially conceived for the first American revolver using rimfire cartridges, the Smith & Wesson Model 1. A year before, in 1856, the LeMat was the first American (Frenchdesigned) breech-loading revolver, but it used pinfire cartridges, not rimfire. Formerly, an employee of the Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, Rollin White, had been the first in America to conceive the idea of having the revolver cylinder bored through to accept metallic cartridges (circa 1852), but Samuel Colt refused this innovation. White left Colt, went to Smith & Wesson to rent a licence for his patent, and this is how the S&W Model 1 saw light of day in 1857. The patent didn't definitely expire until 1870, allowing Smith & Wesson competitors to design and commercialise their own re-
CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS) volving breech-loaders using metallic cartridges. Famous models of that time are the Colts Open Top (1871-1872) and Single Action Army “Peacemaker” (1873). But in rifles, the lever-action mechanism patents were not obstructed by Rollin White's patent infringement because White only held a patent concerning drilled cylinders and revolving mechanisms. Thus, larger caliber rimfire cartridges were soon introduced after 1857, when the Smith & Wesson .22 Short ammunition was introduced for the first time. Some of these rifle cartridges were used in the American Civil War, including the .44 Henry and 56-56 Spencer (both in 1860). However, the large rimfire cartridges were soon replaced by centerfire cartridges, which could safely handle higher pressures.* [21] In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley-Boxer metallic central-fire cartridge case in the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifles, which were converted to Snider-Enfield breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This consisted of a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech against which the cartridge rested. The priming cap was in the base of the cartridge, and was discharged by a striker passing through the breech block. Other European powers adopted breech-loading military rifles from 1866 to 1868, with paper instead of metallic cartridge cases. The original Eley-Boxer cartridge case was made of thincoiled brass̶occasionally these cartridges could break apart and jam the breech with the unwound remains of the case upon firing. Later the solid-drawn, central-fire cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of tough hard metal, an alloy of copper, with a solid head of thicker metal, has been generally substituted. Central-fire cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases containing their own means of ignition are almost universally used in all modern varieties of military and sporting rifles and pistols. Around 1870, machined tolerances had improved to the point that the cartridge case was no longer necessary to seal a firing chamber. Precision-faced bolts would seal as well, and could be economically manufactured. However, normal wear and tear proved this system to be generally infeasible.
15.3 Nomenclature The name of any given cartridge does not necessarily reflect any cartridge or gun dimension. The name is merely the standardized and accepted moniker. SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition ManufacturersʼInstitute) and the European counterpart (CIP) and members of those organizations specify correct cartridge names. Cartridge names, when correctly presented, never include a naked leading decimal point. It is a common misnomer to refer to a cartridge as a certain “caliber,”e.g. “30-06 caliber.”The correct full name for this cartridge is .30-'06 Springfield. In sporting
15.4. CENTERFIRE
105
arms the only consistent definition of “caliber”is bore the .38 Special. The .357 was named to reflect bullet didiameter. Dozens of unique .30-caliber cartridge types ameter (in thousandths inch), not case diameter. “Magexist. num”was used to indicate its longer case and higher opThere is considerable variation in cartridge nomenclature. erating pressure. Names sometimes reflect various characteristics of the cartridge. For example, the .308 Winchester uses a bullet of 308/1000-inch diameter and was standardized by Winchester. Conversely, cartridge names often reflect nothing related to the cartridge in any obvious way. For example, the .218 Bee uses a bullet of 224/1000-inch diameter, fired through a .22-in bore, etc. The 218 and Bee portions of this cartridge name reflect nothing other than the desires of those who standardized that cartridge. Many similar examples exist, for example: .219 Zipper, .221 Fireball, .222 Remington, .256 Winchester, .280 Remington, .307 Winchester, .356 Winchester. Where two numbers are used in a cartridge name, the second number may reflect a variety of things. Frequently the first number reflects bore diameter (inches or millimeters). The second number reflects case length (in inches or mm). For example, the 7.62×51mm NATO refers to a bore diameter of 7.62 mm and has an overall case length of 51 mm. The commercial version is the .308 Winchester.)
The .30-'06 Springfield round is (nominally) a 0.30 inches (7.6 mm) military round designed at the Springfield arsenal in 1906. The .303 British is for a bore nominally 303/1000-inch and this chambering was standardized by the British Army.
15.4 Centerfire
Rimmed, Mk. VII centerfire .303 cartridge from WW II. Manu-
In older black powder cartridges, the second number typ- factured by Colonial Ammunition Company, New Zealand. ically refers to powder charge, in grains. For example, the .50-90 Sharps has a .50-inch bore and used a nominal Main article: Centerfire ammunition charge of 90.0 grains (5.83 g) of black powder. Many such cartridges were designated by a three-number system, e.g., 45-120-3¼ Sharps: 45-caliber bore, 120 grains of (black) powder, 3¼-inch long case. Other times a similar three-number system indicated bore (caliber), charge (grains), and bullet weight (grains). The 45-70500 Government is an example.
A centerfire cartridge has a centrally located primer held within a recess in the case head. Most centerfire brass cases used worldwide for sporting ammunition use Boxer primers. It is easy to remove and replace Boxer primers using standard reloading tools, facilitating reuse.
Some European- and Asian-manufactured military and Often, the name reflects the company or individual who sporting ammunition uses Berdan primers. Removing standardized it, such as the .30 Newton, or some charac- the spent primer from (decapping) these cases requires teristic important to that person. use of a special tool because the primer anvil (on which The .38 Special actually has a nominal bullet diameter the primer compound is crushed) is an integral part of of 0.3570 inches (9.07 mm) (jacketed) or 0.3580 inches the case and the case therefore does not have a central (9.09 mm) (lead) while the case has a nominal diameter hole through which a decapping tool can push the primer of 0.3800 inches (9.65 mm),. Hence the name. This is out from the inside, as is done with Boxer primers. In historically logical. The hole drilled through the cham- Berdan cases, the flash holes are located to the sides of bers of .36-caliber cap-and-ball revolvers when convert- the anvil. With the right tool and components, reloading those to work with cartridges was 0.3800 inches (9.65 ing Berdan-primed cases is perfectly feasible. However, mm) and the cartridges made to work in those revolvers Berdan primers are not readily available in the U.S. was logically named the .38 Colt. The original cartridges used a heeled bullet like a .22 rimfire where the bullet was the same diameter as the case. Early Colt Army .38s have 15.5 Rimfire a bore diameter that will allow a .357”diameter bullet to slide through the barrel. The cylinder is bored straight through with no step. Later versions used an inside the Main article: Rimfire ammunition case lubricated bullet of .357”diameter instead of the original .38”with a reduction in bore diameter. The dif- Rimfire priming was a popular solution before centerfire ference in .38 Special bullet diameter and case diameter priming was perfected. In a rimfire case, centrifugal force reflects the thickness of the case mouth (approximately pushes a liquid priming compound into the internal re11/1000-inch per side). The .357 Magnum evolved from cess of the folded rim as the manufacturer spins the case
106 at a high rate and heats the spinning case to dry the priming compound mixture in place within the hollow cavity formed within the rim fold at the perimeter of the case interior. In the mid- to late-1800s, many rimfire cartridge designs existed. Today only a few, mostly for use in small-caliber guns, remain in general and widespread use. These include the .17 Mach II, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire (HMR), 5mm Remington Magnum (Rem Mag), .22 (BB, CB, Short, Long, Long Rifle), and .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire (WMR).
CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS)
15.6 Semi-automatic vs. revolver cartridges Most revolver cartridges have a rim at the base of the case that is larger than the case body is and which seats against or into the cylinder block to provide headspace control (to keep the cartridge from moving too far forward in the cylinder chamber) and to provide for easy extraction. Nearly every semi-automatic pistol cartridge is“rimless,” or more precisely has a rim of the same diameter as the case body. An extractor engages this rim by entering a cannelure near the base of the case. A few designs, known as“semi-rimmed”have a rim that is slightly larger than case body diameter but these function as a rimless design. All such cartridges headspace on the case mouth (although some, such as .38 Super, at one time seated on the rim, this was changed for accuracy reasons), which prevents the round from entering too far into the chamber. Some cartridges have a rim that is significantly smaller than case body diameter. These are known as rebatedrim designs, and almost always allow a handgun to fire multiple caliber cartridges with only a barrel and magazine change.
Compared to modern centerfire cases used in the strongest types of modern guns, existing rimfire cartridge designs use loads that generate relatively low pressure because of limitations of feasible gun design ̶the rim has little or no lateral support from the gun. Such support would require very close tolerances in design of the chamber, bolt, and firing pin. Because that is not cost-effective, it is necessary to keep rimfire load pressure low enough so that the stress generated by chamber pressure that would push the case rim outward cannot expand the rim significantly. Also, the wall of the folded rim must be thin and ductile enough to easily deform, as necessary to allow the blow from the firing pin to crush and thereby ignite the primer compound, and it must do so without rupturing, For a visual comparison of similar-diameter handgun carIf it is too thick, it will be too resistant to deformation. If tridges with different rim designs, see 380 ACP (semiit is too hard, it will crack rather than deform. These two automatic) vs. .38 Special (revolver.) limitations ̶that the rim is self-supporting laterally and that the rim is thin and ductile enough to easily crush in response to the firing pin impact ̶limit rimfire pressures. 15.7 Bullet design types Modern centerfire cartridges are often loaded to about 65,000 psi (450,000 kPa) maximum chamber pressure. • 12 gauge/70 mm standard shotgun buckshot ammuConversely, no commercialized rimfire has ever been nition loads. Listed here from largest to smallest loaded above about 40,000 psi (280,000 kPa) maximum shot size. Loads typically offered in the 70 mm chamber pressure. However, with careful gun design length hull (many other loading options are availand production, no fundamental reason exists that higher able). pressures could not be used. Despite the relative pressure disadvantage, modern rimfire magnums in .17-caliber, 000 Buck: 8 lead pellets (0.36 in or 9.1 mm) 5mm, and .22-caliber generate muzzle energy compara00 Buck: 9 lead pellets (0.33 in or 8.4 mm, 12 pellets for ble to smaller centerfire cartridges. Magnum load) Today, .22 LR (Long Rifle) accounts for the vast majority of all rimfire ammunition used. Standard .22 LR rounds 0 Buck: 12 lead pellets (0.32 in or 8.1 mm) use an essentially pure lead bullet plated with a typical 1 Buck: 16 lead pellets (0.30 in or 7.6 mm, 20 pellets for 95% copper, 5% zinc combination. These are offered in Magnum load) supersonic and subsonic types, as well as target, plinking, 4 Buck: 27 lead pellets (0.24 in or 6.1 mm) and hunting versions. These cartridges are usually coated with a hard wax for fouling control. • Shotgun slug: Slugs can be made of solid lead, copThe .22 LR and related rimfire .22 cartridges also use a per, or a composite of any of various materials. unique two-diameter bullet, where external diameter of Slugs are stabilized in flight by rifling in the barrel, the case is the same as diameter of the forward portion which causes the slug to spin, or are stabilized as a of the bullet and where the rearward portion of the buldart is by the weight center of balance being forward let, which extends into the case, is necessarily smaller in of the aerodynamic center of balance, sometimes diameter than the main body of the bullet. This is known with assistance from fins. Solid or hollow-point slugs as a heel-base bullet design. are available but, due to the relatively low velocity, hollow-point slugs often demonstrate relatively low expansion.
15.7. BULLET DESIGN TYPES
A cutaway showing a Japanese Navy 7.7 mm rimmed rounds as fired by the Type 92 and Type 97 machine guns̶copies of Vickers and Lewis designs. The round is effectively interchangeable with .303 British.
• Baton round: a generally non-lethal projectile fired from a riot gun. • Armor Piercing (AP): A hard bullet made from steel or tungsten alloys in a pointed shape typically covered by a thin layer of lead and or a copper or brass jacket. The lead and jacket are intended to prevent barrel wear from the hard core materials. AP bullets are sometimes less effective on unarmored targets than FMJ bullets are. This has to do with the reduced tendency of AP projectiles to yaw (turn sideways after impact). • Flat Nose Lead (FNL): Similar to the above, with a flattened nose. Common in Cowboy Action Shooting and plinking ammunition loads. • Full Metal Jacket (FMJ): Made with a lead core surrounded by a full covering of brass, copper, or mild steel. These usually offer very little deformation or terminal performance expansion, but will occasionally yaw (turn sideways). Despite the name, a FMJ bullet typically has an exposed lead base, which is not visible in an intact cartridge. Main article: Full metal jacket bullet • Glaser Safety Slug: The Glaser Safety Slug dates back to the early 1970s. The inventor, Colonel Jack Cannon, named it for his friend Armin Glaser. Over
107 the years, these projectiles have evolved from crude, hand-produced examples to mass-production; however, the basic concept has remained the same: copper jackets filled with bird shot and covered by a crimped polymer endcap. Upon impact with flesh, the projectile is supposed to fragment, with the birdshot spreading like a miniature shotgun pattern. The standard “Blue”Glaser uses a rather fine birdshot that only gives 5 to 6 inches (130–150 mm) of penetration in flesh. The “Silver”Glaser adds another 1 to 2 inches (30–50 mm) of penetration with the use of slightly larger birdshot. Due to reduced penetration in flesh, some have theorized that the Glaser would be ideal where over-penetration of a projectile could be hazardous to bystanders. For instance, the Glaser might be entirely contained within an arm. However, for the same reasons, terminal performance of Glaser bullets can vary dramatically, producing impressive successes and equally spectacular failures depending on the angle at which the target is struck. Glancing hits on hard surfaces will result in fragmentation, reducing the risk of ricochets. However, the Glaser can penetrate barriers such as drywall, plywood, and thin sheet metal if struck nearly head on. • Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP): Soon after the invention of the JSP, Woolwich Arsenal in Great Britain experimented with this design even further by forming a hole or cavity in the nose of the bullet while keeping most of the exterior profile intact. These bullets could theoretically deform even faster and expand to a larger diameter than the JSP. In personal defense use, concerns have arisen over whether clothing, especially heavy materials like denim, can clog the cavity of JHP bullets and cause expansion failures. • Jacketed Soft Point (JSP): In the late 19th century, the Indian Army at Dum-Dum Arsenal, near Calcutta, developed a variation of the FMJ design where the jacket did not cover the nose of the bullet. The soft lead nose was found to expand in flesh while the remaining jacket still prevented lead fouling in the barrel. The JSP roughly splits the difference between FMJ and JHP. It gives more penetration than JHP but has better terminal ballistic characteristics than the FMJ. • Round Nose Lead (RNL): An unjacketed lead bullet. Although largely supplanted by jacketed ammunition, this is still common for older revolver cartridges. Some hunters prefer roundnose ammunition for hunting in brush because they erroneously believe that such a bullet deflects less than sharpnosed spitzer bullets, regardless of the fact that this belief has been repeatedly proven not to be true. Refer to American Rifleman magazine. • Total Metal Jacket (TMJ): Featured in some Speer
108
CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS) cartridges, the TMJ bullet has a lead core completely and seamlessly enclosed in brass, copper or other jacket metal, including the base. According to Speer literature, this prevents hot propellant gases from vaporizing lead from the base of the bullet, reducing lead emissions. Sellier & Bellot produce a similar version that they call TFMJ, with a separate end cap of jacket material.
• Wadcutter (WC): Similar to the FNL, but completely cylindrical, in some instances with a slight concavity in the nose. This bullet derives its name from its popularity for target shooting, because the form factor cuts neat holes in paper targets, making scoring easier and more accurate and because it typically cuts a larger hole than a round nose bullet, a hit centered at the same spot can touch the next smaller ring and therefore score higher. • Semi Wad Cutter (SWC) identical to the WC with a smaller diameter flap pointed conical or radiused nose added. Has the same advantages for target shooters but is easier to load into the gun and works more reliably in semi-automatic guns. This design is also superior for some hunting applications. • Truncated Cone, Round Nose Flat Point, etc. Descriptive of typical modern commercial cast bullet designs. The Hague Convention of 1899 bans the use of expanding projectiles against the military forces of other nations. Some countries accept this as a blanket ban against the use of expanding projectiles against anyone, while others* [note 1] use JSP and HP against non-military forces such as terrorists and criminals* [22]
15.8 Common cartridges
A variety of common pistol cartridges. From left to right: 22 LR, .22 WMR, 5.7×28mm, 25 ACP, 7.62×25mm Tokarev, 32 ACP, 380 ACP, 9×19mm Parabellum, 357 SIG, 40 S&W, 45 GAP, 45 ACP, .38 Special, 357 Magnum, 45 Colt
Main article: Table of handgun and rifle cartridges by year Ammunition types are listed numerically.
• 22 Long Rifle (22 LR): A cartridge that is often used for target shooting and the hunting of small game such as squirrel. Because of the small size of this cartridge, the smallest self-defense handguns chambered in 22 rimfire (though less effective than most centerfire handguns cartridges) can be concealed in situations where a handgun chambered for a centerfire cartridge could not. The 22 LR is the most commonly fired sporting arms cartridge, primarily because, when compared to any centerfire ammunition, 22 LR ammunition is much less expensive and because recoil generated by the light 22 bullet at modest velocity is very mild. • 22-250: A very popular cartridge for medium to long range small game and varmint hunting, pest control and target shooting. The 22-250 is one of the most popular cartridges for fox hunting and other pest control in Western Europe due to its flat trajectory and very good accuracy on rabbit to fox sized pests. • 300 Winchester Magnum: One of the most popular big game hunting cartridges of all time. Also, a long-range sniping round, it is favored by US Navy SEALs and the German Bundeswehr. While not in the same class as the 338 Lapua, it has roughly the same power as 7 mm Remington Magnum, and easily exceeds the performance of 7.62×51mm NATO. • 30-06 Springfield (7.62×63mm): The standard US Army rifle cartridge for the first half of the 20th century. It is a full-power rifle cartridge suitable for hunting most North American game and most big game worldwide.* [23] • .303 British: the standard British Empire military rifle cartridge from 1888 to 1954.* [24] • 308 Winchester: the commercial name of a centerfire cartridge based on the military 7.62×51mm NATO round. Two years prior to the NATO adoption of the 7.62×51mm NATO T65 in 1954, Winchester (a subsidiary of the Olin Corporation) branded the cartridge and introduced it to the commercial hunting market as the 308 Winchester. The Winchester Model 70 and Model 88 rifles were subsequently chambered for this cartridge. Since then, the 308 Winchester has become the most popular shortaction big-game hunting cartridge worldwide. It is also commonly used for civilian and military target events, military sniping and police sharpshooting. • 357 Magnum: Using a lengthened version of the .38 Special case loaded to about twice the maximum chamber pressure as the 38 Spc., the 357 Magnum was rapidly accepted by hunters and law enforcement. At the time of its introduction, 357 Magnum bullets were claimed to easily pierce the body panels of automobiles and crack engine blocks (to eventually disable the vehicle).* [25]
15.8. COMMON CARTRIDGES • .375 Holland & Holland Magnum: designed for hunting African big game in the early 20th century, and legislated as the minimum caliber for African hunters during the mid-20th century.* [26] • 40 S&W: A shorter-cased version of the 10mm Auto.
109 available the 7×64mm is used on everything from fox and geese to red deer, Scandinavian moose and European brown bear equivalent to the North American black bear. The 7x64mm essentially duplicates performance of the 270 Winchester and 280 Remington.
• 44 Magnum: A high-powered pistol cartridge designed primarily for hunting.
• 7 mm Remington Magnum: A long-range hunting cartridge.
• 45 ACP: The standard US pistol round for about one century. Typical 45 ACP loads are subsonic.* [27]
• 7.62×39mm: The standard Soviet/ComBloc rifle cartridge from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s, this is easily one of the most widely distributed cartridges in the world due to the distribution of the ubiquitous Kalashnikov AK-47 series.
• 45 Colt: A slightly more powerful 45-caliber round using a longer shell. The 45 Colt was designed for the Colt Single Action Army, circa 1873. Other 45caliber single action revolvers also use this round. • 45-70 Government: Adopted by the US Army in 1873 as their standard service rifle cartridge. Most commercial loadings of this cartridge are constrained by the possibility that someone might attempt to fire a modern loading in a vintage 1873 rifle or replica. However, current production rifles from Marlin, Ruger, and Browning can accept loads that generate nearly twice the pressure generated by the original black powder cartridges. • 50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO): Originally designed to destroy aircraft in the First World War,* [28] this cartridge still serves an anti-materiel round against light armor. It is used in heavy machine guns and high-powered sniper rifles. Such rifles are intended for destroying military matériel such as sensitive parts of grounded aircraft and armored transports. Civilian shooters use these for long-distance target shooting. • 5.45×39mm Soviet: The Soviet response to the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge. • 5.56×45mm NATO: Adopted by the US military in the 1960s, it later became the NATO standard assault rifle cartridge in the early 80s, displacing the 7.62×51mm. Remington later adopted this military round as the 223 Remington, a very popular cartridge for varminting and small game hunting. • 7×64mm: One of the most popular long range varmint and medium- to big-game hunting cartridges in Europe, especially in the countries such as France and (formerly) Belgium where the possession of firearms chambered for a (former) military cartridge is forbidden or is more heavily restricted. This cartridge is offered by European rifle makers in both bolt-action rifles and a rimmed version, the 7×65mmR is chambered in double and combination rifles. Another reason for its popularity is its flat trajectory, very good penetration and high versatility, depending on what bullet and load are used. Combined with a large choice of different 7 mm bullets
• 7.62×51mm NATO: This was the standard NATO rifle round until its replacement by the 5.56×45mm. It is currently the standard NATO sniper rifle and medium machinegun chambering. In the 1950s it was the standard NATO cartridge for rifles, but recoil and weight proved problematic for the new battle rifle designs such as the FN FAL. Standardized commercially as the 308 Winchester. • 7.62×54mmR: The standard Russian rifle round from the 1890s to the mid-1940s. The “R”stands for rimmed. The 7.62×54mmR rifle cartridge is a Russian design dating back to 1891. Originally designed for the Mosin-Nagant rifle, it was used during the late Tsarist era and throughout the Soviet period, in machine guns and rifles such as the SVT-40. The Winchester Model 1895 was also chambered for this cartridge per a contract with the Russian government. It is still in use by the Russian military in the Dragunov and other sniper rifles and some machine guns. The round is colloquially known as the“7.62 Russian”. This name sometimes causes people to confusion this round with the“7.62 Soviet”round, which refers to the 7.62 × 39 cartridge used in the SKS and AK-47 rifles. • 7.65×17mm Browning SR (32 ACP): A very small pistol round. However, this was the predominant Police Service Cartridge in Europe until the mid1970s. The“SR”stands for semi-rimmed, meaning the case rim is slightly larger than case body diameter. • 8×57mm IS: The standard German service rifle cartridge from 1888 to 1945, the 8×57mmIS (aka 8 mm Mauser) has seen wide distribution around the globe through commercial, surplus, and military sales, and is still a popular and commonly used hunting round in most of Europe, partly because of the abundance of affordable hunting rifles in this chambering as well as a broad availability of different hunting, target, and military surplus ammunition available.* [29]
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CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS)
• 9×19mm Parabellum: Invented for the German mil- 15.10 Caseless ammunition itary at the turn of the 20th century, the wide distribution of the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge made it the logical choice for the NATO standard pistol and Main article: Caseless ammunition SMG round. Many governments and companies continue to develop • 9.3×62mm: Very common big game hunting round in Scandinavia along with the 6.5×55mm, where it is used as a very versatile hunting round on anything from small and medium game with lightweight cast lead bullets to the largest European big game with heavy soft point hunting bullets. The 9.3×62mm is also very popular in the rest of Europe for Big game, especially driven Big game hunts due to its effective stopping power on running game. And, it is the single cartridge smaller than the 375 H&H Magnum An example of caseless ammunition. This disassembled round, that has routinely been allowed for legal hunting of the 4.73×33mm, is used in the Heckler & Koch G11 rifle. dangerous African species. • 12.7×108mm: The 12.7×108mm cartridge is a heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle cartridge used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern Russia, and other countries. It is the approximate Russian equivalent of the NATO .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) cartridge. The differences between the two are the bullet shape, the types of powder used, and that the case of the 12.7×108mm is 9 mm longer and marginally more powerful.
caseless ammunition (where the entire case assembly is either consumed when the round fires or whatever remains is ejected with the bullet). So far, none of these have been successful enough to reach the civilian market and gain commercial success. Even within the military market, use is limited. Around 1848, Sharps introduced a rifle and paper cartridge (containing everything but the primer) system. When new, these guns had significant gas leaks at the chamber end, with progressive use, these leaks progressively worsened. This problem plagues case• 14.5×114mm: The 14.5×114 mm is a heavy ma- less cartridge and gun systems to this day. chine gun and anti-materiel rifle cartridge used by The Daisy Heddon VL Single Shot Rifle, which used a the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern caseless round in .22 caliber, was produced by the air gun Russia, and other countries. Its most common use company, beginning in 1968. Apparently Daisy never is in the KPV heavy machine gun found on several considered the gun an actual firearm. In 1969, the ATF Russian Military vehicles. ruled it was in fact a firearm, which Daisy was not licensed to produce. Production of the guns and the ammo was discontinued in 1969. They are still available on the secondary, mainly as collector items, as most owners report that accuracy is not very good.
Some shooting enthusiasts reload their fired brass cases and plastic, paper, or brass shotgun shells. By using a press and a set of dies, one can reshape, deprime, reprime, recharge the case with gunpowder, and seat and crimp a new bullet (or shot charge) in place. One can do this at about half the cost of purchasing factory ammunition partly because the case represents a significant portion of the total cost of a round. Reloading also allows one to use different weights and shapes of bullets, as well as varying the powder type and charge, which affects accuracy and power. Enthusiasts usually only reload boxer primed cases as this reloading process is more easily automated than Berdan priming is. See also: Handloading
In 1989, Heckler & Koch, a prominent German firearms manufacturer, began advertising the G11 assault rifle, which shot a 4.73×33 square caseless round. The round was mechanically fired, with an integral primer. In 1993 Voere of Austria began selling a gun and caseless ammunition. Their system used a primer, electronically fired at 17.5 ± 2 volts. The upper and lower limits prevent fire from either stray currents or static electricity. The direct electrical firing eliminates the mechanical delays associated with a striker, reducing lock time, and allowing for easier adjustment of the rifle trigger. In both instances, the “case”was molded directly from solid nitrocellulose, which is itself relatively strong and inert. The bullet and primer were glued into the propellant block.
15.13. DRILL ROUNDS
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15.11 Trounds
is always far weaker, and some automatic guns only cycle correctly when the gun is fitted with a blank-firing adaptor to confine gas pressure within the barrel to operate the gas system.
Main article: Dardick tround The “Tround”(“Triangular Round”) was a unique type of cartridge designed in 1958 by David Dardick, for use in specially designed Dardick 1100 and Dardick 1500 open-chamber firearms. As their name suggests, Trounds were triangular in cross-section, and were made of plastic or aluminum, with the cartridge completely encasing the powder and projectile. The Tround design was also produced as a cartridge adaptor, to allow conventional .38 Special and 22 Long Rifle cartridges to be used with the Dardick firearms.
Blanks can also be used to launch a rifle grenade, although later systems used a “bullet trap”design that captures a bullet from a conventional round, speeding deployment. This also negates the risk of mistakenly firing a live bullet into the rifle grenade, causing it to instantly explode instead of propelling it forward. Blanks are also used as dedicated launchers for propelling a grappling hook, rope line or flare, or for a training lure for training gun dogs. The power loads used in a variety of nail guns are essentially rimfire blanks.
15.12 Blank ammunition Main article: Blank (cartridge) A blank is a charged cartridge that does not contain a pro-
15.13 Drill rounds Main article: Dummy round Drill rounds are inert versions of cartridges used for education and practice during military training. Other than the lack of propellant and primer, these are the same size as normal cartridges and will fit into the mechanism of a gun in the same way as a live cartridge does. Because dryfiring (releasing the firing pin with an empty chamber) a gun can sometimes lead to firing pin (striker) damage, dummy rounds termed snap caps are designed to protect centerfire guns from possible damage during “dry-fire” trigger control practices.
Blank cartridges: • 7.62×51mm NATO (left) • 9×19mm Parabellum (right).
jectile. To contain the propellant, the opening where the projectile would normally be located is crimped shut and or it is sealed with some material that disperses rapidly upon leaving the barrel. This sealing material can still potentially cause harm at extremely close range. Actor Jon-Erik Hexum died when he shot himself in the head with a blank, and actor Brandon Lee was famously killed during filming of “The Crow”when a blank fired behind a bullet that was stuck in the bore drove that bullet through his abdomen and into his spine. The gun had not been properly deactivated and a primed case with a bullet instead of a dummy had been used previously. Someone pulled the trigger and the primer drove the bullet silently into the bore. Blanks are used in training, but do not always cause a gun to behave the same as live ammunition does; recoil
To distinguish drill rounds and snap-caps from live rounds these are marked distinctively. Several forms of markings are used; e.g. setting colored flutes in the case, drilling holes through the case, coloring the bullet or cartridge, or a combination of these. In the case of centerfire drill rounds the primer will often be absent, its mounting hole in the base is left open. Because these are mechanically identical to live rounds, which are intended to be loaded once, fired and then discarded, drill rounds have a tendency to become significantly worn and damaged with repeated passage through magazines and firing mechanisms, and must be frequently inspected to ensure that these are not so degraded as to be unusable̶for example the cases can become torn or misshapen and snag on moving parts, or the bullet can become separated and stay in the breech when the case is ejected.
15.14 See also • Ammunition • Ammunition box • Antique guns
112 • List of handgun cartridges • List of Magnum pistol cartridges • List of rifle cartridges • Nitrocellulose • Percussion cap • Simunition • Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
15.15 Notes [1] The US did not sign the complete Hague Convention of 1899 in any case, but still follows its guidelines in military conflicts.
CHAPTER 15. CARTRIDGE (FIREARMS)
[14] Cabela's still sells black powder pistols; remain in use for hunting [15] “History of firearms” (fireadvantages.com) [16] “How guns work” (fireadvantages.com) [17] Shooting section (la section de tir) of the official website (in French) of a modern indoor shooting association in Belgium, Les Arquebusier de Visé. [18] Les Lefaucheux, by Maître Simili, Spring 1990 (in French) [19] “An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured in association with the gunsmith Blanchard”. Littlegun.info. Retrieved 2013-11-04. [20] “An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard and Charles Robert”. Littlegun.info. Retrieved 2013-11-04. [21] Cartridges of the World, various editions and articles.
15.16 References [1] Sparano, Vin T. (2000). “Cartridges”. The Complete Outdoors Encyclopedia. Macmillan. p. 37. ISBN 978-0312-26722-3. [2] “Unsafe Firearm-Ammunition Combinations” (PDF). SAAMI. 3/6/2012. Retrieved 2013-11-04. Check date values in: |date= (help) [3] Greener, William Wellington (1907), “Ammunition and Accessories.–Cartridges”, The Gun and Its Development, Cassell, p. 570. [4] U.S. Army (September 1984), Military Explosives, Technical Manual, Department of the Army, TM 9-1300-214, p. 2-3, stating “1590. Cartridges with ball and power combined were introduced for small arms.” [5] U.S. Army 1984, pp. 2–3 indicates the period 1611–1632 and states the improved cartridge increased the rate of fire for the Thirty Years' War. [6] Sharpe, Philip B. (1938),“The Development of the Cartridge”, The Rifle in America, New York: William Morrow, pp. 29–30. [7] Greener 1907, p. 570
[22] San Francisco cops use hollow point bullets [23] Hatcher, Julian; Barr, Al; Neuman, Charles L. (1951). Reloading Information 1. Washington, DC: National Rifle Association. pp. 71–78. [24] Barr, Al; Teesdale, Jerald; Keith, Elmer; Hardaway, Ben F. (1951). Reloading Information 2. Washington, DC: National Rifle Association. pp. 51&52. [25] Barr, Al; Teesdale, Jerald; Keith, Elmer; Hardaway, Ben F. (1951). Reloading Information 2. Washington, DC: National Rifle Association. pp. 77–83. [26] Gunyana. “Classic African Cartridges Part X – The .375 H&H Magnum” (PDF). African Hunter Magazine. African Hunter. Retrieved 23 June 2013. [27] Hatcher, Julian; Barr, Al; Neuman, Charles L. (1951). Reloading Information 1. Washington, DC: National Rifle Association. pp. 93–97. [28] Chinn, George M. (1951), The Machine Gun: History, Evolution and Development of Manually Operated, Full Automatic, and Power Driven Aircraft Machine Guns 1, Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ordnance, p. 333 [29] Hatcher, Julian; Barr, Al; Neuman, Charles L. (1951). Reloading Information 1. Washington, DC: National Rifle Association. pp. 79–84.
[8] Sharpe 1938, p. 30 [9] Winant, Lewis (1959). Early Percussion Firearms. Great Britain: Herbert Jenkins Ltd. pp. 145-146. ISBN 0-60033015-X [10] “Chemical Analysis of Firearms, Ammunition, and Gunshot Residue” by James Smyth Wallace p. 24. [11] Firearms by Roger Pauly p. 94. [12] A History of Firearms by W. Y. Carman p. 121. [13] Kinard, Jeff (2004) Pistols: An Illustrated History of Their Impact, ABC-CLIO, p. 109
15.17 External links • Cartridge Collectors • European Ammunition Box Translations
15.17. EXTERNAL LINKS
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Chapter 16
CBRN defense For the cyanogen bromide molecular formula, see CBrN. CBRN (or CBN* [1]) is an initialism used to refer to chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear warfare. Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defense (often abbreviated to CBRN defense or CBRND) is the term for protective measures taken in situations in which any of these four hazards are present. To account for improvised devices, the term CBRNe (e for explosives) is also used. CBRN defense consists of CBRN passive protection, contamination avoidance and CBRN mitigation. CBRN weapons or agents are often referred to as weapons of mass destruction (WMD). However, this is not entirely correct. Although CBRNe agents often cause mass destruction, this is not necessarily the case. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents may cause a limited number of casualties, but a large terrorizing and disruption of society. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents, intended to cause terror instead of mass casualties, is therefore often referred to as weapons of mass disruption.* [2]
Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) disposal technicians taking part in a training exercise
the new millennium, the term CBRNe was introduced as an extension of CBRN - the e in this term representing the enhanced (improvised) explosives threat.* [4] Leaders and members of the Chemical Corps also use CBRN as “Could Be Right Now”.* [5]
In Spanish the term NRBQ (Nuclear, Radiológico, BacteA CBRN incident differs from a hazardous material in- riológico y Químico) has replaced NBQ. cident in both scope (i.e., CBRNe can be a mass casualty situation) and intent. CBRN incidents are responded to under the assumption that they are intentional and mali16.2 By country or region cious; evidence preservation and perpetrator apprehension are of greater concern than with HAZMAT inci16.2.1 Canada dents. A 2011 forecast concluded that worldwide government The term CBRN is in common use in disaster and spending on CBRN defence products and services would emergency services organizations across the country.* [6] * reach US$8.38bn that year. [3] Since July 2005, the Canadian Forces also started using the term CBRN Defence, instead of NBC Defence, due to the increased threat of dirty bomb use (which is radiological in nature). CBRNe is a new term that is being used 16.1 Etymology in both civilian and military organisations. The Canadian In English the term CBRN is a replacement for the cold Joint Incident Response Unit is a Canadian Forces unit, war term NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical), which under the direction of the Canadian Special Operations had replaced the term ABC (atomic, biological, and Forces Command, charged with supporting “the Govchemical) that was used in the fifties. The addition of the ernment of Canada in order to prevent, control and mitR (for radiological) is a consequence of the“new”threat igate CBRN threats to Canada, Canadians and Canadian of a radiological weapon (also known as“dirty bombs”), interests.” in addition to end the joke among members of the Chem- At the provincial level, cities are provided opportunities ical Corps which called “NBC as NoBody Cares”. In for their emergency services with CBRN training. In On114
16.2. BY COUNTRY OR REGION
115
tario, emergency services in Windsor, Ontario; Ottawa, Ontario; Peterborough, Ontario; and Toronto (Toronto Fire Services, Toronto Police Service, Toronto EMS, and Heavy Urban Search and Rescue) have obtained CBRN standing at NFPA Standard 472 Awareness Level 3.* [7]
Army has 10,000 protective suits, enough for all its personnel.* [12] Other emergency services also have limited CBRN expertise, such as the Health Service Executive (HSE) and Dublin Fire Brigade (DFB).
The Ontario Provincial Police's UCRT (Urban Search & Rescue / CBRNe Response Team) is a specialized team responsible for CBRNe incident response for the province of Ontario. The team was formed in 2002 and was called the Provincial Emergency Response Team (PERT) until 2010, when the name was changed to UCRT. They changed from Provincial Emergency Response Team to UCRT due to the elimination of Tactical and concentrating on USAR and CBRN and explosive disposal. Under the direction of specialist Staff Sergeant Jim Bock, UCRT became the Provinces elite response to anti terrorism.
16.2.6 Malaysia
16.2.2
Hong Kong
The Malaysian Army formed a CBRN unit, Peperangan Nuklear, Biologi dan Kimia 3 Divisyen (English: Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Warfare Division 3; PNBK 3D) in April 2002.* [13] The Royal Malaysia Police has CBRN providers. The Pasukan Gerakan Khas (PGK) has two special operations detachments with HAZMAT expertise - 69 Commandos and Special Actions Unit. The Federal Reserve Unit (FRU) also has a CBRN unit. Both PGK and FRU teams handle CBRN calls, before an army PNBK unit responds.* [14]
Hong Kong has had CBRN response capabilities since the early 1990s and advanced training from 1998.* [8] Hong 16.2.7 Spain Kong Fire Services HAZMAT and Hong Kong Police EOD teams handle CBRN calls, with the latter dealing The Spanish Army 1st CBRN Regiment 'Valencia' was with explosive devices.* [8] formed in March 2005.Training in the defence against CBRN agents as part of combat support is the main aim of exercise 'Grifo' (Griffin) – the most important of this 16.2.3 India type that the Army undertakes. The National Police and the Spanish Civil Guard have their own CBRN units. The The Indian Army ordered 16 CBRN monitoring vehi- Military Emergencies Unit and emergency services have cles, of which the first 8 were inducted in December CBRN training.* [15] * [16] 2010. It was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Ordnance Factories Board.* [9] 16.2.8 United Kingdom
16.2.4
Argentina
The Argentine Armed Forces has several CRBN response teams. The Batallón de Ingenieros QBN 601 of the Argentine Army, was the first CRBN response team created, in the 1990s, as a part of the country's Rapid Deployment Force. Civil defense, and firemen from Policía Federal Argentina teams also have CRBN training.
16.2.5
Ireland
The Irish national police force, the Garda Síochána, has a number of nationwide CBRN response teams. The teams are based regionally (in six regions; Dublin, Eastern, Northern, Southern, South-Eastern & Western) and began operating from 2004 with 100 trained officers.* [10] They are trained by the Garda Tactical Training Unit, and supported nationally by the Emergency Response Unit (ERU).* [11] In addition, the Irish Defence Forces has CBRNe training and equipment capabilities - in particular the Engineer Corps and Army Ranger Wing (ARW) - and will aid the civil authority if requested. The Irish
CBRN is also used by the UK Home Office as a civil designation.* [17] Police, fire and ambulance services in the UK must all have some level of CBRN providers. Within the ambulance service this is performed by the Hazardous Area Response Team (HART) and Special Operations Response Team (SORT). Since the introduction of new equipment to UK fire services under the New Dimension programme, CBRN decontamination of personnel (including members of the public) has become a task carried out by fire services in the UK and they regularly train for such scenarios.
16.2.9 United States The United States Army uses CBRN as an abbreviation for their Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Operations Specialists (MOS). The United States Army trains all US Army soldiers pursuing a career in CBRN at the United States Army CBRN School at Fort Leonard Wood. See also: Chemical Corps (United States Army)
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CHAPTER 16. CBRN DEFENSE
The USAF uses Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC 3E9X1) U.S. Air Force Emergency Management, who are also CBRN Specialists. The USAF trains all US Airmen pursuing a career in counter-CBRN operations at the USAF CBRN School at Fort Leonard Wood.
• HDT Global produces an air filtration system called ColPro Filtration that government forces can install in buildings, ships and vehicles to remove CBRN threats from the air.* [25]
The USMC uses CBRN as an abbreviation for two military occupational specialties. The Marine Corps runs a CBRN School to train Marine CBRN Defense Officers and Marine CBRN Defense Specialists at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. See also: Chemical Biological Incident Response Force (USMC CBIRF)
• MSA produces the Safe Escape CBRN Respirator, a hood that filters CBRN particles for use by personnel responding to a terrorist incident. * [26]
The USN requires all personnel to take a web-based CBRNE training annually to get a basic understanding of facts and procedures related to responding to a CBRNE incident.
16.2.10
The Russian Federation
In May 2012, BioPrepWatch reported that the Russian security service ordered over 100 “capsule cradles”, which are devices that people can use to protect infants or even small pets in the event of a nuclear, chemical, biological, or radiological threat. According to the article, Soviet military engineers invented the capsules in the 1960s. A company is currently producing the capsules in a factory in Russia.* [18]
16.3 CBRN Products Numbers vary, but news reports and market forecast reports place the market for CRBN products in 2013 and 2014 between $8.7-8.8 billion.* [19]* [20] The market for CBRN products is expected to grow to over $13 billion by the year 2023.* [19] CBRN manufacturers include Argon Electronics, Blucher GmbH, Bruker, FLIR Systems, HDT Global, MSA, Research International, and TSI. • Argon Electronics makes CBRN detection simulator called RADSIM 44-9-SIM that personnel can use in training exercises.* [21] • Blucher GmbH produces a two-piece CBRN protective suit called the SCDF CBRN Protective Suit that gives first responders 24-hour protection against environmental threats.* [22] • Bruker produces ion-mobility spectrometry technology for military and security personnel that separates, identifies and analyzes ionized molecules present in gas.* [23] • FLIR Systems produces several handheld detection equipment devices, each for chemical, radiation, biological and explosives detection.* [24]
• Research International creates a sensor system, called the ASAP V For Critical Infrastructure Protection, for subways and other public areas that uses multi-sensor surveillance technology that detects the presence of CBRN particles.* [27] • TSI makes technology called Bioaerosol Triggers that collect CBRN environmental samples for to identify and confirm threats.* [28]
16.4 See also • Poison gas in World War I • NBC suit • Biological and Chemical Defence Review Committee (Canada)
16.5 References [1] “CBN (chemical, biological, and nuclear) terrorism/warfare : a bibliography”. worldcat.org. Retrieved 11 April 2015. [2] Radiological weapons use by terrorists by ib consultancy [3] “THE CBRN DEFENCE MARKET 2011-2021”. visiongain. Retrieved 30 May 2011. [4] “CBRNe hosted buyer - IB Consultancy”. consultancy.eu. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
ib-
[5] GUIDON staff (6 March 2014). “Army CBRN School, Chemical Corps bids farewell to 27th Chief of Chemical” . army.mil. Retrieved 11 April 2015. [6] Calgary Health Region CBRN Training [7] [8] Hong Kongʼs Response to a Chemical, Biological, Radiological or Nuclear Attack (PDF), retrieved 2010-04-03 [9] “Indiaʼs first NBC recce vehicle launched in Pune”. dna. Retrieved 11 April 2015. [10] “Glimpse through the gates of hell”. Daily Mail (Ireland). 17 November 2006. Retrieved 4 May 2014. [11] Boyle, Darren. “Gardai get 'dirty bomb' protection”. 29 March 2007. The Mirror (UK). Retrieved 4 May 2014.
16.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
[12] “CBRNe World Convergence - All Hazards Response 2013, Dublin”. 16 April 2013. Department of Defence (Ireland). Retrieved 4 May 2014. [13] Bernama (April 2011).“PNBK 3D capable handling terrorist threats”. Penerangan. Retrieved 2011-05-11. [14] Thompson, Leroy (December 2008).“Malaysian Special Forces”. Special Weapons. Retrieved 2011-05-11. [15] 1st Regiment 'Valencia' Opens the ʻTapʼto CBRN Defence. Spanish Army. Retrieved 2011-12-01 [16] (Spanish) UMR, CBRN training. Spanish Defense. Retrieved 2011-12-01
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16.7 External links • CBRNePortal - The #1 CBRNe portal providing news, articles and media on CBRNe • NBC-Links.com - the internet's most comprehensive portal to CBRN-related information sources • NCT CBRNe Awards - the awards for the world's best CBRNe products • IB Consultancy NCT Events - NCT Events are the only worldwide CBRNe events CBRN Magazines
[17] UK Resilience - Emergencies - CBRN [18] Purlain, Ted (29 May 2013). “Russian security service orders VIP CBRN-proof baby cradles”. BioPrepWatch. Retrieved 6 June 2013. [19] Sievers, Lisa (3 March 2014).“SDI predicts CBRN market will surpass $13.69 billion by 2023”. BioPrepWatch (Chicago, Illinois). Retrieved 24 March 2014. [20] “CBRN Defence Market Forecast 2014-2024”. visiongain. London, U.K. 14 February 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [21] Cohen, Bryan (11 March 2014). “Argon launches new CBRN detection simulator”. BioPrepWatch (Chicago, Illinois). Retrieved 24 March 2014. [22]“SCDF CBRN PROTECTIVE SUIT”. Blucher. Erkrath, Germany. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [23] “Ion Mobility Spectrometry”. Bruker Corporation. Billerica, Massachusetts. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [24] “FLIR Detection & Protection”. FLIR Systems. Wilsonville, Oregon. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [25] “CBRN/ColPro Filtration”. HDT Global. Solon, Ohio. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [26] “Safe Escape CBRN Respirator”. MSA United States. Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [27] “CBRN Products”. Research International, Inc. Monroe, Washington. Retrieved 24 March 2014. [28] “Safety and Homeland Security (CBRN Defense)". TSI. Shoreview, Minnesota. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
16.6 Bibliography • John Eldridge, ed. (2006). Jane's Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defense 2006–2007 (19th ed.). Coulsdon, Surrey, UK; Alexandria, Va.: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-2763-7.
• CBNW - The best CBRN magazine • CBRNe World Magazine - The World's largest CBRNe magazine and information exchange Video links • Featured video of Singapore Army's Chemical, Biological and Radiological Defence Group on YouTube • NCT CBRNe Asia 2013: Malaysian Army Demonstration on YouTube
Chapter 17
Combat engineer This article is about soldiers who perform construction and demolition tasks in battle. For designing military structures and the logistics behind military tactics, see Military engineering. A combat engineer (also called field engineer,
Combat engineers inspect a Bailey bridge erected in Iraq
Mobile field-deployable bridge (EFA) of the engineers of the French Army
World War II recruiting poster for combat engineers created by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
pioneer or sapper in many armies) is a soldier specialist who performs a variety of construction and demolition tasks under combat conditions. The combat engineer's goals involve facilitating movement and support of friendly forces while impeding those of the enemy. Combat engineers build, repair and maintain buildings, roads and power supplies. They employ explosives for construction and demolition projects, and clear minefields using specialized vehicles. Such tasks typically include constructing and breaching trenches, tank traps and other fortifications, bunker construction,
Pontoon bridge built in World War II by the 291st Engineer Combat Battalion across the Rhine, downstream from the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen
bridge and road construction or destruction, laying or clearing land mines, and other physical work in the bat-
118
17.1. TERMINOLOGY
119 Usually, a combat engineer is also trained as an infantryman, and combat engineering units often have a secondary role fighting as infantry. There are no advanced academic qualifications required to be a combat engineer. The term “engineer”is not to be confused with the term applied to Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer.
17.1 Terminology
Combat Engineer depicted in the Vietnam Combat Artists Program
A general combat engineer is often called a pioneer or sapper, terms derived respectively from the French and British armies. In some armies, pioneer and sapper indicate specific military ranks and levels of combat engineers, who work under fire in all seasons, may be allocated to different corps, as they were in the former Soviet Army, or they may be organized in the same corps. Geomatics (surveying and cartography) is another area of military engineering but is often performed by the combat engineers of some nations and in other cases is a separate responsibility, as was formerly the case in the Australian Army. While the officers of a combat engineering unit may be professionally-certified civil or mechanical engineers, the non-commissioned members are generally not. • Sapper: • In the U.S., British, Indian, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand armies, is a soldier who has specialized combat engineer training. • In the Israeli Defence Forces, Sapper 06 ( פלס 06 ) is a military profession code denoting a combat engineer who has graduated from basic general engineering training. • In the Canadian Army, is a term for soldiers that have completed the basic Combat Engineer training.* [1] • In the Portuguese Army, a sapador de engenharia (engineering sapper) is a soldier of the engineering branch that has specialized combat engineer training. A sapador de infantaria (infantry sapper) is a soldier of the infantry branch that has a similar training and that usually serves in the combat support sapper platoon of an infantry battalion. • Pioneer:
French Foreign Legion sappers in ceremonial dress
tlefield.
• In the Finnish army, pioneeri is the private equivalent rank in the army for a soldier who has completed the basic combat engineering training. Naval engineers retain the rank matruusi but bear the pioneeri insignia on their sleeves.
120
CHAPTER 17. COMBAT ENGINEER • The German Bundeswehr uses the term “Pionier”for their combat engineers and other specialized units, who are associated with Special Forces to clear obstacles and perform engineering duties. Also the combat engineers in the Austro-Hungarien k.u.k. Forces were called “Pioniere”.
• Assault pioneer: • In the British, Canadian and Australian armies, an assault pioneer is an infantry soldier with some limited combat engineer training in clearing obstacles during assaults and light engineering duties. Until recently, assault pioneers were responsible for the operation of flamethrowers. • Field engineer: • is a term used (or formerly used) in many Commonwealth armies. In modern usage, it is often synonymous with “combat engineer” . However, the term originally identified those military engineers who supported an army operating in the field as opposed to garrison engineers who built and supported permanent fix bases. In its original usage, “field engineering”would have been inclusive of but broader than “combat engineering.” • Miner • Pontonier
17.2 Practices and techniques Combat engineers are force multipliers and enhance the survival of other troops through the use and practice of camouflage, reconnaissance, communications and other services. These include the construction of roads, bridges, field fortifications, obstacles and the construction and running of water points . In these roles, combat engineers use a wide variety of hand and power tools. They are also responsible for construction rigging, the use of explosives, and the carrying out of demolitions, obstacle clearance, and obstacle construction, assault of fortifications, use of assault boats in water obstacle crossings, helipad construction, general construction, route reconnaissance and road reconnaissance, and erecting communication installations. Combat engineers build and run water distribution points, carrying out water filtration, and NBC decontamination when necessary, and storage prior to distribution. All these role activities and technologies are divided into several areas of combat engineering: Mobility
Improving the ability of one's own force to move around the battlefield. Combat engineers typically support this role through reduction of enemy obstacles which include point and row minefields, anti-tank ditches, wire obstacles, concrete and metal anti-vehicle barriers, and Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) and wall and door breaching in urban terrain. Mechanized combat engineer units also have armored vehicles capable of laying short bridges for limited gap-crossing. • Clearing terrain obstacles • Overcoming trenches and ditches • Opening routes for armored fighting vehicles • Constructing roads and bridges • Route clearance Countermobility Building obstacles to prevent the enemy from moving around the battlefield. Destroying bridges, blocking roads, creating airstrips, digging trenches, etc. Can also include planting land mines and anti-handling devices when authorized and directed to do so. When the defender must retreat it is often desirable to destroy anything that may be of use to the enemy, particularly bridges, as their destruction can slow the advance of the attackers. The retreating forces may also leave booby traps for enemy soldiers, even though these often wreak their havoc upon non-combatant civilians. • Planting land mines • Digging trenches and ditches • Demolishing roads and bridges Explosive material handling The placement of land mines to create minefields and their maintenance and removal. • Clearing fields of land mines • Demolition Assault • Opening routes during assault • Demolishing enemy structures (using bulldozers or explosive charges). Defense structures
17.3. EQUIPMENT AND VEHICLES
121
Building structures which enable one's own soldiers to tools (shovels, posthole diggers, picks, and mattocks); survive on the battlefield. Examples include trenches, portable power tools and trailer-mounted tools (electric bunkers, shelters, and armored vehicle fighting positions. tool trailer and generator, portable power tools); miscelDefensive fortifications are designed to prevent intrusion laneous tools. into the inner works by infantry. For minor defensive loVehicles cations these may only consist of simple walls and ditches. The design principle is to slow down the advance of attackers to where they can be destroyed by defenders from sheltered positions. Most large fortifications are not a single structure but rather a concentric series of fortifications of increasing strength. • Building fortifications • Building outposts • Building fences • Defense against NBC weapon threats Armored front loader
17.3 Equipment and vehicles Combat engineers employ a wide range of transportation vehicles and equipment, and uses weapons unique to the engineers, including those used in land mine warfare. Equipment used by Combat Engineers
German Army combat engineer vehicle Dachs
IED detonator in Iraq
Basic combat engineering tools include safe use of: driving tools and chopping tools (hammers, mauls, sledges, screwdriver, and bits); cutting tools and smoothing tools (saws, chisels, planes, files and rasps, brush-cutting tools, miscellaneous cutting tools); drilling tools, boring tools, and countersinking tools; measuring tools, leveling tools and layout tools (rules, tapes, marking tools, levels, plumb bobs, squares); gripping tools, prying tools and twisting tools (pliers, wrenches, bars); holding tools, raising tools and grinding tools (vises, clamps, jacks, grinders, and oilstones); timber handling tools and climbing tools; digging
This EBG combat engineering vehicle is used by the engineers of the French Army for a variety of missions
Main article: Military engineering vehicles Obstacle breaching For obstacle breaching, including minefields, the combat engineers use a variety of vehicles, explosive devices and plastic explosives including:
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• Minefield breaching devices • Dozer blade • Mine rollers • Bangalore torpedo • Antipersonnel Obstacle Breaching System • Mine-clearing line charge (MICLIC) • Bomb disposal robots • Explosives, mines and bombs • Field-deployable bridges, for example, French EFA* [2] and Bailey bridge.
17.5 Historical Publications The Basic Field Manual, Engineer Soldier's Handbook, 2 June 1943 (FM 21-105) was written to provide guidance to a new combat engineer.* [4]
17.6 See also • List of combat engineering corps • 17th Armored Engineer Battalion
17.7 Notes [1] “Sapeur / Sapeuse de combat”. Forces.Ca. Retrieved 2013-01-20.
17.4 Combat Engineering Corps
[2] French EFA [3] “Explosive Ordnance Clearance Agent” (PDF). US Army. [4] Engineer soldier's handbook
17.8 External links • German Engineers
Buffalo MRAP, a common vehicle used to interrogate IED's by combat engineer units.
Combat engineers are a key role in all armed forces of the world, and invariably found either closely integrated into the force structure, or even into the combat units of the national troops. In many countries, combat engineers are members of broader military engineering corps or branches. However, some nations have distinct combat engineering corps or branches which are separate from other types of military engineers. The Danish military engineering corps is almost entirely organized into one regiment of combat engineers, simply ( Engineering Regiment” named Ingeniørregimentet“The ). During the US war in Afghanistan and the 20032011 Iraq War the US Army tasked its combat engineers with Route clearance missions designed to counter rising threats of IEDs. To increase the effectiveness of these units EOD and mechanic teams are typically embedded with the combat engineer platoon. Due to rising IED threats US Army requires its combat engineers rank specialist or higher to complete Explosive Ordnance Clearance Agent training to familiarize themselves with types of unexploded ordnance.* [3]
Chapter 18
Designated marksman rifle A designated marksman rifle (DMR) is the weapon used by soldiers in the designated marksman (DM) role. The DM's role fills the gap between a regular infantryman and a sniper (typically being deployed at ranges of 250– 500 metres or 270–550 yards) and DMRs have been developed with this middle ground in mind. These rifles have to be effective, in terms of accuracy and terminal ballistics, at ranges exceeding those of ordinary assault rifles and battle rifles (typically 250 m or 270 yd or less, and up to 500 m or 550 yd, respectively) but do not require the extended range of a dedicated sniper rifle (typically employed for targets at ranges from 500–2,000 m or 550–2,190 yd). DMRs, however, often share some basic characteristics with sniper rifles in difference to the weapons carried by others in the DMs unit. DMRs may have an attached telescopic sight, quickly deployed stabilizing bipod to allow optimized accuracy and low-recoil in temporarily fixed situations or an adjustable stock. They will, though, generally retain semi-automatic firing capability (more rapid than bolt-action sniper rifles) and a larger magazine capacity of 10, 20, or 30 rounds depending on the firearm in question. Designated marksman with an SR-25
18.1 Compared to sniper rifles, battle rifles, and assault rifles
18.1.1 Sights All designated marksman rifles will have some type of optical sight with a higher magnification level than the standard issue rifle. For example, the SDM-R issued to the United States Army is fitted with a Trijicon 4x ACOG, while the standard-issue M4 carbine is equipped with an unmagnified Aimpoint CompM2 or CompM4. Sometimes, the sighting system will be the only difference between the standard rifle and the designated marksman rifle, as is the case with the F88S DMR issued to the Australian Army.
Most designated marksman rifles are based on an assault rifle that is currently issued by a nation's military, or on a battle rifle that was formerly issued. A battle rifle is a semi-automatic or full-automatic rifle that fires 7.62mm NATO or similar full-power rounds. Classic examples include the M14, FN FAL, AR-10 and Heckler & Koch G3. These rifles were largely replaced by assault rifles firing the 5.56mm NATO cartridge during the 1970s and Sniper rifles often have even greater magnification than 1980s. designated marksman rifles, for example, the M110 Some nations have also built rifles that were designed for SASS used by the United States Army, is equipped with a the designated marksman from the ground up. Leupold 3.5-10x variable-power scope. However, some 123
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CHAPTER 18. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLE • AR-15 based
designated marksman rifles, such as the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle or the USMC Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle are fitted with scopes with similar magnification.
18.1.2
Barrels
In some cases, the designated marksman rifle will have a longer barrel than the standard issued rifle. However, this is not universally true. In fact, the M16A4 rifle is still standard issue to the United States Marine Corps. The barrel on the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle, the current rifle used by the squad designated marksman in the USMC, is only 18 inches long - two inches shorter than the barrel on the standard rifle. Also, some rifles, such as the F88S Austeyr, have a barrel that is the same length as the standard service rifle. The FD-200 has an accurised barrel, also found on designated marksman rifles. Most sniper rifles, such as the Accuracy International Arctic Warfare have a barrel with a length of 24 inches or greater. Only the SVD and similar designated marksman rifles have a barrel of this length. The designated marksman rifles based on the M14 have barrels 18-22 inches long.
18.1.3
• SR-25; 7.62mm NATO sniper rifle is often used to provide fire support.* [2]* [3] • HK417; 7.62mm NATO gas-piston battle rifle,* [4] interim F88S replacement for Afghanistan deployments.
Ammunition
• Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle; 7.62mm NATO rifle is in limited service.* [5] • •
Austria: The Steyr AUG HBAR-T, is a longer heavier-barreled version of the Steyr AUG designed for use as a designated marksman rifle that can be fitted with a variety of optical sights.
•
Canada: The Canadian Forces issue the C7CT and C8CT designated marksman rifles, which are based on the C7 and C8 rifle. * [6] They also use the AR-10T.
•
Chile: The FD-200 is a variant of the SIG 542 with an accurised barrel, sniper stock and bipod.
•
France: The FAMAS G2 Sniper is a designated marksman rifle fielded by the French Army. It is based on the FAMAS G2.* [7]
•
• The German Army uses the G3A3ZF-DMR, a modified version of the Heckler & Koch G3 battle rifle, as a designated marksman rifle and recently introduced the G28 .
In most cases, a designated marksman rifle will share the ammunition used by standard issue rifles. In the U.S. military, designated marksman rifles chambered for 5.56mm NATO have available the 77 grain match-grade Mk 262 Mod 0/1 cartridge that enhances range to roughly 700 meters. DM rifles may be issued with standard ball ammunition, or special match-grade loads, such as 7.62mm NATO 'M118LR' sniper round in the U.S. military.
18.1.4
• The Heckler & Koch HK417 is chambered for 7.62mm NATO and has been adopted by several nations for use as a designated marksman rifle.* [8]* [9]* [10] •
• Hungary manufactures the bull-pup designed Szép sniper rifle chambered for 7.62x51 mm NATO.
All designated marksman rifles in use today use a semiautomatic action, with some also being able to fire in fullautomatic mode.
• Hungarian Special Forces uses also the M24 Sniper Weapon System. * [12]
Some sniper rifles are semi-automatic, though the vast majority are bolt-action.
•
Australia • F88S Austeyr 5.56 NATO standard issue rifle, fitted with an enhanced optic is issued to one rifleman in each fireteam in the Australian Army.* [1]
Hungary • The SVD is the main designated marksman rifle for the Hungarian Armed Forces.* [11]
Action
18.2 Designated marksman rifles in service by nation
Germany
• Hungarian Armed Forces designed the antimaterial sniper weapons family called Gepárd. •
India • The SVD is the designated DMR for the Indian Army. Different variants of the INSAS family of weapons modified with scopes and other tactical upgrades are used as DMR's as well. • The IMI Tavor TAR-21 and the IMI Galil chambered for the 7.62 NATO round are issued to units of the Special Forces of India as a Designated Marksman Rifle.
18.2. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLES IN SERVICE BY NATION
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•
Indonesia: The Pindad SS2-V4 is a designated marksman rifle said to be used by the Indonesian special forces. It is based on the Pindad SS2, with a lengthened barrel and a telescopic scope mounted on a Picatinny rail.
• Accurised former standard service South African Defence Force R1 rifles are used by the South African Army as designated marksman rifles. Being phased out in favour of the new R4 DMR modified rifle being introduced at section level.* [15]
•
Iraq: The Tabuk is an adaptation of the RPK machine gun used as a designated marksman rifle by the Iraqi Army. It is chambered for 7.62x39mm
• Scoped and accurised Vektor R4 rifles are used as designated marksman rifles by soldiers of the South African Army.* [16]
•
Israel • The Israel Defense Forces formerly used the Galatz as a designated marksman rifle. The Galatz is a variant of the Galil assault rifle chambered for 7.62mm NATO. • The M4A1 is used as a marksman rifle, equipped with Harris bipod and Trijicon ACOG telescopic sights.
•
• The Swiss Armed Forces use the standard issue SIG SG 550 with a Kern 4x24 telescopic sight as a marksman rifle.* [17] •
Japan: The Howa Type 64 as a marksman rifle.
•
Norway: HK417; 7.62mm NATO gas-piston battle rifle.* [14]
•
People's Republic of China: The QBU-88 is a designated marksman rifle intended for aimed semiautomatic fire at ranges beyond the capabilities of standard infantry assault rifles.
•
Philippines: The Philippine Marine Scout Snipers developed and use the Marine Scout Sniper Rifle, a derivative of the M16 rifle. The Philippine Army uses the SR-25 as marksman rifle.
•
Portugal: The Portuguese Army uses the Heckler & Koch G3 as a marksman rifle.
•
Romania: The PSL (rifle) is a purposebuilt designated marksman rifle chambered for 7.62x54mmR based on a modified Kalashnikov action. It is similar in appearance to the SVD, though the two rifles share little in common.
•
Russia • The SVD was the first rifle designed from the outset as what is now known as a designated marksman rifle. • The Dragunov SVU is a bullpup variant of the SVD rifle
•
South Africa
United Kingdom • L129A1; a 7.62 NATO, 16 in (410 mm) barrel variant of the Stoner rifle developed by Lewis Machine and Tool Company has been procured for use in Afghanistan. A 6x power ACOG is the standard issue sight.
• The STAR-21 Tavor is a variant of the Tavor assault rifle used as a designated marksman rifle by the Israeli Defense Forces. It is fitted with a picatinny rail that allows for the attachment of various optical sights (typically an ACOG scope) and a bipod.* [13] •
Switzerland
• The L86A2 LSW is chambered for 5.56 mm NATO was originally fielded as a section LMG, but was later re-purposed as a designated marksman rifle. •
United States • The M14 rifle has formed the basis of several designated marksman rifles used by the United States Military: • Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rifle: Used by the United States Army and Navy SEALs* [18] • M14SE Crazy Horse: Used by the 101st Airborne Division and the 2nd Infantry Division of the US Army.* [19] • M39 Enhanced Marksman Rifle: Used by the United States Marine Corps, replacing the United States Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle* [20] • The M16 rifle has formed the basis of several designated marksman rifles used by the United States Military: • SDM-R: Used by the United States Army in limited numbers • SAM-R: Used by the United States Marine Corps. Replaced by the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle • Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle: Used by the United States Navy SEALs, Rangers. Replacing the SAM-R in United States Marine Corps service.* [21]* [22] • SR-25: Used by the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy SEALs, and the United States Army.
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CHAPTER 18. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN RIFLE • Colt Model 655 and 656: Never standardized. Predecessor to other M16-based designated marksman rifles.
•
•
Yugoslavia: The Zastava M76 is a designated marksman rifle based on a modified Kalashnikov action. It is chambered for 7.92 x 57 IS (8mm Mauser). It has also been chambered in 7.62×51 NATO and 7.62 × 54R.
[14] http://forsvaret.no/om-forsvaret/utstyrsfakta/vapen/ Sider/hk417.aspx [15] Engelbrecht, Leon. “Fact file: R1 battle rifle”. defenceweb.co.za. defenceweb. Retrieved 24 August 2014. [16] Engelbrecht, Leon. “R6.2 million for R4”. defenceweb.co.za. DefenceWeb. Retrieved 24 August 2014. [17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_SG_550#Sights
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: The Zastava [18] https://peosoldier.army.mil/newpeo/Equipment/Temp. asp?id=IW_M14 M91 is a purpose-built designated marksman rifle based on a modified Kalashnikov action and cham- [19] Kokalis, Peter (2005). “M14 reborn: Crazy Horse and bered for 7.62x54mmR. the Romanian Option”. Shotgun News 50 (12): 20–22, 24, 26.
• PSL (left) and SVD (right) rifles in Iraqi service. • U.S. Marine firing the M14 DMR • US Marine manning a Mk 12 Mod 1 Special Purpose Rifle whilst others pinpoint targets.
[20] http://www.americanspecialops.com/ special-ops-weapons/m39-emr.php [21] http://www.fbodaily.com/archive/2008/08-August/ 03-Aug-2008/FBO-01629550.htm [22] Bryant and Bryant, Weapons of the US Army Rangers. Copyright 2005, Zenith Press.
18.3 References [1] Muir, Tom (1 February 2010). “Land Force: Army's broad fire capabilities key to mission success | ADM Feb 2010”. Australian Defence Magazine. Retrieved 9 June 2011. [2] Wellfare, John (2011-04-14). “Shooting for modern combat”. Army News (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2011.
18.4 See also • Assault rifle • Battle rifle • Sniper rifle
[3] Pratt, Anthony.“COMBAT SHOOTING, A NEW PERSPECTIVE”. Australian Army Journal. [4] “Contract Notice View - CN352591”. AusTender. Australian Government. 14 December 2010. Retrieved 2011-01-30. [5] Hetherington, Andrew (3 February 2011). “Extreme Peril”. Army News (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2011. [6] http://coltcanada.com/ct-page.htm [7] http://www.pmulcahy.com/assault_rifles/french_ assault_rifles.htm [8] http://www.operacional.pt/ hk-417-calibre-762x51mm-nato/ [9] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pomD16sAV5s [10] http://www.mil.no/hv/start/article.jhtml?articleID= 140199K [11] http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#guid= 7712ecc946c9d0cea6d40c00c5c8878f43b1e2d3 [12] http://shadowspear.com/hungary-special-operations/ 34-berceseny-laszlo-kulonleges-muveleti-zaszloalj.html [13] http://www.israel-weapon.com/?catid= \protect\__xunadd_text_character: nN{\textbraceleft}{{}5BFF4796-19A2-422C-8C88-ADDC0BEA8DFA}
Chapter 19
Electronic warfare For warfare on the Internet, see Cyberwarfare. Electronic warfare (EW) is any action involving the use of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum.* [1] The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of, and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems, and can target humans, communications, radar, or other assets.* [2]
19.1 The electromagnetic environment Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the information environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment (EME). The recognized need for military forces to have unimpeded access to and use of the electromagnetic environment creates vulnerabilities and opportunities for electronic warfare (EW) in support of military operations.* [2] Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of information warfare; more specifically, it is an element of offensive and defensive counterinformation.* [3] NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW. A Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 (MCM_0142 Nov 2007 Military Committee Transformation Concept for Future NATO Electronic Warfare) recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME. NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy. ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures (ECM, EPM and ESM) has been retained as they contribute to
and support EA, ED and ES. Besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development.
19.1.1 Electronic warfare applications Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy (DE) to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet, and other less used portions of the EM spectrum. This includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a specialized tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict.* [3] The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum and ensure friendly unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support military operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection, and destruction.* [2] EW contributes to the success of information operations (IO) by using offensive and defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and exploit adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that spectrum. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations. All of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW.* [3] The principal EW activities have been developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Activities used in EW include: electro-optical, infrared and radio frequency countermeasures; EM compatibility and deception; communications jamming, radar jamming and anti-jamming; electronic masking, probing, reconnaissance, and intelligence; electronics security; EW reprogramming; emission control; spectrum management; and
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CHAPTER 19. ELECTRONIC WARFARE
wartime reserve modes.* [2]* [3]
19.2 Subdivisions
A right front view of a USAF Boeing E-4 advanced airborne command post (AABNCP) on the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) simulator (HAGII-C) for testing.
RAF Menwith Hill, a large ECHELON site in the United Kingdom, and part of the UK-USA Security Agreement
control (EMCON), and low observability or “stealth” .* [2]
An Electronic Warfare Self Protection (EWSP) is a suite Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions: of countermeasure systems fitted primarily to aircraft for electronic attack (EA), electronic protection (EP), and the purpose of protecting the aircraft from weapons fire and can include among others: DIRCM (protects against electronic warfare support (ES).* [2] IR missiles), Infrared countermeasures (protects against IR missiles), Chaff (protects against RADAR guided mis19.2.1 Electronic attack (EA) siles), DRFM Decoys (Protects against Radar guided missiles), Flare (protects against IR missiles). Electronic attack (EA) involves the use of EM energy, diAn Electronic Warfare Tactics Range (EWTR) is a pracrected energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack persontice range which provides for the training of aircrew in nel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading, electronic warfare. There are two such ranges in Europe; neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability. In one at RAF Spadeadam in the United Kingdom and the the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamPOLYGON range in Germany and France. EWTRs are ming and can be performed on communications systems equipped with ground-based equipment to simulate elec(see Radio jamming) or radar systems (see Radar jamtronic warfare threats that aircrew might encounter on ming and deception). missions.
19.2.2
Electronic Protection (EP)
Main article: Electronic counter-countermeasures
Antifragile EW is a step beyond standard EP, occurring when a communications link being jammed actually increases in capability as a result of a jamming attack, although this is only possible under certain circumstances such as reactive forms of jamming. * [4]
Electronic Protection (EP) (previously known as electronic protective measures (EPM) or electronic counter countermeasures (ECCM)) involves actions taken to pro- 19.2.3 Electronic warfare support (ES) tect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic spectrum Main article: Electronic warfare support measures that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure. Electronic Warfare Support (ES), is the subdivision of The use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing EW involving actions tasked by, or under direct conmissile to counter an adversaryʼs use of flares is EP. trol of, an operational commander to search for, interWhile defensive EA actions and EP both protect person- cept, identify, and locate or localize sources of intennel, facilities, capabilities, and equipment, EP protects tional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic (EM) from the effects of EA (friendly and/or adversary). Other energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition, examples of EP include spread spectrum technologies, targeting, planning, and conduct of future operations.* [2] use of Joint Restricted Frequency List (JRFL), emissions These measures begin with systems designed and opera-
19.4. FURTHER READING tors trained to make Electronic Intercepts (ELINT) and then classification and analysis broadly known as Signals intelligence from such detections to return information and perhaps actionable intelligence (e.g. a ship's identification from unique characteristics of a specific radar) to the commander.
129 • Battle of Latakia: the first use of deception EW in a naval battle • Battle of the Beams • No. 100 Group RAF
The overlapping discipline, signals intelligence (SIG• 36th Bombardment Squadron INT) is the related process of analyzing and identifying the intercepted frequencies (e.g. as a mobile phone or radar). SIGINT is broken into three categories: ELINT, US specific: COMINT, and FISINT. the parameters of intercepted txn are-: communication equipment-: freq, bandwidth, • Association of Old Crows modulation, polarisation etc. The distinction between intelligence and electronic warfare support (ES) is deter• Electronic Warfare Officer mined by who tasks or controls the collection assets, what they are tasked to provide, and for what purpose they • Fleet Electronic Warfare Center are tasked. Electronic warfare support is achieved by assets tasked or controlled by an operational commander. • Joint Functional Component Command for NetThe purpose of ES tasking is immediate threat recogwork Warfare nition, targeting, planning and conduct of future opera• U.S. Marine Corps Radio Reconnaissance tions, and other tactical actions such as threat avoidance and homing. However, the same assets and resources that • Historical Electronics Museum are tasked with ES can simultaneously collect intelligence that meets other collection requirements.* [2] • USACEWP (United States Army Computer NetWhere these activities are under the control of an operwork Operations-Electronic Warfare Proponents) ational commander and being applied for the purpose of situational awareness, threat recognition, or EM target• Cyber Operations ing, they also serve the purpose of Electronic Warfare surveillance (ES).
19.4 Further reading 19.3 See also • Directed-energy weapon • Electromagnetic pulse • Electromagnetic interference • Electronic harassment • Electronic warfare support measures • Radar jamming and deception • Radio jamming Electronic Warfare Systems:
• FM 3-36: Electronic Warfare In Operations. Safeguarding Soldiers Through Technology. Fort Leavenworth, U.S. Army Combined Arms Center (CAC), 26 February 2009 – PDF, 114 p., 4,5 MB. – See also: John Milburn: Army manual raises emphasis on electronic warfare. Washington Post, 26 February 2009. • Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001 • David Adamy EW 101: A First Course in Electronic Warfare • David Adamy EW 102: A Second Course in Electronic Warfare
• Chaff
• Joint Publication 3-13.1: Electronic Warfare* [2]
• Digital Radio Frequency Memory (DRFM)
• Aadu Jogiaas: Disturbing soviet transmissions in August 1991.
• Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) • Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) Historic:
• Words: MATT BOLTON Photographs: MATT MUNRO The Tallinn Cables, A GLIMPSE INTO TALLINNʼS SECRET HISTORY OF ESPIONAGE Lonely Planet Magazine, December 2011
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19.5 References [1] Tembarai Krishnamachari, Rajesh. “Dawn of the Ebomb: High-power microwave technology and military implications for India”, South Asia Analysis Group, Paper 1089, May 2004. [2] “Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare” (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) - Armed Forces of the United States of America. 25 January 2007. pp. i, v – x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This publication provides...doctrine for electronic warfare planning, preparation, execution, and assessment in support of joint operations across the range of military operations. [3] “Electronic Warfare; Air Force Doctrine Document 2-5.1” (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Secretary of the Air Force. 5 November 2002. pp. i, v – x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This AFDD establishes operational doctrine for United States Air Force EW operations. This doctrine provides guidance for planning and conducting electronic warfare operations in support of national and joint force commander (JFC) campaign objectives. [4] Lichtman, Marc (2014). “Antifragile Electronic Warfare”. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.5429. Retrieved September 29, 2014.
• This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Air Force. • This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government.
19.6 General references • The Changing Capability of Manpack Electronic Warfare Systems • Carlo Kopp "Electronic Warfare in Operation Desert Storm", Australian Aviation, June/July/August, 1993 • Association of Old Crows • Electronic Warfare Jamming Systems • Information Warfare, Information Operations and Electronic Attack on APA • Electronic Warfare Products • Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare; PDF674k (text version) • Air Force Instruction on Electronic Warfare (EW) Operations PDF
CHAPTER 19. ELECTRONIC WARFARE
Chapter 20
Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles The Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) is Long-Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) type version.* [3] a series of vehicles, based on a common chassis, that vary by payload and mission requirements. FMTV vehicles were manufactured by Stewart and Stevenson (1996- 20.1 Variants 2006) and then Armor Holdings (2006-2007) and then BAE Systems Land and Armaments until 2011 when Oshkosh Corporation began producing the fleet. The 20.1.1 Trucks FMTV were derived from the Austrian military truck • M1078 standard cargo truck Steyr 12M18. The 4x4 Light Medium Tactical Vehicle (LMTV) has a 2.5-ton capacity (cargo and van mod• M1079 shop van configuration els) while the 6x6 Medium Tactical Vehicle (MTV) has a 5-ton capacity (cargo and long-wheelbase cargo with • M1081 standard cargo LVAD, 2.5 ton capacity, airand without material handling equipment, tractor, van, droppable wrecker, and dump truck models). Three truck variants and two companion trailers, with the same cube and pay• M1083 standard cargo truck, 5 ton payload load capacity as their prime movers, provide air drop ca• M1084 standard cargo truck, 5 ton payload, with pability. M1078s have been deployed to Iraq with armateriel handling equipment mored cabs with roof gun mounts with shields, similar to those fitted on High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled • M1085 Long Wheel Base (LWB) truck (extended Vehicles (HMMWV) and M113s. Beginning in October cargo bed) 2010, Oshkosh Corporation commenced production on their newly awarded “re-buy”contract. The last truck • M1086 Long Wheel Base (LWB) truck with mabuilt under the S023 contract in TX was produced by teriel handling equipment BAE in June 2011. • M1087 Expansible Van The cab-over FMTV replaces the 2.5 ton and 5 ton M35 and M939 series of trucks and performs local and line • M1088 tractor truck haul, unit mobility, unit resupply, and other missions in combat, combat support and combat service support • M1089 wrecker units. It is rapidly deployable worldwide and operates on primary and secondary roads, trails, and cross-country • M1090 dump truck terrain, in all climatic conditions. Commonality of parts • M1093 Standard Cargo Truck, LVAD, 5 ton capacacross truck chassis variants significantly reduces the loity, air-droppable gistics burden and operating and support costs. New vehicle applications are being developed to meet new re• M1094 dump truck, LVAD, air-droppable quirements. • XM140 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System The FMTV A1 series includes a 1999 Environmental Protection Agency–certified engine, upgraded transmission, electronic data bus, an anti-lock brake system and 20.1.2 Trailers interactive electronic technical manuals. The FMTV shares its drivetrain with the Caiman MRAP vehicle.* [2] All vehicles are equipped with the Central Tire Inflation System. The FMTV are being supplemented with the improved
131
• M1082 LMTV Trailer, single axle, 5000 lb payload • XM1091 fuel/water tanker, 1500 gallons • M1095 MTV Trailer, dual axle, 10,000 lb payload
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20.1.3
CHAPTER 20. FAMILY OF MEDIUM TACTICAL VEHICLES
FMTV dimensions
On December 14, the U.S. Government Accountability Office upheld the protests, but on February 12 the United Note that these weights are for the versions with armored States Army again awarded the contract to Oshkosh Decabs. fense.* [5]* [6]
20.2 Model gallery • M1082 trailer • M1083 5-ton • M1084 with MHE • M1085 Long Wheel Base • M1086 Long Wheel Base with MHE • M1087 Expansible van • M1088 Tractor • M1089 Wrecker
20.6 Further sales On 11 May 2010, Oshkosh reported a trucks and trailers delivery order from the U.S. Army valued at more than $410 million for the production and delivery between March and December 2011 of 2,634 FMTV trucks and 404 trailers. There were several subsequent orders in 2010, the largest being an order for 2060 FMTVs in September 2010.* [7] On August 20, 2012, Oshkosh announced it had delivered the 10,000th FMTV truck.* [8]
20.7 Operators
• M1090 Dump Truck
•
United States
• M1093 LVAD
•
Thailand
• M1095 trailer
•
Iraq
•
Jordan
20.3 Gallery • Armored cabin of the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System • M142 high-mobility artillery rocket system (HIMARS) launcher • New York National Guard LMTV with armored cab • Romanian and US military conduct an operation in Afghanistan
20.4 Statistics 20.5 2009 procurement and protest On February 27, 2009, the United States Army Tank Automotive and Armaments Command issued a solicitation for the upcoming round of FMTV procurement. BAE, Oshkosh Defense (a division of Oshkosh Corporation), and Navistar submitted proposals by the May 27 closing date. Oshkosh Defense won the award on August 26, 2009. Navistar and BAE were debriefed on September 2 and 3, respectively, after which time both companies protested the award.
20.8 See also • M939 Truck • M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck Previous cargo truck • M809 series trucks • Navistar 7000 series - based on Workstar chassis • Faulty brake issue found not to be fraud against USG
20.9 References [1] Ware, Pat (2010). The World Encyclopedia of Military Vehicles. Lorenz Books. p. 244. ISBN 0-7548-2052-1. [2] prnewswire : Armor Holdings, Inc. Receives $518 Million MRAP Award [3] Long-Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) [4] “Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles”. Oshkosh Corp. 2010. Retrieved 7 Dec 2014. [5] GAO Decision on Protest [6] “News Release: Army Makes FMTV Competitive Rebuy Contract Award Decision”. Defense.gov. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
20.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
[7] “FMTV 2010–2015: Oshkosh Wins The Re-Compete” . Retrieved 2010-09-13. [8] http://oshkoshdefense.com/news/413/ oshkosh-defense-delivers-10000-fmtvs-to-the-us-army-in-less-than-two-years
20.10 External links • Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) fact file • Global Security's description • FMTV Technical Manuals FMTV Technical Library
133
Chapter 21
Firearm This article is about the projectile weapon. For the firearm as a tool, see Firearm (tool). For other uses, see Firearm (disambiguation). A firearm is a portable gun, being a barreled weapon
ing either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols is generally limited to 50 metres (55 yd), while most rifles are accurate to 500 metres (550 yd) using iron sights, or longer ranges using optical sights. (Firearm rounds may be dangerous or lethal well beyond their accurate range; minimum distance for safety is much greater than specified range.) Some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,000 metres (2,200 yd). A successful sniper attack has been made from slightly more than 1.75 mi (2.82 km).
21.1 Types of firearms 21.1.1 Configuration Handguns
US Navy sailor shoots a firearm at a target.
that launches one or more projectiles often driven by the Main article: Handgun action of an explosive force.* [1]* [2]* [3] The first primi- The smallest of all firearms is the handgun. There tive firearms were invented in 13th century China when the man portable fire lance was combined with projectiles.* [4] The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, Middle East and then into Europe. In older firearms, the propellant was typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms (with the notable exception of smoothbore firearms) have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability. Modern firearms are typically described by their bore diameter (7.5mm) or calibre (.357) or gauge (12 ga.), the type of action employed (muzzle, breech, lever, bolt, pump, revolver, semi-automatic, or automatic) together with the usual means of deportment (hand-held or mechanical mounting). They may be further distinguished by reference to the type of barrel used (rifled) and the barrel length (19 inch), the design's primary intended target (anti-aircraft), or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (Gatling gun). The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms (weapons that can be carried by a single person),* [5] whereas the word artillery covers larger gunpowder-fired weapons.
A Colt Single Action Army revolver
are three common types of handguns: single-shot pistols (more common historically), revolvers, and semiautomatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or“charge holes”in a revolving cylinder; each chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge or charge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a Firearms are aimed visually at their targets by hand us- magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. 134
21.1. TYPES OF FIREARMS
135 ically have a barrel between 10 and 30 inches (there are restrictions on minimum barrel length in many jurisdictions; maximum barrel length is usually a matter of practicality), that along with the receiver and trigger group is mounted into a wood, plastic, metal or composite stock, composed of one or more pieces that form a foregrip, rear grip, and optionally (but typically) a shoulder mount called the butt. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the mid-1800s, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot, called muskets.
A Glock 17 semi-automatic pistol
Rifles and shotguns Main articles: Rifle and Shotgun Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns.
Each press of the trigger fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to "double-action" revolvers which accomplish the same end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger Springfield Armory M1903 rifle pull. Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, although revolvers were still widely used. Generally speaking, military and police forces use semiautomatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities (10 to 17 or, in some cases, over 25 rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the empty magazine and inserting a loaded one. Revolvers are very common among handgun hunters because revolver cartridges are usually more powerful than similar caliber semi-automatic pistol cartridges (which are designed for self-defense) and the strength, simplicity and durability of the revolver design is well-suited to outdoor use. Revolvers, especially in .22LR and 38 Special/357 Magnum, are also common concealed weapons in jurisdictions allowing this practice because their simple mechanics make them smaller than many autoloaders while remaining reliable. Both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owner's intention (self-defense, hunting, target shooting, competitions, collecting, etc.).
Both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting (Rifling) carved into the inner surface of its barrel, which imparts a self-stabilizing spin to the single bullets it fires. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot; pellet sizes commonly ranging between 2 mm #9 birdshot and 8.4 mm #00 (double-aught) buckshot. Shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty (often "less lethal") rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds. Rifles have a very small impact area but a long range and high accuracy. Shotguns have a large impact area with considerably less range and accuracy. However, the larger impact area can compensate for reduced accuracy, since shot spreads during flight; consequently, in hunting, shotguns are generally used for flying game (See Spreading details). Rifles and shotguns are commonly used for hunting and often to defend a home or place of business. Usually, large game are hunted with rifles (although shotguns can be used, particularly with slugs), while birds are hunted with shotguns. Shotguns are sometimes preferred for defending a home or business due to their wide impact area, multiple wound tracks (when using buckshot), shorter range, and reduced penetration of walls (when using lighter shot), which significantly reduces the likelihood of unintended harm, although the handgun is also common.
There are a variety of types of rifles and shotguns based on the method they are reloaded. Bolt-action and leveraction rifles are manually operated. Manipulation of the Main article: Long gun bolt or the lever causes the spent cartridge to be removed, the firing mechanism recocked, and a fresh cartridge inA long gun is generally any firearm that is larger than a serted. These two types of action are almost exclusively handgun and is designed to be held and fired with both used by rifles. Slide-action (commonly called 'pumphands, either from the hip or the shoulder. Long guns typ- action') rifles and shotguns are manually cycled by shutLong guns
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CHAPTER 21. FIREARM
tling the foregrip of the firearm back and forth. This type U.S. civilian carbines include compact customizations of of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major the AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Beretta Cx4 Storm, Kel-Tec manufacturers make rifles that use this action. SUB-2000, bolt-action rifles generally falling under the Both rifles and shotguns also come in break-action vari- specifications of a scout rifle, and aftermarket conversion eties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism kits for popular pistols including the M1911 and Glock at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot. Both models. rifles and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled varieties; however due to the expense and difficulty of manufacturing, double-barreled rifles are rare. Double- 21.1.2 Function barreled rifles are typically intended for African big-game hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, Main article: Firearm action and speed is of the essence. Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these firearms. Firearms are also categorized by their functioning cycle or Rifles have been in nationally featured marksmanship “action”which describes its loading, firing, and unloading events in Europe and the United States since at least cycle. the 18th century, when rifles were first becoming widely available. One of the earliest purely “American”rifleshooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Manual Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the impending American Revolutionary War. In some coun- The earliest evolution of the firearm, there are many types tries, rifle marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. of manual action firearms. These can be divided into two Some specialized rifles in the larger calibers are claimed basic categories: single shot and repeating. to have an accurate range of up to about 1 mile (1,600 A single shot firearm can only be fired once per equipped m), although most have considerably less. In the second barrel before it must be reloaded or charged via an exhalf of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports be- ternal mechanism or series of steps. A repeating firearm came perhaps even more popular than riflery, largely due can be fired multiple times, but can only be fired once to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such with each subsequent pull of the trigger. Between trigger as skeet, trap and sporting clays. pulls, the firearm's action must be reloaded or charged via In military use, bolt-action rifles with high-power scopes an internal mechanism. are common as sniper rifles, however by the Korean War the traditional bolt-action and semi-automatic rifles used by infantrymen had been supplemented by select-fire de- Semi-automatic signs known as“automatic rifles”(see“Automatic Rifle” Main article: Semi-automatic firearm below). A semi-automatic, or self-loading, firearm is one that performs all steps necessary to prepare the it to discharge again after firing̶assuming cartridges remain in A carbine is a firearm similar to a rifle in form and in- the weapon's feed device or magazine. tended usage, but generally shorter or smaller than the typical “full-size”hunting or battle rifle of similar time period, and sometimes using a smaller or less-powerful Automatic cartridge. Carbines were and are typically used by members of the military in roles that are expected to engage An automatic firearm is generally defined as one that conin combat, but where a full-size rifle would be an im- tinues to load and fire cartridges from its magazine as pediment to the primary duties of that soldier (vehicle long as the trigger is depressed (or until the magazine drivers, field commanders and support staff, airbornes, is depleted). The first weapon generally considered in engineers, etc.). Carbines are also common in law en- this category is the Gatling gun, originally a carriageforcement and among civilian owners where similar size, mounted, crank-operated firearm with multiple rotating space and/or power concerns may exist. Carbines, like ri- barrels that was fielded in the American Civil War. The fles, can be single-shot, repeating-action, semi-automatic modern trigger-actuated machine gun began with various or select-fire/fully automatic, generally depending on the designs developed in the late 1800s and fielded in World time period and intended market. Common historical ex- War I, such as the Maxim gun, Lewis Gun, and MG 08 amples include the Winchester Model 1892, Lee-Enfield “Spandau”. Most automatic weapons are classed as long "Jungle Carbine", Mauser K98 Kurz, SKS, M1 carbine guns (as the ammunition used is of similar type as for (no relation to the larger M1 Garand) and M4 carbine (a rifles, and the recoil of the weapon's rapid fire is better more compact variant of the current M16 rifle). Modern controlled with two hands), but handgun-sized automatic Carbines Main article: Carbine
21.1. TYPES OF FIREARMS
137
weapons also exist, generally in the “submachine gun” or “machine pistol”class. Machine guns Main article: Machine gun A machine gun is a fully automatic emplaceable weapon, most often separated from other classes of automatic weapon by the use of belt-fed ammunition (though some designs employ drum, pan or hopper magazines), generally in a rifle-inspired caliber ranging between 5.56×45mm NATO (.223 Remington) for a light machine gun to as large as .50 BMG or even larger for crewed or aircraft weapons. Although not widely fielded until World War I, early machine guns were being used by militaries in the second half of the 19th century. Notables in the U.S. arsenal during the 20th century included the M2 Browning .50 caliber heavy machine gun and M1919 Browning .30 caliber medium machine gun, and the M60 7.62×51mm NATO general-purpose machine gun which came into use around the Vietnam War. Machine guns of this type were originally defensive firearms crewed by at least two men, mainly because of the difficulties involved in moving and placing them, their ammunition, and their tripod. In contrast, modern light machine guns such as the FN Minimi are often wielded by a single infantryman. They provide a large ammunition capacity and a high rate of fire, and are typically used to give suppressing fire during infantry movement. Accuracy on machine guns varies based on a wide number of factors from design to manufacturing tolerances, most of which have been improved over time. Machine guns are often mounted on vehicles or helicopters, and have been used since World War I as offensive firearms in fighter aircraft and tanks (e.g. for air combat or suppressing fire for ground troop support).
Czechoslovak 7.65 mm submachine gun Škorpion vz. 61 designed in 1959.
are commonly favored by military, paramilitary and police forces for close-quarters engagements such as inside buildings, in urban areas or in trench complexes.
Submachine guns were originally about the size of carbines. Because they fire pistol ammunition, they have limited long-range use, but in close combat can be used in fully automatic in a controllable manner due to the lighter recoil of the pistol ammunition. They are also extremely inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a nation to quickly arm its military. In the latter half of the 20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized to the point of being only slightly larger than some large handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the end of the 20th century was the Heckler & Koch MP5. The MP5 is actually designated as a “machine pistol” by Heckler & Koch (MP5 stands for Maschinenpistole 5, or Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the MAC10 and Glock 18, which are about the size and shape of The definition of machine gun is different in U.S. law. pistols. The National Firearms Act and Firearm Owners Protection Act define a “machine gun”in the United States Personal defense weapons Main article: Personal code Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part defense weapon 1, § 5845 as: "... any firearm which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger”. “Machine gun”is there- A related class of firearm to the submachine gun is the fore largely synonymous with“automatic weapon”in the “Personal Defense Weapon”or PDW, which is in simplest terms a submachine gun designed to fire rounds simU.S. civilian parlance, covering all automatic firearms. ilar to rifle cartridges. A submachine gun is desirable for its compact size and ammunition capacity, however Submachine guns Main article: Submachine gun a pistol round lacks the penetrating capability of a riA submachine gun is a magazine-fed firearm, usually fle round. Conversely, rifle bullets can pierce light arsmaller than other automatic firearms, that fires pistol- mor and are easier to shoot accurately, but even a carbine caliber ammunition; for this reason certain submachine such as the Colt M4 is larger and/or longer than a submaguns can also be referred to as machine pistols, espe- chine gun, making it harder to maneuver in close quarcially when referring to handgun-sized designs such as ters. The solution many firearms manufacturers have the Škorpion vz. 61 and Glock 18. Well-known exam- presented is a weapon resembling a submachine gun in ples are the Israeli Uzi and Heckler & Koch MP5 which size and general configuration, but which fires a higheruse the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, and the American powered armor-penetrating round (often specially deThompson submachine gun which fires .45 ACP. Be- signed for the weapon), thus combining the advantages of cause of their small size and limited projectile penetration a carbine and submachine gun. The FN P90 and Heckler compared to high-power rifle rounds, submachine guns & Koch MP7 are examples.
138 Automatic rifles Main article: Automatic rifle An automatic rifle is a magazine-fed firearm, wielded by a single infantryman, that is chambered for rifle cartridges and capable of automatic fire. The M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle was the first U.S. infantry weapon of this type, and was generally used for suppressive or support fire in the role now usually filled by the light machine gun. Other early automatic rifles include the Fedorov Avtomat and the Huot Automatic Rifle. Later, German forces fielded the Sturmgewehr 44 during World War II, a light automatic rifle firing a reduced power "intermediate cartridge". This design was to become the basis for the "assault rifle" subclass of automatic weapons, as contrasted with "battle rifles", which generally fire a traditional “full-power”rifle cartridge.
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM In the United States, the assault rifle design was later in coming; the replacement for the M1 Garand of WWII was another John Garand design chambered for the new 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge; the select-fire M14, which was used by the U.S. military until the 1960s. The significant recoil of the M14 when fired in full-automatic mode was seen as a problem as it reduced accuracy, and in the 1960s it was replaced by Eugene Stoner's AR-15, which also marked a switch from the powerful .30 caliber cartridges used by the U.S. military up until early in the Vietnam War to the much less powerful but far lighter and light recoiling .223 caliber (5.56mm) intermediate cartridge. The military later designated the AR-15 as the "M16". The civilian version of the M16 continues to be known as the AR-15 and looks exactly like the military version, although to conform to B.A.T.F.E. regulations in the U.S., it lacks the mechanism that permits fully automatic fire. Variants of both of the M16 and AK-47 are still in wide international use today, though other automatic rifle designs have since been introduced. A smaller version of the M16A2, the M4 carbine, is widely used by U.S. and NATO tank and vehicle crews, airbornes, support staff, and in other scenarios where space is limited. The IMI Galil, an Israeli-designed weapon similar to the AK-47, is in use by Israel, Italy, Burma, the Philippines, Peru, and Colombia. Swiss Arms of Switzerland produces the SIG SG 550 assault rifle used by France, Chile, and Spain among others, and Steyr Mannlicher produces the AUG, a bullpup rifle in use in Austria, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and Saudi Arabia among other nations.
United States Marines train with the AK-47.
Military Style Semi or Full Automatic Rifles In World War II, Germany brought to the forefront of firearm technology what eventually became the class of firearm most widely adopted by the military: the assault rifle (see StG 44). An assault rifle is usually slightly smaller than a battle rifle such as the Karabiner 98k, but the chief differences defining an assault rifle are selectfire capability and the use of a rifle round of lesser power, known as an intermediate cartridge. This reduces recoil allowing for controllable bursts at short range like a submachine gun, while retaining rifle-like accuracy at medium ranges. Generally, assault rifles have mechanisms that allow the user to select between single shots, fully automatic bursts, or fully automatic fire. Universally, civilian versions of military assault rifles are strictly semi-automatic. Soviet engineer Mikhail Kalashnikov quickly adapted the German concept, using a less-powerful 7.62×39mm cartridge derived from the standard 7.62×54mmR Russian battle rifle round, to produce the AK-47, which has become the world's most widely used assault rifle. Soon after World War II, the Automatic Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifle began to be fielded by the Soviet Union and its allies in the Eastern Bloc, as well as by nations such as China, North Korea, and North Vietnam.
Modern designs call for compact weapons retaining firepower. The bullpup design, by mounting the magazine behind the trigger, unifies the accuracy and firepower of the traditional assault rifle with the compact size of the submachine gun (though submachine guns are still used); examples are the French FAMAS or the British SA80. Recently, smaller but exceedingly penetrative ammunition types have been introduced to allow countermeasure against ballistic armour. Such designs are the basis for the FN P90 and Heckler & Koch MP7. Caseless ammunition is another trend; an example is the German Heckler & Koch G11. The flechette is yet another improvement over traditional ammunition, allowing for extreme penetration abilities and a very flat trajectory. However, it is gained at the cost of stopping power.
21.2 History Main article: History of the firearm See also: History of gunpowder Some say the first primitive firearms were invented about 1250 A.D. in China when the man-portable fire lance (a bamboo or metal tube that could shoot ignited
21.2. HISTORY
139 a universal standard for the reloading of most handheld firearms and continues to be so with some notable exceptions (such as mortars). Instead of loading individual rounds into weapons, magazines holding multiple munitions were adopted̶these aided rapid reloading. Automatic and semi-automatic firing mechanisms meant that a single soldier could fire many more rounds in a minute than a vintage weapon could fire over the course of a battle. Polymers and alloys in firearm construction made weaponry progressively lighter and thus easier to deploy. Ammunition changed over the centuries from simple metallic ball-shaped projectiles that rattled down the barrel to bullets and cartridges manufactured to high precision. Especially in the past century has particular attention been devoted to accuracy and sighting to make firearms altogether far more accurate than ever before. More than any single factor though, firearms have proliferated due to the advent of mass production̶enabling arms manufacturers to produce large quantities of weaponry to a consistent standard. The force of a projectile is related to the kinetic energy imparted to it, given by the formula Ek = 21 mv 2 where m is the mass and v is the velocity of the projectile. Generally, kinetic energy can be enhanced in two ways:
Page showing a musketeer (Plate 4) from Jacob van Gheyn's Wapenhandelingen van Roers, Musquetten ende Spiesen (1608)
gunpowder) was combined with projectiles such as scrap metal, broken porcelain, or darts/arrows.* [4]* [6] Historian W.H.B. Smith says that Greek fire predates the early Chinese technology by 600 years and that the origin of gunpowder and firearms are unknown because records have been mistranslated and misquoted.* [7] The earliest depiction of a firearm is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, China. The sculpture dates to the 12th century and is of a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard, with flames and a cannonball coming out of it.* [8] The oldest surviving gun, made of bronze, has been dated to 1288 because it was discovered at a site in modern-day Acheng District, Heilongjiang, China, where the Yuan Shi records that battles were fought at that time.* [9] The firearm had a 6.9 inch barrel of a 1-inch diameter, a 2.6 inch chamber for the gunpowder and a socket for the firearm's handle. It is 13.4 inches long and 7.8 pounds without the handle, which would have been made of wood.* [10]
• By increasing the mass of the bullet, either by increasing caliber (and thus size and weight), or by using denser materials like uranium or tungsten. • By increasing the projectile's velocity, through better or larger propellant charges, through better manufacturing tolerances and materials in bullet and barrel, or through longer barrels. Velocities of bullets increased with the use of a“jacket” of a metal such as copper or copper alloys that covered a lead core and allowed the bullet to glide down the barrel more easily than exposed lead. Such bullets are designated as “full metal jacket”(FMJ). Such FMJ bullets are less likely to fragment on impact and are more likely to traverse through a target while imparting less energy. Hence, FMJ bullets impart less tissue damage than nonjacketed bullets that expand. (Dougherty and Eidt, 2009) This led to their adoption for military use by countries adhering to the Hague Convention in 1899. That said, the basic principle behind firearm operation remains unchanged to this day. A musket of several centuries ago is still similar in principle to a modern-day assault rifle̶using the expansion of gases to propel projectiles over long distances ̶albeit less accurately and rapidly.
The Europeans and Arabs obtained firearms in the 14th century.* [10] The Turks, Iranians, and Indians all had firearms no later than the 15th century, in each case directly or indirectly from the Europeans.* [10] The Japanese did not acquire firearms until the 16th century, and then from the Portuguese rather than the Chi21.2.1 nese.* [10]
Evolution
The development behind firearms accelerated during the Early models 1800s and 1900s. Breech-loading became more or less
140 Fire lances Main article: Fire lance The Chinese fire lance was the direct predecessor to the modern concept of the firearm. It was not a gun itself, but an addition to the soldiers' spears. Originally it consisted of paper or bamboo barrels that would have incendiary gunpowder within it, that could be lit one time and would project flames at the enemy. Sometimes the Chinese troops would place small projectiles within the barrel that would also be projected when the gunpowder was lit, but most of the explosive force would create flames. Later, the barrel was changed to be made of metal, so that a more explosive gunpowder could be used and put more force into the propulsion of the projectile.* [10]
Hand cannons Main article: Hand cannon The original predecessor of all firearms, the Chinese fire
CHAPTER 21. FIREARM Muzzle-loading muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first firearms developed. The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century, when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed by the firearm to the person attempting to fire it. One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the “Roman Candle Gun”with superposed loads. This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited. It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of“automatic” fire long before the advent of the machine gun.* [11] Loading techniques Main article: Muzzleloader Most early firearms were muzzle-loading. This form of
Hand cannon being fired from a stand, “Belli Fortis”, manuscript, by Konrad Kyeser, 1400
lance and European hand cannon were loaded with gunpowder and the shot (initially lead shot, later replaced by cast iron) through the muzzle, while a fuse was placed at the rear. This fuse was lit, causing the gunpowder to ignite and propel the cannonball. In military use, the standard hand cannon was tremendously powerful, while also being somewhat useless due to relative inability of the gunner to aim the weapon, or control the ballistic properties of the projectile. Recoil could be absorbed by bracing the barrel against the ground using a wooden support, the forerunner of the stock. Neither the amount of gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions were controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in firing due to windage, and due to the difference in diameter between the bore and the shot. The hand cannons were replaced by lighter carriage-mounted artillery pieces, and ultimately the arquebus.
Muskets Main article: Musket
Percussion cap and early bolt-action form
loading has several disadvantages, such as a slow rate of fire and having to expose oneself to enemy fire to reload as the weapon had to be pointed upright so the powder could be poured through the muzzle into the breech followed by the ramming the projectile into the breech. As effective methods of sealing the breech were developed through the development of sturdy, weatherproof,
21.2. HISTORY
141
self-contained metallic cartridges, muzzle-loaders were to solvents and oil. Some notable weapons that use belts replaced by single-shot breech loaders. Eventually single- are the M240, the M249, the M134 Minigun, and the PK shot weapons were replaced by the following repeater Machine Gun. type weapons. Internal Magazines Main article: Magazine (firearms) Many firearms made in the late 19th century through the 1950s used internal magazines to load the cartridge into the chamber of the weapon. The most notable and revolutionary weapons of this period appeared during the U.S. Civil War and they were the Spencer and Henry repeating rifles. Both used fixed tubular magazines, the former having the magazine in the buttstock and the latter under the barrel which allowed a larger capacity. Later weapons used fixed box magazines that could not be removed from the weapon without dissembling the weapon itself. Fixed magazines permitted the use of larger cartridges and eliminated the hazard of having the bullet of one cartridge butting next to the primer or rim of another cartridge. These magazines are loaded while they are in the weapon, often using a stripper clip. A clip is used to transfer cartridges into the magazine. Some notable weapons that use internal magazines include the Mosin– Nagant, the Mauser Kar 98k, the Springfield M1903, the M1 Garand, and the SKS. Firearms that have internal magazines are usually, but not always, rifles. Some exceptions to this include the Mauser C96 pistol, which uses an internal magazine, and the Breda 30, an Italian light machine gun.
Firing mechanisms Further information: Trigger (firearms) and Firearm action
Matchlock Main article: Matchlock Matchlocks were the first and simplest firearms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a“match”. The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a“touch hole”at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel. The match usually had to be relit after each firing.The main parts to the matchlock firing mechanism are the pan, match, arm and trigger.* [12] A benefit of the pan and arm swivel being moved to the side of the gun was it gave a clear line of fire.* [13] An advantage to the matchlock firing mechanism is that it did not misfire. However, it also came with some disadvantages. One disadvantage was if it was raining the match could not be kept lit to fire the weapon. Another issue with the match was it could give away the position of soldiers because of the glow, sound, and smell.* [14]
Detachable Magazines Many modern firearms use what are called detachable or box magazines as their method of chambering a cartridge. Detachable magazines can be removed from the weapon without disassembling the firearms, usually by pushing the magazine release. Some notable weapons that use detachable magazines include the the AK-47, the M14, the AR-15, and the Glock 17.
Wheellock
Main article: Wheellock
The wheellock action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the flintlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much like that on cigarette lighters which was wound up with a Belt-Fed Weapons key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that igMain article: Belt (firearm) nited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented by Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian Renaissance man, the A belt or ammunition belt is a device used to retain and wheellock action was an innovation that was not widely feed cartridges into a firearm commonly used on machine adopted due to the high cost of the clockwork mechaguns. Belts were originally composed of canvas or cloth nism. with pockets spaced evenly to allow the belt to be mechanically fed into the gun. These designs were prone to malfunctions due to the effects of oil and other contam- Flintlock Main article: Flintlock inants altering the belt. Later belt designs used permanently connected metal links to retain the cartridges dur- The flintlock action was a major innovation in firearm ing feeding. These belts were more tolerant to exposure design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the
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touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a “cock”which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the "frizzen" to create the necessary sparks. (The spring-loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is referred to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.) The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen. (See also flintlock mechanism, snaphance, Miquelet Lock) The flintlock was widely used during the 18th and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles.
percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier firearms.
Antique firearm display in the main entrance to the Cody Firearms Museum.
Before this, a“cartridge”was simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag (or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge. Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called “primers”) continue to this day to be the standard in firearms. In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a "rimfire" cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a "centerfire" cartridge). As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimfire cartridges. Centerfire cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimfire cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the ground with sufficient force to ignite the primer. This is practically impossible with most centerfire cartridges.
Percussion cap Further information: Percussion cap and Caplock mechanism Percussion caps (caplock mechanisms), coming into wide service in the 19th century, were a dramatic improvement over flintlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding firearms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass “cap”. The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a “nipple”) and ignited by the impact of the gun's “hammer”. (The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it doesn't clamp onto anything.) In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter. Once struck, the flame from the cap in turn ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements. As a result, the percussion cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires). All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use
Cartridges Main article: Cartridge (firearms) Further information: Magazine Ammunition
(firearms)
and
A major innovation in firearms and light artillery came in the second half of the 19th century when ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (usually brass) cartridge containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package. The main technical advantage of the brass cartridge case was the effective and reliable sealing of high pressure gasses at the breech, as the gas pressure forces the cartridge case to expand outward, pressing it firmly against the inside of the gun barrel chamber. This prevents the leakage of hot gas which could injure the shooter. The brass cartridge also opened the way for modern repeating arms, by uniting the bullet, gunpowder and primer into one assembly that could be fed reliably into the breech by a mechanical action in the firearm.
Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their breech. Some additionally or exclusively load from a magazine that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is defined as a part of the firearm which exists to store ammunition and assist in its feeding by the action into the breech (such as through the rotation of a revolver's cylinder or by spring-loaded platforms in most pistol and rifle designs). Some magazines, such as that of most centerfire hunting rifles and all revolvers, are internal to and inseparable from the firearm, and are loaded by using a“clip”
21.3. SEE ALSO
143
. A clip, often mistakingly used to refer to a detachable “magazine”, is a device that holds the ammunition by the rim of the case and is designed to assist the shooter in reloading the firearm's magazine. Examples include revolver speedloaders, the stripper clip used to aid loading rifles such as the Lee-Enfield or Mauser 98, and the enbloc clip used in loading the M1 Garand. In this sense, “magazines”and “clips”, though often used synonymously, refer to different types of devices.
firing could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed only to pull a trigger (which made the firing mechanisms truly“automatic”). An automatic (or“fully automatic” ) firearm is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. An automatic firearm is capable of firing multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger. The Gatling gun may have been the first automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the First World War with the German "Spandau" and British Lewis Gun. Automatic rifles such as the Browning Automatic Rifle Repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic firearms were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired handFurther information: Single-shot gun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared in Main article: Repeating rifle this time. Many modern military firearms have a selective Main article: Semi-automatic firearm fire option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the Many firearms are “single shot": i.e., each time a car- firearm be fired either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made M16, continuous fully automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and increases controllability).
The French FAMAS, example of a bullpup rifle
The M4 carbine, a modern-day service rifle capable of being fired automatically. It is in service by the U.S. Military and has a wide ability for customization.
tridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge. The classic singlebarreled shotgun is a good example. A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the firearm is re-cocked is considered a “repeating firearm”or simply a “repeater” . A lever-action rifle, a pump-action shotgun, and most bolt-action rifles are good examples of repeating firearms. A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger pull is considered a semiautomatic or autoloading firearm. The first “rapid firing”firearms were usually similar to the 19th century Gatling gun, which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the “rapid”firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from
Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by civilians. Automatic firearms have long been available to U.S. civilians, under increasingly restrictive conditions. Importation of machine guns for civilian sale in the U.S. was banned by the Gun Control Act of 1968. The Hughes Amendment to the Firearm Owners Protection Act now prohibits United States civilian ownership or transfer of automatic weapons unless they were registered before May 19, 1986. Non-prohibited automatic weapons can be legally owned by civilians who pay a $200 tax to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE), pass a background investigation, and, in some jurisdictions, receive approval from local law enforcement. Permission must be received directly from the BATFE to move a machine gun between states, even if it does not change ownership. An extremely limited number of U.S. citizens have special permits from the BATFE to buy, and even import, automatic weapons produced and registered after 1986. The use of such weapons is tightly restricted to the film industry under direct supervision of the master of arms holding the permit, and the weapons are often altered so they will not fire “factory”ammunition, but rather only special“light-primer” blank cartridges produced specifically for the film industry. This arrangement allows weapons first produced after 1986 to be used by actors in films and T.V. series produced inside the U.S.
21.3 See also • Glossary of firearms terms • Index of gun politics articles
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Firearm science and technology
• List of weapons of military aircraft of Germany during World War II
• Ballistics (Internal ballistics, Transitional ballistics, Firearms groups around the world External ballistics, Terminal ballistics) • Electrothermal-chemical technology
• Dominion of Canada Rifle Association
• Firearm action
• National Rifle Association
• Gunsmith
• National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom
• Physics of firearms
• PROGUN (Philippines)
Guns and society • Overview of gun laws by nation • Celebratory gunfire
• Shooters and Fishers Party • Sporting Shooters Association of Australia
21.4 References
• Firearms law and Gun politics • Gun control, Small arms trade and Right to keep and bear arms • Gun culture • Gun safety • Gun violence • Open carry and Concealed carry • Saturday night special • Shooting range • Shooting sport List of firearms • List of firearm brands • List of aircraft weapons • List of battle rifles
[1] “Merriam-Webster Dictionary, “Firearm"". Merriamwebster.com. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2014-04-19. [2]“Firearm”. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4 ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000."Firearm”. Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged. HarperCollins Publishers. 2003. [3] US Federal Govt does not consider an air gun to be a firearm and does not regulate them as firearms [4] Helaine Selin (1 January 1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 30 July 2013. [5] Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam-Webster. [6] Ho Peng Yoke (1 January 1997).“Gunpowder”. In Selin, Helaine. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 30 July 2013. [7] Smith, W.H.B., Small Arms of the World, seventh edition, The Stackpole Company (1962): 3.
• List of pistols
[8] Chase 2003:31–32
• List of shotguns
[9] Needham 1986:293–294
• List of sniper rifles • List of submachine guns World War I Firearms List of infantry weapons of World War I World War II Firearms List of World War II firearms • List of common World War II infantry weapons • List of secondary and special-issue World War II infantry weapons
[10] Chase & 2003 pp32 [11] “Roman Candle Gun”. Scotwars.com. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. [12] • "> Where Are You From?". Credo Reference. Retrieved 2014-04-19. [13] Weir, William. 50 Weapons That Changed Warfare. • Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page, 2005. 71-74. Print. [14] Saidel, Benjamin. ": Matchlocks, Flintlocks, and Saltpetre: The Chronological Implications for the Use of Matchlock Muskets among Ottoman-Period Bedouin in the Southern Levant.”International Journal of Historical Archaeology 4 (2000): 191-215. Print.
21.5. FURTHER READING Sources • Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52182274-2. • Crosby, Alfred W. (2002). Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79158-8. • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science & Civilisation in China. 7 The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30358-3.
21.5 Further reading • Pyhrr, Stuart W. (1985). Firearms from the collections of the Prince of Liechtenstein. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870994258.
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Chapter 22
General-purpose machine gun purpose machine gun (GPMG).* [2]* [3]* [4] In itself the MG 34 was an excellent weapon: an air-cooled, recoiloperated machine gun that could run through belts of 7.92mm ammunition at a rate of 850 rounds per minute, delivering killing firepower at ranges of more than 1,000 meters.* [5]* [6] Yet simply by changing its mount and feed mechanism, the operator could radically transform its function. On its standard bipod it was a light machine gun, ideal for infantry assaults; on a tripod it could serve as a sustained-fire medium machine gun; aircraft or vehicular mounts turned it into an air defence weapon; and it also served as the coaxial machine gun on numerous tanks.* [7]* [8] During World War II, the MG 34 was superseded (although it remained in combat use) by a new GPMG - the MG 42.* [9]* [10]* [11] The MG 42 was more efficient to manufacture and more robust, and had a blistering 1,200RPM rate of fire.* [12]* [13]* [14] Nicknamed 'Hitler's buzzsaw' by Allied troops, it was arguably the finest allround GPMG ever produced, and alongside the MG 34 it inflicted heavy casualties on Allied soldiers on all European and North African fronts.* [15]* [16]* [17] Such were its qualities of firepower and usability that it became the foundation of an entire series of postwar machine guns, including the MG 1 and MG 3 - the latter is still in production and service to this day.”* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21] The MG-42 type general-purpose machine guns in both bipod and tripod configurations
22.2 Notable post-WWII examples
A general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is an aircooled, belt-fed weapon with a quick change barrel that can be used in a variety of roles, from bipod- or tripodmounted infantry support, to deployment as a helicopter door gun, or a vehicle-mounted support weapon.* [1] Modern GPMGs fire full-power rifle cartridges such as the 7.62×51mm NATO, 7.62×54mmR, 7.92x57mm Mauser, etc.
22.1 History “With the MG 34, the German Wehrmacht introduced an entirely new concept in automatic firepower - the general146
• German MG3, a direct descendant of the MG42, is still in service with the German Army and others. • Belgian FN MAG, which copied the MG42's feedsystem and trigger-mechanism.* [22] It is the most widely used GPMG among western armies. • American M60, which uses the MG42's feed-system and stamp-steel construction.* [23] It has been replaced in U.S. service by the M240 itself an FN MAG variant. • French AA-52, which more or less copies the MG42 feed-system.* [24] It has been largely phased out in favour of the FN MAG and FN Minimi.
22.5. REFERENCES • Russian PK/PKM family of machine-guns, widely exported.
147 multi-purpose
• People's Republic of China, the Type 67 and later improved models. • German Heckler & Koch HK21, based on the Heckler & Koch G3 rifle and widely exported
22.3 Gallery • MG34 • MG42 top & StG 44 below • MG3 on display • IMI Negev and FN MAG GPMG • FN MAG GPMG • An M60 machine gun • AA-52 • PKM general-purpose machine gun • The Type 67 on a tripod field mount. • Belgian M240 • Russian Pecheneg • HK21A1 general-purpose machine gun
22.4 See also • Light machine gun • Medium machine gun • Heavy machine gun • Squad automatic weapon • List of firearms
22.5 References [1] http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/support-weapons/ 1463.aspx [2] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 375 [3] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 326 [4] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245 & 246
[5] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 326 [6] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245 & 246 [7] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 326 [8] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245 & 246 [9] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376 [10] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 329 [11] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247 [12] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376 [13] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 329 [14] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247 [15] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376 [16] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 328 & 329 [17] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247 [18] MG 34 and MG 42 Machine Guns. by Chris McNab. Published by Random House Publishing Group. Oct 23, 2012. Quote taken from leaf. [19] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376 [20] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. page 329 [21] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247 [22] “Modern Firearms - FN MAG”. World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-07-30. [23] Weapons: An International Encyclopedia From 5000 B.C. To 2000 A.D. Diagram Visual, p. 217. ISBN 0312-03950-6. [24] http://world.guns.ru/machine/fr/aat-mod52-e.html
Chapter 23
Grenade launcher
M79 grenade launcher
A grenade launcher or grenade discharger is a weapon that launches a specially-designed grenade or a grenade cartridge with more accuracy, higher velocity, and to greater distances than a soldier could throw it by hand. Grenade launchers can either come in the form of standalone weapons (either single-shot or repeating) or attachments mounted under the barrel of a rifle. Some rifles have been designed to fire rifle grenades, either from their muzzle or from a detachable muzzle-mounted launcher. Larger grenade launchers, such as the Mk-19, may be mounted on vehicles. Today, most grenade launchers are man-portable, shoulder-fired weapons issued on a squad level, although larger launchers are issued at the company or battalion level. The most common grenade-round in use by NATO is the 40 mm fragmentation grenade, which is effective against a wide range of targets, including infantry and lightly armored vehicles.* [1] The ability of the grenade launcher to loft payloads in a high arc has resulted in many “specialty”grenades, such as less-lethal sponge grenades, flares, and even a video camera that surveys the battlefield Japanese soldier with the Type 89 discharger. from a bird's-eye view.
The Japanese Army, noting that grenades were shortranged weapons, began efforts to optimize these weapons for close-in infantry fighting. After studying the use of grenades and mortars on the battlefield, the Japanese 23.1.1 Grenade discharger Army developed hand grenades, rifle grenades, and The Type 10 grenade discharger (⼗年式擲弾筒 Juu- grenade dischargers (small mortars) suited to warfare in nen-shiki tekidantō) and Type 89 grenade discharger (⼋ typical short-range combat environments, such as urban, 九式重擲弾筒 Hachikyū-shiki jū-tekidantō), colloquially trench, and jungle warfare. known as a knee mortars by Allied forces, were Japanese As part of this effort, by 1932, the Japanese Army had grenade launchers or light mortars that were widely used adopted a set of fragmentation grenades with almost uniin the Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II. versal adaptability. The Type 91 fragmentation grenade
23.1 Types
148
23.1. TYPES
149 The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier wants to launch a grenade, he must mount the grenade to the muzzle prior to each shot. If he is surprised by a close-range threat while preparing to fire the grenade, he has to reverse the procedure before he can respond with rifle fire. Rifle grenades also tend to be more difficult to fire accurately compared to under-barrel or standalone designs. The IMI Refaim represents an advancement in technology as it uses an air-burst telescopic bullet trap rifle grenade with point detonation, time delay and selfdestruct functions. The grenade is launched by a standard rifle bullet and the soldier can continue to engage threats with rifle fire if he has the need.* [5] This is based on the older SIMON breach grenade, which is a muzzlefired grenade for breaching doors. The SIMON launches using a bullet trap to capture a standard 5.56 bullet fired from an M4 carbine or M16.* [6]
Type 91 Fragmentation grenade with propellant base and time fuse.
could be thrown by hand, fired from a cup-type grenade 23.1.3 launcher (the Type 100),* [2] discharged by a lightweight mortar-like grenade discharger.* [3] or fitted with finned tail-assembly and fired from a spigot-type rifle grenade launcher.* [2]
23.1.2
Standalone
Muzzle-fired
Royal Thai Army Volunteer Regiment soldier with M79 in Vietnam, 1967
The shoulder fired 40mm grenade launcher can come in the form of either a single-shot weapon or a repeating weapon resembling a large revolver or pump-action shotMain article: Rifle grenade gun. Examples include the M79 (single-shot), Heckler & Koch HK69A1 and the Milkor MGL (revolver). They fill * Many grenades have been designed to launch from a ri- the gap between the hand grenade and the mortar. [7] fle's muzzle, usually using either a special blank propel- Modern developments tend toward faster-firing grenades lant cartridge, or more modern“bullet trap”and“shoot with a smaller blast radius to reduce collateral damthrough”types, which allow the grenade to be fired us- age. The XM25 CDTE is a shoulder-fired, magazine-fed ing live rounds.* [4] This system has two key advantages: semi-automatic launcher firing 25 mm projectiles. It was the grenade can generally be made larger and more pow- originally a component of the XM29 Objective Individerful as compared to underbarrel or standalone weapons, ual Combat Weapon program, but modified to a larger and the rifle's weight and handling characteristics are not caliber. A 12 gauge grenade round called the Frag-12 has also been developed for the Atchisson Assault Shotgun. affected as with underbarrel systems. Rifle grenade on an M1 Garand
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CHAPTER 23. GRENADE LAUNCHER
M203 grenade launcher attached to M16 assault rifle.
The Mk 19 grenade launcher GP-25 grenade launcher attached to AK-74 assault rifle.
erally function as large-caliber machine guns with a relatively low rate of fire, used from an emplaced position or mounted on a vehicle or vessel in a similar way to a heavy Since grenade launchers require relatively low internal machine gun.* [9]* [10]* [11] pressure and only a short barrel, a lightweight launcher can be mounted under the barrel of a traditional rifle. This reduces the weight the soldier must carry by elim- 23.2 See also inating the grenade launcher's buttstock and makes the grenade launcher available for use at a moment's notice. • Comparison of automatic grenade launchers Underbarrel 40mm grenade launchers generally have • Hand mortar their own trigger group; to fire, one simply changes grips, disengages the safety, and pulls the trigger. In Western • List of grenade launchers systems, the barrel slides forward or pivots to the side • Recoilless rifle to allow reloading; most fire a 40×46mm grenade cartridge.* [8] • Rocket-propelled grenade Soviet/Russian launchers are instead loaded from the muzzle, with the cartridge casing affixed to the projectile in the style of a mortar shell. For aiming, underbarrel 23.3 References grenade launchers typically use a separate sight attached to the rifle's frame alongside the iron sights, or attach a [1] Zaloga, Steven (19 July 2011). HMMWV Humvee 1980flip-up sight directly to one of the rifle's sights. 2005: US Army tactical vehicle. Osprey Publishing. p. 10.
23.1.4
Attached
Examples of modern underbarrel grenade launchers are the M203, GP-30, AG36, FN40GL GP-25, the wz. 1974, the GL1, the M320 the Milkor 40mm UBGL which mount to service rifles. A late development is the 3GL from Metal Storm. As with most Metal Storm products, this weapon contains three electrically ignited grenades stacked front-to-back in a single tube to eliminate reloading.
23.1.5
Automatic
Main article: Automatic grenade launcher An automatic grenade launcher or grenade machine gun fires rounds in quick succession from an ammunition belt or large-capacity magazine. They can be attached to a tripod. Automatic launchers include the Mk 19, Vektor Y3, AGS-17, and the HK GMG, which all fire at a higher velocity than related shoulder-fired grenades. They gen-
ISBN 978-1-84908-968-5. [2] http://www.tekidanki.com/book/ Imperial Japanese Grenade Rifles and Launchers By Gregory A. Babich and Thomas A. Keep [3] George, John B. (LTC), Shots Fired In Anger, NRA Press (1981), ISBN 0-935998-42-X, p. 343 [4] https://www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity&mode= form&id=a0e2f0e52cfbd2e696b608d30fb6260f&tab= core&tabmode=list&print_preview=1 [5] “REFAIM Advanced Infantry Weapon System Israel Military Industries (Israel)". Defense Update. 2004. [6] “SIMON”. Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. [7] Rottman, Gordon (18 September 2012). US Army Infantryman in Vietnam 1965-73. Osprey Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-78200-468-4. [8] Clancy, Tom (1996). Marine: A Guided Tour of a Marine Expeditionary Unit. Berkley Books. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-425-15454-0.
23.4. EXTERNAL LINKS
[9] Tucker, Spencer C. (20 May 2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 431. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0. [10] Blasko, Dennis J. (17 June 2013). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-136-51997-0. [11] Usa, Ibp (30 March 2009). Us Future Combat & Weapon Systems Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 265. ISBN 978-1-4387-5447-5.
23.4 External links • Modern Firearms & Ammunition grenade launcher intro • MF&A page on the AICW
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Chapter 24
Heavy machine gun some to move quickly, as well as requiring a crew of several soldiers to operate them. Thus, in this sense, the “heavy”aspect of the weapon referred to the weapon's bulk and ability to sustain fire, not the cartridge caliber. This class of weapons was best exemplified by the Maxim gun, invented by the American inventor Hiram Maxim, who had traveled to England to market his design and became a British subject in 1900. The Maxim was the most ubiquitous machine gun of World War I, variants of which were fielded simultaneously by three separate warring nations (Germany with the MG 08, Britain with the Vickers, and Russia with the PM M1910). The M2 Browning machine gun with a tripod weighs 58 kg (128 lb).
The heavy machine gun or HMG is a class of machine gun implying greater characteristics than medium machine guns. There are two generally recognized classes of weapons identified as heavy machine guns. The first is weapons from World War I identified as“heavy”due to the weight and encumberment of the weapons themselves. The second is large-caliber (generally .50 or 12.7mm) machine guns, pioneered by John Moses Browning with the M2 machine gun, designed to provide increased range, penetration and destructive power against vehicles, buildings, aircraft and light fortifications beyond the standard rifle calibers used in medium or general-purpose machine guns, or the intermediate cartridges used in light machine guns.
24.1 Classification The term was originally used to refer to the generation of machine guns which came into widespread use in World War I. These fired standard rifle cartridges such as the 7.92 Mauser, .303 British or 7.62×54mmR, but featured heavy construction, elaborate mountings, and water-cooling mechanisms that enabled long-range sustained automatic fire with excellent accuracy. However, these advantages came at the cost of being too cumber-
The modern definition refers to a class of large-caliber (generally .50 or 12.7mm) machine guns, pioneered by John Moses Browning with the M2 machine gun. These weapons are designed to provide increased range, penetration and destructive power against vehicles, buildings, aircraft and light fortifications beyond the standard rifle calibers used in medium or general-purpose machine guns, or the intermediate cartridges used in light machine guns. In this sense, the “heavy”aspect of the weapon refers to its superior power and range over light- and medium-caliber weapons, in addition to its weight. This class of machine gun came into widespread use during World War II, when the M2 was used widely in fortifications, on vehicles and in aircraft by American forces. A similar HMG capacity was later fielded by the Soviets in the form of Vasily Degtyaryov's DShK in 12.7x108mm. The ubiquitous German MG42 general-purpose machine gun, though well-suited against infantry, lacked the M2's anti-fortification and anti-vehicle capability, a fact that was noted and lamented by the Germans. The continued need for a longer-range machine gun with anti-materiel capability to bridge the gap between exclusively antiinfantry weapons and exclusively anti-materiel weapons has led to the widespread adoption and modernization of the class, and most nations' armed forces are equipped with some type of HMG. Currently, firearms with calibers smaller than 12.7 mm are generally considered medium or light machine guns, while those larger than 15.24 mm are generally classified as autocannons instead of heavy machine guns.
152
24.3. VARIOUS DESIGNS
153
24.2 History In the late 19th century, Gatling guns and other externally powered types such as the Nordenfelt were often made in a variety of calibers, such as 0.5-inch and 1-inch. Due to their multiple barrels, overheating was not so much of an issue, but they were also quite heavy. When Maxim developed his recoil-powered machine gun using a single barrel, his first main design weighed a modest 26 pounds (11.8 kg) and fired a .45-inch rifle-caliber bullet from a 24-inch barrel. A famous photo of Maxim showed him picking it up by its 15-pound tripod (6.8 kg) with one arm. It was similar to present-day medium machine guns, but it could not be fired for extended periods due to overheating. As a result, Maxim created a water jacket cooling system to enable it to fire for extended periods. However, this added significant weight, as did the change to more powerful rifle cartridges.
MG 08 system (7.92 mm) and crew circa 1931.
hours, given sufficient ammunition, replacement barrels and cooling water. Carefully positioned heavy machine guns could stop an attacking force before they reached There were thus two main types of heavy, rapid-fire their objectives. weapons: the manually powered, multiple-barrel machine guns and the single-barrel Maxim guns. By the end of the 19th century, many new designs such as the M1895 24.3.1 Light machine guns Colt-Browning and Hotchkiss were developed, powered by gas operation or recoil operation. Also, rather than the However, during the same period a number of lighter and heavy water jacket, new designs introduced other types more portable air-cooled designs were developed weighof barrel cooling, such as barrel replacement, metal fins, ing less than 30 lbs (15 kg). In World War I they were to be as important as the heavier designs, and were used to heat sinks or some combination of these. support infantry on the attack, on aircraft, and on many types of vehicles.
24.3 Various designs
The lightest of the new designs were not capable of sustained automatic fire, as they did not have water jackets and were fed from comparatively small magazines. Essentially machine rifles with a bipod, weapons like the Lewis Gun, Chauchat and the Madsen were portable by one soldier, but were made for single and burst fire.
24.3.2 Medium models
Wheeled mounted DShK heavy machine gun.
Machine guns diverged into heavier and lighter designs. The later model water-cooled Maxim guns and its derivatives the MG 08 and the Vickers, as well as the American M1917 Browning machine gun, were all substantial weapons. The .303 Vickers, for example, weighed 33 lb (15 kg) and was mounted on a tripod that brought the total weight to 50 lb (23 kg). The heavier designs could, and in some cases did, fire for days on end, mainly in fixed defensive positions to repel infantry attacks. These machine guns were typically mounted on tripods and were watercooled, and a well-trained crew could fire nonstop for
The medium designs offered greater flexibility, either being fitted with a bipod in the light machine gun role, or on a tripod or other weapon mount as medium machine guns. An example was the Hotchkiss M1909 machine gun weighing 27.6 lb (12.2 kg) fitted with a mini-tripod and using linkable 30-round ammunition strips, but there was also a belt-fed version. This type of multipurpose machine gun would be further developed, and later given names such as “universal machine gun”, and later "general-purpose machine gun", and would eventually supplant the water-cooled designs. These later designs used quick-change barrel replacement to reduce overheating, which further reduced the weapon's weight, but at the cost of increasing the soldier's load due to the extra barrels. Some earlier designs like the Vickers had this feature, but it was mainly for barrel wear, as they normally used water cooling. It was in the 1920s and 1930s that quick barrel replacement for
154 cooling purposes became more popular in weapons such as the ZB vz. 30, the Bren, the MG34 and the MG42.
CHAPTER 24. HEAVY MACHINE GUN
24.6 External links • Heavy Machine Guns at World Guns • Heavy Machine Guns used in WWI and WWII
US .50 caliber heavy machine gun developments – Browning M2, Browning M2E2 Quick Change Barrel, XM806 Lightweight .50 Caliber Machine Gun (LW50)
24.4 World War II and later The heavier designs continued to be used throughout WWII and into the 1960s, but were gradually phased out in favor of air-cooled designs. The mediums were now used both as medium machine guns while mounted on tripods and as light machine guns while mounted on bipods. This was possible in part because a heavy, static MG position was not a very effective tactic in vehiclecentered warfare, and the significantly lighter air-cooled designs could nearly match the capabilities of the watercooled versions. Gatling-type machine guns such as the Minigun and GShG-7.62 reappeared after WWII. These are typically mounted on ships and helicopters because of their weight and large ammunition requirements (due to their extremely high rate of fire.) The need for sustained automatic fire on the ground, however, is now nearly entirely filled by air-cooled medium machine guns.
24.5 See also • Light machine gun • Medium machine gun • Squad automatic weapon • General-purpose machine gun • Machine gun • List of firearms • List of machine guns • List of multiple barrel machine guns
Chapter 25
Helicopter “Helicopters”redirects here. For other uses, see early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter Helicopter (disambiguation). have been developed for specialized applications such as A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and unmanned drones.
25.1 History 25.1.1 Early design See also: Bamboo-copter and Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci The earliest references for vertical flight have come
A police department Bell 206 helicopter
thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward, and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing) aircraft cannot perform. The word helicopter is adapted from the French language hélicoptère, coined by Gustave Ponton d'Amécourt in 1861, which originates from the Greek helix (ἕλιξ) “heA decorated Japanese taketombo bamboo-copter lix, spiral, whirl, convolution”* [1] and pteron (πτερόν) * * * * “wing”. [2] [3] [4] [5] English-language nicknames for from China. Since around 400 BC,* [8] Chinese children helicopter include“chopper”,“copter”,“helo”,“heli” have played with bamboo flying toys.* [9]* [10]* [11] This , and “whirlybird”. bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a roHelicopters were developed and built during the first half- tor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when recentury of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the leased.* [8] The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters Ge Hong (抱朴⼦“Master who Embraces Simplicity”) reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale wing aircraft.* [12] production,* [6] with 131 aircraft built.* [7] Though most earlier designs used more than one main rotor, it is the This Chinese helicopter toy was introduced into Euappeared in Renaissance paintings and other single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration rope and * * [11] [13]* [14] Early Western scientists develworks. that has become the most common helicopter configumachines based on the original Chinese ration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in widespread oped flying * * [15] [16] model. use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci all flying today. Quadcopter helicopters pioneered as created a design for a machine that could be described as 155
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Leonardo's “aerial screw”
an “aerial screw”, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built small flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate.* [17]* [18] As scientific knowledge increased and became more accepted, men continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. Many of these later models and machines would more closely resemble the ancient bamboo flying Prototype created by M. Lomonosov, 1754 top with spinning wings, rather than Leonardo's screw. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by wound-up spring device * [16] and demonstrated it to the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was powered by a spring and suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. In 1783, Christian de Launoy, and his mechanic, Bienvenu, used a coaxial version of Chinese top in a model consisting of a contrarotating of turkey flight feathers * [16] as rotor blades, and in 1784, demonstrated it to the French Academy of Sciences. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a childhood fascination with the Chinese flying top, grew up to develop a model of feathers, similar to Launoy and Bienvenu, but powered by rubber bands. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and springs for power. His writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers.* [17] Alphonse Pénaud would later develop coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, also powered by rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their father, would inspire the Wright brothers to pursue the dream of flight.* [19] In 1861, the word“helicopter”was coined by Gustave de Ponton d'Amécourt, a French inventor who demonstrated a small, steam-powered model. While celebrated as an innovative use of a new metal, aluminum, the model never lifted off the ground. D'Amecourt's linguistic contribution would survive to eventually describe the vertical flight he had envisioned. Steam power was popular with other inventors as well. In 1878 the Italian Enrico Forlanini's unmanned vehicle that was also powered by a steam engine, was the first of its type that rose to a height of 12
meters (40 ft), where it hovered for some 20 seconds after a vertical take-off. Emmanuel Dieuaide's steam-powered design featured counter-rotating rotors powered through a hose from a boiler on the ground.* [17] In 1885, Thomas Edison was given US$1,000 by James Gordon Bennett, Jr., to conduct experiments towards developing flight. Edison built a helicopter and used the paper for a stock ticker to create guncotton, with which he attempted to power an internal combustion engine. The helicopter was damaged by explosions and one of his workers was badly burned. Edison reported that it would take a motor with a ratio of three to four pounds per horsepower produced to be successful, based on his experiments.* [20] Ján Bahýľ, a Slovak inventor, adapted the internal combustion engine to power his helicopter model that reached a height of 0.5 meters (1.6 ft) in 1901. On 5 May 1905, his helicopter reached four meters (13 ft) in altitude and flew for over 1,500 meters (4,900 ft).* [21] In 1908, Edison patented his own design for a helicopter powered by a gasoline engine with box kites attached to a mast by cables for a rotor, but it never flew.* [22]
25.1.2 First flights In 1906, two French brothers, Jacques and Louis Breguet, began experimenting with airfoils for helicopters. In 1907, those experiments resulted in the Gyroplane No.1, possibly as the earliest known example of a quadcopter. Although there is some uncertainty about the date, sometime between 14 August and 29 September 1907, the Gy-
25.1. HISTORY roplane No. 1 lifted its pilot into the air about two feet (0.6 m) for a minute.* [6] The Gyroplane No. 1 proved to be extremely unsteady and required a man at each corner of the airframe to hold it steady. For this reason, the flights of the Gyroplane No. 1 are considered to be the first manned flight of a helicopter, but not a free or untethered flight.
157 Castelluccio, while working in Europe, demonstrated one of the first successful applications of cyclic pitch.* [6] Coaxial, contra-rotating, biplane rotors could be warped to cyclically increase and decrease the lift they produced. The rotor hub could also be tilted forward a few degrees, allowing the aircraft to move forward without a separate propeller to push or pull it. Pateras-Pescara was also able to demonstrate the principle of autorotation. By January 1924, Pescara's helicopter No. 1 was tested but was found to be underpowered and could not lift its own weight. His 2F fared better and set a record.* [24] The British government funded further research by Pescara which resulted in helicopter No. 3, powered by a 250 hp radial engine which could fly for up to ten minutes.* [25]* [26]
Paul Cornu's helicopter in 1907
That same year, fellow French inventor Paul Cornu designed and built a Cornu helicopter that used two 20-foot (6 m) counter-rotating rotors driven by a 24 hp (18 kW) Antoinette engine. On 13 November 1907, it lifted its inventor to 1 foot (0.3 m) and remained aloft for 20 seconds. Even though this flight did not surpass the flight of the Gyroplane No. 1, it was reported to be the first truly free flight with a pilot.* [n 1] Cornu's helicopter completed a few more flights and achieved a height of nearly Oehmichen N°2, 1923 6.5 feet (2 m), but it proved to be unstable and was abandoned.* [6] On 14 April 1924 Frenchman Étienne Oehmichen set the The Danish inventor Jacob Ellehammer built the first helicopter world record recognized by the Fédération flying his quadrotor Ellehammer helicopter in 1912. It consisted of a frame Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), * helicopter 360 meters (1,181 ft). [27] On 18 April 1924, equipped with two counter-rotating discs, each of which Pescara beat Oemichen's record, flying for a distance of was fitted with six vanes around its circumference. After * 736 meters [24] (nearly a half mile) in 4 minutes and 11 indoor tests, the aircraft was demonstrated outdoors and seconds (about 8 mph, 13 km/h), maintaining a height of made several free take-offs. Experiments with the heli* six feet (1.8 meters). [28] On 4 May, Oehmichen set the copter continued until September 1916, when it tipped first 1 km closed-circuit helicopter flight in 7 minutes 40 over during take-off, destroying its rotors.* [23] seconds with his No. 2 machine.* [6]* [29]
25.1.3
Early development
In the USA, George de Bothezat built the quadrotor helicopter de Bothezat helicopter for the United States Army Air Service but the Army cancelled the program in 1924, and the aircraft was scrapped. Albert Gillis von Baumhauer, a Dutch aeronautical engineer, began studying rotorcraft design in 1923. His first prototype “flew”(“hopped”and hovered in reality) on 24 September 1925, with Dutch Army-Air arm Captain Floris Albert van Heijst at the controls. The controls that Captain van Heijst used were Von Baumhauer's inventions, the cyclic and collective. Patents were granted to von Baumhauer for his cyclic and collective controls by the British ministry of aviation on 31 January 1927, under patent number 265,272.
Arthur M. Young, American inventor, started work on model helicopters in 1928 using converted electric hover motors to drive the rotor head. Young invented the staSilent film of a test flight of Pescara's helicopter, 1922. EYE Film bilizer bar and patented it shortly after. A mutual friend introduced Young to Lawrence Dale, who once seeing his Institute Netherlands. work asked him to join the Bell Aircraft company. When In the early 1920s, Argentine Raúl Pateras-Pescara de Young arrived at Bell he signed his patent over and began
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work on the helicopter. His budget was US$250,000 to build 2 working helicopters. In just 6 months they completed the first Bell Model 1, which spawned the Bell 30, later succeeded by the Bell 47.
year, on 26 September 1936, Claisse set a height record of 158 meters (520 ft).* [38] And, finally, on 24 November 1936, he set a flight duration record of one hour, two minutes and 50 seconds* [39] over a 44 kilometer (27 mi) In 1928, Hungarian aviation engineer Oszkár Asbóth closed circuit at 44.7 kilometers per hour (27.8 mph). constructed a helicopter prototype that took off and The aircraft was destroyed in 1943 by an Allied airstrike landed at least 182 times, with a maximum single flight at Villacoublay airport. duration of 53 minutes.* [30]* [31] In 1930, the Italian engineer Corradino D'Ascanio built 25.1.4 Autogyro his D'AT3, a coaxial helicopter. His relatively large machine had two, two-bladed, counter-rotating rotors. Con- Main article: Autogyro trol was achieved by using auxiliary wings or servo-tabs Early rotor winged flight suffered failures primarily ason the trailing edges of the blades,* [32] a concept that was later adopted by other helicopter designers, including Bleeker and Kaman. Three small propellers mounted to the airframe were used for additional pitch, roll, and yaw control. The D'AT3 held modest FAI speed and altitude records for the time, including altitude (18 m or 59 ft), duration (8 minutes 45 seconds) and distance flown (1,078 m or 3,540 ft).* [32]* [33] In the Soviet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, two aeronautical engineers working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut (TsAGI, the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute), constructed and flew the TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a four-blade main rotor, and twin sets of 1.8-meter (6-foot) diameter, two-bladed antitorque rotors: one set of two at the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered by two M-2 powerplants, up-rated copies of the Gnome Monosoupape 9 Type B-2 100 CV output rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI 1-EA made several low altitude flights.* [34] By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-EA up to an unofficial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 ft), shattering d'Ascanio's earlier achievement. As the Soviet Union was not yet a member of the FAI, however, Cheremukhin's record remained unrecognized.* [35] Nicolas Florine, a Russian engineer, built the first twin tandem rotor machine to perform a free flight. It flew in Sint-Genesius-Rode, at the Laboratoire Aérotechnique de Belgique (now von Karman Institute) in April 1933, and attained an altitude of six meters (20 ft) and an endurance of eight minutes. Florine chose a co-rotating configuration because the gyroscopic stability of the rotors would not cancel. Therefore the rotors had to be tilted slightly in opposite directions to counter torque. Using hingeless rotors and co-rotation also minimised the stress on the hull. At the time, it was one of the most stable helicopters in existence.* [36] The Bréguet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire was built in 1933. It was a coaxial helicopter, contra-rotating. After many ground tests and an accident, it first took flight on 26 June 1935. Within a short time, the aircraft was setting records with pilot Maurice Claisse at the controls. On 14 December 1935, he set a record for closed-circuit flight with a 500-meter (1,600 ft) diameter.* [37] The next
Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, built in the U.S. under licence to the Cierva Autogiro Company
sociated with the unbalanced rolling movement generated when attempting take-off, due to dissymmetry of lift between the advancing and retreating blades. This major difficulty was resolved by Juan de la Cierva's introduction of the flapping hinge. In 1923, de la Cierva's first successful autogyro was flown in Spain by Lt. Gomez Spencer. In 1925 he brought his C.6 to Britain and demonstrated it to the Air Ministry at Farnborough, Hampshire. This machine had a four blade rotor with flapping hinges but relied upon conventional airplane controls for pitch, roll and yaw. It was based upon an Avro 504K fuselage, initial rotation of the rotor was achieved by the rapid uncoiling of a rope passed around stops on the undersides of the blades. A major problem with the autogyro was driving the rotor before takeoff. Several methods were attempted in addition to the coiled rope system, which could take the rotor speed to 50% of that required, at which point movement along the ground to reach flying speed was necessary, while tilting the rotor to establish autorotation. Another approach was to tilt the tail stabiliser to deflect engine slipstream up through the rotor. The most acceptable solution was finally achieved with the C.19 Mk.4, which was produced in some quantities; a direct drive from the engine to the rotor was fitted, through which the rotor could be accelerated up to speed. The system was then declutched before the take-off run. As de la Cierva's autogyros achieved success and accep-
25.1. HISTORY
159
tance, others began to follow and with them came further innovation. Most important was the development of direct rotor control through cyclic pitch variation, achieved initially by tilting the rotor hub and subsequently by the Austrian engineer Raoul Hafner, by the application of a spider mechanism that acted directly on each rotor blade. The first production direct control autogyro was the C.30, produced in quantity by Avro, Liore et Olivier, and Focke-Wulf. The production model, called the C.30A by Avro, was built under licence in Britain, France and Germany and was similar to the C.30P. It carried small movable trimming surfaces. Each licensee used nationally built engines and used slightly different names. In all, 143 production First airmail service by helicopter in Los Angeles, 1947 C.30s were built, making it by far the most numerous prewar autogyro. Between 1933 and 1936, de la Cierva used one C.30A (G-ACWF) to perfect his last contribution to autogyro development before his death in late 1936.* [40] To enable the aircraft to take off without forward ground travel, he produced the“Autodynamic”rotor head, which allowed the rotor to be spun up by the engine in the usual way but to higher than take-off r.p.m at zero rotor incidence and then to reach operational positive pitch suddenly enough to jump some 20 ft (6 m) upwards.* [41]
25.1.5
Birth of an industry
Igor Sikorsky and the world's first mass-produced helicopter, the Sikorsky R-4, 1944
Heinrich Focke at Focke-Wulf was licensed to produce the Cierva C.30 autogyro in 1933. Focke designed the world's first practical transverse twin-rotor helicopter, the Focke-Wulf Fw 61, which first flew on 26 June 1936. The Fw 61 broke all of the helicopter world records in 1937, demonstrating a flight envelope that had only previously been achieved by the autogyro. Nazi Germany used helicopters in small numbers during World War II for observation, transport, and medical evacuation. The Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri synchropter ̶using the same basic configuration as Anton Flettner's own pioneering Fl 265 ̶
was used in the Mediterranean, while the Focke Achgelis Fa 223 Drache twin-rotor helicopter was used in Europe. Extensive bombing by the Allied forces prevented Germany from producing any helicopters in large quantities during the war. In the United States, Russian-born engineer Igor Sikorsky and W. Lawrence LePage competed to produce the U.S. military's first helicopter. LePage received the patent rights to develop helicopters patterned after the Fw 61, and built the XR-1.* [42] Meanwhile, Sikorsky settled on a simpler, single rotor design, the VS-300, which turned out to be the first practical single lifting-rotor helicopter design and potentially the best-flying one since the Soviet TsAGI 1-EA, which had flown nearly a decade before. After experimenting with configurations to counteract the torque produced by the single main rotor, Sikorsky settled on a single, smaller rotor mounted on the tailboom. Developed from the VS-300, Sikorsky's R-4 was the first large-scale mass-produced helicopter, with a production order for 100 aircraft. The R-4 was the only Allied helicopter to serve in World War II, when it was used primarily for rescue in Burma, Alaska, and other areas with harsh terrain. Total production reached 131 helicopters before the R-4 was replaced by other Sikorsky helicopters such as the R-5 and the R-6. In all, Sikorsky produced over 400 helicopters before the end of World War II.* [43] While LePage and Sikorsky built their helicopters for the military, Bell Aircraft hired Arthur Young to help build a helicopter using Young's two-blade teetering rotor design, which used a weighted stabilizing bar placed at a 90° angle to the rotor blades. The subsequent Model 30 helicopter showed the design's simplicity and ease of use. The Model 30 was developed into the Bell 47, which became the first helicopter certified for civilian use in the United States. Produced in several countries, the Bell 47 was the most popular helicopter model for nearly 30 years.
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25.1.6
Turbine age
• Bell 205 dropping water on fire
Main articles: Gas turbine and turboshaft
• HH-65 Dolphin demonstrating hoist rescue capability
In 1951, at the urging of his contacts at the Department of the Navy, Charles Kaman modified his K-225 synchropter ̶a design for a twin-rotor helicopter concept first pioneered by Anton Flettner in 1939, with the aforementioned Fl 265 piston-engined design in Germany ̶with a new kind of engine, the turboshaft engine. This adaptation of the turbine engine provided a large amount of power to Kaman's helicopter with a lower weight penalty than piston engines, with their heavy engine blocks and auxiliary components. On 11 December 1951, the Kaman K-225 became the first turbinepowered helicopter in the world. Two years later, on 26 March 1954, a modified Navy HTK-1, another Kaman helicopter, became the first twin-turbine helicopter to fly.* [44] However, it was the Sud Aviation Alouette II that would become the first helicopter to be produced with a turbine-engine.* [45]
• A Spanish Maritime Safety Agency AW139SAR rescue helicopter
Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover flight were developed decades after fixed-wing aircraft. This is largely due to higher engine power density requirements than fixed-wing aircraft. Improvements in fuels and engines during the first half of the 20th century were a critical factor in helicopter development. The availability of lightweight turboshaft engines in the second half of the 20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and higher-performance helicopters. While smaller and less expensive helicopters still use piston engines, turboshaft engines are the preferred powerplant for helicopters today.
25.2 Uses Due to the operating characteristics of the helicopter̶its ability to take off and land vertically, and to hover for extended periods of time, as well as the aircraft's handling properties under low airspeed conditions ̶it has been chosen to conduct tasks that were previously not possible with other aircraft, or were time- or work-intensive to accomplish on the ground. Today, helicopter uses include transportation of people and cargo, military uses, construction, firefighting, search and rescue, tourism, medical transport, law enforcement, agriculture, news and media, and aerial observation, among others.* [46] • • • •
• Sikorsky S-76C+ air ambulance • An Eurocopter EC145 of the Swiss Air-Rescue (REGA) • A Ukrainian Naval Aviation Ka-27 preparing for take off from the USS Taylor • Search and rescue training in Estonia with Mil Mi-8 A helicopter used to carry loads connected to long cables or slings is called an aerial crane. Aerial cranes are used to place heavy equipment, like radio transmission towers and large air conditioning units, on the tops of tall buildings, or when an item must be raised up in a remote area, such as a radio tower raised on the top of a hill or mountain. Helicopters are used as aerial cranes in the logging industry to lift trees out of terrain where vehicles cannot travel and where environmental concerns prohibit the building of roads.* [47] These operations are referred to as longline because of the long, single sling line used to carry the load.* [48] The largest single non-combat helicopter operation in history was the disaster management operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Hundreds of pilots were involved in airdrop and observation missions, making dozens of sorties a day for several months. Helitack is the use of helicopters to combat wildland fires.* [49] The helicopters are used for aerial firefighting (or water bombing) and may be fitted with tanks or carry helibuckets. Helibuckets, such as the Bambi bucket, are usually filled by submerging the bucket into lakes, rivers, reservoirs, or portable tanks. Tanks fitted onto helicopters are filled from a hose while the helicopter is on the ground or water is siphoned from lakes or reservoirs through a hanging snorkel as the helicopter hovers over the water source. Helitack helicopters are also used to deliver firefighters, who rappel down to inaccessible areas, and to resupply firefighters. Common firefighting helicopters include variants of the Bell 205 and the Erickson S-64 Aircrane helitanker.
Helicopters are used as air ambulances for emergency medical assistance in situations when an ambulance canA United States Navy Sikorsky HO3S-1 in action not easily or quickly reach the scene, or cannot transport during the Korean War (1950-1953) the patient to a medical facility in time. Helicopters are also used when a patient needs to be transported between Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane lifting a prefab house medical facilities and air transportation is the most practical method for the safety of the patient. Air ambulance AgustaWestland Apache attack helicopter helicopters are equipped to provide medical treatment to Harbin Z-19 reconnaissance/attack helicopter a patient while in flight. The use of helicopters as air
25.3. DESIGN FEATURES
161
ambulances is often referred to as MEDEVAC, and patients are referred to as being “airlifted”, or “medevaced”. This use was pioneered in the Korean war, when time to reach a medical facility was reduced to 3 hours from 8 hours in World War II, and again to 2 hours by the Vietnam war.* [50] Police departments and other law enforcement agencies use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects' locations and movements. They are often mounted with lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits. Military forces use attack helicopters to conduct aerial attacks on ground targets. Such helicopters are mounted with missile launchers and miniguns. Transport helicopters are used to ferry troops and supplies where the lack of an airstrip would make transport via fixed-wing aircraft impossible. The use of transport helicopters to deliver troops as an attack force on an objective is referred to as Air Assault. Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) helicopter systems of varying sizes are being developed by companies for military reconnaissance and surveillance duties. Naval forces also use helicopters equipped with dipping sonar for anti-submarine warfare, since they can operate from small ships.
A teetering rotor system
from the main rotors. The rotor consists of a mast, hub and rotor blades.
The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upwards from the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are attached to the hub. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the rotor blades are attached and move relative to the hub. There are three basic types: hingeless, fully articulated, and teetering; although some Oil companies charter helicopters to move workers and modern rotor systems use a combination of these. parts quickly to remote drilling sites located out to sea or in remote locations. The speed over boats makes the high operating cost of helicopters cost effective to ensure 25.3.2 Anti-torque features that oil platforms continue to flow. Various companies specialize in this type of operation. Other uses of helicopters include, but are not limited to: • Aerial photography • Motion picture photography • Electronic news gathering • Reflection seismology • Search and Rescue • Tourism or recreation • Transport MD Helicopters 520N NOTAR
25.3 Design features 25.3.1
Rotor system
Main article: Helicopter rotor The rotor system, or more simply rotor, is the rotating part of a helicopter that generates lift. A rotor system may be mounted horizontally, as main rotors are, providing lift vertically, or it may be mounted vertically, such as a tail rotor, to provide horizontal thrust to counteract torque
Most helicopters have a single main rotor, but torque created as the engine turns the rotor causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction to the rotor (by conservation of angular momentum). To eliminate this effect, some sort of anti-torque control must be used. The design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300 was a smaller tail rotor. The tail rotor pushes or pulls against the tail to counter the torque effect, and this has become the most common configuration for helicopter design.
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Some helicopters use other anti-torque controls instead 25.3.3 Engines of the tail rotor, such as the ducted fan (called Fenestron or FANTAIL) and NOTAR. NOTAR provides anti-torque similar to the way a wing develops lift through the use of Main articles: Aircraft engine and Turboshaft the Coandă effect on the tailboom.* [51] The number, size and type of engine(s) used on a helicopter determines the size, function and capability of that helicopter design. The earliest helicopter engines were simple mechanical devices, such as rubber bands or spindles, which relegated the size of helicopters to toys and small models. For a half century before the first airplane flight, steam engines were used to forward the development of the understanding of helicopter aerodynamics, but the limited power did not allow for manned flight. The introduction of the internal combustion engine at the end of the 19th century became the watershed for helicopter development as engines began to be developed and produced that were powerful enough to allow for helicopters able to lift humans. Boeing CH-47 Chinook is the most common dual rotor helicopter deployed today
The use of two or more horizontal rotors turning in opposite directions is another configuration used to counteract the effects of torque on the aircraft without relying on an anti-torque tail rotor. This allows the power normally required to drive the tail rotor to be applied to the main rotors, increasing the aircraft's lifting capacity. There are several common configurations that use the counterrotating effect to benefit the rotorcraft:
Early helicopter designs utilized custom-built engines or rotary engines designed for airplanes, but these were soon replaced by more powerful automobile engines and radial engines. The single, most-limiting factor of helicopter development during the first half of the 20th century was that the amount of power produced by an engine was not able to overcome the engine's weight in vertical flight. This was overcome in early successful helicopters by using the smallest engines available. When the compact, flat engine was developed, the helicopter industry found a lighter-weight powerplant easily adapted to small helicopters, although radial engines continued to be used for larger helicopters.
Turbine engines revolutionized the aviation industry, and • Tandem rotors are two counter-rotating rotors with the turboshaft engine finally gave helicopters an engine one mounted behind the other. with a large amount of power and a low weight penalty. Turboshafts are also more reliable than piston engines, • Coaxial rotors are two counter-rotating rotors especially when producing the sustained high levels of mounted one above the other with the same axis. power required by a helicopter. The turboshaft engine was able to be scaled to the size of the helicopter being • Intermeshing rotors are two counter-rotating rotors designed, so that all but the lightest of helicopter models mounted close to each other at a sufficient angle to are powered by turbine engines today. let the rotors intermesh over the top of the aircraft Special jet engines developed to drive the rotor from the without colliding. rotor tips are referred to as tip jets. Tip jets powered • Transverse rotors are pair of counter-rotating rotors mounted at each end of the wings or outrigger structures. They are found on tiltrotors and some earlier helicopters.
by a remote compressor are referred to as cold tip jets, while those powered by combustion exhaust are referred to as hot tip jets. An example of a cold jet helicopter is the Sud-Ouest Djinn, and an example of the hot tip jet helicopter is the YH-32 Hornet.
Some radio-controlled helicopters and smaller, helicopter-type unmanned aerial vehicles, use electric motors. Radio-controlled helicopters may also have piston engines that use fuels other than gasoline, such as nitromethane. Some turbine engines commonly used in helicopters can also use biodiesel instead of jet * * Tip jet designs let the rotor push itself through the air and fuel. [53] [54] avoid generating torque.* [52] There are also human-powered helicopters. • Quadcopters have four rotors often with parallel axes (sometimes rotating in the same direction with tilted axes) which are commonly used on model aircraft.
25.4. FLIGHT
25.3.4
163
Flight controls
range of RPM.* [55]* [56]* [57]* [58]* [59] The throttle controls the power produced by the engine, which is conMain article: Helicopter flight controls nected to the rotor by a fixed ratio transmission. The purA helicopter has four flight control inputs. These are pose of the throttle is to maintain enough engine power to keep the rotor RPM within allowable limits so that the rotor produces enough lift for flight. In single-engine helicopters, the throttle control is a motorcycle-style twist grip mounted on the collective control, while dual-engine helicopters have a power lever for each engine. A swashplate controls the collective and cyclic pitch of the main blades. The swashplate moves up and down, along the main shaft, to change the pitch of both blades. This causes the helicopter to push air downward or upward, depending on the angle of attack. The swashplate can also change its angle to move the blades angle forwards or backwards, or left and right, to make the helicopter move in those directions.
Controls from a Bell 206
25.4 Flight
the cyclic, the collective, the anti-torque pedals, and the throttle. The cyclic control is usually located between the pilot's legs and is commonly called the cyclic stick or just cyclic. On most helicopters, the cyclic is similar to a joystick. However, the Robinson R22 and Robinson R44 have a unique teetering bar cyclic control system and a few helicopters have a cyclic control that descends into the cockpit from overhead. The control is called the cyclic because it changes the pitch of the rotor blades cyclically. The result is to tilt the rotor disk in a particular direction, resulting in the helicopter moving in that direction. If the pilot pushes the cyclic forward, the rotor disk tilts forward, and the rotor produces a thrust in the forward direction. If the pilot pushes the cyclic to the side, the rotor disk tilts to that side and produces thrust in that direction, causing Helicopter hovering over boat in rescue exercise the helicopter to hover sideways. The collective pitch control or collective is located on the There are three basic flight conditions for a helicopter: left side of the pilot's seat with a settable friction control hover, forward flight and the transition between the two. to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective changes the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades collectively (i.e. all at the same time) and independently of their po- 25.4.1 Hover sition. Therefore, if a collective input is made, all the blades change equally, and the result is the helicopter in- Hovering is the most challenging part of flying a helicopter. This is because a helicopter generates its own creasing or decreasing in altitude. gusty air while in a hover, which acts against the fuselage The anti-torque pedals are located in the same position as and flight control surfaces. The end result is constant conthe rudder pedals in a fixed-wing aircraft, and serve a sim- trol inputs and corrections by the pilot to keep the heliilar purpose, namely to control the direction in which the copter where it is required to be.* [60] Despite the comnose of the aircraft is pointed. Application of the pedal in plexity of the task, the control inputs in a hover are sima given direction changes the pitch of the tail rotor blades, ple. The cyclic is used to eliminate drift in the horizontal increasing or reducing the thrust produced by the tail ro- plane, that is to control forward and back, right and left. tor and causing the nose to yaw in the direction of the The collective is used to maintain altitude. The pedals applied pedal. The pedals mechanically change the pitch are used to control nose direction or heading. It is the of the tail rotor altering the amount of thrust produced. interaction of these controls that makes hovering so difHelicopter rotors are designed to operate in a narrow ficult, since an adjustment in any one control requires an
164
CHAPTER 25. HELICOPTER
adjustment of the other two, creating a cycle of constant correction.
25.4.2
Transition from hover to forward flight
As a helicopter moves from hover to forward flight it enters a state called translational lift which provides extra lift without increasing power. This state, most typically, occurs when the airspeed reaches approximately 16–24 knots, and may be necessary for a helicopter to obtain flight.
25.4.3
Royal Australian Navy Squirrel helicopters during a display at the 2008 Melbourne Grand Prix
Forward flight
In forward flight a helicopter's flight controls behave more like those of a fixed-wing aircraft. Displacing the cyclic forward will cause the nose to pitch down, with a resultant increase in airspeed and loss of altitude. Aft cyclic will cause the nose to pitch up, slowing the helicopter and causing it to climb. Increasing collective (power) while maintaining a constant airspeed will induce a climb while decreasing collective will cause a descent. Coordinating these two inputs, down collective plus aft cyclic or up collective plus forward cyclic, will result in airspeed changes while maintaining a constant altitude. The pedals serve A Robinson R44 Raven II arrives for the 2014 Royal Internathe same function in both a helicopter and a fixed-wing tional Air Tattoo, England aircraft, to maintain balanced flight. This is done by applying a pedal input in whichever direction is necessary the outer tips of the rotor travel at a speed determined by to center the ball in the turn and bank indicator. the length of the blade and the RPM. In a moving helicopter, however, the speed of the blades relative to the air depends on the speed of the helicopter as well as on their 25.5 Safety rotational velocity. The airspeed of the advancing rotor blade is much higher than that of the helicopter itself. It is possible for this blade to exceed the speed of sound, and thus produce vastly increased drag and vibration. (See wave drag.)
HAL Dhruv at the 2008 Royal International Air Tattoo, England
25.5.1
Limitations
Because the advancing blade has higher airspeed than the retreating blade and generates a dissymmetry of lift, rotor blades are designed to “flap”– lift and twist in such a way that the advancing blade flaps up and develops a smaller angle of attack. Conversely, the retreating blade flaps down, develops a higher angle of attack, and generates more lift. At high speeds, the force on the rotors is such that they“flap”excessively and the retreating blade can reach too high an angle and stall. For this reason, the maximum safe forward airspeed of a helicopter is given a design rating called VNE , Velocity, Never Exceed.* [61] In addition it is possible for the helicopter to fly at an airspeed where an excessive amount of the retreating blade stalls, which results in high vibration, pitch -up, and roll into the retreating blade.
The main limitation of the helicopter is its low speed. During the closing years of the 20th century designers beThere are several reasons a helicopter cannot fly as fast gan working on helicopter noise reduction. Urban comas a fixed-wing aircraft. When the helicopter is hovering, munities have often expressed great dislike of noisy air-
25.5. SAFETY
165
craft, and police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular. The redesigns followed the closure of some city heliports and government action to constrain flight paths in national parks and other places of natural beauty.
jamming and subsequent fatalities, whereas loss of lubrication can trigger onboard fire. Another weakness of mechanical gearboxes is their transient power limitation, due to structural fatigue limits. Recent EASA studies point to as prime cause of crashes just Helicopters also vibrate; an unadjusted helicopter can engines and transmissions * after pilot errors. [62] easily vibrate so much that it will shake itself apart. To reduce vibration, all helicopters have rotor adjustments By contrast, electromagnetic transmissions do not use any for height and weight. Blade height is adjusted by chang- parts in contact; hence lubrication can be drastically siming the pitch of the blade. Weight is adjusted by adding plified, or eliminated. Their inherent redundancy offers or removing weights on the rotor head and/or at the blade good resilience to single point of failure. The absence of end caps. Most also have vibration dampers for height gears enables high power transient without impact on serand pitch. Some also use mechanical feedback systems vice life. The concept of electric propulsion applied to heto sense and counter vibration. Usually the feedback sys- licopter and electromagnetic drive was brought to reality tem uses a mass as a “stable reference”and a linkage by Pascal Chretien who designed, built and flew world's from the mass operates a flap to adjust the rotor's angle first man-carrying, free-flying electric helicopter. The of attack to counter the vibration. Adjustment is diffi- concept was taken from the conceptual computer-aided cult in part because measurement of the vibration is hard, design model on September 10, 2010 to the first testing usually requiring sophisticated accelerometers mounted at 30% power on March 1, 2011 - less than six months. throughout the airframe and gearboxes. The most com- The aircraft first flew on August 12, 2011. All developmon blade vibration adjustment measurement system is ment was conducted in Venelles, France.* [63]* [64] to use a stroboscopic flash lamp, and observe painted markings or coloured reflectors on the underside of the rotor blades. The traditional low-tech system is to mount 25.5.3 Hazards coloured chalk on the rotor tips, and see how they mark a linen sheet. Gearbox vibration most often requires a As with any moving vehicle, unsafe operation could result gearbox overhaul or replacement. Gearbox or drive train in loss of control, structural damage, or loss of life. The vibrations can be extremely harmful to a pilot. The most following is a list of some of the potential hazards for severe being pain, numbness, loss of tactile discrimina- helicopters: tion and dexterity. • Settling with power, also known as a vortex ring state, is when the aircraft is unable to arrest its de25.5.2 Transmission scent due to the rotor's downwash interfering with the aerodynamics of the rotor.* [65] • Retreating blade stall is experienced during high speed flight and is the most common limiting factor of a helicopter's forward speed. • Ground resonance is a self-reinforcing vibration that occurs when the lead/lag spacing of the blades of an articulated rotor system becomes irregular. • Low-G condition is an abrupt change from a positive G-force state to a negative G-force state that results in loss of lift (unloaded disc) and subsequent roll over. If aft cyclic is applied while the disc is unloaded, the main rotor could strike the tail causing catastrophic failure.* [66] Pascal Chretien hovering the world's first manned electric helicopter, August 2011
Conventional rotary-wing aircraft use a set of complex mechanical gearboxes to convert the high rotation speed of gas turbines into the low speed required to drive main and tail rotors. Unlike powerplants, mechanical gearboxes cannot be duplicated (for redundancy) and have always been a major weak point in helicopter reliability. In-flight catastrophic gear failures often result in gearbox
• Dynamic rollover in which the helicopter pivots around one of the skids and 'pulls' itself onto its side. • Powertrain failures, especially those that occur within the shaded area of the height-velocity diagram. • Tail rotor failures which occur from either a mechanical malfunction of the tail rotor control system or a loss of tail rotor thrust authority, called Loss of Tail-rotor Effectiveness (LTE).
166 • Brownout in dusty conditions or whiteout in snowy conditions.
CHAPTER 25. HELICOPTER
25.6 World records
• Low rotor RPM, or rotor droop, is when the engine cannot drive the blades at sufficient RPM to maintain flight.
25.7 Types and makes
• Rotor overspeed, which can over-stress the rotor hub pitch bearings (Brinelling) and, if severe enough, There are many types of helicopters ranging from the ulcause blade separation from the aircraft. tralight Mosquito to the much heavier Mi-26. While the • Wire and tree strikes due to low altitude operations same principles apply to all of them, the shapes, sizes, and take-offs and landings in remote locations.* [67] and styles of helicopters vary as much as one bird does from the next. Size can be the most noticeable differ• Controlled flight into terrain in which the aircraft is ence, although some shapes of different parts can also be flown into the ground unintentionally due to lack of more obvious (such as the Robinson's characteristic tall situational awareness. main rotor mount). Helicopters also typically have varying paints and markings signifying the type of work for • Mast bumping in some helicopters* [68] which they are used, e.g. military ones can vary from camouflage to dark green, while commercial ones may have a greater variance. 25.5.4 Deadliest crashes 1. 2002: a Russian Mil Mi-26 was shot down over Chechnya; 127 killed. 2. 1997: two Israeli Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallions collided over Israel; 73 killed. 3. 14 December 1992: despite being heavily escorted, a Russian Army Mil Mi-8 was shot down by Georgian forces in Abkhazia using SA-14 MANPADs, with the loss of three crew members and 58 passengers composed of mainly Russian refugees.* [69] 4. 4 October 1993: Russian forces shot down a Georgian Mi-8 transporting 60 refugees from eastern Abkhazia; all on board were killed.* [69] 5. 10 May 1977: an Israeli CH-53 crashed near Yitav in the Jordan Valley; 54 killed. 6. 11 September 1982: a U.S. Army Boeing CH-47 Chinook crashed at an air show in Mannheim, Germany; 46 killed.* [70] 7. 1986: a Boeing 234LR Chinook operated by British International Helicopters crashed in the Shetland Islands; 45 killed.
25.8 See also • Backpack helicopter • Helicopter dynamics • Helicopter manufacturers • Cyclogyro • Disk loading • Gyrodyne • Helicopter height–velocity diagram • Jesus nut, the top central big nut that holds the rotor on • List of helicopter airlines • List of rotorcraft
8. 1992: an Azerbaijani Mil Mi-8 was shot down; 44 killed.
• Monocopter
9. 2009: a Pakistan Army Mil Mi-17 crashed; 41 killed.
• Transverse flow effect
10. 2011: a US CH-47 Chinook was shot down in Afghanistan: 38 killed.* [71] 11. 26 January 2005: An USMC Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion crashed near Ar Rutbah, Iraq killing all 31 service members on board.* [72]
• Utility helicopter • Wire strike protection system, “WSPS”for helicopters. • Helicopter Underwater Escape Training
25.9. REFERENCES
25.9 References 25.9.1
Notes
[1] Leishman, Dr. J. Gordon, Technical Fellow of AHS International. “Paper.”64th Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society International, on the aerodynamic capability of Cornu's design, arguing that the aircraft lacked the power and rotor loading to lift free of the ground in manned flight.
25.9.2
Footnotes
[1] GEN ἕλικος helikos (the κ being romanised as a c); see ἕλιξ and ἕλιξ (as an adjective). Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project. [2] πτερόν in Liddell and Scott. [3] Harper, Douglas. “helicopter”. Online Etymology Dictionary. [4] For various reasons, the word is often erroneously, from an etymological point of view, analysed by English speakers into heli- and copter; see “helicopter”. The Free Dictionary. [5] Cottez 1980, p. 181. [6] Munson 1968.
167
[16] Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-85860-7. [17] Rumerman, Judy. “Early Helicopter Technology.”Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [18] Pilotfriend.com“Leonardo da Vinci's Helical Air Screw.” Pilotfriend.com. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [19] Hallion, Richard P. “Pioneers of Flight: Alphonse Pénaud.” Air Force Link. Retrieved: 12 December 2010. [20] Bryan, George S. Edison: the Man and His Work. New York: Garden City Publishers, 1926. p. 249. [21] “Pioneers – 1900/1930.” Helicopter History Site. Retrieved: 3 May 2007. [22] Dowd, George L.“Flops of famous inventors”. Popular Science, December 1930. [23] Taylor, Michael J. H. Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation, p. 348. London: Studio Editions, 1989. [24] "FAI Record ID #13094 - Straight distance. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014. [25] “New Helicopter Rises in Vertical Flight.” Popular Science, November 1930, p. 70. [26] “Helicopter With Six Blades Succeeds In Tests.”Popular Mechanics, March 1931.
[7] Hirschberg, Michael J. and David K. Dailey, “Sikorsky” [27] "FAI Record ID #13093 - Straight distance. Class E for. US and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th Cenmer G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Intury, American Helicopter Society, International. 7 July ternationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014. 2000. [28] Rumerman, Judy. “Helicopter Development in the Early [8] Leishman, J. Gordon. Principles of Helicopter AerodyTwentieth Century”. Centennial of Flight Commission. namics. Cambridge aerospace series, 18. Cambridge: Retrieved 28 November 2007. Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521[29] The JAviator Quadrotor – Rainer K. L. Trummer, Uni85860-1. Web extract versity of Salzburg, Austria, 2010, p. 21 [9] “Early Helicopter History.” Aerospaceweb.org. Re[30] “Asboth Helicopter.” The Evening Post (New Zealand), trieved: 12 December 2010. 27 April 1935. [10] Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity Through the First World War. Oxford University Press. [31] The first Hungarian helicopter (1929) on YouTube Retrieved: 12 December 2010. 8 May 2003. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-19-516035-2. [11] Goebel, Greg. “The Invention Of The Helicopter.” at the Wayback Machine (archived June 29, 2011) Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 11 November 2008. [12] Fay, John. “Helicopter Pioneers – Evolution of Rotary Wing Aircraft.” Helicopter History Site. Retrieved: 28 November 2007. [13] Charles H. Gibbs-Smith, Origins of the helicopter”, New Scientist, vol. 14.4, May 3, 1962, p. 229.
[32] Spenser 1998 [33] "FAI Record ID #13086 - Straight distance. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014. [34] video. [35] Savine, Alexandre. “TsAGI 1-EA.” ctrl-c.liu.se, 24 March 1997. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [36] Watkinson 2004, p. 358.
[14] Donald F. Lach. (1977). Asia in the making of Europe. Volume II, A Century of Wonder. p. 403. [15] Chinese Inventions.
[37] "FAI Record ID #13059 - Straight distance. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
168
[38] "FAI Record ID #13084 - Altitude. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014. [39] "FAI Record ID #13062 - Duration in closed circuit. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
CHAPTER 25. HELICOPTER
[58]
The UH-60 permits 95–101% rotor RPM UH-60 limits US Army Aviation. Retrieved 2 January 2010
[59] John M. Seddon, Simon Newman. Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics p216, John Wiley and Sons, 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2012. ISBN 1-119-99410-1. Quote:The rotor is best served by rotating at a constant rotor speed [60] Lombardi, Frank (April 2015). “Under the big top”. Rotor & Wing. p. 48. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
[40] Brian Daugherty. “Former Pages from the North East Aircraft Museum”.
[61] Rotorcraft Flying Handbook 2007, pp. 3–7.
[41] “Autogyro History and Theory”.
[62] “EASA-Annual-Safety-Review-2011”
[42] Francillon 1997
[63] “Challenges of Aircraft Hybridization”. IDTechEx. Retrieved 2013-04-29.
[43] Day, Dwayne A. “Igor Sikorsky – VS 300.” Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved 9 December 2007. [44] “Twin Turborotor Helicopter.”Popular Mechanics, August 1954, p. 139. [45] Connor, R.D. and R.E. Lee. “Kaman K-225.”Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, 27 July 2001. Retrieved 9 December 2007. Archived January 1, 2008 at the Wayback Machine
[64] “Vertiflite, March/April 2012 - AHS Online Store”. Vtol.org. Retrieved 2013-04-28. [65] http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a526709.pdf [66] http://www.robinsonheli.com/service_library/safety_ notices/rhc_sn11.pdf [67] “Helicopter Accidents in Hawaii.” kauaihelicoptertoursafety.com. Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[46] “Helicopter Pilot Training Schools, Careers - Heliventures”. heliventuresnc.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[68] FAA RFH, page 11-10
[47] Day, Dwayne A.“Skycranes”. Centennial of Flight Commission. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
[69] Cooper, Tom. “Georgia and Abkhazia, 1992–1993: the War of Datchas.”acig.org, 29 September 2003. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[48] Webster, L.F. The Wiley Dictionary of Civil Engineering and Construction. New York: Wiley, 1997. ISBN 0-47118115-3.
[70] “Crash Death, 3rd in 8 Years, Not Expected to Halt Future Shows.” Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[49] Butler, Bret W. et al. “Appendix A: Glossary: Fire Behavior Associated with the 1994 South Canyon Fire on Storm King Mountain, Colorado research paper.” U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, September 1998. Retrieved 2 November 2008. [50] Kay, Marcia Hillary. "40 Years Retrospective: It's Been a Wild Ride" Rotor & Wing, August 2007. Accessed: 8 June 2014. Archived June 8, 2014 at the Wayback Machine. [51] Frawley 2003, p. 151. [52] “Helicopter Yaw Control Methods”. aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [53] “Jay Leno's EcoJet Concept.” businessweek.com, 2 November 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [54] Skinner, Tony. “Eurosatory 2010: Industry celebrates first helicopter biofuel flight.” shephard.co.uk, 17 June 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[71] “31 U.S. troops, 7 Afghans killed as insurgents down NATO chopper.” LA Times, 6 August 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2011. [72] “Incident Date 050126 HMH-361 CH-53D – BuNo unknown – incident not yet classified – near Ar Rutbah, Iraq.” Marine Corps Combat Helicopter Association, 20 November 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2010. [73] “Record File n°11659”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013. [74] “Record File n°784”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013. [75] “Record File n°15171”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013. [76] “Record File n°754”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 10 Sep 2013. [77] “Record File n°9918”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
[55] Croucher, Phil. Professional helicopter pilot studies page 2-11. ISBN 978-0-9780269-0-5. Quote: [Rotor speed] “is constant in a helicopter”.
[78] “Record File n°9917”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
[56] Johnson, Pam. Delta D2 page 44 Pacific Wings. Retrieved 2 January 2010
[79] “Record File n°11597”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
[57] “Helicopters.”Helicopter Vietnam. Retrieved: 16 February 2011.
[80] “Record File n°15629”. Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
25.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
169
[81] “First electric helicopter”. Guinness World Record. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
• “Flights ̶of the Imagination.” 1918 article on helicopter design concepts.
[82] “Video: Canadians win long-unclaimed $250,000 prize for pedal-powered helicopter”. John Stevenson. uploaded Jul 22, 2013. Retrieved 6 February 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help)
•“Twin Windmill Blades Fly Wingless Ship”Popular Mechanics, April 1936
25.9.3
Bibliography
• Chiles, James R. The God Machine: From Boomerangs to Black Hawks: The Story of the Helicopter. New York: Bantam Books, 2007. ISBN 0-553-80447-2. • Cottez, Henri. Dictionnaire des structures du vocabulaire savant. Paris: Les Usuels du Robert. 1980. ISBN 0-85177-827-5. • Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920: Volume II. London: Putnam, 1997. ISBN 0-85177-827-5. • Frawley, Gerard. The International Directory of Civil Aircraft, 2003–2004. Fyshwick, Canberra, Act, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 2003, p. 155. ISBN 1-875671-58-7. • Munson, Kenneth. Helicopters and other Rotorcraft since 1907. London: Blandford Publishing, 1968. ISBN 978-0-7137-0493-8. • Rotorcraft Flying Handbook. Washington: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc., 2007. ISBN 1-60239-060-6. • Rotorcraft Flying Handbook: FAA Manual H-808321.. Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration (Flight Standards Division), U.S. Dept. of Transportation, 2001. ISBN 1-56027-404-2. • Thicknesse, P. Military Rotorcraft (Brassey's World Military Technology series). London: Brassey's, 2000. ISBN 1-85753-325-9. • Watkinson, John. Art of the Helicopter. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004. ISBN 07506-5715-4 • Wragg, David W. Helicopters at War: A Pictorial History. London: R. Hale, 1983. ISBN 0-70900858-9.
25.10 External links • "www.helicopterpage.com - How Helicopters Work” Complete site explaining different aspects of helicopters and how they work. • “Planes That Go Straight Up.” 1935 article about early development and research into helicopters.
• Russian-language video about the Cheremukhin/Yuriev TsAGI 1-EA pioneer helicopter
Chapter 26
HK 4.6×30mm The HK 4.6×30mm cartridge is a type of ammunition used in the Heckler & Koch MP7 Personal Defense Weapon (PDW) and by the canceled HK UCP pistol. It is an indigenous German cartridge. It is designed to minimize weight and recoil while increasing penetration of body armor. It features a bottlenecked case and a pointed, steel-core, brass-jacketed bullet.
26.1 Development The 4.6×30mm cartridge was introduced in 1999.* [7] It was designed as a competitor to FN Herstal's 5.7×28mm cartridge.* [7]
26.2 Overview Compared to conventional assault rifle cartridges one can carry more 4.6×30mm ammunition due to the lighter weight and relative small dimensions of the cartridge. Also, due to the lighter weight of the bullet, aiming in rapid fire is much easier as recoil depends much on the weight of the bullet. CRISAT testing shows that because of the smaller diameter and high projectile velocity of the round, body armor penetration is higher than that of traditional handgun projectiles. The 4.6×30mm cartridge has been claimed to have low terminal effectiveness, especially by those who disagree with the“energy dump”theory of wound ballistics, such as Dr. Martin Fackler. Kinetic energy manifests itself in human tissue in temporary stretching of tissue, which most tissue except for liver and neural tissue is able to withstand with little ill effect. Slow motion videos show that the 4.6 mm bullet yaws at impact on soft tissue. This is because the center of mass of the bullet is behind the geometric center, causing the back to come forward at impact, and therefore tumbling through soft tissue, creating much greater damage, according to the “energy dump”theory.
analyzed by a group formed of experts from France, the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom and the group's conclusion was that the 5.7×28mm was “undoubtedly”the more efficient cartridge.* [7] Among other points, the NATO group cited superior effectiveness (27% greater) for the 5.7×28mm against unprotected targets and equal effectiveness against protected targets.* [7] It also cited less sensitivity to extreme temperatures for the 5.7×28mm and cited a greater potential risk of barrel erosion with the 4.6×30mm.* [7] In addition, the group pointed out that 5.7×28mm is close to the 5.56×45mm NATO by its design and manufacture process, allowing it to be manufactured on existing production lines.* [7] The group also pointed out that 5.7×28mm weapons are more mature than 4.6×30mm weapons, and the 5.7×28mm FN Five-seven pistol was already in production at that time, while the 4.6×30mm Heckler & Koch UCP pistol was still only an early concept.* [7] However, the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5.7×28mm be standardized, and as a result, the standardization process was indefinitely halted.* [1]* [7]
26.3 Cartridge dimensions
A series of tests performed by NATO in the United Kingdom and France indicated that 5.7×28mm was the supe- The 4.6×30mm has 0.87 ml (13.4 grains) H2 O cartridge rior cartridge.* [7] The results of the NATO tests were case capacity. 170
26.4. VARIATIONS
171 projectile will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.25 (425 m/s) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 ).
26.4.2 2 g Action Law Enforcement Hollow Point The Action 4.6×30mm Law Enforcement cartridge weighs 6.5 g and is loaded with a 2 g CuZn-alloy (brass) Solid Hollow Point projectile that achieves 700 m/s (2,300 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The cartridge is designed for the MP7. This ammunition is optimized for energy transfer in soft targets and should offer decent penetration performance on hard and combined targets like car doors or glass and body armour.* [10] The muzzle velocity V0 and V50 indicate a G1 ballistic coefficient of approximately 0.112 to 0.119 (BC's are somewhat debatable). At the stated effective range of 200 m the 2 g Action projectile 4.6×30mm maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions. will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.67 (586 m/s) * All sizes in millimeters (mm). [8] under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈ (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 ). 22 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this carAction Law Enforcement cartridge technical data:* [11] tridge is 160 mm (1 in 6.3 in), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 4.52 mm, Ø grooves = 4.65 mm, land width = 1.21 mm and • Temperature range: −30 °C to + 52 °C the primer type is small rifle.* [2] According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) guidelines, the 4.6×30mm case can handle up to 400 MPa (58,015 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.
• Velocity/energy at 0 m: 700 m/s /480 Joule
The Belgian 5.7×28mm cartridge introduced in 1993 is probably the closest currently available ballistic twin of the 4.6×30mm.
• Penetration in 20% gelatine: bare at 25 m: < 30 cm
• Velocity/energy at 50 m: 568 m/s / 322 Joule • Ballistic coefficient C 1: (ICAO)/(Army Metro)
0.112 - 0.119
• Mean chamber pressure: max. 400 MPa
• Accuracy at 50 m: Ø 5 cm • Effective service range: 200 m (656 ft)
26.4 Variations 26.4.1
26.4.3 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.6×30mm
2 g DM11 Penetrator Ultimate ComThe Ball 4.6×30mm cartridge weighs 7 g and is loaded bat with a 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket projectile with a PbSb –
The German Army version of the 4.6×30mm cartridge (DM11 Penetrator) weighs 6.5 g and uses a 2 g copper plated steel bullet projectile at 720 m/s (2,362 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The DM11 Penetrator cartridge is designed for the MP7. The Ultimate Combat can penetrate the NATO CRISAT target at more than 300 meters. This ammunition should combine energy transfer in soft targets and very good penetration.* [9] The muzzle velocity V0 and V100 indicate a G1 ballistic coefficient of approximately 0.141 to 0.150 (BC's are somewhat debatable) making the DM11 projectile aerodynamically more efficient compared to typical service handgun projectiles, but less efficient compared to typical assault rifle projectiles. At the stated effective range of 200 m the DM11
alloy core and a steel copper plated jacket that achieves 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s) muzzle velocity. The cartridge is designed for the MP7. This ammunition is optimized for energy transfer in soft targets and should offer good precision.* [12] The muzzle velocity V0 and V100 indicate a G1 ballistic coefficient of approximately 0.171 to 0.187 (BC's are somewhat debatable). At the stated effective range of 200 m the 2.7 g Ball projectile will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.36 (463 m/s) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 ). Ball cartridge technical data:* [13] • Temperature range: between −54 °C and +52 °C
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CHAPTER 26. HK 4.6×30MM
• Velocity/energy at 0 m: 600 m/s / 544 Joule • Velocity/energy at 100 m: 463 m/s / 320 Joule • Ballistic coefficient C 1: (ICAO)/(Army Metro)
0.171 - 0.187
• Mean chamber pressure: max. 400 MPa • Penetration in gelatine bare at 25 m: < 35 cm • Accuracy at 100 m: Ø 8 cm • Effective range:~300 m (984 ft) (HK claims that the FMJ round has more retained energy than the “Combat Steel”due to the FMJ's heavier projectile.)
26.4.4
Others
VBR produces a 4.6×30mm 2-part controlled fragmenting projectile that is claimed to increase the content of the permanent wound cavity and double the chance to hit a vital organ.* [14] Heckler & Koch claims that the CPS Black Tip ammunition made by Fiocchi has a muzzle energy of approximately 525 J that would be comparable to 9 mm rounds.* [15]* [16]
26.5 See also • 4 mm caliber • 4.38×30mm Libra • 4.5×26mm MKR • 5.7×28mm • 5.8x21mm DAP92 • 7.92×24mm • List of cartridges by caliber • List of rifle cartridges
26.6 References [1] Gourley, S.; Kemp, I (November 26, 2003). “The Duellists”. Jane's Defence Weekly (ISSN: 02653818), Volume 40 Issue 21, pp 26–28. [2] “Suppressed Rifle Cartridges”. Raygun.10gauge.de. 2007-04-23. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [3] “Fiocchi - SFN Ram”. Heckler-koch.com. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [4] “Heckler & Koch :: Products”. Hkd-usa.com. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [5] “Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition”. World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [6] “01 December 2011, brochure (Energy and velocity at 10 m)". Retrieved 2012-02-13. [7] Oliver, David (2007). “Global Defence Review ̶In the Line of Fire”. GDR Publications. Retrieved 2009-10-19. [8] Current C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables (Free C.I.P. CDROM version download in ZIP and RAR format) [9] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g German Army 4.6×30mm Penetrator DM11 cartridge factsheet [10] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet [11] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet [12] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet [13] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Matal Jacket 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet [14] “The 4.6x30 mm B2F cartridge”. Fsdip.com. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [15] “Heckler & Koch :: Products”. Heckler-koch.de. Retrieved 2012-02-13. [16] “Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition”. World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
• Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
26.5.1
Weapons
• Heckler & Koch MP7 • Heckler & Koch UCP • ST Kinetics CPW • TVGK • VBR-CQBW
• C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables (free current C.I.P. CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)) • RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g German Army 4.6×30mm Penetrator DM11 cartridge factsheet • RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet • RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Ball 4.6×30mm cartridge factsheet
26.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
26.7 External links • UCP overview on world.guns.ru • MP7 PDW overview on world.guns.ru • PDW and 4.6 ammo overview on hkpro.com • JBM Small Arms Ballistics Ballistic Coefficient (Velocity) Calculator
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Infantry “Foot soldier”redirects here. For other uses of “foot soldier”, see Foot soldier (disambiguation). For the computer game, see Infantry (computer game). Infantry is the branch of a military force that fights on foot. As the troops who are intended to engage, fight, and defeat the enemy in face-to-face combat, they bear the brunt of warfare and typically suffer the greatest number of casualties. Historically, as the oldest branch of the combat arms, the infantry are the tip of the spear of a modern army, and continually undergo training that is more physically stressful and psychologically demanding than that of any other branch of the combat arms. Ancient Greek infantry: The Græco–Persian wars (449–499 BC) featured the light infantry slinger or peltast, and the heavy infantry hoplites; the shield of the hoplite had an anti-arrow curtain, meant to thwart the archer.
describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, and defeat the enemy in direct combat, usually to take and occupy the terrain. As describing the branch of the combat arms, the term Infantry derives from the French Infanterie, which, in turn, is derived from the Italian Fanteria and ultimately from the Latin Infantera; the individual-soldier term InfantryEarly 20th-century infantry: The Royal Irish Rifles at the Battle man (1837) was not coined until the 19th century. Hisof the Somme (July–November 1916) during the First World War torically, before the invention and the introduction of firearms to warfare, the foot soldiers of previous eras̶ (1914–18). armed with blunt and edged weapons, and a shield̶also Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is in- are considered and identified as infantrymen. accessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served The term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which infantry support weapons that provide greater and more boasted the first professional standing army seen in Eusustained firepower. The transport and delivery tech- rope since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint niques of modern infantrymen to engage in battle include royal princes (Infantes) to military commands, and the marching, mechanised transport, airborne (by parachute men under them became known as Infanteria. or by helicopter) and amphibious landing from the sea. In the Western world, during the Græco–Roman Antiquity (8th–7th centuries BC), and during the Middle Ages (AD 476–1453), infantry soldiers were categorized, 27.1 History and etymology characterised, and identified according to the type of weapons and armour with which they were armed, thus Main article: History of infantry heavy infantry (hoplite) and light infantry (Greek peltasts, In English, the 16th-century term Infantry (ca. 1570s) Roman velites). Since the application of firearms to war174
27.3. ORGANIZATION fare, the classifications of infantrymen have changed to reflect their formations on the battlefield, such as line infantry, and to reflect the modes of transporting them to the battlefield, and the tactics deployed by specific types of combat units, such as mechanized infantry and airborne infantry.
27.2 Combat role As a branch of the armed forces, the role of the infantry in warfare is to engage, fight, and kill the enemy at close range̶using either a firearm (rifle, pistol, machine gun), an edged-weapon (knife, bayonet), or bare hands (close quarters combat)̶as required by the mission to hand; thus
175 However, the most effective method for locating all enemy forces on a battlefield is still the infantry patrol, and it is the presence or absence of infantry that ultimately determines whether a particular piece of ground has been captured or held. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, and combat aircraft. Studies have shown that of all casualties, 50% or more were caused by artillery; about 10% were caused by machine guns; 2–5% by rifle fire; and 1% or less by hand grenades, bayonets, knives, and unarmed combat combined. Several infantry divisions both Allied and Axis in the European theatre of WWII suffered higher than 100% combat and non combat casualties and some above 200%, meaning that the number of service personnel that became casualties was greater than the sum of the divisions' available service positions at full strength.
27.3 Organization
20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in 1941, during the Second World War (1939–45). 19th-century infantry: Brigadier General Winfield Scott leads American line infantry into the Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814) in Canada, during the Anglo–American War of 1812(1812–15).
• in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army the role of the infantry is “to seek out and close with the enemy, to kill or capture him, to seize and hold Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations ground, to repel attack, by day or night, regardless to be employed in battle. These have been developed over of season, weather or terrain”.* [1] time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment. Until the end of the 19th cen• in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is“to tury, infantry units were for the most part employed in * * close with, and destroy the enemy”. [2] [3] closely organized formations up until the actual moment • in the U.S. Army, the “infantry closes with the en- of contact with the enemy. This was necessary to allow emy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to de- commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while stroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, maneuvering, as well as allowing officers to retain discipline amongst the ranks. close combat, and counterattack”.* [4] With the development of machine guns and other • in the U.S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is weapons with increased firepower, it became necessary to “locate, close with, and destroy the enemy with to disperse soldiers in infantry units to make them less fire and maneuver, and to repel the enemy assault by vulnerable to such weapons. From World War I, it was fire and close combat”.* [5] recognized that infantry were most successfully employed when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terBeginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th rain, and evade detection in ways not possible for other century, artillery has become an increasingly dominant weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of comforce on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat air- mand was made possible by improved communications craft and armoured vehicles have also become dominant. equipment and greater focus on small unit training.
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Among the various subtypes of infantry is “Medium French Resistance WWII, Iraqi Insurgency in Fallujah, infantry.”This refers to infantry which are less heavily American Revolution) armed and armored than heavy infantry, but more so than light infantry. In the early modern period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of 27.5 Operations body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are “heavier”than light infantry but “lighter”than mechanized infantry.
27.4 Doctrine Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical combat environment. Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body of statements on how infantry forces conduct operations and provides a common lexicon for use by infantry planners and leaders. Until the development of effective artillery doctrines, and more recently precision guided air delivered ordnance, the most recent important role of the infantry has been as the primary force of inflicting casualties on the enemy through aimed fire. The infantry is also the only combat arm which can ultimately decide whether any given tactical position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry that assures control of terrain. While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the infantry have not. Retractions to the Infantry Concept: Although it has been argued that infantrymen and infantry tactics are an antiquated and careless use of military manpower and resources, the infantryman has proven quite capable against many units, some much more technological and modern. For instance, light infantry has proven to be extremely effective against tank units by being able to take advantage of a tank's limited field of fire and sight by swarming enemy armor units and utilizing anti-armor rockets at long range or grenades in close quarters. Furthermore, air bombardment that can flatten entire cities has been shown to be completely useless against a dug in infantry force. (see Battle of Stalingrad 1942–1943) Even an occupying enemy police force has sometimes been shown to be a poor match against a clandestine infantry that has secreted itself away in a civilian population. (see
Canadian army reserve infantrymen train in urban operations.
Attack operations are the most basic role of the infantry, and along with defense, form the main stances of the infantry on the battlefield. Traditionally, in an open battle, or meeting engagement, two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective, most frequently a hill, river crossing, city or other dominant terrain feature, and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the objective. Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them because of the high number of casualties suffered while advancing to close with and destroy the enemy while under enemy fire. In mechanized infantry the armored personnel carrier (APC) is considered the assaulting position. These APCs can deliver infantrymen through the front lines to the battle and ̶in the case of infantry fighting vehicles̶contribute supporting firepower to engage the enemy. Successful attacks rely on sufficient force, preparative reconnaissance and battlefield preparation with bomb assets. Retention of discipline and cohesion throughout the attack is paramount to success. A subcategory of attacks is the ambush, where infantrymen lie in wait for enemy forces before attacking at a vulnerable moment. This gives the ambushing infantrymen the combat advantage of surprise, concealment and superior firing positions, and causes confusion. The ambushed unit does not know what it is up against, or where they are attacking from. Defense operations are the natural counter to attacks, in which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defensive posture offers many advantages to the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed fortifi-
27.5. OPERATIONS cations to advantage; these reduce exposure to enemy fire compared with advancing forces. Effective defense relies on minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions. Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full-scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to locate the enemy and destroy them when found. Patrols are used not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or insurgencies are possible. Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of withdrawing enemy forces which are not capable of effectively engaging friendly units, before they can build their strength to the point where they are effective. Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armoured vehicles are incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
177 armored vehicles for transport. These units can quickly disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access. Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering Surveillance operations are often carried out with the employment of small recon units or sniper teams which gather information about the enemy, reporting on characteristics such as size, activity, location, unit and equipment. These infantry units typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for periods of time within close proximity of the enemy without being detected. They may engage high profile targets, or be employed to hunt down terrorist cells and insurgents within a given area. These units may also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit, thus disclosing their location to be destroyed by more powerful friendly forces.
Reserve assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy infiltration. This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment. Escort consists of protecting support units from ambush, Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness should improve. However, the unit must be ready for departicularly from hostile infantry forces. Combat support units (a majority of the military) are not as well armed ployment at any point. or trained as infantry units and have a different mission. Construction can be undertaken either in reserve or on Therefore, they need the protection of the infantry, par- the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for ticularly when on the move. This is one of the most im- construction of field positions, roads, bridges, airfields, portant roles for the modern infantry, particularly when and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often operating alongside armored vehicles. In this capacity, given this assignment because of the physical quantity of infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring strong men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for and perform other missions. More often, such jobs are attack by the heavier units. given to specialist engineering corps. Base defense – Infantry units are tasked to protect certain areas like command posts or airbases. Units assigned to this job usually have a large number of military police attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons. Raid/Hostage Rescue – Infantry units are trained to quickly mobilise, infiltrate, enter and neutralise threat forces when appropriate combat intelligence indicates to secure a location, rescue or capture high profile targets.
Canadian soldiers of the Royal 22* e Régiment.
Maneuver operations consume much of an infantry unit's time. Infantry, like all combat arms units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but mechanised or armoured infantry often uses trucks and
Urban Combat – Urban combat poses unique challenges to the combat forces. It is one of the most complicated type of operations an infantry unit will undertake. With many places for the enemy to hide and ambush from, infantry units must be trained in how to enter a city, and systematically clear the buildings, which most likely will be booby trapped, in order to kill or capture enemy personnel within the city. Care must be taken to differentiate innocent civilians who often hide and support the enemy from the nonuniformed armed enemy forces. Civilian and military casualties both are usually very high.* [6]
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27.6 Day to day service
U.S. Army Rangers, Vietnam, 1969. German Army mechanized infantry (Panzergrenadiers) on an alert post during an exercise in 2006.
slang term among both Marine and Army infantrymen for themselves is “grunt.”In the British Army, they are the“squaddies.”The infantry is a small close-knit comBecause of an infantryman's duties with firearms, explomunity, and the slang names are terms of endearment that sives, physical and emotional stress, physical violence, caconvey mutual respect and shared experiences. sualties and deaths are not uncommon in both war and in peacetime training or operations. It is a highly dangerous and demanding combat service and in World War II military doctors concluded that even physically unwounded 27.7 Equipment and training soldiers were psychologically worn out after about 200 days of combat. In the past infantrymen were just a mass of hastily trained The physical, mental and environmental operating de- conscripts hastily armed with whatever could be quickly mands of the infantryman are high. All of the com- provided. In modern times, the infantryman can be a bat necessities such as ammunition, weapon systems, highly trained and equipped specialist in his own right. food, water, clothing and shelter are carried on the backs The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with of the infantrymen, at least in light role as opposed to the development of military technology and tactics in mounted/mechanised. Combat loads of over 36 kg (80 general, but certain constants remain regarding the design lbs) are standard, and greater loads in excess of 45 kg and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equip(100 lbs) are very common. , These heavy loads, com- ment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and bined with long foot patrols of over 40 km (25 mi) a day, special, mission specific equipment. Infantry tactics have in any climate from 43 to −29 °C (109 to −20 °F) in tem- become much more involved, and yet must be learned perature, require the infantryman to be in good physical and rehearsed until they become second nature when the and mental shape. Infantrymen live, fight and die out- infantry soldier is stumbling with fatigue and in the middoors in all types of brutal climates, often with no phys- dle of the "fog of war.”Spreading out, making use of ical shelter. Poor climate conditions adds misery to this cover and concealment, monitoring team-mates and leadalready demanding existence. Disease epidemics, frost- ers, and watching for the enemy must all become instincbite, heat stroke, trench foot, insect and wild animal bites tive and simultaneous. are common along with stress disorders and these have on multiple occsions caused more casualties than enemy Infantry weapons have included all types of personal weapons, i.e., anything that can be handled by individual action.* [7] soldiers, as well as some light crew-served weapons that Despite the hardships, infantrymen are expected to con- can be carried. During operations, especially in modern tinue with their combat missions despite death and injury times, the infantry often scavenge and employ whatever of friends, fear, despair, fatigue and bodily injury. weapons and equipment they can acquire from both friend Some infantry units are considered Special Forces. The and foe, in addition to those issued to them by their availearliest Special Forces commando units were more highly able supply chain. trained infantrymen, with special weapons, equipment Infantry of ancient times through the Renaissance and missions. Special Forces units recruit heavily from wielded a wide array of non-gunpowder weaponry. Inregular infantry units to fill their ranks. fantry formations used all sorts of melee weapons, such as Foreign and domestic militaries typically have a slang various types of swords, axes, and maces; shock weapons, term for their infantrymen. In the U.S. military, the such as spears and pikes; and ranged weapons such as
27.7. EQUIPMENT AND TRAINING
179
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force infantry wearing helmets and camouflage, 2006.
A French infantryman wearing a FÉLIN suit electronically linked to a modified FAMAS
javelins, bows, and slings. Their crew-served weapons were the ballista and the battering ram. Infantry of these premodern periods also wore a variety of personal body armour, including chain mail and cuirasses. Many of the premodern infantry weapons evolved over time to counter these advances in body armor, such as the falchion and crossbow, which were designed to pierce chain mail armor and wound the underlying body. Modern infantrymen may be trained to use equipment in addition to their personal rifles, such as hand guns or pistols, shotguns, machine guns, anti-tank missiles, antipersonnel mines, other incendiary and explosive devices, bayonets, GPS, map and compass, encrypted communications equipment, booby traps, surveillance equipment, night vision equipment, sensitive intelligence documents, classified weapon systems and other sensitive equipment.
27.7.1
tive gear comprises personal armor of some type. Ancient and medieval infantry used shields and wore leather and metal alloys for armour, as defense against both missile and hand-to-hand weapons. With the advent of effective firearms such as the arquebus, large numbers of men could be quickly trained into effective fighting forces, and such armour became thicker while providing less overall coverage to meet the threat of early firearms, which could only pierce this armour at close range. Generally, only pikemen were armoured in this fashion; gunners went largely unarmoured, due to the expense as well as the impracticality of armouring large numbers of men who were not expected to fight in close quarters where it would be most useful. As firearms became more powerful and armour became less useful against gunfire, the ratio of gunners to pikemen increased, until the advent of the bayonet rendered the latter entirely obsolete. While it became clear to most military leaders that the pikeman was now outdated, some armies stubbornly clung to the pike, though pikemen, too, would abandon their armour, until only specialized and prestigious cavalry units retained any significant armour coverage; the infantryman from this point went entirely unarmoured. The return to the use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend against high explosive fragmentation and concussion, and further developments in materials led to effective bulletdefeating body armour such as Kevlar, within the weight acceptable for infantry use.
Beginning in the Vietnam War, the use of personal body armour has again become widespread among infantry units. Infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Modern militaries are struggling to balance the value of personal Protective equipment and survival body protection versus the weight burden and ability to move under such weight. gear
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers reInfantry protective gear includes all equipment designed quire for day-to-day survival in the combat environment. to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protec- These include basic environmental protections, medical
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supplies, food, and sundries. As the amount of equipment a soldier can carry is very limited, efforts have been made to make equipment light and compact. Equipment is carried in tactical gear (such as ALICE), which should be comfortable to wear for extended periods of time, hamper movement as little as possible and be compatible with other things a soldier can be expected to carry, such as field radios and spare ammunition. Infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation ̶often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better equipment of troops to protect against these environmental factors greatly reduces these rates of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the entrenching tool̶basically a folding spade̶which can U.S. Army infantrymen in a firefight with Taliban guerrillas, Kunar Province, Afghanistan (31 March 2011). be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also in a variety of other daily tasks and even as a weapon. Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which may or may not be carried, depending on the mission and the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances, and communication with artillery and other support units. In some units, individual communications are being used to allow the greatest level of flexibility. Engineering equipment, including explosives, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of other gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be Canadian Army infantrymen from 3PPCLI search for al-Qaeda carried by infantry units. and Taliban guerrillas north of Qualat, Afghanistan.
27.8 Other infantry Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Airfield Defence Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence tactics. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a category of infantry that form part of a stateʼ s naval forces and perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from naval operations.
27.9 Descriptions of infantry •“Ah, yes, mere infantry ̶poor beggars. ...” ̶ Plautus* [8] •“Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles and all wars are won, in the end, by the infantryman. Secondly, the infantryman always bears the
brunt; his casualties are heavier, he suffers greater extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other [combat] arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman is less stereotyped, and far harder to acquire in modern war, than that of any other arm.”̶Field Marshal Earl Wavell* [9] •“I love the infantry, because they are the underdogs. They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they even learn to live without the necessities; and, in the end, they are the guys that wars can't be won without.”̶Ernie Pyle* [10] •“Iʼm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which gives more, and gets less, than anybody else.”̶Up Front (1945), by Bill Mauldin* [11] •“Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry, and ask the dead.”̶Ernest Hemingway* [12] •“The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm [of the army] where the weapon is the man, himself.”̶C.T. Shortis* [13] •“The army's infantry is its most essential component. Even today, no army can take and hold any ground without the use of infantry.”̶George Nafziger* [14]
27.12. REFERENCES •“Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can occupy.” ̶a Finnish Army officer, Operation Allied Force (1999), Kosovo. •“There is no beating these [British and Spanish] troops, in spite of their generals. I always thought they were bad soldiers, now I am sure of it. I had turned their right, pierced their centre, and, everywhere, victory was mine ̶but they did not know how to run!" ̶Field Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult, Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811), the Peninsular War (1808–14). •“Americans in 1950 rediscovered something that since Hiroshima they had forgotten: you may fly over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it, pulverize it and wipe it clean of life – but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you must do this on the ground, the way the Roman legions did, by putting your young men into the mud.”̶Military historian T.R. Fehrenbach
181
[9] In Praise of Infantry, by Field Marshal Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, The Times, Thursday, 19 April 1945 [10] p. 257, Tobin [11] p. 5, Mauldin & Ambrose [12] p. 262, Trogdon [13] The New York Times, Shortis [14] p. 13, Nafziger
27.12 References • English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On Infantry, (Revised edition), The Military Profession series, Praeger Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0275-94972-9 • The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945 In Praise of Infantry
27.10 See also
• Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewitness to World War II, Free Press, 1997
• Airborne infantry
• Mauldin, Bill, Ambrose, Stephen E., Up Front, W. W. Norton, 2000
• Light infantry • Line Infantry • Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol • Mounted infantry • School of Infantry • Naval Infantry • Air force infantry and special forces units
27.11 Citations and notes [1] Royal Australian Corps of Infantry at www.army.gov.au [2] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-392-001/FP-001 The Infantry Battalion in Battle, Volume 1 [3] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-301-002/FP-001 The battle Group in Operations, Change 2, 1992-02-03. [4] FM7-8, Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad [5] MOS 0311 [6] The United States Army's Preparedness to Conduct Urban Combat: A Strategic Priority, pp. 2–3 [7] http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/other_pub/ LoadCarriagePDF.pdf [8] p. 156, Heinl
• Trogdon, Robert W., Ernest Hemingway: A Literary Reference, Da Capo Press, 2002 • The New York Times, Maj Gen C T Shortis, British Director of Infantry, 4 February 1985 • Heinl, Robert Debs, Dictionary of Military and Naval Quotations, Plautus in The Braggart Captain (3rd century CE), Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1978 • Nafziger, George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, Presidio Press, 1998 • McManus, John C. Grunts: inside the American infantry combat experience, World War II through Iraq New York, NY: NAL Caliber. 2010 ISBN 978-0451-22790-4 plus Webcast Author Lecture at the Pritzker Military Library on September 29, 2010
27.13 External links • Historic films and photos showing Infantries in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu • In Praise of Infantry, by Field-Marshal Earl Wavell; First published in“The Times,”Thursday, 19 April 1945. • Photographic history of the U.S. Army's 1st Air Cavalry Division LRRP / Rangers in Vietnam 1968.
182 • The Lagunari “Serenissima”Regiment KFOR: KFOR Chronicle. • “Twenty-second and Last Patrol: A Struggle against Bad Luck"---a U.S. Army LRRP / Ranger team's experience during the Vietnam War. • Web Version of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-21.8 – The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad.
CHAPTER 27. INFANTRY
Chapter 28
Infantry fighting vehicle from 1958 until the early 1980s. The SPz 12-3 mounted a 20 mm autocannon in a small turret and carried a halfsquad of five armoured infantrymen. Western powers were surprised when the Soviet Union paraded the BMP-1, in 1967. The BMP possessed a very low profile and was armed with both a 73 mm smoothbore gun and an AT-3 Sagger ATGM. Its steeply-sloped front armour offered full protection against NATO's standard .50 calibre machine gun and partial protection against 20 millimetre Oerlikon cannon both in a 60 degree frontal arc, while its 73 mm gun and ATGM were a threat to NATO APCs and even MBTs. Russian BMP-3
Since then, all major military powers have developed or adopted IFVs. The German Marder and Puma followed the Schützenpanzer, the Chinese ZBD-97, the Soviet/Russian BMP-3, the Indian Abhay IFV, the Yugoslavian BVP M-80, the Canadian LAV III, the British Warrior, the American M2 Bradley, the Spanish Pizarro/ASCOD, the Italian Dardo, the Greek ELVO 'Leonidas-2', the South African Ratel, the French AMX10P and VBCI, the Swedish Combat Vehicle 90 and the Dutch YPR-765 AIFV.
An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), or mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support.* [1] The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe defines infantry fighting vehicle as “an armoured combat vehicle which is designed and equipped primarily to transport a combat infantry squad, which is armed with an integral or organic cannon of at least 20 millimeters calibre and sometimes an antitank Combat applications in close-combat environments are missile launcher.” likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitatIFVs are distinct from armoured personnel carrier, which ing the same protection level required by main battle are purely transport vehicles armed only for self-defense tanks.* [2] and not intended to provide direct fire support. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have ports which allow the infantry to fire personal weapons while on board. They are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes antitank guided missiles (ATGMs). IFVs are usually tracked, 28.2 Doctrine but there are some wheeled vehicles too. IFVs are much less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks, but if they carry anti-tank guided missiles they pose a sigIn times of asymmetrical warfare, local crises, and urban nificant threat to main battle tanks. combat, the IFV is more important than ever. The IFV offers a viable compromise between mobility, protection, and firepower. They can be used in high and low intensity 28.1 History conflicts as well as peacekeeping operations. The latest vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with The first mass-produced IFV was the West German an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to Schützenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr be repaired in the field. 183
184
CHAPTER 28. INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLE sia's BMP-3, can withstand frontal hits from 30 mm autocannon. The sides, roof, and floor of IFVs have thinner armour. Vehicles must also protect crew against antipersonnel mines and against anti-tank mines.
Typical configuration of a tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicle
Newer vehicles like the Finnish Patria AMV use armour made in interchangeable modules of various thickness. This permits the vehicle to be tailored for particular missions such as decreasing the weight of vehicle for air transportation or strengthening the protection if it engages in dangerous missions. The latest models of the Russian BMP-3 use the Arena active protection system (APS) that protects the vehicle from missiles and rockets with velocities from 70 to 700 metres per second. Israeli IFVs will soon employ the Iron Fist (countermeasure) which can defeat kinetic APFSDS tank rounds.
The most common countermeasures are smoke grenade dischargers. These help IFVs to avoid attacks from AT28.3 Design GMs by providing a smoke screen. Some vehicles, such as the French VBCI, employ infra-red jamming flare disInfantry fighting vehicles are typically well armoured, al- pensers. These are effective against missiles with IR though usually with less protection than main battle tanks. guidance systems. Typical armament is an autocannon and machine guns. The term heavy infantry fighting vehicle is often applied IFVs have a door for dismounts. to IFVs that are heavily armoured.
28.3.1
Protection
28.3.2 Weaponry
A Marder of the German Army fires a MILAN anti-tank missile. The German Puma is one of the best protected infantry fighting vehicles
Generally, IFVs have thinner and less complex armour than tanks to ensure mobility. Most IFVs are resistant against heavy machine guns, artillery fragments, and small arms. The IFV's mission does not include anti-tank duties except in support of tank units or in emergencies; therefore, it needs less protection from heavy weapons fire. Instead, the IFV, as its name implies, is supposed to carry riflemen and their weapons into the battlefield where they dismount and fight outside the vehicle with the support of the IFV's main armament. In IFVs, the thickness of armour varies widely between models. Some vehicles are proof against .50 in (12. mm) bullets while others, such as Sweden's CV90 and Rus- Nagmachon of the IDF
28.4. SEE ALSO The primary weapon on most IFVs is an autocannon, usually of a calibre between 20–40 mm, although the BMP-3 and BMD-4 carries a 100 mm gun/missile launcher along with a 30 mm autocannon. It is effective against a wide range of targets such as unarmoured and lightly armoured vehicles, infantry, helicopters and low-flying aircraft. It can fire several types of munitions, including high explosive, incendiary, and kinetic penetrator rounds. Germany's Puma and Sweden's CV90 can fire air burst munitions that contain hundreds of tungsten rods that are effective against vehicles, helicopters, and stationary strong points. IFV cannons can elevate their barrels by as much as 70 degrees to permit their crews to engage aircraft. On many IFVs, a coaxial machine gun is mounted on the turret along with the main armament. The most common calibre is 7.62 mm (.30 cal). Some vehicles mount more machine guns; for example, on the German Marder, one machine gun fires from the rear of the vehicle, and the Russian BMP-3 has two machine guns mounted in the hull facing forward. Many IFVs utilize firing ports allowing infantry to fire without leaving the protection of the vehicle. Some IFVs are equipped with anti-tank missiles. These missiles are mostly medium range (2000–4000 m), though some such as 9M117M1 Arkan has a range of 5,500 m.* [3] Others may carry surface-to-air missiles or a combination of the two, such as the 2T Stalker. Some new vehicles, such as the BTR-90 or Puma, come equipped with 30, 40, 76, or 81 mm grenade launchers. Most IFVs also have a smoke grenade dischargers for concealment.
28.3.3
Mobility
185 railway, as required by tracked IFVs. Tracked IFVs need to have their treads serviced or replaced on a regular basis. The tracks themselves and the weight of the IFVs tend to be tough on road surfaces, wearing them down more quickly than a wheeled IFV. Many wheeled IFVs can extract themselves from a battlefield with specialised run-flat tires when not operating in difficult terrain, while an IFV with damaged tracks would require its tracks repaired in the field or an armoured recovery vehicle to tow it out. However, tracks cannot be punctured like a tire so are more difficult to immobilize. A weapon that destroys a track will do significantly more damage to a wheeled vehicle (such as destroying the axles in which case the vehicle will have to be towed away as well). Tracks also offer far greater off-road mobility, greater obstacle climbing capabilities and greater maneuverability than wheels. Unlike a wheeled vehicle, a tracked vehicle will not be stopped by a spike strip or roadblock. A tracked vehicle can reach places a wheeled vehicle can not. As IFVs often operate alongside tanks, being tracked means that the vehicle can go everywhere that the tanks go, which a wheeled vehicle could not. In this case wheeled vehicles would either have to take another route (leaving the tanks without IFV support and the IFVs without tank protection) or the tanks would have to stay where the wheeled IFVs can go and drastically limit their own tactical mobility. Tracked vehicles can attack and operate from and in areas which a wheeled vehicle could not which is a great tactical advantage. A wheeled vehicle is limited to roads and less difficult terrain which may enable the enemy to predict where they will come from. Generally, therefore, tracked vehicles have greater mobility except on roads where wheeled vehicles have a greater top speed. Many countries only use wheeled armour for support functions or low-risk peacekeeping missions whereas combat functions are performed by tracked vehicles. A compromise between wheels and tracks is the band track, which combines some of the advantages of wheels and tracks. The mobility offered by IFVs is an asset in close combat, especially against fixed artillery. American military simulations in the 1980s concluded a three to five-fold increase in artillery defence effectiveness when IFVs were deployed.* [4] Throughout its life cycle, an IFV is expected to gain 30% more weight from armour additions. This complicates the design by requiring additional power.* [5]
28.4 See also Véhicule blindé de combat d'infanterie ascending a slope
Some IFVs are amphibious and air transportable. A few, such as the Soviet BMD series or the Chinese ZBD2000, can be deployed by a parachute system from aircraft directly into battle. Wheeled IFVs can travel great distances on their own without needing to be transported by flat-bed trucks and
• List of AFVs • List of modern armoured fighting vehicles • Armoured personnel carrier • Armoured warfare • BMP development
186 • Improvised fighting vehicle • Mechanized infantry • Tank desant • Armored car (military)
28.5 References [1] Martin J. Dougherty, Chris McNab (2010). Combat Techniques: An Elite Forces Guide to Modern Infantry Tactics. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-36824-1. Retrieved 5 March 2011. [2] Scott Boston (Winter 2004).“Toward a Protected Future Force” (PDF). p. 67. Retrieved 3 July 2011. [3] http://www.military-today.com/apc/bmd_4.htm [4] Jonathan B. A. Bailey (2004). Field artillery and firepower. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-029-3. Retrieved 7 March 2011. [5] Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies. Method Publishing. 2004. p. 30. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
CHAPTER 28. INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLE
Chapter 29
Iraq War This article is about the war that started in 2003 and heavy criticism within the U.S. and internationally. ended in 2011. For other conflicts in Iraq, see Iraq War As a result of the war, Iraq held multi-party elections in (disambiguation). 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014. The Maliki governThe Iraq War* [nb 1] was a protracted armed conflict ment enacted policies that were widely seen as having the that began with the 2003 invasion of Iraq led by the effect of alienating the country's Sunni minority, worsenUnited States. The invasion toppled the government of ing sectarian tensions. In the summer of 2014, the Islamic Saddam Hussein. The conflict, however, continued for State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) launched a military much of the next decade as an insurgency emerged to offensive in Northern Iraq and declared a worldwide Isoppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi lamic caliphate, eliciting another military response from government.* [43] The United States officially withdrew the United States and its allies. The Iraq War caused hunfrom the country in 2011, but the insurgency and various dreds of thousands of civilian and military casualties (see estimates below). The majority of casualties occurred as dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003. The U.S., a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 joined by the United Kingdom and several coalition al- and 2007. lies, launched a "shock and awe" surprise attack without declaring war. Iraqi forces were quickly overwhelmed as U.S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Ba'athist government; Saddam was captured in December 2003 and executed by a military court three years later. However, the power vacuum following Saddam's demise and the mismanagement of the occupation led to widespread sectarian violence between Shias and Sunnis as well as a lengthy insurgency against U.S. and coalition forces. The United States responded with a troop surge in 2007, identified as the COIN strategy; the heavy American security presence and deals made between the occupying forces and Sunni militias reduced the level of violence. The U.S. began withdrawing its troops in the winter of 2007–2008. The winding down of U.S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama. The U.S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011.* [44] The Bush Administration based its rationale for war principally on the assertion that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and that Saddam's government posed an immediate threat to the United States and its coalition allies.* [45]* [46] Select U.S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda,* [47] while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship and bring democracy to the people of Iraq.* [48]* [49] After the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced
29.1 Background 29.1.1 Iraq disarmament and pre-war intelligence See also: Lead up to the Iraq War, Rationale for the Iraq War, Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq, Governments' pre-war positions on invasion of Iraq, Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, Iraq and weapons of mass destruction and Stovepiping Main articles: Iraq disarmament timeline 1990–2003 and 2002 in Iraq Prior to September 2002, the CIA was the Bush administration's main provider of intelligence on Iraq. In September, a Pentagon unit called Office of Special Plans (OSP), was created by Paul Wolfowitz and Douglas Feith, and headed by Feith, as charged by then-United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, to supply senior George W. Bush administration officials with raw intelligence pertaining to Iraq.* [50] Seymour Hersh writes that, according to a Pentagon adviser, "[OSP] was created in order to find evidence of what Wolfowitz and his boss, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, wanted to be true ̶that Saddam Hussein had close ties to Al Qaeda, and that Iraq had an enormous arsenal of chemical, biological,
187
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CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR
and possibly even nuclear weapons (WMD) that threatened the region and, potentially, the United States. [...] 'The agency [CIA] was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism,' the Pentagon adviser told me.”* [51]
U.N. weapons inspections resume The issue of Iraq's disarmament reached a turning point in 2002–2003, when President Bush demanded a complete end to alleged Iraqi production of weapons of mass destruction and full compliance with U.N. Security Council Resolutions requiring U.N. weapons inspectors unfettered access to suspected weapons production facilities. The U.N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Persian Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. During inspections in 1999, U.S. intelligence agents supplied the United States with a direct feed of conversations between Iraqi security agencies as well as other information. This was confirmed by the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal.* [52] During 2002, U.S. President George Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U.N. Security Council Resolution 1441 Iraq agreed to new inspections in late 2002. With the cooperation of the Iraqis, a third weapons inspection team in 2003 led by David Kelly viewed and photographed two alleged mobile weapons laboratories, which were actually facilities for the production of hydrogen gas to fill balloons.* [53] As part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing. On 3 November 2002, Iraq supplied an 11,800-page report to the UN Security Council and the IAEA, stating that it had no WMDs. Copies of the report were also unofficially supplied to several European journalists. Columbia, chair of the Security Council, allowed US officials to secretly remove 8,000 pages from the report before it was viewed by the full security council, and on the basis of this the report was declared incomplete and Iraq in breach of its obligations. The removed pages contained details of US and European companies and government agencies who had historically assisted Iraq in developing its chemical and biological weapons capabilities.* [54] Shortly before the invasion, Hans Blix, the lead weapons inspector, advised the U.N. Security Council that Iraq was cooperating with inspections and the confirmation of disarmament through inspections could be achieved quickly if Iraq remained cooperative.* [55]
29.1.2
Weapons of mass destruction
A UN weapons inspector examines an Iraqi factory in 2002.
Yellowcake uranium In 1990, before the Persian Gulf War, Iraq had stockpiled 550 short tons (500 t) of yellowcake uranium at the Tuwaitha nuclear complex about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Baghdad.* [56] In late February 2002, the CIA sent former Ambassador Joseph C. Wilson to investigate reports (later found to be forgeries) that Iraq was attempting to purchase additional yellowcake from Niger. Wilson returned and informed the CIA that reports of yellowcake sales to Iraq were “unequivocally wrong.”The Bush administration, however, continued to allege Iraq's attempts to obtain additional yellowcake were a justification for military action, most prominently in the January 2003, State of the Union address, in which President Bush declared that Iraq had sought uranium, citing British intelligence sources.* [57] In response, Wilson wrote a critical New York Times oped piece in June 2003 stating that he had personally investigated claims of yellowcake purchases and believed them to be fraudulent.* [58] After Wilson's op-ed, Wilson's wife Valerie Plame was publicly identified as an undercover CIA analyst by a columnist. This led to a Justice Department investigation into the source of the leak. The federal investigation led to the conviction of I. Lewis (Scooter) Libby, Vice President Dick Cheney's chief of staff, on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice.* [56] On 1 May 2005, the "Downing Street memo" was published in The Sunday Times. It contained an overview of a secret 23 July 2002, meeting among British government, Ministry of Defence, and British intelligence figures who discussed the build-up to the Iraq war̶including direct references to classified US policy of the time. The memo stated that “Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through military action, justified by the conjunction of terrorism and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being fixed around the policy”.* [59] In September 2002, the Bush administration, the CIA and the DIA said attempts by Iraq to acquire high-strength aluminum tubes that were prohibited under the UN mon-
29.1. BACKGROUND itoring program and which they said pointed to a clandestine effort to make centrifuges to enrich uranium for nuclear bombs.* [60] This analysis was opposed by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and INR, which was significant because of DOE's expertise in such gas centrifuges and nuclear weapons programs. The DOE and INR argued that the Iraqi tubes were poorly suited for centrifuges and that while it was technically possible with additional modification, conventional military uses were more plausible.* [61] A report released by the Institute for Science and International Security in 2002 reported that it was highly unlikely that the tubes could be used to enrich uranium.* [62]
189 Colin Powell presented evidence to the United Nations security council that Iraq had an active biological weapons programs. On 15 February 2011, the defector ̶a scientist identified as Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janafi̶ admitted to journalists working for The Guardian newspaper that he lied to the Bundesnachrichtendienst in order to strengthen the case against Saddam Hussein, whom he wished to see removed from power.* [71] Post-invasion views on WMD
In December 2009, the former British prime minister, Tony Blair, stated that he “would still have thought it An effort by the DOE to correct this detail in com- right to remove [Saddam Hussein]" regardless of whether ments prepared for United States Secretary of State Colin Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction or not.* [72] Powell's UN appearance was rebuffed by the administration* [62]* [63] and Powell, in his address to the UN Security Council just before the war, referenced the aluminum 29.1.3 Preparations for Iraq war tubes, stating that while experts disagreed on whether or not the tubes were destined for a centrifuge program, the specifications of the tubes were unusually tight.* [64] Powell later admitted he had presented what turned out to be an inaccurate case to the UN on Iraqi weapons, and the intelligence he was relying on was, in some cases, “deliberately misleading.”* [65]* [66]* [67] After the 2008 US presidential election, and the election of Democratic party nominee Barack Obama, President Bush stated that "[my] biggest regret of all the presidency has to have been the intelligence failure in Iraq”.* [68] Poison gas The CIA had contacted Iraq's foreign minister, Naji Sabri, who was being paid by the French as an agent. Sabri informed them that Saddam had hidden poison gas among Sunni tribesmen, had ambitions for a nuclear program but that it was not active, and that no biological weapons were being produced or stockpiled, although research was underway.* [69] According to Sidney Blumenthal, George Tenet briefed Bush on 18 September 2002, that Sabri had informed them that Iraq did not have WMD. On 21 June 2006 the US House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence released key points from a classified report from the National Ground Intelligence Center on the recovery of a small number of degraded chemical munitions in Iraq. The report stated that“Coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent.”However, all are thought to be preGulf War munitions.* [70]
President George Bush, surrounded by leaders of the House and Senate, announces the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, 2 October 2002
Excerpt from Donald Rumsfeld memo dated 27 November 2001* [73]
In the days immediately following 9/11, the Bush Administration national security team actively debated an invasion of Iraq. A memo written by Sec. Rumsfeld dated 27 November 2001 considers a US-Iraq war. One section of the memo questions “How start?", listing multiple possible justifications for a US-Iraq War.* [73]* [74]
During 2002 the amount of ordnance used by British and American aircraft patrolling the no-fly zones of Iraq increased compared to the previous years* [75] and by AuBiological weapons gust had“become a full air offensive”. Tommy Franks, the allied commander, later stated that the bombing was Based on reports obtained by the German intelligence designed to“degrade”the Iraqi air defense system before service from an Iraqi defector codenamed "Curveball", an invasion.* [76]
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CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR
In October 2002, a few days before the US Senate voted on the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, about 75 senators were told in closed session that Iraq had the means of attacking the Eastern Seaboard of the US with biological or chemical weapons delivered by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs.)* [46] On 5 February 2003, Colin Powell presented further evidence in his Iraqi WMD program presentation to the UN Security Council that UAVs were ready to be launched against the United States. At the time, there was a vigorous dispute within the US military and intelligence communities as to whether CIA conclusions about Iraqi UAVs were accurate* [77] and other intelligence agencies suggested that Iraq did not United States Secretary of State Colin Powell holding a model possess any offensive UAV capability, saying the few vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations they had were designed for surveillance and intended for Security Council reconnaissance.* [78] The Senate voted to approve the Joint Resolution with the support of large bipartisan majorities on 11 October 2002, providing the Bush administration with a legal basis for the US invasion under US law. The resolution granted the authorization by the Constitution of the United States and the United States Congress for the President to command the military to fight anti-United States violence. Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam regime and promote a democratic replacement. The authorization was signed by President George W. Bush on 16 October 2002. From the left: French President Jacques Chirac, US President Chief UN weapons inspector Hans Blix remarked in January 2003 that “Iraq appears not to have come to a genuine acceptance̶not even today̶of the disarmament, which was demanded of it and which it needs to carry out to win the confidence of the world and to live in peace.” * [79] Among other things he noted that 1,000 short tons (910 t) of chemical agent were unaccounted for, information on Iraq's VX nerve agent program was missing, and that“no convincing evidence”was presented for the destruction of 8,500 litres (1,900 imp gal; 2,200 US gal) of anthrax that had been declared.* [79] In the 2003 State of the Union address, President Bush said “we know that Iraq, in the late 1990s, had several mobile biological weapons labs”. On 5 February 2003, Secretary of State Colin Powell appeared before the UN to present evidence that Iraq was hiding unconventional weapons.* [80] The French government also believed that Saddam had stockpiles of anthrax and botulism toxin, and the ability to produce VX.* [81] In March, Blix said progress had been made in inspections, and no evidence of WMD had been found.* [82] Iraqi scientist Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi codenamed“Curveball”, admitted in February 2011, that he lied to the CIA about biological weapons in order to get the US to attack and remove Saddam from power.* [83]
George W. Bush, UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. Chirac was against the invasion, the other three leaders were in favor.
proposed the so-called “eighteenth resolution”to give Iraq a deadline for compliance with previous resolutions enforced by the threat of military action. This proposed resolution was subsequently withdrawn due to lack of support on the UN Security Council. In particular, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members France, Germany and Canada and non-NATO member Russia were opposed to military intervention in Iraq, due to the high level of risk to the international community's security, and defended disarmament through diplomacy.* [84]* [85]
A meeting between George W. Bush and Tony Blair took place on 31 January 2003, in the White House. A secret memo of this meeting purportedly showed that the Bush administration had already decided on the invasion of Iraq at that point. Bush was allegedly floating the idea of painting a U‑2 spyplane in UN colors and letting it fly low over Iraq to provoke Iraqi forces into shooting it down, thereby providing a pretext for the United States and Britain to invade. Bush and Blair made a secret deal to carry out the invasion regardless of whether WMD were In early 2003, the US, British, and Spanish governments discovered by UN weapons inspectors, in direct contradiction with statements Blair made to the British House
29.2. THE INVASION of Commons afterwards that the Iraqi regime would be given a final chance to disarm. In the memo, Bush is paraphrased as saying, “The start date for the military campaign was now pencilled in for 10 March. This was when the bombing would begin.”* [86] Bush said to Blair that he “thought it unlikely that there would be internecine warfare between the different religious and ethnic groups”in Iraq after the war.
191 almost 3,000 protests against war in Iraq, with demonstrations on 15 February 2003, being the largest and most prolific.* [90] Nelson Mandela voiced his opposition in late January, stating “All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil,”.* [91]
In February 2003, the US Army's top general, Eric Shinseki, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it would take“several hundred thousand soldiers”to secure Iraq.* [92] Two days later, US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld said the post-war troop commitment would be 29.1.4 Opposition to invasion less than the number of troops required to win the war, Further information: criticism of the Iraq War, and that “the idea that it would take several hundred legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, legality of the thousand US forces is far from the mark.”Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said Shineski's estimate Iraq War and Protests against the Iraq War was “way off the mark,”because other countries would take part in an occupying force.* [93] In October 2002 former US President Bill Clinton warned about possible dangers of pre-emptive military In March 2003, Hans Blix reported that “No evidence action against Iraq. Speaking in the UK on a Labour Party of proscribed activities have so far been found”in Iraq, conference he said:“As a preemptive action today, how- saying that progress was made in inspections which would ever well-justified, may come back with unwelcome con- continue. He estimated the time remaining for disarmabeing verified through inspections to be “months” sequences in the future....I don't care how precise your ment * . [82] But the US government announced that “diplobombs and your weapons are, when you set them off, inmacy has failed”, and that it would proceed with a coalinocent people will die.”* [87]* [88] tion of allied countries̶named the "coalition of the willing"̶to rid Iraq of its alleged WMD. The US government abruptly advised UN weapons inspectors to leave Baghdad immediately. There were serious legal questions surrounding the launching of the war against Iraq and the Bush Doctrine of preemptive war in general. On 16 September 2004, Kofi Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations, said of the invasion, “I have indicated it was not in conformity with the UN Charter. From our point of view, from the Charter point of view, it was illegal.”
Anti-War protest in London, 2002.
In November 2008 Lord Bingham, the former British Law Lord, described the war a serious violation of international law, and accused Britain and the United States of acting like a “world vigilante". He also criticized the post-invasion record of Britain as “an occupying power in Iraq”. Regarding the treatment of Iraqi detainees in Abu Ghraib, Bingham said: “Particularly disturbing to proponents of the rule of law is the cynical lack of concern for international legality among some top officials in the Bush administration.”* [94] In July 2010, Deputy Prime Minister of the UK Nick Clegg, in an official PMQs session in Parliament, condemned the invasion of Iraq as illegal.* [95] Theorist Francis Fukuyama has argued that “the Iraq war and the close association it created between military invasion and democracy promotion tarnished the latter”.* [96]
On 20 January 2003, French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin declared “we believe that military intervention would be the worst solution”.* [89] Meanwhile anti-war groups across the world organ- 29.2 The invasion ised public protests. According to French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April Main articles: 2003 invasion of Iraq, 2003 in Iraq, 2003 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in Iraq war timeline and List of people associated with the
192 2003 invasion of Iraq See also: Coalition military operations of the Iraq War and Iraq War order of battle The first Central Intelligence Agency team entered Iraq
Destroyed remains of Iraqi tanks near Al Qadisiyah.
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR pose the invasion, and to identify all of the initial leadership targets during very high risk reconnaissance missions.* [98] Most importantly, their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to become the northern front of the invasion. Together this force defeated Ansar al-Islam in Iraqi Kurdistan before the invasion and then defeated the Iraqi army in the north.* [98]* [99] The battle against Ansar alIslam led to the death of a substantial number of militants and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat.* [97]* [100] At 5:34 a.m. Baghdad time on 20 March 2003 (9:34 p.m., 19 March EST) the surprise* [101] military invasion of Iraq began.* [102] There was no declaration of war.* [103] The 2003 invasion of Iraq, led by US Army General Tommy Franks, under the codename “Operation Iraqi Freedom”,* [104] the UK codename Operation Telic, and the Australian codename Operation Falconer. Coalition forces also cooperated with Kurdish Peshmerga forces in the north. Approximately forty other governments, the "Coalition of the Willing,”participated by providing troops, equipment, services, security, and special forces, with 248,000 soldiers from the United States, 45,000 British soldiers, 2,000 Australian soldiers and 194 Polish soldiers from Special Forces unit GROM sent to Kuwait for the invasion.* [105] The invasion force was also supported by Iraqi Kurdish militia troops, estimated to number upwards of 70,000.* [106]
US Marines escort captured enemy prisoners to a holding area in the desert of Iraq on 21 March 2003.
Iraqi tank on Highway 27 destroyed in April 2003
US soldiers at the Hands of Victory monument in Baghdad
According to General Tommy Franks, the objectives of the invasion were, “First, end the regime of Saddam Hussein. Second, to identify, isolate and eliminate Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. Third, to search for, to capture and to drive out terrorists from that country. Fourth, to collect such intelligence as we can related to terrorist networks. Fifth, to collect such intelligence as we can related to the global network of illicit weapons of mass destruction. Sixth, to end sanctions and to immediately deliver humanitarian support to the displaced and to many needy Iraqi citizens. Seventh, to secure Iraq's oil fields and resources, which belong to the Iraqi people. And last, to help the Iraqi people create conditions for a transition to a representative self-government.”* [107]
on 10 July 2002.* [97] This team was composed of members of the CIA's Special Activities Division and was later joined by members of the US military's elite Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC).* [98] Together, they prepared for the invasion of conventional forces. These efforts consisted of persuading the commanders of sev- The invasion was a quick and decisive operation encouneral Iraqi military divisions to surrender rather than op- tering major resistance, though not what the US, British
29.2. THE INVASION
193 westward and then northward through the western desert toward Baghdad, while the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force moved more easterly along Highway 1 through the center of the country, and 1 (UK) Armoured Division moved northward through the eastern marshland. The US 1st Marine Division fought through Nasiriyah in a battle to seize the major road junction and nearby Talil Airfield. The United States Army 3rd Infantry Division defeated Iraqi forces entrenched in and around the airfield.
Map of the invasion routes and major operations/battles of the Iraq War as of 2007.
and other forces expected. The Iraqi regime had prepared to fight both a conventional and irregular war at the same time, conceding territory when faced with superior conventional forces, largely armored, but launching smaller scale attacks in the rear using fighters dressed in civilian and paramilitary clothes. Since the initiation of the war in Iraq, numerous programs were created to “enhance psychological resilience and prevent psychological morbidity in troops.”* [108] Coalition troops launched air and amphibious assault on the Al-Faw peninsula to secure the oil fields there and the important ports, supported by warships of the Royal Navy, Polish Navy, and Royal Australian Navy. The United States Marine Corps' 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit, attached to 3 Commando Brigade and the Polish Special Forces unit GROM attacked the port of Umm Qasr, while the British Army's 16 Air Assault Brigade secured the oil fields in southern Iraq.
With the Nasiriyah and Talil Airfields secured in its rear, the 3rd Infantry Division supported by 101st Airborne Division continued its attack north toward Najaf and Karbala, but a severe sand storm slowed the coalition advance and there was a halt to consolidate and make sure the supply lines were secure. When they started again they secured the Karbala Gap, a key approach to Baghdad, then secured the bridges over the Euphrates River, and US forces poured through the gap on to Baghdad. In the middle of Iraq, the 1st Marine Division fought its way to the eastern side of Baghdad, and prepared for the attack into Baghdad to seize it.* [109] In the north, OIF‑1 used the largest special operations force since the successful attack on the Taliban government of Afghanistan just over a year earlier. On 9 April, Baghdad fell, ending Saddam's 24‑year rule. US forces seized the deserted Ba'ath Party ministries and stage-managed* [110] the tearing down of a huge iron statue of Saddam, photos and video of which became symbolic of the event, although later controversial. Not seen in the photos or heard on the videos, shot with a zoom lens, was the chant of the inflamed crowd for Muqtada al-Sadr, the radical Shiite cleric.* [111] In November 2008, Iraqi protesters staged a similar stomping on and burning of an effigy of George W. Bush.* [112] The abrupt fall of Baghdad was accompanied by a widespread outpouring of gratitude toward the invaders, but also massive civil disorder, including the looting of public and government buildings and drastically increased crime.* [113]* [114] According to the Pentagon, 250,000 short tons (230,000 t) (of 650,000 short tons (590,000 t) total) of ordnance was looted, providing a significant source of ammunition for the Iraqi insurgency. The invasion phase concluded when Tikrit, Saddam's home town, fell with little resistance to the US Marines of Task Force Tripoli. In the invasion phase of the war (19 March–30 April), an estimated 9,200 Iraqi combatants were killed by coalition forces along with an estimated 3,750 non-combatants, i.e. civilians who did not take up arms.* [115] Coalition forces reported the death in combat of 139 US military personnel* [116] and 33 UK military personnel.* [117]
US Marines from 1st Battalion 7th Marines enter a palace during the Fall of Baghdad.
The heavy armor of the US 3rd Infantry Division moved
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29.3 Post-invasion phase Main article: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present Further information: Iraqi insurgency (Iraq War) and Iraq War insurgent attacks
29.3.1
2003: Beginnings of insurgency
Marines from D Company, 3rd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion guard detainees prior to loading them into their vehicle
On 1 May 2003, President Bush visited the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln operating a few miles west of San Diego, California. At sunset Bush held his nationally televised "Mission Accomplished" speech, delivered before the sailors and airmen on the flight deck: Bush declared victory due to the defeat of Iraq's conventional forces. A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street after its fall in 2003 during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
18 May 2004: Staff Sgt. Kevin Jessen checks the underside of two anti-tank mines found in a village outside Ad Dujayl in the Sunni Triangle.
Nevertheless, Saddam remained at large and significant pockets of resistance remained. After President Bush's speech, coalition forces noticed a gradually increasing flurry of attacks on its troops in various regions, especially in the "Sunni Triangle".* [118] The initial Iraqi insurgents were supplied by hundreds of weapons caches created before the invasion by the Iraqi army and Republican Guard. Initially, Iraqi resistance (described by the coalition as “Anti-Iraqi Forces”) largely stemmed from fedayeen and Saddam/Ba'ath Party loyalists, but soon religious radicals and Iraqis angered by the occupation contributed to the insurgency. The three provinces with the highest number of attacks were Baghdad, Al Anbar, and Salah Ad Din. Those three provinces account for 35% of the population, but as of 5 December 2006, were responsible for 73% of U.S. military deaths and an even higher percentage of recent U.S. military deaths (about 80%.)* [119] Insurgents used guerrilla tactics including: mortars, missiles, suicide attacks, snipers, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), car bombs, small arms fire (usually with assault rifles), and RPGs (rocket propelled grenades), as well as sabotage against the petroleum, water, and electrical infrastructure. Post-invasion Iraq coalition efforts commenced after the fall of Saddam's regime. The coalition nations, together with the United Nations, began to work to establish a stable, compliant democratic state capable of defending itself from non-coalition forces, as well as overcoming internal divisions.* [120]* [121]
Polish GROM forces in sea operations during Operation Iraqi Freedom
Meanwhile, coalition military forces launched several operations around the Tigris River peninsula and in the Sunni Triangle. A series of similar operations were launched throughout the summer in the Sunni Triangle. Toward the end of 2003, the intensity and pace of insur-
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE gent attacks began to increase. A sharp surge in guerrilla attacks ushered in an insurgent effort that was termed the "Ramadan Offensive", as it coincided with the beginning of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan.
195 called the decision a“catastrophic failure”* [123] Bremer served until the CPA's dissolution in July 2004. Another group created by the multinational force in Iraq post-invasion was the 1,400-member international Iraq Survey Group who conducted a fact-finding mission to find Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes. In 2004 the ISG's Duelfer Report* [124] stated that Iraq did not have a viable WMD program.
To counter this offensive, coalition forces begin to use air power and artillery again for the first time since the end of the invasion by striking suspected ambush sites and mortar launching positions. Surveillance of major routes, patrols, and raids on suspected insurgents were stepped up. In addition, two villages, including Saddam's birthplace of al-Auja and the small town of Abu Hishma were sur- Capturing former government leaders rounded by barbed wire and carefully monitored. See also: Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and Trial of Saddam Hussein Coalition Provisional Authority and the Iraq Survey In the summer of 2003, the multinational forces focused Group See also: Iraqi Governing Council, International Advisory and Monitoring Board, CPA Program Review Board, Development Fund for Iraq and Reconstruction of Iraq Shortly after the invasion, the multinational coalition cre-
Saddam Hussein being pulled from his hideaway in Operation Red Dawn, 13 December 2003.
Occupation zones in Iraq as of September 2003.
ated the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA; Arabic: )سلطة الائتلاف الموحدة, based in the Green Zone, as a transitional government of Iraq until the establishment of a democratic government. Citing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483 (22 May 2003) and the laws of war, the CPA vested itself with executive, legislative, and judicial authority over the Iraqi government from the period of the CPA's inception on 21 April 2003, until its Two insurgents in Iraq with SA-7b and SA-14 MANPADS dissolution on 28 June 2004. The CPA was originally headed by Jay Garner, a former US military officer, but his appointment lasted only until 11 May 2003, when President Bush appointed L. Paul Bremer. On 16 May 2003 on his first day on the job Paul Bremer issued CPA executive order No1 to exclude from the new Iraqi government and administration members of the Baathist party. This eventually led to the removal of 85,000 to 100,000 Iraqi people from their job. * [122] including 40,000 school teachers who had joined the Baath Party simply to keep their jobs. US army general Sanchez
on capturing the remaining leaders of the former government. On 22 July, a raid by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division and soldiers from Task Force 20 killed Saddam's sons (Uday and Qusay) along with one of his grandsons. In all, over 300 top leaders of the former government were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel. Most significantly, Saddam Hussein himself was captured on 13 December 2003, on a farm near Tikrit
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in Operation Red Dawn.* [125] The operation was conducted by the United States Army's 4th Infantry Division and members of Task Force 121. Intelligence on Saddam's whereabouts came from his family members and former bodyguards.* [126] With the capture of Saddam and a drop in the number of insurgent attacks, some concluded the multinational forces were prevailing in the fight against the insurgency. The provisional government began training the new Iraqi security forces intended to police the country, and the United States promised over $20 billion in reconstruction money in the form of credit against Iraq's future oil revenues. Oil revenue was also used for rebuilding schools and for work on the electrical and refining infrastructure. Coalition Provisional Authority director L. Paul Bremer signs Shortly after the capture of Saddam, elements left out of the Coalition Provisional Authority began to agitate for elections and the formation of an Iraqi Interim Government. Most prominent among these was the Shia cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. The Coalition Provisional Authority opposed allowing democratic elections at this time.* [127] The insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad (Sadr City) to Basra in the south.
29.3.2
over sovereignty to the appointed Iraqi Interim Government, 28 June 2004.
the multinational forces' tactics and planning a renewed offensive. However, violence did increase during the Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004 with foreign fighters from around the Middle East as well as al-Qaeda in Iraq (an affiliated al-Qaeda group), led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi helping to drive the insurgency.
2004: Insurgency expands
Main article: 2004 in Iraq
See also: Military operations of the Iraq War for a list of all Coalition operations for this period, 2004 in Iraq, Iraqi coalition counterinsurgency operations, Iraqi insurgency (2003– 11), United States occupation of Fallujah, Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004 US troops fire mortars
As the insurgency grew there was a distinct change in targeting from the coalition forces towards the new Iraqi Security Forces, as hundreds of Iraqi civilians and police were killed over the next few months in a series of massive bombings. An organized Sunni insurgency, with deep roots and both nationalist and Islamist motivations, was becoming more powerful throughout Iraq. The Shia Mahdi Army also began launching attacks on coalition targets in an attempt to seize control from Iraqi security forces. The southern and central portions of Iraq were beginning to erupt in urban guerrilla combat as multinational forces attempted to keep control and prepared for a counteroffensive. The most serious fighting of the war so far began on 31 March 2004, when Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed a Blackwater USA convoy led by four U.S. private milThe start of 2004 was marked by a relative lull in violence. itary contractors who were providing security for food Insurgent forces reorganised during this time, studying caterers Eurest Support Services.* [129] The four armed Footage from the gun camera of a U.S. Apache helicopter killing suspected Iraqi insurgents.* [128]
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE
197
29.3.3 2005: Elections and transitional government Further information: 2005 in Iraq and Military transition team On 31 January, Iraqis elected the Iraqi Transitional Gov-
A USMC M198 artillery piece firing outside Fallujah in October 2004.
contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona, and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and small arms fire. Subsequently, their bodies were dragged from their vehicles by local people, beaten, set ablaze, and their burned corpses hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.* [130] Photos of the event were released to news agencies worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage in the United States, and prompting an unsuccessful “pacification”of the city: the First Battle of Fallujah in April 2004.
Convention center for Council of Representatives of Iraq
of the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, as well as graphic pictures showing U.S. military personnel taunting and abusing Iraqi prisoners, came to public attention from a 60 Minutes II news report (28 April) and a Seymour M. Hersh article in The New Yorker (posted online on 30 April.)* [133] Military correspondent Thomas Ricks claimed that these revelations dealt a blow to the moral justifications for the occupation in the eyes of many people, especially Iraqis, and was a turning point in the war.* [134]
Hopes for a quick end to the insurgency and a withdrawal of US troops were dashed in May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion. Suicide bombers, believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations of Shias. As a result, over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79 U.S. soldiers.
ernment in order to draft a permanent constitution. Although some violence and a widespread Sunni boycott marred the event, most of the eligible Kurd and Shia populace participated. On 4 February, Paul Wolfowitz announced that 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had been extended in order to provide election security would be pulled out of Iraq by the next month.* [135] February to April proved to be relatively peaceful months comThe offensive was resumed in November 2004 in the pared to the carnage of November and January, with inbloodiest battle of the war so far: the Second Battle of surgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the prior average Fallujah, described by the U.S. military as “the heavi- of 70. est urban combat (that they had been involved in) since The Battle of Abu Ghraib on 2 April 2005 was an the battle of Hue City in Vietnam.”* [131] During the attack on United States forces at Abu Ghraib prison, assault, U.S. forces used white phosphorus as an incen- which consisted of heavy mortar and rocket fire, under diary weapon against insurgent personnel, attracting con- which armed insurgents attacked with grenades, small troversy. The 46‑day battle resulted in a victory for the arms, and two vehicle-borne improvised explosive decoalition, with 95 U.S. soldiers killed along with approx- vices (VBIED). The U.S. force's munitions ran so low that imately 1,350 insurgents. Fallujah was totally devastated orders to fix bayonets were given in preparation for handduring the fighting, though civilian casualties were low, as to-hand fighting. An estimated 80–120 armed insurgents they had mostly fled before the battle.* [132] launched a massive coordinated assault on the U.S. miliAnother major event of that year was the revelation of tary facility and internment camp at Abu Ghraib, Iraq. It was considered to be the largest coordinated assault on a widespread prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib which received * international media attention in April 2004. First reports U.S. base since the Vietnam War. [136]
The summer of 2005 saw fighting around Baghdad and at Tall Afar in northwestern Iraq as U.S. forces tried to seal 2004 also marked the beginning of Military Transition off the Syrian border. This led to fighting in the autumn Teams in Iraq, which were teams of U.S. military advisors in the small towns of the Euphrates valley between the assigned directly to New Iraqi Army units. capital and that border.* [137]
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A referendum was held on 15 October in which the new crimes for the involvement in the war crime, that became Iraqi constitution was ratified. An Iraqi national assem- known as the Mahmudiyah killings.* [141]* [142] bly was elected in December, with participation from the Sunnis as well as the Kurds and Shia.* [137] Insurgent attacks increased in 2005 with 34,131 recorded incidents, compared to a total 26,496 for the previous year.* [138]
29.3.4
2006: Civil war and permanent Iraqi government
Further information: 2006 in Iraq, Civil war in Iraq (2006–07), Operation Together Forward and Provincial Reconstruction Team The beginning of 2006 was marked by government cre-
U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines clear a house in Al Anbar Governorate.
ation talks, growing sectarian violence, and continuous anti-coalition attacks. Sectarian violence expanded to a new level of intensity following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in the Iraqi city of Samarra, on 22 February 2006. The explosion at the mosque, one of the holiest sites in Shi'a Islam, is believed to have been caused by a bomb planted by al-Qaeda. Although no injuries occurred in the blast, the mosque was severely damaged and the bombing resulted in violence over the following days. Over 100 dead bodies with bullet holes were found on 23 February, and at least 165 people are thought to have been killed. In the aftermath of this attack the U.S. military calculated that the average homicide rate in Baghdad tripled from 11 to 33 deaths per day. In 2006 the UN described the environment in Iraq as a "civil war-like situation”.* [139]
Nouri al-Maliki meets with George W. Bush, June 2006
On 6 June 2006, the United States was successful in tracking Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq who was killed in a targeted killing, while attending a meeting in an isolated safehouse approximately 8 km (5.0 mi) north of Baqubah. Having been tracked by a British UAV, radio contact was made between the controller and two United States Air Force F-16C jets which identified the house and at 14:15 GMT, the lead jet dropped two 500‑pound (230 kg) guided bombs, a laser-guided GBU‑12 and GPS-guided GBU‑38 on the building where he was located at. Six others̶three male and three female individuals̶were also reported killed. Among those killed were one of his wives and their child.
The current government of Iraq took office on 20 May 2006, following approval by the members of the Iraqi National Assembly. This followed the general election in December 2005. The government succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government which had continued in office On March 12, five United States Army soldiers of the in a caretaker capacity until the formation of the perma502nd Infantry Regiment, raped the 14-year-old Iraqi girl nent government. Abeer Qassim Hamza al‑Janabi, and then murdered her, her father, her mother Fakhriya Taha Muhasen and her six-year-old sister Hadeel Qassim Hamza al-Janabi. The Iraq Study Group report and Saddam's execution soldiers then set fire to the girl's body to conceal evidence of the crime.* [140] Four of the soldiers were convicted Main articles: Iraq Study Group and Execution of of rape and murder and the fifth was convicted of lesser Saddam Hussein
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE
199
Further information: 2007 in Iraq, Iraq War troop surge The Iraq Study Group Report was released on 6 Decem- of 2007, Timeline of the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 ber 2006. Iraq Study Group, made up of people from and Strategic reset both of the major U.S. parties, was led by co-chairs James Baker, a former Secretary of State (Republican), and Lee In a 10 January 2007, televised address to the US pubH. Hamilton, a former U.S. Representative (Democrat). lic, Bush proposed 21,500 more troops for Iraq, a job It concluded that“the situation in Iraq is grave and deteri- program for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposals, and orating”and“U.S. forces seem to be caught in a mission $1.2 billion for these programs.* [146] On 23 January that has no foreseeable end.”The report's 79 recommen- 2007, in the 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush andations include increasing diplomatic measures with Iran nounced“deploying reinforcements of more than 20,000 and Syria and intensifying efforts to train Iraqi troops. additional soldiers and Marines to Iraq”. On 18 December, a Pentagon report found that insurgent On 10 February 2007, David Petraeus was made comattacks were averaging about 960 attacks per week, the mander of Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF-I), the highest since the reports had begun in 2005.* [143] four-star post that oversees all coalition forces in country, Coalition forces formally transferred control of a province to the Iraqi government, the first since the war. Military prosecutors charged eight U.S. Marines with the murders of 24 Iraqi civilians in Haditha in November 2005, 10 of them women and children. Four officers were also charged with dereliction of duty in relation to the event.* [144]
replacing General George Casey. In his new position, Petraeus oversaw all coalition forces in Iraq and employed them in the new“Surge”strategy outlined by the Bush administration.* [147]* [148] 2007 also saw a sharp increase in insurgent chlorine bombings.
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006, after States to set a timetable for withdrawal.* [149] On 3 June being found guilty of crimes against humanity by an Iraqi 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the court after a year-long trial.* [145] Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.* [150] Despite this, the mandate was renewed on 18 December 29.3.5 2007: U.S. troops surge 2007, without the approval of the Iraqi parliament.* [151] Pressures on US troops were compounded by the continuing withdrawal of coalition forces. In early 2007, British Prime Minister Blair announced that following Operation Sinbad British troops would begin to withdraw from Basra Governorate, handing security over to the Iraqis.* [152] In July Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen also announced the withdrawal of 441 Danish troops from Iraq, leaving only a unit of nine soldiers manning four observational helicopters.* [153]
Planned troop reduction See also: Provincial Iraqi Control
President George W. Bush announces the new strategy on Iraq from the White House Library, 10 January 2007.
In a speech made to Congress on 10 September 2007, Petraeus“envisioned the withdrawal of roughly 30,000 U.S. troops by next summer, beginning with a Marine contingent [in September].”* [154] On 13 September, Bush backed a limited withdrawal of troops from Iraq.* [155] Bush said 5,700 personnel would be home by Christmas 2007, and expected thousands more to return by July 2008. The plan would take troop numbers back to their level before the surge at the beginning of 2007.
200
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR Risha “one of the dogs of Bush”and described Thursday's killing as a“heroic operation that took over a month to prepare”.* [168]
U.S. soldiers take cover during a firefight with insurgents in the Al Doura section of Baghdad 7 March 2007.
A graph of U.S. troop fatalities in Iraq March 2003 – July 2010, the orange and blue months are the period of the troop surge and its aftermath.
There was a reported trend of decreasing U.S. troop deaths after May 2007,* [169] and violence against coaliEffects of the surge on security tion troops had fallen to the “lowest levels since the first * By March 2008, violence in Iraq was reported curtailed year of the American invasion”. [170] These, and sevby 40–80%, according to a Pentagon report.* [156] Inde- eral other positive developments, were attributed to the * pendent reports* [157]* [158] raised questions about those surge by many analysts. [171] assessments. An Iraqi military spokesman claimed that Data from the Pentagon and other U.S. agencies such civilian deaths since the start of the troop surge plan were as the Government Accountability Office (GAO) found 265 in Baghdad, down from 1,440 in the four previous that daily attacks against civilians in Iraq remained weeks. The New York Times counted more than 450 Iraqi “about the same”since February. The GAO also stated civilians killed during the same 28‑day period, based on that there was no discernible trend in sectarian vioinitial daily reports from Iraqi Interior Ministry and hos- lence.* [172] However, this report ran counter to reports pital officials. to Congress, which showed a general downward trend in Historically, the daily counts tallied by the New York civilian deaths and ethno-sectarian violence since Decem* Times have underestimated the total death toll by 50% or ber 2006. [173] By late 2007, as the U.S. troop surge bemore when compared to studies by the United Nations, gan to wind down, violence in Iraq had begun to decrease * which rely upon figures from the Iraqi Health Ministry from its 2006 highs. [174] and morgue figures.* [159] Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically The rate of U.S. combat deaths in Baghdad nearly dou- cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias and sectarian bled to 3.14 per day in the first seven weeks of the“surge” violence has broken out in every Iraqi city where there * * * in security activity, compared to previous period. Across is a mixed population. [175] [176] [177] Investigative reporter Bob Woodward cites U.S. government sources the rest of Iraq it decreased slightly.* [160]* [161] according to which the U.S.“surge”was not the primary On 14 August 2007, the deadliest single attack of the reason for the drop in violence in 2007–2008. Instead, whole war occurred. Nearly 800 civilians were killed according to that view, the reduction of violence was by a series of coordinated suicide bomb attacks on the due to newer covert techniques by U.S. military and northern Iraqi settlement of Kahtaniya. More than 100 intelligence officials to find, target and kill insurgents, homes and shops were destroyed in the blasts. U.S. of- including working closely with former insurgents.* [178] ficials blamed al‑Qaeda. The targeted villagers belonged to the non-Muslim Yazidi ethnic minority. The attack In the Shia region near Basra, British forces turned over may have represented the latest in a feud that erupted security for the region to Iraqi Security Forces. Basra is earlier that year when members of the Yazidi commu- the ninth province of Iraq's 18 provinces to be returned nity stoned to death a teenage girl called Du'a Khalil to local security forces' control since the beginning of the * Aswad accused of dating a Sunni Arab man and con- occupation. [179] verting to Islam. The killing of the girl was recorded on camera-mobiles and the video was uploaded onto the inPolitical developments ternet.* [162]* [163]* [164]* [165] On 13 September 2007, Abdul Sattar Abu Risha was killed in a bomb attack in the city of Ramadi.* [166] He was an important U.S. ally because he led the "Anbar Awakening", an alliance of Sunni Arab tribes that opposed al-Qaeda. The latter organisation claimed responsibility for the attack.* [167] A statement posted on the Internet by the shadowy Islamic State of Iraq called Abu
More than half of the members of Iraq's parliament rejected the continuing occupation of their country for the first time. 144 of the 275 lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition that would require the Iraqi government to seek approval from Parliament before it requests an extension of the UN mandate for foreign forces to be in Iraq, which expires at the end of 2008. It also calls for
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE
201 proof for these allegations. Further sanctions on Iranian organizations were also announced by the Bush administration in the autumn of 2007. On 21 November 2007, Lieutenant General James Dubik, who is in charge of training Iraqi security forces, praised Iran for its “contribution to the reduction of violence”in Iraq by upholding its pledge to stop the flow of weapons, explosives and training of extremists in Iraq.* [185] Tensions with Turkey Further information: 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq
Official Iraq-benchmark of the Congress, 2007.
a timetable for troop withdrawal and a freeze on the size of foreign forces. The UN Security Council mandate for U.S.‑led forces in Iraq will terminate“if requested by the government of Iraq.”* [180] Under Iraqi law, the speaker must present a resolution called for by a majority of lawmakers.* [181] 59% of those polled in the U.S. support a timetable for withdrawal.* [182] In mid-2007, the Coalition began a controversial program to recruit Iraqi Sunnis (often former insurgents) for the formation of “Guardian”militias. These Guardian militias are intended to support and secure various Sunni neighborhoods against the Islamists.* [183]
Tensions with Iran Further information: United States-Iran relations and Karbala provincial headquarters raid
Border incursions by PKK militants based in Northern Iraq have continued to harass Turkish forces, with casualties on both sides. In the fall of 2007, the Turkish military stated their right to cross the Iraqi Kurdistan border in“hot pursuit”of PKK militants and began shelling Kurdish areas in Iraq and attacking PKK bases in the Mount Cudi region with aircraft.* [186]* [187] The Turkish parliament approved a resolution permitting the military to pursue the PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan.* [188] In November, Turkish gunships attacked parts of northern Iraq in the first such attack by Turkish aircraft since the border tensions escalated.* [189] Another series of attacks in midDecember hit PKK targets in the Qandil, Zap, Avashin and Hakurk regions. The latest series of attacks involved at least 50 aircraft and artillery and Kurdish officials reported one civilian killed and two wounded.* [190] Additionally, weapons that were given to Iraqi security forces by the U.S. military are being recovered by authorities in Turkey after being used by PKK in that state.* [191] Blackwater private security controversy Main article: Blackwater Baghdad shootings On 17 September 2007, the Iraqi government announced that it was revoking the license of the U.S. security firm Blackwater USA over the firm's involvement in the killing of eight civilians, including a woman and an infant,* [192] in a firefight that followed a car bomb explosion near a State Department motorcade.
In 2007, tensions increased greatly between Iran and Iraqi Kurdistan due to the latter's giving sanctuary to the militant Kurdish secessionist group Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PEJAK.) According to reports, Iran had been shelling PEJAK positions in Iraqi Kurdistan since 16 August. These tensions further increased with an alleged border incursion on 23 August by Iranian troops who at29.3.6 2008: Civil war continues tacked several Kurdish villages killing an unknown number of civilians and militants.* [184] Further information: 2008 in Iraq Coalition forces also began to target alleged Iranian Quds Throughout 2008, U.S. officials and independent think force operatives in Iraq, either arresting or killing sus- tanks began to point to improvements in the security sitpected members. The Bush administration and coalition uation, as measured by key statistics. According to the leaders began to publicly state that Iran was supplying U.S. Defense Department, in December 2008 the“overweapons, particularly EFP devices, to Iraqi insurgents all level of violence”in the country had dropped 80% and militias although to date have failed to provide any since before the surge began in January 2007, and the
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3D Map of southern Turkey and northern Iraq. Soldiers of the 3rd Brigade, 14th Iraqi Army division graduate from basic training.
Turkey and PKK* [200]* [201]* [202] intensified on 21 February, when Turkey launched a ground attack into the Quandeel Mountains of Northern Iraq. In the nineday-long operation, around 10,000 Turkish troops adcountry's murder rate had dropped to prewar levels. They vanced up to 25 km into Northern Iraq. This was the also pointed out that the casualty figure for U.S. forces in first substantial ground incursion by Turkish forces since 1995.* [203]* [204] 2008 was 314 against a figure of 904 in 2007.* [193] According to the Brookings Institution, Iraqi civilian fatalities numbered 490 in November 2008 as against 3,500 in January 2007, whereas attacks against the coalition numbered somewhere between 200 and 300 per week in the latter half of 2008, as opposed to a peak of nearly 1,600 in summer 2007. The number of Iraqi security forces killed was under 100 per month in the second half of 2008, from a high of 200 to 300 in summer 2007.* [194] Meanwhile, the proficiency of the Iraqi military increased as it launched a spring offensive against Shia militias which Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki had previously been criticized for allowing to operate. This began with a March operation against the Mehdi Army in Basra, which led to fighting in Shia areas up and down the country, especially in the Sadr City district of Baghdad. By October, the British officer in charge of Basra said that since the operation the town had become “secure”and had a murder rate comparable to Manchester in England.* [195] The U.S. military also said there had been a decrease of about a quarter in the quantity of Iranian-made explosives found in Iraq in 2008, possibly indicating a change in Iranian policy.* [196] Progress in Sunni areas continued after members of the Awakening movement were transferred from U.S. military to Iraqi control.* [197] In May, the Iraqi army – backed by coalition support – launched an offensive in Mosul, the last major Iraqi stronghold of al-Qaeda. Despite detaining thousands of individuals, the offensive failed to lead to major long-term security improvements in Mosul. At the end of the year, the city remained a major flashpoint.* [198]* [199] In the regional dimension, the ongoing conflict between
Shortly after the incursion began, both the Iraqi cabinet and the Kurdistan regional government condemned Turkey's actions and called for the immediate withdrawal of Turkish troops from the region.* [205] Turkish troops withdrew on 29 February.* [206] The fate of the Kurds and the future of the ethnically diverse city of Kirkuk remained a contentious issue in Iraqi politics. U.S. military officials met these trends with cautious optimism as they approached what they described as the “transition”embodied in the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement which was negotiated throughout 2008.* [193] The commander of the coalition, U.S. General Raymond T. Odierno, noted that“in military terms, transitions are the most dangerous time”in December 2008.* [193] Spring offensives on Shia militias Further information: Iraq Spring Fighting of 2008, Siege of Sadr City and Battle of Basra (2008) At the end of March, the Iraqi Army, with Coalition air support, launched an offensive, dubbed “Charge of the Knights”, in Basra to secure the area from militias. This was the first major operation where the Iraqi Army did not have direct combat support from conventional coalition ground troops. The offensive was opposed by the Mahdi Army, one of the militias, which controlled much of the region.* [207]* [208] Fighting quickly spread to other parts of Iraq: including Sadr City, Al Kut, Al Hillah and others. During the fighting Iraqi forces met stiff resistance from militiamen in Basra to the point that the Iraqi military offensive slowed to a crawl, with the high attrition rates finally forcing the Sadrists to the ne-
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE
203
An Iraqi soldier and vehicles from the 42nd Brigade, 11th Iraqi Army Division during a firefight with armed militiamen in the Sadr City district of Baghdad 17 April 2008.
gotiating table. Following talks with Brig. Gen. Qassem Suleimani, General David Petraeus in testimony before Congress on 8 April commander of the Qods brigades of Iran's Revolutionary 2008. Guard Corps, and the intercession of the Iranian government, on 31 March 2008, al‑Sadr ordered his followers to ceasefire.* [209] The militiamen kept their weapons. Iraqi security forces rearm By 12 May 2008, Basra “residents overwhelmingly reported a substantial improvement in their everyday lives” according to the New York Times. “Government forces have now taken over Islamic militants' headquarters and halted the death squads and 'vice enforcers' who attacked women, Christians, musicians, alcohol sellers and anyone suspected of collaborating with Westerners”, according to the report; however, when asked how long it would take for lawlessness to resume if the Iraqi army left, one resident replied, “one day”.* [208] In late April roadside bombings continued to rise from a low in January̶from 114 bombings to more than 250, surpassing the May 2007 high.
Congressional testimony Speaking before the Congress on 8 April 2008, General David Petraeus urged delaying troop withdrawals, saying, “I've repeatedly noted that we haven't turned any corners, we haven't seen any lights at the end of the tunnel,”referencing the comments of then President Bush and former Vietnam-era General William Westmoreland.* [210] When asked by the Senate if reasonable people could disagree on the way forward, Petraeus said, “We fight for the right of people to have other opinions.”* [211]
An Iraqi Army unit prepares to board a Task Force Baghdad UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter for a counterinsurgency mission in Baghdad in 2007.
Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of U.S. military equipment with their army trading its AK‑47 assault rifles for the U.S. M‑16 and M‑4 rifles, among other equipment.* [213] In 2008 alone, Iraq accounted for more than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion U.S. weapon sales to foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 fighter * Upon questioning by then Senate committee chair Joe planes.). [214] Biden, Ambassador Crocker admitted that Al‑Qaeda in Iraq sought 36 F‑16s, the most sophisticated weapons sysIraq was less important than the Al Qaeda organization tem Iraq has attempted to purchase. The Pentagon notiled by Osama bin Laden along the Afghan-Pakistani bor- fied Congress that it had approved the sale of 24 Amerider.* [212] Lawmakers from both parties complained that can attack helicopters to Iraq, valued at as much as $2.4 U.S. taxpayers are carrying Iraq's burden as it earns bil- billion. Including the helicopters, Iraq announced plans lions of dollars in oil revenues. to purchase at least $10 billion in U.S. tanks and armored
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vehicles, transport planes and other battlefield equipment and services. Over the summer, the Defense Department announced that the Iraqi government wanted to order more than 400 armored vehicles and other equipment worth up to $3 billion, and six C-130J transport planes, worth up to $1.5 billion.* [215]* [216] From 2005 to 2008, the United States had completed approximately $20 billion in arms sales agreements with Iraq.* [217]
Iraqi courts. He said that Iraqi rule in the country is not complete while the occupiers are present, but that ultimately the Iraqi people would judge the pact in a referendum.* [232] Thousands of Iraqi have gathered weekly after Friday prayers and shouted anti‑U.S. and anti-Israeli slogans protesting the security pact between Baghdad and Washington. A protester said that despite the approval of the Interim Security pact, the Iraqi people would break it in a referendum next year.* [234]
Status of forces agreement
29.3.7 2009: Coalition redeployment
Main article: U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement
Further information: 2009 in Iraq
The U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement was approved by the Iraqi government on 4 December 2008.* [218] It establishes that U.S. combat forces will withdraw from Transfer of Green Zone Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009, and that all U.S. forces will be completely out of Iraq by 31 December 2011. The pact is subject to possible negotiations which could delay withdrawal and a referendum scheduled for mid-2009 in Iraq which may require all U.S. forces to completely leave by the middle of 2010.* [219]* [220] The pact requires criminal charges for holding prisoners over 24 hours, and requires a warrant for searches of homes and buildings that are not related to combat.* [221] U.S. contractors working for U.S. forces will be subject to Iraqi criminal law, while contractors working for the State Department and other U.S. agencies may retain their immunity. If U.S. forces commit still undecided “major premeditated felonies”while off-duty and off-base, they will be subject to the still undecided procedures laid out by a joint U.S.‑Iraq committee if the United States certi- Aerial view of the Green Zone, Baghdad International Airport, and the contiguous Victory Base Complex in Baghdad. fies the forces were off-duty.* [222]* [223]* [224]* [225] Some Americans have discussed“loopholes”* [226] and some Iraqis have said they believe parts of the pact remain a “mystery”.* [227] U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates has predicted that after 2011 he would expect to see “perhaps several tens of thousands of American troops” as part of a residual force in Iraq.* [228] Several groups of Iraqis protested the passing of the SOFA accord* [229]* [230]* [231] as prolonging and legitimizing the occupation. Tens of thousands of Iraqis burned an effigy of George W. Bush in a central Baghdad square where U.S. troops five years previously organized a tearing down of a statue of Saddam Hussein.* [110]* [227]* [232] Some Iraqis expressed skeptical optimism that the U.S. would completely end its presence by 2011.* [233] On 4 December 2008, Iraq's presidential council approved the security pact.* [218]
On 1 January 2009, the United States handed control of the Green Zone and Saddam Hussein's presidential palace to the Iraqi government in a ceremonial move described by the country's prime minister as a restoration of Iraq's sovereignty. Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki said he would propose 1 January be declared national “Sovereignty Day”. “This palace is the symbol of Iraqi sovereignty and by restoring it, a real message is directed to all Iraqi people that Iraqi sovereignty has returned to its natural status”, al‑Maliki said. The U.S. military attributed a decline in reported civilians deaths to several factors including the U.S.‑led “troop surge”, the growth of U.S.-funded Awakening Councils, and Shiite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr's call for his militia to abide by a cease fire.* [235]
A representative of Grand Ayatollah Ali Husseini al‑Sistani's expressed concern with the ratified version of Provincial elections the pact and noted that the government of Iraq has no authority to control the transfer of occupier forces into Main article: Iraqi governorate elections, 2009 and out of Iraq, no control of shipments, and that the On 31 January, Iraq held provincial elections.* [236] pact grants the occupiers immunity from prosecution in Provincial candidates and those close to them faced some
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE
205 stretched from the Sadr City slum in northeast Baghdad to the square around 5 km (3.1 mi) away, where protesters burned an effigy featuring the face of U.S. President George W. Bush.* [248] There were also Sunni Muslims in the crowd. Police said many Sunnis, including prominent leaders such as a founding sheikh from the Sons of Iraq, took part.* [249]
Coalition forces withdraw
Election map. governorate.
Shows what was the largest list in every
On 30 April, the United Kingdom formally ended combat operations. Prime Minister Gordon Brown characterized the operation in Iraq as a “success story”because of UK troops' efforts. Britain handed control of Basra to the United States Armed Forces.* [250]
On 28 July, Australia withdrew its combat forces as the Australian military presence in Iraq ended, per an agreepolitical assassinations and attempted assassinations, and ment with the Iraqi government. there was also some other violence related to the elecThe withdrawal of U.S. forces began at the end of June, tion.* [237]* [238]* [239]* [240] with 38 bases to be handed over to Iraqi forces. On 29 Iraqi voter turnout failed to meet the original expecta- June 2009, U.S. forces withdrew from Baghdad. On 30 tions which were set and was the lowest on record in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported Iraq,* [241] but U.S. Ambassador Ryan Crocker char- that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level in acterized the turnout as “large”.* [242] Of those who November since the 2003 invasion.* [251] turned out to vote, some groups complained of disenfranchisement and fraud.* [241]* [243]* [244] After the postelection curfew was lifted, some groups made threats about what would happen if they were unhappy with the Iraq awards oil contracts results.* [245] Exit strategy announcement On 27 February, United States President Barack Obama gave a speech at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in the US state of North Carolina announcing that the US combat mission in Iraq would end by 31 August 2010. A “transitional force”of up to 50,000 troops tasked with training the Iraqi Security Forces, conducting counterterrorism operations, and providing general support may remain until the end of 2011, the president added.* [246] The day before Obama's speech, Prime Minister of Iraq Nuri al‑Maliki said at a press conference that the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard personnel stand guard aboard the government of Iraq had“no worries”over the impending Al Basrah Oil Terminal in July 2009. departure of U.S. forces and expressed confidence in the ability of the Iraqi Security Forces and police to maintain On 30 June and again on 11 December, the Iraqi minorder without US military support.* [247] istry of oil awarded contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields. The winning oil companies enter joint ventures with the Iraqi ministry of Sixth anniversary protests oil, and the terms of the awarded contracts include exOn 9 April, the 6th anniversary of Baghdad's fall to coali- traction of oil for a fixed fee of approximately $1.40 per tion forces, tens of thousands of Iraqis thronged Bagh- barrel.* [252]* [253]* [254] The fees will only be paid once dad to mark the anniversary and demand the immedi- a production threshold set by the Iraqi ministry of oil is ate departure of coalition forces. The crowds of Iraqis reached.
206
29.3.8
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR
2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn
Further information: 2010 in Iraq and Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq On 17 February 2010, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced that as of 1 September, the name“Operation Iraqi Freedom”would be replaced by“Operation New Dawn”.* [255] On 18 April, US and Iraqi forces killed Abu Ayyub alMasri the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq in a joint American and Iraqi operation near Tikrit, Iraq.* [256] The coalition forces believed al-Masri to be wearing a suicide vest and proceeded cautiously. After the lengthy exchange of fire and bombing of the house, the Iraqi troops stormed inside and found two women still alive, one of whom was al-Masri's wife, and four dead men, identified as al-Masri, Abu Abdullah al-Rashid al-Baghdadi, an assistant to alMasri, and al-Baghdadi's son. A suicide vest was indeed found on al-Masri's corpse, as the Iraqi Army subsequently stated.* [257] Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri alMaliki announced the killings of Abu Omar al-Baghdadi and Abu Ayyub al-Masri at a news conference in Baghdad and showed reporters photographs of their bloody corpses. “The attack was carried out by ground forces which surrounded the house, and also through the use of missiles,”Mr Maliki said. “During the operation computers were seized with e-mails and messages to the two biggest terrorists, Osama bin Laden and [his deputy] Ayman al-Zawahiri”, Maliki added. U.S. forces commander Gen. Raymond Odierno praised the operation.“The death of these terrorists is potentially the most significant blow to al‑Qaeda in Iraq since the beginning of the insurgency”, he said. “There is still work to do but this is a significant step forward in ridding Iraq of terrorists.”
Iraqi commandos training under the supervision of soldiers from the US 82nd Airborne in December 2010.
parted Iraq in the early morning of 19 August. Convoys of US troops had been moving out of Iraq to Kuwait for several days, and NBC News broadcast live from Iraq as the last convoy crossed the border. While all combat brigades left the country, an additional 50,000 personnel (including Advise and Assist Brigades) remained in the country to provide support for the Iraqi military.* [261]* [262] These troops are required to leave Iraq by 31 December 2011 under an agreement between the US and Iraqi governments.* [263] The desire to step back from an active counter-insurgency role did not however mean that the Advise and Assist Brigades and other remaining US forces would not be caught up in combat. A standards memo from the Associated Press reiterated“combat in Iraq is not over, and we should not uncritically repeat suggestions that it is, even if they come from senior officials”.* [264]
State Department spokesman P. J. Crowley stated "...we are not ending our work in Iraq, We have a long-term commitment to Iraq.”* [265] On 31 August, Obama anU.S. Vice President Joe Biden stated that the deaths of nounced the end of Operation Iraqi Freedom from the the top two al‑Qaeda figures in Iraq are“potentially dev- Oval Office. In his address, he covered the role of the astating”blows to the terror network there and proof that United States' soft power, the effect the war had on the United States economy, and the legacy of the Afghanistan Iraqi security forces are gaining ground.* [258] and Iraq wars.* [266] On 20 June, Iraq's Central Bank was bombed in an attack that left 15 people dead and brought much of downtown On the same day in Iraq, at a ceremony at one of Saddam Baghdad to a standstill. The attack was claimed to have Hussein's former residences at Al Faw Palace in Baghdad, been carried out by the Islamic State of Iraq. This attack a number of US dignitaries spoke in a ceremony for telewas followed by another attack on Iraq's Bank of Trade vision cameras, avoiding overtones of the triumphalism present in US announcements made earlier in the war. building that killed 26 and wounded 52 people.* [259] Vice President Joe Biden expressed concerns regarding In late August 2010, insurgents conducted a major at- the ongoing lack of progress in forming a new Iraqi govtack with at least 12 car bombs simultaneously detonating ernment, saying of the Iraqi people that “they expect a from Mosul to Basra and killing at least 51. These attacks government that reflects the results of the votes they cast” coincided with the U.S. plans for a withdrawal of combat . Gen. Ray Odierno stated that the new era “in no way troops.* [260] signals the end of our commitment to the people of Iraq” From the end of August 2010, the United States at- . Speaking in Ramadi earlier in the day, Gates said that tempted to dramatically cut its combat role in Iraq, with U.S. forces “have accomplished something really quite the withdrawal of all US ground forces designated for ac- extraordinary here, [but] how it all weighs in the balance tive combat operations. The last US combat brigades de- over time I think remains to be seen”. When asked by
29.3. POST-INVASION PHASE reporters if the seven-year war was worth doing, Gates commented that“It really requires a historian's perspective in terms of what happens here in the long run”. He noted the Iraq War“will always be clouded by how it began”in regards Saddam Hussein's supposed weapons of mass destruction, which were never confirmed to have existed. Gates continued, “This is one of the reasons that this war remains so controversial at home”.* [267] On the same day Gen. Ray Odierno was replaced by Lloyd Austin as Commander of US forces in Iraq.
Alabama Army National Guard MP, MSG Schur, during a joint community policing patrol in Basra, 3 April 2010.
207 Iraqi security forces transition towards self-reliance Preparing to buy $13 billion worth of American arms, the Iraq Defense Ministry intends to transform the country's degraded conventional forces into a state-of-the-art military and become among the world's biggest customers for American military arms and equipment. Part of the planned purchase includes 140 M1 Abrams main battle tanks. Iraqi crews have already begun training on them. In addition to the $13 billion purchase, the Iraqis have requested 18 F-16 Fighting Falcons as part of a $4.2 billion program that also includes aircraft training and maintenance, AIM‑9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, laserguided bombs and reconnaissance equipment.* [276] If approved by Congress, the first aircraft could arrive in spring 2013. Under the plan, the first 10 pilots would be trained in the United States.* [277] The Iraqi navy also inaugurated U.S.‑built Swift Class patrol boat at Umm Qasr, Iraq's main port at the northern end of the gulf. Iraq is to take delivery of 14 more of these $20 million, 50‑foot craft before U.S. forces depart. The high-speed vessels' main mission will be to protect the oil terminals at al‑Basra and Khor al-Amiya through which some 1.7 million barrels a day are loaded into tankers for export. Two U.S.‑built offshore support vessels, each costing $70 million, were expected to be delivered in 2011.* [276]
On 7 September, two US troops were killed and nine wounded in an incident at an Iraqi military base. The incident is under investigation by Iraqi and US forces, but it is believed that an Iraqi soldier opened fire on US forces.* [268] On 8 September, the U.S. Army announced the arrival in Iraq of the first specifically-designated Advise and Assist Brigade, the 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment. It was announced that the unit would assume responsibilities in five southern provinces.* [269] From 10–13 September, Second Advise and Assist Brigade, 25th Infantry Division fought Iraqi insurgents near Diyala. According to reports from Iraq, hundreds of members of the Sunni Awakening Councils may have switched alle- M1 Abrams tanks in Iraqi service, January 2011 giance back to the Iraqi insurgency or al Qaeda.* [270] The United States Department of Defense had issued noWikileaks disclosed 391,832 classified U.S. military doc- tification of an additional $100 million proposed sales of uments on the Iraq War.* [271]* [272]* [273] Approxi- arms from the US to Iraq. General Dynamics is to be mately, 58 people were killed with another 40 wounded the prime contractor on a $36 million deal for the supin an attack on the Sayidat al‑Nejat church, a Chaldean ply of ammunition for Iraq's Abrams M1 A1 tanks. The Catholic church in Baghdad. Responsibility for the at- sale consists of: 14,010 TP-T M831A1 120mm Cartack was claimed by the Islamic State in Iraq organiza- tridges; 16,110 TPCSDS-T M865 120mm Cartridges; tion.* [274] and 3,510 HEAT-MP-T M830A1 120mm Cartridges. Coordinated attacks in primarily Shia areas struck Raytheon is proposed as the prime contractor for a $68 throughout Baghdad on 2 November, killing ap- million package of “Command, Control, Communicaproximately 113 and wounding 250 with around 17 tions, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconbombs.* [275] naissance (C4ISR) Systems”.* [278]
208 UN lifts restrictions on Iraq
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR heed Martin F-16 warplanes, becoming the 26th nation to operate the F-16. Because of windfall profits from oil, the Iraqi government is planning to double this originally planned 18, to 36 F-16s. Iraq is relying on the U.S. military for air support as it rebuilds its forces and battles a stubborn Islamist insurgency.* [286]
In a move to legitimize the existing Iraqi government, the United Nations lifted the Saddam Hussein-era UN restrictions on Iraq. These included allowing Iraq to have a civilian nuclear program, permitting the participation of Iraq in international nuclear and chemical weapons With the collapse of the discussions about extending the treaties, as well as returning control of Iraq's oil and gas stay of any U.S. troops beyond 2011, where they would revenue to the government and ending the Oil-for-Food not be granted any immunity from the Iraqi government, Programme.* [279] on 21 October 2011, President Obama announced at a White House press conference that all remaining U.S. troops and trainers would leave Iraq by the end of the year 29.3.9 2011: U.S. withdrawal as previously scheduled, bringing the U.S. mission in Iraq to an end.* [287] The last American soldier to die in Iraq Main article: Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq before the withdrawal was killed by a roadside bomb in Further information: 2011 in Iraq Baghdad on 14 November.* [288] Muqtada al-Sadr returned to Iraq in the holy city of Najaf In November 2011, the U.S. Senate voted down a resolution to formally end the war by bringing its authorization by Congress to an end.* [289]
U.S. troops in Iraq and US casualties by month, 2003–2011.
U.S. and Kuwaiti troops closing the gate between Kuwait and Iraq on 18 December 2011.
to lead the Sadrist movement after being in exile since The last U.S. troops withdrew from Iraq on 18 Decem2007.* [280] ber, although the US embassy and consulates continue On 15 January 2011, three U.S. troops were killed in Iraq. to maintain a staff of more than 20,000 including US One of the troops was killed on a military operation in Marine Embassy Guards and between 4,000 and 5,000 central Iraq, while the other two troops were deliberately private military contractors.* [290]* [291] The next day, shot by one or two Iraqi soldiers during a training exer- Iraqi officials issued an arrest warrant for the Sunni Vicecise.* [281] President Tareq Al-Hashemi. He has been accused of inin assassinations and fled to the Kurdish part On 6 June, five U.S. troops were killed in an appar- volvement * of Iraq. [292] ent rocket attack on Camp Victory, located near Baghdad International Airport.* [282] A sixth soldier, who was wounded in the attack, died 10 days later of his wounds.* [283] On 29 June, three U.S. troops were killed in a rocket attack on a U.S. base located near the border with Iran. It was speculated that the militant group responsible for the attack was the same one which attacked Camp Victory just over three weeks before.* [284] With the three deaths, June 2011, became the bloodiest month in Iraq for the U.S. military since June 2009, with 15 U.S. soldiers killed, only one of them outside combat.* [285]
29.4 Aftermath – withdrawal
post
U.S.-
Main article: Iraqi insurgency (post-U.S. withdrawal) See also: Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014) and Northern Iraq offensive (August 2014) See also: 2014 American intervention in Iraq The invasion and occupation led to sectarian violence which caused widespread displacement among Iraqi civilIn September, Iraq signed a contract to buy 18 Lock- ians. The Iraqi Red Crescent organization estimated
29.5. CASUALTY ESTIMATES
209 On 22 July 2013, at least five hundred convicts, most of whom were senior members of al-Qaida who had received death sentences, broke out of Iraq's Abu Ghraib jail when comrades launched a military-style assault to free them. The attack began when a suicide bomber drove a car packed with explosives into prison gates.* [296] James F. Jeffrey, the United States ambassador in Baghdad when the last American troops exited, said the assault and resulting escape “will provide seasoned leadership and a morale boost to Al Qaeda and its allies in both Iraq and Syria ... it is likely to have an electrifying impact on the Sunni population in Iraq, which has been sitting on the fence.”* [297]
12 May 2015 military situation: Controlled by Iraqi government Controlled by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) Controlled by Iraqi Kurds Controlled by Syrian government Controlled by Syrian rebels Controlled by Syrian Kurds
the total internal displacement was around 2.3 million in 2008, and as many as 2 million Iraqis leaving the country. Poverty led many Iraqi women to turn to prostitution to support themselves and their families, attracting sex tourists from regional lands. The invasion led to a constitution which supported democracy as long as laws did not violate traditional Islamic principles, and a parliamentary election was held in 2005. In addition the invasion preserved the autonomy of the Kurdish region, and stability brought new economic prosperity. Because the Kurdish region is historically the most democratic area of Iraq, many Iraqi refugees from other territories fled into the Kurdish land.* [293] Iraqi insurgency surged in the aftermath of the U.S. withdrawal. The terror campaigns have since been engaged by Iraqi, primarily radical Sunni, insurgent groups against the central government and the warfare between various factions within Iraq. The events of post U.S. withdrawal violence succeeded the previous insurgency in Iraq (prior to 18 December 2011), but have showed different patterns, raising concerns that the surging violence might slide into another civil war. Some 1,000 people were killed across Iraq within the first two months after U.S. withdrawal. Sectarian violence continued in the first half of 2013̶ at least 56 people died in April when a Sunni protest in Hawija was interrupted by a government-supported helicopter raid and a series of violent incidents occurred in May. On 20 May 2013, at least 95 people died in a wave of car bomb attacks that was preceded by a car bombing on 15 May that led to 33 deaths; also, on 18 May, 76 people were killed in the Sunni areas of Baghdad. Some experts have stated that Iraq could return to the brutal sectarian conflict of 2006.* [294]* [295]
By mid-2014 the country was in chaos with a new government yet to be formed following national elections, and the insurgency reaching new heights. In early June 2014 the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) took over the cities of Mosul and Tikrit and said it was ready to march on Baghdad, while Iraqi Kurdish forces took control of key military installations in the major oil city of Kirkuk. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki asked his parliament to declare a state of emergency that would give him increased powers, but the lawmakers refused.* [298] In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the return of U.S. Forces to Iraq, but only in the form of aerial support, in an effort to halt the advance of ISIS forces, render humanitarian aid to stranded refugees and stabilize the political situation.* [299] On 14 August 2014, Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki succumbed to pressure at home and abroad to step down. This paved the way for Haidar al-Abadi to take over On 19 August 2014. In what was claimed to be revenge for the aerial bombing ordered by President Obama, ISIS, which by this time had changed their name to the Islamic State, beheaded an American journalist, James Foley, who had been kidnapped two years previously. Despite U.S. bombings and breakthroughs on the political front, Iraq remained in chaos with the Islamic State consolidating its gains, and sectarian violence continuing unabated. On 22 August 2014, suspected Shia militants opened fire on a Sunni mosque during Friday prayers, killing 70 worshippers. Separately, Iraqi forces in helicopters killed 30 Sunni fighters in the town of Dhuluiya.* [300] A day later, apparently in retaliation for the attack on the mosque, three bombings across Iraq killed 35 people.* [301]
29.5 Casualty estimates Main article: Casualties of the Iraq War See also: Foreign hostages in Iraq and Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003 For coalition death totals see the infobox at the top right. See also Casualties of the Iraq War, which has casualty numbers for coalition nations, contractors, nonIraqi civilians, journalists, media helpers, aid workers, and the wounded. Casualty figures, especially Iraqi ones,
210
Wounded U.S. personnel flown from Iraq to Ramstein, Germany, for medical treatment (February 2007).
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A local memorial in North Carolina in December 2007; U.S. casualty count can be seen in the background.* [302]
with many U.S. citizens finding many parallels with the Vietnam War.* [303] For example, a former CIA officer described the Office of Special Plans as a group of ideologues who were dangerous to U.S. national security and a threat to world peace, and stated that the group lied and manipulated intelligence to further its agenda of removing Saddam.* [304] The Center for Public Integrity alleges that the Bush administration made a total of 935 false statements between 2001 and 2003 about Iraq's alleged threat to the United States.* [305]
Marines unload a wounded comrade from an Army UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter for medical treatment at Al Qaim.
Both proponents and opponents of the invasion have also criticized the prosecution of the war effort along a number of other lines. Most significantly, critics have assailed the United States and its allies for not devoting enough troops to the mission, not adequately planning for post-invasion Iraq, and for permitting and perpetrating human rights abuses. As the war has progressed, critics have also railed against the high human and financial costs.
are highly disputed. There have been several attempts by the media, coalition governments and others to estimate the Iraqi casualties. The table below summarizes some of these estimates and methods.
29.6 Criticism and cost
States participating in the invasion of Iraq States in support of an invasion States in opposition to an invasion States with an uncertain or no official standpoint
Further information: Criticism of the Iraq War, Opposition to the Iraq War, Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Legality of the Iraq War, Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Protests against the Iraq War, American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq, Governmental po- Criticisms include: sitions on the Iraq War prior to the 2003 invasion of • Legality of the invasion* [306]* [307] Iraq, Media coverage of the Iraq War and Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq • Human casualties See also: Iraq War misappropriations, Habbush letter and The Way of the World (book) • Insufficient post-invasion plans, in particular inadThe Bush Administration's rationale for the Iraq War has equate troop levels (a RAND Corporation study faced heavy criticism from an array of popular and ofstated that 500,000 troops would be required for ficial sources both inside and outside the United States, success)* [308]
29.7. HUMANITARIAN CRISES
211
• Financial costs with approximately $612 billion spent as of 4/09 the CBO has estimated the total cost of the war in Iraq to the United States will be around $1.9 trillion.* [309]
used”, said Stuart W. Bowen, Jr., director of the Office of the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction. “The CPA did not establish or implement sufficient managerial, financial and contractual controls to ensure that funds were used in a transparent manner.”* [326] Bowen • Adverse effect on US-led global "war on ter- told the Times the missing money may represent “the ror"* [310]* [311] largest theft of funds in national history.”* [327] • Damage to U.S.' traditional alliances and influence in the region, especially Israel* [312] and Saudi Arabia.* [313]
29.7 Humanitarian crises
• Endangerment and ethnic cleansing of religious and ethnic minorities by insur- Main articles: Humanitarian crises of the Iraq War and gents* [176]* [314]* [315]* [316]* [317] Refugees of Iraq The child malnutrition rate rose to 28%.* [328] Some 60– • Disruption of Iraqi oil production and related energy security concerns (the price of oil has quadrupled since 2002)* [318]* [319] After President Barack Obama was inaugurated in 2009, some anti-war groups decided to stop protesting even though the war was still going on. Some of them decided to stop because they felt they should give the new President time to establish his administration, and others stopped because they believed that Obama would end the war.* [320]
29.6.1
Financial cost
The financial cost of the war has been more than £4.55 billion ($9 billion) to the UK,* [321] and over $845 billion to the US government. According to Nobel Prizewinning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz and Harvard public finance lecturer Linda J. Bilmes it costs the United States $720 million a day to wage the Iraq war. This number takes into account the long-term health care for veterans, interest on debt and replacement of military hardware.* [322]
Child killed by a car bomb in Kirkuk, July 2011
70% of Iraqi children were reported to be suffering from psychological problems in 2007.* [329] Most Iraqis had no access to safe drinking water. A cholera outbreak in northern Iraq was thought to be the result of poor water quality.* [330] As many as half of Iraqi doctors left the country between 2003 and 2006.* [331] The use of depleted uranium and white phosphorus by the U.S. military has been blamed for birth defects and cancers in the Iraqi city of Fallujah.* [332]* [333]* [334] A study entitled “Birth defects in Iraq and the plausibility of environmental exposure: A review”was completed to review the impact of other war-related environmental factors on birth defects in Iraq.* [335]
In March 2013, the total cost of the Iraq War was estimated to have been $1.7 trillion by the Watson Institute of International Studies at Brown University.* [323] Critics have argued that the total cost of the war to the US economy is estimated to be from $3 trillion* [324] to $6 trillion,* [325] including interest rates, by 2053. As of 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced, in neighA CNN report noted that the United States-led interim with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million * [336] More boring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria. government, the Coalition Provisional Authority lasting Iraqi Christians have fled to neighboring than half of until 2004 in Iraq had lost $8.8 billion in the Development * * Fund for Iraq. In June 2011, it was reported by CBS countries since the start of the war. [337] [338] News that $6 billion in neatly packaged blocks of $100 bills was air-lifted into Iraq by the George W. Bush administration, which flew it into Baghdad aboard C‑130 military cargo planes. In total, the Times says $12 billion in cash was flown into Iraq in 21 separate flights by May 2004, all of which has disappeared. An inspector general's report mentioned that "'Severe inefficiencies and poor management' by the Coalition Provisional Authority would leave no guarantee that the money was properly
The Foreign Policy Association reported that “Perhaps the most perplexing component of the Iraq refugee crisis...has been the inability for the United States to absorb more Iraqis following the 2003 invasion of the country. To date, the United States has granted around 84,000 Iraqis refugee status, of the more than two million global Iraqi refugees. By contrast, the United States granted asylum to more than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees during the Vietnam War.”* [339]* [340]* [341]
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29.8 Human rights abuses Main articles: Human rights in post-invasion Iraq and Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003
• Murder of an Iraqi girl and her family.* [344] • The torture and killing of prisoner of war, Iraqi Air Force commander, Abed Hamed Mowhoush • The killing of Baha Mousa
Throughout the entire Iraq war, there have been human rights abuses on all sides of the conflict.
29.8.1
Iraqi government
• The use of torture by Iraqi security forces.* [342] • Iraqi police from the Interior Ministry accused of forming Death Squads and committing numerous massacres and tortures of Sunni Arabs* [343] and the police collusion with militias in Iraq have compounded the problems.
29.8.2
Coalition forces and private contractors
• Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre* [345] where 42 civilians were allegedly killed by coalition forces. • Planting weapons on noncombatant, unarmed Iraqis by three U.S. Marines after killing them.* [346]* [347] According to a report by The Nation, other similar acts have been witnessed by U.S. soldiers.* [348] Members of Iraq Veterans Against the War tell similar stories.* [349] • Blackwater Baghdad shootings • Allegations of beatings, electrocution, mock executions, and sexual assault by British troops were presented to the International Criminal Court (ICC) by Public Interest Lawyers (PIL) and the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR) on 12 January 2014.* [350]
29.8.3 Insurgent groups Main article: Iraq War insurgent attacks Further information: List of massacres of the Iraq War, List of suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003, and Tactics of the Iraqi insurgency
Car bombings are a frequently used tactic by insurgents in Iraq.
This photograph released in 2006 shows several naked Iraqis in hoods, of whom one has the words “I'm a rapeist”[sic] written on his hip.
• Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse • Haditha killings of 24 civilians (ongoing with some charges dropped) • White phosphorus use in Iraq
• Killing over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to June 2006, according to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr, giving the first official count for the victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly attacks.* [351] The insurgents have also conducted numerous suicide attacks on the Iraqi civilian population, mostly targeting the majority Shia community.* [352]* [353] An October 2005 report from Human Rights Watch examines the range of civilian attacks and their purported justification.* [354]
29.9. PUBLIC OPINION ON THE WAR
213
• Attacks against civilians including children through by the BBC found that two-thirds of the world's popubombing of market places and other locations reach- lation believed the U.S. should withdraw its forces from able by suicide bombers. Iraq.* [366] • Attacks against civilians by sectarian death squads In 2006 it was found that majorities in the UK and Canada believed that the war in Iraq was “unjustified”and – in primarily during the Iraqi Civil war. the UK – were critical of their government's support of * • Attacks on diplomats and diplomatic facilities in- U.S. policies in Iraq. [367] cluding; the bombing of the UN headquarters in According to polls conducted by the Arab American Baghdad in August 2003 killing the top UN rep- Institute, four years after the invasion of Iraq, 83% resentative in Iraq and 21 other UN staff mem- of Egyptians had a negative view of the U.S. role in bers;* [355] beheading several diplomats: two Al- Iraq; 68% of Saudi Arabians had a negative view; gerian diplomatic envoys Ali Belaroussi and Azze- 96% of the Jordanian population had a negative view; dine Belkadi,* [356] Egyptian diplomatic envoy al- 70% of the population of the United Arab Emirates Sherif,* [357] and four Russian diplomats.* [358] and 76% of the Lebanese population also described their view as negative.* [368] The Pew Global Attitudes • The February 2006 bombing of the al-Askari Project reports that in 2006 majorities in the Netherlands, Mosque, destroying one of the holiest Shiite shrines, Germany, Jordan, France, Lebanon, Russia, China, killing over 165 worshipers and igniting sectarian Canada, Poland, Pakistan, Spain, Indonesia, Turkey, and strife and reprisal killings.* [359] Morocco believed the world was safer before the Iraq War and the toppling of Saddam, while pluralities in the • The publicised killing of several contractors; United States and India believe the world is safer without Eugene Armstrong, Jack Hensley, Kenneth Bigley, Saddam Hussein.* [369] Ivaylo Kepov and Georgi Lazov (Bulgarian truck drivers.)* [360] Other non-military personnel murdered include: translator Kim Sun-il, Shosei Koda, Fabrizio Quattrocchi (Italian), charity 29.9.2 worker Margaret Hassan, reconstruction engineer Nick Berg, photographer Salvatore Santoro (Italian)* [361] and supply worker Seif Adnan Kanaan (Iraqi.) Four private armed contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and small arms fire, their bodies dragged from their vehicles, beaten and set ablaze. Their burned corpses were then dragged through the streets before being hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.* [362]
Iraqi opinion
• Torture or killing of members of the New Iraqi Army,* [363] and assassination of civilians associated with the Coalition Provisional Authority, such as Fern Holland, or the Iraqi Governing Council, such as Aqila al-Hashimi and Ezzedine A woman pleads with an Iraqi army soldier from 2nd Company, Salim, or other foreign civilians, such as those from 5th Brigade, 2nd Iraqi Army Division to let a suspected insurgent free during a raid near Tafaria, Iraq Kenya.* [364]
29.9 Public opinion on the war Main article: Public opinion on the Iraq War
29.9.1
International opinion
According to a January 2007 BBC World Service poll of more than 26,000 people in 25 countries, 73% of the global population disapproved of U.S. handling of the Iraq War.* [365] A September 2007 poll conducted
Directly after the invasion, polling suggested that a slight majority supported the US invasion.* [370] Polls conducted between 2005 and 2007 showed 31–37% of Iraqi's wanted US and other Coalition forces to withdraw once security was restored and that 26–35% wanted immediate withdrawal instead.* [371]* [372]* [373] Despite a majority having previously been opposed to the US presence, 60% of Iraqis opposed American troops leaving directly prior to withdrawal, with 51% saying withdrawal would have a negative effect.* [374]* [375] In 2006, a poll conducted on the Iraqi public revealed that 64% of the ones polled said Iraq was going in the right direction and 77% claimed it was worth ousting Saddam Hussein.* [371]
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29.10 Relation to the Global War on Terrorism
are foreigners, especially Saudis.* [383]* [384]* [385]
29.11.2 Iranian involvement
Main article: Iraq War and U.S. Global War on Terror Further information: Criticism of the War on Terrorism, Although some military intelligence analysts have conSaddam Hussein and al-Qaeda and Saddam Hussein and cluded there is no concrete evidence, U.S. Major General al-Qaeda timeline Rick Lynch has claimed that Iran has provided training, weapons, money, and intelligence to Shiite insurgents in Former President George W. Bush consistently referred Iraq and that up to 150 Iranian intelligence agents, plus to the Iraq war as “the central front in the War on Ter- members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard are believed * * ror", and argued that if the United States pulled out of to be active in Iraq at any given time. [386] [387] Lynch Iraq,“terrorists will follow us here”.* [376]* [377]* [378] thinks that members of the Iranian Quds Force and the While other proponents of the war have regularly echoed Iranian Revolutionary Guard have trained members of this assertion, as the conflict has dragged on, members the Qazali terror network in explosives technology and of the US Congress, the US public, and even US troops also provided the network with arms, munitions, and milhave questioned the connection between Iraq and the fight itary advisors. Many explosive devices, including improagainst anti-US terrorism. In particular, a consensus has vised explosives (IEDs) and explosively-formed projecdeveloped among intelligence experts that the Iraq war tiles (EFPs), used by insurgents are claimed by Lynch to has increased terrorism. Counterterrorism expert Rohan be Iranian-made or designed. Gunaratna frequently refers to the invasion of Iraq as a According to two unnamed US officials, the Pentagon “fatal mistake”.* [379] is examining the possibility that the Karbala provincial London's conservative International Institute for Strate- headquarters raid, in which insurgents managed to ingic Studies concluded in 2004 that the occupation of Iraq filtrate an American base, kill five US soldiers, wound had become “a potent global recruitment pretext”for three, and destroy three humvees before fleeing, was supMujahideen and that the invasion“galvanised”al-Qaeda ported by Iranians. In a speech on 31 January 2007, Iraqi and“perversely inspired insurgent violence”there.* [380] Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki stated that Iran was sup* The US National Intelligence Council concluded in a Jan- porting attacks against Coalition forces in Iraq [388] and uary 2005 report that the war in Iraq had become a breed- some Iraqis suspect that the raid may have been perpeing ground for a new generation of terrorists; David Low, trated by the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps's Qods the national intelligence officer for transnational threats, Force in retaliation for the detention of five Iranian offiindicated that the report concluded that the war in Iraq cials by U.S. forces in the northern Iraqi city of Irbil on * * provided terrorists with“a training ground, a recruitment 11 January. [389] [390] ground, the opportunity for enhancing technical skills ... Michael Weiss and Dexter Filkins have described the exThere is even, under the best scenario, over time, the like- tensive involvement of Iranian Quds Force commander lihood that some of the jihadists who are not killed there Qasem Suleimani in arming and training both Sunni and will, in a sense, go home, wherever home is, and will Shi'ite militias in Iraq. According to Weiss, Iranian strattherefore disperse to various other countries.”The Coun- egy was designed to prevent the Iraqi government from cil's chairman Robert Hutchings said, “At the moment, functioning so that Iran could exert greater control over Iraq is a magnet for international terrorist activity.”* [381] the country under the guise of providing stability. Weiss And the 2006 National Intelligence Estimate, which out- also traced the origins of al Qaeda in Iraq, which enlined the considered judgment of all 16 US intelligence tered Iraqi Kurdistan through Iran, to covert Iranian opagencies, held that “The Iraq conflict has become the erations to destabilize the Iraqi government of Saddam 'cause celebre' for jihadists, breeding a deep resentment Hussein.* [391] According to a Western diplomat quoted of U.S. involvement in the Muslim world and cultivating by Filkins: “Suleimani wanted to bleed the Americans, supporters for the global jihadist movement.”* [382] so he invited in the jihadis, and things got out of control.” * [392] In 2011, US ambassador James Jeffrey stated that Iranian proxies were responsible for roughly one-fourth of US casualties in Iraq.* [393]
29.11 Foreign involvement 29.11.1
Role of Saudi Arabia and non- 29.12 Iraqis
See also
See also: Saudi Arabia and terrorism
• 12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike (associated with WikiLeaks in 2010)
According to studies, most of the suicide bombers in Iraq
• Overseas interventions of the United States
29.14. REFERENCES • United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War • United States military casualties of war • War in Afghanistan (2001–14)
215
[14] 260 killed in 2003, 15,196 killed from 2004 through 2009 (with the exceptions of May 2004 and March 2009), 67 killed in March 2009, 1,100 killed in 2010, and 1,067 killed in 2011, thus giving a total of 17,690 dead [15] “Iraq War” (PDF). Retrieved 18 November 2012.
29.13 Footnotes [1] The conflict is also known as the War in Iraq, the Occupation of Iraq, the Second Gulf War, Gulf War II, and Gulf War 2. The period of the war lasting from 2003 to 2010 was referred to as Operation Iraqi Freedom by the United States military.
29.14 References
[16] “Operation Iraqi Freedom”. iCasualties. Retrieved 24 August 2010. [17] “Home and Away: Iraq and Afghanistan War Casualties” . CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2010. [18] http://www.defenselink.mil/news/casualty.pdf [19] “Ministry of Defence | Fact Sheets | Operations Factsheets | Operations in Iraq: British Fatalities”. Mod.uk. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
[20] “POW and MIA in Iraq and Afghanistan Fast Facts”. CNN. Retrieved 5 June 2014.; As of July 2012, seven [1] “Sectarian divisions change Baghdad's image”. MSNBC. American private contractors remain unaccounted for. 3 July 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2007. Their names are: Jeffrey Ake, Aban Elias, Abbas Kareem Naama, Neenus Khoshaba, Bob Hamze, Dean Sadek and [2] “U.S. says Iraq pullout won't cause dramatic violence” Hussain al-Zurufi. Healy, Jack, "With Withdrawal Loom. MSNBC. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 26 November ing, Trails Grow Cold For Americans Missing In Iraq", 2010. New York Times, 22 May 2011, p. 6. [3] “The JRTN Movement and Iraq's Next Insurgency | Combating Terrorism Center at West Point”. Ctc.usma.edu. [21] “Casualty” (PDF). U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 18 November 2012. Retrieved 2014-08-02. [4] “UK 'to continue deporting failed Iraqi asylum seekers'". BBC. 22 November 2010. Retrieved 26 November 2010. [5] “Al-Qaeda's Resurgence in Iraq: A Threat to U.S. Interests”. U.S Department of State. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2010. [6] President Barack Obama Speaks With VICE News
[22] 33 Ukrainians , 31+ Italians , 30 Bulgarians , 20 Salvadorans , 19 Georgians , 18 Estonians , 16+ Poles , 15 Spaniards , 10 Romanians , 6 Australians , 5 Albanians, 4 Kazakhs , 3 Filipinos and 2 Thais for a total of 212+ [23] Many official U.S. tables at “Military Casualty Information”. See latest totals for injury, disease/other medical
[24] “Casualties in Iraq”. [7] “Deputy Assistant Secretary for International Programs Charlene Lamb's Remarks on Private Contractors in Iraq” [25] iCasualties.org (was lunaville.org). Benicia, California. . State.gov. 17 July 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010. Patricia Kneisler, et al., “Iraq Coalition Casualties” [8] International Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett, James (ed.) (3 February 2010). The Military Balance 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-557-5. [9] Rubin, Alissa J.; Nordland, Rod (29 March 2009). “Troops Arrest an Awakening Council Leader in Iraq, Setting Off Fighting”. The New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2010. [10] “The Kurdish peshmerga forces will not be integrated into the Iraqi army: Mahmoud Sangawi ̶Interview”. Ekurd.net. 22 January 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
[26] “Defence Internet Fact Sheets Operations in Iraq: British Casualties”. UK Ministry of Defense. Latest combined casualty and fatality tables. [27] http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/ oif-total.pdf [28] “U.S. Department of Labor ̶Office of Workers' Compensation Programs (OWCP) – Defense Base Act Case Summary by Nation”. Dol.gov. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
[11] The Brookings Institution Iraq Index: Tracking Variables of Reconstruction & Security in Post-Saddam Iraq 1 October 2007
[29] T. Christian Miller (23 September 2009). “U.S. Government Private Contract Worker Deaths and Injuries”. Projects.propublica.org. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
[12] Ricks, Thomas E.; Ann Scott Tyson (11 January 2007). “Intensified Combat on Streets Likely”. Washington Post. p. A01.
[30] 185 in Diyala from June 2007 to December 2007, 4 in assassination of Abu Risha, 25 on 12 November 2007, 528 in 2008, 27 on 2 January 2009, 53 From 6 to 12 April 2009, 13 on 16 November 2009, 15 in December 2009, 100+ from April to June 2010, 52 on 18 July 2010, total of 1,002+ dead
[13] Pincus, Walter. “Violence in Iraq Called Increasingly Complex”. Washington Post, 17 November 2006.
216
[31] Moore, Solomon; OPPEL Jr, RICHARD A. (24 January 2008). “Attacks Imperil U.S.-Backed Militias in Iraq”. The New York Times. [32] Greg Bruno. “Finding a Place for the 'Sons of Iraq' – Council on Foreign Relations”. Cfr.org. Retrieved 26 December 2011. [33] Press release (28 October 2003). “New Study Finds: 11,000 to 15,000 Killed in Iraq War; 30 Percent are NonCombatants; Death Toll Hurts Postwar Stability Efforts, Damages US Image Abroad”. Project on Defense Alternatives (via Common Dreams NewsCenter). Retrieved 2 September 2010. [34] Conetta, Carl (23 October 2003). “The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict ̶Project on Defense Alternative Research Monograph #8”. Project on Defense Alternatives (via Commonwealth Institute). Retrieved 2 September 2010.
CHAPTER 29. IRAQ WAR
[47] “The Weekly Standard, Saddam's al Qaeda Connection” . [48] “President Discusses the Future of Iraq” The White House, 26 February 2003 [49] “Bush Sought 'Way' To Invade Iraq?" 60 Minutes [50] Alexandrovna, Larisa. "Senate Intelligence Committee Stalling Prewar Intelligence,”The Raw Story, 2 December 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2007. [51] Hersh, Seymour M. (5 May 2003). Selective Intelligence, New Yorker. [52]“U.S. silence on new Iraq spying allegations”. BBC News. 7 January 1999. Retrieved 23 October 2010. [53] Beaumont, Peter (15 June 2003).“Iraqi mobile labs nothing to do with germ warfare, report finds”. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
[35] 597 killed in 2003,, 23,984 killed from 2004 through 2009 (with the exceptions of May 2004 and March 2009), 652 killed in May 2004, 45 killed in March 2009, 676 killed in 2010, and 590 killed in 2011, thus giving a total of 26,544 dead
[54] “US illegally removes pages from Iraq UN report”.
[36] “Amnesty: Iraq holds up to 30,000 detainees without trial”. CNN. 13 September 2010. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
[56] “Saddam's uranium headed for Ontario processing plant” . The Star (Toronto). Associated Press. 5 July 2008. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
[37] “Mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq: a crosssectional cluster sample survey” PDF (242 KB). By Gilbert Burnham, Riyadh Lafta, Shannon Doocy, and Les Roberts. The Lancet, 11 October 2006
[57] Duffy, Michael; James Carney (13 July 2003). “A Question of Trust”. Time.
[38] “The Human Cost of the War in Iraq: A Mortality Study, 2002–2006”PDF (603 KB). By Gilbert Burnham, Shannon Doocy, Elizabeth Dzeng, Riyadh Lafta, and Les Roberts. A supplement to the October 2006 Lancet study. It is also found here: [39] “Iraq Family Health Survey” New England Journal of Medicine 31 January 2008 [40] “Iraq Body Count”. Iraq Body Count. Retrieved 27 April 2014. [41] “Iraq War Logs: What the numbers reveal”. Iraq Body Count. Retrieved 3 December 2010. [42] Kim Gamel (23 April 2009). “AP Impact: Secret tally has 87,215 Iraqis dead”. FOXNews.com. Retrieved 26 April 2014. [43] “Iraq War”. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 October 2012. [44] Feller, Ben (27 February 2009). “Obama sets firm withdrawal timetable for Iraq”. Associated Press. [45] Center for American Progress (29 January 2004) “In Their Own Words: Iraq's 'Imminent' Threat” americanprogress.org [46] Senator Bill Nelson (28 January 2004)“New Information on Iraq's Possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction”, Congressional Record
[55] “U.N. weapons inspector Hans Blix faults Bush Administration for lack of “critical thinking”in Iraq”. Berkeley.edu. 2004-03-18. Retrieved 2014-08-02.
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[306] War critics astonished as U.S. hawk admits invasion was [327] “Report: $6B missing in Iraq may have been stolen”. illegal, The Guardian, 20 November 2003 CBS News. 14 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2014. [307] Top judge: U.S. and UK acted as 'vigilantes' in Iraq inva- [328] “Hunger, disease spread in Iraq – Oxfam report”. Reuters. 30 July 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2014. sion, The Guardian, 18 November 2008 [308] “RAND Review | Summer 2003 – Burden of Victory”. [329] “Iraq: Traumatised Iraqi children suffer psychological damage”. Alertnet.org. 16 July 2007. Retrieved 14 July Rand.org. Retrieved 10 September 2008. 2014. [309] “U.S. CBO estimates $2.4 trillion long-term war costs | Politics | Reuters”. Reuters. 24 October 2007. Retrieved [330] Cockburn, Patrick (31 August 2007).“Cholera spreads in Iraq as health services collapse”. The Independent (Lon10 September 2008. don). Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2014. [310] Iraq war was terrorism 'recruiting sergeant', The Guardian, 28 September 2006 [331] Laurance, Jeremy (20 October 2006). “Medics beg for help as Iraqis die needlessly”. The Independent (London). [311] Spy Agencies Say Iraq War Hurting U.S. Terror Fight, Retrieved 14 July 2014. The Washington Post, 23 September 2006 [312] Israel warns of Iraq war 'earthquake', BBC News, 7 Febru- [332] Ten Years Later, U.S. Has Left Iraq with Mass Displacement & Epidemic of Birth Defects, Cancers. Democracy ary 2003 Now! 20 March 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2014. [313] Saudis warn U.S. over Iraq war, BBC News, 17 February [333] Ross Caputi (25 October 2012). The victims of Fallujah's 2003 health crisis are stifled by western silence. The Guardian. Retrieved 1 January 2014. [314] Crawford, Angus (4 March 2007). “Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction'". BBC News. Retrieved 23 October [334] Depleted uranium used by US forces blamed for birth de2010. fects and cancer in Iraq. RT. 22 July 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2014. [315] “Iraq's Yazidis fear annihilation”. MSNBC. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2010. [335] Al-Hadithi, Tariq S; Jawad K Al-Diwan; Abubakir M Saleh; Nazar P Shabila (28 July 2012). “Birth defects [316] Sabah, Zaid (23 March 2007). “Christians, targeted and in Iraq and the plausibility of environmental exposure: A suffering, flee Iraq”. USA Today. Retrieved 23 October review”. Conflict and Health. doi:10.1186/1752-15052010. 6-3. [317] “Assyrians Face Escalating Abuses in “New Iraq"". Ip[336] Sengupta, Kim (16 December 2011). “Will Iraq's 1.3 snews.net. 3 May 2006. Retrieved 23 October 2010. million refugees ever be able to go home?". The Independent (London). [318] “Light Crude Oil (CL, NYMEX): Monthly Price Chart” . Futures.tradingcharts.com. Retrieved 10 September [337] “Christian areas targeted in Baghdad attacks”. BBC. 10 2008. November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. [319] “Iraq to revive oil deal with China”. International Herald [338] Sabah, Zaid; Jervis, Rick (23 March 2007). “Christians, Tribune. 29 March 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010. targeted and suffering, flee Iraq”. USA Today. [320] After six years, peace vigil ends, Times-Herald, 20 March [339]“Global Views: Iraq's refugees”, by R. Nolan, Foreign 2009 Policy Association Features, Resource Library, 12 June 2007. [321] “UK. Spending on War in Iraq, Afghanistan Rises to $16 Bln (December 2006)". Bloomberg L.P. 6 Decem- [340]“The Flight From Iraq”. The New York Times. Retrieved ber 2006. Retrieved 22 January 2007. 23 March 2014. [322] Lydersen, Kari (22 September 2007).“War Costing $720 [341] “Iraqi Refugee Processing Fact Sheet”. U.S. Citizenship Million Each Day, Group Says”. Washingtonpost.com. and Immigration Services. Retrieved 23 March 2014. Retrieved 2014-04-12. [342] “Iraq: Torture Continues at Hands of New Government” [323] Wall Street Journal Friday, 15 March 2013 . Human Rights News. 25 January 2005. [324] Trotta, Daniel (2 March 2008).“Iraq war hits U.S. econ- [343] Dexter Filkins (29 November 2005). “Sunnis Accuse omy: Nobel winner”. Reuters. Retrieved 23 October Iraqi Military of Kidnappings and Slayings”. The New 2010. York Times. [325] Trotta, Daniel (14 March 2013).“Iraq war costs US more [344] “Iraq rape soldier jailed for life”. BBC. 16 November than $2 trillion: study”. Reuters. 2006. Retrieved 10 September 2008. [326] Audit: U.S. lost track of $9 billion in Iraq funds Monday, [345] Neil Mackay (14 March 2004). “Iraq: The Wedding 31 January 2005. CNN Party Massacre”. Sunday Herald.
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[346] “2 GI's charged with murder of Iraqis ̶International [365] “World View of U.S. Role Goes from Bad to Worse” Herald Tribune”. International Herald Tribune. Re(PDF). BBC World Service. 23 January 2007. Retrieved trieved 10 September 2008. 23 May 2007. [347] “Multi-National Force – Iraq ̶Additional Soldier [366] “Most people 'want Iraq pull-out'". BBC NEWS. 7 charged with murder”. Mnf-iraq.com. Retrieved 10 September 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2010. September 2008. [367] “Guardian July Poll”(PDF). ICM Research. July 2006. [348] About Chris Hedges Chris Hedges, former Middle East bureau chief for the New York Times, is a senior fellow [368] Zogby, James (March 2007). “Four Years Later: Arab at The Nation Institute. He is the author, with Laila AlOpinion Troubled by Consequences of Iraq War”(PDF). Arian, of Collateral Damage and an earlier book, AmeriArab American Institute. can Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America (Free Press). more ... About Laila Al-Arian Laila Al- [369] “India: Pro-America, Pro-Bush”. Pew Global Attitudes Project. Pew Research Center. 28 February 2006. Arian is a freelance journalist and co-author, with Chris Hedges, of Collateral Damage: America's War Against Iraqi Civilians (Nation Books), based on their 2007 Na- [370] Most Iraqis in Baghdad welcome US: NDTV poll The Indian Express tion article“The Other War.”more .. “The Other War: Iraq Vets Bear Witness”. The Nation. Retrieved 10 [371] “The Iraqi Public on the U.S. Presence and the Future September 2008. of Iraq” (PDF). World Public Opinion. 27 September 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2008. [349] “The Raw Story | Anti-war veterans' group: War crimes are 'encouraged'". Rawstory.com. Archived from the [372] Iraq Poll conducted by D3 Systems for the BBC, ABC original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008. News, ARD German TV and USA Today. More than 2,000 people were questioned in more than 450 neigh[350] Owen, Jonathan (12 January 2014). “Exclusive: Devbourhoods and villages across all 18 provinces of Iraq beastating dossier on 'abuse' by UK forces in Iraq goes to tween 25 February and 5 March 2007. The margin of International Criminal Court”. Independent (London). error is + or – 2.5%. [351] Ellen Knickmeyer (3 June 2005).“Iraq Puts Civilian Toll [373] Iraqis Oppose Oil Development Plans, Poll Finds (6 Auat 12,000”. The Washington Post. gust 2007) (Oil Change International, Institute for Policy [352] Paul McGeough (2 February 2005). “Handicapped boy Studies, War on Want, PLATFORM and Global Policy who was made into a bomb”. Sydney Morning Herald. Forum) [353] Iraq bombing toll rises. The Age 2 July 2006
[374] Most Iraqis in Baghdad welcome US: NDTV poll The Indian Express [354] A Face and a Name. Civilian Victims of Insurgent Groups in Iraq. Human Rights Watch October 2005. [375] US under 50,000 – Iraqis 'down' on drawdown Arab Times [355] “Who are the Iraq Insurgents?". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. 12 June 2006. [376] Bush, President George W. (9 September 2003).“A Central Front in the War on Terror”. Global Message. The [356] “Kidnappers Kill Algerian Diplomats”. Free Internet White House. Press. 27 July 2005. [357] “Captors kill Egypt envoy to Iraq”. BBC News. 8 July [377] Garamone, Jim (19 September 2002). “Iraq Part of Global War on Terrorism, Rumsfeld Says”. American 2005. Retrieved 5 January 2010. Forces Press Service. [358] “Russian diplomat deaths confirmed”. BBC News. 26 June 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2010. [378] Bush, President George W. (21 August 2006). “Press Conference by the President”. Peace in the Middle East [359] Alex Rodriguez, Iraqi shrine blast suspect caught (paid (The White House). archive), The Chicago Tribune 29 June 2006. [379] Gunaratna, Rohan (Summer 2004). “The Post-Madrid [360] “Insurgents kill Bulgarian hostage: Al-Jazeera”. CBC Face of Al Qaeda”. Washington Quarterly 27 (3): 98. News. 14 July 2004. doi:10.1162/016366004323090278. [361] “Foreign hostages in Iraq”. CBC News. 22 June 2006.
[380] Sengupta, Kim (26 May 2004).“Occupation Made World Less Safe, Pro-War Institute Says”. The Independent. [362] “4 Contractors murdered by al Qaeda”. The Washington Post. 31 March 2004. Retrieved 23 October 2010. [381] Priest, Dana (14 January 2005).“Iraq New Terror Breeding Ground”. The Washington Post. [363] Sabrina Tavernise (19 June 2005). “Iraqis Found in Torture House Tell of Brutality of Insurgents”. The New York [382] “Declassified Key Judgments of the National Intelligence Times. Estimate “Trends in Global Terrorism: Implications for [364] “Iraq kidnappings stun Kenya press”. BBC News. 23 the United States"" (PDF) (Press release). Office of the July 2004. Retrieved 5 January 2010. Director of National Intelligence. April 2006.
29.16. EXTERNAL LINKS
225
[383] Bernstein-Wax, Jessica (8 August 2007). “Studies: Suicide bombers in Iraq are mostly foreigners”. McClatchy Newspapers.
• Bruce R. Pirnie; Edward O'Connell (2008). Counterinsurgency in Iraq (2003–2006). Santa Monico, CA: Rand Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4297-2.
[384] Glasser, Susan B. (15 May 2005). "'Martyrs' In Iraq Mostly Saudis”. The Washington Post.
• Thomas E. Ricks (2006). Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. Penguin. ISBN 9781594201035.
[385] See also: Hafez, Mohammed M. Suicide Bomber in Iraq. United States Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 1601270046. [386] Linzer, Dafna (26 January 2007). “Troops Authorized to Kill Iranian Operatives in Iraq”. The Washington Post. p. A.1. [387] Greenwell, Megan (20 August 2007). “Iran Trains Militiamen Inside Iraq, U.S. Says”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 October 2010. [388] “Al-Maliki: Iraq won't be battleground for U.S., Iran”. CNN. 31 January 2007. Archived from the original on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2007. [389] “Iran involvement suspected in Karbala compound attack”. CNN.com. 31 January 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2007.
29.16 External links • Electronic Iraq Daily news and analysis from Iraq with a special focus on the Iraqi experience of war • News from Iraq: Aggregated news on the war, including politics and economics. • Dollar cost of war: total U.S. cost of the Iraq War • “Bleak Pentagon study admits 'civil war' in Iraq”, by Rupert Cornwell, The Independent, March 2007 • High resolution maps of Iraq, GulfWarrior.org
[390] Baer, Robert (30 January 2007). “Are the Iranians Out for Revenge?". Time. Retrieved 31 January 2007.
• Presidential address by George W. Bush on the evening of 19 March 2003, announcing war against Iraq.
[391] Weiss, Michael (2014-06-23). “Trust Iran Only as Far as You Can Throw It”. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 201408-12.
• Bibliography: The Second U.S. – Iraq War (2003– )
[392] Filkins, Dexter (2013-09-30). “The Shadow Commander”. The New Yorker. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
• "1st Major Survey of Iraq". Zogby International, 10 September 2003.
[393] Chulov, Martin (2011-07-28). “Qassem Suleimani: the Iranian general 'secretly running' Iraq”. The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-08-20.
• Iraq at Polling Report.com. Chronological polls of Americans 18 and older
29.15 Further reading • Bellavia, David (2007). House to House: An Epic Memoir of War. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781416574712. • Dexter Filkins,“General Principles”, New Yorker, 17 December 2012, pp. 76–81. • Gates, Robert M. (2014). Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780307959478. 318 pages • Gordon, Michael R. (2006). Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. Pantheon. ISBN 978-1557782328. • Larson, Luke S. (2008). Senator's Son: An Iraq War Novel. Phoenix, Arizona: Key Edition Incorporated. ISBN 978-1449969868. • North, Richard (2009). Ministry of Defeat: The British War in Iraq 2003–2009. Continuum Publishing Corporation. ISBN 978-1441169976.
• Just War in Iraq 2003 pdf Legal dissertation by Thomas Dyhr from University of Copenhagen. • Iraq war stories, a Guardian and Observer archive in words and pictures documenting the human and political cost, The Guardian, April 2009. • Iraq: The War Card. Center for Public Integrity. • Jargin SV. Health care in Iraq: 2013 vs. 2003. CMAJ September 17, 2013 http://www.cmaj.ca/content/181/9/576. figures-only/reply#cmaj_el_716427
Chapter 30
Joint Special Operations Command mand (USSOCOM) and is charged to study special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization, plan and conduct special operations exercises and training, develop joint special operations tactics and execute special operations missions worldwide. It was established in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckwith, in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle Claw.* [3] It is located at Pope Field (Fort Bragg) in North Carolina, USA.
30.1 Overview The JSOC is the “joint headquarters designed to study special operations requirements and techniques; ensure interoperability and equipment standardization; plan and conduct joint special operations exercises and training; and develop joint special operations tactics.”* [4] For this task, the Joint Communications Unit (JCU) is tasked to ensure compatibility of communications systems and standard operating procedures of the different special operations units.
30.1.1 Special Mission Units Further information: Special Mission Unit The Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) also commands and controls the Special Mission Units (SMU) of U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). These units perform highly classified activities.* [5]* [6]* [7] So far, only three SMUs have been publicly disclosed: The Army's 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment̶Delta Force, the Navy's Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) – SEAL Team Six, and the Air Force's 24th Special Tactics Squadron.* [8] Units from the Army's 75th Ranger Regiment and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment U.S. Joint Special Operations Command are controlled by JSOC when deployed as part of JSOC such as Task Force 121 and Task Force The primary mission of the Joint Special Operations Task* Forces * * 145. [9] [10] [11] Command (JSOC) is ostensibly to identify and elim* inate terror cells worldwide. [2] JSOC is a component The Intelligence Support Activity (ISA) is also under command of the United States Special Operations Com- JSOC.* [12] The ISA collects specific target intelligence 226
30.2. SECURITY SUPPORT
227
working closely with the NSA, and prior to SMU missions provides signals support, etc. during missions. The army once maintained the ISA, but after the September 11 attacks, the Pentagon shifted direct control to Joint Special Operations Command at Fort Bragg, NC.* [13]
Tier 2 units take leave together within their respective JSOC package. This term is called block leave. Given the wartime tasking of JSOC, an additional deployment package is currently being created. This will allow less operational strain on these units.
JSOC has an operational relationship with the CIA's Special Activities Division(SAD).* [14] SAD's Special Operations Group often recruits from JSOC.* [15]
30.2 Security support
30.1.2
Advanced Force Operations
Advanced Force Operations (AFO) is a term used by the U.S. Department of Defense to describe a task force that encompasses personnel from 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (1st SFOD-D), DEVGRU and U.S. Army Intelligence Support Activity (USAISA). According to Gen. Michael Repass, who conducted it in the Iraq War and was very familiar with its use in Afghanistan, “AFO consists of U.S. Secretary of Defense-approved military operations such as clandestine operations, source operations, and deployment of enabling forces and capabilities to conduct target-specific preparations prior to the conduct of an actual operation. It is logically part of Operational Preparation of the Battlespace (OPB), which follows the Intelligence Preparation of the Battlespace, a concept well-known in U.S. and NATO doctrine, OPB is seldom used outside of Special Operations Forces channels. OPB is defined by the U.S. Special Operations Command as “Non-intelligence activities conducted prior to D-Day, H-Hour, in likely or potential areas of employment, to train and prepare for follow-on military operations”.* [16] An AFO unit reported to JSOC in the Afghanistan War. In the Iraq War, Respass, who first commanded the 10th Special Forces Group, took control of a Joint Unconventional Warfare Task Force, which used the 5th and 10th Groups to conduct AFO. AFO units were heavily involved in Operation Anaconda and Operation Viking Hammer.
30.1.3
JSO Package / Rotational Group
The Joint Special Operations Package / Rotational Group of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) consist of Tier 1 and Tier 2 U.S. Joint Special Operations Command units that train and deploy together. All Tier 1 and Tier 2 units maintain three separate operational groups within their respective units (The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battalions of the 75th Ranger Regiment (United States) as an example).* [17] These groups are essentially identical and deploy within their respective JSOC package. The rotational cycle is generally three months. This allows one group to be deployed overseas, another to be on an 18-hour worldwide emergency deployment notice, and the last group to be training, attending military schools, or on “block leave.”Tier 1 and
JSOC has provided support to domestic law enforcement agencies during high profile or high risk events such as the Olympics, the World Cup, political party conventions and Presidential inaugurations. Although use of the military for law enforcement purposes in the U.S. is generally prohibited by the Posse Comitatus Act, Title 10 of the U.S. Code expressly allows the Secretary of Defense to make military personnel available to train Federal, State, and local civilian law enforcement officials in the operation and maintenance of equipment; and to provide such law enforcement officials with expert advice.* [18] Additionally, civilian and uniformed military lawyers said provisions in several federal statutes, including the Fiscal Year 2000 Defense Department Authorization Act, Public Law 106-65, permits the secretary of defense to authorize military forces to support civilian agencies, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, in the event of a national emergency, especially any involving nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.* [19] In January 2005, a small group of commandos were deployed to support security at the Presidential inauguration. They were allegedly deployed under a secret counter-terrorism program named Power Geyser. The New York Times quoted a senior military official as saying, “They bring unique military and technical capabilities that often are centered around potential WMD events,”A civil liberties advocate who was told about the program by a reporter said that he had no objections to the program as described to him because its scope appeared to be limited to supporting the counterterrorism efforts of civilian authorities.* [19]
30.3 Operational history 30.3.1 Operations in Pakistan According to The Washington Post, JSOC's commander Lieutenant General Stanley McChrystal operated in 2006 on the understanding with Pakistan that US units will not enter Pakistan except under extreme circumstances, and that Pakistan will deny giving them permission if exposed.* [20] That scenario happened according to the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA), in January 2006, JSOC troops clandestinely entered the village of Saidgai, Pakistan, to hunt for Osama Bin Laden. Pakistan refused entry.* [21]
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According to a November 2009 report in The Nation, JSOC, in tandem with Blackwater/Xe, has an ongoing drone program, along with snatch/grab/assassination operations, based in Karachi and conducted both in and outside of Pakistan.* [22]* [23]
Sometime in 2007, JSOC started conducting crossborder operations into Iran from southern Iraq with the CIA. These operations included seizing members of AlQuds, the commando arm of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard, and taking them to Iraq for interrogation, as well as the pursuit, capture or killing of high-value targets in the war on terror. The Bush administration allegedly combined the CIA's intelligence operations and covert action with JSOC clandestine military operations so that Congress would only partially see how the money was spent.* [32]
In an October 2009 leak published on the WikiLeaks website, U.S. embassy communication cables from the U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan Anne W. Patterson states the Pakistani Army approved the embedding of U.S. Special Operations Forces, including elements from the Joint Special Operations Command, with the Pakistani military to provide support for operations in the country. This goes beyond the original claims of the U.S. that the only role of the Special Forces was in training the Pakistani 30.3.4 Operations in Somalia miliary. The leak further revealed that JSOC elements involved in intelligence gathering and surveillance and use On 28 October 2013 a drone strike by JSOC on a vehicle near the town of Jilib in Lower Shabelle killed two of drone UAV technology.* [24] senior Somali members of Al-Shabaab. Preliminary evJSOC is credited with coordination of Operation Neptune idence suggested that one of them was Ibrahim Ali (also Spear that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden on 1 known as Anta), an explosives specialist known for his May 2011* [25]* [26] skill in building and using homemade bombs and suicide vests.* [33]* [34] The US administration has been reluctant to use drone strikes in Somalia. The reluctance partly 30.3.2 Operations in Afghanistan centered on questions of whether Al-Shabaab̶which has not tried to carry out an attack on American soil̶could According to the movie Dirty Wars by Jeremy Sc- legally be the target of lethal operations by the military or ahill, JSOC was responsible for a number of raids in the CIA. In May 2013, the White House announced that Afghanistan. One among them took place in Gardez, ini- it would carry out targeted killing operations only against tially reported by Jerome Starkey but later in other media those who posed a “continuing and imminent threat to as well. The then current commander William Mcraven the American people.”The strike on 28 Oct. was the visited the affected family, offered them a sheep in resti- first known American operation resulting in a death since tution and apologized for the incident.* [26] In the inci- that policy was announced and is considered evidence by dent,* [27] one US trained Police commander and another some observers that views have changed in Washington man were killed, as were 3 women, 2 of whom were preg- and that the Obama administration has decided to escanant, while going to the men's aid. late operations against Al-Shabaab in the aftermath of the How many other raids there were during this time, and group's Westgate shopping mall attack in Nairobi, Kenya, before and since, is difficult to count as JSOC only an- that took place from 21–24 September 2013 and which swers to the White House and not the rest of the military. left some 70 people dead. The secrecy around the number of raids could reasonably be counted in the hundreds since they started but only a mere few have been documented as well as the Gardez 30.3.5 Operations in Yemen incident according to Scahill.* [28]* [29] Anwar al-Awlaki, a Yemeni-American U.S. citizen, was killed on September 30, 2011, by an air attack carried out by the Joint Special Operations Command. After several 30.3.3 Operations in Iraq days of surveillance of Awlaki by the Central Intelligence On 11 January 2007, President Bush pledged in a ma- Agency, armed drones took off from a new, secret Amerjor speech to “seek out and destroy the networks pro- ican base in the Arabian Peninsula, crossed into northviding advanced weaponry and training to our enemies ern Yemen and unleashed a barrage of Hellfire missiles at in Iraq.”* [30] The next day, in a meeting of the U.S. al-Awlaki's vehicle. Samir Khan, a Pakistani-American Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Chairman Sen- al-Qaeda member and editor of the jihadist Inspire magator Joseph Biden (Delaware), informed U.S. Secretary azine, also reportedly died in the attack. The combined of State Condoleezza Rice that the Bush Administration CIA/JSOC drone strike was the first in Yemen since 2002 did not have the authority to send U.S. troops on cross- ̶there have been others by the military's Special Operaborder raids. Biden said, “I believe the present autho- tions forces ̶and was part of an effort by the spy agency which has been runrization granted the president to use force in Iraq does not to duplicate in Yemen the covert war * * [35] [36] ning in Afghanistan and Pakistan. cover that, and he does need congressional authority to do that. I just want to set that marker.”* [31]
According to the New York Times the Yemen government
30.6. REFERENCES
229
banned military drone operations after a series of botched [10] Naylor, Sean D. (1 March 2011). “McRaven Tapped to lead SOCOM”. Army Times. Retrieved 15 May 2011. drone strikes by JSOC, the last of which was a December 2013 drone strike that killed numerous civilians at a [11] Priest, Dana, and William M. Arkin, ʻ " Top Secret Amerwedding ceremony. Despite a ban on military drone opicaʼ: A look at the militaryʼs Joint Special Operations erations the Yemen government allowed CIA drone opCommand", Washington Post, 4 September 2011. erations to continue.* [37] [12] John Pike.“Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)".
30.4 List of JSOC commanders 30.5 See also • 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment – Delta (Delta Force or ACE) • Central Intelligence Agency's Special Activities Division Special Operations Group (SAD/SOG) • Intelligence Support Activity (The Activity) • Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU or SEAL Team Six) • Targeted killing • U.S. Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron (24th STS)
30.6 References [1] Jim Frederick (2013).“Time: Special Ops”. Time (Time Inc. Specials). Re-issue of Time's Special Edition: 55. [2] Feickert, Andrew (17 April 2006). U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress [3] Emerson, Steven (1988). Secret Warriors: Inside the Covert Military Operations of the Reagan Era. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 26. ISBN 0-399-13360-7.
[13] Rowan Scarborough (15 March 2004).“Agencies unite to find bin Laden”. Washington Times. Retrieved 15 March 2009. [14] Woodward, Bob (18 November 2001).“Secret CIA Units Playing A Central Combat Role”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 October 2008. [15] Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). “The CIA's Secret Army”. TIME. Retrieved 26 October 2008. [16] Repass, Michael S. (7 April 2003), Combating Terrorism with Preparation of the Battlespace (PDF), U.S. Army War College [17] “75th Ranger Regiment”. Retrieved 16 May 2011. [18] “U.S. Code Title 10, § 373. Training and advising civilian law enforcement officials”. Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 16 March 2009. [19] Schmitt, Eric (23 January 2005).“Commandos Get Duty on U.S. Soil”. New York Times. Retrieved 16 March 2009. [20] Priest, Dana and Tyson, Ann Scott (10 September 2006). “Bin Laden Trail 'Stone Cold'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 15 March 2009. [21] “Special U.S. unit can enter Pakistan at will to hunt Osama”. GlobalSecurity.org. 11 September 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2009. [22] Jeremy Scahill (23 November 2009). “Blackwater's Secret War in Pakistan”. The Nation. Retrieved 27 November 2009d.
[4] “Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
[23] James Risen, Mark Mazzeti (August 20, 2009). “C.I.A. Said to Use Outsiders to Put Bombs on Drones”. The New York Times.
[5] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). “Stymied Warriors”. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[24] Jeremy Scahill (1 December 2010).“The (Not So) Secret (Anymore) US War in Pakistan”. The Nation.
[6] Mazzetti, Mark (13 January 2007).“Pentagon Sees Move in Somalia as Blueprint”. The New York Times. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
[25] Ross, Brian; Tapper, Jake; Esposito, Richard; Schifrin, Nick (2 May 2011). “Osama Bin Laden Killed By Navy Seals in Firefight”. ABC News. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
[7] Risen, James (20 September 1998).“The World: Passing the Laugh Test; Pentagon Planners Give New Meaning to 'Over the Top'". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2008.
[26] Jeremy Scahill (2 May 2011). “JSOC: The Black Ops Force That Took Down Bin Laden”. The Nation.
[8] North, Oliver (2010). American Heroes in Special Operations. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-47125. [9] Naylor, Sean D. (3 Sep 2010). “JSOC task force battles Haqqani militants”. Army Times. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
[27] ISAF Public Affairs Office (4 April 2010). “Gardez Investigation Concludes”. Retrieved October 20, 2013. [28] Scahill, Jeremy (22 November 2010). “America's Failed War of Attrition in Afghanistan”. Retrieved October 20, 2013. [29] Scahill, Jeremy (18 January 2013). “Dirty Wars”. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
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[30] “Full Transcript Of Bush's Iraq Speech”. CBS News. 10 January 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
30.7 External links
[31] “Senators fear Iraq war may spill to Iran, Syria”. Reuters. 11 January 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
• Special Ops say lives were on line in Lynch's rescue, by The Washington Times
[32] Reid, Marsha (7 July 2008).“Covert ops in Iran”. Geopolitical Monitor. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
• US special operations come of age, by Global Defence Review
[33] “Pentagon Says Shabab Bomb Specialist Is Killed in Missile Strike in Somalia”. New York Times. 28 October 2013. [34] “Drone kills two in Somalia: witnesses: Eyewitnesses say missile came from a drone amid reports dead men are senior members of the al-Shabab armed group”. Al Jazeera. 28 October 2013. [35] “Same US military unit that got Osama bin laden killed Anwar al-Awlaki”. Telegraph.co.uk. 30 September 2011. [36] Mark Mazzetti, Eric Schmitt and Robert F. Worth,“TwoYear Manhunt Led to Killing of Awlaki in Yemen”, New York Times (September 30 2011) [37] http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/06/world/ delays-in-effort-to-refocus-cia-from-drone-war. html?_r=0 [38] , Flight Sciences Corporation [39] “Vice Admiral Named JSOC Head”. military.com / McClatchy-Tribune Information Services. 14 June 2008. Retrieved 15 March 2009. [40] “Former JSOC Commander McRaven nominated to lead US Special Ops Command”. Jan 6, 2010. [41] “Votel nominated to head up Joint Special Operations Command”. Stars and Stripes. February 17, 2011. [42] “New commander takes over Joint Special Operations Command at Fort Bragg”. The Fayetteville Observer. July 29, 2014.
30.6.1
Further reading
• Berntsen, Gary; Pezzullo, Ralph (27 December 2005). Jawbreaker: The Attack on Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda: A Personal Account by the CIA's Key Field Commander. Crown. ISBN 0-307-35106-8. • Daugherty, William J. (2 June 2006). Executive Secrets: Covert Action and the Presidency. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-9161-0. • Emerson, Steven (1988). Secret Warriors: Inside the Covert Military Operations of the Reagan Era. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-13360-7. • Smith, Michael (2006). Killer Elite: The Inside Story of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-36727-3. • Steven, Graeme C. S. and Gunaratna, Rohan (14 September 2004). Counterterrorism: A Reference Handbook. Contemporary World Issues. ISBN 978-1-85109-666-4.
Chapter 31
Light machine gun
The FN Minimi, one of the most widespread modern 5.56 mm light machine guns amongst NATO countries.
Bren light machine gun.
.30-06 BAR Model 1918 Heckler & Koch MG4 of the German Army.
A light machine gun (LMG) is a machine gun designed to be employed by an individual soldier, with or without an assistant, as an infantry support weapon. Light ma- A light machine gun is also defined by its usage as well as its specifications: some machine guns - notably generalchine guns are often used as squad automatic weapons. purpose machine guns - may be deployed either as a light machine gun or a medium machine gun. Deployed on a tripod and used for sustained-fire it is a medium machine 31.1 Characteristics gun; if deployed with a bipod with the operator in prone position and firing short bursts it is a light machine gun. Modern light machine guns often fire smaller-caliber cartridges than medium machine guns, and are usually Light machine guns are also designed to be fired from the lighter and more compact. Some LMGs, such as the Rus- hip or on the move as a form of suppressive fire intended sian RPK, are modifications of existing assault rifle de- to pin down the enemy. Marching fire is a specific tactic signs and designed to share the same ammunition. Adap- that relies on this capability. tations to the original rifle generally include a larger mag- Lighter modern LMGs have enabled them to be issued azine, a heavier barrel to resist overheating, a more robust down at the fireteam level, with two or three at the section/squad level. mechanism to support sustained fire and a bipod. 231
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31.1.1
CHAPTER 31. LIGHT MACHINE GUN
Ammunition feed
Many light machine guns (such as the Bren gun or the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle) were magazine-fed. Others, such as the MG 34, could be fed either from a belt or from a magazine. Modern light machine guns are designed to fire more rounds of a smaller caliber and, as such, tend to be belt-fed from a detachable box magazine, some such as the FN Minimi will also accept rifle magazine feeding as an auxiliary measure when belted ammunition has been exhausted.
31.2 History
A Romanian soldier instructing a U.S. Marine in clearing a RPK during Exercise Rescue Eagle 2000 at Babadag Range, Romania, on July 15, 2000.
Light machine guns were first introduced in World War I to boost the firepower of advancing infantry. By the end of World War II, light machine guns were usually being issued on a scale of one per fire team or squad, and the modern infantry squad had emerged with tactics that were built around the use of the LMG to provide suppressive fire.
31.3 Selected examples
A Chinese soldier with a ZB vz.26 light machine gun. A 7.62x51 mm NATO, Mk 48 machine gun on a foot patrol in the mountains of Afghanistan, 2009.
The following were either exclusively light machine guns, had a light machine gun variant or were employed in the light machine gun role with certain adaptations.
31.3.1 1900s–1940s • Madsen machine gun (Multi-caliber) • Bergmann MG15 nA Gun (7.92 x 57 mm) The early INSAS LMG, a weapon of Indian origin.
• M1909 Benet-Mercie (8 mm Lebel, .303 British, .30-06 Springfield)
31.4. SEE ALSO • Bren (.303 British) • Fusil-Mitrailleur Mle 1915 'CSRG', 'Chauchat' light machine gun (8 mm Lebel) • Lahti-Saloranta M/26 (7.62x53mm R] • Degtyaryov light machine gun (7.62x54mm R) • Furrer M25 (7.5x55mm Swiss) • Lewis automatic rifle (8 mm Lebel / 6.5x55 mm Mauser) • Mendoza RM2 (7.92x57 mm, .30-06 Springfield) • Breda 30 (6.5mm) • ZB vz. 26
31.4 See also • Medium machine gun • Heavy machine gun • Squad automatic weapon • General-purpose machine gun • Assault rifle
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Chapter 32
Machine gun For other uses, see Machine gun (disambiguation). A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or
A .50 caliber M2 machine gun: John Browning's design has been one of the longest serving and most successful machine gun designs Czechoslovak 7.62 mm Universal Machine gun Model 1959.
Top: IMI Negev (light machine gun). Bottom: FN MAG (general purpose machine gun).
portable firearm, usually designed to fire bullets in quick succession from an ammunition belt or magazine, typically at a rate of three to eighteen hundred rounds per minute. Fully automatic weapons are generally categorized as submachine guns, assault rifles, machine guns, or autocannons. Submachine guns are hand-held automatic weapons for personal defense or short-range combat firing pistol-caliber rounds. A machine gun is often portable to a certain degree, but is generally used when attached to a mount or fired from the ground on a bipod or tripod, and generally fires rifle cartridges and is capable of sustained fire. Light machine guns are small enough to be
fired hand-held, but are more effective when fired from a prone position. The difference between machine guns and autocannons is based on caliber, with autocannons using calibers larger than 16 mm.,* [1] and whether the gun fires conventional bullets or explosive rounds. Guns firing large-caliber explosive rounds are generally considered either autocannons or automatic grenade launchers (“grenade machine guns”). In contrast to submachine guns and autocannons, machine guns (like rifles) tend to have a very high ratio of barrel length to caliber (a long barrel for a small caliber); indeed, a true machine gun is essentially a fully automatic rifle, and often the primary criterion for a machine gun as opposed to an automatic rifle is the presence of a quick-change barrel or other cooling system. Automatic rifles and (more commonly) assault rifles may be capable of fully automatic fire, but are not designed for sustained fire. In United States gun law, machine gun is a technical term for any fully automatic firearm, and also for any component or part that will modify an existing firearm such that it functions as a fully automatic firearm.* [2]
234
32.1. OVERVIEW OF MODERN AUTOMATIC MACHINE GUNS
235
is different. The M249 automatic rifle is operated by an automatic rifleman, but its ammunition may be carried by other Soldiers within the squad or unit. The M249 machine gun is a crew-served weapon.”* [3] The majority of machine guns are belt-fed, although some light machine guns are fed from drum or box magazines, and some vehicle-mounted machine guns are hopper-fed.
A Mitsubishi Type 73 Light Truck Shīn with a Sumitomo M2 heavy machine gun mounted at the rear with foliage used to camouflage the vehicle from sight. This was on public display at Camp Narashino.
32.1 Overview of modern automatic machine guns Unlike semi-automatic firearms, which require one trigger pull per round fired, a machine gun is designed to fire for as long as the trigger is held down. Nowadays the term is restricted to relatively heavy weapons fired from some sort of support rather than hand-held, able to provide continuous or frequent bursts of automatic fire for as long as ammunition lasts. Machine guns are normally used against unprotected or lightly protected personnel, or to provide suppressive fire. Some machine guns have in practice sustained fire almost continuously for hours; other automatic weapons overheat after less than a minute of use. Because they become very hot, practically all machine guns fire from an open bolt, to permit air cooling from the breech between bursts. They also have either a barrel cooling system, or removable barrels which allow a hot barrel to be replaced.
Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, and whether the cartridge is fired from a positively locked closed bolt, or a non-positively locked open bolt. Full automatic firearms using pistol-caliber ammunition are called machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size. Selective fire rifles firing a full-power rifle cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic rifles or battle rifles, while rifles that fire an intermediate cartridge are called assault rifles. The difference in construction was driven by the difference in intended deployment. Automatic rifles (such as the Browning Automatic Rifle) were designed to be a high duty cycle arm for support of other troops, and were often made and deployed with quick change barrel assemblies to allow quick replacement of over heated barrels to allow for continued fire, and may have been operated by both the person actually firing the weapon as well as an additional crewman to assist in providing and caring for ammunition and the barrels, similar to a reduced version of a squad weapon. The assault rifle generally was made for a more intermittent duty cycle, and was designed to be easily carried and used by a single person. Assault rifles are a compromise between the size and weight of a pistol-caliber submachinegun and a full size traditional automatic rifle by firing intermediate cartridges and allowing semi-automatic, burst, or fullautomatic fire options (selective fire), often with two or more of these available on the rifle at once. In certain states, like California, certain weapons that resemble true assault rifles, but are only semi-automatic (autoloading), are categorized as assault weapons and possession by civilians is generally illegal. Supporters of gun rights generally consider this application of the phrase“assault weapon”to be a misnomer and this term is in fact seldom used outside of the United States for these civilian firearms.
Although subdivided into "light", "medium", "heavy" or "general-purpose", even the lightest machine guns tend to be substantially larger and heavier than other automatic weapons. Squad automatic weapons (SAW) are a variation of light machine gun and require only one operator (sometimes with an assistant to carry ammunition). Medium and heavy machine guns are either mounted on a tripod or on a vehicle; when carried on foot, the machine The machine gun's primary role in modern ground comgun and associated equipment (tripod, ammunition, spare bat is to provide suppressive fire on an opposing force's position, forcing the enemy to take cover and reducing barrels) require additional crew members. the effectiveness of his fire. This either halts an enemy According to U.S. Army doctrine, a machine gun is disattack or allows friendly forces to attack enemy positions tinguished from an automatic rifle by how it is used: a mawith less risk. chine gun is a crew-served weapon, while an automatic rifle is used by a single person. While most weapons are de- Light machine guns usually have simple iron sights. A signed to be used exclusively in one manner or the other, common aiming system is to alternate solid (“ball”) FM 3-22.68 “Crew-Served Machine Guns”, describes rounds and tracer ammunition rounds (usually one tracer how the M249 can be used either as a machine gun or as round for every four ball rounds), so shooters can see the an automatic rifle: “Both the M249 automatic rifle and trajectory and “walk”the fire into the target, and direct the M249 machine gun are identical, but its employment the fire of other soldiers.
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Many heavy machine guns, such as the Browning M2 .50 caliber machine gun, are accurate enough to engage targets at great distances. During the Vietnam War, Carlos Hathcock set the record for a long-distance shot at 7382 ft (2250 m) with a .50 caliber heavy machine gun he had equipped with a telescopic sight.* [4] This led to the introduction of .50 caliber anti-materiel sniper rifles, such as the Barrett M82.
32.2 Operation
direct impingement
All machine guns follow a cycle: • Pulling (manually or electrically) the bolt assembly/bolt carrier rearward by way of the cocking lever to the point bolt carrier engages a sear and stays at rear position until trigger is activated making bolt carrier move forward • Loading fresh round into chamber and locking bolt • Firing round by way of a firing pin or striker (except for aircraft medium caliber using electric ignition primers) hitting the primer that ignites the powder when bolt reaches locked position. • Unlocking and removing the spent case from the chamber and ejecting it out of the weapon as bolt is moving rearward • Loading the next round into the firing chamber. Usually the recoil spring (also known as main spring) tension pushes bolt back into battery and a cam strips the new round from a feeding device, belt or box. Cycle is repeated as long as the trigger is activated by operator. Releasing the trigger resets the trigger mechanism by engaging a sear so the weapon stops firing with bolt carrier fully at the rear. The operation is basically the same for all semi automatic or automatic weapons, regardless of the means of activating these mechanisms. Some examples: • Machine pistols and submachine guns (like the World War II "grease gun", MAC-10 or the Uzi) are usually blowback operated.
• Most assault rifles and squad automatic weapons are gas operated. Some weapons, such as the AR15/M16, do not have a piston, instead using a system of direct impingement in which the gases operate the bolt carrier by acting directly on it. Others, like the original SA80 patterns, have a bolt carrier that is unlocked and operated by a piston actuated by gases.
gas piston
• A recoil actuated machine gun uses the recoil to first unlock and then operate the action. Heavy machine guns, such as the M2 Browning .50, are of this type. A cam, lever or actuator demultiplicates the energy of the recoil to operate the bolt. • An externally actuated machine gun uses an external power source, such as an electric motor or even a hand crank to move its mechanism through the firing sequence. Most modern weapons of this type are called Gatling guns in reference to their driving mechanism. Gatling guns have several barrels on a rotating carousel and a system of cams that load, cock, and fire each mechanism progressively as it rotates through the sequence. The continuous nature of the rotary action allows for an incredibly high cyclic rate of fire, often several thousand rounds per minute. Rotary guns are less prone to jamming than a gun operated by gas or recoil, as the external power source will eject misfired rounds with no further trouble, but this is not possible if the force needed to eject the round comes from the round itself. Rotary guns are generally used with large shells, 20 mm in diameter or more, offering benefits of reliability and firepower, though the weight and size of the power source and driving mechanism makes them impractical for use outside of a vehicle or aircraft mount. • Revolver cannons, such as the Mauser MK 213, were developed in World War II by the Germans to provide high-caliber cannons with a reasonable rate of fire and reliability. A recoil-operated carriage holds a revolving chamber with typically five cham-
32.3. HISTORY
237
bers. As each round is fired, electrically, the car- cases and can vary depending which language and exact riage moves back rotating the chamber which also definition is used. ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to be fired with the barrel and loads the next round into the chamber. The action is very similar to that of the 32.3.1 Early rapid-firing weapons revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name. Firing a machine gun produces great amounts of heat. In a worst-case scenario this may cause a cartridge to fire even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and keep firing until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or jammed. To prevent this, some kind of cooling system is required. Early heavy machine guns were often watercooled; while very effective, the water also added considerable weight to an already bulky design. Air-cooled machine guns feature quick-change barrels, often carried by a crew member. The higher the rate of fire, the more often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool. To minimize this, most air-cooled guns are fired only in short bursts or at a reduced rate of fire. Some designs - such as the many variants of the MG42 - are capable of rates of fire in excess of 1500 rounds per minute.
Detail of an 8-chambered matchlock revolver (Germany ca. 1580)
The first known ancestors of multi-shot weapons were early revolvers made in Europe in the late 1500s. One is a shoulder-gun-length weapon made in Nuremberg, Germany, circa 1580. Another is a revolving arquebus, proIn weapons where the round seats and fires at the same duced by Hans Stopler of Nuremberg in 1597.* [5] time, mechanical timing is essential for operator safety, to prevent the round from firing before it is seated properly. Machine guns are controlled by one or more mechanical sears. When a sear is in place, it effectively stops the bolt at some point in its range of motion. Some sears stop the bolt when it is locked to the rear. Other sears stop the firing pin from going forward after the round is locked into the chamber. Almost all machine guns have a “safety” sear, which simply keeps the trigger from engaging.
32.3 History It would not be until the mid-19th century that successful machine-gun designs came into existence. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high rate of fire and more importantly machine (automatic) loading, came with the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons were still powered by hand; however, this changed with Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also experimented with electric-motor-powered models; this externally powered machine reloading has seen use in modern weapons as well. The Vandenburg and Miltrailleuse volley (organ) gun concepts have been revived partially in the early 21st century in the form of electronically controlled, multibarreled volley guns. It is important to note that what exactly constitutes a machine gun, and whether volley guns are a type of machine gun, and to what extent some earlier types of devices are considered to be like machine guns, is a matter of debate in many
Replica Puckle Gun from Bucklers Hard
Another large, early repeating was created by James Puckle, a London lawyer, who patented what he called “The Puckle Gun" on May 15, 1718. It was a design for a 1 in. (25.4 mm) caliber, flintlock revolver cannon able to fire 9 rounds before reloading, intended for use on ships.* [6] According to Puckle, it was able to fire round bullets at Christians and square bullets at Turks.* [6] While ahead of its time, foreshadowing the designs of revolvers, it was not adopted or produced. In 1777, Philadelphia gunsmith Joseph Belton offered the Continental Congress a“new improved gun”, which was capable of firing up to twenty shots in five seconds, automatically, and was capable of being loaded by a cartridge. Congress requested that Belton modify 100 flintlock muskets to fire eight shots in this manner, but rescinded the order when Belton's price proved too high.* [7]* [8]
238 In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapidfiring weapons appeared which offered multi-shot fire, and a number of semi-automatic weapons as well as volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and double barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of the gun. Pepperbox pistols did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared magazine using the same barrel and ignitions. However, like the Puckle gun, they were still only semiautomatic.
CHAPTER 32. MACHINE GUN their crews.* [9] Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke making concealment impossible until smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century.* [10] Gatling guns were targeted by artillery they could not reach and their crews were targeted by snipers they could not see.* [9] The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires by killing warriors of non-industrialized societies.* [9]
British Vickers machine gun in action near Ovillers during the Battle of the Somme in 1916. The crew are wearing gas masks.
A detachment of French infantry with 2 Saint-Etienne Model 1907 machine guns (c.1914)
The Agar Gun, otherwise known as a “coffee-mill gun” because of its resemblance to a coffee mill, was invented by Wilson Agar at the beginning of the US Civil War. The weapon featured automatic loading through ammunition being loaded in a hopper above the weapon. The weapon featured a single barrel and fired through the turning of a hand crank. The weapon was demonstrated to President Lincoln in 1861. He was so impressed with the weapon that he purchased 10 on the spot for $1,500 apiece. The Union Army eventually purchased a total of 54 of the weapons. However, due to antiquated views of the Ordnance Department the weapons, like its more famous counterpart the Gatling Gun, saw only limited use. The Gatling gun, patented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling, was the first to offer controlled, sequential fire with automatic loading. The design's key features were machine loading of prepared cartridges and a handoperated crank for sequential high-speed firing. It first saw very limited action in the American Civil War; it was subsequently improved and used in the Franco-Prussian war and North-West Rebellion. Many were sold to other armies in the late 19th century and continued to be used into the early 20th century, until they were gradually supplanted by Maxim guns. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of contemporary artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or canister shot.* [9] The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position which increased the vulnerability of
A model of a typical entrenched German machine gunner in World War I. He is operating an MG 08, wearing a Stahlhelm and cuirass to protect him from shell fragments, and protected by rows of barbed wire and sandbags.
Gatlings were the first widely used rapid-fire guns and, due to their multiple barrels, could offer more sustained fire than the first generation of air-cooled, recoil-operated machine guns. The weight, complexity, and resulting cost of the multibarrel design meant recoil-operated weapons, which could be made lighter and cheaper, would supplant them. Recoil-operated machine guns were light enough to be moved by one man, were easier to move through rough terrain, and could be fired from a lower, protected position. It would be another 50 years before the concept was again used to allow extremely high rates of fire, such as in miniguns, and automatic aircraft cannon. The first self-powered machine gun was invented in 1884 by Sir Hiram Maxim. The “Maxim gun” used the recoil power of the previously fired bullet to reload rather
32.3. HISTORY
239 in World War II. The trend toward automatic rifles, light machine guns, and more powerful sub-machine guns resulted in a wide variety of firearms that combined characteristics of ordinary rifles and machine guns. The Cei-Rigotti (20th century), Fedorov Avtomat (1910s), AVS-36 Simonov (1930s), MP44, M2 Carbine, AK47, and M16 have come to be known as assault rifles (after the German term sturmgewehr). Many aircraft were equipped with machine cannon, and similar cannon (nicknamed "Pom-pom guns") were used as antiaircraft weapons. The designs of Bofors of Sweden and Oerlikon of Switzerland were widely used by both sides and have greatly influenced similar weapons developed since then.
Collection of old machine guns in the Međimurje County Museum (Čakovec, Croatia).
Germany developed during the interwar years the first widely used and successful general-purpose machine gun, the Maschinengewehr 34. The Maschinengewehr 42 was developed from it and was much cheaper to produce. The current GPMG of the German Army, the MG3, is a direct evolution of the MG42. Many other modern machine guns, including the US M60 and the FN MAG borrow elements of the design of the MG42.
than being hand-powered, enabling a much higher rate of fire than was possible using earlier designs such as the Nordenfelt and Gatling weapons. Maxim also introduced the use of water cooling, via a water jacket around the barrel, to reduce overheating. Maxim's gun was widely adopted and derivative designs were used on all sides dur32.3.3 ing the First World War. The design required fewer crew and was lighter and more usable than the Nordenfelt and Gatling guns. First World War combat experience greatly increased the importance of the machine gun. The United States Army issued four machine guns per regiment in 1912, but that allowance increased to 336 machine guns per regiment by 1919.* [11] Heavy guns based on the Maxim such as the Vickers machine gun were joined by many other machine weapons, which mostly had their start in the early 20th century such as the Hotchkiss machine gun. Submachine guns (e.g., the German MP18) as well as lighter machine guns (the Chauchat, for example) saw their first major use in World War I, along with heavy use of large-caliber machine guns. The biggest single cause of casualties in World War I was actually artillery, but combined with wire entanglements, machine guns earned a fearsome reputation. The automatic mechanisms of machine guns were applied to handguns, giving rise to automatic pistols (and eventually machine pistols) such as the Borchardt (1890s) and later submachine guns (such as the Beretta 1918). Machine guns were mounted in aircraft for the first time in World War I. Firing through a moving propeller was solved in a variety of ways, including the interrupter gear, metal reinforcement of the propeller, or simply avoiding the problem with wing-mounted guns or having a pusher propeller.
Future
A U.S. Navy 7.62 mm GAU-17/A Minigun. It is externally powered by an electric motor (seen on top) that powers the loading, priming, and firing mechanism. Also, note the spade grips, pintle mount and rapid cartridge case ejection.
Conventional machine-gun development has been slowed by the fact that existing machine-gun designs are adequate for most purposes, although significant developments are taking place with regard to caseless ammunition, antiarmor and antimissile weapons.
Electronically controlled machine guns with ultrahigh rates of fire may see use in some applications, although current small-caliber weapons of this type have found little use: they are too light for anti-vehicle use, but too heavy (especially with the need to carry a tactically use32.3.2 Interwar era and World War II ful amount of ammunition) for individual soldiers. The trend towards higher reliability and lower mass for a given During the interwar years, many new designs were de- power will probably continue. Another example is the veloped, such as the Browning M2 and the Thompson six barreled, 4000 round per minute, XM214“six pack” sub-machine gun, which, along with others, were used developed by General Electric. It has a complex power
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train and weighs 85 pounds, factors which may, in some type is one that is disconnected from humans, as part of circumstances, militate against its deployment. an armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of Metal Storm has developed a new type of machine gun, aircraft's armament. These are usually electrically fired with rates of fire up to 1.62 million rounds per minute. and have complex sighting systems, for example the US The distinguishing features of this technology are the ab- Helicopter Armament Subsystems. sence of ammunition feed and casing ejection systems Further information: Ground mount (the only moving parts are the projectiles), and the electronic ignition of the propellant charges.
32.4 Human interface The most common interface on machine guns is a pistol grip and trigger. On earlier manual machine guns, the most common type was a hand crank. On externally powered machine guns, such as miniguns, an electronic button or trigger on a joystick is commonly used. Light machine guns often have a butt stock attached, while vehicle and tripod mounted machine guns usually have spade grips. In the late 20th century, scopes and other complex optics became more common as opposed to the more basic iron sights. Loading systems in early manual machine guns were often from a hopper of loose (un-linked) cartridges. Manual-operated volley guns usually had to be reloaded manually all at once (each barrel reloaded by hand). With hoppers, the rounds could often be added while the weapon was firing. This gradually changed to belt-fed types. Belts were either held in the open by the person, or in a bag or box. Some modern vehicle machine guns used linkless feed systems however.
32.5 See also 32.6 References [1] Marchant-Smith, C.J., & Haslam, P.R., Small Arms & Cannons, Brassey's Battlefield Weapons Systems & Technology, Volume V, Brassey's Publishers, London, 1982, p.169 [2] In United States law, a Machine Gun is defined (in part) by The National Firearms Act of 1934, 26 U.S.C. § 5845(b) as "... any weapon which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger." [3] U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command Field Manual 3-22.68 “Crew-Served Machine Guns”, para. 4-207 https://rdl.train.army.mil/soldierPortal/atia/adlsc/ view/public/6713-1/fm/3-22.68/chap4.htm#sec5 [4] Henderson, Charles. Marine Sniper Berkley Caliber. (2005) ISBN 0-425-10355-2. [5] Roger Pauly (2004). Firearms: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-31332796-3. [6] original patent claim reproduced in: Francis Bannerman Sons Bannerman Military Goods Catalogue #28 (1954) p.103 [7] Harold L. Peterson (2000). Arms and Armor in Colonial America, 1526-1783. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 217–218. ISBN 0-486-41244-X. [8] United States Continental Congress (1907). Journals of the Continental Congress. USGPO., pages 324, 361
Closeup of M2 – This machine gun is part of a complex armament subsystem; it is aimed and fired from the aircraft rather than directly
[9] Emmott, N.W.“The Devil's Watering Pot”United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p.70 [10] Emmott, N.W.“The Devil's Watering Pot”United States
Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 pp.72 Modern machine guns are commonly mounted in one of four ways. The first is a bipod – often these are inte[11] Ayres, Leonard P. (1919). The War with Germany (Secgrated with the weapon. This is common on light maond ed.). Washington, DC: United States Government chine guns and some medium machine guns. Another is Printing Office. p. 65. a tripod, where the person holding it does not form a 'leg' of support. Medium and heavy machine guns usually use tripods. On ships and aircraft machine guns are usually mounted on a pintle mount – basically a steel post that 32.7 External links is connected to the frame. Tripod and pintle mounts are • Discover Military Machine Guns usually used with spade grips. The last major mounting
32.7. EXTERNAL LINKS • From Gatling to Browning September 1945 article Popular Science • GunTrustLawyer.com – US site with information on the legality of owning a machine gun in each state under the National Firearms Act and individual state regulations. • How Stuff Works – Article on the operation of Machine Guns, animated diagrams are included. • The REME Museum of Technology – machine guns • U.S. Patent 15,315 – A patent for an early automatic cannon • Vickers machine gun site
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Chapter 33
Magazine (firearms) Not to be confused with Magazine (artillery). 33.1 Nomenclature For other uses, see Magazine (disambiguation). A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding de- With the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911 pistol, the term“magazine”was settled on by the military and firearms experts, though the term“clip”is often used in its place (though only for detachable magazines, never fixed).* [4]* [5]* [6] The defining difference between clips and magazines is the presence of a feed mechanism in a magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower, which a clip lacks. Use of the term "clip" to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement.* [2]* [7]* [8]* [9] The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines a clip as“a device to hold cartridges for charging the magazines of some rifles; also: a magazine from which ammunition is fed into the chamber of a firearm”.* [10]
33.2 History The earliest firearms were loaded with loose powder and a lead ball, and to fire more than a single shot without reloading required multiple barrels, such as pepperbox guns and double-barreled shotguns, or multiple chambers, such as in revolvers. Both of these add bulk and weight over a single barrel and a single chamber, howA staggered-column 9x19mm Browning Hi-Power pistol box ever, and many attempts were made to get multiple shots magazine; the top image shows the magazine loaded and ready from a single loading of a single barrel through the use for use while the lower image shows it unloaded and disassem- of superposed loads.* [11] Breech loading designs such as bled the needle gun, and paper cartridges sped the loading process, but successful repeating mechanisms did not appear vice within or attached to a repeating firearm. Magazines until self-contained cartridges were developed. can be removable (detachable) or integral to the firearm. The magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded 33.2.1 Gravity magazines into the chamber by the action of the firearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although The earliest magazines appeared not on firearms, but this is technically inaccurate.* [1]* [2]* [3] rather on air guns. Without the need for powder, the magMagazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those of bolt action express rifles that hold only a few rounds to those for machine guns that can hold as many as one hundred rounds. Various jurisdictions ban high-capacity magazines.
azine contained only the balls; the power was provided by high pressure air supplied by an air reservoir in the butt of the gun. The Girandoni Air Rifle was fairly typical of the repeating air rifles of 1780. The Girandoni held 22 balls in a gravity fed tubular magazine, located beside and
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33.2. HISTORY
Fusil Gras mle 1874 with 10 cartridge gravity magazine, made in 1883
parallel to the barrel. Due to the use of a large air reservoir, the rifle could fire all the shots in its magazine before the reservoir was depleted enough to require recharging. Firing was accomplished by raising the muzzle of the gun to allow the balls to fall to the rear of the magazine, sliding a ball from the magazine into the barrel with a sliding breech-block, then cocking the hammer (which was connected to a valve) and firing.* [12]
33.2.2
243 The first magazine-fed firearm to achieve widespread success was the Spencer repeating rifle, which saw service in the American Civil War. The Spencer used a tubular magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel and it used new rimfire metallic cartridges. The Spencer was successful but the rimfire ammunition did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and destroy the magazine. It could also injure the user. The lever action Henry and Winchester rifles evolved from the earlier Volcanic and saw service with a number of militaries including Turkey. Switzerland and Italy adopted similar designs.* [13] The new bolt action rifle began to gain favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally a single-shot action that added a tubular magazine in its 1884 update. The Norwegian Jarmann M1884 was adopted in 1884 and also used a tubular magazine. The French Lebel Model 1886 rifle also used 8 round tube-fed magazine.* [14]
Tubular magazines
Diagram of the Spencer rifle showing the tubular magazine in the butt
1905 Military Rifles magazines. Number 1 & 2: Mosin-Nagant Number 3 & 4 : Lebel Number 5 & 6 : Gewehr 1888 Number 7 & 8 : Steyr-Mannlicher M1888 Number 9 & 10 : Lee-Metford Number 11 & 12 : Dutch-Mannlicher M1895 Number 13 & 14 : Mauser M1893 Number 15 : Krag-Jørgensen Number 16 : Schmidt-Rubin M1889 Diagram of the Henry rifle showing the tubular magazine under the barrel
The first successful repeater was the Volcanic Rifle which used a hollow bullet with the base filled with powder and primer (an early form of caseless ammunition) fed into the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store ammunition. The anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity; however, the basic design of the tubular magazine and lever action survive to this day.* [13]
The military cartridge was evolving as the magazine rifle evolved. Cartridges evolved from large-bore cartridges (.40 caliber/10 mm and larger) to smaller bores that fired lighter, higher-velocity bullets and incorporated new smokeless propellants. The Lebel Model 1886 rifle was the first rifle and cartridge to be designed for use with smokeless powder and used an 8 mm wadcutter-shaped bullet that was drawn from a tubular magazine. This would later become a problem when the Lebel's ammunition was updated to use a more aerodynamic pointed bullet. Modifications had to be made to the centerfire case to prevent the spitzer point from igniting the primer
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of the next cartridge inline in the magazine.* [15]
a unit, ready for insertion into the magazine or cylinder of a firearm. This speeds up the process of loading and reloading the firearm as several rounds can be loaded at 33.2.3 Internal box magazines once, rather than one round being loaded at a time. Several different types of clips exist, most of which are made James Paris Lee patented a box magazine which held of inexpensive metal stampings that are designed to be rounds stacked vertically in 1879 and 1882 and it was first disposable, though they are often re-used. adopted by Austria in the form of an 11mm straight-pull bolt-action rifle of Mannlicher design in 1886. It also In 1888 the Germans developed the Model 1888 Comused a cartridge clip which held 5 rounds ready to load mission Rifle *with a 5-round en-bloc clip-fed internal box magazine. [18] Mauser would continue to make iminto the magazine.* [15]* [16] proved models from 1889 through 1893 in various calibers were adopted by various militaries at this time.* [15] In 1890 the French adopted the 8mm Lebel Berthier rifles with 3-round internal magazines, fed from en-bloc clips; the empty clips were pushed from the bottom of the action by the insertion of a loaded clip from the top.* [19]* [20]
En-bloc clip and 8mm ammo for Mauser 88
In the late 1800s there were many short-lived designs, such as the M1895 Lee Navy and Gewehr 1888, eventually replaced by the M1903 Springfield rifle and Gewehr 98 respectively. The Russian Mosin-Nagant, adopted in 1891, was an exception. It was not revolutionary; it was a bolt-action rifle, used a small-bore smokeless powder cartridge, and a fixed box magazine loaded from the top with stripper clips, all of which were features that were used in earlier military rifles. What made the Nagant stand out was that it combined all the earlier features in a form that was to last virtually unchanged from its issue by Russia in 1894 through World War II and with its sniper rifle variants still in use today.
An interesting feature of many late 19th- and early 20thcentury bolt-action rifles was the magazine cut-off, sometimes called a feed interrupter. This was a mechanical device that prevented the rifle from loading a round from the magazine, requiring the shooter to manually load each individual round as he fired, saving the rounds in the magazine for short periods of rapid fire when ordered to use them. Most military authorities that specified them assumed that their riflemen would waste ammunition indiscriminately if allowed to load from the magazine all the Swedish Mauser stripper clip loaded with Swedish 6.5×55mm time.* [21] By the middle of World War I, most manufacturers deleted this feature to save costs and manufacturing The bolt-action Krag-Jørgensen rifle, designed in Norway time; it is also likely that battlefield experience had proven in 1886, used a unique rotary magazine that was built into the futility of this philosophy. the receiver. Like Lee's box magazine, the rotary magazine held the rounds side-by-side, rather than end-to-end. One of the last new clip-fed, fixed-magazine rifles widely Like most rotary magazines, it was loaded through a load- adopted that wasn't a modification of an earlier rifle was ing gate one round at a time, this one located on the side of the M1 Garand rifle. The first semi-automatic rifle that the receiver. While reliable, the Krag-Jørgensen's maga- was issued in large numbers to the infantry, the Garand zine was expensive to produce and slow to reload. It was was fed by a special eight-round en-bloc clip. The clip adopted by only three countries, Denmark in 1889, the itself was inserted into the rifle's magazine during loading, where it was locked in place. The rounds were fed United States in 1892,* [17] and Norway in 1894. directly from the clip, with a spring-loaded follower in the rifle pushing the rounds up into feeding position. When Clip-fed revolution empty, the bolt would lock open, and a spring would automatically eject the empty clip, leaving the rifle ready A clip (called chargers by the British) is a device that is to be reloaded. The M14 rifle, which was based on inused to store multiple rounds of ammunition together as
33.2. HISTORY
245 99.* [26] Other guns did not adopt all of its features until his patent expired in 1942: It has shoulders to retain cartridges when it is removed from the rifle. It operates reliably with cartridges of different lengths. It is insertable and removable at any time with any number of cartridges. These features allow the operator to reload the gun infrequently, carry magazines rather than loose cartridges, and to easily change the types of cartridges in the field. The magazine is assembled from inexpensive stamped sheet metal. It also includes a crucial safety feature for hunting dangerous game: when empty the follower* [27] stops the bolt from engaging the chamber, informing the operator that the gun is empty before any attempt to fire.
Comparison of M1 Garand en-bloc clip (left), and SKS stripper clip (right)
The first successful semi-automatic pistol was the Borchardt C-93 (1893) and incorporated detachable box magazines. Nearly all subsequent semiautomatic pistol designs adopted detachable box magazines.
cremental changes to the Garand action, switched to a The Swiss Army evaluated the Luger pistol using a dedetachable box magazine.* [22] However, the M14 could tachable box magazine in 7.65×21mm Parabellum and also be loaded via 5-round stripper-clips.* [23] adopted it in 1900 as its standard side arm. The Luger pisThe Soviet SKS carbine, which entered service in 1945, tol was accepted by the Imperial German Navy in 1904. was something of a stopgap between the semi-automatic This version is known as Pistole 04. In 1908 the German service rifles being developed in the period leading up to Army adopted the Luger to replace the Reichsrevolver in World War II, and the new assault rifle developed by the front-line service. The Pistole 08 (or P.08) was chamGermans. The SKS used a fixed magazine, holding ten bered in 9×19 mm Parabellum. The P.08 was the usual rounds and fed by a conventional stripper clip. It was a side arm for German Army personnel in both world wars. modification of the earlier AVS-36 rifle, shortened and The M1911 semi-automatic pistol set the standard for chambered for the new reduced power 7.62x39mm car- most modern handguns and likewise the mechanics of the tridge. It was rendered obsolete for military use almost handgun magazine. In most handguns the magazine folimmediately by the 1947 introduction of the magazine- lower engages a slide-stop to hold the slide back and keep fed AK-47 assault rifle, though it remained in service for the firearm out of battery when the magazine is empty and many years in Soviet Bloc nations alongside the AK-47. all rounds fired. Upon inserting a loaded magazine, the The detachable magazine quickly came to dominate post- user depresses the slide stop, throwing the slide forward, war military rifle designs.* [24] stripping a round from the top of the magazine stack and chambering it. In single-action pistols this action keeps the hammer cocked back as the new round is chambered, 33.2.4 Detachable box magazines keeping the gun ready to begin firing again. During World War One, detachable box magazines found favor, being used in all manner of firearms; such as pistols, light-machine guns, submachine-guns, semiautomatic and automatic rifles. However, after the War to End All Wars, military planners failed to recognize the importance of automatic rifles and detachable box magazine concept, and instead maintained their traditional views and preference for clip-fed bolt-action rifles. As a result, many promising new automatic rifle designs that used detachable box magazines were abandoned. As World War II loomed, most of the world's major powers began to develop submachine guns fed by 20- to 40round detachable box magazines. However, of the major powers, only the United States would adopt a generalissue semi-automatic rifle that used detachable box magazines; the M1 Carbine with its 15-round magazines. The Lee-Metford rifle, developed in 1888, was one of the As the war progressed the Germans would develop the * first rifles to use detachable box magazine. [25] However, Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle concept with its 30-round the first completely modern removable box magazine was detachable magazine. After WWII, automatic weapons patented in 1908 by Arthur Savage for the Savage Model (left to right) M1 Garand 8-round en-bloc clip, M14 20-round magazine, M16 STANAG 20- and 30-round magazines
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using detachable box magazines would be developed and used by all of the world's armies. Today, detachable box magazines are the norm and they are so widely used that they are simply referred to as “magazines” or “mags” for short.
33.3 Function and types
Detachable box magazine for a SIG SG 550 with studs for stacking multiple magazines together. SKS internal box magazine.
All cartridge-based single-barrel firearms designed to fire more than a single shot without reloading require some form of magazine designed to store and feed cartridges to the firearm's action. Magazines come in many shapes and sizes, with the most common type in modern firearms being the detachable box type. Most magazines designed for use with a reciprocating bolt firearm (tube fed firearms being the exception) make use of a set of feed lips which stop the vertical motion of the cartridges out of the magazine but allow one cartridge at a time to be pushed forward (stripped) out of the feed lips by the firearm's bolt into the chamber. Some form of spring and follower combination is almost always used to feed cartridges to the lips which can be located either in the magazine (most removable box magazines) or built into the firearm (fixed box magazines). There are also two distinct styles to feed lips. In a single-feed design the top cartridge touches both lips and is commonly used in single-column box magazines. A dual- or alternating-feed magazine consists of a wider set of lips so that the second cartridge in line forces the top cartridge against one lip. This design has proven more resistant to jamming in use with dual-column magazines.* [28] Some magazine types are strongly associated with certain firearm types, such as the fixed “tubular” magazine found on most lever-action rifles and pumpaction shotguns. A firearm using detachable magazines may accept a variety of types of magazine, such as the
Thompson submachine gun, which would accept box or drum magazines. Some types of firearm, such as the M249 and other squad automatic weapons, can feed from both magazines and belts.
33.3.1 Tubular
Many of the first repeating rifles, particularly lever-action rifles, used magazines that store cartridges end-to-end inside of a spring-loaded tube typically running parallel to the barrel, or in the buttstock. Tubular magazines are also commonly used in pump-action shotguns and .22 caliber rimfire rifles.
33.3. FUNCTION AND TYPES
33.3.2
Box
247 zines use en-bloc clips that are loaded into the magazine with the ammunition and that are ejected from the firearm when empty. • A detachable box magazine is a self-contained mechanism capable of being loaded or unloaded while detached from the host firearm. They are attached via a slot in the firearm receiver, usually below the action but occasionally to the side (Sten, FG42, Johnson LMG) or on top (Madsen machine gun, Bren gun, FN P90). When the magazine is empty, it can be detached from the firearm and replaced by another full magazine. This significantly speeds the process of reloading, allowing the operator quick access to ammunition. This type of magazine may be straight or curved, the curve being necessary if the rifle uses rimmed ammunition or ammunition with a tapered case. Detachable box magazines may be metal or plastic. The plastic magazines are sometimes partially transparent so the operator can easily check the remaining ammunition. Box magazines are often affixed to each other with clips, tape, straps, or built-in studs to facilitate faster reloading: aka jungle style.
single column and staggered (aka double-stack) column detachable box magazines.
There are, however, exceptions to these rules. The LeeEnfield rifle had a detachable box magazine only to facilitate cleaning. The Lee-Enfield magazine did open, permitting rapid unloading of the magazine without having to operate the bolt-action repeatedly to unload the magazine. Others, like the Breda Modello 30, had a fixed protruding magazine that resembled a conventional detachable box but was non-detachable.
Horizontal The most popular type of magazine in modern rifles and handguns, a box magazine stores cartridges in a column, either one above the other or staggered zigzag fashion. This zigzag stack is often identified as a double-column or double-stack since a single staggered column is actually two side-by-side vertical columns offset by half of the diameter of a round. As the firearm cycles, cartridges are moved to the top of the magazine by a follower driven by spring compression to either a single feed position or side-by-side feed positions. Box magazines may be integral to the firearm or removable. • An internal box or fixed magazine (also known as a blind box magazine when lacking a floorplate) is built into the firearm and is not easily removable. This type of magazine is found most often on boltaction rifles. An internal box magazine is usually charged through the action, one round at a time. Military rifles often use stripper clips or chargers permitting multiple rounds, commonly 5 or 10 at a time, to be loaded at once. Some internal box maga- The P90's magazine has a capacity of 50 rounds, and it
248 fits flush with the weapon's frame.* [29]
CHAPTER 33. MAGAZINE (FIREARMS) STANAG 4179 magazines.* [32] Izhmash has also developed a casket magazine for the AK-12.* [31]
The FN P90 personal defense weapon uses the horizontally mounted feeding system; the magazine sits parallel 33.3.3 to the barrel, fitting flush with the top of the receiver, and the ammunition is rotated 90 degrees before being chambered. The AR-57, also known as the AR Five-seven, is an upper receiver for the AR-15/M16 rifle lower receiver, firing FN 5.7×28mm rounds from standard FN P90 magazines.
Rotary
Casket
Ruger 10/22 rotary magazine
The rotary or spool magazine consists of a star-shaped rotor, or sprocket, actuated by a torsion spring. The magazine may be fixed or detachable. Cartridges fit between the teeth of the sprocket, which is mounted on a spindle parallel to the bore axis, with a torsion spring providing the pressure necessary to rotate the rounds into the feeding position. Rotary magazines are usually of low capacity of ten rounds or less, depending on the cartridge used. The rotary magazine was first used by Savage Model 1892.* [33] The M1941 Johnson rifle also uses a rotary magazine. The design is still used in some modern firearms, most notably the Ruger American, the Ruger 10/22 and the Steyr SSG 69.
33.3.4 Pan Often referred to as a drum magazine, the pan magazine differs from other drum magazines in that the cartridges are stored perpendicular to the axis of rotation, rather than parallel, and are usually mounted on top of the firearm. This type is used on the Lewis Gun, Bren Diagram of the Spectre M4 casket magazine. Gun,* [34] Degtyarev light machine gun and American180 submachine gun. A highly unusual example was Another form of box magazine, sometimes referred to found on the Type 89 machine gun fed from two 45as a quad-column, can hold a great amount of ammuni- round quadrant-shaped pan magazines (each magazine tion. It is wider than a standard magazine, but retains had a place for nine 5-round stripper clips). the same length. Casket magazines can be found on the Media related to Pan magazines at Wikimedia Commons Suomi KP/−31, Hafdasa C-4, Spectre M4, QCW-05 and on 5.45×39mm AK rifle derivatives. Magpul has been granted a patent* [30] for a STANAG compatible cas- 33.3.5 Drum ket magazine,* [31] and such a magazine was also debuted by SureFire in December 2010, and is now sold Main article: Drum magazine as the High Capacity Magazine (HCM) in 60 and 100 Today, drum magazines are used primarily for light maround capacities in 5.56mm for AR-15 compatible with chine guns. In one type, a moving partition within a cylinM4/M16/AR-15 variants and other firearms that accept drical chamber forces loose rounds into an exit slot, with
33.3. FUNCTION AND TYPES
249 Saddle-drum
Beta C-Mag saddle-drum magazine.
Pan magazine as used on a 7.92mm Lewis Gun.
Before WWII the Germans developed 75-round saddledrum magazines for use in their MG13 and MG15 machine guns. The MG34 machine guns could also use saddle-drum magazine when fitted with a special feed cover. The 75 rounds of ammunition were evenly distributed in each side of the magazine with a central feed “tower”where the ammunition is fed to the bolt. The ammunition was fed by a spring force, with rounds alternating from each side of the double drum so that the gun would not become unbalanced. The saddle-drum design was reintroduced in the late 1980s with the 100-round Beta C-Mag for use in multiple calibres, rifles, pistols and PDWs.
33.3.6 Helical
50- and 100-round drum magazines plus 20- and 30-round box magazines for Thompson SMG
the cartridges being stored parallel to the axis of rotation. After loading of the magazine, a wound spring or other mechanism forces the partition against the rounds. In all models a single staggered column is pushed by a follower through a curved path. From there the rounds enter the vertical riser either from a single or dual drums. Cylindrical designs such as rotary and drum magazines allow for larger capacity than box magazines, without growing to excessive length. The downside of a drum magazine's extra capacity is its added weight. Many drum-fed firearms can also load from conventional box magazines, such as the Soviet PPSh-41 submachine gun, RPK light machine gun and the American Thompson submachine gun.
Calico pioneered the helical magazine design. Pictured is the company's M960 carbine.
Helical magazines extend the drum magazine design so that rounds follow a spiral path, allowing for large ammunition capacity in a magazine that can be adapted to increase ammo capacity with only a minor increase to the dimensions of an unloaded gun (compared to a regular box magazine of similar capacity). This type of magazine is used by the Calico M960 and Bizon SMG and Long Wind CS/LS06 and KBP PP90M1.
33.3.7 Hopper
The hopper magazine, used in the Japanese Type 11 LMG, and a few prototype designs of the interwar period, had a fixed 'hopper' in which standard infantry rifle clips were stacked. In theory, this allowed the ammuniMedia related to Drum magazines at Wikimedia Com- tion of riflemen and machinegunners to be interchangemons able; however, problems with the reliability of the system,
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and the compatibility of more powerful rifle loadings with 33.5 High-capacity magazines the operation of the machine gun, made this an impractical solution.* [35] In the United States a number of federal or state laws have banned high-capacity magazines.* [46] High-capacity or large-capacity magazines are generally considered to be those capable of holding more than 10 rounds, although 33.4 STANAG magazine the definitions vary.* [46]* [47]* [48] Other nations impose restrictions on magazine capacity as well. In Canada, magazines are limited to five or ten rounds, depending on the firearm.* [49]
33.6 See also • List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts • Belt (firearm) • Jungle style
33.7 References [1] “NRA Firearms Glossary”. National Rifle Association. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
Two STANAG-compliant magazines: A 20-round Coltmanufactured magazine, and a 30-round Heckler & Koch “High Reliability”magazine.
Main article: STANAG magazine A STANAG magazine* [36]* [37] or NATO magazine is a type of detachable magazine proposed by NATO in October 1980.* [38] Shortly after NATO's acceptance of the 5.56×45mm NATO rifle cartridge, Draft Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 4179 was proposed in order to allow NATO members to easily share rifle ammunition and magazines down to the individual soldier level. The U.S. M16 rifle magazine was proposed for standardization. Many NATO members, but not all, subsequently developed or purchased rifles with the ability to accept this type of magazine. However the standard was never ratified and remains a 'Draft STANAG'.* [39] The STANAG magazine concept is only an interface, dimensional and control (magazine latch, bolt stop, etc.) requirement.* [40]* [41] Therefore, it not only allows one type of magazine to interface with various weapon systems,* [40]* [41] but also allows STANAG magazines to be made in various configurations and capacities.* [40]* [41] STANAG magazines come in 20, 30 and 40-round box magazines,* [41] as well as 60 and 100 round casket magazines,* [42]* [43] 90-round snaildrum magazines,* [44] and 100-round saddle-drum magazines.* [45]
[2] “Gun Zone clips vs. magazines”. The Gun Zone. Retrieved 2008-06-26. [3] “Handgunner's Glossary”. Handguns Annual Magazine, 1994. Retrieved 2013-03-21. [4] United States Army, American Expeditionary Force (1917). Provisional Instruction on the Automatic Rifle, Model 1915 (Chauchat)., translated from the French edition, 1916 [5] United States Ordanace Dept. (1917). Description of the Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, Model of 1911. [6] United States War Dept (1907). Annual Reports of the Secretary of War. [7] “Magazine”. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26. [8] “Cartridge Clip”. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26. [9] “Firearms Glossary”. National Rifle Association. [10] Dictionary. [http://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/clip{[}2] “Clip"]. Merriam Webster. Retrieved 23 July 2012. [11] Charles Winthrop Sawyer (1920). Firearms in American History, volume III. Cornhill Company, Boston. [12] Robert D. Beeman, Ph.D. “Girandoni style air rifles and pistols - preliminary research presentation.”. [13] A Naval Encyclopædia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. 1880. [14] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.179-180
33.7. REFERENCES
[15] Hugh Chisholm (1911). The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information. Encyclopaedia Britannica., entry for Rifle [16] Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. W. & R. Chambers. 1891. pp. 720–721. [17] United States Army Ordnance Department (1898). Description and Rules for the Management of the U.S. Magazine Rifle and Carbine. p. 36. [18] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.184 [19] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.180 [20] Chuck Hawks. “The 8x50R Lebel (8mm Lebel)". [21] “Firearms Technical Trivia: Magazine cut-offs”. Cruffler.com. February 2000. [22] “Modern Firearms - M14 Rifle”. Retrieved 2008-06-26. [23] https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZqtAAAAQBAJ& printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Book+of+Gun+Trivia: +Essential+Firepower+Facts&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H_ UlVbxCltigBIPdgKAB&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v= onepage&q=The%20Book%20of%20Gun%20Trivia% 3A%20Essential%20Firepower%20Facts&f=true The Book of Gun Trivia: Essential Firepower Facts, Gordon L Rottman, Osprey Publishing, Oct 20, 2013 [24] “Simonov SKS carbine (USSR - Russia)". [25] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition, 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.187 [26] U.S. Patent 885,868, April 28, 1908, Improved Magazine, Inventor: Arthur W. Savage [27] The “follower”is the sheet metal part between the last cartridge and the spring. [28] Weeks, John, World War II Small Arms, London: Orbis Publishing Ltd. (1979), p. 33. [29] Kevin, Dockery (2007). Future Weapons. New York: Berkley Trade. ISBN 978-0-425-21750-4. [30] http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1= PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO% 2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=1&p=1&f=G&l=50&d=PTXT& S1=505419.AP.&OS=APN/505419&RS=APN/505419 [31] http://bulletin.accurateshooter.com/2010/06/ magpul-invents-new-quad-stack-magazine-for-ars/ [32] Crane, David (December 3, 2010). “DR Exclusive!: SureFire MAG5-60 and MAG5-100 High Capacity Magazine (HCM) “Quad-Stack”AR Rifle Magazines: 60-Round/Shot and 100-Round/Shot AR (AR-15/M16) 5.56mm NATO Box Magazines for Significantly-Increased Firepower during Infantry Combat and Tactical Engagements of All Sorts”. DefenseReview.com. Archived from the original on January 4, 2011. [33] U.S. Patent 502,018, Magazine Gun, Application date: April 10, 1889, Issue date: July 25, 1893, Inventor: Arthur W. Savage
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[34] http://www.cairdpublications.com/scrap/armbitguns/ images/Bren%20Guns.jpg [35] James H. Willbanks. Machine Guns: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. p. 104. [36] The M16, Gordon L. Rottman, © Osprey Publishing, 2011, Page 35-36 [37] Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, © Penguin, 2007, Page 125-126 [38] Watters, Daniel: "The 5.56 X 45mm Timeline: A Chronology of Development", The Gun Zone, 20002007. [39] "NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization", NDIA Conference 2008 [40] https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxJxY7wQn0C& pg=PA125&dq=stanag+magazine&hl=en&sa= X&ei=GoNKVbGeIseLoQSdoYGQAw&ved= 0CCgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=stanag%20magazine& f=true Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, Penguin, 2007, page 125 [41] https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZqtAAAAQBAJ& pg=PT147&dq=STANAG+magazine&hl=en&sa= X&ei=fX84VfHmGMHMsAWg1oDoAw&ved= 0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=STANAG% 20magazine&f=true The Book of Gun Trivia: Essential Firepower Facts. Gordon L Rottman. Osprey Publishing, Oct 20, 2013 [42] “Magpul Invents New Quad-Stack Magazine for ARs « Daily Bulletin”. Retrieved 15 November 2014. [43] David Crane (3 December 2010). “DR Exclusive!: SureFire MAG5-60 and MAG5-100 High Capacity Magazine (HCM) “Quad-Stack”AR Rifle Magazines: 60-Round/Shot and 100-Round/Shot AR (AR-15/M16) 5.56mm NATO Box Magazines for SignificantlyIncreased Firepower during Infantry Combat and Tactical Engagements of All Sorts”. DefenseReview.com (DR): An online tactical technology and military defense technology magazine with particular focus on the latest and greatest tactical firearms news (tactical gun news), tactical gear news and tactical shooting news. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[44] http://www.defensereview.com/ mwg-90-rounder-snail-drum-mag-90-rounds-of-immediate-556mm-firepow Defense Review. MWG 90-Rounder Snail Drum Magazine: 90 Rounds of Immediate 5.56mm Firepower for Your M4/M4A1 Carbine (or AR-15 Carbine) Posted by: David Crane June 21, 2009 [45] The Gun Digest Book of the AR-15. Patrick Sweeney. Gun Digest Books, Sep 9, 2005. page 106 [46] “Large Capacity Ammunition Magazines Policy Summary”. smartgunlaws.org. Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. May 31, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2014. [47] Rose, Veronica (January 24, 2013). “Laws on High Capacity Magazines”. cga.ct.gov. Connecticut General Assembly. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
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[48] http://www.outdoornews.com/January-2014/ SAFEAct-court-ruling-dumps-7-bullet-limit/ Dumps Magazine Rule
CHAPTER 33. MAGAZINE (FIREARMS)
Court
[49] “Maximum Permitted Magazine Capacity”. Special Bulletin for Businesses No. 72. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2014-12-08. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
33.8 External links • Difference Between a Magazine and a Clip video • Difference Between a Magazine and a Clip - Picture
Chapter 34
Main battle tank “Battle Tank”redirects here. For the video game, see the rear of the enemy's lines, these limitations led natuBattle Tank (video game). rally to two classes of tanks. A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle The first, known variously as light tanks, cruiser tanks or even tankettes for the very smallest versions, were designed for outright speed. The concept was to exploit holes in the enemy lines and run far into the rear areas in self-supporting armoured groups. This would disrupt enemy logistics and command-and-control, as well as delay the movement of reserves to the front. It was believed operations of this sort would undermine or completely destroy the ability for the front-line troops to continue battle. To create those holes in the line, a second class known as heavy tanks or infantry tanks, were designed to work in concert with front-line infantry. As these were expected to move forward at the same speed as the men, higher speeds were not required and the engine power could inGerman Army Leopard 2A5 main battle tanks in August 2010 stead be used to carry a much greater load. Infantry tanks featured much larger amounts of armour, heavier guns, tank or universal tank, is a tank that fills the heavy and more track area to allow them to cross a shell-riddled direct fire role of many modern armies. They were orig- battlefield. inally conceived to replace the light, medium, heavy and A final class evolved during the war, the dedicated tank super-heavy tanks. Development was spurred in the Cold destroyer. These were generally conversions of existing War with the development of lightweight composite ar- tank designs, lightened in order to allow them to carry mor. They are still supplemented in some armies with much larger guns. light tanks. Today, main battle tanks are considered a key component of modern armies.* [1] Modern MBTs seldom operate alone, as they are organized into armored units which involve the support of infantry, who may accompany the MBTs in infantry fighting vehicles. They are also often supported by surveillance or ground-attack aircraft.* [2]
34.1 History 34.1.1
Previous concepts
Prior to and during World War II tank design suffered from a number of limitations due largely to engine power and transmission capability. A designer could produce a tank with high maneuverability, armour, or a large gun, but generally not all three at the same time. Combined with tank theory which stressed high-speed dashes into
34.1.2 Trial by fire In spite of a great amount of theory and pre-war testing, the plans for armoured combat quickly proved themselves outdated. The battlefield did not bog down like it did in World War I and tended to be much more mobile. This was especially evident in the great sweeping battles in North Africa and the Soviet Union, where armoured forces executed drives of hundreds of miles. In these cases the problems with having two designs became especially evident; the tanks able to go toe-to-toe with the enemy were generally found miles to the rear, trying to catch up. Those able to maintain the drive were lightly armoured, and proved easy prey for enemy antitank guns and rifles. Tank destroyers were particularly derided, invariably finding themselves in the wrong place at the wrong time, attacked by infantry when on their own and rarely finding their intended prey.
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CHAPTER 34. MAIN BATTLE TANK
This led to the emergence of designs with slightly greater armour, able to defeat anti-tank rifles and most smaller guns. As these appeared, the tank's own weapons had to grow larger in order to deal with enemy tanks with the same level of armour. This evolution led to the medium tank, which dominated combat in the second half of the war. Generally these designs massed about 25-30 tonnes, were armed with cannons around 75 mm, and powered by engines in the 400 to 500 hp range. Notable examples include the Soviet T-34, the most-produced tank to that time, the German Panzer IV, and the US M4 Sherman. The widespread production of these designs led to most others being pushed out of service or into niche roles.
34.1.3
Emergence of the MBT
tions of similar designs on their part. By the early 1950s these designs were clearly no longer competitive, especially in a world of shaped charge weapons, and new designs rapidly emerged from most armed forces. The concept of the medium tank gradually evolved into the MBT in the 1960s,* [3] as it was realized that medium tanks could carry guns (such as the US 90 mm, Soviet 100 mm, and especially the British L7 105 mm) that could penetrate any practical level of armor at long range. Also, the heaviest tanks were unable to use most existing bridges. The World War II concept of heavy tanks, armed with the most powerful guns and heaviest armor, became obsolete because the large tanks were too expensive and just as vulnerable to damage by mines, bombs, rockets and artillery. Likewise, World War II had shown that lightly armed and armored tanks were of limited value in most roles. Even reconnaissance vehicles had shown a trend towards heavier weight and greater firepower during World War II; speed was not a substitute for armor and firepower.
Soviet T-64 undergoing decontamination
Centurion Mk 3
Meanwhile the rapid increase in engine power in the aviation world had trickle-down effects in the tank world. An especially notable example was the deal arranged between Rolls-Royce and Rover, which led to Rolls gaining access to early jet engines while Rover took over development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine for tank use. The latter, the 600 bhp Rolls-Royce Meteor, offered such a great improvement in power that the resulting Cromwell and related designs were considered cruisers (light or medium tanks) while offering firepower and armour similar to the infantry tanks. Continued development of the basic Cromwell design led eventually to the Centurion. This design's armour was able to defeat all small and medium anti-tank guns, mounted a gun able to defeat even the largest enemy tanks, and offered manoeuvrability even better than earlier light tank designs. It was so flexible that they referred to it as the “universal tank” , and it formed the backbone of post-war British Army tank units.
An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for additional armor. The additional armor prompted the design of even more powerful guns.* [4] The main battle tank thus took on the role the British had once called the 'Universal tank', exemplified by the Centurion, filling almost all battlefield roles. Typical main battle tanks were as well armed as any other vehicle on the battlefield, highly mobile, and well armored. Yet they were cheap enough to be built in large numbers. The first Soviet main battle tank was the T-64* [5] (T-54/55 and T-62 then considered “medium”tanks) and the first American MBT was the M60 Patton.* [6] The adoption of ceramic armor as well as greater armor coverage necessitated by attacks from above by combat aircraft such as helicopters also resulted in an effective counter to nuclear explosion radiation.* [7] By the late 1970s, MBTs were manufactured by China, France, West Germany, Britain, India, Japan, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.* [8]
The Soviet Union war doctrine depended heavily on the main battle tank. Any weapon advancement making the MBT obsolete could have devastated the Soviet Union's 34.1.4 Cold War fighting capability.* [9] The Soviet Union made novel advancements to the weapon systems including mechanical A surplus of effective WWII-era designs in other forces, autoloaders and anti-tank guided missiles. Autoloaders notably the US and Soviet Union, led to slower introduc- were introduced to replace the human loader, permitting
34.2. DESIGN
255 vices.* [13] A relatively new type of remotely detonated mine, the explosively formed penetrator was used with some success against American armored vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armor, M1s proved to be valuable in urban combat; at the Battle of Fallujah the United States Marines brought in two extra companies of M1s.* [14] Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq. Nations such as Israel are reducing the size of their tank fleet and procuring more advanced models.* [15]
Advanced armor has not improved vehicle survivability, but has reduced crew fatalities.* [16] Small unmanned A very early model M60 “Patton”with M48 turret and 105mm turrets on top of the cupolas called remote weapon stacannon tions armed with machineguns or mortars provide improved defence and enhance crew survivability. Experthe turret to be reduced in size, making the target smaller imental tanks with unmanned turrets locate crew memand less visible,* [4] while missile systems were added to bers in the heavily armored hull, improving survivability * extend the range at which a vehicle could engage a target and reducing the vehicle's profile. [17] and thereby enhance the first-round hit probability.* [4] Technology is reducing the weight and size of the mod* The United States's experience in the Vietnam War con- ern MBT. [18] A British military document from 2001 tributed to the idea among army leadership that the role indicated that the British Army would not procure a reof the main battle tank could be replaced with attack he- placement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of conlicopters. During the Vietnam War, helicopters and mis- ventional warfare threats in the foreseeable future. The obsolescence of the tank has been asserted, but the hissiles competed with MBTs for research money.* [10] tory of the late 20th and early 21st century suggested that MBTs were still necessary.* [19]
34.1.5
Persian Gulf War
Though the Persian Gulf War reaffirmed the role of main 34.2 Design battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by the attack helicopter.* [11] Other strategists considered that the MBT A main battle tank has been officially described as was entirely obsolete in the light of the efficacy and speed “a self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of * with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armor. [12] heavy firepower, primarily of a high muzzle velocity direct fire main gun necessary to engage armoured and other targets, with high cross-country mobility, with a 34.1.6 Asymmetrical warfare high level of self-protection, and which is not designed and equipped primarily to transport combat troops.”* [20]
34.2.1 Overview 34.2.2 Countermeasures
A German Leopard 2 in the PSO-version, prepared for asymmetrical warfare
Originally, most MBTs relied on steel armor to defend against various threats. As newer threats emerged, however, the defensive systems used by MBTs had to evolve to counter them. One of the first new developments was the use of explosive reactive armor (ERA), developed by Israel in the early 1980s to defend against the shapedcharge warheads of modern anti-tank guided missiles and other such high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) projectiles. This technology was subsequently adopted and expanded upon by the United States and the Soviet Union.
where The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the MBT armor is concentrated at the front of the tank, * [21] it is layered up to 33 centimetres (13 in) thick. course of the Iraq War. They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive de- Missiles are cheap and cost-effective anti-tank
256
CHAPTER 34. MAIN BATTLE TANK Missile Countermeasure Device and as part of the Tank Urban Survival Kit used on M1 Abrams tanks serving in Iraq.
The Challenger II is equipped with Dorchester armour, an advanced composite armour.
Other defensive developments focused on improving the strength of the armor itself; one of the notable advancement coming from the British with the development of Chobham armour in the 1970s. It was first employed on the American M1 Abrams and later the British Challenger 1. Chobham armor uses a lattice of composite and ceramic materials along with metal alloys to defeat incoming threats, and proved highly effective in the conflicts in Iraq in the early 1990s and 2000s; surviving numerous impacts from 1950–60s–era rocket-propelled grenades with negligible damage. It is much less efficient against later models of RPGs. For example the RPG-29 from the 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour of the Challenger II* [23]* [24]
34.2.3 Weaponry
The (Russian designed) Indian T-90 Bhishma has a two-tier protection system.
Merkava Mk 3d BAZ of the Israel Defense Forces firing its main gun.
Main battle tanks are equipped with a main tank gun, and at least one machine gun.
The Russian T-80U has a two-tier protection system.
weapons.* [22] ERA can be quickly added to vehicles to increase their survivability. However, the detonation of ERA blocks creates a hazard to any supporting infantry near the tank. Despite this drawback, it is still employed on many Russian MBTs, the latest generation Kontakt-5 being capable of defeating both HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator threats. The Soviets also developed systems designed to more actively neutralize hostile projectiles before they could even strike the tank, namely the Shtora and Arena systems. Recently, the United States has adopted similar technologies in the form of the
MBT main guns are generally between 90 and 130 mm caliber, and can fire both anti-armor and, more recently, anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves a dual role, able to engage other armored targets such as tanks and fortifications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and infantry. It is fixed to the turret, along with the loading and fire mechanism. Modern tanks utilize a sophisticated fire-control system, including rangefinders, computerized fire control, and stabilizers, which are designed to keep the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull is turning or shaking, making it easier for the operators to fire on the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70,* [25] but have been diligently developed by the Soviet Union, who even retrofitted them to T-55 tanks, in an effort to double the effective range of the vehicle's fire. The MBT's role could
34.2. DESIGN be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect fire.* [17] The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely delivering powerful fire while minimizing collateral damage.* [12]
257 M2 Browning or DShK), which can be used against helicopters and low flying aircraft. However, their effectiveness is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped with between 500 and 3000 rounds each.
34.2.4 Mobility
French Leclerc
High explosive anti-tank (HEAT), and some form of high velocity kinetic energy penetrator, such as APFSDS (Armor-piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot) rounds are carried for anti-armor purposes. Anti-personnel rounds such as high explosive or high explosive fragmentation have dual purpose. Less common rounds are Beehive anti-personnel rounds, and high explosive squash head (HESH) rounds used for both anti-armor and bunker busting. Usually, an MBT carries 30-50 rounds of ammunition for its main gun, usually split between HE, HEAT and kinetic energy penetrator rounds. Some MBTs may also carry smoke or white phosphorus rounds. Some MBTs are equipped with an autoloader, such as the French Leclerc, or the Russian/Ukrainian T-64, T-72, T80, T-84 and T-90 and, for this reason, the crew can be reduced to 3 members. MBTs with an autoloader require one less crew member and the autoloader requires less T-64BM Bulat on parade, a Ukrainian Ground Forces upgrade of the T-64, produced by the KMDB space than its human counterpart, allowing for a reduction in turret size. Further, an autoloader can be designed to handle rounds which would be too difficult for a human to load.* [26] This reduces the silhouette which improves the MBT's target profile, however, with a manual loader, the rounds can be isolated within a blowout chamber, rather than a magazine within the turret, which could improve crew survivability. However, the force of a modern depleted uranium armor piercing fin discarding sabot round at the muzzle can exceed 6000KN.(a rough estimate, considering a uranium 60 cm/2 cm rod, 19g/cm3 , @ 1,750 m/s) Composite+reactive armor could withstand this kind of force through its deflection and deformation, but with a second hit in the same area, an armor breach is inevitable. As such, the speed of follow up shots is crucial A former British Army Challenger 1 within tank to tank combat.* [27] As secondary weapons, an MBT usually uses between two and four machine guns to engage infantry and light vehicles. Many MBTs mount one heavy caliber anti-aircraft machine gun (AAMG), usually of .50 caliber (like the
MBTs, like previous models of tanks, move on treads, which allow a decent level of mobility over most terrain including sand and mud. They also allow tanks to climb over most obstacles. MBTs can be made water-tight, so
258 they can even dive into shallow water (5 m (16 ft) with snorkel). However, treads are not as fast as wheels; the maximum speed of a tank is about 65 km/h (40 mph) (72 km/h (45 mph) for the Leopard 2). The extreme weight of vehicles of this type (45-70 tons) also limits their speed. They are usually equipped with a 1,200– 1,500 hp (890–1,120 kW) engine (more than 25,000 cc (1,526 cu in)), with an operational range near 500 km (310 mi).
CHAPTER 34. MAIN BATTLE TANK fire control system. Also, propulsion systems are not produced in high enough quantities to take advantage of economies of scale.* [28]
Crew fatigue limits the operational range of MBTs in combat. Reducing the crew to three and relocating all crewmembers from the turret to the hull could provide time to sleep for one off-shift crewmember located in the rear of the hull. In this scenario, crewmembers would rotate shifts regularly and all would require cross-training The German Army has prioritized mobility in its Leopard on all vehicle job functions.* [29] Cargo aircraft are in2 which is considered the fastest MBT in existence.* [22] strumental to the timely deployment of MBTs. The absence of sufficient numbers of strategic airlift assets can limit the rate of MBT deployments to the number of aircraft available.* [30] The only aircraft capable of transporting full-featured MBTs with ease are the C-5 Galaxy, Antonov An-22, and Antonov An-124 which are declining in number. Military planners anticipate that the airlift capability for MBTs will not improve in the future.* [31] To date, no helicopter has the capability to lift MBTs.* [12] Rail and road are heavily used to move MBTs nearer to the battle, ready to fight in prime condition.* [31] Where well maintained roads allow it, wheeled tank transporters can be used.* [32] The difficult task of resupply is usually accomplished with * The Italian Ariete. Its relatively low weight (54 tonnes) facilitates large trucks. [33] mobility, especially while crossing bridges.
The MBT is often cumbersome in traffic, much to the disdain of drivers who must share the road with it. The tracks can damage some roads after repeated use. Many structures like bridges do not have the load capacity to support an MBT. In the fast pace of combat it is often impossible to test the sturdiness of these structures. In the 2003 invasion of Iraq, an M1 Abrams attempting to cross a bridge to evade enemy fire plummeted into the Euphrates river when the bridge collapsed.* [12] Though appreciated for its excellent off-road characteristics, the MBT can become immobilized in muddy conditions.
34.2.5 Storage Main battle tanks have internal and external storage space. Internal space is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of the crew.* [34] The Israeli Merkava can even accommodate crewmembers displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition compartment.* [29]
34.3 Crew Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle tank crew-members. The crew must perform their tasks faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams taking into consideration personalities and talents.* [12]
34.4 Role The main battle tank fulfills the role the British had once called the 'universal tank', filling almost all battlefield roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War Israeli Merkava Mark IV on a tank transporter to combat other MBTs.* [17] The modern light tank supThe high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the plements the MBT in expeditionary roles and situations high performance engine-transmission system and to the where all major threats have been neutralized and excess
34.6. SEE ALSO
259
U.S. Marines during the Iraq War ride on an M1A1 Abrams tank in April 2003.
weight in armor and armament would only hinder mobility and cost more money to operate. Reconnaissance by MBTs is performed in high-intensity Mechanics at Anniston Army Depot line up an M1 Abrams turret conflicts where reconnaissance by light vehicles would with its hull. be insufficient due to the necessity to 'fight' for information.* [31] 34.5.3 Marketing In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in small highly concentrated units. MBTs fire only at targets Several MBT models, such as the AMX-40 and OF-40, at close range and instead rely on external support such as were marketed almost solely as export vehicles.* [31] unmanned aircraft for long range combat.* [35] Several tank producers, such as Japan and Israel, choose Main battle tanks have significantly varied characteris- not to market their creations for export.* [31] Others have tics. Procuring too many varieties can place a burden on export control laws in place. tactics, training, support and maintenance.* [36] The MBT has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies.* [37] It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.* [12]
34.6 See also • Light tank
34.5 Procurement
• Cruiser tank • Infantry tank
34.5.1
Research and development
• List of main battle tanks by country
34.5.2
Manufacture
• List of main battle tanks by generation
MBT production is increasingly being outsourced to wealthy nations. Countries that are just beginning to produce tanks are having difficulties remaining profitable in an industry that is increasingly becoming more expensive through sophistication of technology. Even some largescale producers are seeing declines in production. Even China is divesting many of its MBTs.* [31] The production of main battle tanks is limited to manufacturers that specialize in combat vehicles. Commercial manufacturers of civilian vehicles cannot easily be repurposed as MBT production facilities.* [38] Prices for MBTs have more than tripled from 1943 to 2011, although this pales in comparison with the price increase in fighter aircraft from 1943 to 1975.* [17]
• History of the tank • Tanks in World War I • Comparison of World War I tanks • Tanks of the interwar period • Tanks in World War II • Comparison of early World War II tanks • Cold War Tanks • Post-Cold War Tanks • Armoured fighting vehicle
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34.7 References Notes [1] House (1984), Toward Combined Arms Warfare:A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization [2] Tranquiler, Roger, Modern Warfare. A French View of Counterinsurgency, trans. Daniel Lee, Pitting a traditional combined armed force trained and equipped to defeat similar military organisations against insurgents reminds one of a pile driver attempting to crush a fly, indefatigably persisting in repeating its efforts. [3] Советская Военная Энциклопедия. Под ред. Гречко А.А. - М.: Воениздат, 1976–80 гг., в 8-и томах, статья «Танк» (Soviet Military Encyclopedia) [4] Thomas W. Zarzecki (2002). Arms Diffusion: The Spread of Military Innovations in the International System. Psychology Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-415-93514-8. Retrieved 5 April 2011. [5] T-64 manual ("Танк Т−64А. Техническое описание и инструкция по эксплуатации. 1984”) state T-64 as “main battle”tank, while previous T-62 and T-55 (in corresponding military manuals, like "Танк Т−62. Руководство по материальной части и эксплуатации. 1968”) stated as “medium”tanks [6] MIL-T-45308 state “Tank, Main Battle, 105MM Gun, M60”, while MIL-T-45148 state “TANK, COMBAT, FULL-TRACKED, 90MM GUN, M48A2”
CHAPTER 34. MAIN BATTLE TANK
[16] Anthony H. Cordesman, Aram Nerguizian, Ionut C. Popescu (2008). Israel and Syria: The Military Balance and Prospects of War. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-0313-35520-2. Retrieved 1 April 2011. [17] Neville Brown (2009). The Geography of Human Conflict: Approaches to Survival. Sussex Academic Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-84519-169-6. Retrieved 5 April 2011. [18] Stan Krasnoff (2008). A Claytons Defense. Strategic Book Publishing. p. 35. Retrieved 5 April 2011. [19] Asia-Pacific defence reporter, Volume 30. Asia-Pacific Defence Publications. 2004. Retrieved 2 April 2011. [20] Treaty on conventional armed forces in Europe. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1989. p. 3. Retrieved 4 April 2013. [21] Stan Windass, Paul Walker (1985). Avoiding Nuclear War: Common Security as a Strategy for the Defence of the West. Brassey's Defence Publishers. p. 38. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [22] Richard Holmes, Hew Strachan, Chris Bellamy (2001). The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press. pp. 493, 902. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [23] “Defence chiefs knew 'invincible' tank armour could be breached”. Daily Mail. 24 April 2007. [24] Sean Rayment (May 12, 2007 *). “MoD kept failure of best tank quiet”. Sunday Telegraph. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[7] AcademicJohn Harris and Andre Gsponer (1986). Armour defuses the neutron bomb. Reed Business Information. p. 47. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
[25] African armed forces journal. Military Publications Ltd. 1994. p. 10.
[8] Academic American encyclopedia, Volume 2. Aretê Pub. Co., 1980. 1980. p. 177. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[26] Jeff Groman (1985). Weapons of War. Gallery Books. p. 126. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
[9] David C. Isby (1988). Weapons and tactics of the Soviet Army. Jane's. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[27] Thomas W. Zarzecki (2002). Arms Diffusion: The Spread of Military Innovations in the International System. Psychology Press. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
[10] Daniel H. Else (III.) (2008).“Chapter 3”. Bias in weapon development. ProQuest. p. 62. Retrieved 12 March 2012. [11] Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies (1993). The Canadian strategic forecast. Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies. p. 73. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [12] Chris McNab, Hunter Keeter (2008). Tools of violence: guns, tanks and dirty bombs. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 6 April 2011. [13] Komarow, Steven (2005-03-29). “Tanks take a beating in Iraq”. USA Today. Retrieved 2010-04-09. [14] Komarow, Steven (2005-03-29). “Tanks adapted for urban fights they once avoided”. USA Today. Retrieved 2010-04-09. [15] Anthony H. Cordesman (2006). Arab-Israeli Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric Wars. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-99186-5. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
[28] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Adiabatic Diesel Technology (1987). A review of the state of the art and projected technology of low heat rejection engines: a report. National Academies. p. 108. Retrieved 2 April 2011. [29] Robin Fletcher (May 1995). “The Crewing and Configuration of the Future Main Battle Tank” (PDF). ARMOR: 6-8, 42, & 43. Retrieved 4 May 2011. (HTML version) [30] Michael Chichester, John Wilkinson (1987). British defence: a blueprint for reform. Brasseys Defence. p. 126. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [31] Mary Kaldor, Basker Vashee, World Institute for Development Economics Research (1998). [Restructuring the Global Military Sector: The end of military Fordism Restructuring the Global Military Sector: The End of Military Fordism]. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 108. ISBN 1-85567-428-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
34.7. REFERENCES
[32] Brian MacDonald (1997). Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 136. ISBN 0-88629-314-6. Retrieved 2 April 2011. [33] Michael Green (2008). War Stories of the Tankers: American Armored Combat, 1918 to Today. Zenith Imprint. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-7603-3297-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [34] David Miller (2000). The illustrated directory of tanks of the world. Zenith Imprint. p. 384. ISBN 0-7603-0892-6. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [35] David Eshel, Bill Sweetman (25 April 2011). “New Designs Suit Tanks For Asymmetric War”. The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. Retrieved 3 May 2011. [36] Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-first Century: The Military and International Security Dimensions. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2003. p. 140. Retrieved 1 April 2011. [37] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 59. ISBN 1-57607-344-0. Retrieved 5 April 2011. [38] United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations (1990). Department of Defense Appropriations for 1991, Part 6. U. S. Govt. Print. Off. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
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Chapter 35
Military helicopter A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A military helicopter's mission is a function of its design or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters can be modified or converted to perform other missions such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specific missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.
35.1.1 Equipment
ent roles, for example the EH-101 in Royal Navy service can be rapidly configured for ASW or transport missions in hours. To at the same time retain flexibility and limit costs, it is possible to fit an airframe for but not with a system, for example in the US Army's AH-64D variants are all fitted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been brought to equip the whole force. The systems can be fitted to only those airframes that need it, or when finances allow the purchase of enough units.
Armour, fire suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection, as a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example it has been reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Mil Mi-17.* [1] These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but would
Most military helicopters are armoured to some extent however all equipment is limited to the installed power and lift capability and the limits installed equipment places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is placed around the pilots, engines, transmission and fuel tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured. Survivability is enhanced by redundancy and the placement of components to protect each other. For example the Blackhawk family of helicopters uses two engines and can continue to fly on only one (under certain conditions), 35.1 Types and roles the engines are separated by the transmission and placed so that if attacked from any one flank, the engine on that Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, flank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on land and air operations of modern militaries. Gener- the other side from damage. ally manufacturers will develop airframes in different Aviation electronics, or avionics, such as communication weight/size classes which can be adapted to different roles radios and navigation aids are common on most milithrough the installation of mission specific equipment. tary helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as electronic To minimise development costs the basic airframes can countermeasures and identification friend or foe systems, be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines are military specific systems that can also be installed on and electronics and have the entire mechanical and flight military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. are installed either permanently or temporarily, based For example, the UH-1 has given rise to a number of on specific mission requirements; optical and IR camderivatives through stretching and re-engining, including eras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar the AH-1. for anti-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems and computers for helicopters used as airborne command which allow the same airframe to be configured for differ- posts.
262
35.1. TYPES AND ROLES be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual combat situations. The intention of China appears to be to retrofit these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds to allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each of its Group Armies. Allowing a widespread build up of experience in helicopter operations.
35.1.2
Attack helicopters
Main article: Attack helicopter
263 zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport and land a large number of troops and equipment in a relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the helicopters to continually resupply the force during the operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if the mission dictates. • Transport helicopters
• Mil Mi-17 transport of the Kazakhstan government.* [note 1] Attack helicopters are helicopters used in the anti-tank and close air support roles. The first of the modern attack • A Wiesel deploys from a CH-53 helicopters was the Vietnam era AH-1 Cobra, which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons offi• CH-21C with 105mm howitzer as a slung load cer seated in tandem in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted • UH-1D helicopters airlift members of a U.S. inguns, and rockets and missiles mounted on stub wings. fantry regiment, 1966 To enable them to find and identify their targets, some modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors* [2] such as a millimeter wave radar system. Cite error: There are [ tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{re• Attack helicopters flist|group=note}} template (see the help page). • A Russian Mi-24P Hind-F large helicopter gunship and low-capacity troop transport. 35.1.4 Observation helicopters • Westland WAH-64 Apache Longbow attack heliThe first reconnaissance and observation aircraft were copter operated by the British Army. balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the • Cobra attack helicopters being refueled at a FARP Taylorcraft L-2 and Fieseler Fi 156. As the first milduring Operation Iraqi Freedom itary helicopters became available, their ability to both maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were 35.1.3 Transport helicopters limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well-glazed cockpits for maxMain article: Transport helicopter imum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these inTransport helicopters are used for transporting person- clude low light level television and forward looking innel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. frared cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose- mount along with multi-function lasers capable of acting built for military operations, but commercially available as laser rangefinder and targeting designators for weapons aircraft are also used. The benefit of using helicopters for systems.* [3] these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved By nature of the mission, the observation helicopter's prito and from locations without requiring a runway for take- mary weapons are its sensor suite and communications offs and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or ex- equipment. Early observation helicopters were effective ternally by slung load where the load is suspended from an at calling for artillery fire and airstrikes. With modern attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidprimarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on ance to ATGWs, laser-guided bombs and other missiles the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even he- and munitions fired by other armed aircraft.* [4]* [5] Oblicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up servation helicopters may also be armed with combinaand dropped off using specialized devices, such as res- tions of gun and rocket pods and sometimes anti-tank cue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers guided missiles or air-to-air missiles, but in smaller quanoverhead. tities than larger attack helicopters.* [6] Primarily, these Air assault is a military strategy that relies heavily on the use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a customized assault force that is assembled on the pickup zone and staged for sequential transport to a landing]
weapons were intended for the counter-reconnaissance fight̶to eliminate an enemy's reconnaissance assets̶ but they can also be used to provide limited direct fire support or close air support.
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• Observation helicopters • A Gazelle helicopter of the French ALAT.
durance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.
Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long • An OH-58 Kiowa showing its mast mounted sight range anti-shipping missiles. and a rocket pod. Maritime helicopters are navalised for operation from • The Kawasaki OH-1. ships, this includes enhanced protection against salt water corrosion, protection against ingestion of water and provision for forced ditching at sea.
35.1.5
Maritime helicopters
See also: Maritime patrol aircraft Among the first practical uses of helicopters when the R-4 and R-5 became available to US and UK forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing catapult-launched observation aircraft. Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as plane guard - tasked with the recovery of pilots who had ditched near an aircraft carrier. As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and endurance, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with airlaunched torpedoes and depth charges based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the turboshaft engine and transistor technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the Westland Wasp, to operate from smaller vessels than their reciprocating engine predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the SH-3 Sea King, to be equipped with integral dunking sonar, radar and magnetic anomaly detection equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.
• Maritime helicopters • A Royal Navy Merlin HM1 anti-submarine warfare helicopter in 2007 • A SH-60B Seahawk 2 helicopter • A Kamov Ka-27 shipborne helicopter, showing its contra-rotating rotor system, and bulbous radar radome • A Harbin Z-9
35.1.6 Multi-mission and rescue As helicopters came into military service, they were quickly pressed into service for search and rescue* [note 1] and medical evacuation. During World War II, Flettner Fl 282s were used in Germany for reconnaissance, and Sikorsky R-4s were used by the United States to rescue downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of the China Burma India Theater, from April 1944 until the war's end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the Korean War and the Algerian War. In the Vietnam War the USAF acquired Sikorsky S-61R (Jolly Green Giant) and CH-53 Sea Stallion (Super Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the CSAR mission.* [7] • Multimission and Rescue helicopters
Today, maritime helicopters such as the SH-60 Seahawk • Bell 47 with patient transfer panniers. and the Westland Lynx are designed to be operated from • Fast-roping at a Combat Search and Rescue action, frigates, destroyers and similar size vessels. The desire featuring a HH-60G Pave Hawk. to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate- and destroyer-sized vessels has had an impact on the maxi• Patient transfer unit for the German Army Aviation mum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of Corps CH-53Gs. the ships. Increasing miniaturisation of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer-based, multi-role helicopter to operate nearly 35.1.7 Training helicopters autonomously in the ASW, anti-shipping, transport, SAR and reconnaissance roles. Some services use a version of their operational heliMedium- and large-sized helicopters are operated from copters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and example, the British have used the Aérospatiale Gazelle Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti- both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operat- have an Ab initio phase in training that uses very basic ing from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti- helicopters. The Mexican Navy has acquired a number submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines of the commercially available Robinson R22* [8] and R44 loitering outside military ports and harbours; their en- helicopters for this purpose.
35.2. TACTICS AND OPERATIONS
35.2 Tactics and operations
265 flight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the Nord SS.11 and the Aérospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for firing from helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellfire. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11 Falanga missile for firing from the Mil Mi-24. In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter, flying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include laser designators to guide missiles fired from the attack helicopters. After finding a target, the scout helicopter can locate it and then direct the attack helicopter's missile where to fire. The attack helicopters have only to rise from cover briefly to fire their missiles before returning to a concealed location.* [7] Late-development of attack helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52, and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for scout helicopters.
To enhance the combat endurance of these missile-armed helicopters, transport helicopters were used to carry technicians, reloads and fuel to forward locations. EstablishFirst generation Alouette anti-tank helicopter of the German ing these forward arming and refuel points (FARP) at preArmy armed with SS.10 missiles arranged locations and times allowed armed or attack helicopters to re-arm and refuel, often with their engines running and the rotors still turning, and to quickly return to the front lines.* [7]
35.2.2 Low intensity warfare
An OH-58 and an AH-1 of the Hawaii ARNG, such a combination would have formed hunter-killer team during the Cold War.* [7]
While not essential to combat operations, helicopters give a substantial advantage to their operators by being a force multiplier. To maximise their impact, helicopters are utilised in a combined arms approach.* [9]
35.2.1
High intensity warfare An Iraqi unit prepares to board a US Blackhawk for a COIN
High-intensity warfare is characterized by large arrays of operation conventional armed forces, including mass formations of tanks, with significant air defenses. Helicopter armament Main article: Counter-insurgency and tactics were changed to account for a less-permissive
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In counter-insurgency (COIN) warfare, the government force establishes its presence in permanent or temporary military bases from which to mount patrols and convoys. The government forces seek to deter the insurgent forces from operating, and to capture or kill those that do. The operation of forces from fixed bases linked by a fixed network of roads becomes a weakness. Emplaced insurgents and local sympathisers may observe such facilities covertly and gather intelligence on the schedules and routes of patrols and convoys. With this intelligence the insurgents can time their operations to avoid the COIN forces or plan ambushes to engage them, depending on their own tactical situation.
and Sikorsky Aircraft.
Due to the cost and complexity of training and support requirements, insurgent forces rarely have access to helicopters.
35.5 Notes
In Japan the three main manufacturers of helicopters are the aviation arms of the Japanese conglomerates Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Fuji Heavy Industries. These companies initially followed a business model based on forming strategic partnerships with foreign, usually American, companies with the licensed production of those companies products, whilst building up their own ability to design and manufacture helicopters through a process of workshare and technology transfer.
In the Soviet-planned economic system, the Mil and Kamov OKBs were responsible only for the design of helicopters. A 2006 re-organisation of the helicopter indusHelicopters return a measure of surprise and tactical flex- try in Russia created Oboronprom, a holding company to ibility to the COIN commander. Patrols need not start bring together Mil and manufacturing plants. and end in the same place (the main entrance of the local compound), nor do supply convoys need follow the same roads and highways. During the Troubles, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) became adept at avoiding 35.4 See also conventional, fixed roadblocks and patrols. To prevent • Air assault predictable patterns, the patrols were deployed by helicopter, known as Eagle Patrols, and were then able to • Armed helicopter disrupt the IRA's ability to move personnel and arms.* [7] • Army aviation In the aftermath of the American invasion of Iraq helicopters have been used as aerial supply trucks and troop • Helicopter bombing transports to prevent exposure to ambushes set by the Iraqi insurgency.* [10]
35.3 Manufacturers
[1] Search and rescue is sometimes referred to as SAR. Search and rescue during combat is referred to by NATO countries as CSAR and is a specialized personnel recovery mission.
35.6 References [1] Kanwa Defense Review No26,“Is China's 20-year buildup Army Aviation Corps effective”, February 2007. [2] Give us an enemy to fight, says chief of Britain's Apache helicopter fleet [3] Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development [4] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA [5] Comanche's Child: The ARH-70 Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter [6] Filling Comanche's Shoes Helibras HM-1 Pantera under construction in Brazil.
Main article: Helicopter manufacturers The major Western European helicopter manufacturers are now AgustaWestland and Eurocopter Group. In America, the three large remaining companies are Boeing (Boeing Vertol and McDonnell Douglas), Bell Helicopter
[7] Cacutt, Len (1989). Combat. Aerospace Publishing Ltd. p. 185. ISBN 1-55521-240-9. [8] Air Forces Monthly, February 2001, “Mexico Navy acquires Robinson R22s” [9] Rotary Aircraft-Army Plans [10]“Iraq fire downed US helicopters”. BBC Online. 4 February 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
35.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
35.6.1
267
Further reading
• Boyne, Walter J. (2011). Changed Modern Warfare. ISBN 1-58980-700-6.
How the Helicopter Pelican Publishing.
• FM 1-100 Army Aviation Operations from 21 February 1997 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-108 Doctrine For Army Special Operations Aviation Forces from 3 November 1993 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1–111 Aviation Brigades from 27 October 1997 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-112 Attack Helicopter Operations from 2 April 1997 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-113 Utility and Cargo Helicopter Operations from 25 June 1997 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-114 Air Cavalry Squadron and Troop Operations from 1 February 2000 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-120 Army Air Traffic Service Contingency and Combat Zone Operations from 22 May 1995 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 1-140 Helicopter Gunnery from 29 March 1996 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 3-04.500 Army Aviation Maintenance from 26 September 2000 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org • FM 90-4 Air Assault Operations from 16 March 1987 by Headquarters Department of the Army at GlobalSecurity.org
35.7 External links • Army Aviation Association of America • Homepage of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm • Homepage of the UK's Army Air Corps • Helicopter page from RAF homepage • French Ministry of Defence ALAT page • CombatAircraft.com - Helicopters
Chapter 36
Pistol “Pistolet”redirects here. For the Belgian bread roll, see Pistolet (bread). For other uses, see Pistol (disambiguation). A pistol is a type of handgun. Some handgun experts
the Oxford English Dictionary (a descriptive dictionary) describes 'pistol' as a small firearm to be used in one hand* [6] and the usage of “revolver”as being a type of handgun* [7] and gives its original form as “revolving pistol”* [8]* [9]
36.1 History and etymology
SIG Pro semi-automatic pistol
A model M1911A1 pistol
and dictionaries make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns; others use the terms interchangeably. Sometimes in usage, the term “pistol” refers to a handgun having one chamber integral with the barrel,* [1]* [2] making pistols distinct from the other main type of handgun, the revolver, which has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers.* [3]* [4] But UK/Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, particularly when the terms are used by the military. For example, the official designation of the Webley Mk VI revolver was “Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No. 1 Mk VI”.* [5] In contrast to Merriam-Webster* [3]* [4]
European hand cannon (Germany, about 1475)
Further information: Firearm and Handgun The pistol originates in the 16th century, when early handguns were produced in Europe. The English word was introduced in ca. 1570 from the Middle French pistolet (ca. 1550). The etymology of the French word pistolet is disputed. It may be from a Czech word for early hand cannons, píšťala “flute”, or alternatively from Italian pistolese,
268
36.2. ACTION
269
after Pistoia, a city renowned for Renaissance-era gun- Multi-barreled pistols were common during the same smithing, where hand-held guns (designed to be fired time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways from horseback) were first produced in the 1540s.* [10] to increase fire rates, multiple barrels were added to all The first suggestion derives the word from Czech píšťala, guns including pistols. One example of a multi-barreled a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during pistol is the Duck's foot *pistol, which generally had eithe 1420s. The Czech word was adopted in German as ther four or eight barrels, [13]* although some 20th century models had three barrels. [14] pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants.* [11] The second suggestion is less likely; the use of the word as a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in Italy, long after it was used in French and German. The 36.2.3 Harmonica pistol Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in 1420s.* [12] Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun Other suggestions include from Middle High German pis- were produced that had a sliding magazine. The slidchulle or from Middle French pistole. Also it is suggested ing magazine contained pinfire cartridges or speedloadthat early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung ers. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many from the pommel (or pistallo in medieval French) of a designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic horse's saddle. pistols.* [15]
36.2 Action
36.2.4 Revolver
The most common types of pistol are the single shot, and semi-automatic.
36.2.1
Single shot
Colt Model 1873 Single-Action“New Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol”
Main article: Revolver French Navy pistol model 1837
Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era of flintlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was loaded with a lead ball and fired by a flint striker, and then later a percussion cap. However, as technology improved, so did the single shot pistol. New operating mechanisms were created, and due to this, they are still made today. It is the oldest type of pistol, and is often used to hunt wild game.
36.2.2
Multi-barreled (non-rotating)
Further information: Multiple barrel firearm
With the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had finally achieved the goal of a practical capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun barrel in quick succession. Revolvers feed ammunition via the rotation of a cartridge-filled cylinder, in which each cartridge is contained in its own ignition chamber, and is sequentially brought into alignment with the weapon's barrel by an indexing mechanism linked to the weapon's trigger (double-action) or its hammer (singleaction). These nominally cylindrical chambers, usually numbering between five and eight depending on the size of the revolver and the size of the cartridge being fired, are bored through the cylinder so that their axes are parallel to the cylinder's axis of rotation; thus, as the cylinder rotates, the chambers revolve about the cylinder's axis.
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[4] “Revolver – Define Revolver”. Dictionary.com. Retrieved January 19, 2015. [5] Skennerton, Ian D., Small Arms Identification Series No. 9: .455 Pistol, Revolver No. 1 Mk VI, p. 10, Arms & Militaria Press, 1997. [6]“pistol, n.”. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/144645? rskey=BtMENp&result=1 (accessed January 21, 2015). [7]“revolver, n.”. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/ 164985 (accessed January 21, 2015)
Semi-automatic pistol Grand Power K100 Target produced in Slovakia
36.2.5
[8]“revolver, n.”. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/ 164985 (accessed January 21, 2015). [9] “revolver: definition of revolver”. Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Semi-automatic
[10] The War Office (UK): Textbook of Small Arms (1929), page 86. H.M. Stationery Office (UK), 1929.
Main article: Semi-automatic pistol The semi-automatic pistol was the next step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers̶ which need to be individually reloaded̶semi-automatic pistols delivered faster rates of fire and required only a few seconds to reload (depending on the skill of the shooter). In blowback-type semi-automatics, the recoil force is used to push the slide back and eject the shell (if any) so that the magazine spring can push another round up; then as the slide returns, it chambers the round. An example of a modern blowback action semi-automatic pistol is the HK VP70.
[11] Karel Titz (1922). Ohlasy husitského válečnictví v Evropě . Československý vědecký ústav vojenský. [12] http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=1876 [13] Newton, Mike (April 15, 2012). Writing Westerns: How to Craft Novels that Evoke the Spirit of the West. F+W Media, Inc. [14] Shideler, Dan (September 24, 2009). “Jeepers Creepers, Whereʼd You Get That Pieper?". GunDigest. Retrieved January 19, 2015. [15] Jarre harmonica pistol [16] “US government orders removal of Defcad 3D-gun designs”. BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
36.3 3D printed pistol
[17] Biggs, John. “What You Need To Know About The Liberator 3D-Printed Pistol”. TechCrunch. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
Main article: Liberator (gun)
The Liberator is a physible, 3D-printable single shot [18] Hutchinson, Lee. “The first entirely 3D-printed handgun is here”. Ars Technica. Retrieved 13 May 2013. handgun, the first such printable firearm design made widely available online.* [16]* [17]* [18] The open source [19] Greenberg, Andy. “3D-Printed Gun's Blueprints Downfirm Defense Distributed designed the gun and released loaded 100,000 Times In Two Days (With Some Help the plans on the Internet on May 6, 2013. The plans From Kim Dotcom)". Forbes. Retrieved 13 May 2013. were downloaded over 100,000 times in the two days before the US Department of State demanded Defense Distributed retract the plans.* [19]
36.4 References [1] “Pistol – Definition”. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved January 19, 2015. [2] “British Dictionary definitions for pistol”. nary.com. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Dictio-
[3] “Revolver – Definition”. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Chapter 37
Reconnaissance vehicle 37.2 History During World War II, the British generally used armoured cars for reconnaissance, from the machinegun armed Humber Light Reconnaissance Car and Daimler Dingo to the 6-pdr (57 mm) gun equipped AEC Armoured Car. Post war the British Army used the Ferret and later, Fox scout cars.
United States Army M1127 Reconnaissance Vehicle
The U.S. and UK experimented with the Future Scout and Cavalry System (FSCS) and Tactical Reconnaissance Armoured Combat Equipment Requirement (TRACER) programs in the 2000s aimed at creating a stealth reconnaissance vehicle capable of C-130 airlift.* [2] Prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi Army placed an emphasis on the use of light wheeled vehicles for reconnaissance, particularly Soviet-manufactured BRDM2 and French-designed Panhard AML armoured cars. Each corps had an attached BRDM or AML battalion. These were allocated by division; every brigade headquarters and regular infantry battalion received a platoon of six. The Iraqis did not make competent use of these assets during the Gulf War, opting to depend on signals intelligence against the comparatively sophisticated Coalition.* [3]
A reconnaissance vehicle, also known as a scout vehicle, is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance. Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in service. In some nations, light tanks such as the M551 Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons. Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low profile or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament ranges from a medium machine gun to a large cannon. Modern examples are often fitted with ATGMs and a South African expeditionary forces in Angola also emwide range of sensors. ployed wheeled reconnaissance vehicles for their strategic Some armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility and tactical mobility, sometimes engaging Angolan units vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage up to brigade strength. Scout cars such as the Eland Mk7 were used to lure hostile T-34s or T-54/55s into prepared Commando double in the reconnaissance role. ambushes, where they were destroyed by heavier vehicles, ATGMs, and artillery.* [4]
37.3 Role 37.1 Design
Reconnaissance of enemy positions can involve firing upon the enemy in hopes of receiving return fire that gives away the enemy's position. This can make the reconnaissance vehicle vulnerable to return fire that may destroy the vehicle before the enemy's position can be relayed.* [5]
Smaller caliber weapons help reduce the vehicle's profile and noise signatures.* [1] In contrast, French doctrine was to fit reconnaissance vehicles, such as the EBR and the AMX 10 RC, with the heaviest weaponry possible on their light chassis, so as to allow them a further role for Dismounted operations by armed scouts include observation post manning, reconnaissance of areas defence of the flanks. 271
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CHAPTER 37. RECONNAISSANCE VEHICLE
not traversable by vehicle, and marking enemy mine fields.* [6] CBRN reconnaissance vehicles can also detect weapons of mass destruction. They accompany regular reconnaissance vehicles and are fully protected against airborne threats.* [7]
37.4 List of contemporary reconnaissance vehicles Argentine ERC-90 on parade.
Variants of the Soviet BRDM series remain in service with many countries.
•
EE-3 Jararaca
•
EE-9 Cascavel
•
Eland
•
ERC 90 Sagaie
•
/
•
Ferret
•
Fox
•
FV101 Scorpion
•
FV102 Striker
•
FV107 Scimitar
•
Gagamba
•
Komatsu
•
Lynx
•
M1127
• Zimbabwean Eland.
Fennek
Mowag Spy
•
Otokar Cobra
•
Panhard AML
•
Alvis Saladin
•
RBY MK 1
•
AMX-10 RC
•
RG-35 4x4 RPU* [8]
•
ASLAV
•
Rooikat
•
BRDM-1
•
Schützenpanzer SPz 11-2 Kurz
•
BRDM-2
•
Spähpanzer Luchs
•
Coyote
•
Namco Tiger
•
D-442 FÚG
•
VEC-M1
•
Dozor-B
•
VBC-90
37.5. REFERENCES
•
Véhicule Blindé Léger
•
Wiesel
•
XAV
37.5 References [1]“return fire” [2] Bill Yenne (2006). Secret Gadgets and Strange Gizmos: High-Tech (and Low-Tech) Innovations of the U.S. Military. Zenith Imprint. p. 97. Retrieved 22 May 2011. [3] Bourque, Stephen. Jayhawk!: The VII Corps in the Persian Gulf War (2003 ed.). Diane Publishing Company. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-0756728632. [4] Mobile firepower for contingency operations: Emerging concepts for US light armour forces [5] Groman, Jeff (1985). Weapons of war. Multimedia Publications (UK). p. 128. ISBN 978-1-85106-031-3. Retrieved 22 May 2011. [6] Michael Green, Greg Stewart (2004). Weapons of the Modern Marines. Zenith Imprint. ISBN 0-7603-1697-X. Retrieved 22 May 2011. [7] U.S. Army (December 2010). “Stryker Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Reconnaissance Vehicle (NBCRV)". p. 93. Retrieved 22 May 2011. [8] http://defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option= com_content&view=article&id=15327: baes-reveals-rg35-rpu-variant&catid=50:Land& Itemid=105
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Chapter 38
Rifle This article is about the long gun. For other uses, see lets (as opposed to the spherical balls used in muskets) Rifle (disambiguation). and thus improves range and accuracy. The word“rifle” originally referred to the grooving, and a rifle was called a “rifled gun.”Rifles are used in warfare, hunting and shooting sports. Typically, a bullet is propelled by the contained deflagration of an explosive compound (originally black powder, later cordite, and now nitrocellulose), although other means such as compressed air are used in air rifles, which are popular for vermin control, hunting small game, formal target shooting and casual shooting ("plinking"). In most armed forces the term “gun”is incorrect when referring to small arms; in military parlance, the word “gun”refers to an artillery piece or crew-served machine gun. Furthermore, in many works of fiction a rifle refers to any weapon that has a stock and is shouldered before firing, even if the weapon is not rifled or does not fire solid projectiles (e.g. a “laser rifle”).
Top: Baker rifle, a 19th-century flintlock rifle Second: M1903 Springfield, an early 20th-century bolt-action rifle Third: АК−47, a mid-20th-century gas-operated, magazine-fed automatic rifle Fourth: AR-15, a mid 20th-century magazine-fed, semi-automatic rifle A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves ("rifling") cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called“lands,”which make contact with the projectile (for small arms usage, called a bullet), imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the orientation of the weapon. When the projectile leaves the barrel, this spin lends gyroscopic stability to the projectile and prevents tumbling, in the same way that a properly thrown American football or rugby ball behaves. This allows the use of aerodynamically-efficient pointed bul-
Formerly, rifles only fired a single projectile with each squeeze of the trigger. Modern rifles are capable of firing more than one round per trigger squeeze; some fire in a fully automatic mode and others are limited to fixed bursts of two, three, or more rounds per squeeze. Thus, modern automatic rifles overlap to some extent in design and function with machine guns. In fact, many light machine guns (such as the Russian RPK) are adaptations of existing automatic rifle designs. A military's light machine guns are typically chambered for the same caliber ammunition as its service rifles. Generally, the difference between an automatic rifle and a machine gun comes down to weight, cooling system, and ammunition feed system. Rifles, with their relatively lighter components (which overheat quickly) and smaller capacity magazines, are incapable of sustained automatic fire in the way that machine guns are; they trade this capability in favor of increased mobility. Modern military rifles are fed by box magazines, while machine guns are generally beltfed. Many machine guns allow the operator to quickly exchange barrels in order to prevent overheating, whereas rifles generally do not. Most machine guns fire from an open bolt in order to reduce the danger of “cook-off”, while almost all rifles fire from a closed bolt for superior accuracy. Machine guns are often crewed by more than
274
38.1. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
275
one soldier; the rifle is an individual weapon. The term “rifle”is sometimes used to describe larger crew-served rifled weapons firing explosive shells, for example, recoilless rifles.
38.1 Historical overview
Rifling in a .35 Remington microgroove rifled barrel
The origins of rifling are difficult to trace, but some of the earliest practical experiments seem to have occurred in Europe during the 15th century. Archers had long realized that a twist added to the tail feathers of their arrows gave them greater accuracy. Early muskets produced large quantities of smoke and soot, which had to be cleaned from the action and bore of the musket frequently, either through the action of repeated bore scrubbing, or a deliberate attempt to create“soot grooves”that would allow for more shots to be fired from the firearm. This might also have led to a perceived increase in accuracy, although no one knows for sure. True rifling dates from the mid-15th century, although military commanders preferred smooth bore weapons for infantry use because rifles were much more prone to problems due to powder fouling the barrel.
Girdled bullet and twin rifle groove of the Brunswick rifle, mid19th century
Rifles were created as an improvement in the accuracy of smooth bore muskets. In the early 18th century, Benjamin Robins, an English mathematician, realized that an elongated bullet would retain the momentum and kinetic energy of a musket ball, but would slice through the air with greater ease.* [1] The black powder used in early muzzle-loading rifles quickly fouled the barrel, making loading slower and more difficult. Their greater range was also considered to be of little practical use, since the smoke from black powder quickly obscured the battlefield and made it almost impossible to target the enemy from a distance. Since musketeers could not afford to take the time to stop and clean their barrels in the mid-
The performance of early muskets was effective for the styles of warfare at the time, whereby soldiers tended to stand in long, stationary lines and fire at the opposing forces. Precise aiming and accuracy were not necessary to hit an opponent. Muskets were used for comparatively rapid, imprecisely aimed volley fire, and the average soldier could be easily trained to use them. The (muzzleloaded) rifle was originally a sharpshooter's weapon used for targets of opportunity and deliberately aimed fire, first gaining notoriety in warfare during the Seven Years' War and American War for Independence through their use by American frontiersmen. Later during the Napoleonic Wars, the British 95th Regiment (Green Jackets) and
dle of a battle, rifles were limited to use by sharpshooters and non-military uses like hunting. Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily from the muzzle, the musket ball was a loose fit in the barrel. Consequently on firing the ball bounced off the sides of the barrel when fired and the final direction on leaving the muzzle was unpredictable. Muskets had to be long so the muzzles of the rear rankʼs muskets projected well forward of the faces of the front rank.
276 60th Regiment, (Royal American), as well as American sharpshooters and riflemen during the War of 1812, used the rifle to great effect during skirmishing. Because of a slower loading time than a musket, they were not adopted by the whole army. Since rifles were used by sharpshooters who didn't routinely fire over other menʼs shoulders, long length was not required to avoid the forward line. A shorter length made a handier weapon in which tightfitting balls did not have to be rammed so far down the barrel. The invention of the minie balls in the 1840s solved the slow loading problem, and in the 1850s and 1860s rifles quickly replaced muskets on the battlefield. Many rifles, often referred to as rifled muskets, were very similar to the muskets they replaced, but the military also experimented with other designs. Breech-loading weapons proved to have a much faster rate of fire than muzzleloaders, causing military forces to abandon muzzle loaders in favor of breech-loading designs in the late 1860s. In the later part of the 19th century, rifles were generally single-shot, breech-loading ̶designed for aimed, discretionary fire by individual soldiers. Then, as now, rifles had a stock, either fixed or folding, to be braced against the shoulder when firing. The adoption of cartridges and breech-loading in the 19th century was concurrent with the general adoption of rifles. In the early part of the 20th century, soldiers were trained to shoot accurately over long ranges with high-powered cartridges. World War I Lee-Enfield rifles (among others) were equipped with long-range 'volley sights' for massed firing at ranges of up to 1.6 km (1 mi). Individual shots were unlikely to hit, but a platoon firing repeatedly could produce a 'beaten ground' effect similar to light artillery or machine guns; but experience in World War I showed that long-range fire was best left to the machine gun.
CHAPTER 38. RIFLE Jean Lepage and named for the First Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, circa 1800; (right) rifling of the Lepage carbine. During the Napoleonic Wars the British army created several experimental units known as“Rifles”, armed with the Baker rifle. These Rifle Regiments were deployed as skirmishers during the Peninsular war in Spain and Portugal, and were more effective than skirmishers armed with muskets due to their accuracy and long range.
38.2.1 Muzzle-loading Main article: Muzzle-loading rifle Gradually, rifles appeared with cylindrical barrels cut with helical grooves, the surfaces between the grooves being “lands”. The innovation shortly preceded the mass adoption of breech-loading weapons, as it was not practical to push an overbore bullet down through a rifled barrel, only to then (try to) fire it back out. The dirt and grime from prior shots was pushed down ahead of a tight bullet or ball (which may have been a loose fit in the clean barrel before the first shot), and, of course, loading was far more difficult, as the lead had to be deformed to go down in the first place, reducing the accuracy due to deformation. Several systems were tried to deal with the problem, usually by resorting to an under-bore bullet that expanded upon firing.
Currently, rifles are the most common firearm in general use for hunting purposes (with the exception of bird hunting where shotguns are favored). Rifles derived from mil- The method developed by Delvigne for his rifles, with the lead itary designs have long been popular with civilian shoot- bullet being supported by a wooden sabot at its base. ers. The original muzzle-loading rifle, with a closely fitting ball to take the rifling grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particularly when foul, and for this reason was not gener38.2 19th century ally used for military purposes. Even with the advent of rifling the bullet itself didn't change, but was wrapped in a greased, cloth patch to grip the rifling grooves. The first half of the 19th century saw a distinct change in the shape and function of the bullet. In 1826 Delvigne, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which a spherical bullet was rammed down until it caught the rifling grooves. Delvigne's method, however, deformed the bullet and was inaccurate. Soon after, the Carabine à tige was invented by LouisEtienne de Thouvenin, which provided for a stem at the bottom at the barrel that would deform and expand the base of the bullet when rammed, therefore enabling ac(left)“Premier Consul”model flintlock carbine made by curate contact with the rifling. However, the area around
38.2. 19TH CENTURY the stem would clog and get dirty easily.
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38.2.2 Breech loading Main article: Breech-loading weapon From 1836, breech-loading rifles were introduced with
Minié system - The “Rifled Musket” Main articles: Minié ball and Minié rifle One of the most famous was the Minié system, invented
Loading mechanism of the Chassepot
French-made Minié rifle used in Japan during the Boshin war (1868–1869).
by French Army Captain Claude-Étienne Minié, which relied on a conical bullet (known as a Minié ball) with a hollow skirt at the base of the bullet. When fired, the skirt would expand from the pressure of the exploding charge and grip the rifling as the round was fired. The better seal gave more power, as less gas escaped past the bullet, which combined with the fact that for the same bore (caliber) diameter a long bullet was heavier than a round ball. The extra grip also spun the bullet more consistently, which increased the range from about 50 yards for a smooth bore musket to about 300 yards for a rifle using the Minié system. The expanding skirt of the Minié ball also solved the problem that earlier tight fitting bullets were difficult to load as black powder residue fouled the inside of the barrel. The Minié system allowed conical bullets to be loaded into rifles just as quickly as round balls in smooth bores, which allowed rifle muskets to replace muskets on the battlefield. Minié system rifles, notably the U.S. Springfield and the British Enfield of the early 1860s, featured prominently in the U.S. Civil War, due to their enhanced power and accuracy. Over the 19th century, bullet design also evolved, the bullets becoming gradually smaller and lighter. By 1910 the standard blunt-nosed bullet had been replaced with the pointed, 'spitzer' bullet, an innovation that increased range and penetration. Cartridge design evolved from simple paper tubes containing black powder and shot, to sealed brass cases with integral primers for ignition, while black powder itself was replaced with cordite, and then other nitro-cellulose-based smokeless powder mixtures, propelling bullets to higher velocities than before.* [2] The increased velocity meant that new problems arrived, and so bullets went from being soft lead to harder lead, then to copper-jacketed, in order to better engage the spiraled grooves without“stripping”them in the same way that a screw or bolt thread would be stripped if subjected to extreme forces.
the German Dreyse Needle gun, and followed by the French Tabatière in 1857 the British Calisher and Terry carbine made in Birmingham and later in 1864 and the more well known British Snider-Enfield. Primitive chamber-locking mechanisms were soon replaced by bolt-action mechanisms, exemplified by the Chassepot in 1866. Breech loading was to have a major impact on warfare, as breech-loading rifles can be fired at a rate many times higher than muzzle loaded rifles and significantly can be loaded from a prone rather than standing position. Firing prone (i.e., lying down) is more accurate than firing from a standing position, while a prone rifleman presents a much smaller target than a standing soldier. The higher accuracy and range, combined with reduced vulnerability generally benefited the defense while making the traditional battle between lines of standing and volleying infantry men obsolete.
38.2.3 Revolving Rifle Main article: Revolver § History Revolving rifles were an attempt to increase the rate of fire of rifles by combining them with the revolving firing mechanism that had been developed earlier for revolving pistols. Colt began experimenting with revolving rifles in the early 19th century, and other manufacturers like Remington later experimented with them as well. The Colt Revolving Rifle Model 1855 was an early repeating rifle and the first one to be used by the U.S. Government, and saw some limited action during the American Civil War. Revolvers, both rifles and pistols, tend to spray fragments of metal from the front of the cylinder. This is not a problem for pistols, since both of the shooter's hands are behind the cylinder. A rifleman needs to have one hand in front of the cylinder to balance the weapon, and as a result, would end up with shards of metal sprayed at high velocity into his forearm. Cap and ball type revolvers were also prone to chain fire, which again was more of a problem for rifles since the rifleman's arm was in front of the cylinder. These undesirable characteristics severely limited the revolving rifle's popularity.
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38.2.4
CHAPTER 38. RIFLE
Cartridge storage
An important area of development was the way that cartridges were stored and used in the weapon. The Spencer repeating rifle was a breech-loading manually operated lever action rifle that was adopted by the United States. Over 20,000 were used during the American Civil War. It marked the first adoption of a removable magazine-fed infantry rifle by any country. The design was completed by Christopher Spencer in 1860. It used copper rimfire cartridges stored in a removable seven round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be fired one after another. When the magazine was empty, it could be exchanged for another.
During and after World War II it became accepted that most infantry engagements occur at ranges of less than 300 m; the range and power of the large battle rifles was “overkill"; and the weapons were heavier than the ideal. This led to Germany's development of the 7.92 x 33 mm Kurz (short) round, the MKb-42, and ultimately, the assault rifle. Today, an infantryman's rifle is optimized for ranges of 300 m or less, and soldiers are trained to deliver individual rounds or bursts of fire within these distances. Typically, the application of accurate, long-range fire is the domain of the marksman and the sniper in warfare, and of enthusiastic target shooters in peacetime. The modern marksman rifle and sniper rifle are usually capable of accuracy better than 0.3 mrad at 100 yards (1 arcminute).
38.3 20th Century
Blaser R8 Professional
Czechoslovak rifle vz. 24
By contrast, civilian rifle design has not significantly advanced since the early part of the 20th century. Modern hunting rifles have fiberglass and carbon fiber stocks and more advanced recoil pads, but are fundamentally the same as infantry rifles from 1910. Many modern sniper rifles can trace their ancestry back for well over a century, and the Russian 7.62x54mm rimmed cartridge, as used in the front-line Dragunov Sniper Rifle (SVD), dates from 1891.
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was the first modern war of the 20th century. Military observers from Great Britain, Germany, France, and the United States witnessed first hand the first major conflict fought with high velocity bolt action rifles firing smokeless powder on a massive scale.* [3]* :179,229,230* [4]* :104,105 The Battle of Mukden fought in 1905 consisted of nearly 343,000 Russian troops against over 281,000 Japanese troops. The Russian Mosin-Nagant Model 1891 in 38.4 3D printed rifle 7.62mm was pitted against the Japanese Arisaka Type 30 bolt action rifle in 6.5mm,* [4]* :104,105,155 each had velocities well over the 19th century black pow- Main article: Grizzly (.22-caliber rifle) der velocities of under 2,000 feet per second (610 m/s).* [4]* :187* [5]* :28,29 The Grizzly is a 3D printed .22-caliber rifle created * Until the early 20th century rifles tended to be very long; around August 2013. [6] It* was created using a Stratasys an 1890 Martini-Henry was almost 2 m (6 ft) in length Dimension 1200es printer. [7] It was created by a Canawith a fixed bayonet. The demand for more compact dian only known by the pseudo name “Matthew”who main weapons for cavalrymen led to the carbine, or shortened told the The Verge that he is in his late 20s, and his * * [7] [8] job is making tools for the construction industry. rifle. The advent of massed, rapid firepower of the machine gun, submachine gun and the rifled artillery piece was so quick as to outstrip the development of any way to attack a trench defended by riflemen and machine gunners. The carnage of World War I was perhaps the greatest vindication and vilification of the rifle as a military weapon.
The original Grizzly fired 1 shot then broke.* [7] Grizzly 2.0 fired 14 bullets before getting damaged due to the strain.* [8] According to the Daily Mail, the Grizzly 2.0 performed so well that the inventor“Matthew”was able to put it to his shoulder and shot off three rounds with the rifle pressed against his cheek without hurting him.* [6]
38.5 Youth rifle
Modern hunting rifle
A youth rifle is a rifle designed or modified for fitting children, or small-framed shooters. A youth rifle is often a single shot .22 caliber rifle, or a bolt action rifle, although
38.6. TECHNICAL ASPECTS some youth rifles are semi-automatic. They are usually very light, with a greatly shortened length of pull, which is necessary to accommodate children. Youth stocks are available for many popular rifles, such as the Ruger 10/22, a semi-automatic .22 LR rifle, allowing a youth rifle to be made from a standard rifle by simply changing the stock. The typical ages of shooters for such rifles vary from about age 5 to 11 years old.
38.6 Technical aspects 38.6.1
Rifling
Main article: Rifling The usual form of rifling was helical grooves in a round bore. Some early rifled guns had barrels with a twisted polygonal bore. The Whitworth rifle was the first such type designed to spin the round for accuracy. Bullets for these guns were made to match the shape of the bore so the bullet would grip the rifle bore and take a spin that way. These were generally large caliber weapons and the ammunition still did not fit tightly in the barrel. Many different shapes and degrees of spiraling were used in experimental designs. One widely produced example was the Metford rifling in the Pattern 1888 Lee-Metford service rifle. Although uncommon, polygonal rifling is still used in some weapons today, with one example being the Glock line of pistols (which fire standard bullets). Unfortunately, many of these early designs were prone to dangerous backfiring, which could lead to destruction of the weapon and serious injury to the person firing it.
38.6.2
Barrel wear
279 some machine-guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern stainless steel barrels for target rifles are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be fired before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small arms have chrome-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on rifles designed for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is difficult and liable to reduce the effect of the rifling.) Modern ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and nickel - cupro-nickel. Some ammunition is even coated with molybdenum disulfide to further reduce internal friction - the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.
38.6.3 Rate of fire Main article: Rate of fire Rifles were initially single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons. During the 18th century, breech-loading weapons were designed, which allowed the rifleman to reload while under cover, but defects in manufacturing and the difficulty in forming a reliable gas-tight seal prevented widespread adoption. During the 19th century, multi-shot repeating rifles using lever, pump or linear bolt actions became standard, further increasing the rate of fire and minimizing the fuss involved in loading a firearm. The problem of proper seal creation had been solved with the use of brass cartridge cases, which expanded in an elastic fashion at the point of firing and effectively sealed the breech while the pressure remained high, then relaxed back enough to allow for easy removal. By the end of the 19th century, the leading bolt-action design was that of Paul Mauser, whose action̶wedded to a reliable design possessing a five-shot magazine ̶became a world standard through two world wars and beyond. The Mauser rifle was paralleled by Britain's ten-shot Lee-Enfield and America's 1903 Springfield Rifle models (the latter pictured above). The American M1903 closely copied Mauser's original design.
38.6.4 Range
Benchrest shooting with a Mauser rifle
Barrel rifling dramatically increased the range and accuracy of the musket. Indeed, throughout its development, the rifle's history has been marked by increases in range and accuracy. From the Minié rifle and beyond, the rifle has become ever more potent at long range strikes.
In recent decades, large-caliber anti-materiel rifles, typAs the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the ri- ically firing between 12.7 mm and 20 mm caliber carfling, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and tridges, have been developed. The US Barrett M82A1 is also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, probably the best-known such rifle. These weapons are
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typically used to strike critical, vulnerable targets such as computerized command and control vehicles, radio trucks, radar antennae, vehicle engine blocks and the jet engines of enemy aircraft. Anti-materiel rifles can be used against human targets, but the much higher weight of rifle and ammunition, and the massive recoil and muzzle blast, usually make them less than practical for such use. The Barrett M82 is credited with a maximum effective range of 1,800 m (1.1 mi); and it was with a .50BMG caliber McMillan TAC-50 rifle that Canadian Master Corporal Rob Furlong made the longest recorded (until 2010) confirmed sniper kill in history, when he shot a Taliban fighter at a range of 2,430 m (1.51 mi) in Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda in 2002.* [9]
fired through a rifle's barrel. Armies have consistently attempted to find and procure the most lethal and accurate caliber for their firearms.
Since then a British Army sniper beat the Canadian's record by 150 ft (46 m), by killing two Taliban insurgents at a range of 8,120 ft (2,470 m). He was using a standard issue British Army sniper rifle, the L115A3.* [10]
An exception was the Italian Modello 91 rifle, that used the 6.5×52mm Mannlicher-Carcano cartridge.
The standard calibers used by the world's militaries tend to follow worldwide trends. These trends have significantly changed during the centuries of firearm design and re-design. Muskets were normally chambered for large calibers, such as .50 or .59, with the theory that these large bullets caused the most damage. During World War I and II, most rifles were chambered in .30 caliber, a combination of power and speed. Examples would be the .303 British Lee-Enfield, the American M1903 .30-06, and the German 8mm Mauser K98.
• MV / twist rate = rotational speed
Detailed study of infantry combat during and after WWII revealed that most small-arms engagements occurred within 100 meters, meaning that the power and range of the traditional .30-caliber weapons (designed for engagements at 500 meters and beyond) was essentially wasted. The single greatest predictor of an individual soldier's combat effectiveness was the number of rounds he fired. Weapons designers and strategists realized that service rifles firing smaller-caliber projectiles would allow troops to carry far more ammunition for the same weight. The lower recoil and more generous magazine capacities of small-caliber weapons also allows troops a much greater volume of fire, compared to historical battle rifles. Smaller, faster traveling, less stable projectiles have also demonstrated greater terminal ballistics and therein, a greater lethality than traditional .30caliber rounds. Most modern service rifles fire a projectile of approximately 5.56mm. Examples of firearms in this range are the American 5.56 mm M16 and the Russian 5.45×39mm AK-74.
• MV (in fps) x (12 in. /twist rate) x 60 s/min. = Bullet RPM
38.6.7 Types of rifle
38.6.5
Bullet Rotational Speed (RPM)
Bullets leaving a rifled barrel can spin at a rotational speed of over 100,000 revolutions per minute (rpm, or 1.67 kilohertz) depending on the muzzle velocity of the bullet and the pitch of the rifling. The rotational speed of the bullet can be calculated by using the formula below. The formula divides the number of inches in a foot (12) by the rate of twist that the barrel has. This number is multiplied by the muzzle velocity (MV) and the number of seconds in a minute (60). For example, a bullet with a muzzle velocity of 3,000 feet per second (910 m/s) leaving a barrel that twists once per foot (1/12”) would rotate at 180,000rpm.* [11]
Example using a barrel that has a twist rate of 1 turn in 8”with a muzzle velocity of 3000 ft/s: • 3000 fps x (12"/(8"/rotation)) x 60 s/min. = 270,000 RPM Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits and the inadequate centripetal force will fail to keep the bullet from disintegrating in a radial fashion.* [12]
38.6.6
Caliber
Rifles may be chambered in a variety of calibers, from as low as .17 (4.4mm) varmint calibers to as high as .80 caliber in the case of the largest anti tank rifles. The term caliber essentially refers to the width of the bullet
38.7 See also 38.8 References [1] “The How and Why of Long Shots and Straight Shots”. Cornhill Magazine. April 1860. Archived from the original on November 4, 2010. [2] “Rifled Breech Loader”. globalsecurity.org. [3] Keegan, John (1999). The First World War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40052-4. [4] Menning, Bruce W. (1992). Bayonets Before Bullets; The Imperial Russian Army, 1861-1914. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-33745-3. [5] Honeycutt, Fred L.; Anthony, F. Patt (2006). Military Rifles of Japan (Fifth ed.). Monticello, Iowa: Julin. ISBN
38.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
0-9623208-7-0. [6] 3D printed plastic rifle successfully fires 14 rounds - as gun advocates predict it will force changes in the law, DailyMail, 9 August 2013. (archive) [7] First 3-D printed rifle fires bullet, then breaks, NBC News, 26 July 2013. (archive) [8] World's first 3D-printed rifle gets update, fires 14 shots, The Verge, 4 August 2013.(archive) [9] Friscolanti, Michael (2006-05-15). “We were abandoned”. Maclean's (Rogers Publishing): p18–25. [10] Drury, Ian (2 May 2010). “The super sniper: Hero picks off two Taliban from a mile and a half away”. Mail Online (London). Retrieved 26 August 2010. [11] “Calculating Bullet RPM ̶Spin Rates and Stability”. AccurateShooter.com. Retrieved 26 August 2010. [12] “Topic of the Month: July 2001 - Twist Rate”. Load From A Disk. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
38.9 External links • Friedrich Engels,“On Rifled Cannon”, articles from the New York Tribune, April, May and June, 1860, reprinted in Military Affairs 21, no. 4 (Winter 1957) ed. Morton Borden, 193-198.
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Chapter 39
Shotgun This article is about the type of gun. For other uses, see American forces used 12-gauge pump action shotguns in Shotgun (disambiguation). close-quarters trench fighting to great effect. Since then, it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications. The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon leaving the barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets, which means that the energy of any one ball of shot is fairly low. In a hunting context, this makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds and other small game. However, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or a defensive weapon. Shotguns are also used for target shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons, thrown in various ways. A pump-action Remington 870, two semi-automatic Remington 1100 shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three boxes of clay pigeons
A shotgun (also known as a scattergun and peppergun,* [1] or historically as a fowling piece) is a firearm that is usually designed to be fired from the shoulder, which uses the energy of a fixed shell to fire a number of small spherical pellets called shot, or a solid projectile called a slug. Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes, ranging from 5.5 mm (.22 inch) bore up to 5 cm (2.0 in) bore, and in a range of firearm operating mechanisms, including breech loading, single-barreled, double or combination gun, pump-action, bolt-, and lever-action, semi-automatic, and even fully automatic variants.
39.1 Characteristics Shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type of firearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a shotgun unique center around the requirements of firing shot. These features are the features typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide cartridge, with straight walls, and operating at a relatively low pressure.
Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as shotgun shells, shotshells, or just shells (when it is not likely to be confused with artillery shells). The term A shotgun is generally a smoothbore firearm, which cartridges is standard usage in the United Kingdom. means that the inside of the barrel is not rifled. PreThe shot is usually fired from a smoothbore barrel; anceding smoothbore firearms, such as the musket, were other configuration is the rifled slug barrel, which fires widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct more accurate solitary projectiles. ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was also used in a similar variety of roles from self defence to riot control. It was often used by cavalry troops due to its generally shorter length and ease of use, as well as by 39.2 Uses coachmen for its substantial power. However, in the 19th century, these weapons were largely replaced on the bat- The typical use of a shotgun is against small and fast movtlefield with breechloading rifled firearms, which were ing targets, often while in the air. The spreading of the more accurate over longer ranges. The military value of shot allows the user to point the shotgun close to the tarshotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, when get, rather than having to aim precisely as in the case of 282
39.2. USES
283
Series of individual 1/1,000,000 second exposures showing shotgun firing shot and wadding separation
a single projectile. The disadvantages of shot are limited range and limited penetration of the shot, which is why shotguns are used at short ranges, and typically against Vincent Hancock in the men's skeet finals at the 2008 Summer smaller targets. Larger shot sizes, up to the extreme case Olympics of the single projectile slug load, result in increased penetration, but at the expense of fewer projectiles and lower improves accuracy to 100 m (110 yd) or more. This is probability of hitting the target. well within the range of the majority of kill shots by exAside from the most common use against small, fast movperienced hunters using shotguns. ing targets, the shotgun has several advantages when used against still targets. First, it has enormous stopping power However, given the relatively low muzzle velocity of slug at short range, more than nearly all handguns and many ri- ammunition, typically around 500 m/s (about 1600 feet fles. Though many believe the shotgun is a great firearm per second), and the blunt, poorly streamlined shape of for inexperienced shooters, the truth is, at close range, typical slugs (which cause them to lose velocity very the spread of shot is not very large at all, and compe- rapidly, compared to rifle bullets), a hunter must pay close tency in aiming is still required. A typical self-defense attention to the ballistics of the particular ammunition load of buckshot contains 8-27 large lead pellets, result- used to ensure an effective and humane kill shot. ing in many wound tracks in the target. Also, unlike a At any reasonable range, shotgun slugs make effective fully jacketed rifle bullet, each pellet of shot is less likely lethal wounds due to their tremendous mass, reducing the to penetrate walls and hit bystanders.* [2] It is favored by length of time that an animal might suffer. For example, a law enforcement for its low penetration and high stopping typical 12 gauge shotgun slug is a blunt piece of metal that power. could be described as an 18 mm (.729 inch) caliber that On the other hand, the hit potential of a defensive shotgun is often overstated. The typical defensive shot is taken at very close ranges, at which the shot charge expands no more than a few centimeters.* [2] This means the shotgun must still be aimed at the target with some care. Balancing this is the fact that shot spreads further upon entering the target, and the multiple wound channels of a defensive load are far more likely to produce a disabling wound than a rifle or handgun.* [3]
39.2.1
Sporting
Some of the most common uses of shotguns are the sports of skeet shooting, trap shooting, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay discs, also known as clay pigeons, thrown in by hand and by machine. Both skeet and trap competitions are featured at the Olympic Games.
weighs 28 grams (432 grains). For comparison, a common deer-hunting rifle round is a 7.62 mm (.308 inch) slug weighing 9.7 grams (150 grains), but the dynamics of the rifle cartridge allow for a different type of wound, and a much further reach. Shotguns are often used with rifled barrels in locations where it is not lawful to hunt with a rifle. Typically, a sabot slug is used in these barrels for maximum accuracy and performance. Shotguns are often used to hunt whitetail deer in the thick brush and briers of the Southeastern and upper Midwestern United States, where, due to the dense cover, ranges tend to be close - 25m or less. Sabot slugs are essentially very large hollowpoint bullets, and are streamlined for maximum spin and accuracy when shot through a rifled barrel. They have greater ranges than older Foster and Brenneke-type slugs.
39.2.3 Law enforcement 39.2.2
Hunting
The shotgun is popular for bird hunting, it is also used for more general forms of hunting especially in semipopulated areas where the range of rifle bullets may pose a hazard. Use of a smooth bore shotgun with a rifled slug or, alternatively, a rifled barrel shotgun with a sabot slug,
In the US and Canada, shotguns are widely used as a support weapon by police forces. One of the rationales for issuing shotguns is that, even without much training, an officer will probably be able to hit targets at close to intermediate range, due to the“spreading”effect of buckshot. This is largely a myth, as the spread of buckshot at
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CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN combat environments. Some U.S. units in Iraq use shotguns with special frangible breaching rounds to blow the locks off doors when they are making a surprise entry into a dwelling.
39.2.5 Home and personal defense Shotguns are a popular means of home defense for many of the same reasons they are preferred for close-quarters tasks in law enforcement and the military.
39.3 Design features for various uses Compared to handguns, shotguns are heavier, larger, and not as maneuverable in close quarters (which also presents a greater retention problem), but do have these advantages: • They are generally much more powerful. A Gurkha Contingent trooper in Singapore armed with a folding stock pump shotgun
• The average shooter can engage multiple targets faster than with a handgun. • They are generally perceived as more intimidating.
25 feet averages 8 inches, which is still very capable of missing a target. Some police forces are replacing shotguns in this role with carbine rifles such as AR-15s. Shotguns are also used in roadblock situations, where police are blocking a highway to search cars for suspects. In the US, law enforcement agencies often use riot shotguns, especially for crowd and riot control where they may be loaded with less-lethal rounds such as rubber bullets or bean bags. Shotguns are also often used as breaching devices to defeat locks.
39.2.4
Military
See also: Combat shotgun Shotguns are common weapons in military use, particularly for special purposes. Shotguns are found aboard naval vessels for shipboard security, because the weapon is very effective at close range as a way of repelling enemy boarding parties. In a naval setting, stainless steel shotguns are often used, because regular steel is more prone to corrosion in the marine environment. Shotguns are also used by military police units. U.S. Marines have used shotguns since their inception at the squad level, often in the hands of NCOs, while the U.S. Army often issued them to a squad's point man. Shotguns were modified for and used in the trench warfare of WWI, in the jungle combat of WWII and Vietnam and are being used today in Iraq, being popular with soldiers and marines in urban
• On average, a quality pump-action shotgun is generally less expensive than a quality handgun (selfloading shotguns are generally more expensive than their pump-action counterparts). • When loaded with smaller shot, a shotgun will not penetrate walls as readily as rifle and pistol rounds, making it safer for non-combatants when fired in or around populated structures. This comes at a price, however, as smaller shot may not penetrate deeply enough to cause an immediately incapacitating wound; those who recommend birdshot for minimizing wall penetration also suggest backing it up with a larger buckshot if the first shot fails to stop the threat.* [4]
39.4 Types The wide range of forms the shotgun can take leads to some significant differences between what is technically a shotgun and what is legally considered a shotgun. A fairly broad attempt to define a shotgun is made in the United States Code (18 USC 921), which defines the shotgun as “a weapon designed or redesigned, made or remade, and intended to be fired from the shoulder, and designed or redesigned and made or remade to use the energy of the explosive in a fixed shotgun shell to fire through a smooth bore either a number of ball shot or a single projectile for each single pull of the trigger.”
39.5. HISTORY
285 for civilian ownership in some jurisdictions. Coach guns are also more commonly associated with the American Old West or Australian Colonial period, and often used for hunting in bush, scrub, or marshland where a longer barrel would be unwieldy or impractical.
A U.S. Marine fires a Benelli M4 shotgun during training in Arta, Djibouti, December 23, 2006.
A rifled slug, with finned rifling designed to enable the projectile to be safely fired through a choked barrel, is an example of a single projectile. Some shotguns have rifled barrels and are designed to be used with a "saboted" bullet, one which is typically encased in a two-piece plastic ring (sabot) designed to peel away after it exits the barrel, leaving the bullet, now spinning after passing through the rifled barrel, to continue toward the target. These shotguns, although they have rifled barrels, still use a shotgunstyle shell instead of a rifle cartridge and may in fact still fire regular multipellet shotgun shells, but the rifling in the barrel will affect the shot pattern. The use of a rifled barrel blurs the distinction between rifle and shotgun, and in fact the early rifled shotgun barrels went by the name Paradox for just that reason. Hunting laws may differentiate between smooth barreled and rifled barreled guns. Riot gun has long been a synonym for a shotgun, especially a short-barrelled shotgun. During the 19th and early 20th century, these were used to disperse rioters and revolutionaries. The wide spray of the shot ensured a large group would be hit, but the light shot would ensure more wounds than fatalities. When the ground was paved, police officers would often ricochet the shot off the ground, slowing down the shot and spreading pattern even further. To this day specialized police and defensive shotguns are called riot shotguns. The introduction of rubber bullets and bean bag rounds ended the practice of using shot for the most part, but riot shotguns are still used to fire a variety of less lethal rounds for riot control.
A backpacker shotgun has a short barrel and either a full-size stock or pistol grip, depending on legislation in intended markets. The overall length of these weapons is frequently less than 90 cm (35 in), with some measuring up at less than 63 cm (25 in). These weapons are typically break-action .410“gauge”(caliber), single-barrel designs with no magazine and no automatic ejection capability. They typically employ a cylinder bore and sometimes are available in modified choke as well. Backpacker shotguns are popular for “home defense” purposes and as “survival”weapons. Other examples include a variety of .410 / rifle“survival”guns manufactured in over/under designs. In the drilling arrangement, a rimfire or centrefire rifle barrel is located beneath the barrel of a .410 gauge shotgun. Generally, there is one manually cocked external hammer and an external selection lever to select which caliber of cartridge to fire. A notable example is the Springfield Armory M6 Scout, a .410 / .22 issued to United States Air Force personnel as a “survival”gun in the event of a forced landing or accident in a wilderness area. Variants have been used by Israeli, Canadian, and American armed forces. Shotgunrifle combination guns with two, three, and occasionally even four barrels are available from a number of makers, primarily European. These provided flexibility, enabling the hunter to effectively shoot at flushing birds or more distant small mammals while only carrying one gun.
39.5 History Most early firearms, such as the blunderbuss, arquebus, and musket had large diameter, smoothbore barrels, and could fire shot as well as solid balls. A firearm intended for use in wing shooting of birds was known as a fowling piece. The 1728 Cyclopaedia defines a fowling piece as: Fowling Piece, a portable Fire Arm for the shooting of Birds. See Fire Arm.
Of Fowling Pieces, those are reputed the best, A sawed-off shotgun (or“sawn-off”) refers to a shotgun which have the longest Barrel, vis. from 51 ⁄2 whose barrel has been shortened, leaving it more maneufoot to 6; with an indifferent Bore, under verable, easier to use at short range and more readily conHarquebus: Tho' for different Occasions they cealed. Many countries establish a legal minimum barrel shou'd be of different Sorts, and Sizes. But in length that precludes easy concealment (this length is 18 all, 'tis essential the Barrel be well polish'd and inches (460 mm) in the U.S.). The sawed-off shotgun is smooth within; and the Bore all of a Bigness, sometimes known as a "Lupara" (in Italian a generic reffrom one End to another...* [5] erence to the word "lupo" (“wolf”)) in Southern Italy and Sicily. For example, the Brown Bess musket, in service with Coach guns are similar to sawn-off shotguns, except they the British army from 1722 to 1838, had a 19 mm (.75 are manufactured with an 46 cm (18”) barrel and are legal inch) smoothbore barrel, roughly the same as a 10 gauge
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CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN shotgun has fallen in and out of favor with military forces several times in its long history. Shotguns and similar weapons are simpler than long-range rifles, and were developed earlier. The development of more accurate and deadlier long-range rifles minimized the usefulness of the shotgun on the open battlefields of European wars. But armies have“rediscovered”the shotgun for specialty uses many times.
39.5.1 19th century During the 19th century, shotguns were mainly employed by cavalry units. Both sides of the American Civil War employed shotguns. U.S. cavalry used the shotgun extensively during the Indian Wars in the latter half of the 19th century. Mounted units favored the shotgun for its moving target effectiveness, and devastating close-range firepower. The shotgun was also favored by citizen militias and similar groups.
Confederate cavalryman
shotgun, and was 157 cm (62 in) long, just short of the above recommended 168 cm (51 ⁄2 feet). On the other hand, records from the Plymouth colony show a maximum length of 137 cm (41 ⁄2 feet) for fowling pieces,* [6] shorter than the typical musket. Shot was also used in warfare; the buck and ball loading, combining a musket ball with three or six buckshot, was used throughout the history of the smoothbore musket. The first recorded use of the term shotgun was in 1776 in Kentucky. It was noted as part of the“frontier language of the West”by James Fenimore Cooper. With the adoption of smaller bores and rifled barrels, the shotgun began to emerge as a separate entity. Shotguns have long been the preferred method for sport hunting of birds, and the largest shotguns, the punt guns, were used for commercial hunting. The double-barreled shotgun has changed little since the development of the boxlock action in 1875. Modern innovations such as interchangeable chokes and subgauge inserts make the double-barreled shotgun the shotgun of choice in skeet, trap shooting, and sporting clays, as well as with many hunters. As wing shooting has been a prestige sport, specialty gunsmiths such as Krieghoff or Perazzi have produced fancy double-barrel guns for wealthy European and American hunters. These weapons can cost US$5,000 or more; some elaborately decorated presentation guns have sold for up to US$100,000.* [7] During its long history, the shotgun has been favored by bird hunters, guards, and law enforcement officials. The
With the exception of cavalry units, the shotgun saw less and less use throughout the 19th century on the battlefield. As a defense weapon it remained popular with guards and lawmen, however, and the shotgun became one of many symbols of the American Old West. Lawman Cody Lyons killed two men with a shotgun; his friend Doc Holliday's only confirmed kill was with a shotgun. The weapon both these men used was the short-barreled version favored by private strongbox guards on stages and trains. These guards, called express messengers, became known as shotgun messengers, since they rode with the weapon (loaded with buckshot) for defense against bandits. Passenger carriages carrying a strongbox usually had at least one private guard armed with a shotgun riding in front of the coach, next to the driver. This practice has survived in American slang; the term “riding shotgun” is used for the passenger who sits in the front passenger seat. The shotgun was a popular weapon for personal protection in the American Old West, requiring less skill on the part of the user than a revolver.
39.5.2 Hammerless shotguns The origins of the hammerless shotgun are European but otherwise obscure. The earliest breechloading shotguns originated in France and Belgium in the early 19th century (see also the history of the Pinfire) and a number of them such as those by Robert and Chateauvillard from the 1830s and 1840s did not use hammers. In fact during these decades a wide variety of ingenious weapons, including rifles, adopted what is now often known as a 'needle-fire' method of igniting the charge, where a firing pin or a longer sharper needle provided the necessary impact. The most widely used British hammerless needlefire shotgun was the unusual hinged-chamber fixed-barrel breech-loader by Joseph Needham, produced from the 1850s. By the 1860s hammerless guns were increasingly
39.5. HISTORY used in Europe both in war and sport although hammer guns were still very much in the majority. The first significant encroachment on hammer guns was a hammerless patent which could be used with a conventional sidelock. This was British gunmaker T Murcott's 1871 action nicknamed the 'mousetrap' on account of its loud snap action. However, the most successful hammerless innovation of the 1870s was Anson and Deeley's boxlock patent of 1875. This simple but ingenious design only used four moving parts allowing the production of cheaper and reliable shotguns.
287 Due to the cramped conditions of trench warfare, the American shotguns were extremely effective. Germany even filed an official diplomatic protest against their use, alleging they violated the laws of warfare. The judge advocate general reviewed the protest, and it was rejected because the Germans protested use of lead shot (which would have been illegal) but military shot was plated. This is the only occasion the legality of the shotgun's use in warfare has been questioned.* [8]
Daniel Myron LeFever is credited with the invention of the American hammerless shotgun. Working for Barber & LeFever in Syracuse, N.Y. he introduced his first hammerless shotgun in 1878. This gun was cocked with external cocking levers on the side of the breech. He went on to patent the first truly automatic hammerless shotgun in 1883. This gun automatically cocked itself when the breech was closed. He later developed the mechanism to automatically eject the shells when the breech was opened.
39.5.3
John Moses Browning
One of the men most responsible for the modern development of the shotgun was prolific gun designer John Browning. While working for Winchester Firearms, Browning revolutionized shotgun design. In 1887, Browning introduced the Model 1887 Lever Action Repeating Shotgun, which loaded a fresh cartridge from its internal magazine by the operation of the action lever. Before this time most shotguns were the 'break open' type. This development was greatly overshadowed by two further innovations he introduced at the end of the 19th century. In 1893, Browning produced the Model 1893 Pump Action Shotgun, introducing the now familiar pump action to the market. And in 1900, he patented the Browning Auto-5, the world's first semi-automatic shotgun. The Browning Auto-5 remained in production until 1998.
39.5.4
World wars
The decline in military use of shotguns reversed in World War I. American forces under General Pershing employed 12-gauge pump action shotguns when they were deployed to the Western front in 1917. These shotguns were fitted with bayonets and a heat shield so the barrel could be gripped while the bayonet was deployed. Shotguns fitted in this fashion became known as trench guns by the United States Army. Those without such modifications were known as riot guns. After World War I, the United States military began referring to all shotguns as riot guns.
A United States Marine carrying a Winchester M97 shotgun during World War II
During World War II, the shotgun was not heavily used in the war in Europe by official military forces. However, the shotgun was a favorite weapon of Allied-supported partisans, such as the French Resistance. By contrast, in the Pacific theater, thick jungles and heavily fortified positions made the shotgun a favorite weapon of the United States Marines. Marines tended to use pump shotguns, since the pump action was less likely to jam in the humid and dirty conditions of the Pacific campaign. Similarly, the United States Navy used pump shotguns to guard ships when in port in Chinese harbors (e.g., Shanghai). The United States Army Air Forces also used pump shotguns to guard bombers and other aircraft against saboteurs when parked on airbases across the Pacific and on the West Coast of the United States. Pump and semi-automatic shotguns were used in marksmanship training, particularly for bomber gunners. The
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most common pump shotguns used for these duties were the 12 gauge Winchester Model 97 and Model 12. The break-open action, single barrel shotgun was used by the British Home Guard and U.S. home security forces. Notably, industrial centers (such as the Gopher State Steel Works) were guarded by National Guard soldiers with Winchester Model 37 12 gauge shotguns.
39.5.5
Late 20th century to present
Since the end of World War II, the shotgun has remained a specialty weapon for modern armies. It has been deployed for specialized tasks where its strengths were put to particularly good use. It was used to defend machine gun emplacements during the Korean War, American and French jungle patrols used shotguns during the Vietnam War, and shotguns saw extensive use as door breaching and close quarter weapons in the early stages of the Iraq War, and saw limited use in tank crews.* [9] Many modern navies make extensive use of shotguns by personnel engaged in boarding hostile ships, as any shots fired will almost certainly be over a short range. Nonetheless, shotguns are far less common in military use than rifles, carbines, submachineguns, or pistols. On the other hand, the shotgun has become a standard in law enforcement use. A variety of specialty less-lethal or non-lethal ammunitions, such as tear gas shells, bean bags, flares, explosive sonic stun rounds, and rubber projectiles, all packaged into 12 gauge shotgun shells, are produced specifically for the law enforcement market. Recently, Taser International introduced a self-contained electronic weapon which is fired from a standard 12 gauge shotgun.* [10] The shotgun remains a standard firearm for hunting throughout the world for all sorts of game from birds and small game to large game such as deer. The versatility of the shotgun as a hunting weapon has steadily increased as slug rounds and more advanced rifled barrels have given shotguns longer range and higher killing power. The shotgun has become a ubiquitous firearm in the hunting community.
A view of the break-action of a typical double-barrelled shotgun, shown with the action open
ically divided into two subtypes: the traditional “side by side”shotgun features two barrels mounted one beside the other (as the name suggests), whereas the “over and under”shotgun has the two barrels mounted one on top of the other. Side by side shotguns were traditionally used for hunting and other sporting pursuits (early long barreled side-by side shotguns were known as“fowling pieces”for their use hunting ducks and other birds), whereas over and under shotguns are more commonly associated with sporting use (such as clay pigeon and skeet shooting). Both types of double-barrel shotgun are used for hunting and sporting use, with the individual configuration largely being a matter of personal preference.
Another, less commonly encountered type of breakaction shotgun is the combination gun, which is an over and under design with one shotgun barrel and one rifle barrel (more often rifle on top, but rifle on bottom was 39.6.1 Action not uncommon). There is also a class of break action Action is the term for the operating mechanism of a gun. guns called drillings, which contain three barrels, usually There are many types of shotguns, typically categorized two shotgun barrels of the same gauge and a rifle barrel, by the number of barrels or the way the gun is reloaded. though the only common theme is that at least one barrel be a shotgun barrel. The most common arrangement was essentially a side by side shotgun with the rifle barrel Break-action below and centered. Usually a drilling containing more than one rifle barrel would have both rifle barrels in the For most of the history of the shotgun, the break-action same caliber, but examples do exist with different caliber breech loading double was the most common type, typ- barrels, usually a .22 long rifle and a centerfire cartridge.
39.6 Design factors
39.6. DESIGN FACTORS
289
Although very rare, drillings with three and even four (a outdoors for a tighter spread pattern or increased accuvierling) shotgun barrels were made. racy of slug projectiles. Home-defense and law enforcement shotguns are usually chambered for 12-gauge shells, providing maximum shot power and the use of a variety Pump-action of projectiles such as buckshot, rubber, sandbag and slug shells, but 20-gauge (common in bird-hunting shotguns) or .410 (common in youth-size shotguns) are also available in defense-type shotgun models allowing easier use by novice shooters. A Winchester M1897, one of the first successful pump-action shotgun designs
In pump-action shotguns, a sliding forearm handle (the pump) works the action, extracting the spent shell and inserting a new one while cocking the hammer or striker as the pump is worked. A pump gun is typically fed from a tubular magazine underneath the barrel, which also serves as a guide for the pump. The rounds are fed in one by one through a port in the receiver, where they are lifted by a lever called the elevator and pushed forward into the chamber by the bolt. A pair of latches at the rear of the magazine hold the rounds in place and facilitate feeding of one shell at a time. If it is desired to load the gun fully, a round may be loaded through the ejection port directly into the chamber, or cycled from the magazine, which is then topped off with another round. Well-known examples include the Winchester Model 1897, Remington 870 and Mossberg 500/590. Pump-action shotguns are common hunting, fowling and sporting shotguns. Hunting models generally have a barrel between 600 and 700 mm (24"−28”). Tube-fed models designed for hunting often come with a dowel rod or other stop that is inserted into the magazine and reduces the capacity of the gun to three shells (two in the magazine and one chambered) as is mandated by U.S. federal law when hunting migratory birds. They can also easily be used with an empty magazine as a single-shot weapon, by simply dropping the next round to be fired into the open ejection port after the spent round is ejected. For this reason, pump-actions are commonly used to teach novice shooters under supervision, as the trainer can load each round more quickly than with a break-action, while unlike a break-action the student can maintain his grip on the gun and concentrate on proper handling and firing of the weapon. Pump action shotguns with shorter barrels and little or no barrel choke are highly popular for use in home defense, military and law enforcement, and are commonly known as riot guns. The minimum barrel length for shotguns in most of the U.S. is 18 inches (460 mm), and this barrel length (sometimes 18.5–20 in (470–510 mm) to increase magazine capacity and/or ensure the gun is legal regardless of measuring differences* [11]) is the primary choice for riot shotguns. The shorter barrel makes the weapon easier to maneuver around corners and in tight spaces, though slightly longer barrels are sometimes used
A riot shotgun has many advantages over a handgun or rifle. Compared to “defense-caliber”handguns (chambered for 9mm Parabellum, .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .40 S&W, .45 ACP and similar), a shotgun has far more power and damage potential (up to 10 times the muzzle energy of a .45 ACP cartridge), allowing a "one-shot stop" that is more difficult to achieve with typical handgun loads. Compared to a rifle, riot shotguns are easier to maneuver due to the shorter barrel, still provide better damage potential at indoor distances (generally 3–5 meters/yards), and reduce the risk of“overpenetration"; that is, the bullet or shot passing completely through the target and continuing beyond, which poses a risk to those behind the target through walls. The wide spread of the shot reduces the importance of shot placement compared to a single projectile, which increases the effectiveness of “point shooting”- rapidly aiming simply by pointing the weapon in the direction of the target. This allows easy, fast use by novices. Lever-action
A modern reproduction of the Winchester M1887 lever-action shotgun
Early attempts at repeating shotguns invariably centred around either bolt-or lever-action designs, drawing inspiration from contemporary repeating rifles, with the earliest successful repeating shotgun being the lever-action Winchester M1887, designed by John Browning at the behest of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Lever shotguns, while less common, were popular in the late 19th century with the Winchester Model 1887 and Model 1901 being prime examples. Initially very popular, demand waned after the introduction of pump-action shotguns around the start of the 20th century, and production was eventually discontinued in 1920. One major issue with lever-actions (and to a lesser extent pump-actions) was that early shotgun shells were often made of paper or similar fragile materials (modern hulls are plastic or metal). As a result the loading of shells, or
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working of the action of the shotgun, could often result manufactured a single-shot .410 bore shotgun based on in cartridges getting crushed and becoming unusable, or the SMLE Mk III* rifle. The Russian Berdana shotgun even damaging the gun. was effectively a single-shot bolt-action rifle that became Lever shotguns have seen a return to the gun market in obsolete, and was subsequently modified to chamber 16 recent years, however, with Winchester producing the gauge shotgun shells for civilian sale. The U.S. military Model 9410 (chambering the .410 gauge shotgun shell M26 is also a bolt-action weapon. Bolt-action shotguns and using the action of the Winchester Model 94 series have also been used in the “goose gun”application, inlever-action rifle, hence the name), and a handful of other tended to kill birds such as geese at greater range. Typically, goose guns have long barrels (up to 36 inches), and firearm manufacturers (primarily Norinco of China and ADI Ltd. of Australia) producing versions of the Winch- small bolt-fed magazines. Bolt-action shotguns are also used in conjunction with slug shells for the maximum ester Model 1887/1901 designed for modern 12-gauge * smokeless shotshells with more durable plastic casings. possible accuracy from a shotgun. [12] There has been a notable uptick in lever-action shotgun sales in Australia since 1997, when pump-actions were Other effectively outlawed. Semi-automatic
A Browning A-5 semi-automatic shotgun
Gas, inertia, or recoil operated actions are other popular methods of increasing the rate of fire of a shotgun; these are generally referred to as autoloaders or semiautomatics. Instead of having the action manually operated by a pump or lever, the action automatically cycles each time the shotgun is fired, ejecting the spent shell and reloading a fresh one into the chamber. The first successful semi-automatic shotgun was John Browning's Auto-5, first produced by Fabrique Nationale beginning in 1902. Other well-known examples include the Remington 1100, Benelli M1, and Saiga-12.
In addition to the commonly encountered shotgun actions already listed, there are also shotguns based on the Martini-Henry rifle design, originally designed by British arms maker W.W. Greener. Some of the more interesting advances in shotgun technology include the versatile NeoStead 2000 and fully automatics such as the Pancor Jackhammer or Auto-Assault 12. In 1925, Rodolfo Cosmi produced the first working hybrid prototype semi-automatic shotgun, which had an 8round magazine located in the stock. While it reloaded automatically after each shot like a semi-automatic, it had a break-action to load the first shell. This design has only been repeated once, by Beretta with their UGB25 automatic shotgun. The user loads the first shell by breaking the gun in the manner of a break-action shotgun, then closes it and inserts the second shell into a clip on the gun's right side. The spent hulls are ejected downwards. The guns combine the advantages of the break action (they can be proven to be safe by breaking open, there are no flying hulls) with those of the semi-automatic (low recoil, low barrel axis position hence low muzzle flip).
Some, such as the Franchi SPAS-12 and Benelli M3, are capable of switching between semi-automatic and pump action. These are popular for two reasons; first, some jurisdictions forbid the use of semi-automatic ac- 39.6.2 Gauge tions for hunting, and second, lower-powered rounds, like “reduced-recoil”buckshot shells and many less lethal carMain article: Gauge (bore diameter) tridges, have insufficient power to reliably cycle a semiautomatic shotgun. The caliber of shotguns is measured in terms of gauge (U.S.) or bore (U.K.). The gauge number is determined Bolt-action by the weight, in fractions of a pound, of a solid sphere of lead with a diameter equal to the inside diameter of Bolt-action shotguns, while uncommon, do exist. One the barrel. So, a 10 gauge shotgun nominally should have of the best-known examples is a 12 gauge manufactured an inside diameter equal to that of a sphere made from by Mossberg featuring a 3-round magazine, marketed in one-tenth of a pound of lead. By far the most comAustralia just after changes to the gun laws in 1997 heav- mon gauges are 12 (0.729 in, 18.5 mm diameter) and ily restricted the ownership and use of pump-action and 20 (0.614 in, 15.6 mm), although .410 (= 67), 32, 28, semi-automatic shotguns. They were not a huge success, 24, 16, and 10 (19.7 mm) gauge also exist. Ammunias they were somewhat slow and awkward to operate, and tion manufacturer CCI produces 9 mm (.355 in.) and the rate of fire was noticeably slower (on average) than a several other popular pistol calibers up to .45 ACP as double-barrelled gun. The Ishapore Arsenal in India also well as .22 (5.5 mm) for firing from handguns. These
39.6. DESIGN FACTORS
291 which the barrels are bored out slightly larger than their actual gauge. This reduces the compression forces on the shot when it transitions from the chamber to the barrel. This leads to a slight reduction in perceived recoil, and an improvement in shot pattern due to reduced deformation of the shot.
39.6.3 Shot
A US Army soldier armed with a Mossberg 500 shotgun
are commonly called snake shot cartridges. rimfire caliber.* [13] Larger gauges, too powerful to shoulder, have been built but were generally affixed to small boats and referred to as punt guns. These were used for commercial water fowl hunting, to kill large numbers of birds resting on the water. Although relatively rare, single and double derringers have also been produced that are capable of firing either .45 (Long) Colt or .410 shotgun shells from the same chamber; they are commonly known as 'snake guns', and are popular among some outdoorsmen in the South and Southwest regions of the United States. There are also some revolvers, such as the Taurus Judge, that are capable of shooting the .45LC/.410 rounds; but as with derringers, these are handguns that shoot .410 shotgun shells, and are not necessarily considered shotguns. The .410 bore (10.4 mm) is unusual, being measured in inches, and would be approximately 67 “real”gauge, though its short hull versions are nominally called 36 gauge in Europe. It uses a relatively small charge of shot. It is used for hunting and for skeet. Because of its very light recoil (approx 10 N), it is often used as a beginners gun. However, the small charge and typically tight choke make it more difficult to hit targets. It is also frequently used by expert shooters because of the difficulty, especially in expensive side by side and over/under models for hunting small bird game such as quail and doves.* [14] Inexpensive bolt-action .410 shotguns are a very common first hunting shotgun among young pre-teen hunters, as they are used mostly for hunting squirrels, while additionally teaching bolt-action manipulation skills that will transfer easily later to adult-sized hunting rifles. Most of these young hunters move up to a 20-gauge within a few years, and to 12 gauge shotguns and full-size hunting rifles by their late teens. Still, many who are particularly recoil-averse choose to stay with 20-gauge shotguns all their adult life, as it is a suitable gauge for many popular hunting uses.
U.S. Marines fire their shotguns
Most shotguns are used to fire“a number of ball shot”, in addition to slugs and sabots. The ball shot or pellets is for the most part made of lead but this has been partially replaced by bismuth, steel, tungsten-iron, tungsten-nickeliron and even tungsten polymer loads. Non-toxic loads are required by Federal law for waterfowl hunting in the US, as the shot may be ingested by the waterfowl, which some authorities believe can lead to health problems due to the lead exposure. Shot is termed either birdshot or buckshot depending on the shot size. Informally, birdshot pellets have a diameter smaller than 5 mm (0.20 in) and buckshot are larger than that. Pellet size is indicated by a number; for bird shot this ranges from the smallest 12 (1.2 mm, 0.05 in) to 2 (3.8 mm, 0.15 in) and then BB (4.6 mm, 0.18 in).* [15]
For buckshot, the numbers usually start at 4 (6.1 mm, 0.24 in) and go down to 1, 0, 00 (“double aught”), 000, and finally 0000 (9.7 mm, .38 in). A different informal distinction is that “bird shot”pellets are small enough that they can be measured into the cartridge by weight, and simply poured in, whereas“buckshot”pellets are so large they must be stacked inside the cartridge in a fixed geometric arrangement in order to fit. The diameter in hundredths of an inch of bird shot sizes from #9 to #1 can be obtained by subtracting the shot size from 17. Thus, #4 bird shot is 17 - 4 = 13 = 0.13 inches (3.3 mm) in diameter. Different terminology is used outside the United States. In England and Australia, for example, 00 buckshot cartridges are commonly referred to as "S.G." (small A recent innovation is the back-boring of barrels, in game) cartridges.
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Pattern and choke
Shot, small and round and delivered without spin, is ballistically inefficient. As the shot leaves the barrel it begins to disperse in the air. The resulting cloud of pellets is known as the shot pattern, or shotgun shot spread. The ideal pattern would be a circle with an even distribution of shot throughout, with a density sufficient to ensure enough pellets will intersect the target to achieve the desired result, such as a kill when hunting or a break when shooting clay targets. In reality the pattern is closer to a Gaussian, or normal distribution, with a higher density in the center that tapers off at the edges. Patterns are usually measured by firing at a 30 inches (76 cm) diameter circle on a large sheet of paper placed at varying distances. The hits inside the circle are counted, and compared to the total number of pellets, and the density of the pattern inside the circle is examined. An “ideal”pattern would put nearly 100% of the pellets in the circle and would have no voids̶any region where a target silhouette will fit and not cover 3 or more holes is considered a potential problem.
coil, or“straight rifling”that is designed to stop any spin that the shot column might acquire when traveling down the barrel. These tubes are often extended tubes, meaning they project beyond the end of the bore, giving more room for things like a longer conical section. Shot spreaders or diffusion chokes work opposite of normal chokes̶ they are designed to spread the shot more than a cylinder bore, generating wider patterns for very short range use. A number of recent spreader chokes, such as the Briley “Diffusion”line, actually use rifling in the choke to spin the shot slightly, creating a wider spread. The Briley Diffusion uses a 1 in 36 cm twist, as does the FABARM Lion Paradox shotgun.
Oval chokes, which are designed to provide a shot pattern wider than it is tall, are sometimes found on combat shotguns, primarily those of the Vietnam War era. They were available for aftermarket addition in the 1970s from companies like A & W Engineering.* [16] Military versions of the Ithaca 37 with duckbill choke were used in limited numbers during the Vietnam War by US Navy Seals. It arguably increased effectiveness in close range engagements against multiple targets. Two major disadvantages A constriction in the end of the barrel known as the choke plagued the system. One was erratic patterning. The secis used to tailor the pattern for different purposes. Chokes ond was that the shot would spread too quickly providing may either be formed as part of the barrel at the time a limited effective zone. of manufacture, by squeezing the end of the bore down Offset chokes, where the pattern is intentionally slightly over a mandrel, or by threading the barrel and screwing in off of center, are used to change the point of impact. For an interchangeable choke tube. The choke typically con- instance, an offset choke can be used to make a double sists of a conical section that smoothly tapers from the barrelled shotgun with poorly aligned barrels hit the same bore diameter down to the choke diameter, followed by spot with both barrels. a cylindrical section of the choke diameter. Briley Manufacturing, a maker of interchangeable shotgun chokes, uses a conical portion about 3 times the bore diameter 39.6.5 Barrel length in length, so the shot is gradually squeezed down with minimal deformation. The cylindrical section is shorter, Shotguns generally have longer barrels than modern riusually 0.6 to 0.75 inches (15 to 19 millimetres). The fles. Unlike rifles, however, the long shotgun barrel is use of interchangeable chokes has made it easy to tune not for ballistic purposes; shotgun shells use small powder the performance of a given combination of shotgun and charges in large diameter bores, and this leads to very low shotshell to achieve the desired performance. muzzle pressures (see internal ballistics) and very little The choke should be tailored to the range and size of the velocity change with increasing barrel length. According to Remington, modern powder in a shotgun burns comtargets. A skeet shooter shooting at close targets might use 127 micrometres (0.005 inches) of constriction to pletely in 25 (9.8425 in) to 36 (14.173 in) cm barrels. produce a 76 cm (30 in) diameter pattern at a distance of 19 m (21 yd). A trap shooter shooting at distant targets might use 762 micrometres (0.030 inches) of constriction to produce a 76 cm (30 in) diameter pattern at 37 m (40 yd). Special chokes for turkey hunting, which requires long range shots at the small head and neck of the bird, can go as high as 1500 micrometres (0.060 inches). The use of too much choke and a small pattern increases the difficulty of hitting the target, whereas the use of too little choke produces large patterns with insufficient pellet density to reliably break targets or kill game. “Cylinder barrels”have no constriction. See also: Slug barrel
Since shotguns are generally used for shooting at small, fast moving targets, it is important to lead the target by firing slightly ahead of the target, so that when the shot reaches the range of the target, the target will have moved into the pattern. On uphill shooting, this means to shoot above the target. Conversely, on downhill shooting, this means to shoot below the target, which is somewhat counterintuitive for many beginning hunters. Of course, depending on the barrel length, the amount of lead employed will vary for different barrel lengths, and must be learned by experience.
Shotguns made for close ranges, where the angular speed Other specialized choke tubes exist as well. Some turkey of the targets is great (such as skeet or upland bird hunthunting tubes have constrictions greater than “Super ing), tend to have shorter barrels, around 24 to 28 inches Full”, or additional features like porting to reduce re- (610 to 710 millimetres). Shotguns for longer range
39.7. AMMUNITION shooting, where angular speeds are small (trap shooting; quail, pheasant, and waterfowl hunting), tend to have longer barrels, 28 to 34 inches (860 mm). The longer barrels have more angular momentum, and will therefore swing more slowly but more steadily. The short, low angular momentum barrels swing faster, but are less steady. These lengths are for pump or semi-auto shotguns; break open guns have shorter overall lengths for the same barrel length, and so will use longer barrels. The break open design saves between 9 and 15 cm (3.5 and 5.9 in) in overall length, but in most cases pays for this by having two barrels, which adds weight at the muzzle, and so usually only adds a couple of centimetres. Barrels for shotguns have been getting longer as modern steels and production methods make the barrels stronger and lighter; a longer, lighter barrel gives the same inertia for less overall weight. Shotguns for use against larger, slower targets generally have even shorter barrels. Small game shotguns, for hunting game like rabbits and squirrels, or shotguns for use with buckshot for deer, are often 56 to 61 cm (22 to 24 in).
293 Of this general class, the most common subset is birdshot, which uses a large number (from dozens to hundreds) of small pellets, meant to create a wide “kill spread”to hunt birds in flight. Shot shells are described by the size and number of the pellets within, and numbered in reverse order (the smaller the number, the bigger the pellet size, similar to bore gauge). Size nine (#9) shot is the smallest size normally used for hunting and is used on small upland game birds such as dove and quail. Larger sizes are used for hunting larger upland game birds and waterfowl. Buckshot is similar to but larger than birdshot, and was originally designed for hunting larger game, such as deer (hence the name). While the advent of new, more accurate slug technologies is making buckshot less attractive for hunting, it is still the most common choice for police, military, and home defense uses. Like birdshot, buckshot is described by pellet size, with larger numbers indicating smaller shot. From the smallest to the largest, buckshot sizes are: #4, (called“number four”), #1, 0 “ ( one-aught” ), 00 ("double-aught"), 000 (“triple-aught”) and 0000 ( “four-aught”). A typical round for defensive use would be a 12 gauge 2 3 ⁄4 inches (7.0 cm) length 00 buck shell, which contains 9 pellets roughly 8.4 mm (.33 inch) in diameter, each comparable to a .38 Special bullet in damage potential. New“tactical”buckshot rounds, designed specifically for defensive use, use slightly fewer shot at lower velocity to reduce recoil and increase controllability of the shotgun. There are some shotgun rounds designed specifically for police use that shoot effectively from 50 yards (46 m) with a 20”diameter grouping of the balls.
Shotguns intended for all-round hunting are a compromise, of course, but a 72 to 74 cm (28 to 29 in)ch) barrel pump-action 12-gauge shotgun with a modified choke can serve admirably for use as one gun intended for general all-round hunting of small-game such as quails, rabbits, pheasants, doves, and squirrels in semi-open wooded or farmland areas in many parts of the eastern US (Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee) where dense brush is less of a hindrance and the ability to have more reach is important. For hunting in dense brush, shorter barrel lengths are often preferred when hunting the same types of game. Slug rounds are rounds that fire a single solid slug. They are used for hunting large game, and in certain military and law enforcement applications. Modern slugs are moderately accurate, especially when fired from special 39.7 Ammunition rifled slug barrels. They are often used in“shotgun-only” hunting zones near inhabited areas, where rifles are proMain article: Shotgun shell hibited due to their greater range. The extremely large caliber of shotgun shells has led to a Sabots are a common type of slug round. While some slugs are exactly that̶a 12-gauge metal projectile in a cartridge̶a sabot is a smaller but more aerodynamic projectile surrounded by a “shoe”of some other material. This “sabot”jacket seals the barrel, increasing pressure and acceleration, while also inducing spin on the projectile in a rifled barrel. Once the projectile clears the barrel, the sabot material falls away, leaving an unmarked, aerodynamic bullet to continue toward the target. The advantages over a traditional slug are increased shot power, increased bullet velocity due to the lighter-mass bullet, and increased accuracy due to the velocity and the reduction in deformation of the slug itself. Disadvantages versus a traditional slug include lower muzzle momentum due to Loading 12-gauge shells reduced mass, reduced damage due to smaller bullet diameter, and significantly higher per-unit cost. wide variety of different ammunition. Shotshells are the most commonly used round, filled with lead or lead substitute pellets.
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39.7.1
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
Specialty ammunition
The unique properties of the shotgun, such as large case capacity, large bore, and the lack of rifling, has led to the development of a large variety of specialty shells, ranging from novelties to high tech military rounds. Hunting, defensive, and military Brenneke and Foster type slugs have the same basic configuration as normal slugs, but have increased accuracy. The hollowed rear of the Foster slug improves accuracy by placing more mass in the front of the projectile, therefore inhibiting the “tumble”that normal slugs may generate. The Brenneke slug takes this concept a bit further, with the addition of a wad that stays connected to the projectile after discharge, increasing accuracy. Both slugs are commonly found with fins or rib, which are meant to allow the projectile to safely squeeze down during passage through chokes, but they do not increase stability in flight.
Two rounds of Fiocchi 12 gauge rubber buckshot
and cut the person or animal being fired at. For this reason, these types of rounds are referred to as less lethal, as opposed to less-than-lethal.* [19] Gas shells spray a cone of gas for several meters. These are primarily used by riot police. They normally contain pepper gas or tear gas. Other variations launch a gasgrenade-like projectile.
Rock salt shells are hand loaded with coarse rock salt crystals, replacing the standard lead or steel shot. Rock salt shells could be seen as the forerunners of modern lesslethal rounds. In the United States, rock salt shells were and are sometimes still used by rural civilians to defend their property. The brittle salt was unlikely to cause serious injury at long ranges, but would cause painful stinging injuries and served as a warning. British gamekeepers have used rock salt shells to deter poachers. Rather than get into a physical confrontation, they stalk the poachers, Frag-12 shotgun rounds are a series of special purpose making themselves known by a loud shout of “Run!" shotgun grenades, including high explosive blast, frag- just before firing, to avoid hitting the now-fleeing subject mentation, and HEAP grenades intended to be fired from in the eyes. any 12-ga shotgun. They are distinguished from regular Rubber slugs or rubber buckshot are similar in prinshotgun rounds by a green hull. It has been proposed as an ciple to the bean bag rounds. Composed of flexible rubarmament for modern UAVs and is currently being tested ber or plastic and fired at low velocities, these rounds are for military deployment.* [17] probably the most common choice for riot control. Grenade rounds use exploding projectiles to increase Taser International announced in 2007 a new 12 gauge long range lethality. These are currently experimental, eXtended Range Electronic Projectile or XREP, but the British FRAG-12, which comes in both armor which contains a small electroshock weapon unit in a carpenetrating and fragmentary forms, is under considera- rier that can be fired from a standard 12 gauge shotgun. tion by military forces.* [18] The XREP projectile is fin stabilized, and travels at an initial velocity of 100 m/s (300 ft/s). Barbs on the front attach the electroshock unit to the target, with a tassel Less lethal rounds, for riot and animal control deploying from the rear to widen the circuit. A twentyFlexible baton rounds, commonly called bean bags, fire second burst of electrical energy is delivered to the tara fabric bag filled with birdshot or a similar loose, dense get. This* product is expected to be released to market substance. The “punch”effect of the bag is useful for in 2008. [20] They were used ̶despite still being subknocking down targets; the rounds are used by police to ject to testing, in breach of the supplier's license ̶by subdue violent suspects. The bean bag round is by far the Northumbria police in their standoff with Raoul Moat in most common less lethal round used. Due to the large 2010. Flechette rounds contain aerodynamic darts, typically from 8 to 20 in number. The flechette provide greatly extended range due to their aerodynamic shape, and improved penetration of light armor. American troops during the Vietnam War packed their own flechette shotgun rounds, called beehive rounds, after the similar artillery rounds. However, terminal performance was poor due to the very light weight of the flechettes, and their use was quickly dropped.
surface area of these rounds, they lose velocity rapidly, and must be used at fairly short ranges to be effective, though use at extremely short ranges, under 3 m (9.8 ft), can result in broken bones or other serious or lethal injuries. The rounds can also fly in a frisbee-like fashion
Breaching rounds, often called Frangible, Disintegrator, or Hatton rounds, are designed to destroy door locking mechanisms without risking lives. They are constructed of a very brittle substance that transfers most of the energy to the primary target but then fragment into
39.8. LEGAL ISSUES
295
much smaller pieces or dust so as not to injure unseen targets such as hostages or non-combatants that may be standing behind a breached door. Bird bombs are low-powered rounds that fire a firecracker that is fused to explode a short time after firing.* [21] They are designed to scare animals, such as birds that congregate on airport runways. Screechers fire a pyrotechnic whistle that emits a loud A homemade Lupara whistling sound for the duration of its flight.* [21] These are also used to scare animals. thus, they are perceived as a lesser threat by legislative Blank shells contain only a small amount of powder and authorities. The one exception is a sawed-off shotgun, no actual load. When fired, the blanks provide the sound especially a Lupara, as it is more easily concealed than a and flash of a real load, but with no projectile.* [21] These normal shotgun. may be used for simulation of gunfire, scaring wildlife, or as power for a launching device such as the Mossberg #50298 marine line launcher.http: 39.8.1 Australia //www.mossberg.com/manuals/LineLauncher.pdf |format=PDF |title=Safety Equipment : Owner's Manual Within Australia, all shotguns manufactured after Jan: Mossberg |publisher=Mossberg.com |accessdate=19 uary 1, 1901 are considered firearms and are subject to registration and licensing. Most shotguns (including February 2015}} break-action, bolt-action and lever-action shotguns) are Stinger is a type of shotgun shell which contains 16-00 classed as“Category A”weapons and, as such, are combuck balls made of zytel, and is designed as a non-lethal paratively easy to obtain a licence for, given a legally ammunition ideally used in small spaces. recognised 'legitimate reason' (compare to the British requirement for 'good reason' for a FAC), such as target shooting or hunting. However, pump-action and semiNovelty and other automatic shotguns are classed as“Category C”weapons; Bolo rounds are made of two or more slugs molded onto a licence for this type of firearm is, generally speaking, steel wire. When fired, the slugs separate, pulling the not available to the average citizen. For more informawire taut creating a flying blade, which could theoretically tion, see Gun politics in Australia. decapitate people and animals or amputate limbs. However, many active shotgun users consider this to be overstated, and view bolo shells as being less effective than conventional ammunition. Bolo shell rounds are banned in many locations (including the US states of Florida* [22] and Illinois* [23]) due to concerns about their potential lethality. The round is named in reference to bolas, which use two or more weighted balls on a rope to trap cattle or game. Dragon's Breath usually refers to a zirconium-based pyrotechnic shotgun round. When fired, a gout of flame erupts from the barrel of the gun (up to 20 ft). The visual effect it produces is impressive, similar to that of a short ranged flamethrower. However, it has few tactical uses, mainly distraction/disorientation. Flare rounds are sometimes carried by hunters for safety and rescue purposes. They are available in low and high altitude versions. Some brands claim they can reach a height of up to 200 m (660 ft).
39.8 Legal issues
39.8.2 Canada Canada has three classifications of firearms: nonrestricted, restricted, and prohibited. Shotguns are found in all three classes. All non-restricted shotguns must have an overall length of 660 mm (26 in). Semi-automatic shotguns must also have a barrel length of more than 470 mm (19 in) and have a capacity of 5 shells or less in the magazine to remain nonrestricted. All other shotgun action types (pump/slide, break open, lever, bolt) do not have a magazine limit restriction or a minimum barrel length provided the overall length of the firearm remains more than 660 mm (26 in) and the barrel was produced by an approved manufacturer. Shotgun barrels may only be reduced in length to a minimum of 457 mm (18.0 in). Non-restricted shotguns may be possessed with any Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) or Possession-Only License (POL) and may be transported throughout the country without special authorization and may be used for hunting certain species at certain times of the year.
Semi-automatic shotguns with a barrel length of less Globally, shotguns are generally not as heavily regulated than 470 mm (19 in) are considered restricted and as rifles or handguns, likely because they lack the range any shotgun that has been altered so its barrel length of rifles and are not easily concealable as handguns are; is less than 457 mm (18.0 in) or if its overall length
296
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN store a shotgun (gun clamps, wire locks and locking gun cabinets are considered secure). The round number restrictions apply only to the magazine, not the chamber, so it is legal to have a single-barreled semi-auto or pumpaction shotgun that holds three rounds in total, or a shotgun with separate chambers (which would need to also be multi-barrelled). For a shotgun to qualify as a section 2 shotgun, it must meet the following criteria: (a) has a barrel not less than 24 inches (610 mm) in length and does not have any barrel with a bore more than 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter; (b) either has no magazine or has a non-detachable magazine not capable of holding more than two cartridges; (c) is not a revolver gun. Prior to a SGC being issued an interview is conducted with the local Firearms Officer, in the past this was a duty undertaken by the local police although more recently this function has been“contracted out”to civilian staff. The officer will check the location and suitability of the gun safe that is to be used for storage and conduct a general interview to establish the reasons behind the applicant requiring a SGC.
A RCMP officer in 2010 armed with a shotgun outfitted to fire beanbag rounds
is less than 660 mm (26 in) is considered prohibited.* [24] Restricted and prohibited shotguns may be possessed with a PAL or POL than has been endorsed for restricted or prohibited grandfathered firearms. These shotguns require special Authorization to Transport (ATT).[“Transporting Firearms”. Canada Firearms Centre. Retrieved 200806-21.] The Canadian Firearms Registry was a government-run registry of all legally owned firearms in Canada. The government provided amnesty from prosecution to shotgun and rifle owners if they fail to register non-restricted shotguns and rifles.* [25] The long gun portion of the registry was scrapped in 2011.
An SGC holder can own any number of shotguns meeting these requirements so long as he/she can store them securely. No certificate is required to own shotgun ammunition, but one is required to buy it. There is no restriction on the amount of shotgun ammunition that can be bought or owned. There are also no rules regarding the storage of ammunition. However, shotgun ammunition which contains fewer than 6 projectiles requires a section 1 Firearms Certificate (FAC). Shotguns with a magazine capacity greater than 2 rounds are also considered to be section 1 firearms and, as such, require an FAC to own. An FAC costs £50 but is much more restrictive than an SGC. The applicant must nominate two referees who are known to the applicant to vouch for his or her character; a new 'variation' is required for each new caliber of gun to be owned; limits are set on how much ammunition a person can own at any one time; and an FAC can be denied if the applicant does not have sufficient 'good reason'. 'Good reason' generally means hunting, collecting, or target shooting - though other reasons may be acceptable, personal defence is not an acceptable reason.
See online* [26] for an official Canadian list of nonrestricted and restricted and prohibited firearms. Any pump-action or semi-automatic smooth-bore gun (such as a shotgun) with a barrel length of less than 24 inches or total length of less than 40 inches is considered 39.8.3 UK to be a section 5 firearm, that is, one that is subject to general prohibition, unless it is chambered for .22 caliber In the United Kingdom, a Shotgun Certificate (SGC) is rimfire ammunition.* [27] required to possess a “Section 2”shotgun. These cost £50 and can only be denied if the chief of police in the area believes and can prove that the applicant poses a real danger to the public, or if the applicant has been convicted of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term of three years or more or if the applicant cannot securely
39.9. SEE ALSO
297
39.9 See also • Antique guns • Gun safety • List of shotguns • Double-barreled shotgun • Riding shotgun • Shotgun wedding President Barack Obama skeet shooting with a Browning Citori 525 on the range at Camp David.
39.10 References Notes
39.8.4
US
In the US, federal law prohibits shotguns from being capable of holding more than three shells including the round in the chamber when used for hunting migratory gamebirds such as doves, ducks, and geese. For other uses, a capacity of any number of shells is generally permitted. Most magazine-fed shotguns come with a removable magazine plug to limit capacity to 2, plus one in the chamber, for hunting migratory gamebirds. Certain states have restrictions on magazine capacity or design features under hunting or assault weapon laws.
[1] “Scattergun”. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2007-05-12. [2] “The Box O' Truth #3 - The Shotgun Meets the Box O' Truth The Box O' Truth”. The Box O' Truth. Retrieved 3 October 2014. [3] “Shotgun Home Defense Ammunition, .357 SIG - A Solution in Search of a Problem?". Firearmstactical.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19. [4] “Shotgun Home Defense Ammunition”. Firearms Tactical Institute. Retrieved 19 February 2015. [5] “Problem while searching in History of Science”. Digicoll.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Shotguns intended for defensive use have barrels as short [6] “Firearms in Plymouth Colony”. Plyas 18 inches (46 cm) for private use (the minimum shotmoutharch.tripod.com. Retrieved 3 October 2014. gun barrel length allowed by law in the United States without federal registration. Barrel lengths of less than 18 [7] Fjestad, S. P. Blue Book of Gun Values, 13th Ed. inches (46 cm) as measured from the breechface to the [8] Bruce N. Canfield (May 2004). “Give Us More Shotmuzzle when the weapon is in battery, or have an overguns!". American Rifleman. all length of less than 26 inches (66 cm) are classified as short barreled shotguns (SBS) under the 1934 National [9] Firearms Act and are regulated. A similar short barreled [10] “Taser Xrep”. Taser.com. Retrieved 2008-09-05. weapon having a pistol grip may be classified as an AOW or “Any Other Weapon”. A shotgun is defined as a [11] “Mossberg & Sons | Products”. Mossberg.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19. weapon (with a buttstock) designed to be fired from the shoulder. The classification varies depending on how the [12] “April, 97 Browning”. Gun-tests.com. Retrieved 2008weapon was originally manufactured. 09-05. Shotguns used by military, police, and other government agencies are regulated under the National Firearms Act of 1934; however, they are exempt from transfer taxes. These weapons commonly have barrels as short as 12 to 14 inches (30 to 36 centimetres) so that they are easier to handle in confined spaces. Non-prohibited private citizens may own short-barreled shotguns by passing extensive background checks (state and local laws may be more restrictive) as well as paying a $200 federal tax and being issued a stamp. Defensive shotguns sometimes have no buttstock or will have a folding stock to reduce overall length even more when required. AOWs transfer with a $5 tax stamp from the BATFE.
[13] “Popular Mechanics Google Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Books”.
[14] “410 Gauge”. Chuckhawks.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19. [15] “Popular Mechanics Google Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Books”.
[16] Roger H. Robinson (1973). The Police Shotgun Manual. Thomas. pp. 91–94. ISBN 0-398-02630-0. [17] “Frag-12 Shotgun Ammunition Fact Sheet”(PDF). Defensereview.com. Retrieved 19 February 2015. [18]
298
[19] “NIJ : Research for Practice : Impact Munitions Use: Types, Targets, Effects”(PDF). Ncjrs.gov. Retrieved 19 February 2015. [20] [21] [22] “The 2007 Florida Statutes”. Flsenate.gov. Retrieved 3 October 2014. [23] “Public Act 92-0423 of the 92nd General Assembly”. Ilga.gov. Retrieved 2015-02-19. [24] “Prohibited Firearms”. Cfc-cafc.gc.ca. Retrieved 19 February 2015. [25] Tim Naumetz (2008-05-14). “Government extends gunregistration amnesty”. Canada.com. Retrieved 2008-0526. [26] “Royal Canadian Mounted Police - Canadian Firearms Program | Gendarmerie royale du Canada - Programme canadien des armes à feu”. Cfc-cafc.gc.ca. 2008-12-31. Retrieved 2015-02-19. [27] “Firearms Act 1968”. Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
Bibliography • Bob Brister (1976). Shotgunning, The Art and the Science. New Jersey: New Win Publishing. ISBN 0-8329-1840-7. • Elmer Keith (1950). Shotguns. Pennsylvania: The Stackpole Company. ISBN 0-935632-58-1. • Michael McIntosh (1999). Best Guns. Alabama: Countrysport Press. ISBN 0-924357-79-7. • Jack O'Connor (1965) [1949]. The Shotgun Book. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-501381.
39.11 External links • Shotgun FAQ • Shotgun sabot separation photography •“Shotgun Chokes and Gauges.”Popular Mechanics, October 1947, p. 196-200. Excellent diagrams and drawings.
CHAPTER 39. SHOTGUN
Chapter 40
Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon The Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon (SMAW) is a shoulder-launched rocket weapon with the primary function of being a portable assault weapon (e.g. bunker buster) and a secondary anti-armor rocket launcher. It was introduced to the United States armed forces in 1984.* [1] It has a maximum range of 500 metres (550 yd) against a tank-sized target. It can be used to destroy bunkers and other fortifications during assault operations as well as other designated targets with the dual mode rocket and to destroy main battle tanks with the HEAA rocket. Operations in Afghanistan and Iraq saw a thermobaric rocket added (described as NE̶"Novel Explosive”), capable of collapsing a building.* [2]
Martin and IMI* [4] and thus resulted in the enhanced FGM-172 SRAW. In combat operations it was ultimately used to augment rather than to replace existing SMAW inventories.
40.1.2 SMAW II program
In 2008 a replacement program was again initiated and titled the SMAW II.* [5] Developed in tandem with a round capable of being fired from an enclosed area without ill effects on environment and personnel. It weighs a combined 29.7 pounds (13.5 kg) (11.7 pounds for the launcher, 18 pounds for the rocket) and the contract is 40.1 Service history worth US$51.7 million providing the U.S. Marine Corps is satisfied with testing and follows through with plans to The SMAW system (launcher, ammunition and logistics buy 1,717 new launchers. support) was fielded in 1984 as a United States Marine Corps–unique system. The Mod-0 demonstrated several shortcomings, resulting in a series of modifications in the mid-2000s. These modifications include a re-sleeving process for bubbled launch tubes, rewriting/drafting op- 40.1.3 SMAW II Serpent erator and technical manuals, and a kit to reduce environmental intrusion into the trigger mechanism. This also includes an optical sight modification to allow the Raytheon are working in coordination on the SMAW II new HEAA rocket to be used effectively against mov- project to develop the newest launcher. Nammo-Talley ing armor targets. The U.S. military recently fielded new Defense Systems is developing the new rounds. The boresight bracket kits which, when installed, correct the SMAW II launcher is called “Serpent”by the developloss of accurate boresight issues between the launch tube ing companies, and is similar in many respects to the first and spotting rifle. During Operation Desert Storm 150 SMAW launcher, except it replaces the standard SMAW launchers and 5,000 rockets were deployed by the United launcher's spotting gun with a sophisticated fire control States Army. Since then the Army has shown increased electronics built by Raytheon. The sighting unit is enclosed on the launcher in a unique roll-cage to protect interest in the system. it. From videos the roll-cage also serves as a carry handle. Development aims to reduce the over-all weight by four and one half pounds from the older SMAW 40.1.1 Follow-On To SMAW launcher. The“Serpent”fires the same rounds as the stanIn 2002, the Corps began a program to develop a succes- dard SMAW and supports new and improved/enhanced sor to the SMAW system, tentatively titled “Follow-On rounds. Raytheon at AUSA 2010 convention stated it To SMAW”.* [3] The contract was awarded to Lockheed would be ready for deployment by 2012.* [6]* [7] 299
300
CHAPTER 40. SHOULDER-LAUNCHED MULTIPURPOSE ASSAULT WEAPON (98 ft), and still extremely dangerous to 90 metres (300 ft). The resultant shock wave can even cause sympathetic detonation of unsecured ammunition. Rounds are under development, that would enable a user to fire the rocket from an enclosed building without risk of injury.* [9]
Infantrymen from the 15th MEU at Camp Rhino on 25 November 2001.
40.2 Design The Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon has an 83.5mm tube and fires 83-millimetre (3.3 in) rockets. It is a man-portable weapon system consisting of the MK153 launcher, the MK 3 encased HEDP rocket, the MK 6 encased HEAA rocket, and the MK217 spotting rifle cartridge. The launcher consists of a fiberglass launch tube, a 9mm spotting rifle, an electro-mechanical firing mechanism, open battle sights and a mount for the MK42 Day Sight and AN/PVS-17B night sights.
A newer MK153 Mod 2 variant is currently in development. It features a modular ballistic sight (MBS) in place of the 9 mm spotting system. The MBS has a laser range finder and thermal weapon sight to provide a firing solution using a displaced reticle, where crosshairs are adjusted for distance and environmental factors. The MBS is lighter, more reliable, and can be detached from the launcher. While the Mod 0 weighs 16.5 lb, the Mod 2 weighs 13 lb with the MBS attached, and 8.5 lb with the MBS detached. Other improvements include increased pad size on the forward grip and foldable backup sights.* [10] Mod 2 improvements are to be ready for fielding by early 2017.* [9]
40.2.1 Rockets
The High Explosive, Dual Purpose (HEDP) rocket is effective against bunkers, masonry and concrete walls and light armor. Initiated by a crush switch in its nose the HEDP rocket is able to distinguish between hard and soft targets resulting in greater penetration into soft targets for increased damage potential. The HEDP round is capable The SMAW MK153 Mod 0 launcher is an improved of penetrating 20 centimetres (7.9 in) of concrete, 30 cenand enhanced development of the Israel Military Indus- timetres (12 in) of brick or up to 210 centimetres (6.9 ft) tries' B-300 weapon. The weapon consists of the launch of wood-reinforced sandbags. tube, the spotting rifle, the firing mechanism and mountThe High Explosive Anti-Armor (HEAA) rocket is efing brackets. The launch tube is made of fiberglass-epoxy fective against current tanks without additional armor and composite material with a gelcoat on the bore. The spotutilizes a standoff rod on the detonator, allowing the exting rifle is mounted on the right side of the launch tube. plosive force to be focused on a small point and for maxiThe firing mechanism mechanically fires the spotting rimum damage against armored targets. The HEAA round fle and uses a magneto to fire the rocket. The mounting is capable of penetrating up to the equivalent of 60 cenbrackets connect the components and provide the means timetres (24 in) of rolled homogeneous steel. for boresighting the weapon while the encased rockets are loaded at the rear of the launcher. The spotting cartridges The Novel Explosive (SMAW-NE) rocket is effective are stored in a magazine in the cap of the encased rocket. against caves and bunkers. The SMAW-NE uses a thermobaric warhead which produces an overpressure The 9 mm spotting round is ballistically matched to the wave capable of collapsing a lightly constructed buildrocket and serves to increase the gunner's first-round hit ing. The Naval Surface Warfare Center teamed with the probability. Each round consists of a special 9mm tracer Marine Corps Systems Command, NSWC Indian Head bullet, crimped into a 7.62x51mm NATO casing with a and Talley Defense Systems responded to an urgent U.S. .22 Hornet blank cartridge for propellant.* [8] The system Marine Corps need for a shoulder-launched enhancedcan be used in conjunction with the AN/PEQ-4 aiming blast warhead in 2003. It was used in combat during both light in place of the spotting rifle. the First and Second offensives in Fallujah 2004. Training is accomplished with the MK7 Mod 0 encased common practice rocket and the MK213 Mod 0 noise cartridge. At 152.3 decibels, the weapon is one of the 40.3 Users loudest on the battlefield, second only to a mine-clearing line charge. • Pakistan army As with all of these types of rocket weapons, the backblast that is created when it is fires is a primary safety concern. • Lebanese Armed Forces The backblast extends in a 90-meter, 60° cone to the rear • Republic of China Marine Corps of the weapon. The backblast is lethal out to 30 metres
40.5. REFERENCES •
United States Marine Corps
40.4 See also • IMI Shipon • STRIM • Carl Gustav • Folgore
40.5 References [1] Staff. “United States Marine Corps Weapons & Equipment Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon (SMAW)". About.com. Retrieved 8 May 2014. [2] GlobalSecurity.org [3] “Follow-On To SMAW (FOTS) – Global Security”. [4] “LOCKHEED MARTIN TO DEVELOP FOLLOW-ON TO SHOULDER-LAUNCHED MULTI-PURPOSE ASSAULT WEAPON FOR U.S. MARINE CORPS”. [5] Lamothe, Dan (November 8, 2010). “Redesigned SMAW II set for review”. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 8 November 2010. [6] DefenseNews video at Association of the US Army 2010 Convention [7] Accurate and Safe Alternative Targeting Solution for Man Portable Rocket Weapon (PDF file) [8] 9 x 51mm SMAW – International Ammunition Association [9] SMAW upgrade will put rounds on targets faster MarineCorpstimes.com, 3 November 2014 [10] “New Modular Ballistic Sight Added to Marine SMAW” . Military.com. DVIDS. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
•
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
• SMAW – Global Security • SMAW at FAS • SMAW early article
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Chapter 41
Sniper rifle nology, specifically that of telescopic sights and more accurate manufacturing, allowed armies to equip specially trained soldiers with rifles that enable them to deliver precise shots over greater distances than regular infantry weapons. The sniper rifle itself could be based on a standard rifle (It's hard to define a sniper rifle by the fire modes as some latest designed sniper rifles are semi-automatic fire, for example the M110); however, when fitted with a telescopic sight, it becomes a sniper rifle. The 7.62×51mm M40, United States Marine Corps standardissue sniper rifle.
41.1 History
The Accuracy International Arctic Warfare series of sniper rifles is standard issue in the armies of many countries, including those of Britain and Germany (picture shows a rifle of the German Army).
In military and law enforcement terminology, a sniper rifle is a crew served, man-portable, high precision-rifle used to ensure more accurate placement of bullets at longer ranges than other small arms. It is a common misconception that any scoped rifle is a sniper rifle, and while certain long guns are more suited for the application than others, it is the act of using a weapon strategically as a sniper qualified specialist that designates it as such. A typical sniper rifle is built for optimal levels of accuracy, fitted with a telescopic sight and chambered for a military centerfire cartridge. The term is often used in the media to describe any type of accurized firearm fitted with a telescopic sight that is employed against human targets, although “sniping rifle”or “sniper's rifle”is the technically correct term for such a rifle. The military role of a sniper (a term derived from the snipe, a bird which was difficult to hunt and shoot) dates back to the turn of the 18th century, but the true sniper rifle is a much more recent development. Advances in tech-
The British Whitworth rifle, used greatly during the American Civil War. Some of these rifles were fitted with a scope on top of the barrel, thus creating the first actual sniper rifle.
The Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world.* [1] Designed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, a prominent British engineer, it used twisted hexagonal barrels instead of traditional round rifled barrels, which meant that the projectile did not have to bite into grooves as was done with conventional rifling. His rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, which had shown some weaknesses during the recent Crimean War. At trials in 1857 which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworth's design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. The Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of 2,000 yards, whereas the Enfield could only manage it at a distance of 1,400 yards.* [2] During the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this pioneering work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson, using optical sights produced by Chance Brothers of Birmingham. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a greater distance than ever before.* [3] The telescopic sight, or scope, was originally fixed and could not be adjusted, which there-
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41.2. CLASSIFICATION fore limited its range. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having “effective accurate”ranges of up to a mile away from its target.* [4] During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both sides. The British were equipped with the Lee-Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa the marksman was a crucial component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 who were renowned for their expert marksmanship and their stalking skills. They wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that “keener men never lived”.* [5] After the Boer War the Scouts became the first official sniper unit in the British Army.
303 to conduct that even until as recently as 1970, the reasoning for having trained snipers as a part of an army was deemed questionable.* [14] In Britain, sniper rifles were not seen as being an integral part of an army until after the Germans boasted so much success with sniper teams during the early months of World War I. The British army advisors supposed that the telescopic sights attached to sniper rifles were too easily damaged and thus not well suited for military use.* [9] However, they soon realized that these telescopic sights could be improved and made sturdy enough to withstand a sniper rifle shot.* [9]
It was not until World War I, that sniper rifles began to be used more regularly in battle and certain soldiers given specialized training to use such a rifle. In Germany these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, which illuminated at night in order to improve their ac- Vietnam War era sniper rifles, US Army XM21 (top) and USMC curacy.* [6] German gunsmiths fitted the scope above the M40 (bottom). barrel for optimal accuracy.* [7] Sniper rifles have continued to be used consistently throughout the later part of the 20th century in Korea, Vietnam and the Middle East as an integral part of the modern style of guerilla warfare. The durability, accuracy and power of modern sniper rifles are beyond anyDuring World War II, the (7.62×54mmR) Mosin-Nagant rifle thing in use even 10 years ago and would seem amazing in mounted with a telescopic sight was commonly used as a sniper comparison to any World War II sniper rifles.* [16] Now rifle by Russian snipers. sniper rifles are extremely reliable and are able to fire repeatedly without losing accuracy, whereas earlier sniper During the War, the accuracy of the sniper rifle was rifles would lose accuracy the more consistently they were greatly improved.* [8] By the end of World War II snipers used due to wear and tear.* [17] Sniper rifles continue to were reported to provide“reasonable accuracy”over 600 be adapted and improved upon with the effective range m (656 yd) with anything over this range being unpre- of modern sniper rifles exceeding 1,000 m (1,094 yd), dictable.* [9] It was during World War I and II that the which make it one of the most accurate, deadly and effiwordʻsniperʼbegan to be used commonly, whereas pre- cient weapons in use now.* [17] viously those who were armed with sniper rifles were referred to as sharpshooters, or marksmen.* [10] These marksmen, wielding sniper rifles, had a drastic and demoralizing effect on the battlefield.* [11] Soldiers would often remain hidden in foxholes, or trenches so as not to expose themselves to the deadly accuracy of a sniper. Some soldiers even began to disregard orders from commanding officers to protect against potential harm, which thus broke down the chain of command on the battlefield.* [12] The sniper rifle soon acquired the reputation of being one of the most effective and ruthless weapons of war.* [13] Though sniper rifles had proved to be extremely effective in combat, there was still a great reluctance for many militaries to adopt a trained sniper regiment.* [14] To effectively use a sniper rifle a soldier had to go through particularly rigorous training, and most people did not make it past the first week.* [15] Sniper training was so expensive
41.2 Classification Modern sniper rifles can be divided into two basic classes: military and law enforcement.
41.2.1 Military Sniper rifles manufactured for military service are often designed for very high durability, range, reliability, sturdiness, serviceability and repairability under adverse environmental and combat conditions, at the sacrifice of a small degree of accuracy. Military snipers and sharpshooters may also be required to carry their rifles and other equipment for long distances, making it important to minimize weight. Military organizations often operate
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41.3 Distinguishing characteristics
U.S. Marine Corps SRT sniper team with an M24 sniper rifle, during sniper training.
Looking through a telescopic sight.
Macedonian special policeman holding a Zastava M76.
under strict budget constraints, which influences the type and quality of sniper rifles they purchase.
41.2.2
Law enforcement
Sniper rifles built or modified for use in law enforcement PSO-1 Sniper Scope Reticle are generally required to have the greatest possible accu- 1 - Lead/deflection scale 2 - Main targeting chevron racy, but do not need to have as long a range. Law enforcement-specific rifles are usually used in noncombat (often urban) environments, so they do not have the requirement to be as hardy or portable as military versions; therefore, they may be smaller, because they do not need very long range.
3 - Bullet drop chevrons 4 - Rangefinder
The features of a sniper rifle can vary widely depending on the specific tasks it is intended to perform. Features that may distinguish a sniper rifle from other weapons are the presence of a telescopic sight, unusually long overall Some of the first sniper rifles designed specifically to length,* [18] a stock designed for firing from a prone pomeet police and other law-enforcement requirements sition, and the presence of a bipod and other accessories. were developed for West German police after the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Many police services and law enforcement organizations (such as the 41.3.1 Telescopic sight U.S. Secret Service) now use rifles designed for law enforcement purposes. The single most important characteristic that sets a sniper The Heckler & Koch PSG1 is one rifle specifically designed to meet these criteria and is often referred to as an ideal example of this type of sniper rifle. The FN Special Police Rifle was built for, and is marketed to, law enforcement rather than military agencies.
rifle apart from other military or police small arms is the mounting of a telescopic sight, which is relatively easy to distinguish from smaller optical aiming devices found on some modern assault rifles and submachine guns. This also allows the user to see farther.
41.3. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS The telescopic sights used on sniper rifles differ from other optical sights in that they offer much greater magnification (more than 4× and up to 40×), and have a much larger objective lens (40 to 50 mm in diameter) for a brighter image. Most telescopic lenses employed in military or police roles have special reticles to aid with judgment of distance, which is an important factor in accurate shot placement due to the bullet's trajectory.
41.3.2
Action
The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic (more commonly known as recoil or gas operation) is usually determined by specific requirements of the sniper's role as envisioned in a particular organization, with each design having advantages and disadvantages. For a given cartridge, a bolt-action rifle is cheaper to build and maintain, more reliable, and lighter, due to fewer moving parts in the mechanism. In addition, the absence of uncontrolled automatic cartridge case ejection helped to avoid revealing the firer's position. Semi-automatic weapons can serve both as battle rifle and sniper rifle, and allow for a greater rate (and hence volume) of fire. As such rifles may be modified service rifles, an additional benefit can be commonality of operation with the issued infantry rifle. A bolt action is most commonly used in both military and police roles due to its higher accuracy and ease of maintenance. Anti-materiel applications such as mine clearing and special forces operations tend to use semiautomatics.
305 higher volume of fire, but sacrifice some long range accuracy. They are frequently built from existing selective fire battle rifles or assault rifles, often simply by adding a telescopic sight and adjustable stock. A police semi-automatic sniper rifle may be used in situations that require a single sniper to engage multiple targets in quick succession, and military semi-automatics such as the M110 SASS are used in similar “target-rich”environments.
41.3.3 Cartridge In a military setting, logistical concerns are the primary determinant of the cartridge used, so sniper rifles are usually limited to rifle cartridges commonly used by the military force employing the rifle and match grade ammunition. Since large national militaries generally change slowly, military rifle ammunition is frequently battletested and well-studied by ammunition and firearms experts. Consequently, police forces tend to follow military practices in choosing a sniper rifle cartridge instead of trying to break new ground with less-perfected (but possibly better) ammunition. Before the introduction of the standard 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) cartridge in the 1950s, standard military cartridges were the .30-06 Springfield or 7.62×63mm (United States), .303 British (7.7×56mmR) (United Kingdom) and 7.92×57mm (8mm Mauser) (Germany). The .30-06 Springfield continued in service with U.S. Marine Corps snipers during the Vietnam War in the 1970s, well after general adoption of the 7.62×51mm. At the present time, in both the Western world and within NATO, 7.62×51mm is currently the primary cartridge of choice for military and police sniper rifles. Worldwide, the trend is similar. The preferred sniper cartridge in Russia is another .30 caliber military cartridge, the 7.62×54 mm R, which has similar performance to the 7.62×51mm. This cartridge was introduced in 1891, and both Russian sniper rifles of the modern era, the MosinNagant and the Dragunov sniper rifle, are chambered for it.
A Marine manually extracts an empty cartridge and chambers a new 7.62×51mm round in his bolt-action M40A3 sniper rifle. The bolt handle is held in the shooter's hand and is not visible in this photo.
Certain commercial cartridges designed with only performance in mind, without the logistical constraints of most armies, have also gained popularity in the 1990s. These include the 7 mm Remington Magnum (7.2×64mm), .300 Winchester Magnum (7.8/7.62×67mm), and the .338 Lapua Magnum (8.6×70mm). These cartridges offer better ballistic performance and greater effective range than the 7.62×51mm. Though they are not as powerful as .50 caliber cartridges, rifles chambered for these cartridges are not as heavy as rifles chambered for .50 caliber ammunition, and are significantly more powerful than rifles chambered for 7.62×51mm.
A designated marksman rifle (DMR) is less specialized than a typical military sniper rifle, often only intended to extend the range of a group of soldiers. Therefore, when a semi-automatic action is used it is due to its ability to cross over into roles similar to the roles of standard issue weapons. There may also be additional logistical advantages if the DMR uses the same ammunition as the more Snipers may also employ anti-materiel rifles in sniping common standard issue weapons. These rifles enable a roles against targets such as vehicles, equipment and
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CHAPTER 41. SNIPER RIFLE attachment mount) to allow the fitting of a sound suppressor. These suppressors often have a means of adjusting the point of impact while fitted. Military sniper rifles tend to have barrel lengths of 609.6 mm (24 inches) or longer, to allow the cartridge propellant to fully burn, reducing the amount of revealing muzzle flash and increasing muzzle velocity. Police sniper rifles may use shorter barrels to improve handling characteristics. The shorter barrels' muzzle velocity loss is unimportant at closer ranges; the impact velocity of the bullet is more than sufficient.
M82A1 SASR (Special Applications Scoped Rifle or SemiAutomatic Sniper Rifle), a .50 caliber sniper rifle used as an antimateriel rifle.
41.3.5 Stock
structures, or for the long-range destruction of explosive devices; these rifles may also be used against personnel. Anti-materiel rifles tend to be semi-automatic and of a larger caliber than anti-personnel rifles, using cartridges such as the .50 BMG, 12.7×108mm Russian or even 14.5×114mm Russian and 20mm. These large cartridges are required to be able to fire projectiles containing payloads such as explosives, armor piercing cores, incendiaries or combinations of these, such as the Raufoss Mk211 projectile. Due to the considerable size and weight of anti-materiel rifles, 2- or 3-man sniper teams become necessary.
41.3.4
Barrel
Barrels are normally of precise manufacture and of a heavier cross section than more traditional barrels in order to reduce the change in impact points between a first shot from a cold barrel and a follow-up shot from a warm barrel. Unlike many battle and assault rifles, the bores are usually not chromed to avoid inaccuracy due to an uneven treatment. When installed, barrels are often free-floated: i.e., installed so that the barrel only contacts the rest of the rifle at the receiver, to minimise the effects on impact point of pressure on the fore-end by slings, bipods, or the sniper's hands. The end of the barrel is usually crowned or machined to form a rebated area around the muzzle proper to avoid asymmetry or damage, and consequent inaccuracy. Alternatively, some rifles such as the Dragunov or Walther WA2000 provide structures at the fore-end to provide tension on the barrel in order to counteract barrel drop and other alterations in barrel shape.
H-S Precision Pro Series 2000 HTR sniper rifle with adjustable stock and accessories rails.
The most common special feature of a sniper rifle stock is the adjustable cheek piece, where the shooter's cheek meets the rear of the stock. For most rifles equipped with a telescopic sight, this area is raised slightly, because the telescope is positioned higher than iron sights. A cheek piece is simply a section of the stock that can be adjusted up or down to suit the individual shooter. To further aid this individual fitting, the stock can sometimes also be adjusted for length, often by varying the number of inserts at the rear of the stock where it meets the shooter's shoulder. Sniper stocks are typically designed to avoid making contact with the barrel of the weapon.
41.3.6 Accessories An adjustable sling is often fitted on the rifle, used by the sniper to achieve better stability when standing, kneeling, or sitting. The sniper uses the sling to “lock-in” by wrapping his non-firing arm into the sling forcing his arm to be still. Non-static weapon mounts such as bipods, monopods and shooting sticks are also regularly used to aid and improve stability and reduce operator fatigue.
External longitudinal fluting that contributes to heat dis- 41.4 sipation by increasing surface area, while simultaneously decreasing the weight of the barrel, is sometimes used on 41.4.1 sniper-rifle barrels.
Capabilities Accuracy
Sniper-rifle barrels may also utilise a threaded muzzle or A military-issue battle rifle or assault rifle is usually cacombination device (muzzle brake or flash suppressor and pable of between 3-6 minute of angle (MOA) (1-2 mrad)
41.4. CAPABILITIES
Comparison of 0.5, 1, and 3 MOA extreme spread levels against a human torso at 800 m (left) and a human head at 100 m (right)
accuracy.* [19] A standard-issue military sniper rifle is typically capable of 1-3 MOA (0.3-1 mrad) accuracy, with a police sniper rifle capable of 0.25-1.5 MOA (0.10.5 mrad) accuracy. For comparison, a competition target or benchrest rifle may be capable of accuracy up to 0.15-0.3 MOA (0.05-0.1 mrad). A 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) average extreme spread for a 5-shot group (meaning the center-to-center distance between the two most distant bullet holes in a shot-group) translates into a 69% probability that the bullet's point of impact will be in a target circle with a diameter of 23.3 cm (9.2 in) at 800 m (875 yd).* [20] This average extreme spread for a 5-shot group and the accompanying hit probability are considered sufficient for effectively hitting a human shape at 800 m distance.
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Precision Weapon Engagement Ranges & Dispersion according to the US Army.
1.5 MOA (0.5 mrad) extreme vertical spread. All accuracy will be taken at the 1,500 meter point.* [29]* [30] In 2008 the US military adopted the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System which has corresponding maximum allowed extreme spread of 1.8 MOA (0.5 mrad) for a 5-shot group on 300 feet, using M118LR ammunition or equivalent.* [22]* [23]* [31] In 2010 the maximum bullet dispersion requirement for the M24 .300 Winchester Magnum corresponds* [22]* [23] to 1.4 MOA extreme spread for 5 shot group on 100 meters.* [32] Although accuracy standards for police rifles do not widely exist, rifles are frequently seen with accuracy levels from 0.5-1.5 MOA (0.2-0.5 mrad).* [33] For typical policing situations, an extreme spread accuracy level no better than 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) is usually all that is required. This is because police typically employ their rifles at short ranges.* [34] At 100 m or less, a rifle with a relatively low accuracy of only 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) should be able to repeatedly hit a 3 cm (1.2 inch) target. A 3 cm diameter target is smaller than the brain stem which is targeted by police snipers for its quick killing effect.* [35]
In 1982 a U.S. Army draft requirement for a Sniper Weapon System was: “The System will: (6) Have an accuracy of no more than 0.75 MOA (0.2 mrad) for a 5-shot group at 1,500 meters when fired from a supported, nonbenchrest position”.* [21] Actual Sniper Weapon System (M24) adopted in 1988 has stated maximum effective range of 800 meters and a maximum allowed average mean radius (AMR) of 1.9 inches at 300 yards from a machine rest, what corresponds to a 0.6 MOA (0.5 mrad) 41.4.2 Maximum effective range extreme spread for a 5-shot group when using 7.62 × 51 mm M118 Special Ball cartridges.* [22]* [23]* [24] Unlike police sniper rifles, military sniper rifles tend to be A 2008 United States military market survey for a employed at the greatest possible distances so that range Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) calls for 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) advantages like the increased difficulty to spot and engage extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 5-round group the sniper can be exploited. fired at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 meters.* [25]* [26] In 2009 a United States Special Oper- The most popular military sniper rifles (in terms of ations Command market survey calls for 1 MOA (0.3 numbers in service) are chambered for 7.62 mm (0.30 mrad) extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 10-round inch) caliber ammunition, such as 7.62×51mm and group fired at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 7.62×54mm R. Since sniper rifles of this class must meters.* [27]* [28] The 2009 Precession Sniper Rifle re- compete with several other types of military weapons quirements state that the PSR when fired without sup- with similar range, snipers invariably must employ skilled pressor shall provide a confidence factor of 80% that fieldcraft to conceal their position. the weapon and ammunition combination is capable of The recent trend in specialized military sniper rifles is holding 1 MOA extreme vertical spread. This shall be towards larger calibers that offer relatively favorable hit calculated from 150 ten (10) round groups that were probabilities at greater range, such as the anti-personnel fired unsuppressed. No individual group shall exceed .338 Lapua Magnum cartridge and anti-materiel car-
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tridges like the .50 BMG and the 14.5×114mm. This allows snipers to take fewer risks, and spend less time finding concealment when facing enemies that are not equipped with similar weapons.
[4] Raudzens, George. “War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History”. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4, 1990, p. 415.
Maximum range claims made by military organizations and materiel manufacturers regarding sniper weapon systems are not based on consistent or strictly scientific criteria. The problem is only the bullet interacts after a relatively long flight path with the target (can also be a materiel target for a sniper bullet). This implies that variables such as the minimal required hit probability, local atmospheric conditions, properties and velocity of the employed bullet (parts), properties of the target and the desired terminal effect are major relevant factors that determine the maximum effective range of the employed system.
[5] “Lovat Scouts, Sharpshooters - United Kingdom”. [6] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 31. [7] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 36 [8] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 222. [9]“Telescopic Sights For Rifles.”The British Medical Journal. vol. 1, no. 2891, 1916, p. 765. [10] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 16.
41.5 See also • Longest recorded sniper kills • Long range shooting Related military roles • Designated marksman • Scout Sniper • Sniper Related military weapons • Anti-materiel rifle • Anti-tank rifle • Assault rifle • Battle rifle • Carbine rifle • Designated marksman rifle • List of sniper rifles
[11] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19. [12] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19-20. [13] Raudzens, George. “War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History”. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4, 1990, p. 420. [14] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 6. [15] Lebleu, Jon. Long Rifle: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press, 2008, p. 11. [16] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 75. [17] Popenker, Max. “Modern sniper rifles”. World Guns, 2001. [18] The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual for Military and Police Snipers, Maj. John L. Plaster, 1993. The information about counter-sniper operations describes techniques for identifying snipers amongst groups of other soldiers. The most easily recognizable feature of a sniper from a great distance is the fact that the sniper's rifle is longer than all the others. [19] T.W. Lee. Military Technologies of the World. p. 237.
41.6 Notes [1] “Whitworth Rifle”. [2]“Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 19”By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain) [3] Pegler, Martin (2011). Out of Nowhere: A history of the military sniper, from the Sharpshooter to Afghanistan. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
[20] Statistical notes on rifle group patterns by Robert E. Wheeler [21] “AMSAA Technical report No. 461”(PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. [22] http://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf Statistical notes on rifle group patterns [23] http://enotus.blog.tut.by/2009/04/09/ rasseivanie-vyistrelov-kuchnost-pokazateli-i-zavisimost/ (in Russian)
41.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
[24] “MIL-R-71126(AR) at everyspec.com”. Retrieved 26 October 2014. [25] US Special Operations Considers A ".338”Sniper Rifle [26] “Precession Sniper Rifle - Solicitation Number: H9222209-PSR”. Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17. [27] “Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) - Solicitation Number: H92222-09-PSR2”. Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17. [28] Tom Beckstrand (2009-07-01). “SOCOM PSR Contenders”. Tactical-life.com. Retrieved 2013-08-17. [29] “Precision Sniper Rifles Systems (PSR) Draft Go/No-Go Requirements” (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. [30] “Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) Vendor Questionnaire” (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. [31] [32] “M24 Sniper Weapon System Reconfiguration”. Fbo.gov. Retrieved 2013-08-17. [33] The FBI, a national-level policing organization, has recently specified an accuracy level of 0.5 MOA for 5 shots at 100 yd for sniper rifles issued to their SWAT teams: Johnson, D: Precision Pair, Guns & Ammo, February 2005. [34] Minimum documented range is 5 yards, maximum documented range is 187 yards: Police Sniper Utilization Survey, American Sniper Association, 2006, full report available to military and law enforcement agencies only. Some information publicly available from The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual for Military and Police Snipers, Major John Plaster, 1993. [35] Police Sniper Training, Major John Plaster, 1990. [36] Approximate maximum effective ranges of common cartridges when used in an adequately accurate rifle system with special long-range high accuracy ammunition at International Standard Atmosphere sea level conditions Common Calibers Used by Snipers |- ! 7.62×39mm | 600 m |- ! 5.56×45mm | 600 m [“Philippine MSSR - Marine Scout Sniper Rifle - Sniper Central.com”. Retrieved 2009-05-22.“Marine Scout Sniper Rifle”. Retrieved 2011-09-19.]]
41.7 References • Tobias, Ronald (1981). They Shoot to Kill: A Psycho-History of Criminal Sniping. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-207-4. • De Haas, Frank (1995). Bolt Action Rifles. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87349-168-8. • Lebleu, Jon (2008). Long Rifle: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1599214405.
309 • Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History of the Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1846031403. • Pegler, Martin (2010). Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1849083980. • ""Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers"". vol. 19. Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain). 1860. • Raudzens, George (1990). ""War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History"". vol.54 (no.4). The Journal of Military History. p. 403–434. • ""Telescopic Sights for Rifles"". vol.1 (no.2891). The British Medical Journal. 1916. p. 765. • Popenker, Max (2001). “Modern Sniper Rifles”. http://world.guns.ru/sniper-e.html.
41.8 External links • Modern Firearms list of sniper rifles • SniperCentral list of sniper rifles • Tack Driving Tactical Rifle from Tac Ops ̶Detailed overview of the accurization process for a .25 MOA rifle • Detailed accuracy articles, by barrel maker Dan Lilja • Detail of Russian snipers and sniper rifles of World War Two by Chris Eger, military historian • demigodllc.com: Practical long-range rifle shooting
Chapter 42
Submachine gun cause they fire pistol-caliber ammunition, for example, the MP-40 and MP5, where “MP”stands for Maschinenpistole (“machine pistol”in German).* [5] However, the term "machine pistol" is also used to describe a handgun-style* [6] firearm capable of fully automatic or burst fire, such as the Stechkin and the H&K VP70. Personal Defence Weapons (PDW) such as the FN P90 and H&K MP7 are also commonly referred to as submachine guns.* [3] In addition, some compact assault rifles, such as the Colt XM177, HK53 and AKS-74U, are also referred to as SMGs, because they are used in the submachine gun role.* [7]
42.1 History 42.1.1 1900s to 1920s
General John T. Thompson holding a Thompson M1921
A submachine gun (SMG) is an air-cooled, magazinefed, automatic carbine designed to fire pistol cartridges. The term “submachine gun”was coined by John T. Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine gun.* [1] The submachine gun was developed during World War I (1914–1918). At its zenith in World War II (1939– 1945), millions of SMGs were made. Today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault rifles, Artillery Luger P08 pistol with snail-drum magazine and removwhich have a greater effective range and are capable of able stock. penetrating the ballistic helmets and body armor used by modern infantrymen.* [2] However, submachine guns are still widely used by police and military special forces, who value the SMG's reduced recoil and noise signature, especially when suppressed. Its reduced risk of overpenetration is also a particularly valuable trait to police forces. There are some inconsistencies in the classification of submachine guns.* [3] British Commonwealth sources often refer to SMGs as “machine carbines”.* [4]* [3] The Bergmann MP18 was the world's first practical submachine Other sources refer to SMGs as “machine pistols”be- gun 310
42.1. HISTORY In the early 20th century, experimental machine pistols were made by converting pistols such as the Luger P-08 and Mauser C96 from semiautomatic to full-automatic operation and adding detachable stocks. Carbine-type automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed during the latter stages of World War I by Italy, Germany and the United States. Their improved firepower offered an advantage in trench warfare.* [8]
311 and other U.S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use and prominently display these weapons. Eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted by many military organizations, especially as World War II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs.
In 1915, the Italians introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft 42.1.2 machine gun. It fired pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun, as it was originally designed as a mounted weapon. This odd design was then modified into the Beretta OVP carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the Beretta Model 1918 after the end of World War I. Both the Beretta OVP and the Model 1918 had a traditional wooden stock, a 25round top-fed box magazine, and had a cyclic rate of fire of 900 rounds per minute.
1930s to 1940s
The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08 pistol equipped with a larger-capacity snail-drum magazine and a longer barrel. By 1918, Bergmann Waffenfabrik had developed the MP 18, the first practical submachine gun. This weapon fired the 9×19mm Parabellum round and used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine as the Luger P-08. The MP18 was used in significant Beretta Model 38 numbers by German stormtroopers employing infiltration tactics, achieving some notable successes in the final year of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent Germany's collapse in November 1918. After WWI, the MP18 would evolve into the MP28/II SMG, which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, a semi & full auto selector, and other minor improvements.* [9]
The iconic MP40 9mm Parabellum submachine gun with stock extended.
Thompson M1921 SMG with 100 round drum magazine
The Thompson submachine gun had been in development at approximately the same time as the Bergmann and the Beretta. However, the war ended before prototypes could be shipped to Europe.* [10] Although it had missed its chance to be the first purpose-designed submachine gun to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons and had the longest active service life of the three.
Suomi M31 submachine with 70 round drum magazine attached, 20 and 50 round box magazines.
In the interwar period the “Tommy Gun”or “Chicago Typewriter”became notorious in the U.S. as a gangster's weapon; the image of pinstripe-suited James Cagney types wielding drum-magazine Thompsons caused some PPSh-41 with 71 round drum magazine military planners to shun the weapon. However, the FBI
312
CHAPTER 42. SUBMACHINE GUN 1938 was not available in large numbers until 1943. The 38 was made in a successive series of improved and simplified models all sharing the same basic layout. The Beretta has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear for full-auto. Most Models use standard wooden stocks, although, some models were fitted with an MP 40-style under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the German SMG. The 38 series was extremely robust and proved very popular with both Axis forces and Allied troops (who used captured Berettas).* [11] It is considered the most successful and effective Italian small arm of World War II. The 38 series is the longest serving of the worlds SMGs, and later models can still be seen in the hands of Italian military and police forces.
STEN MK II
M3 “Grease Gun”top & M1A1 “Tommy Gun”bottom
Czechoslovak Sa vz. 25
In 1939, the Germans introduced the 9 mm Parabellum MP38 during the invasion of Poland. However, the MP38 production was still just starting and only a few thousand were in service at the time. It proved to be far more practical and effective in close quarters combat than the standard-issue German Kar 98K bolt-action rifle. From it, the nearly identical, MP40 was developed and made in large numbers; about a million were made during World War II. The MP40 was lighter than the MP38. It also used more stamped parts, making it faster and cheaper to produce.* [12] The MP38 and MP40 were the first SMGs to use plastic furniture and a practical folding stock.* [12] They would set the fashion for all future SMG designs.* [12] During the Winter War, the badly outnumbered Finnish used the Suomi KP/−31 in large numbers against the Russians with devastating effect.* [13] Finnish ski troops became known for appearing out of the woods on one side of a road, raking Soviet columns with SMG fire and disappearing back into the woods on the other side. During the Continuation War, the Finnish Sissi patrols would often equip every soldier with KP/−31s. The Suomi fired 9 mm Parabellum ammo from a 71-round drum magazine (although often loaded with 74 rounds). “This SMG showed to the world the importance of the submachine gun to the modern warfare.”* [13] Prompting the development, adoption and mass production of submachine guns by most of the World's armies. The Suomi was used in combat until the end of Lapland war, was widely exported* [13] and remained in service to the late 1970s.
In 1940, the Russians introduced the 7.62×25mm PPD40 and later PPSh-41 in response to their experience during the Winter War against Finland. The PPSh's 71 round drum magazine is a copy of the Suomi magazine. The USSR would go on to make over 6 million PPSh-41 by the end of World War II. The Soviet Union had fielded large numbers of submachine guns, with whole infantry battalions being armed with little else. Even in the hands MAT-49 on display of conscripted soldiers with minimal training, the volume of fire produced by massed submachine guns could be The Italians were among the first to develop submachine overwhelming. guns during World War I. However, they were slow to In 1941, Britain adopted the 9 mm Parabellum produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model
42.1. HISTORY Lanchester submachine gun. Following the Dunkirk evacuation, and with no time for the usual research and development for a new weapon, it was decided to make a direct copy of the German MP 28. However, the Lanchester proved to be difficult and expensive to manufacture. Shortly thereafter, the much simpler, cheaper and faster to make STEN submachine gun was developed. Over 4 million STEN Guns were made during World War II. The STEN gun was so cheap and easy to make that Germany started manufacturing their own copy (the MP 3008) towards the end of World War II. After the war, the British replaced the STEN with the Sterling submachine gun. Britain also used many M1928 Thompson submachine guns during World War II.
313 in Africa and the Middle East with variants made by several countries. The vz. 23 inspired the development of the Uzi submachine gun.* [15] In 1949, France introduced the MAT-49 to replace the hodgepodge of French, American, British, German and Italian SMGs in French service after WWII. The 9mm Parabellum MAT-49 is an inexpensive stamped steel SMG with a telescoping wire stock, a pronounced folding magazine housing and a grip safety. This“wildebeast like design”proved to be an extremely reliable and effective SMG, and was used by the French well into the 1980s. It was also widely exported to Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
The United States and its allies used the Thompson submachine gun, especially the simplified M1. However, 42.1.3 the Thompson was still expensive and slow to produce. Therefore, U.S. developed the M3 submachine gun or “Grease Gun”in 1942, followed by the improved M3A1 in 1944. The M3 was not more effective than the Tommy Gun. However, it was made primarily of stamped parts and welded together. So, it could be produced much faster and at fraction of the cost of a Thompson. It could be configured to fire either .45 ACP or 9mm Luger ammunition. The M3A1 was among the longest serving submachine guns designs, being produced into the 1960s and serving in US forces into the 1980s.
1950s to 1990s
After World War II, "...new submachine gun designs appeared almost every week to replace the admittedly rough The UZI and ready designs which had appeared during the war. Some (the better ones) survived, most rarely got past the glossy brochure stage.”* [14] Most of these survivors were cheaper, easier and faster to make than their predecessors. As such, they were widely distributed. In 1945, Sweden introduced the 9mm Parabellum Carl Gustav M/45 with a design borrowing from and improving on many design elements of earlier submachine-gun designs. It has a tubular stamped steel receiver with a side folding stock. The M/45 was widely exported, and especially popular with CIA operatives and U.S. Special Forces during the Vietnam War. In U.S. service it was known as the “Swedish-K”. In 1946, Denmark introduced the Madsen M-46, and in 1950, an improved model the Madsen M-50. These 9mm Parabellum stamped steel SMGs featured a unique clamshell type design, a side folding stock and a gripsafety on the magazine housing. The Madsen was widely exported and especially popular in Latin America, with variants made by several countries.
Beretta M12S
In 1948, Czechoslovakia introduced the Sa vz. 23 series. This 9mm Parabellum SMG introduced several innovations: a progressive trigger for selecting between semiautomatic and full auto fire, a telescoping bolt that extends forward wrapping around the barrel and a vertical handThe Heckler & Koch MP5 grip housing the magazine and trigger mechanism. The vz. 23 series was widely exported and especially popular In 1954, Israel introduced a 9mm Parabellum open-bolt,
314
CHAPTER 42. SUBMACHINE GUN
blowback-operated submachine gun called the Uzi (af- larly when loaded with subsonic ammunition. Variants of ter its designer Uziel Gal). The Uzi was one of the first the Sterling and Heckler & Koch MP5 have been manuweapons to use a telescoping bolt design with the maga- factured with integral suppressors. zine housed in the pistol grip for a shorter weapon. The Uzi has become one of the most popular submachine guns in the world, with over 10 million units sold,* [16] more 42.2 Personal defense weapons than any other submachine gun.* [17] In 1959, Beretta introduced the Model 12. This 9mm Parabellum submachine gun was a complete break with previous Beretta designs.* [18] It is a small, compact, very well made SMG and among the first to use telescoping bolt design.* [18] The M12 was designed for mass production and was made largely of stamped steel and welded together.* [18] It is identified by its tubular shape receiver, double pistol grips, a side folding stock and the magazine housed in front of the trigger guard. The M12 uses the same magazines as the Model 38 series. In the 1960s, Heckler & Koch developed the 9mm Parabellum MP5 submachine gun. The MP5 is based on FN P90 the G3 rifle and uses the same closed-bolt roller-delayed blowback operation system. This makes the MP5 more accurate than open-bolt SMGs, such as the UZI. The MP5 is also one of the most widely used submachine guns in the world,* [19] having been adopted by 40 nations and numerous military, law enforcement, intelligence, and security organizations.* [20] In the 1970s, extremely compact submachine guns, such as the .45ACP Mac-10 and .380 ACP Mac-11, were developed to be used with silencers or suppressors.* [21] While these SMGs received enormous publicity, and were prominently seen in films and television, they were not widely adopted by military or police forces.* [21] These smaller weapons led other manufacturers to develop their own compact SMGs, such as the Micro-UZI and the H&K MP5K. In the 1980s, Colt developed the Colt SMG and in the 1990s Izhmash developed the Vityaz-SN. Both are 9mm An MP7A1 with a 20-round magazine, and a reflex sight Parabellum, closed-bolt blowback-operated SMGs based Developed during the late 1980s, the personal defense on the M16 and AK-47 rifles respectively, and are widely weapon (PDW) is touted as a further evolution of the used by their country's police and security forces. submachine gun. The PDW was created in response to a NATO request for a replacement for 9×19mm Parabellum submachine guns. The PDW is a compact au42.1.4 Today tomatic weapon that can defeat enemy body armor and which can be used conveniently by non-combatant and Today, submachine guns are facing stiff competition from support troops, and as a close quarters battle weapon for compact assault rifles. Factors such as the increasing use special forces and counter-terrorist groups.* [22]* [23] of body armor and logistical concerns have combined to Introduced in 1991, the FN P90 features a bullpup delimit the appeal of submachine guns. As a result, com- sign with a futuristic appearance. It has a 50-round magpact assault rifles have been replacing submachine guns azine housed horizontally above the barrel, an integrated in many roles. reflex sight and fully ambidextrous controls.* [24] A simHowever, SMGs are still used by police and military special forces units for close quarters combat. They are also used as defense weapons for vehicle and air crews. SMGs still have a strong hold on niche users, due to their reduced size, recoil and muzzle blast. Submachine guns also lend themselves to the use of suppressors, particu-
ple blowback automatic weapon, it was designed to fire the FN 5.7×28mm cartridge which can penetrate soft body armor.* [22]* [23] The P90 was designed to have a length no greater than a man's shoulder width, to allow it to be easily carried and maneuvered in tight spaces, such as the inside of an armored vehicle.* [24]
42.5. EXTERNAL LINKS
315
Introduced in 2001, the Heckler & Koch MP7 is a direct [9] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. rival to the FN P90. It is a more conventional-looking 2000. pages 116 design. The MP7 uses a short-stroke piston gas system as used on H&K's G36 and HK416 assault rifles, in place [10] Frank Iannamico, American Thunder: The Military of a blowback system traditionally seen on submachine Thompson Submachine Gun 1928, 1928A1, M1, M1A1, guns.* [25] The MP7 uses 20-, 30- and 40-round magaMoose Lake Publishing, 2000. zines and fires 4.6x30mm ammunition which can penetrate soft body armor. Due to the heavy use of polymers [11] Dunlap, Roy F., Ordnance Went Up Front, Samworth Press, (1948), p. 58 in its construction, the MP7 is much lighter than older SMG designs, being only 1.2 kg (2.65 lb) with 20-round [12] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. empty magazine. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 118-120
42.3 See also • Firearm action • List of submachine guns • Personal defense weapon • Semi-automatic pistol • Sputter Gun • Submachine gun competition • Overview of gun laws by nation
42.4 References [1] http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Thompson+ submachine+gun%3A+shooting+a+20th+century+icon. -a0172907495
[13] armies.http://world.guns.ru/smg/fi/suomi-m31-e.html [14] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 93-94 [15] Hogg, Ian V. (1979). Guns and How They Work. New York: Everest House. p. 157. ISBN 0-89696-023-4. [16] McManners, Hugh (2003). Ultimate Special Forces. New York: DK Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 0-7894-9973-8. OCLC 53221575. Retrieved 6 January 2011. [17] Hackathorn, Ken (1995). “Using the Uzi”. Fighting Firearms (Soldier of Fortune) 3 (1): 18–23. [18] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 138-139 [19] Hogg, Ian (2002). Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-00-712760-X. [20] Tilstra, Russell C. (2012). Small Arms for Urban Combat. US: McFarland. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7864-6523-1.
[2] http://www.defensereview.com/ [21] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. submachine-guns-smgs-outpaced-by-today%E2%80% by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 99s-modern-short-barreled-rifles-sbrssub-carbines-or-still-a-viable-tool-for-close-quarters-battleclose-quarters-combat-cqbcqc/ 2000. page 166 [3] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 93-94.
[22] Miller, David (2001). The Illustrated Directory of 20th Century Guns. London: Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 9781840652451.
[4] Sten Machine Carbine, by Peter Laidler & R Blake Stevens, Collector Grade Publications,Canada; 1ST edition (December 2000)
[23] Oliver, David (2007). “In the Line of Fire”. Global Defence Review. Archived from the original on October 16, 2006. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
[5] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 93-94 & 116-125.
[24] Kevin, Dockery (2007). Future Weapons. New York: Berkley Trade. ISBN 9780425217504.
[6] James Smyth Wallace. Chemical Analysis of Firearms, Ammunition, and Gunshot Residue. CRC Press. 2008. p. xxiii [7] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000. pages 125 & 166-167. [8] Curley, Robert, ed. (2009). The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World (First ed.). The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 291–292. ISBN 1-61530064-3. Retrieved 2011-05-19.
[25] Cutshaw, Charles Q. (2003).“Heckler & Koch's cuttingedge compacts G36C and MP7 PDW: when less really is more”. Guns Magazine.
42.5 External links • Submachine Gun at Encyclopædia Britannica
Chapter 43
Surveillance aircraft “ ” Northrop representative quoted by Flight International (2010) In order to be surveillance, it is critical for the collection system, the target, and the decision maker to be in contact with each other in such a way that the actions of the enemy are relayed in real-time to those who can make decisions to counter the enemy actions.* [2] “ ” from USAF research report, 2001
A Raytheon Sentinel of the RAF showing its radar pod.
A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for surveillance̶collecting information over time. They are operated by military forces and other government agencies in roles such as intelligence gathering, battlefield surveillance, airspace surveillance, observation (e.g. artillery spotting), border patrol and fishery protection. This article concentrates on aircraft used in those roles, rather than for traffic monitoring, law enforcement and similar activities.
The terms “surveillance”and “reconnaissance”have sometimes been used interchangeably, but, in the military context, a distinction can be drawn between surveillance, which monitors a changing situation in real time, and reconnaissance, which captures a static picture for analysis. Surveillance is sometimes grouped with Intelligence, Target acquisition and Reconnaissance under the title ISTAR.
Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only Observation was the term used for surveillance when the limited defensive armament. A surveillance aircraft does main sensor was the human eye. not necessarily require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics. It may be a modified civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons (e.g. TARS) and Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
43.2 History
43.1 Definitions
43.2.1 Pre World War I
The Global Hawk family's US DoD designation - RQ4 - may belie the Block 40's true calling. “R”is the Pentagon's designator for reconnaissance, .... But the true calling ... is surveillance, not reconnaissance. … Reconnaissance missions are typically more oriented for long-term intelligence-gathering purposes. The surveillance mission is much more integral to the kill chain, with more tactically oriented operations servicing the shortterm decision-making process.* [1]
Main article: History of military ballooning In 1794, during the Battle of Fleurus, the French Aerostatic Corps balloon L'Entreprenant remained afloat for nine hours. French officers used the balloon to observe the movements of the Austrian Army, dropping notes to the ground for collection by the French Army,* [3] and also signalled messages using semaphore.* [4]
316
43.3. ROLES
317 duction of airborne radar.
43.3 Roles 43.3.1 Maritime patrol
US Navy P-3B Orion near Hawaii
Main article: Maritime patrol aircraft The first surveillance balloon, “l'Entreprenant”, 1794. Illustration from the late 19th Century.
Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of flying continuously for many hours, with a wide range of sensors. Such aircraft include the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique, 43.2.2 World War I the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the One of the first aircraft used for surveillance was the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora. Rumpler Taube during World War I, when aviators like Fred Zinn evolved entirely new methods of reconnaissance and photography. The translucent wings of the 43.3.2 Law enforcement plane made it very difficult for ground based observers to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French Main article: Surveillance § Aerial surveillance also called this plane “the Invisible Aircraft”, and it is sometimes also referred to as the “world's very first Predator UAVs have been used by the U.S. for border stealth plane”. German Taube aircraft were able to de- patrol.* [6] tect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg (1914).
43.3.3 Battlefield and airspace surveillance 43.2.3
World War II and later
During World War II, light aircraft such as the Auster were used as air observation posts. Officers from the British Royal Artillery were trained as pilots to fly AOP aircraft for artillery spotting.* [5] The air observation role was generally taken over by light observation helicopters, such as the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse, from the mid-1960s. Pre war, the British identified a need for an aircraft that could follow and observe the enemy fleet at a distance. To this end the slow-flying Airspeed Fleet Shadower and General Aircraft Fleet Shadower designs were built and flown in 1940 but they were made obsolete by the intro-
Main articles: Airborne early warning and control and Airborne ground surveillance
43.4 Current use Unmanned (UAV) surveillance aircraft have been deployed or are under development in many countries, including Israel, the UK, the United States, Canada, China, India, South Africa and Pakistan Unmanned surveillance UAVs include both airships ̶
318 such as Sky Sentinel* [7] and HiSentinel 80* [8]̶and airplanes. Most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes. Several countries adapt aircraft for electronic intelligence (ELINT) gathering. The Beech RC-12 Super King Air and Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint are examples of this activity.
43.5 See also • MikroKopter • Reconnaissance aircraft • Treaty on Open Skies
43.6 References [1] Next generation of Global Hawks ready to roll, Flight International, August 16, 2010 [2] The Rise of Surveillance, Lt Col James O. Norman, USAF (page 18) [3] F. Stansbury Haydon, Military Ballooning During the Early Civil War, pp.5-15 [4] Charles Coulston Gillispie, Science and Polity in France: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years, pp. 372-373 [5] Canadian Warplane Heritage: Auster Beagle AOP [6] “LA Now – Southern California, Secember 7, 2009,”. Latimesblogs.latimes.com. December 7, 2009. Retrieved May 20, 2010. [7] Govers, Francis X., III (2013-06-11).“Nevada company launches silent Sky Sentinel UAV airship”. gizmag.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16. [8] Perry, William D. (Fall–Winter 2010). “Sentinel in the Sky” (PDF). Technology Today. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
43.7 External links • U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: “Military Use of Balloons During the Napoleonic Era” . Accessed April 1, 2007.
CHAPTER 43. SURVEILLANCE AIRCRAFT
Chapter 44
United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the largest branch the United States of the Armed Forces of the United States that performs • Supporting the national policies land-based military operations; and is one of the seven Uniformed services of the United States. As the largest • Implementing the national objectives and senior branch of the U.S. military, the modern U.S. Army has its roots in the Continental Army, which was • Overcoming any nations responsible for aggressive formed (14 June 1775) to fight the American Revolutionacts that imperil the peace and security of the United ary War (1775–83)̶before the U.S. was established as a States country.* [5] After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, to replace the disbanded Continental 44.2 History Army.* [6]* [7] The United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its inMain article: History of the United States Army stitutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775.* [5] As a uniformed military service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army, which is one of the three mil- 44.2.1 Origins itary departments of the Department of Defense. The U.S. Army is headed by a civilian officer, the Secretary of the Army, and by a chief military officer, the Chief of Staff of the Army. The ranking officer of the U.S. Army is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In the fiscal year 2011, the Regular Army (USA) reported a strength of 546,057 soldiers; the Army National Guard (ARNG) reported 358,078 soldiers, and the United States Army Reserve (USAR) reported 201,166 soldiers; the combined-component strength of the U.S. Army was 1,105,301 soldiers.* [3] As a branch of the armed forces, the mission of the U.S. Army is “to fight and win our Nation's wars, by providing prompt, sustained, land dominance, across the full range of military operations and the spectrum of conflict, in support of combatant commanders.”* [8] Storming of Redoubt#10 in the Siege of Yorktown during the
44.1 Mission
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
The Continental Army was created on 14 June 1775 The United States Army serves as the land-based branch by the Continental Congress as a unified army for the of the U.S. Armed Forces. §3062 of Title 10 US Code colonies to fight Great Britain, with George Washington defines the purpose of the army as:* [9]* [10] appointed as its commander.* [5] The army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial • Preserving the peace and security and providing militias and who brought much of British military herfor the defense of the United States, the Common- itage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, wealths and possessions and any areas occupied by French aid, resources, and military thinking influenced 319
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the new army. A number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught the army Prussian tactics and organizational skills.
caused his Indian Confederacy to collapse. Following ending victories in the province of Upper Canada, which dubbed the U.S. Army “Regulars, by God!", British troops were able to capture and burn Washington. The regular army, however, proved they were professional and capable of defeating the British army during the invasions of Plattsburgh and Baltimore, prompting British agreement on the previously rejected terms of a status quo ante bellum. Two weeks after a treaty was signed (but not ratified), Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and became a national hero. Per the treaty both sides returned to the status quo with no victor.
The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the enemy was weakest, to wear down the British forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles around New York City in 1776 and Philadelphia in 1777. With a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental The army's major campaign against the Indians was Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars given land certificates and disbanded in a reflection of the (1818–58) to finally defeat the Seminoles and move them republican distrust of standing armies. State militias be- to Oklahoma. The usual strategy in Indian wars was to came the new nation's sole ground army, with the excep- seize control of the Indians winter food supply, but that tion of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one was no use in Florida where there was no winter. The battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. How- second strategy was to form alliances with other Indian ever, because of continuing conflict with Native Amer- tribes, but that too was useless because the Seminoles had icans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field destroyed all the other Indians*when they entered Florida a trained standing army. The Regular Army was at first in the late eighteenth century. [11] very small, and after General St. Clair's defeat at the Battle of the Wabash, the Regular Army was reorganized as the Legion of the United States, which was established in 1791 and renamed the “United States Army”in 1796.
44.2.2
The U.S. Army fought and won the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), which was a defining event for both countries.* [12] The U.S. victory resulted in acquisition of territory that eventually became all or parts of the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming and New Mexico.
19th century
Further information: Army on the Frontier The War of 1812, the second and last American war
The Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders during the defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
against the United Kingdom, was less successful for the U.S. than the Revolution and Northwest Indian War against natives had been, though it ended on a high note for Americans also. After the taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the Americans were able to seize parts of western Upper Canada, Burn York and Defeat Tecumseh, which
The American Civil War was the most costly war for the U.S. in terms of casualties. After most slave states, located in the southern U.S., formed the Confederate States of America, C.S. troops led by former U.S. Army officers, mobilized a very large fraction of Southern white manpower. Forces of the United States (the“Union”or “the North”) formed a large new volunteer army. For the first two years Confederate forces did well in set battles but lost control of the border states.* [13] The Confederates had the advantage of defending a very large country in an area where disease caused twice as many deaths as combat. The Union pursued a strategy of seiz-
44.2. HISTORY ing the coastline, blockading the ports, and taking control of the river systems. By 1863 the Confederacy was being strangled. Its eastern armies fought well, but the western armies were defeated one after another until the Union forces captured New Orleans in 1862 along with the Tennessee River. In the famous Vicksburg Campaign of 1862–65, Ulysses Grant seized the Mississippi River and cut off the Southwest. Grant took command of Union forces in 1864 and after a series of battles with very heavy casualties, he had Lee under siege in Richmond as William T. Sherman captured Atlanta and marched through Georgia and the Carolinas. Lee lost his Confederate capital in April 1865 and was captured at Appomattox Court House; the other Confederate armies quickly surrendered.
321 sure safety to lives and property. In 1916, Pancho Villa, a major rebel leader, attacked Columbus, New Mexico, prompting a U.S. intervention in Mexico until 7 February 1917. They fought the rebels and the Mexican federal troops until 1918. The United States joined World War I in 1917 on the side of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and other allies. U.S. troops were sent to the front and were involved in the last offences that ended the war. With the armistice in November 1918, the army once again decreased its forces.
The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6.4% in the North and 18% in the South.* [14] Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army had the mission of containing western tribes of Native Americans on their reservations. There were many forts set up, and several campaigns. The key battles of the Spanish–American War of 1898 were fought by the Navy. Using mostly new volunteers, the US Army defeated Spain in land campaigns in Cuba and played the central role in suppressing a rebellion in 3rd battalion, 504th PIR advance in a snowstorm behind a tank, January 1945 the Philippines.
44.2.3
20th century
American soldiers hunt Japanese infiltrators during the Bougainville Campaign
For a list of campaigns see List of United States Army campaigns during World War II Assault on a German bunker, France, circa 1918
Starting in 1910, the army began acquiring fixed-wing aircraft.* [15] In 1910, Mexico was having a civil war, peasant rebels fighting government soldiers. The army was deployed to American towns near the border to en-
The U.S. joined World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. On the European front, U.S. Army troops formed a significant portion of the forces that captured North Africa and Sicily. On D-Day and in the subsequent liberation of Europe and defeat of Nazi Germany, millions of U.S. Army troops played a central role. In the
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Pacific, U.S. Army soldiers participated alongside U.S. Marines in capturing the Pacific Islands from Japanese control. Following the Axis surrenders in May (Germany) and August (Japan) of 1945, army troops were deployed to Japan and Germany to occupy the two defeated nations. Two years after World War II, the Army Air Forces separated from the army to become the United States Air Force in September 1947 after decades of attempting to separate. Also, in 1948, the army was desegregated by order of President Harry S. Truman.
army due to the use of drafted personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating restrictions placed on the military by American political leaders. While American forces had been stationed in the Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence & advising/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American forces effectively established and maintained control of the “traditional”battlefield, however they struggled to counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tacThe end of World War II set the stage for the East–West confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak tical level, American soldiers (and *the U.S. military as a whole) did not lose a sizable battle. [16] of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation of a possible Soviet attack.
A U.S. Army infantry patrol moves up to assault the last North Vietnamese Army position at Dak To, South Vietnam during Operation Hawthorne
U.S. Army soldiers look upon an Atomic bomb test of Operation Buster-Jangle at the Nevada Test Site during the Korean War
During the Cold War, American troops and their allies fought Communist forces in Korea and Vietnam. The Korean War began in 1950, when the Soviets walked out of a U.N. Security meeting, removing their possible veto. Under a United Nations umbrella, hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops fought to prevent the takeover of South Korea by North Korea, and later, to invade the northern nation. After repeated advances and retreats by both sides, and the PRC People's Volunteer Army's entry into the war, the Korean Armistice Agreement returned the peninsula to the status quo in 1953.
During the 1960s the Department of Defense continued to scrutinize the reserve forces and to question the number of divisions and brigades as well as the redundancy of maintaining two reserve components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.* [17] In 1967 Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara decided that 15 combat divisions in the Army National Guard were unnecessary and cut the number to 8 divisions (1 mechanized infantry, 2 armored, and 5 infantry), but increased the number of brigades from 7 to 18 (1 airborne, 1 armored, 2 mechanized infantry, and 14 infantry). The loss of the divisions did not set well with the states. Their objections included the inadequate maneuver element mix for those that remained and the end to the practice of rotating divisional commands among the states that supported them. Under the proposal, the remaining division commanders were to reside in the state of the division base. No reduction, however, in total Army National Guard strength was to take place, which convinced the governors to accept the plan. The states reorganized their forces accordingly between 1 December 1967 and 1 May 1968.
The Total Force Policy was adopted by Chief of Staff of the Army General Creighton Abrams in the aftermath of the Vietnam War and involves treating the three components of the army – the Regular Army, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve as a single force.* [18] Believing that no U.S. president should be able to take the The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point for the United States (and more specifically the U.S. Army) to
44.2. HISTORY
323 which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces. The campaign ended in total victory, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet lines, in just one hundred hours.
After Operation Desert Storm, the army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s but did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities. In 1990 the Department of Defense issued guidance for“rebalancing”after a review of the Total Force Policy,* [21] but in 2004, Air War College scholars concluded the guidance would reverse the Total Force Policy M1 Abrams move out before the Battle of Al Busayyah during which is an “essential ingredient to the successful application of military force.”* [22] the Gulf War war without the support of the American people, Gen- 44.2.4 eral Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended operations impossible, without the involvement of both the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.* [19]
21st century
The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater emphasis on training and technology. The GoldwaterNichols Act of 1986 created unified combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four military services under unified, geographically organized command structures. The army also played a role in the invasions of Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury) and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause).
Army Rangers from the 1st Ranger Battalion conduct a MOUT exercise at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
U.S. Army soldiers prepare to take La Comandancia in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City during the United States invasion of Panama
Army Rangers take part in a raid during operation in Nahr-e Saraj, Afghanistan
By 1989 Germany was nearing reunification and the Cold War was coming to a close. Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. By November 1989 Pentagon briefers were laying out plans to reduce army end strength by 23%, from 750,000 to 580,000.* [20] A number of incentives such as early retirement were used. In 1990 Iraq invaded its smaller neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces, quickly deployed to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991 Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S.-led coalition
On September 11, 2001, 53 Army civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers were among the 125 victims killed in the Pentagon in a terrorist attack when American Airlines Flight 77 commandeered by five Al-Qaeda hijackers slammed into the western side of the building, as part of the September 11 attacks.* [23] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude was the highest-ranking military official killed at the Pentagon, and the most senior U.S. Army officer killed by foreign action since the death of Lieutenant General Simon B.
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Buckner, Jr. on June 18, 1945, in the Battle of Okinawa during World War II.* [24] In response to the September 11 attacks, and as part of the Global War on Terror, U.S. and NATO forces invaded Afghanistan in October 2001, displacing the Taliban government. The U.S. Army also led the combined U.S. and allied invasion of Iraq in 2003. In the following years the mission changed from conflict between regular militaries to counterinsurgency, resulting in the deaths of more than 4,000 U.S service members (as of March 2008) and injuries to thousands more.* [25]* [26] 23,813 insurgents* [27] were killed in Iraq between 2003–2011. The army's chief modernization plan was the FCS program. Many systems were canceled and the remaining were swept into the BCT modernization program. U.S. general officers, World War II, Europe In response to Budget sequestration in 2013 the army is planned to shrink to a size not seen since the WWII buildup.* [28] The 2015 expenditure for Army research, development and acquisition changed from $32 billion the U.S. Volunteers on four separate occasions during projected in 2012 for FY15, to $21 billion for FY15 exeach of the major wars of the nineteenth century. Dur* pected in 2014. [29] ing World War I, the "National Army" was organized to fight the conflict, replacing the concept of U.S. Volunteers.* [32] It was demobilized at the end of World War 44.3 Organization I, and was replaced by the Regular Army, the Organized Reserve Corps, and the State Militias. In the 1920s and 1930s, the“career”soldiers were known as the "Regular Main article: Structure of the United States Army Army" with the “Enlisted Reserve Corps”and “Officer Reserve Corps”augmented to fill vacancies when needed.* [33] In 1941, the "Army of the United States" was founded to fight World War II. The Regular Army, Army of the United States, the National Guard, and Officer/Enlisted Reserve Corps (ORC and ERC) existed simultaneously. After World War II, the ORC and ERC were combined into the United States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the draft.* [33] organization chart* [30]
44.3.1
Army components
The task of organizing the U.S. Army commenced in 1775.* [31] In the first one hundred years of its existence, the United States Army was maintained as a small peacetime force to man permanent forts and perform other non-wartime duties such as engineering and construction works. During times of war, the U.S. Army was augmented by the much larger United States Volunteers which were raised independently by various state governments. States also maintained full-time militias which could also be called into the service of the army.
Currently, the army is divided into the Regular Army, the Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard.* [32] The army is also divided into major branches such as Air Defense Artillery, Infantry, Aviation, Signal Corps, Corps of Engineers, and Armor. Before 1903 members of the National Guard were considered state soldiers unless federalized (i.e., activated) by the President. Since the Militia Act of 1903 all National Guard soldiers have held dual status: as National Guardsmen under the authority of the governor of their state or territory and, when activated, as a reserve of the U.S. Army under the authority of the President.
Since the adoption of the total force policy, in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, reserve component soldiers have taken a more active role in U.S. military operations. For example, Reserve and Guard units took part in the Gulf War, peacekeeping in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and the By the twentieth century, the U.S. Army had mobilized 2003 invasion of Iraq.
44.3. ORGANIZATION
44.3.2
325
Army commands and army service four military services belonging to the Department of Defense who advise the President of the United States, the component commands
Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council on operational military matters, under the guidance of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Headquarters, United States Department of the of Staff.* [50]* [51] In 1986, the Goldwater–Nichols Act Army (HQDA): mandated that operational control of the services follows Source: U.S. Army organization* [47] a chain of command from the President to the Secretary of Defense directly to the unified combatant commanders, who have control of all armed forces units in their 44.3.3 Structure geographic or function area of responsibility. Thus, the secretaries of the military departments (and their respecMain article: Transformation of the United States Army tive service chiefs underneath them) only have the responThe United States Army is made up of three components: sibility to organize, train and equip their service components. The army provides trained forces to the combatant commanders for use as directed by the Secretary of Defense.* [52]
U.S. Army Soldiers of 1st Battalion, 175th Infantry Regiment, Maryland Army National Guard conduct an urban cordon and search exercise as part of the army readiness and training evaluation program in the mock city of Balad at Fort Dix, NJ
The 1st Cavalry Division's combat aviation brigade performs a mock charge with the horse detachment
the active component, the Regular Army; and two reserve components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as battle assemblies or unit training assemblies (UTAs), and conduct two to three weeks of annual training each year. Both the Regular Army and the Army Reserve are organized under Title 10 of the United States Code, while the National Guard is organized under Title 32. While the Army National Guard is organized, trained and equipped as a component of the U.S. Army, when it is not in federal service it is under the command of individual state and territorial governors; the District of Columbia National Guard, however, reports to the U.S. President, not the district's mayor, even when not federalized. Any or all Soldiers from the 6th Infantry Regiment taking up positions on a of the National Guard can be federalized by presidential street corner during a foot patrol in Ramadi, Iraq order and against the governor's wishes.* [48] The army is led by a civilian Secretary of the Army, who Through 2013, the army is shifting to six geographical has the statutory authority to conduct all the affairs of commands that will line up with the six geographical unithe army under the authority, direction and control of fied combatant commands (COCOM): the Secretary of Defense.* [49] The Chief of Staff of the Army, who is the highest-ranked military officer in the • United States Army Central headquartered at Shaw army, serves as the principal military adviser and execAir Force Base, South Carolina utive agent for the Secretary of the Army, i.e., its ser• United States Army North headquartered at Fort vice chief; and as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a body composed of the service chiefs from each of the Sam Houston, Texas
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• United States Army South headquartered at Fort 44.3.4 Sam Houston, Texas
Regular combat maneuver organizations
• United States Army Europe headquartered at Clay The U.S. Army currently consists of 10 active divisions Kaserne, Wiesbaden, Germany as well as several independent units. The force is in the process of contracting after several years of growth. In • United States Army Pacific headquartered at Fort June 2013, the Army announced plans to downsize to 32 Shafter, Hawaii active combat brigade teams by 2015 to match a reduction in active duty strength to 490,000 soldiers. Army Chief • United States Army Africa headquartered at of Staff Raymond Odierno has projected that by 2018 the Vicenza, Italy Army will eventually shrink to “450,000 in the active component, 335,000 in the National Guard and 195,000 in U.S. Army Reserve.”* [53] Within the Army National Guard and United States Army Reserve there are a further eight divisions, over fifteen maneuver brigades, additional combat support and combat service support brigades, and independent cavalry, infantry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and support battalions. The Army Reserve in particular provides virtually all psychological operations and civil affairs units. United (FORSCOM): U.S. Army Special Forces soldiers from the 3rd Special Forces Group patrol a field in the Gulistan district of Farah, Afghanistan
States
Army
Forces
Command
For a description of US Army tactical organizational structure, see: a US context, and also a global context.
The army is also changing its base unit from divisions to brigades. Division lineage will be retained, but the divi44.3.5 Special operations forces sional headquarters will be able to command any brigade, not just brigades that carry their divisional lineage. The central part of this plan is that each brigade will be modular, i.e., all brigades of the same type will be exactly United States Army Special Operations Command the same, and thus any brigade can be commanded by (Airborne) (USASOC): any division. As specified before the 2013 end-strength re-definitions, the three major types of ground combat brigades are:
44.4 Personnel
• Armor brigade, with strength of 4,743 troops, and be equivalent to a mechanized infantry or tank Main articles: Ranks and Insignia of NATO, United States Army officer rank insignia and United States brigade as of 2014. Army enlisted rank insignia • Stryker brigades, with strength of 4,500 troops, and be based on the Stryker family of vehicles as of These are the U.S. Army ranks authorized for use to2014. day and their equivalent NATO designations. Although no living officer currently holds the rank of General of • Infantry brigades, with strength of 4,413 troops, and the Army, it is still authorized by Congress for use in be equivalent to a light infantry or airborne brigade wartime. as of 2014. In addition, there are combat support and service support modular brigades. Combat support brigades include aviation (CAB) brigades, which will come in heavy and light varieties, fires (artillery) brigades (now transforms to division artillery), and battlefield surveillance brigades. Combat service support brigades include sustainment brigades and come in several varieties and serve the standard support role in an army.
44.4.1 Commissioned officers Main article: Commissioned Officers There are several paths to becoming a commissioned officer* [57] including the United States Military Academy, Reserve Officers' Training Corps, and Officer Candidate School. Regardless of which road an officer takes, the in-
44.4. PERSONNEL
327
signia are the same. Certain professions, including physicians, pharmacists, nurses, lawyers, and chaplains are commissioned directly into the army and are designated by insignia unique to their staff community. Most army commissioned officers are promoted based on an “up or out”system. The Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980 establishes rules for timing of promotions and limits the number of officers that can serve at any given time. Army regulations call for addressing all personnel with the rank of general as 'General (last name)' regardless of the number of stars. Likewise, both colonels and lieutenant colonels are addressed as 'Colonel (last name)' and first and second lieutenants as 'Lieutenant (last name).'* [58]
44.4.2
Warrant officers
Main article: Warrant officers Warrant officers* [57] are single track, specialty officers with subject matter expertise in a particular area. They are initially appointed as warrant officers (in the rank of WO1) by the Secretary of the Army, but receive their commission upon promotion to chief warrant officer two Rangers practice fast roping techniques from an MH-47 during (CW2). an exercise at Fort Bragg By regulation, warrant officers are addressed as 'Mr. (last name)' or 'Ms. (last name).'* [58] However, many person44.4.4 Training nel address warrant officers as 'Chief (last name)'. Enlisted soldiers say “sir”or “ma'am”when addressing Training in the U.S. Army is generally divided into two them. categories – individual and collective. Basic training consists of 10 weeks for most recruits followed by Advanced Individualized Training (AIT) where they receive training for their military occupational specialties (MOS). Some individuals MOSs range anywhere from 14–20 weeks of 44.4.3 Enlisted personnel One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which combines Basic Training and AIT. The length of AIT school varies Main article: Enlisted personnel by the MOS The length of time spent in AIT depends on the MOS of the soldier, and some highly technical MOS Sergeants and corporals are referred to as NCOs, short for training may require many months (e.g., foreign language non-commissioned officers.* [57]* [60] This distinguishes translators). Depending on the needs of the army, Basic corporals from the more numerous specialists, who have Combat Training for combat arms soldiers is conducted the same pay grade but do not exercise leadership respon- at a number of locations, but two of the longest-running sibilities. are the Armor School and the Infantry School, both at Privates (E1 and E2) and privates first class (E3) are ad- Fort Benning, Georgia. dressed as 'Private (last name)', specialists as 'Specialist (last name)', corporals as 'Corporal (last name)', and sergeants, staff sergeants, sergeants first class, and master sergeants all as 'Sergeant (last name).' First sergeants are addressed as 'First Sergeant (last name)', sergeants major are addressed as 'Sergeant Major (last name)' and command sergeants major are addressed as 'Command Sergeant Major (last name)'.* [58]
Following their basic and advanced training at the individual-level, soldiers may choose to continue their training and apply for an “additional skill identifier” (ASI). The ASI allows the army to take a wide ranging MOS and focus it into a more specific MOS. For example, a combat medic, whose duties are to provide prehospital emergency treatment, may receive ASI training to become a cardiovascular specialist, a dialysis specialist,
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or even a licensed practical nurse. For commissioned officers, ASI training includes pre-commissioning training either at USMA, or via ROTC, or by completing OCS. After commissioning, officers undergo branch specific training at the Basic Officer Leaders Course, (formerly called Officer Basic Course), which varies in time and location according their future assignments. Further career development is available through the Army Correspondence Course Program.
Lockheed Martin Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system used by the army for ballistic missile protection
but M11 pistol is also used and M9 pistol is to be replaced by M11 pistol through the Modular Handgun System program.* [63] Marksmanship training
Collective training at the unit level takes place at the unit's assigned station, but the most intensive training at higher echelons is conducted at the three combat training centers (CTC); the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California, the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) at Fort Polk, Louisiana, and the Joint Multinational Training Center (JMRC) at the Hohenfels Training Area in Hohenfels, Germany. ARFORGEN is the Army Force Generation process approved in 2006 to meet the need to continuously replenish forces for deployment, at unit level, and for other echelons as required by the mission. Individual-level replenishment still requires training at a unit level, which is conducted at the continental US (CONUS) replacement center at Fort Bliss, in New Mexico and Texas, before their individual deployment.
Many units are supplemented with a variety of specialized weapons, including the M249 SAW (Squad Automatic Weapon), to provide suppressive fire at the fireteam level.* [64] Indirect fire is provided by the M203 grenade launcher. The M1014 Joint Service Combat Shotgun or the Mossberg 590 Shotgun are used for door breaching and close-quarters combat. The M14EBR is used by designated marksmen, and the M107 Long Range Sniper Rifle, the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle, and the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper Rifle are used by snipers. Hand grenades, such as the M67 fragmentation grenade and M18 smoke grenade, are also used.
44.5 Equipment Main article: Equipment of the United States Army 3rd Infantry Division soldiers manning an M1A1 Abrams in Iraq
44.5.1
Weapons
Individual weapons
Crew served weapons
The army employs various individual weapons to provide light firepower at short ranges. The most common weapons used by the army are the compact variant of the M16 rifle, the M4 carbine,* [62] as well as the 7.62x51 mm variant of the FN SCAR for Army Rangers. The primary sidearm in the U.S. Army is the 9 mm M9 pistol
The army employs various crew-served weapons to provide heavy firepower at ranges exceeding that of individual weapons. The M240 is the US Army's standard Medium Machine Gun.* [65] The M2 heavy machine gun is generally used as a vehicle-mounted machine gun. In the same way, the
44.5. EQUIPMENT
329
40 mm MK 19 grenade machine gun is mainly used by will be used for training, and the remainder will be spread motorized units.* [66] across the active force. The Oshkosh M-ATV will be kept The US Army uses three types of mortar for indirect fire the most at 5,681 vehicles, as it is smaller and lighter than support when heavier artillery may not be appropriate or other MRAPs for off-road mobility. The other most reavailable. The smallest of these is the 60 mm M224, tained vehicle will be the Navistar MaxxPro Dash with normally assigned at the infantry company level.* [67] 2,633 vehicles, plus 301 Maxxpro ambulances. ThouAt the next higher echelon, infantry battalions are typ- sands of other MRAPs like the Cougar,* BAE Caiman, ically supported by a section of 81 mm M252 mor- and larger MaxxPros will be disposed of. [77] tars.* [68] The largest mortar in the army's inventory is The U.S. Army's principal artillery weapons are the the 120 mm M120/M121, usually employed by mecha- M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer* [78] and the nized units.* [69] M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS),* [79] Fire support for light infantry units is provided by towed both mounted on tracked platforms and assigned to heavy howitzers, including the 105 mm M119A1* [70] and the mechanized units. 155 mm M777 (which will replace the M198).* [71] The US Army utilizes a variety of direct-fire rockets and missiles to provide infantry with an Anti-Armor Capability. The AT4 is an unguided projectile that can destroy armor and bunkers at ranges up to 500 meters. The FIM-92 Stinger is a shoulder-launched, heat seeking anti-aircraft missile. The FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are anti-tank guided missiles.
44.5.2
Vehicles
While the U.S. Army operates a few fixed-wing aircraft, it mainly operates several types of rotary-wing aircraft. These include the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter,* [80] the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior armed reconnaissance/light attack helicopter,* [81] the UH-60 Black Hawk utility tactical transport helicopter,* [82] and the CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift transport helicopter.* [83] Restructuring plans call for reduction of 750 aircraft and from 7 to 4 types.* [84] Fixed wing aircraft used by the US Army are for nonfront line combat and light transport roles. The army relies on the United States Air Force for airlift capabilities.
44.5.3 Uniforms Main article: Uniforms of the United States Army
A US soldier on patrol with the support of a Humvee vehicle
The Army Combat Uniform, or ACU, currently features a digital Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP) and is designed for use in woodland, desert, and urban environments. However, Soldiers operating in Afghanistan are being issued a fire-resistant ACU with the "MultiCam" pattern, officially known as Operation Enduring Freedom Camouflage Pattern or “OCP”.* [85]
The army's most common vehicle is the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), commonly called the Humvee, which is capable of serving as a cargo/troop carrier, weapons platform, and ambulance, among many other roles.* [72] While they operate a wide variety of combat support vehicles, one of the most common types centers on the family of HEMTT vehicles. The M1A2 Abrams is the army's main battle tank,* [73] while the M2A3 Bradley is the standard infantry fighting vehicle.* [74] Other vehicles include the Stryker,* [75] and the M113 armored personnel carrier,* [76] and multiple types of Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles. The Pentagon bought 25,000 MRAP vehicles since 2007 in 25 variants through rapid acquisition with no long-term plans for the platforms. The Army plans to divest 7,456 The Ranger Honor Platoon marching in dress uniform. vehicles and retain 8,585. Of the total number of vehicles the Army will keep, 5,036 will be put in storage, 1,073 The standard garrison service uniform is known as Army
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Greens or Class-As and has been worn by all officers and enlisted personnel since its introduction in 1956 when it replaced earlier olive drab (OD) and khaki (and tan worsted or TW) uniforms worn between the 1950s and 1985. The Army Blue uniform, dating back to the mid19th century, is currently the Army's formal dress uniform, but in 2013, it replaced the Army Green, and in 2014 it will replace the Army White uniform (a uniform similar to the Army Green uniform, but worn in tropical postings) and will become the new Army Service Uniform, which will function as both a garrison uniform (when worn with a white shirt and necktie) and a dress uniform (when worn with a white shirt and either a necktie for parades or a bow tie for after six or black tie events).
welfare, and recreation (MWR) facilities, and security checkpoints. Furthermore, most of these tents are set up and operated through the support of Natick Soldier Systems Center. The U.S. Army is beginning to use a more modern tent called the deployable rapid assembly shelter or DRASH. In 2008, DRASH became part of the Army's Standard Integrated Command Post System.* [86]
44.5.5 3D printing In November 2012 the United States Army developed a tactical 3D printing capability to allow it to rapidly manufacture critical components on the battlefield. (BBC)
Berets The Army black beret (having been permanently replaced with the patrol cap) is no longer worn with the new ACU for garrison duty. After years of complaints that it wasn't suited well for most work conditions, Army Chief of Staff General Martin Dempsey eliminated it for wear with the ACU in June 2011. Soldiers may still wear colored berets who are currently in an airborne unit (maroon beret), Rangers (tan beret), and Special Forces (green beret) and may wear it with the Army Service Uniform for nonceremonial functions. Unit commanders may still direct the wear of patrol caps in these units in training environments or motor pools.
44.5.4
Tents
Main article: Tent The army has relied heavily on tents to provide the var-
44.6 See also • List of wars involving the United States • America's Army (Video games for recruitment) • Army National Guard • Comparative military ranks • History of the US Army • List of active United States military aircraft • List of former United States Army medical units • Officer Candidate School (United States Army) • ROTC / JROTC • Timeline of United States military operations • Transformation of the United States Army • U.S. Army Regimental System • United States Military Academy • United States Army Basic Training • United States Army Center of Military History • U.S. Soldier's Creed • United States Volunteers
A DRASH maintenance facility in Iraq
• Vehicle markings of the United States military
ious facilities needed while on deployment. The most common tent uses for the military are as temporary barracks (sleeping quarters), DFAC buildings (dining facilities), forward operating bases (FOBs), after action review (AAR), tactical operations center (TOC), morale,
• Warrant Officer Candidate School (United States Army) • Army CHESS (Computer Hardware Enterprise Software and Solutions)
44.7. REFERENCES
44.7 References [1] Wright, Jr., Robert K. (1983). The Continental Army (Army Lineage Series). Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. ISBN 9780160019319. OCLC 8806011. [2] Maass, John R. “June 14th: The Birthday of the U.S. Army”. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 30 October 2013. [3] Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Staff (Human Resources/G-1), “Army Demographics – FY12 Army Profile” (demographics brochure) [4] Us Future Combat & Weapon Systems Handbook By Ibp Usa, p.15 [5] “14 June: The Birthday of the U.S. Army”. United States Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 1 July 2011. an excerpt from Robert Wright, The Continental Army [6] Library of Congress, Journals of the Continental Congress, Volume 27 [7] “Army Birthdays”. United States Army Center of Military History. 15 November 2004. Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved Jun 2010. [8] “The United States Army - Organization”. army.mil. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [9] DA Pamphlet 10-1 Organization of the United States Army; Figure 1.2 Military Operations. [10] “10 USC 3062: Policy; composition; organized peace establishment”. US House of Representatives. Retrieved 21 Aug 13. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) [11] Ron Field and Richard Hook, The Seminole Wars 1818– 58 (2009) [12] “The U.S.-Mexican War - PBS”. pbs.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [13] McPherson, James M., ed. The Atlas of the Civil War, (Philadelphia, PA, 2010) [14] Maris Vinovskis (1990). "Toward a social history of the American Civil War: exploratory essays". Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-521-39559-3 [15] Cragg, Dan, ed., The Guide to Military Installations, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, 1983, p. 272.
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[20] An Army at War: Change in the Midst of Conflict, p. 515, via Google Books [21] Section 1101, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1990 and 1991, Department of Defense Interim Report to Congress, September 1990. (See "rebalancing" as used in finance.) [22] Downey, Chris, The Total Force Policy and Effective Force, Air War College, 19 March 2004. [23] Background: The Pentagon Victims [24] “9/11 a day of remembrance”. The Star Press. Muncie, Indiana. [25] Lafta, R; Doocy, S; Roberts, L (2006). John Pike, ed. “U.S. Casualties in Iraq”. The Lancet (GlobalSecurity.org, published 4 September 2007) 368 (9545): 1421– 1428. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69491-9. PMID 17055943. Archived from the original (WEB PAGE) on 5 September 2007. Retrieved 16 January 2012. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help) [26] The Human Cost of the War in Iraq: A Mortality Study, 2002–2006 PDF (603 KB). By Gilbert Burnham, Shannon Doocy, Elizabeth Dzeng, Riyadh Lafta, and Les Roberts. A supplement to the second Lancet study. [27] 597 killed in 2003,, 23,984 killed from 2004 through 2009 (with the exceptions of May 2004 and March 2009), 652 killed in May 2004, 45 killed in March 2009, 676 killed in 2010, 451 killed in 2011 (with the exception of February), thus giving a total of 26,405 dead. [28] Shanker, Thom; Cooper, Helene (23 February 2014). “Pentagon Plans to Shrink Army to Pre-World War II Level”. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 23 February 2014. [29] Drwiega, Andrew. "Missions Solutions Summit: Army Leaders Warn of Rough Ride Ahead" Rotor&Wing, June 4, 2014. Accessed: June 8, 2014. [30] DA Pam 10-1 Organization of the United States Army; Figure 1-1. '"Army Organizations Execute Specific Functions and Assigned Missions” [31] Organization of the United States Army: America's Army 1775 – 1995, DA PAM 10–1. Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, 14 June 1994.
[16] Woodruff, Mark. Unheralded Victory: The Defeat of the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army 1961–1973 (Arlington, VA: Vandamere Press, 1999).
[32] Finnegan, John Patrick; Romana Danysh (1998).“Chapter 2: World War I”. In Jeffrey J. Clarke. Military Intelligence. Army Lineage Series. Washington, D.C., United States: Center of Military History United States Army. online. ISBN 0-16-048828-1. OCLC 35741383.
[17] Wilson, John B. (1997). Maneuver and Firepower: The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, Chapter XII, for references see Note 48.
[33] Pullen, Randy (23 April 2008). “Army Reserve Marks First 100 Years”. DefenceTalk. Archived from the original (ONLINE ARTICLE) on 24 April 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
[18] Army National Guard Constitution
[34] http://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/pdf/go1204.pdf
[19] Carafano, James, Total Force Policy and the Abrams Doctrine: Unfulfilled Promise, Uncertain Future, Foreign Policy Research Institute, 3 February 2005.
[35] “Commanding General” (PDF). United States Army, Surface Deployment and Distribution Command. 7 September 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
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[36] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1202.pdf
[67] M224, U.S. Army Fact Files
[37] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1402.pdf
[68] M252, U.S. Army Fact Files
[38] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1026.pdf
[69] M120, U.S. Army Fact Files
[39] U.S. Army (1 October 2010). “Army establishes Army Cyber Command”. army.mil. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[70] M119, U.S. Army Fact Files
[40] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1475.pdf [41] The Relationship of U. S. Army Cyber Command and Second Army, U.S. Army Cyber Command, last accessed 12 January 2015
[71] John Pike. “M777 Lightweight 155mm howitzer (LW155)". globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [72] HMMWV, U.S. Army Fact Files [73] Abrams, U.S. Army Fact Files [74] Bradley, United States Army Fact Files
[42] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1215.pdf
[75] Stryker, U.S. Army Fact Files
[43] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go0633.pdf
[76] M113, U.S. Army Fact Files
[44] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1390.pdf
[77] “Majority of MRAPs to be scrapped or stored”, Military Times, 5 January 2014
[45] “First Army - Mission”. army.mil. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [46] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1102.pdf [47] Organization, United States Army [48] Perpich v. Department of Defense, 496 U.S. 334 (1990)
[78] Paladin, Army.mil [79] MLRS, U.S. Army Fact Files [80] Apache, U.S. Army Fact Files [81] Kiowa, U.S. Army Fact Files [82] Blackhawk, U.S. Army Fact Files
[49] 10 U.S.C. 3013 [50] 10 U.S.C. 3033 [51] 10 U.S.C. 151 [52] 10 U.S.C. 162 [53] http://www.army.mil/article/140768/CSA__SMA_ hold_virtual_town_hall/ CSA Odierno and SMA Chandler virtual town hall, Jan 6, 2015
[83] Chinook, U.S. Army Fact Files [84] Stevenson, Beth (22 January 2015),“US Army continues to face financial challenge of rotary fleet maintenance”, Flightglobal (Reed Business Information), archived from the original on 23 January 2015, retrieved 23 January 2015 [85] Lopez, C. (20 February 2010). “Soldiers to get new cammo pattern for wear in Afghanistan”. US Army. Retrieved 22 February 2010.
[54] “Army to cut 10 BCTs, reorganize the rest | Army Times” [86] NG, DHS Technologies to support SICPS/TMSS United . armytimes.com. Retrieved 2013-07-10. Press International [55] “2nd ID unit in Korea to deactivate, be replaced by rotational force”. Stars and Stripes. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
44.8 Further reading
[56] http://www.armytimes.com/story/military/2015/01/14/ south-korean-troops-form-combined-division-with-us-army-2nd-infantry-korea-combined-division/ 21748841/ • Bailey, Beth. America's Army: Making the All[57] From the Future Soldiers Web Site. [58] Army Regulation 600-20 [59] “Department of Defense - Officer Rank Insignia”. defense.gov. Retrieved 1 April 2015. [60] From the Enlisted Soldiers Descriptions Web Site. [61] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r600_20.pdf [62] M4. U.S. Army Fact Files [63] M9 pistol. U.S. Army Fact Files [64] M249, U.S. Army Fact Files [65] M240, U.S. Army Fact Files [66] MK 19, U.S. Army Fact Files
Volunteer Force Hardcover (2009) excerpt • Bluhm, Jr,, Raymond K. (Editor-in-Chief); Andrade, Dale; Jacobs, Bruce; Langellier, John; Newell, Clayton R.; Seelinger, Matthew (2004). U.S. Army: A Complete History (Beaux Arts ed.). Arlington, VA: The Army Historical Foundation. p. 744. ISBN 978-0-88363-640-4. • Kretchik, Walter E. U.S. Army Doctrine: From the American Revolution to the War on Terror (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 392 pages; studies military doctrine in four distinct eras: 1779–1904, 1905–1944, 1944–1962, and 1962 to the present. • Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War (Cambridge University Press, 2014). 484 pp. online review
44.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
44.9 External links • Army.mil – United States Army official website • GoArmy.com – official recruiting site • U.S. Army Collection – Missouri History Museum • Finding Aids for researching the US Army (compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History) • US-militaria.com – The US Army during the second world war • This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Army Center of Military History document “Army Birthdays”.
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Chapter 45
United States Marine Corps “USMC”redirects here. For other uses, see USMC (disambiguation).
45.1 Mission
The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness. The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch As outlined in 10 U.S.C. § 5063 and as originally introof the United States Armed Forces responsible for pro- duced under the National Security Act of 1947, it has viding power projection from the sea,* [7] using the mo- three primary areas of responsibility: bility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the four • The seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and branches in the U.S. Department of Defense as a memother land operations to support naval campaigns; ber of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. • The development of tactics, technique, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces in coordiThe Marine Corps has been a component of the U.S. Denation with the Army and Air Force; and * * partment of the Navy since 1834, [8] [9] working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics.* [10] The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, and several of the Marines' tactical aviation squadrons, primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the Navy's nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.* [11]
• Such other duties as the President may direct.
Two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as an Infantry force capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore.* [12] The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as “America's third air force”and “second land army”.* [13] The Marine Corps has distinguished itself as it has served in the majority of American wars, from its inception to the modern era, and attained prominence in the 20th century when its theories and practices of amphibious warfare proved prescient and ultimately formed the cornerstone of the Pacific campaign of World War II.* [14] By the mid-20th century, the U.S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist and the dominant practitioner of amphibious warfare.* [15]* [16]* [17] Its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy.* [18] The USMC has around 194,000 active duty members and just under 40,000 reserve Marines as of 2010.* [3] It is the smallest of the U.S. Armed Forces within the U.S. Department of Defense.* [19]* [20]* [21]
A Marine Corporal and Lance Corporal of 3rd Battalion, 6th Marines engaging the enemy during Operation Moshtarak in Afghanistan's Helmand Province.
This last clause, while seemingly redundant given the President's position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts “For the Better Organization of the
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45.1. MISSION Marine Corps” of 1834, and “Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps” of 1798. In 1951, the House of Representatives' Armed Services Committee called the clause “one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps.”It noted that the corps has more often than not performed actions of a non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli, the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counterinsurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While these actions are not accurately described as support of naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature, using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign affairs on behalf of American interests.* [22]
A U.S. Marine Security Guard reviews a security system at a U.S. embassy in December 2004.
In addition to its primary duties, the Marine Corps has missions in direct support of the White House and the State Department. The Marine Band, dubbed the“President's Own”by Thomas Jefferson, provides music for state functions at the White House.* [23] Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., guard presidential retreats, including Camp David, and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide helicopter transport to the President and Vice President, with the call signs "Marine One" and “Marine Two”, respectively.* [24] By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service Act, the Marine Security Guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies, legations, and consulates at more than 140 posts worldwide.* [25]
45.1.1
Historical mission
The Marine Corps was founded to serve as an infantry unit aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and its crew by conducting offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions and de-
335 fending the ship's officers from mutiny; to the latter end, their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned between the officers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore. America's first amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March 1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the Marine Corps has expanded significantly since then; as the importance of its original naval mission declined with changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and carriers. Marine detachments (generally one platoon per cruiser, a company for battleships or carriers) served their traditional duties as ship's landing force, manning the ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine detachments were augmented by members of the ship's company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II.* [26] During World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships. They often were assigned to man antiaircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the 1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s as the battleships were retired and nuclear weapons were withdrawn from deployment on aircraft carriers.
45.1.2 Capabilities The Marine Corps fulfills a vital role in national security as an amphibious, expeditionary, air-ground combined arms task force, capable of forcible entry from the air, land, and sea. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces. While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique combat arms, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combinedarms task force to almost anywhere in the world within days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat element and a logistics combat element under a common command element. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater–Nichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch, the Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated
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CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS of junior Marines, particularly the NCOs (corporals and sergeants), as compared with many other military organizations. The Marine Corps emphasizes authority and responsibility downward to a greater degree than the other military services. Flexibility of execution is implemented via an emphasis on "commander's intent" as a guiding principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state but leaving open the method of execution.* [29]
The amphibious assault techniques developed for World War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection from the seas.* [7] The Marines are credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were the earliest in the American military to widely adopt U.S. Marines from the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit training in maneuver-warfare principles which emphasize low-level amphibious warfare during Operation Talisman Sabre at Shoalinitiative and flexible execution. In light of recent warwater Bay in Australia fare that has strayed from the Corps' traditional missions,* [30] it has renewed an emphasis on amphibious multi-element task forces under a single command pro- capabilities.* [31] vides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.* [14] The close integration of disparate Marine units stems from an organizational culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can single-handedly win wars.* [26] Marines conduct a patrol in Iraq.
Bravo Battery, 1st Battalion, 11th Marines, a.k.a. the Beastmasters fight off Iraqi unit on 26 March 2003
This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine that “Every Marine a rifleman”, a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines, regardless of military specialization, receive training as a rifleman; and all officers receive additional training as infantry platoon commanders.* [27] For example, at Wake Island, when all of the Marine aircraft were shot down, pilots continued the fight as ground officers, leading supply clerks and cooks in a final defensive effort.* [28] As a result, a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected
The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea. This allows the ability to function as first responders to international incidents. The United States Army maintains light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, but those units do not match the combined-arms integration of a MAGTF and lack the logistics that the Navy provides.* [14] Therefore, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries and providing humanitarian relief during natural disasters. In larger conflicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Corps performed this role in World War I and the Korean War, where Marines were the first significant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the country could mobilize for war.* [32] To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: fleets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a
45.2. HISTORY
337
of 18 March 1794,* [36] which specified the numbers of The USMC is planning to reduce its logistical require- Marines to be recruited for each frigate. ments and by 2025 eliminate all liquid fuel use for Marine Expeditionary Forces, except for highly efficient vehicles.* [33] Marine Expeditionary Force to deploy for 30 days.
45.1.3
Doctrine
Two small manuals published during the 1930s would establish USMC doctrine in two areas. The Small Wars Manual laid the framework for Marine counterinsurgency operations from Vietnam to Iraq and Afghanistan while the Tentative Landing Operations Manual established the doctrine for the amphibious op- The battle between Hornet and Penguin, the final engagement erations of World War II. "Operational Maneuver from between British and American forces during the War of 1812, the Sea" is the current doctrine of power projection.* [7] which led to the capture and destruction of the British ship by Marine infantry troops.
45.2 History Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps
45.2.1
Origins
The Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (1801–1805) against the Barbary pirates,* [37] when William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500 mercenaries in an effort to capture Tripoli. Though they only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' hymn and the Mameluke Sword carried by Marine officers.* [38] During the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war, which were the first and last engagements of the conflict. Their most significant contribution was holding the center of Gen. Andrew Jackson's defensive line at the Battle of New Orleans, the final major battle of the conflict. By the end of the war, most notably during the capture of HMS Cyane, Levant and Penguin, the final engagements between British and American forces, the Marines had acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen, especially in ship-to-ship actions.* [38]
Continental Marines land at New Providence during the Battle of Nassau, the first amphibious landing of the Marine Corps.
The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed by Captain Samuel Nicholas by a resolution of the Second Continental Congress on 10 November 1775, to raise 2 battalions of Marines. That date is regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine Corps' birthday. At the end of the American Revolution, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded in April 1783. The institution itself would not be resurrected until 11 July 1798. At that time, in preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Marine Corps.* [34] Marines had been enlisted by the War Department as early as August 1797* [35] for service in the new-build frigates authorized by the Congressional“Act to provide a Naval Armament”
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depression that ended with the appointment of Archibald Henderson as its fifth Commandant in 1820. Under his tenure, the Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited with thwarting President Jackson's attempts to combine and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army.* [38] Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the Navy.* [39] This would be the first of many times that the existence of the Corps was challenged. Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service in the Seminole Wars of 1835, personally leading nearly half of the entire Corps (two battalions) to war. A decade later, in the Mexican–American War (1846– 1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace in Mexico City, which would be later cele-
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CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
James Walker, Storming of Chapultepec, 1847
the Marine Corps. The Navy's transition from sail to steam put into question the need for Marines on naval ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American lives and interests overseas. The Corps was involved in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the end of the American Civil War to the end of 19th century. They would be called upon to stem political and labor unrest within the United States.* [42] Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin's tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps emblem on 19 November 1868. It was during this time that "The Marines' Hymn" was first heard. Around 1883, the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis" (Always Faithful).* [38]
brated by the phrase “From The Halls of Montezuma” in Marines' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would see further service in Panama and Asia, escorting Matthew Perry's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far East.* [40] John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867 until 1872, and again from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of the Marine Band.
During the Spanish–American War (1898), Marines led American forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized an advanced naval base that remains in use today. Between 1899 and 1916, the Corps continued its record of vigorous participation in foreign expeditions, including the Philippine–American War, the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899–1901), Panama, the Cuban Pacifications, the Perdicaris Incident in Morocco, Veracruz, Santo Domingo, and the Banana Wars in Haiti and Nicaragua; the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerFive Marines with fixed bayonets, and their NCO with his sword rilla operations during this period were consolidated into at the Washington Navy Yard, 1864 the Small Wars Manual.* [43] With their vast service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played a moderate role in the Civil War (1861– 45.2.3 1865); their most prominent task was blockade duty. As more and more states seceded from the Union, about a third of the Corps' officers left the Union to join the Confederacy and form the Confederate States Marine Corps, which ultimately played little part in the war. The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating with the rest of the Union forces.* [32] Blockade duty included sea-based amphibious operations to secure forward bases. In late November 1861, Marines and sailors landed a reconnaissance in force from the USS Flag at Tybee Island, Georgia, to occupy the Lighthouse and Martello Tower on the northern end of the island. It would later be the Army base for bombardment of Fort Pulaski.* [41]
World War I
Georges Scott, American Marines in Belleau Wood, 1918.
45.2.2
Interim: American Civil War to During World War I veteran Marines served a central role World War I
in the late American entry into the conflict. The Marine The remainder of the 19th century was marked by de- Corps had a deep pool of officers and NCOs with battle clining strength and introspection about the mission of experience, and experienced a small expansion. Here, the
45.2. HISTORY
339
The flag of the U.S. Marine Corps from 1914 to 1939.
Marines fought their famed battle at Belleau Wood, creating the Marines' reputation in modern history. While its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines' ferocity and toughness in France earned them the respect of the Germans, who rated them of stormtrooper quality. Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning "Devil Dogs", there is no evidence of this in German records (as Teufelshunde would be the proper German phrase). Nevertheless, the name stuck.* [44]
Photograph of the USMC War Memorial, which depicts the flagraising on Iwo Jima. The memorial is modeled on Joe Rosenthal's famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.
accomplished at very high losses, with 26,000 American casualties and 22,000 Japanese.* [48]
By the end of the war, the Corps expanded from two brigades to six divisions, five air wings, and supporting troops, totaling about 485,000 Marines. In addition, 20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were set raised.* [49] Nearly 87,000 Marines were casualties durThe Corps entered the war with 511 officers and 13,214 ing World War II (including nearly 20,000 killed), and 82 enlisted personnel, and by 11 November 1918 had were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [50] reached a strength of 2,400 officers and 70,000 enlisted.* [45] African-Americans were entirely excluded Despite Secretary Forrestal's prediction, the Corps faced an immediate institutional crisis following the war due to from the Marine Corps during this conflict.* [46] the low budget. Army generals pushing for a strengthened Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed and reorganized defense establishment attempted to fold by Commandant John A. Lejeune, and under his leadthe Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army. ership, the Corps presciently studied and developed amDrawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, and phibious techniques that would be of great use in World with the assistance of the so-called "Revolt of the AdmiWar II. Many officers, including Lt. Col. Earl Hanrals,"the Marine Corps rebuffed such efforts to dismantle cock“Pete”Ellis, foresaw a war in the Pacific with Japan the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine and undertook preparations for such a conflict. Through Corps in the National Security Act of 1947.* [51] Shortly 1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urafterward, in 1952 the Douglas-Mansfield Bill afforded gently for joint amphibious exercises and acquired amthe Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of phibious equipment that would prove of great use in the Staff on matters relating to the Marines and established upcoming conflict.* [47] the structure of three active divisions and air wings that remain today.
45.2.4
World War II
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War. The battles of Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Tarawa, Guam, Tinian, Cape Gloucester, Saipan, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army. The island of Iwo Jima served as the next area of battle, which began on 19 February 1945. The Japanese had learned from their defeats in the Marianas campaign and prepared many fortified positions on the island, including pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Japanese put up fierce resistance, but American forces reached the summit of Mount Suribachi on 23 February. The mission was
45.2.5 Korean War The Korean War (1950–1953) saw the hastily formed Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a flanking maneuver, General Douglas MacArthur called on Marine air and ground forces to make an amphibious landing at Inchon. The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People's Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded, surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and outnumbered American forces. X Corps, which included
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F4U Corsairs provide close air support to Marines fighting Chinese forces, December 1950.
U.S. Marines of 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines during Operation Allen Brook in Vietnam, 1968
withdrawn in 1971, and returned briefly in 1975 to evacthe 1st Marine Division and the Army's 7th Infantry Diviuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the sion, regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties during their Mayagüez.* [54] fighting withdrawal to the coast, now known as the Battle Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end, of Chosin Reservoir. 13,091* [55]* [56] had been killed in action, 51,392 had The fighting calmed after the Battle of the Chosin Reserbeen wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been voir, but late in March 1953 the relative quiet of the war awarded.* [57]* [58] Due to policies concerning rotation, was broken when the Chinese Army launched a massive more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam offensive on three outposts manned by the 5th Marine than World War II.* [59] Regiment. These outposts were codenamed “Reno”, “Vegas”, and “Carson”. The campaign was collec- While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detritively known as the Nevada Cities Campaign. There was mental low point in its service history caused by courtsbrutal fighting on Reno hill, which was eventually cap- martial and non-judicial punishments related partially to tured by the Chinese. Although Reno was lost, the 5th increased unauthorized absences and desertions during Marines held both Vegas and Carson through the rest of the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late the campaign. In this one campaign, the Marines suf- 1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once qualfered approximately 1,000 casualties, while the Chinese ity of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on resuffered at least twice as many. Marines would continue forming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its * a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 forces. [14] * armistice. [52] The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 reg- 45.2.7 ulars to a force of 261,000 Marines, mostly reservists. 30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [53]
45.2.6
Interim: Vietnam War to the War on Terrorism
Vietnam War
The Marine Corps served an important role in the Vietnam War taking part in such battles as Da Nang, Hue City, Con Thien and Khe Sanh. Individuals from the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the Viet Cong, along with an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less-known Combined Action Program Beirut Memorial at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune (CAP) that implemented unconventional techniques for counter-insurgency and worked as military advisers to After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Marines resumed the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps. Marines were their expeditionary role, participating in the failed 1980
45.2. HISTORY
341
Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) and the invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause). On 23 October 1983, the Marine headquarters building in Beirut, Lebanon, was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines and 21 other service members were killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from the country. The year 1990 saw Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge save thousands of lives by evacuating British, French and American nationals from the violence of the Liberian Civil War. U.S. Marines conducting a dawn patrol in Afghanistan's Nawa District, Helmand Province (May 2010).
Following the attacks on 11 September 2001, President George W. Bush announced the Global War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is “the defeat of Al-Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any nation that supports or harbors terrorists.”* [61] Since then, the Marine Corps, alongside other military and federal agencies, has engaged in global operations around the world in support of that mission. U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines during the Desert Storm deployment in 1990-1991
During the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), Marine task forces formed the initial core for Operation Desert Shield, while United States and Coalition troops mobilized, and later liberated Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm.* [38] Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia (1992–1995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian relief.* [60] In 1997, Marines took part in Operation Silver Wake, the evacuation of American citizens from the US Embassy in Tirana, Albania.
45.2.8
In spring 2009, President Barack Obama's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts which did not result in significant changes in the Corps' budget and programs, cutting only the VH-71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program.* [62]* [63]* [64] However, the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of recommended cuts in late 2010.* [65] In light of budget sequestration in 2013, commandant Amos set a goal of a force of 174,000 Marines.* [66] He testified that this was the minimum number that would allow for an effective response to even a single contingency operation, but it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases to time deployed down to a historical low level.* [67]
Global War on Terrorism Afghan Campaign (Operation Enduring FreedomAfghanistan)
U.S. Marines from 1st Battalion, 7th Marines enter a palace in Baghdad in April 2003.
Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom.* [68] The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were the first conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November 2001, and in December, the Marines seized Kandahar International Airport.* [69] Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through, engaging Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit flooded into the Taliban-held town of Garmsir on 29 April 2008, in Helmand Province, in the first major American operation
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solve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury) and saw intense fighting in such places as Ramadi, AlQa'im and Hīt.* [73] Their time in Iraq has courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident.* [68]* [74] The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge reduced levels of violence. On 1 March 2009, at Camp Lejeune, President Obama announced an accelerated withdrawal, promising all troops out by August 2010.* [75] The Marine Corps officially ended its role in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when they handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the United States Army.* [75]* [76] US Marines would ultimately return to U.S. Marines dismounting from an Assault Amphibious Vehicle Iraq in the summer of 2014, in response to growing vioin Djibouti. lence there.* [77] Horn of Africa Operations in the region in years.* [70] In June 2009, 7,000 Marines with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in an effort to improve security,* [71] and began Operation Strike of the Sword the next month. In February 2010, the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade launched the largest offensive of the Afghan Campaign since 2001, the Battle of Marjah, to clear the Taliban from their key stronghold in the Helmand Province. After Marjah, Marines progressed north up the Helmand River and cleared the towns of Kajahki and Sangin. Marines remained in the Helmand Province until 2014. Iraq Campaign (Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, Operation Inherent Resolve)
Throughout the Global War on Terrorism, the US Marines have supported operations in Africa to counter Islamic extremism and piracy in the Red Sea. In late 2002, Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security.* [78] Despite transferring overall command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007.* [79] See Operation Enduring Freedom- Horn of Africa.
45.3 Organization Main article: Organization of the United States Marine Corps The Department of the Navy, led by its Secretary, is the federal government agency which oversees the Marine Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine officer is the Commandant, responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the Combatant Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four principal subdivisions: the Headquarters (HQMC), the Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).
U.S. Marines during the Second Battle of Fallujah in November 2004.
The U.S. Marines served prominently in the Iraq War's Operation Iraqi Freedom. The I Marine Expeditionary Force, along with the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq.* [72] The Marines left Iraq in the summer of 2003, but returned for occupation duty in the beginning of 2004. They were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During this occupation, the Marines spearheaded both assaults on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Re-
The Operating Forces are divided into three categories: Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unified commands, Security Forces guarding high-risk naval installations, and Security Guard detachments at American embassies. Under the “Forces for Unified Commands” memo, in accordance with the Unified Command Plan approved by the President, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the Combatant Commands at the discretion of the Secretary of Defense. Since 1991, the Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at each of the regional unified combatant commands.* [80] Marine Corps Forces are divided into Forces Command (MARFORCOM) and Pacific Command (MARFORPAC), each headed by a Lieutenant General. MARFOR-
45.3. ORGANIZATION
343
COM has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC has operational control of the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.* [32]
bilities into the other services. Leading this movement were such prominent Army officers as General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall.* [51] With most of the 2000s spent in operations The Supporting Establishment includes the Combat De- in Afghanistan and Iraq, Secretary of Defense Robert that the Marines are becomvelopment Command (MCCDC), the Logistics Com- Gates has voiced concerns * ing a “second Army”. [30] mand, the Recruiting Command and its depots, administration of Marine bases and air stations, and the Marine Doctrinally, the Marine Corps' focus is on being expeBand. ditionary and independent, and places emphasis on amphibious mobility and combined arms; these make it a much lighter force than many units of the Army. A larger 45.3.1 Relationship with other services percentage of the Marine Corps' personnel and assets are in the combat arms (infantry, artillery, armor, and close In general, the Marine Corps shares many resources air support) than the Army. However, the Army mainwith the other branches of the United States military. tains much larger and diverse combat arms (infantry, arHowever, the Corps has consistently sought to main- mor, artillery, special operations), ground transport, lotain its own identity with regards to mission, funding, gistics, while the Marines have a more diverse aviation and assets, while utilizing the support available from the arm (which constitutes a larger percentage of forces), and larger branches. While the Marine Corps has far fewer is usually organic to the MAGTF. Marines operate as exinstallations both in the U.S. and worldwide than the peditionary units and are completely amphibious. The other branches, many Army posts, Naval stations, and Air Marine Corps focus on standardized infantry units with Force bases have a Marine presence. They also cross train the other arms in support roles as the “Every Marine a with other countries. rifleman”creed shows. This commitment to standardized units can be seen in the short-lived experiment of the Marine Raiders, born in World War II, was controverUnited States Army sial. While the U.S. Army's 75th Ranger Regiment, also born in World War II, enjoys high prestige to this day. Main article: United States Army The Army has a longer continuous tradition of special The Marine Corps combat capabilities in some ways operations forces; the Marines joined the Special Operations Command with the establishment of MCSOCOM Detachment One in 2003.* [81] The Marines often leverage the Army's acquisition of ground equipment (as well as benefiting from Army research and development resources), training resources, and other support concepts. The majority of vehicles and weapons are shared with, modified, or inherited from Army programs. Culturally, Marines and soldiers share most of the common U.S. military slang and terminology, but the Corps utilizes a large number of naval terms and traditions incompatible with the Army lifestyle, as well as their own unique vernacular. Many Marines regard their culture to have a deep warrior tradition, with the ethos that “Every Marine a rifleman”and emphasis on cross-training A soldier from the 1st Infantry Regiment provides security for a joint Army-Marine patrol in Rawa in 2006. The shoulder sleeve and combat readiness despite actual job, be it infantry or otherwise. One source states Marines tend to decentralinsignia has the logo of the 2nd Marine Division. ize and push leadership to lower levels, while fostering * overlap those of the United States Army, the latter hav- initiative to a greater degree. [82] ing historically viewed the Corps as encroaching on the Army's capabilities and competing for funding, missions, and renown. The attitude dates back to the founding of United States Navy the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be Main article: United States Navy drawn from among his Continental Army. Most signifi- The Marine Corps' counterpart under the Department cantly, in the aftermath of World War II, Army efforts to of the Navy is the United States Navy. As a result, the restructure the American defense establishment included Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more the dissolution of the Corps and the folding of its capa- so than with other branches of the military. Whitepa-
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CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS and Religious Programs Specialists, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting land operations to support naval campaigns, including the seizure of naval and air bases. Both services operate a network security team in conjunction.
Marines and Sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and other awards;* [26] and with few exceptions, the awards and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical. Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done at NAS Patuxent River. The Navy's Blue Angels flight Assault Amphibious Vehicles approach the well deck of USS Bon- demonstration team is staffed by both Navy and Marine homme Richard. officers and enlisted men, and includes a Marine C-130 Hercules aircraft.* [26] pers and promotional literature have commonly used the phrase“Navy-Marine Corps Team”,* [83]* [84] or refer to “the Naval Service”. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps report directly to the Secretary of the Navy. Cooperation between the two services really begins with the training and instruction of Marines. The Corps receives a significant portion of its officers from the United States Naval Academy and Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC). NROTC staff includes Marine instructors, while Marine drill instructors contribute to training of officers in the Navy's Officer Candidate School. Marine aviators are trained in the Naval Aviation training pipeline and are winged as Naval Aviators.
In 2007, the Marine Corps joined with the Navy and Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war.* [85] This new strategy charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, man-made or natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to avoid negative impacts to the United States. The Marines have reduced the requirement for large amphibious ships from 42 to a bare minimum of 33 ships; the fleet currently stands at 29 ships and is likely to shrink in the future.* [86] United States Air Force Main article: United States Air Force While the majority of Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, some support is drawn from the United States Air Force. The Marine Corps makes extensive use of the USAF Air Mobility Command to airlift Marines and equipment.
Marine and sailor train with rifles in Djibouti.
Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the fight, for example, the Maritime Prepositioning ships and naval gunfire support. Most Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, with regard to acquisition, funding, and testing, and Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Marines do not recruit or train noncombatants such as chaplains or medical/dental personnel; naval personnel fill these roles. Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital Corpsmen
The Air Force traditionally provides the Joint Force Air Component Commander who controls “sorties for air defense, and long range interdiction and reconnaissance” while the MAGTF commander retains control of the Marines' organic aviation assets.* [87]* [88] The Marines provide some ground training for Air Force ground personnel, but most is handled by the Army.* [89]
45.3.2 Air-ground task forces Main article: Marine Air-Ground Task Force Today, the basic framework for deployable Marine units is the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a flexible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a
45.3. ORGANIZATION
Marines unload CH-46 helicopters from an Air Force C-5 Galaxy.
345
A team of Marine Force Recon operators training during a Maritime Interdiction Operation (MIO) exercise-example of black operations.
45.3.3 Special Operations
ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE)* [90] under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The MAGTF structure reflects a strong tradition in the Corps towards self-sufficiency and a commitment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, timesensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as well has led to a wariness of overreliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general.* [14] A MAGTF varies in size from the smallest, a Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), based around a reinforced infantry battalion and a composite squadron, up to the largest, a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which ties together a Division, an Air Wing, and a Logistics Group under a MEF Headquarters Group. The seven MEUs constantly rotate between themselves and their attached components to maintain a high state of readiness. Each MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations.* [91] The three MEFs contain the vast majority of active duty deployable forces.
Main article: United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command See also: United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions and United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance Although the notion of a Marine special forces con-
Marine special operators conduct CQB training.
tribution to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the Marine Corps. Then-Commandant Paul X. Kelley ex-
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pressed the popular belief that Marines should support Marines, and that the Corps should not fund a special operations capability that would not support Marine operations.* [92] However, much of the resistance from within the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the Corps' 15th and 26th MEU(SOC)s“sit on the sidelines” during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other special operations units actively engaged in operations in Afghanistan.* [81] After a three-year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply a 2,500-strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC), which would answer directly to USSOCOM.* [93]
and nicknamed the “Crossroads of the Marine Corps” .* [100]* [101] Marines operate detachments at many installations owned by other branches, to better share resources, such as specialty schools. Marines are also present at, and operate many, forward bases during expeditionary operations. Finally, Marines operate a presence in the National Capital Region, with Headquarters Marine Corps scattered amongst the Pentagon, Henderson Hall, Washington Navy Yard, and Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.
45.3.4
See also: List of notable United States Marines and List of historically notable United States Marines
Budget
45.4 Personnel
The Marine Corps accounts for around six percent of the military budget of the United States. The cost per Marine is $20,000 less than the cost of a serviceman from 45.4.1 Leadership the other services, and the entire force can be used for * both hybrid and major combat operations, [94] enabling it to carry out full scale military action, peacekeeping operations and humanitarian aid – the entire Three Block War. Note that these per capita costs do not account for support provided by the Navy and other branches, such as the Navy's amphibious warfare ships and long-range air transport by the USAF.* [95] However given expected defense budget cuts, the Marines are well positioned for “fielding cheap options for an uncertain world.”* [96] The Marine Corps budget is comparably well handled with a tiny fraction of the Anti-Deficiency Act violations of any of the other three major branches.* [97] In 2013, the Joseph F. Dunford, Jr., USMC became the first American military branch to ever Commandant of the Marine Corps have a fully audited annual budget.* [98]
45.3.5
Marine Corps bases and stations
Main article: List of United States Marine Corps installations The Marine Corps operates many major bases, 14 of which host operating forces, several support and train- John M. Paxton, Jr., ing installations, as well as satellite facilities.* [99] Ma- Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps rine Corps' bases are concentrated around the locations of the Marine Expeditionary Forces, though reserve units are scattered throughout the United States. The principal bases are Camp Pendleton on the West Coast, home to I MEF; Camp Lejeune on the East Coast, home to II MEF; and Camp Butler in Okinawa, Japan, home to III MEF. Other important bases include air stations, recruit depots, logistics bases, and training commands. Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in California is the Marine Corps' largest base and home to the Corps' most complex, combined-arms, live-fire Micheal P. Barrett, training. Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia is Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps home to Marine Corps Combat Development Command,
45.4. PERSONNEL As stated above, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is the highest-ranking officer of the Marine Corps; though he may not be the senior officer by time in grade and/or position of office. He is both the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very high esteem among Marines. The Commandant has the U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to man, train, and equip the Marine Corps. He does not serve as a direct battlefield commander. The Commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and reports to the Secretary of the Navy.* [102] The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as a deputy to the Commandant. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine, and acts as an adviser to the Commandant. Headquarters Marine Corps comprises the rest of the Commandant's counsel and staff, with deputy Commandants that oversee various aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities. The current and 36th Commandant is Joseph F. Dunford, Jr., who assumed the position on 17 October 2014.* [103]* [104] The 33rd and current Assistant Commandant is John M. Paxton, Jr.,* [105] while the 17th and current Sergeant Major is Micheal P. Barrett. Other Marine generals may be senior to the Commandant or Assistant Commandant in terms of time in grade and/or billet.
45.4.2
Rank structure
Main article: United States Marine Corps rank insignia As in the rest of the United States military, Marine Corps ranks fall into one of three categories: commissioned officer, warrant officer, and enlisted, in decreasing order of authority (excluding the Air Force, which does not currently appoint warrant officers). To standardize compensation, each rank is assigned a pay grade.* [106]
Commissioned officers Commissioned officers are distinguished from other officers by their commission, which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine officer. Commissioned officers carry the“special trust and confidence”of the President of the United States.* [22] Marine Corps commissioned officers are promoted based on an“up or out”system in accordance with the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980.
Warrant officers See also: Warrant officer (United States)
347 Warrant officers are primarily former enlisted experts in a specific specialized field and provide leadership generally only within that speciality.
Enlisted Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up the bulk of the Corps' ranks, usually referred to simply as “Marines”. Although they do not technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps' ethos stresses leadership among all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned responsibility normally reserved for superiors. Those in the pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines and act as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and higher are Staff Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs), charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisers to the command. The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two and three ranks per pay grade, respectively, each with different responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command-oriented, serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matters of discipline, administration and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps also E-9, is a billet conferred on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant. It is possible however for an enlisted Marine to hold a position senior to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps as has been the case since the 1 October 2011, appointment of Sergeant Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman which is deemed the senior enlisted member of the United States military. Different forms of address can be found at United States Marine Corps rank insignia and List of United States Marine Corps acronyms and expressions.
45.4.3 Military Occupational Specialty Main articles: Military Occupational Specialty and List of United States Marine Corps MOS The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) is a system of job classification. Using a four digit code, it designates what field and specific occupation a Marine performs. Segregated between officer and enlisted, the MOS determines the staffing of a unit. Some MOSs change with rank to reflect supervisory positions, others are secondary and represent a temporary assignment outside of a Marine's normal duties or special skill.
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CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS recruits must pass a fitness test to start training; those who fail receive individualized attention and training until the minimum standards are reached. Marine recruit training is the longest among the American military services; it is 12 weeks long, compared to the Army's 10 weeks and the Navy's 9 weeks.* [108]
A Warrant Officer observes recruits firing on a rifle range.
45.4.4
Initial training
Main articles: United States Marine Corps Recruit Training and Officer Candidates School (United States Marine Corps)
Following recruit training, enlisted Marines then attend School of Infantry training at Camp Geiger or Camp Pendleton. Infantry Marines begin their combat training, which varies in length, immediately with the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB). Marines in all other MOSs other than infantry train for 29 days in Marine Combat Training (MCT), learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools which vary in length.* [109]
45.5 Uniforms
Every year, over 2,000 new Marine officers are commis- Main article: Uniforms of the United States Marine sioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained.* [32] Corps All new Marines, enlisted or officer, are recruited by the The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recMarine Corps Recruiting Command.* [107] Commissioned officers are commissioned mainly through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC), Officer Candidates School (OCS), or the United States Naval Academy (USNA). Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned officers, regardless of accession route or further training requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. At TBS, second lieutenants, warrant officers, and selected foreign officers learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare.* [22]
Left to right: Utility Uniform, Dress Uniform, Service Uniform, and Evening Dress Uniform
Marine recruits at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego.
ognizable uniforms in the American military; the Blue Dress dates back to the early 19th century* [32] and the service uniform to the early 20th century. Marines' uniforms are distinct in their simplicity; Marines do not wear unit patches or United States flags on any of their uniforms, nor name tags on their service and formal uniforms. Only a handful of skills (parachutist, air crew, explosive ordnance disposal, etc.) warrant distinguishing badges, and rank insignia is not worn on uniform headgear (with the exception of an officer's garrison service cover). While other servicemembers commonly identify with a sub-group as much as or more than their service (Ranger, submariner, aircrew, etc.), Marine uniforms do not reflect such division.
Enlisted Marines attend recruit training, known as boot camp, at either Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego or Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Historically, the Mississippi River served as the dividing line which delineated who would be trained where, while more recently, a district system has ensured a more even distribution of male recruits between the two MCRD facili- Marines have three main uniforms: Dress, Service, ties. Females attend only the Parris Island depot as part and Utility. The Marine Corps Dress uniform is the of the segregated Fourth Recruit Training Battalion. All most elaborate, worn for formal or ceremonial occasions.
45.6. CULTURE There are three different forms of the Dress uniform, the most common being the Blue Dress Uniform, called “Dress Blues”or simply “Blues”. It is most often seen in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie. There is a“Blue-White”Dress for summer, and Evening Dress for formal (white tie) occasions. Versions with a khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie/Delta) are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters and NROTC staff.* [110] The Service Uniform was once the prescribed daily work attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive green and khaki colors, it is commonly referred to as “Greens”. It is roughly equivalent in function and composition to a business suit.* [110] The Utility Uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouflage uniform intended for wear in the field or for dirty work in garrison, though it has now been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in a distinctive MARPAT pixelated camouflage (sometimes referred to as digitals or digies) that breaks up the wearer's shape, and serves to distinguish Marine uniforms from those of other services. In garrison, the woodland uniform is worn in winter, and the desert uniform is worn in summer.* [111] Marines consider the utilities a working uniform and do not permit their wear off-base, except in transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of an emergency. This, too, distinguishes them from other services, which have less stringent restrictions.* [110]
45.6 Culture Main article: Culture of the United States Marine Corps
349
45.6.1 Official traditions and customs The Marines' Hymn dates back to the 19th century and is the oldest official song in the United States armed forces. The Marine motto Semper Fidelis means always faithful in Latin, often appearing as Semper Fi; also the name of the official march of the Corps, composed by John Phillip Sousa. The mottos “Fortitudine” (With Fortitude); By Sea and by Land, a translation of the Royal Marines' Per Mare, Per Terram; and To the Shores of Tripoli were used until 1868.* [112] The Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated “EGA”, adopted in 1868.* [113] The Marine Corps seal includes the emblem, also is found on the flag of the United States Marine Corps, and establishes scarlet and gold as the official colors.* [114] Two styles of swords are worn by Marines: the officers' Mameluke Sword, similar to the Persian shamshir presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of Derna, and the Marine NCO sword.* [32] The Marine Corps Birthday is celebrated every year on 10 November in a cake-cutting ceremony where the first slice of cake is given to the oldest Marine present, who in turn hands it off to the youngest Marine present. The celebration includes a reading of Commandant Lejeune's Birthday Message.* [115] Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a Marine's initial training, incorporated into most formal events, and is used to teach discipline by instilling habits of precision and automatic response to orders, increase the confidence of junior officers and noncommissioned officers through the exercise of command and give Marines an opportunity to handle individual weapons.* [116] An important part of the Marine Corps culture is the traditional seafaring naval terminology derived from its history with the Navy.
As in any military organization, the official and unofficial 45.6.2 Unofficial traditions and customs traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps' Marines have several generic nicknames: embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason for its high esprit de corps.* [22] • Devil Dog has several oft-disputed explanations,* [117]* [118]* [119] but the tradition has expanded to include the English bulldog's association with the Corps, especially as a mascot.* [32] • gyrene has dropped out of popular use.* [120] • Leatherneck refers to a leather collar formerly part of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary War period.* [121] • Jarhead has tions.* [122] Eagle, Globe and Anchor along with the U.S. flag, the Marine Corps flag and the Commandant's flag.
several
oft-disputed
explana-
Some other unofficial traditions include mottos and exclamations:
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CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS •“Marine”is acceptable and considered complimentary by most Corps personnel. •“Former Marine”or “Veteran Marine”is acceptable in referring to anyone who has been honorably discharged from the Corps. •“Retired Marine”is generally reserved for those who have completed 20 or more years of service are called “Lifers”and formally retired or those who have been medically retired. • According to one of the“Commandant's White letters”from Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., referring to a Marine by their last earned rank is appropriate.* [125]
45.6.4 Martial arts program
A recruiting poster makes use of the“Teufel Hunden”nickname.
• Oorah is common among Marines, being similar in function and purpose to the Army's hooah and the Navy's hooyah cries. Many possible etymologies have been offered for the term.* [123] • Semper Fi is a common greeting among serving and veteran Marines. It is short for the Marine Corps Motto “Semper Fidelis” • Improvise, Adapt and Overcome has become an adopted mantra in many units.* [124] Marine performs a shoulder throw.
45.6.3
Veteran Marines
The Corps encourages the idea that“Marine”is an earned title and most Marine Corps personnel take to heart the phrase “Once a Marine, Always a Marine”. They reject the term“ex-Marine”in most circumstances. There are no regulations concerning the address of persons who have left active service, so a number of customary terms have come into common use:* [51] •“Ex-Marine”is used in reference to persons removed from the Corps with less than a full and honorable discharge, especially those dishonorably discharged. Persons wishing to avoid this issue address these individuals by name with no reference to the Corps.
Main article: Marine Corps Martial Arts Program In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated an internally designed martial arts program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Due to an expectation that urban and police-type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing Marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP was implemented to provide Marines with a larger and more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the “Warrior Ethos” within Marines.* [126] The Marine Corps Martial Arts program is an eclectic mix of different styles of martial arts melded together. MCMAP consists of punches and kicks from Taekwondo and Karate, opponent weight
45.7. EQUIPMENT transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, and a mix of knife and baton/stick fighting derived from Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp, where they will earn the first of five available belts.* [127]
351 gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are more commonly vehicle-mounted. Precision firepower is provided by the M40 series, and the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the DMR (being replaced by the M39 EMR), and the SAMR.* [131]
45.7 Equipment Main pages: Category:United States Marine Corps equipment and List of United States Marine Corps individual equipment As of 2013, the typical infantry rifleman carries $14,000 worth of gear (excluding night-vision goggles), compared to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013.* [128]
45.7.1
Infantry weapons
Marine Amphibious Assault Vehicles emerge from the surf onto the sand of Freshwater Beach, Australia.
Main article: List of weapons of the United States MaThe Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct-fire rockrine Corps The basic infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the ets and missiles to provide infantry with an offensive and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and fixed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters. The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets at ranges up to 200 meters.* [132]* [133] The Predator SRAW, FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are antitank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top-attack profiles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a short-range fire-and-forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW are heavier missiles effective past 2,000 meters that give infantry an offensive capability against armor.* [134] The USMC is currently seeking to purchase commercial off-the-shelf bullet-trap or shoot-through rifle* Marines firing the MEU(SOC) pistol while garrisoned aboard grenades. [135] These grenades will provide individual Marines additional firepower and will allow indirect fire ship. against targets in defilade, behind walls and buildings or M16 assault rifle family, with a majority of Marines be- rooftops and elevated positions at ranges between 30 and * ing equipped with the M16A2 or M16A4 service ri- 150 meters. [135] fles (the M16A2 is being phased out). The M4 carbine* [129] and Colt 9mm SMG* [130] have also been issued. The standard side arm is the M9A1 pistol. The 45.7.2 Ground vehicles Colt M1911A1 is also being put back into service as the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small Main article: List of vehicles of the United States Marine numbers. Suppressive fire is provided by the M249 SAW Corps (currently transitioning to the M27 IAR) and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively. The Corps operates the same HMMWV and M1A1 In addition, indirect fire is provided by the M203 grenade Abrams tank as does the Army. However, for its spelauncher and the M32 grenade launcher in fireteams, cific needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles. M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm The LAV-25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personmortar in battalions. The M2 .50 caliber heavy machine nel carrier, similar to the Army's Stryker vehicle, used
352
CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS Main article: United States Marine Corps Aviation The organic aviation capability of the Marine Corps is essential to its mission. The Corps operates both rotarywing and fixed-wing aircraft mainly to provide assault support and close air support to its ground forces. However, other aircraft types are also used in a variety of support and special-purpose roles.
A Marine M1 Abrams tank offloading from a Landing Craft Air Cushioned vehicle.
to provide strategic mobility.* [136] Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV-7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavy armored vehicles that can better withstand the effects of these weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicle program.* [137] The Marine Corps has ordered 1,960 MRAP vehicles, hoping to use them to replace HMMWVs and some Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacements on patrols in Iraq.* [138] The Logistics Vehicle System Replacement began replacing the Logistics Vehicle System in 2009.* [139] Prior to 2005, the Marines operated exclusively tube artillery – the M198 155 mm howitzer, now being replaced by the M777 155 mm howitzer. However, the Corps has expanded its artillery composition to include the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truckmounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of firing guided munitions.* [140]
45.7.3
Aircraft
Marine parachutists jumping from an MV-22 Osprey at 10,000 feet.
The light transport and attack capabilities are provided by the Bell UH-1Y Venom and Bell AH-1 SuperCobra, which is being replaced by the Bell AH-1Z Viper.* [141] Medium-lift squadrons flying the CH-46E Sea Knight and CH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters are converting to the MV-22 Osprey tiltrotor with superior range and speed. Heavy-lift squadrons are equipped with the CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter, eventually to be replaced with the upgraded CH-53K.* [142]
A U.S. Marine AH-1Z Viper lands on USS Makin Island in 2010.
Marine attack squadrons fly the AV-8B Harrier II; while the fighter/attack mission is handled by the single-seat and dual-seat versions of the F/A-18 Hornet strikefighter aircraft. The AV-8B is a V/STOL aircraft that can operate from amphibious assault ships, land air bases and short, expeditionary airfields, while the F/A18 can only be flown from land or aircraft carriers. Both are slated to be replaced by 340 of the STOVL B version of the F-35 Lightning II, beginning training operations in 2008,* [143] and 80 of the carrier F-35C versions for deployment with Navy carrier air wings.* [144]* [145]* [146]* [147] In addition, the Corps operates its own organic aerial refueling and electronic warfare (EW) assets in the form of the KC-130 Hercules and EA-6B Prowler, respectively. The Hercules doubles as a ground refueller and tacticalairlift transport aircraft. The Prowler is one of only two active tactical electronic warfare aircraft left in the United States inventory, and has been labeled a “national asset"; frequently borrowed along with Navy Prowlers and EA-18G Growlers to assist in any American combat action since the retirement of the Air Force's own EW aircraft.* [148] The Marines operate unmanned aerial vehicles: the
45.9. NOTES AND REFERENCES
353
[6] Dobbs, LCpl Chris (25 July 2008). “Marine Barracks' mascot, Chesty the XII, retires after more than 40 'dog years' of faithful service”. Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.: United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 22 December 2010. [7] Gen. Charles C. Krulak (1996). “Operational Maneuver from the Sea” (PDF). Headquarters Marine Corps. [8] “U.S. Navy Organization: An Overview”. United States Navy. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [9] “National Security Act of 1947, SEC. 206. (a) (50 U.S.C. 409(b))" (PDF). Retrieved 13 December 2010. Marine Corps F-35B, the vertical-landing version of the F-35 Lightning II multirole fighter landing aboard USS Wasp.
[10] “National Security Act of 1947, SEC. 606. (50 U.S.C. 426)" (PDF). Retrieved 13 December 2010. [11] John Pike. “Tactical Aviation Integration”. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
RQ-7 Shadow and Scan Eagle for tactical reconnais[12] “U.S. Marine Corps Decade Timeline”. sance.* [149]* [150]
Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401), op- [13] “Breaking Defense - The future of the Marines”. erates F-5E, F-5F and F-5N Tiger II aircraft in support of air combat adversary (aggressor) training. Marine He- [14] Warren, James A. (2005). American Spartans: The U.S. Marines: A Combat History From Iwo Jima to Iraq. New licopter Squadron One (HMX-1) operates the VH-3D York: Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684Sea King and VH-60N Whitehawk helicopters in the VIP 87284-6. transport role, most notably Marine One, but are due to be replaced. A single Marine Corps C-130 Hercules air- [15] Hough, Col Frank O. (USMCR); Ludwig, Maj Verle E. craft, “Fat Albert”, is used to support the U.S. Navy's (USMC), and Henry I. Shaw, Jr. “Part I, Chapter 2: Evolution of Modern Amphibious Warfare, 1920–1941” flight demonstration team, the "Blue Angels".
45.8 See also • Iron Mike • United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve
45.9 Notes and references [1] “Marine Corps Decade Timeline | Marine Corps history” . Marines.com. Retrieved 2014-07-15. [2] “USMC 3-star to retired CNO: 'Where's the beef?'" (PDF). Marine Times. Feb 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2013. [3] “Reserve Force Figures” (PDF). The Continental Marine Magazine – Almanac 2010. Marine Forces Reserve. 2010. p. 9. Retrieved 27 December 2010. The Selected Marine Corps Reserve [4] Lejeune, Major General John A (18 April 1925). “Marine Corps Order No. 4 (Series 1925)". Commandant of the Marine Corps. United States Marine Corps History Division. Retrieved 2 February 2010. [5] Loredo-Agostini, Sgt Heidi E. (30 July 2009). “Ready for the Corps: Marines recruit latest mascot from South Texas”. Recruiting Station San Antonio. Castroville, Texas: United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
. Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume I. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 2 June 2007. [16] Garand, George W. and Truman R. Strobridge (1971). “Part II, Chapter 1: The Development of FMFPac”. Western Pacific Operations. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operation in World War II, Volume IV. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [17] Frank, Benis M and Henry I. Saw, Jr. (1968). “Part VI, Chapter 1: Amphibious Doctrine in World War II” . Victory and Occupation. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II, Volume V. Historical Branch, HQMC, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [18] John Howard Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; Jeremy Michael Boorda, Chief of Naval Operations; Carl E. Mundy, Commandant of the Marine Corps (9 November 1994). “Forward... From the Sea”. United States Department of the Navy. [19] The United States Coast Guard is smaller, about one-fifth the size of the U.S. Marine Corps, but it is part of United States Department of Homeland Security and does not normally operate under the DoD except during times of war and directed by the U.S. president. However, it is the largest maritime force in the world, and is larger than the armed forces of many significant military powers; for example, the USMC is larger than the active duty Israel Defense Forces.
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[20] “Israeli Defense Forces, CSIS”(PDF). 25 July 2006. p. 12.
[36] U.S. Congress (18 March 1794).“Act to provide a Naval Armament”. NARA. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[21] “United States Armed Force Strength Figures” (PDF). DOD. 31 January 2013.
[37] Richard Leiby, Terrorists by Another Name: The Barbary Pirates, The Washington Post, 15 October 2001
[22] Estes, Kenneth W. (2000). The Marine Officer's Guide, 6th Edition. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-567-5.
[38] Simmons, Edwin H. (2003). The United States Marines: A History, Fourth Edition. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-790-5.
[23] Clinton, William J. (2000). “Remarks Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of the United States Marine Corps Band 10 July 1998”. In Office of the Federal Register. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, William J. Clinton, 1998, Book 2: July 1 to December 31, 1998. Government Printing Office. p. 1217. ISBN 9781-4034-4551-3. The Marine Band played at Thomas Jefferson's Inauguration in 1801 and hasn't missed a single one since. Jefferson was a violin player who loved music almost as much as he loved freedom. He named the band “The President's Own”. [24] Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Marines: An Illustrated History: the United States Marine Corps from 1775 to the 21st Century. Zenith Imprint. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-76033211-5. [25] Keller, Scott (2004). Marine Pride: A Salute to America's Elite Fighting Force. Citadel Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-08065-2603-4. [26] Lawliss, Chuck (1988). The Marine Book: A Portrait of America's Military Elite. New York: Thames and Hudson. [27] Milks, Keith A. (8 May 2003). Ensuring 'Every Marine a Rifleman' is more than just a catch phrase. Marine Corps News (22 MEU, USMC). Story ID # 20071230234422. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. [28] Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Heinl, Jr., USMC (1947). “Marines in WWII Historical Monograph: The Defense of Wake”. Historical Section, Division of Public Information, Headquarters, USMC. [29] Lind, William S.; Col. Michael Wyly (1985). Maneuver Warfare Handbook. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-862-X. [30] Kevin Baron (12 August 2010). “Gates: Time has come to re-examine future of Marine Corps”. [31] Patrick, Capt Timothy (10 December 2010). “Marines return to their amphibious roots”. II Marine Expeditionary Force. United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 22 December 2010. [32] Chenoweth, USMCR (Ret.), Colonel H. Avery; Colonel Brooke Nihart, USMC (ret) (2005). Semper fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines. New York: Main Street. ISBN 1-4027-3099-3.
[39] U.S. Congress (30 June 1834). “An Act for the Better Organization of the United States Marine Corps”. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [40] Moskin, J. Robert (1987). The U.S. Marine Corps Story. New York: McGraw-Hill. [41] Elliott, Daniel T. (2008). “Archaeological Reconnaissance at the Drudi Tract, Tybee Island, Chatham County, Georgia” (PDF). Savannah, Georgia: LAMAR Institute Publication Series. p. 9. Retrieved 7 October 2011. [42] Ellsworth, Harry Allanson (1934). One Hundred Eighty Landings of United States Marines 1800–1934. Washington, D.C.: History and Museums Division, HQ, USMC. [43]“Report on Marine Corps Duplication of Effort between Army and Navy”. U.S. Marine Corps. 17 December 1932.Contains a very detailed account of almost all the actions of the Continental Marines and USMC until 1932. It is available in scanned TIFF format from the archives of the Marine Corps University. [44] Mitchell, John Ames (1918). “Teufel-Hunden”. Life Magazine 72: 759. Retrieved 7 October 2011. [45] “History of Marine Corps Aviation – World War One”. AcePilots.com. [46] Chad L. Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010; pg. 6. [47] Ballendorf, Dirk Anthony (1997). Pete Ellis: an amphibious warfare prophet, 1880–1923. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. [48] Derrick Wright and Jim Laurier, Iwo Jima 1945: The Marines raise the flag on Mount Suribachi (2012) [49] “Marines in World War II Commemorative Series”. Marine Corps Historical Center. Retrieved 17 January 2008. [50] Owens, Ron (2004). Medal of honor: historical facts & figures. Turner Publishing Company. p. 110. ISBN 9781-56311-995-8.
[33] “Marine Corps Expeditionary Energy Office.”. Marines.mil.
[51] Krulak, Victor H. (1984). First To Fight: An Inside View of the U.S. Marine Corps. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-785-2. Chapter 7, The Marines' Push Button 113–119
[34] U.S. Congress (11 July 1798). “An Act for Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps”.
[52] Fehrenbach, T. R. (1994). This Kind of War: The Classic Korean War History. Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-259-7.
[35] Captain John Barry (9 February 1798). “Muster Roll of Officers, Petty Officers, Seamen, and Marines, on the Frigate United States”. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
[53] “Fast Facts on the Korean War”. History Division, U.S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 6 August 2007.
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[84] Lt. Col. James Kuhn (2 November 2005). Enduring Freedom (Film). Department of the Navy.
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[85] Jim Garamone (17 October 2007). “Sea Services Unveil New Maritime Strategy”. Navy News Service. Retrieved 3 August 2008.
[69] “Marines land in Afghanistan”. International Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 22 May 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.
[86] Erwin, Sandra. “Marines Worry About Future Shortage of Navy Ships.” National Defense Magazine, 19 April 2011.
[70] “Marines launch attack on Taliban in Helmand”. The Telegraph. 29 April 2008. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
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[89] Sloan, Dennis L. “Marines vote JB MDL Airman 'Gung [109] Ricks, Thomas E. (2007). Making the Corps: 10th AnHo': USAF EC instructor first Airman to graduate Marine niversary Edition with a New Afterword by the Author (10 PME.” USAF, 20 October 2011. ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-41654450-0. [90] “MARADMIN 562/06”. Renaming of the Combat Service Support Element (CSSE) to the Logistics Combat Ele- [110] “Mco p1020.34g”. United States Marine Corps. Rement (LCE). U.S. Marine Corps. Archived from the origtrieved 27 November 2005. inal on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [111] ALMAR 007/08 directing seasonal uniform changes [91] “Prepared for the Larger Conflicts: Capable of specializing for the unique conflict”. Other Marine Expeditionary [112] “USMC Customs and Traditions”. History Division, U.S. Forces. United States Marine Corps. Archived from the Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 4 March original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2008. 2007. [92] Smith, Jr., W Thomas (2005). “Marines, Navy SEALs [113] “U.S. Marine Corps Emblem”. U.S. Marine Corps. Forge New Special Operations Team; An exclusive interview with U.S. Navy SEAL Commander Mark Divine”. [114] “Marine Corps Emblem and Seal”. Customs and TradiMilitary.com. Retrieved 3 August 2008. tions. Reference Branch, History Division, United States Marine Corps. Retrieved 11 October 2008. [93] Graham, Bradley (2 November 2005).“Elite Marine Unit to Help Fight Terrorism, Force to Be Part of Special Op- [115] “Marine Corps Birthday Celebration”. USMC History erations”. Washington Post. Retrieved 3 August 2008. Division. Archived from the original on 6 August 2007. [94] Samantha L. Quigley.“Marine Corps Ready for Review's [116] “Drill a Platoon Sized Unit”. Student Handout. Marine Scrutiny, Commandant Says”. defense.gov. Retrieved 9 Corps University. Archived from the original on 10 July December 2009. 2007. [95] Donnelly, Thomas (10 February 2011).“Misguided Military Talk”. The Weekly Standard. NPR. Retrieved 13 [117]“Marine Corps History, Customs, and Courtesies”. U.S. Marine Guidebook. United states Marine Corps. 2010. February 2011. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-60239-941-9. Marines fought like teufel hunden, legendary wild, devil dogs that at one time [96] Dan Gouré “Uncertain World May be Good for the U.S. roamed the forests of northern Germany Marine Corps.” Def Pro, 7 September 2011. [97] Francisco, Andre. “Lessons in Bad Budgeting from the [118] Myers, Thomas (1988).“Hearts of Darkness”. Walking Pentagon.” POGO, 23 September 2011. Point: American Narratives of Vietnam. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-19-505351-7. He [98] Sisk, Richard (7 February 2014). “Corps Becomes First reminds his charges that “at Belleau Wood the Marines Service to Pass Audit”. www.dodbuzz.com. Military were so vicious that the German infantrymen called them Advantage, A Monster Company. Retrieved 7 February Teufel-Hunden – 'devil dogs' 2014. [119] Waseleski, Michael (2009). To Lead by the Unknowing, to Do the Unthinkable. AuthorHouse. p. 5. ISBN 978-14389-5676-3. the 5th and 6th Marine Regiments earned the nickname of“Teufel Hunden”(devil dog) by the Germans in World War I during the 1918 Château-Thierry “About MCB Quantico”. campaign near the French village of Bouresches, the Bat“About Marine Corps University”. U.S. Marine Corps. tle of Belleau Wood Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007. [120] Rottman, Gordon (2011). “GI and Gyrene Jargon US Army and Marine Corps Slang”. FUBAR F***ed Up BeEstes (1986), p. 60 yond All Recognition: Soldier Slang of World War II. Osprey Publishing. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-84908-653-0. based http://www.marines.mil/Leaders.aspx on Chinese pronunciation of Marine “Dunford Replaces Amos as New Marine Corps Com[121]“Marine Corps History, Customs, and Courtesies”. U.S. mandant”. Military.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015. Marine Guidebook. United states Marine Corps. 2010. “Leaders”. Marines.mil. Retrieved 2013-02-03. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-60239-941-9. In 1804 the Secretary of the Navy ordered Marines to wear black leather stock “DoD Defense Insignia”. collars when on duty Clancy, Tom (1996). Marine: a guided tour of a Marine expeditionary unit. Penguin. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-425- [122] Rottman, Gordon (2011). “GI and Gyrene Jargon US Army and Marine Corps Slang”. FUBAR F***ed Up Be15454-0. yond All Recognition: Soldier Slang of World War II. OsBernard L. DeKoning, ed. (2006). Recruit Medicine: prey Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-84908-653-0. Most Textbooks of Military Medicine. Government Printing Oflikely it was the pillbox cap and high stiff collar making a fice. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-16-076718-0. Marine appear similar to a Mason jar
[99] Williams, BGen Willie J. (October 2004). “Bases and Stations: Are They Relevant?". Marine Corps Gazette (Marine Corps Association) 88 (10): 12–16. [100] [101]
[102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107]
[108]
45.10. FURTHER READING
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[123] Hiresman III, LCpl. Paul W. “The meaning of 'Oorah' [139] Lamothe, Dan (22 October 2009). “First LVSR truck traced back to its roots”. Marine Corps News. United arrives in Afghanistan”. Marine Corps Times. Gannett States Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 24 Company. Retrieved 23 October 2009. December 2007. [140] Lewis, Maj. J Christopher (July 2006). “The Future Artillery Force...Today”. Marine Corps Gazette (Marine [124] Santamaria, Jason A.; Vincent Martino; Eric K. Clemons Corps Association) (July 2006): 24–25. (2005). The Marine Corps Way: Using Maneuver Warfare to Lead a Winning Organization. McGraw-Hill Profes. USMC Fact File. U.S. sional. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-07-145883-2. Long before [141]“AH-1W Super Cobra Helicopter” Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 5 February Hollywood popularized it, Marines used the phrase to re2007. Retrieved 3 August 2008. flect their preference for being a fluid, loosely reined force that could spontaneously react to rapidly changing situa- [142] “Marine Corps Rotary Wing”. Federation of American tions, rather than a rigid outfit that moved in a specific Scientists. direction with a precise plan. [143] “F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Program”. Department of [125] Freedman, David H. (2000). Corps Business: The 30 Defense. Retrieved 3 August 2008. Management Principles of the U.S. Marines. New York: [144] Daniel, Lisa (14 March 2011). “Plan Improves Navy, Collins. Marine Corps Air Capabilities”. American Forces Press [126] Yi, Capt. Jamison, USMC. “MCMAP and the Warrior Service. United States Department of Defense. Retrieved Ethos”, Military Review, November–December 2004. 23 March 2011. [127] Franck, Loren (2003). “The Few and the Proud: A Tra- [145] Cavas, Christopher P. (14 March 2011). “More Marines dition of Excellence Fuels the US Marine Corps Martial to fly carrier-variant JSFs”. Marine Corps Times. ReArts Program”. Black Belt 41 (7): 70. trieved 23 March 2011. [128] Corps to Industry: Prepare for the Worst - DoDBuzz.com, [146] Cifuentes, Michael S. (14 March 2011). “Marine Corps 26 September 2013 continues flying with Joint Strike Fighter program”. Headquarters Marine Corps. Retrieved 11 June 2014. [129] “Top Marine Glad to Have M16A4 Standard”. Kit Up!. Military.com. 25 March 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010. [147] “U.S. Marine Corps Received Its First F-35C Lightning II Carrier Variant”. 29 January 2015. [130] “NAVMC DIRECTIVE 3500.90: MARINE CORPS SECURITY GUARD BATTALION TRAINING AND [148] “EA-6B Prowler”. USMC Fact File. U.S. Marine corps. READINESS MANUAL, (SHORT TITLE: MSGBN Archived from the original on 23 October 2006. ReT&R MANUAL)" (PDF). Headquarters Marine Corps. trieved 3 August 2008. 4 April 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 [149] Talton, Trista. “U.S. Marines' Shadow UAV Sees First January 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2014. Combat”. Defensenews.com. Retrieved 3 August 2008. [131] “M40A1 Sniper Rifle”. USMC Fact File. U.S. Marine corps. Archived from the original on 25 February 2007. [150] Scully, Megan.“Army assumes Navy, Marine UAV training”. Seapower. Retrieved 6 December 2007. [132] John Antal “Packing a Punch: America's Man-Portable Antitank Weapons”page 88 Military Technology 3/2010 • This article incorporates public domain material ISSN 0722-3226 from websites or documents of the United States [133] “Light Assault Weapon (LAW)". FBO.gov. [134] “Tube Launched, Optically Tracked, Wire Guided (TOW) Missile Weapon System”. USMC Fact File. U.S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. [135] 13-Ammunition and Explosives – M6785412I1003 (Archived) – Federal Business Opportunities: Opportunities. Fbo.gov (9 November 2011). [136] “Light Armored Vehicle-25 (LAV-25)". USMC Fact File. U.S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 December 2006. [137] “U.S. Marine Corps Orders More Force Protection Vehicles”. Force Protection, Inc. – In the News. Force Protection, Inc. August 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2007. [138] Andrew Feickert (21 August 2007). “Mine-Resistant, Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress” (PDF). United States Congress.
Marine Corps.
45.10 Further reading • Foster, Douglas (2006). Braving the Fear: The True Story of Rowdy US Marines in the Gulf War. Frederick, Md.: PublishAmerica. ISBN 1-4137-9902-7. • Martinez, Marco (2007). Hard Corps: From Gangster to Marine Hero. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 978-0-307-38304-4. • Ricks, Thomas E. (1997). Making the Corps. New York: Scribner. ISBN 1-4165-4450-X. • Ulbrich, David J. (2011). Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of Modern Marine Corps, 1935–1943. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-903-7.
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45.11 External links • Marines.mil – Official site • Official USMC recruitment site • Marine Corps recruitment video • Marine Corps History Division • A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower • Marine Corps Heritage Foundation • Online Marine community • Members of the USMC on RallyPoint • An Unofficial Dictionary for Marines
CHAPTER 45. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
Chapter 46
United States Special Operations Command See also: United States special operations forces The United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM or SOCOM) is the Unified Combatant Command charged with overseeing the various Special Operations Component Commands of the Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps of the United States Armed Forces. The command is part of the Department of Defense and is the only Unified Combatant Command legislated into being by the U.S. Congress. USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida.
lighted the need within the Department of Defense for reform and reorganization. Since the incident, the Army Chief of Staff, General Edward C. “Shy”Meyer, called for a further restructuring of special operations capabilities, eventually helping to create the U.S. Delta Force.* [6] Although unsuccessful at the joint level, Meyer nevertheless went on to consolidate Army SOF units under the new 1st Special Operations Command in 1982, a significant step to improve the U.S. Army's SOF.
The idea of a unified special operations command had its origins in the aftermath of Operation Eagle Claw, the disastrous attempted rescue of hostages at the American embassy in Iran in 1980. The ensuing investigation, chaired by Admiral James L. Holloway III, the retired Chief of Naval Operations, cited lack of command and control and inter-service coordination as significant factors in the failure of the mission.* [2] Since its activation on 16 April 1987, U.S. Special Operations Command has participated in many operations, from the 1989 invasion of Panama to the ongoing Global War on Terrorism.* [3]* [4] USSOCOM conducts several covert and clandestine missions, such as direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, unconventional warfare, psychological warfare, civil affairs, and counter-narcotics operations. Each branch has a Special Operations Command that is unique and capable of running its own operations, but when the different special operations forces need to work together for an operation, USSOCOM becomes the joint component command of the operation, instead of a SOC of a specific branch.* [5] Senator Barry Goldwater, Former Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee
By 1983, there was a small but growing sense in the Congress for the need for military reforms. In June, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) began a The unworkable command and control structure of sepa- two-year-long study of the Defense Department, which rate U.S. military special operations forces (SOF), which included an examination of SOF spearheaded by Senled to the failure of Operation Eagle Claw in 1980, high- ator Barry Goldwater (R-AZ). With concern mounting
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on Capitol Hill, the Department of Defense created the Joint Special Operations Agency on 1 January 1984; this agency, however, had neither operational nor command authority over any SOF.* [7]* [8] The Joint Special Operations Agency thus did little to improve SOF readiness, capabilities, or policies, and therefore was insufficient. Within the Defense Department, there were a few staunch SOF supporters. Noel Koch, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, and his deputy, Lynn Rylander, both advocated SOF reforms.* [9] At the same time, a few on Capitol Hill were determined to overhaul United States Special Operations Forces. They included Senators Sam Nunn (D-GA) and William Cohen (R-ME), both members of the Armed Services Committee, and Representative Dan Daniel (D-VA), the chairman of the United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Readiness. Congressman Daniel had become convinced that the U.S. military establishment was not interested in special operations, that the country's capability in this area was second rate, and that SOF operational command and control was an endemic problem.* [9] Senators Nunn and Cohen also felt strongly that the Department of Defense was not preparing adequately for future threats. Senator Cohen agreed that the U.S. needed a clearer organizational focus and chain of command for special operations to deal with low-intensity conflicts.* [7] In October 1985, the Senate Armed Services Committee published the results of its two-year review of the U.S. military structure, entitled “Defense Organization: The Need For Change.”* [10] Mr. James R. Locher III, the principal author of this study, also examined past special operations and speculated on the most likely future threats. This influential document led to the GoldwaterNichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986.* [11]* [12] By spring 1986, SOF advocates had introduced reform bills in both houses of Congress. On 15 May, Senator Cohen introduced the Senate bill, co-sponsored by Senator Nunn and others, which called for a joint military organization for SOF and the establishment of an office in the Defense Department to ensure adequate funding and policy emphasis for low-intensity conflict and special operations.* [13] Representative Daniel's proposal went even further̶he wanted a national special operations agency headed by a civilian who would bypass the Joint Chiefs and report directly to the Secretary of Defense; this would keep Joint Chiefs and the Services out of the SOF budget process.* [8]
ers testified in favor of the need for reform.* [9] By most accounts, retired Army Major General Richard Scholtes gave the most compelling reasons for change. Scholtes, who commanded the joint special operations task force in Grenada, explained how conventional force leaders misused SOF during the operation, not allowing them to use their unique capabilities, which resulted in high SOF casualties. After his formal testimony, Scholtes met privately with a small number of Senators to elaborate on the problems that he had encountered in Grenada.* [14] Both the House and Senate passed SOF reform bills, and these went to a conference committee for reconciliation. Senate and House conferees forged a compromise. The bill called for a unified combatant command headed by a four-star general for all SOF, an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict, a coordinating board for low-intensity conflict within the National Security Council, and a new Major Force Program (MFP-11) for SOF (the so-called “SOF checkbook”).* [15]* [16] The final bill, attached as a rider to the 1987 Defense Authorization Act, amended the Goldwater-Nichols Act and was signed into law in October 1986. Congress clearly intended to force DOD and the Administration to face up to the realities of past failures and emerging threats. DOD and the Administration were responsible for implementing the law, and Congress subsequently had to pass two additional bills to ensure proper implementation.* [9] The legislation promised to improve SOF in several respects. Once implemented, MFP-11 provided SOF with control over its own resources, better enabling it to modernize the force. Additionally, the law fostered interservice cooperation: a single commander for all SOF promoted interoperability among the forces assigned to the same command. The establishment of a four-star Commander in Chief and an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict eventually gave SOF a voice in the highest councils of the Defense Department.* [15]
Implementing the provisions and mandates of the NunnCohen Act, however, was neither rapid nor smooth. One of the first issues to surface was appointing an ASD (SO/LIC), whose principal duties included monitorship of special operations activities and low-intensity conflict activities of the Department of Defense. The Congress even increased the number of assistant secretaries of defense from 11 to 12, but the Department of Defense still did not fill this new billet. In December 1987, the Congress directed Secretary of the Army John O. Marsh to carry out the ASD (SO/LIC) duties until a suitCongress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of able replacement was approved by the Senate. Not until 18 months after the legislation passed did Ambas1986. Admiral William J. Crowe Jr., Chairman of the Whitehouse assume the duties of ASD Joint Chiefs of Staff, led the Pentagon's opposition to the sador Charles (SO/LIC).* [17] bills. He proposed, as an alternative, a new Special Operations Forces command led by a three-star general. This Meanwhile, the establishment of USSOCOM provided proposal was not well received on Capitol Hill̶Congress its own measure of excitement. A quick solution to manwanted a four-star general in charge to give SOF more ning and basing a brand new unified command was to clout. A number of retired military officers and oth- abolish an existing command. United States Readiness
46.1. HISTORY
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MH-60 landing on Hercules
General James Lindsay the first Commander in Chief, Special Operations Command
Command (USREDCOM), with an often misunderstood mission, did not appear to have a viable mission in the post Goldwater-Nichols era, and its Commander in Chief, General James Lindsay, had had some special operations experience. On 23 January 1987, the Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to the Secretary of Defense that USREDCOM be disestablished to provide billets and facilities for USSOCOM. President Ronald Reagan approved the establishment of the new command on 13 April 1987. The Department of Defense activated USSOCOM on 16 April 1987 and nominated General Lindsay to be the first Commander in Chief Special Operations Command (USCINCSOC). The Senate accepted him without debate.* [9]
46.1.1
which used mines and small boats to harass the convoys steaming to and from Kuwait. In late July 1987, Rear Admiral Harold J. Bernsen, commander of the Middle East Force, requested NSW assets. Special Boat Teams deployed with six Mark III Patrol Boats and two SEAL platoons in August.* [9] The Middle East Force decided to convert two oil servicing barges, Hercules and Wimbrown VII, into mobile sea bases. The mobile sea bases allowed SOF in the northern Persian Gulf to thwart clandestine Iranian mining and small boat attacks. On 21 September, Nightstalkers flying MH-60 and Little Birds took off from the frigate USS Jarrett to track an Iranian ship, the Iran Ajr. The Nightstalkers observed the Iran Ajr turn off its lights and begin laying mines. After receiving permission to attack, the helicopters fired guns and rockets, stopping the ship. As the Iran Ajr's crew began to push mines over the side, the helicopters resumed firing until the crew abandoned ship. Special Boat Teams provided security while a SEAL team boarded the vessel at first light and discovered nine mines on the vessel's deck, as well as a logbook revealing areas where previous mines had been laid. The logbook implicated Iran in mining international waters.* [9]
Operation Earnest Will
USSOCOM's first tactical operation involved SEALs, Special Boat Teams (SBT), and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) (“Night Stalkers”) aviators working together during Operation Earnest Will in September 1987. During Operation Earnest Will, the United States ensured that neutral oil tankers and other merchant ships could safely transit the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War. Iranian attacks on tankers prompted Kuwait to ask the United States in December 1986 to register 11 Kuwaiti tankers as American ships so that they could be escorted by the U.S. Navy. President One of two Iranian oil platform set ablaze after shelling by AmerReagan agreed to the Kuwaiti request on 10 March 1987, ican destroyers. hoping it would deter Iranian attacks.* [9] The protection offered by U.S. naval vessels, however, did not stop Iran, Within a few days, the Special Operations forces had de-
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termined the Iranian pattern of activity; the Iranians hid during the day near oil and gas platforms in Iranian waters and at night they headed toward the Middle Shoals Buoy, a navigation aid for tankers. With this knowledge, SOF launched three Little Bird helicopters and two patrol craft to the buoy. The Little Bird helicopters arrived first and were fired upon by three Iranian boats anchored near the buoy. After a short but intense firefight, the helicopters sank all three boats. Three days later, in mid-October, an Iranian Silkworm missile hit the tanker Sea Isle City near the oil terminal outside Kuwait City. Seventeen crewmen and the American captain were injured in the missile attack.* [9]* [18] During Operation Nimble Archer, four destroyers shelled two oil platforms in the Rostam oil field. After the shelling, a SEAL platoon and a demolition unit planted explosives on one of the platforms to destroy it. The SEALs next boarded and searched a third platform 2 miles (3 km) away. Documents and radios were taken for intelligence purposes. On 14 April 1988, 65 miles (100 km) east of Bahrain, the frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) hit a mine, blowing an immense hole in its hull.* [19] Ten sailors were injured. During Operation Praying Mantis the U.S. retaliated fiercely, attacking the Iranian frigate Sahand and oil platforms in the Sirri and Sassan oil fields.* [18] After U.S. warships bombarded the Sirri platform and set it ablaze, a UH-60 with a SEAL platoon flew toward the platform but was unable to get close enough because of the roaring fire. Secondary explosions soon wrecked the platform.* [9] Thereafter, Iranian attacks on neutral ships dropped drastically. On 3 July 1988, the USS Vincennes shot down an Iranian civilian airliner, Iran Air Flight 655, killing all 290 people on board, including 66 children. On 18 July, Iran accepted the United Nations cease fire; on 20 August 1988, the Iran–Iraq War ended. The remaining SEALs, patrol boats, and helicopters then returned to the United States.* [9] Special operations forces provided critical skills necessary to help CENTCOM gain control of the northern Persian Gulf and balk Iran's small boats and minelayers. The ability to work at night proved vital, because Iranian units used darkness to conceal their actions. Additionally, because of Earnest Will operational requirements, USSOCOM would acquire new weapons systems̶the patrol coastal ships and the Mark V Special Operations Craft.* [9]
46.1.2
Division paramilitary officers with elements of JSOC. They conducted very high risk advanced force operations prior to the entry of the follow on forces. The first casualty of the conflict came from this team and was a Paramilitary officer and former Delta Force operator name Larry Freedman. Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for“extraordinary heroism”for his actions.* [22] The earliest missions during Operation Restore Hope were conducted by Navy SEALs. The SEALs performed several hydro-graphic reconnaissance missions to find suitable landing sites for Marines. On 7 December, the SEALs swam into Mogadishu Harbor, where they found suitable landing sites, assessed the area for threats, and concluded that the port could support offloading ships. This was a tough mission because the SEALs swam against a strong current which left many of them overheated and exhausted. Furthermore, they swam through raw sewage in the harbor, which made them sick.* [9] When the first SEALs hit the shore the following night, they were surprised to meet members of the news media. The first Marines came ashore soon thereafter, and the press redirected their attention to them. Later, the SEALs provided personal security for President George Bush during a visit to Somalia.* [9]* [21] In December 1992, Special Forces assets in Kenya moved to Somalia and joined Operation Restore Hope. January 1993, a Special Forces command element deployed to Mogadishu as the Joint Special Operations Forces-Somalia (JSOFOR) that would command and control all special operations for Restore Hope. JSOFOR's mission was to make initial contact with indigenous factions and leaders; provide information for force protection; and provide reports on the area for future relief and security operations. Before redeploying in April, JSOFOR elements drove over 26,000 miles (42,000 km), captured 277 weapons, and destroyed over 45,320 pounds (20,560 kg) of explosives.* [9]
Somalia
Special Operations Command first became involved in Somalia in 1992 as part of Operation Provide Relief. C130s circled over Somali airstrips during delivery of relief supplies. Special Forces medics accompanied many relief flights into the airstrips throughout southern Somalia to assess the area. They were the first U.S. soldiers in Somalia, arriving before U.S. forces who supported the expanded relief operations of Restore Hope.* [9]* [20]* [21] The first teams into Somalia were CIA Special Activities
Bravo Company, 3rd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment in Somalia, 1993.
In August 1993, Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed the deployment of a Joint Special Operations Task Force (JSOTF) to Somalia in response to attacks made by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid's supporters upon U.S. and UN forces. The JSOTF, named Task Force (TF) Ranger, was charged with a mission named Operation Gothic
46.1. HISTORY
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Serpent to capture Aidid. This was an especially arduous mission, for Aidid had gone underground, after several Lockheed AC-130 air raids and UN assaults on his strongholds.* [9]* [23]* [24] While Marines from the 24th MEU provided an interim QRF (Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM263), the task force arrived in the country, and began training exercises. The Marines were asked to take on the Aidid snatch mission, but having the advantage of being in the area for more than two months, decided after mission analysis that the mission was a “no-go”due to several factors, centered around the inability to rescue the crew of a downed helicopter (re: the indigenous forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force). This knowledge was not passed on to the Rangers, due to the Marines operating from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land. TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force, 75th Ranger Regiment, 160th SOAR, Air Force special tactics units, and SEALs from the Naval Special Warfare Development Group.* [9]* [23] During August and September 1993, the task force conducted six missions into Mogadishu, all of which were successes. Although Aidid remained free, the effect of these missions seriously limited his movements.* [24] On 3 October, TF Ranger launched its seventh mission, this time into Aidid's stronghold the Bakara Market to capture two of his key lieutenants. The mission was expected to take only one or two hours.* [23] Helicopters carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport. The TF came under increasingly heavy fire, more intense than during previous missions. The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid's lieutenants and were loading them onto the convoy trucks when a MH-60 Blackhawk was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG).* [9]* [24] A small element from the security force, as well as an MH-6 assault helicopter and an MH-60 carrying a fifteen man combat search and rescue (CSAR) team, rushed to the crash site.* [9]* [23]* [24] The battle became increasingly worse. An RPG struck another MH-60, crashing less than 1 mile (1.6 km) to the south of the first downed helicopter. The task force faced overwhelming Somali mobs that overran the crash sites, causing a dire situation.* [23] A Somali mob overran the second site and, despite a heroic defense, killed everyone except the pilot, whom they took prisoner. Two defenders of this crash site, Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall Shughart, were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.* [9]* [23]* [24] About this time, the mission's quick reaction force (QRF) also tried to reach the second crash site. This force too was pinned by Somali fire and required the fire support of two AH-6 helicopters before it could break contact and make its way back to the base.* [9]
Map of the main battle sites during the Battle of Mogadishu.
The assault and security elements moved on foot towards the first crash area, passing through heavy fire, and occupied buildings south and southwest of the downed helicopter. They fought to establish defensive positions so not to be pinned down by very heavy enemy fire, while treating their wounded, and worked to free the pilot's body from the downed helicopter. With the detainees loaded on trucks, the ground convoy force attempted to reach the first crash site. Unable to find it amongst the narrow, winding alleyways, the convoy came under devastating small arms and RPG fire. The convoy had to return to base after suffering numerous casualties, and sustaining substantial damage to the their vehicles. Reinforcements, consisting of elements from the QRF, 10th Mountain Division soldiers, Rangers, SEALs, Pakistan Army tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers, finally arrived at 1:55 am on 4 October. The combined force worked until dawn to free the pilot's body, receiving RPG and small arms fire throughout the night.* [9] All the casualties were loaded onto the armored personnel carriers, and the remainder of the force was left behind and had no choice but to move out on foot.* [23] AH-6 gunships raked the streets with fire to support the movement. The main force of the convoy arrived at the Pakistani Stadium-compound for the QRF-at 6:30 am,* [23] thus concluding one of the bloodiest and fiercest urban firefights since the Vietnam War. Task Force Ranger experienced a total of 17 killed in action and 106 wounded. Various estimates placed So-
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mali casualties above 1,000.* [23] Although Task Force Ranger's few missions were successes, the overall outcome of Operation Gothic Serpent was deemed a failure because of the Task Force's failure to complete their stated mission, capturing Mohamed Farrah Aidid.* [23] Most U.S. forces pulled out of Somalia by March 1994. The withdrawal from Somalia, was completed on March 1995.* [9] Even though Operation Gothic Serpent failed, USSOCOM still made significant contributions to operations in Somalia. SOF performed reconnaissance and surveillance missions, assisted with humanitarian relief, protected American forces and conducted riverine patrols. Additionally, they ensured the safe landing of the Marines and safeguarded the arrival of merchant ships carrying food.* [9]* [18]
46.1.3
Iraq
cessfully training the Iraqi security forces.* [28]* [29]
46.2 Current role United States Special Operations Command played a pivotal role in fighting the former Taliban government in Afghanistan in 2001* [30] and toppling it thereafter, as well as combating the insurgency and capturing Saddam Hussein in Iraq. USSOCOM in 2004 was developing plans to have an expanded and more complex role in the global campaign against terrorism,* [31] and that role continued to emerge before and after the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011.* [32]* [33] In 2010, “of about 13,000 Special Operations forces deployed overseas, about 9,000 [were] evenly divided between Iraq and Afghanistan.”* [32]
USSOCOM's 10th Special Forces Group, elements of 46.2.1 JSOC and CIA/SAD Paramilitary Officers linked up again and were the first to enter Iraq prior to the invasion. Their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to defeat Ansar Al Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion. This battle was for control of a territory in Northeastern Iraq that was completely occupied by Ansar Al Islam, an ally of Al Qaeda. This was a very significant battle and led to the termination of a substantial number of terrorists and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. These terrorists would have been in the subsequent insurgency had they not been eliminated during this battle. Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in the Iraq war. This battle may have been the Tora Bora of Iraq, but it was a sound defeat for Al Qaeda and their ally Ansar Al Islam. This combined team then led the Peshmerga against Saddam's northern Army. This effort kept Saddam's forces in the north and denied the ability to redeploy to contest the invasion force coming from the south. This effort may have saved the lives of hundreds if not thousands of coalition service men and women.* [25] At the launch of the Iraq War dozens of 12-member Special Forces teams infiltrated southern and western Iraq to hunt for Scud missiles and pinpoint bombing targets. Scores of Navy SEALs seized oil terminals and pumping stations on the southern coast.* [26] Air Force combat controllers flew combat missions in MC-130H Combat Talon IIs and established austere desert airstrips to begin the flow of soldiers and supplies deep into Iraq. It was a far cry from the Persian Gulf war of 1991, where Special Operations forces were kept largely on the sidelines. But it would not be a replay of Afghanistan, where Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs led the fighting. After their star turn in Afghanistan, many special operators were disappointed to play a supporting role in Iraq. Many special operators felt restricted by cautious commanders.* [27] From that point, USSOCOM has since killed or captured hundreds of insurgents and Al-Qaeda terrorists. It has conducted several foreign internal defense missions suc-
War in Afghanistan
A 7th SFG Special Forces medic in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan, in September 2008.
In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan, USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Officers from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban without the need for large-scale conventional forces.* [34] This was one of the biggest successes of the global War on Terrorism.* [35] These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with the enemy. One such battle happened during Operation Anaconda the mission to squeeze life out of a Taliban and Al-Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah-i-Kot mountains of eastern Afghanistan. The operation was seen as one of the heaviest and bloodiest fights in the War in Afghanistan.* [36] The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces
46.3. SUBORDINATE COMMANDS from all 4 services and the CIA. Navy SEALs, Army Rangers, Air Force Combat Controllers, and Pararescuemen fought against entrenched Al-Qaeda fighters atop a 10,000-foot (3,000 m) mountain. Subsequently, the entrenched Taliban became targets of every asset in the sky. According to an executive summary, the battle of Takur Ghar was the most intense firefight American special operators have been involved in since 18 U.S. Army Rangers were killed in Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993.* [37]* [38]* [39] During Operation Red Wings on 28 June 2005, four Navy SEALs, pinned down in a firefight, radioed for help. A Chinook helicopter, carrying 16 service members, responded but was shot down. All members of the rescue team and three of four SEALs on the ground died. It was the worst loss of life in Afghanistan since the invasion in 2001. The Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell alone survived.* [40]* [41] Team leader Michael P. Murphy was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the battle.
365 Brennan said that the United States “will not merely respond after the fact”of a terrorist attack but will“take the fight to al-Qaeda and its extremist affiliates whether they plot and train in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia and beyond.”Olson said, “In some places, in deference to host-country sensitivities, we are lower in profile. In every place, Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of the four-star regional commander.” * [32]
The conduct of actions by SOC forces outside of Iraq and Afghan war zones has been the subject of internal U.S. debate, including between representatives of the Bush administration such as John B. Bellinger III, on one hand, and the Obama administration on another. The United Nations in 2010 also “questioned the administration's authority under international law to conduct such raids, particularly when they kill innocent civilians. One possible legal justification – the permission of the country in question – is complicated in places such as Pakistan and Yemen, where the governments privately agree but 46.2.2 Global presence do not publicly acknowledge approving the attacks,”as * SOC chief Olson said in 2011 that SOCOM“is a micro- one report put it. [32] cosm of the Department of Defense, with ground, air, and maritime components, a global presence, and authorities and responsibilities that mirror the Military Departments, 46.3 Subordinate Commands Military Services, and Defense Agencies.”* [33] In 2010, special operations forces were deployed in 75 countries, compared with about 60 at the beginning of 2009.* [32] In 2011, SOC spokesman Colonel Tim Nye (Army* [42]) was reported to have said that the number of countries with SOC presence will likely reach 120 and that joint training exercises will have been carried out in most or all Special Operations Command Structure (Media:U.S. Special Opof those countries during the year. One study identified erations Command.png). joint-training exercises in Belize, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Germany, Indonesia, Mali, Norway, Panama, and Poland in 2010 and also, through mid-year 2011, in the Dominican Republic, Jordan, Romania, Senegal, 46.3.1 Joint Special Operations Command South Korea, and Thailand, among other nations. In addition, SOC forces executed the high profile killing of * [44] Joint Special Operations Command is a compoOsama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011.* [33] nent command of the USSOCOM and is charged to study Wikileaks' releases of cables from the U.S. Embassy, special operations requirements and techniques to ensure Pakistan, revealed the presence of a detachment of SO- interoperability and equipment standardization, plan and COM (or possibly United States Army Special Opera- conduct special operations exercises and* training, and detions Command) referred to as SOC(FWD)-PAK (09IS- velop Joint Special Operations Tactics. [1] It was estabLAMABAD2449, 9 August 2010). This unit or head- lished in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckquarters may be, in full form, Special Operations Com- with, *in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle mand (Forward)-Pakistan. It seems unlikely that the – Claw. [45] symbol refers to the minus sign that sometimes means Units that the unit or headquarters is operating at less than full strength. The unit or headquarters includes a Military • The U.S. Army's 1st Special Forces Operational Information Support Team (MIST ).* [43] Another story Detachment-Delta, popularly known as Delta Force, that reported on JSOC/Blackwater anti-terrorist operais the first of the two primary counter-terrorist tions in Pakistan was Jeremy Scahill's “The Secret U.S. units of JSOC and SOCOM.* [46] Modeled after War in Pakistan”, in the 7 November 2009, issue of The the British Special Air Service, Delta Force is reNation. garded as one of the premier special operations In 2010, White House counterterrorism director John O. forces in the world.* [47] This is because of Delta's
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CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND • The Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron (24th STS) is the AFSOC component of JSOC. The 24th STS usually operates with Delta and DEVGRU because of the convenience of 24th STS ability to synchronize and control the different elements of air power and enhance air operations deep in enemy territory.* [23]
The Joint Special Operations Command insignia
stringent training and selection process. Delta recruits primarily from the most talented and highly skilled operators in the Army Special Forces and the 75th Ranger Regiment although Delta will take anyone and everyone that can pass their screening.* [23]* [47] Recruits must pass a rigid selection course before beginning training. Delta has received training from numerous U.S. government agencies and other tier one SOF and has created a curriculum based on this training and techniques that it has developed.* [47] Delta conducts clandestine and covert special operations all over the world.* [47] It has the capability to conduct myriad special operations missions but specializes in counter-terrorism and hostage rescue operations.* [23]* [46]* [48]
Portions of JSOC units have made up the constantly changing special operations task force, operating in the U.S. Central Command area of operations. The Task Force 11, Task Force 121, Task Force 6-26 and Task Force 145 are creations of the Pentagon's post-11 September campaign against terrorism, and it quickly became the model for how the military would gain intelligence and battle insurgents in the future. Originally known as Task Force 121, it was formed in the summer of 2003, when the military merged two existing Special Operations units, one hunting Osama bin Laden in and around Afghanistan, and the other tracking Sadaam Hussein in Iraq.* [52]* [53]
46.3.2 Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities (SOCJC) was transferred to USSOCOM from the soon to be disestablished United States Joint Forces Command.* [54]
Primary Mission: SOC-JC trains conventional and SOF commanders and their staffs, supports USSOCOM international engagement training requirements, and supports implementation of capability solutions in order to improve strategic and operational Warfighting readiness and joint interoperability. SOC-JC must also be prepared to support deployed Special Operations Joint Task Force • The Naval Special Warfare Development Group (SOJTF) Headquarters (HQ). (DEVGRU, SEAL Team Six) is the second of the As a joint sub-unified command under USSOCOM, two primary counter-terrorist units of JSOC and SOC-JC's core function is to enhance the interoperabilSOCOM.* [46] DEVGRU is Naval Special War- ity of conventional and Special Operations Forces (SOF) fare's counterpart to Delta. Like Delta, DEVGRU commanders and staffs through robust strategic and operrecruits the best operators from the best units in ational level joint training. In coordination with the USits branch, the Navy SEALs. DEVGRU is capable SOCOM J3, J7/9 and Joint Special Operations University of performing any type of special operations mis- (JSOU), SOC-JC provides excellent training and support sion, but trains especially for counter-terrorist and to the education for SOF and Conventional Forces (CF) hostage rescue operations.* [23]* [46] worldwide. Additionally, SOC-JC supports the joint SOF • The Intelligence Support Activity (ISA, The Activity) is the support branch of JSOC and USSOCOM. Its primary missions are to provide Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Signal Intelligence (SIGINT) mainly for Delta and DEVGRU's operations.* [46]* [49] Before the establishing of the Strategic Support Branch in 2001, the ISA needed the permission of the CIA to conduct its operations, which sometimes caused it to be less effective in its support of JSOC's primary units.* [46]* [50]* [51]
capabilities development process while maintaining the flexibility to support emerging initiatives.
46.3.3 Army On 1 December 1989 the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) activated as the 16th major Army command. These special operations forces have been America's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years. USASOC commands such
46.3. SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
367 or airfields.* [58]
USASOC patch.
units as the well known Special Forces (SF, or the“Green Berets”) and Rangers, and such relatively unknown units as the Psychological Operations Group (PSYOP) and Civil Affairs Brigade (CA). These are one of the USSOCOM's main weapons for waging unconventional warfare and counter-insurgency. The significance of these units is emphasized as conventional conflicts are becoming less prevalent as insurgent and guerrilla warfare increases.* [55]* [56]
• United States Army Special Forces (SF) aka Green Berets perform several doctrinal missions: unconventional warfare, foreign internal defense, special reconnaissance, direct action and counter-terrorism. These missions make Special Forces unique in the U.S. military, because they are employed throughout the three stages of the operational continuum: peacetime, conflict and war.* [59] Foreign internal defense operations, SF's main peacetime mission, are designed to help friendly developing nations by working with their military and police forces to improve their technical skills, understanding of human rights issues, and to help with humanitarian and civic action projects. Special Forces unconventional warfare capabilities provide a viable military option for a variety of operational taskings that are inappropriate or infeasible for conventional forces. Special Forces are the U.S. military's premier unconventional warfare force.* [60] Foreign internal defense and unconventional warfare missions are the bread and butter of Special Forces soldiers. For this reason SF candidates are trained extensively in weapons, engineering, communications and medicine. SF soldiers are taught to be warriors first and teachers second because they must be able to train their team and be able to train their allies during a FID or UW mission.* [59]* [61] Often SF units are required to perform additional, or collateral, activities outside their primary missions. These collateral activities are coalition warfare/support, combat search and rescue, security assistance, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, humanitarian de-mining and counter-drug operations.* [62]
Units • The 75th Ranger Regiment (U.S. Army Rangers) is the premier light-infantry unit of the United States Army and is headquartered at Fort Benning, Georgia. The 75th Ranger Regiment's mission is to plan and conduct special missions in support of U.S. Special Forces on a patrol in Afghanistan. policy and objectives.* [57] The Rangers are a flexible and rapid-deployable force. Each battalion can • The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment deploy anywhere in the world within 18 hours no(Night Stalkers) headquartered at Fort Campbell, tice. The Army places much importance on the 75th Kentucky provides aviation support to units within Ranger Regiment and its training; it possesses the USSOCOM. The Regiment consists of MH-6 and capabilities to conduct conventional and most speAH-6 light helicopters, MH-60 helicopters and cial operations missions. Rangers are capable of inMH-47 heavy assault helicopters. The capabilities filtrating by land, sea, or air and direct action operations such as conducting raids or assaulting buildings of the 160th SOAR (A) have been evolving since the
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CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND early 1980s. Its focus on night operations resulted in the nickname, the “Night Stalkers.”* [63] The primary mission of the Night Stalkers is to conduct overt or covert infiltration, exfiltration, and resupply of special operations forces across a wide range of environmental conditions.* [64]
• John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center (USAJFKSWCS) trains USSOCOM and Army Special Operations Forces through development and evaluation of special operations concepts, doctrines and trainings.* [70]
• 4th Military Information Support Group (Airborne) 46.3.4 Navy and 8th Military Information Support Group (Airborne) Soldiers use persuasion to influence perceptions and encourage desired behavior.* [65]* [66] PSYOP soldiers supports national objectives at the tactical, operational and strategic levels of operations. Strategic psychological operations advance broad or long-term objectives; global in nature, they may be directed toward large audiences or at key communicators. Operational psychological operations are conducted on a smaller scale. 4th PSYOP Gp is employed by theater commanders to target groups within the theater of operations. 4th PSYOP Gp purpose can range from gaining support for U.S. operations to preparing the battlefield for combat. Tactical psychological operations are more limited, used by commanders to secure immediate and near-term goals. In this environment, these forceenhancing activities serve as a means to lower the United States Naval Special Warfare Command emblem. morale and efficiency of enemy forces.* [67] The United States Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM, NAVSOC, or NSWC) was commissioned April 16, 1987, at Naval Amphibious Base Coronado in San Diego as the Naval component to the United States Special Operations Command. Naval Special Warfare Command provides vision, leadership, doctrinal guidance, resources and oversight to ensure component special operations forces are ready to meet the operational requirements of combatant commanders.* [71] Today, SEAL Teams and Special Boat Teams comprise the elite combat units of Naval Special Warfare. These teams are organized, trained, and equipped to conduct a variety of missions to include direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, unconventional warfare and support psychological and civil affairs operations. Their highly trained operators are deployed worldwide in support of National Command Au• Sustainment Brigade (Special Operations) (Airthority objectives, conducting operations with other conborne) (SBSO(A)) has a difficult mission supventional and special operations forces. porting USASOC. In their respective fields, signal and support soldiers provide supplies, maintenance, Units equipment and expertise allowing Special Operation • United States Navy SEALs have distinguished Forces to“shoot, move and communicate”on a conthemselves as an individually reliable, collectively tinuous basis. Because USASOC often uses Special disciplined and highly skilled special operations Operations Forces-unique items, soldiers assigned force. The most important trait that distinguishes to these units are taught to operate and maintain Navy SEALs from all other military forces is that a vast array of specialized equipment not normally SEALs are maritime special operations, as they used by their conventional counterparts. SBSO(A) strike from and return to the sea. SEALs (SEa, also provides the USASOC with centralized and inAir, Land) take their name from the elements in tegrated material management of property, equipand from which they operate. SEALs are experts ment maintenance, logistical automation and repair in direct action and special reconnaissance missions. parts and supplies.* [69] • 95th Civil Affairs Brigade (Airborne) specialists identify critical requirements needed by local citizens in war or disaster situations. They also locate civilian resources to support military operations, help minimize civilian interference with operations, support national assistance activities, plan and execute noncombatant evacuation, support counterdrug operations and establish and maintain liaison with civilian aid agencies and other nongovernmental organizations. In support of special operations, these culturally oriented, linguistically capable Soldiers may also be tasked to provide functional expertise for foreign internal defense operations, unconventional warfare operations and direct action missions.* [68]
46.3. SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
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SEALs emerge from the water during a demonstration.
Their stealth and clandestine methods of operation allow them to conduct multiple missions against targets that larger forces cannot approach undetected. Because of the dangers inherent in their missions, Air Force Special Operations Command emblem. prospective SEALs go through what is considered by many military experts to be the toughest training the Twenty-Third Air Force and holds operational and regime in the world.* [72]* [73] administrative oversight of subordinate special operations wings and groups in the regular Air Force, Air Force Re• Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVserve Command and the Air National Guard. GRU), referred to as SEAL Team Six, the name of its predecessor which was officially disbanded in AFSOC provides Air Force special operations forces for worldwide deployment and assignment to regional uni1987. fied commands. The command's SOF are composed • SEAL Delivery Vehicle Teams are SEAL teams of highly trained, rapidly deployable airmen, conducting with an added underwater delivery capability who global special operations missions ranging from precision use the SDV MK VIII and the Advanced SEAL De- application of firepower via airstrikes or close air support, livery System (ASDS), submersibles that provides to infiltration, exfiltration, resupply and refueling of SOF NSW with an unprecedented capability that com- operational elements.* [77] AFSOC's unique capabilities bines the attributes of clandestine underwater mo- include airborne radio and television broadcast for psybility and the combat swimmer.* [74]* [75] chological operations, as well as aviation foreign internal defense instructors to provide other governments military • Special Warfare Combatant-craft Crewmen expertise for their internal development. (SWCC) operate and maintain state-of-the-art surface craft to conduct coastal patrol and inter- The command's core missions include battlefield air operdiction and support special operations missions. ations; agile combat support; aviation foreign internal deFocusing on infiltration and exfiltration of SEALs fense; information operations; precision aerospace fires; and other SOF, SWCCs provide dedicated rapid psychological operations; specialized air mobility; spemobility in shallow water areas where larger ships cialized refueling; and intelligence, surveillance and re* * * cannot operate. They also bring to the table a connaissance. [27] [78] [79] unique SOF capability: Maritime Combatant Craft Units Aerial Delivery System ̶the ability to deliver combat craft via parachute drop.* [1] Like SEALs, • Combat Controllers (CCT) are ground combat SWCCs must have excellent physical fitness, highly forces specialized in a traditional pathfinder role motivated, combat-focused and responsive in high while having a heavy emphasis on simultaneous air stress situations.* [76] traffic control, fire support (via airstrikes, close air support and command, control, and communications in covert or austere environments.* [80]* [81]
46.3.5
Air Force
Air Force Special Operations Command was established May 22, 1990, with headquarters at Hurlburt Field, Florida. AFSOC is one of the 10 Air Force Major Commands or MAJCOMs, and the Air Force component of United States Special Operations Command. It contains
• Pararescuemen (PJ) are the only Department of Defense specialty specifically trained and equipped to conduct conventional and unconventional personnel recovery operations. A PJ's primary function is as a personnel recovery specialist with emergency trauma medical capabilities in humanitarian and
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CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND combat environments.
• Special Operations Weather Technicians (SOWT) gather, assess, and interpret weather and environmental intelligence from forward deployed locations, working alongside special operations forces. Organization • The 1st Special Operations Wing (1 SOW) is located at Hurlburt Field, Florida. Its mission focus is unconventional warfare: counter-terrorism, combat search and rescue, personnel recovery, psychological operations, aviation assistance to developing nations, “deep battlefield”resupply, interdiction and close air support. The wing's core missions include aerospace surface interface, agile combat support, combat aviation advisory operations, information operations, personnel recovery/recovery operations, precision aerospace fires, psychological operations dissemination, specialized aerospace mobility and specialized aerial refueling.* [82] Among its aircraft is the MC-130 Combat Talon II, a low-level terrain following special missions transport that can evade radar detection and slip into enemy territory at a 200-foot (61 m) altitude for infiltration/exfiltration missions, even in zero visibility, dropping off or recovering men or supplies with pinpoint accuracy. It also operates the AC-130 Spooky and Spectre gunships that provide highly accurate airborne gunfire for close air support of conventional and special operations forces on the ground.* [46]
• The 193d Special Operations Wing (193 SOW) is an Air National Guard (ANG) unit, operationally gained by AFSOC, and located at Harrisburg International Airport/Air National Guard Station (former Olmsted Air Force Base), Pennsylvania. Under Title 32 USC, the 193 SOW performs state missions for the Governor of Pennsylvania as part of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard. Under Title 10 USC, the 193 SOW is part of the Air Reserve Component (ARC) of the United States Air Force. Its primary wartime and contingency operations mission as an AFSOC-gained unit is psychological operations (PSYOP). The 193 SOW is unique in that it is the only unit in the U.S. Air Force to fly and maintain the Lockheed EC-130J Commando Solo aircraft.
• The 24th Special Operations Wing (24 SOW) is located at Hurlburt Field, Florida. It's composed of the 720th Special Tactics Group, 724th Special Tactics Group, Special Tactics Training Squadron and 16 recruiting locations across the United States.* [83]* [84] The Special Tactics Squadrons, Air Force Special Operators on a training mission. under the 720th STG and 724th STG, are made up of Special Tactics Officers, Combat Controllers, Combat Rescue Officers, Pararescuemen, Special • The 919th Special Operations Wing (919 SOW) is Operations Weather Officers and Airmen, Air Lian Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) unit, opaison Officers, Tactical Air Control Party operators, erationally gained by AFSOC, and located at Eglin and a number of combat support airmen which comAFB Auxiliary Field #3/Duke Field, Florida. The prise 58 Air Force specialties.* [84] 919 SOW flies and maintains the MC-130E Combat Talon I and MC-130P Combat Shadow special • The 27th Special Operations Wing (27 SOW) is operations aircraft designed for covert operations. located at Cannon AFB, New Mexico. Its pri• The 352d Special Operations Wing (352 SOW) at mary mission includes infiltration, exfiltration and RAF Mildenhall, United Kingdom serves as the re-supply of special operations forces; air refuelcore to United States European Command's standing of special operations rotary wing and tiltrotor ing Joint Special Operations Air Component headaircraft; and precision fire support. These capaquarters. The squadron provides support for three bilities support a variety of special operations misflying squadrons, one special tactics squadron and sions including direct action, unconventional warone maintenance squadron for exercise, logistics, fare, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, perand war planning; aircrew training; communicasonnel recovery, psychological operations and infortions; aerial delivery; medical; intelligence; secumation operations.* [85]
46.3. SUBORDINATE COMMANDS
371
rity and force protection; weather; information technologies and transformation support and current operations.* [86] • The 353d Special Operations Group (353 SOG) is the focal point for all U.S. Air Force special operations activities throughout the United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) theater. Headquartered at Kadena AB, Okinawa, Japan the group is prepared to conduct a variety of high-priority, low-visibility missions. Its mission is air support of joint and allied special operations forces in the Pacific. It maintains a worldwide mobility commitment, participates in Pacific theater exercises as directed and supports humanitarian and relief operations.* [87] • The United States Air Force Special Operations School (USAFSOS) at Hurlburt Field, Florida is a primary support unit of the Air Force Special Operations Command. The USAFSOS prepares special operations Airmen to successfully plan, organize, and execute global special operations by providing indoctrination and education for AFSOC, other USSOCOM components, and joint/interagency/ coali- DA/SR Operators from 1st SOB (Special Operations Battalion) tion partners.* [88] respond to enemy fire in Afghanistan
46.3.6
Marine Corps
had been formed to conduct foreign internal defense. FMTU is now designated as the Marine Special Operations Advisor Group (MSOAG).* [89] As a service component of USSOCOM, MARSOC is tasked by the Commander USSOCOM to train, organize, equip, and deploy responsive U.S. Marine Corps special operations forces worldwide, in support of combatant commanders and other agencies. MARSOC has been directed to conduct foreign internal defense, direct action and special reconnaissance. MARSOC has also been directed to develop a capability in unconventional warfare, counter-terrorism, and information operations. MARSOC deployed its first units in August 2006, six months after the group's initial activation. MARSOC reached full operational capability in October 2008.* [90] Units
United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command emblem
In October 2005, the Secretary of Defense directed the formation of United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command, the Marine component of United States Special Operations Command. It was determined that the Marine Corps would initially form a unit of approximately 2500 to serve with USSOCOM. On February 24, 2006 MARSOC activated at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. MARSOC initially consisted of a small staff and the Foreign Military Training Unit (FMTU), which
• Marine Special Operations “Raider”Regiment (MSOR) consists of a Headquarters Company and three Marine Special Operations Battalions, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd MSOB. The Regiment provides tailored military combat-skills training and advisor support for identified foreign forces in order to enhance their tactical capabilities and to prepare the environment as directed by USSOCOM as well as the capability to form the nucleus of a Joint Special Operations Task Force. Marines and Sailors of the MRR train, advise and assist friendly host nation forces – including naval and maritime military and paramilitary forces – to enable them to support their governments' internal security and stability, to counter
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CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND subversion and to reduce the risk of violence from internal and external threats. MRR deployments are coordinated by MARSOC, through USSOCOM, in accordance with engagement priorities for Overseas Contingency Operations.
• Marine Intelligence Battalion (MIB) trains, sustains, maintains combat readiness, and provides intelligence support at all operational levels in order to support MARSOF training and operations worldwide with mission-specific intelligence capability. • Marine Special Operations Support Group (MSOSG) trains, equips, structures, and provides specially qualified Marine forces, including, operational logistics, intelligence, Military Working Dogs, Firepower Control Teams, and communications support in order to sustain worldwide special operations missions as directed by Commander, U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (COMMARFORSOC). • The Marine Special Operations School (MSOS) performs the screening, recruiting, training, assessment and doctrinal development functions for MARSOC. It includes two subordinate Special Missions Training Branches (SMTBs), one on each coast. • The Special Mission Training Branch ̶East provide special operations training in tactics, techniques and procedures, and evaluation and certification of MARSOC forces to specified conditions and standards for SOF. The Marines of MSOS are operators with the training, experience and mature judgment to plan, coordinate, instruct and supervise development of SOF special reconnaissance and direct action skills.* [91]
46.4 List of USSOCOM Combatant Commanders 46.5 USSOCOM medal
46.6 See also 46.7 References 46.7.1 Citations [1] SOCOM Public Affairs (2013). SOCOM Fact Book 2013 (PDF). SOCOM Public Affairs. [2] “Biography of Admiral James L. Holloway III, US Navy (Ret.)". June 2006. Retrieved 21 March 2008. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help) [3] Rother, Larry (6 December 1996). “With a Bang, Panama Is Erasing House of Horrors”. The New York Times. [4] Shanker, Thom (12 February 2004). “Regime Thought War Unlikely, Iraqis Tell U.S”. The New York Times. [5] “USSOCOM Posture Statement” (PDF). USSOCOM. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008. [6] Delta: America's Elite Counterterrorist Force. Terry Griswold, D. M. Giangreco. Zenith Imprint, 2005. ISBN 07603-2110-8. p. 35 [7] Sloan, Stephen (October 1992). Beating International Terrorism: An Action Strategy for Preemption and Punishment. Diane Pub Co. ISBN 1-56806-104-8. [8] Daniel, W.C. (September 1986). “H.R.5109”. A bill to establish a National Special Operations Agency within the Department of Defense to have unified responsibility for all special operations forces and activities within the Department. [9] “USSOCOM Command History” (PDF). Retrieved 12 October 2014. [10] Goldwater, Barry; Sam Nunn. “S.CON.RES.80”. A concurrent resolution to authorize the printing of 2,000 additional copies of the Committee Print of the Committee on Armed Services (99th Congress, 1st Session) entitled “Defense Organization: The Need for Change”. [11] Nichols, Bill; Barry Goldwater (1986). “H.R.3622”. A bill to amend title 10, United States Code, to strengthen the position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to provide for more efficient and effective operation of the Armed Forces, and for other purposes.
The United States Special Operations Command Medal was introduced in 1994 to recognize individuals for out- [12] Lederman, Gordon Nathaniel (November 1999). Reorganizing the Joint Chiefs of Staff: The Goldwater-Nichols Act standing contributions to, and in support of, special opof 1986. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31085-8. erations. Since it was created, there have been more than 50 recipients, four of which are not American. [13] Cohen, William (May 1986).“S.2453”. A bill to enhance Some of which includes: Generał broni Włodzimierz the capabilities of the United States to combat terrorism and * * Potasiński (Poland, 2010, posthumously), [92] [93] other forms of unconventional warfare. Kaptein Gunnar Sønsteby (Norway, 2008), Generał brygady Jerzy Gut (Poland, June 2014)* [94] and Generał dy- [14] Taubman, Philip (5 December 1984).“U.S. Military tries wizji Piotr Patalong (Poland, October 2014).* [95] to catch up in fighting terror”. New York Times.
46.7. REFERENCES
[15] “Special Operations/Low Intensity Conflict & Interdependent Capabilities (ASD SO/LIC & IC)". DoD. Retrieved 19 March 2008. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help) [16] Giles, James E.; Altizer, Harrell B. ; Glass, David V. Parker, Robert W. (March 1989). “Providing Resources for Special Operations Forces: Completing the Transition”. Retrieved 19 March 2008. [17] Lewis, Paul (1 July 2001). “Charles S. Whitehouse, 79, Diplomat and C.I.A. Official”. New York Times.
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[33] Turse, Nick, “A Secret War in 120 Countries: The Pentagon's New Power Elite”, CounterPunch, 4 August 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011. [34] Washington Post op-ed, John Lehman former Secretary of the Navy, October 2008 [35] Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). “The CIA Secret Army”. Time Magazine (Washington). Retrieved 28 September 2009. [36] “Operation Anaconda”. Time. 10 March 2002.
[18] Andrew Kelley, Stephen (June 2007). “Better Lucky Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as Gunboat Diplomacy”(PDF). Naval Postgraduate School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
[37] Garamone, Jim.“The Battle of Takur Ghar”. American Forces Press Service.
[19] Peniston, Bradley (July 2006). No Higher Honor: Saving the USS Samuel B. Roberts in the Persian Gulf. United States Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-661-5.
[39] MacPherson, Malcolm (2006). Roberts Ridge: A Story of Courage and Sacrifice on Takur Ghar Mountain, Afghanistan. Dell. ISBN 0-553-58680-7.
[20]“A Big Second Step in Somalia”. New York Times. 4 May 1993.
[40] Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (2007). Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8.
[21]“Two Tough Tracks in Somalia”. New York Times. 10 December 1992. [22] The Book of Honor: Cover Lives and Classified Deaths at the CIA by Ted Gup, 2000
[38] Executive Summary of the Battle of Takur Ghar (PDF). |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
[41] Blumenfield, Laura (11 June 2007).“The Sole Survivor” . Washington Post.
[23] Bowden, Mark (2001). Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War. Signet. ISBN 0-451-20393-3.
[42] Naylor, Sean D., “McRaven tapped to lead SOCOM”, Army Times, 1 March 2011 16:53:04 EST. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
[24] Eversmann, Matt; Dan Schilling (July 2006). The Battle of Mogadishu: Firsthand Accounts from the Men of Task Force Ranger. Presidio Press. ISBN 0-345-46668-3.
[43] http://www.imgc-global.com/testimonials.html. trieved February 2012.
[25] Plan of Attack, Bob Woodward, 2004 [26] Dao, James (22 March 2003). “The Commandos; Navy Seals Easily Seize 2 Oil Sites”. New York Times.
Re-
[44] Risen, James (20 September 1998).“The World: Passing the Laugh Test; Pentagon Planners Give New Meaning to 'Over the Top'". New York Times. [45] Emerson 1988, p. 26.
[27] Dao, James (28 April 2003). “Aftereffects: Special Operations Forces; War Plan Drew U.S. Commandos From Shadows”. The New York Times.
[46] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). “Stymied Warriors”. New York Times.
[28] Kruzel, John (26 May 2007). “Navy SEALs share war stories from Anbar province”. American Forces Press Service.
[47] L. Haney, Eric (August 2005). Inside Delta Force: The Story of America's Elite Counterterrorist Unit. Delta. ISBN 0-385-33936-4.
[29] R. Gordon, Michael (13 June 2003). “After The War: The Allies; In Major Assault, U.S. Forces Strike Hussein Loyalists”. New York Times.
[48] Mark Mazzetti (13 January 2007).“Pentagon Sees Move in Somalia as Blueprint”. New York Times.
[30] D. Kozaryn, Linda (14 December 2001). “U.S. Special Operations Forces Change “Face of War"". American Forces Press Service.
[49] Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team. New York, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-362722.
[31] Thom Shanker, Eric Schmitt (2 August 2004). “The [50] Gellman, Barton (23 January 2005). “Secret Unit ExReach of War: Military; Special Warriors Have Growing pands Rumsfeld's Domain”. Washington Post. Ranks and Growing Pains in Taking Key Antiterror Role” [51] Gerth, Jeff; Philip Taubman (8 June 1984).“U.s. military . The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2008. creates secret units for use in sensitive tasks abroad”. New [32] DeYoung, Karen, and Greg Jaffe, “U.S. 'secret war' exYork Times. pands globally as Special Operations forces take larger role”, Washington Post, 4 June 2010. Retrieved 5 Au- [52] Schmitt, Eric (19 March 2006). “In Secret Unit's 'Black gust 2011. Room,' a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse”. New York Times.
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CHAPTER 46. UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND
[53] E. Sanger, David (29 February 2004). “New U.S. Effort Steps Up Hunt For bin Laden”. New York Times.
[74] “Navy SEALs insertion/extraction page”. Retrieved 11 January 2008.
[54] SOCJFCOM transitions to USSOCOM and becomes Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities, 2 May 2011
[75] Tiron, Roxana (February 2002). “New Mini-Sub Gives SEALs Extra Speed, Range, Payload”. National Defense Magazine.
[55] “USASOC overview”. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
[76] “Official U.S. Navy SWCC Info Website”. Retrieved 11 January 2008.
[56] Schmitt, Eric; Michael R. Gordon (21 September 2001). “A Nation Challenged: The Military: Top Air Chief Sent” [77] Steven Lee Meyers, Thom Shanker (16 October 2001). “A Nation Challenged: The Offensive; Special Operations . New York Times. Gunship Being Used Against Taliban”. New York Times. [57] “75th Ranger Regiment website”. Archived from the [78] “AFSOC”. Retrieved 11 January 2008. original on 27 January 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008. [79] Meyers, Steven Lee; Thom Shanker (17 October 2001). [58] “75th Ranger Regiment website”. Archived from the “A Nation Challenged: Air War; Pilots Told to Fire at original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008. Will in Some Zones”. New York Times. [59] Couch, Dick (March 2007). Chosen Soldier: The Making of a Special Forces Warrior. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-307-33939-4. [60] Shanker, Thom (21 January 2002). “A Nation Challenged: Battlefield; Conduct of War Is Redefined By Success of Special Forces”. New York Times. [61] Schmitt, Eric; Thom Shanker (2 March 2008). “U.S. Plan Widens Role in Training Pakistani Forces in Qaeda Battle”. New York Times. [62] “USASF mission”. Archived from the original on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2008. [63] “Night Stalkers fact sheet”. Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2008. [64] “160th SOAR,MH-60 Black Hawk Helicopter Fact Sheet”. Retrieved 12 February 2008. [65] “PSYOP Recruiting website”. Archived from the original on 4 February 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008. [66] “Army Civil Affairs, Psychological Operations Soldiers Deploy in Support of Tsunami Relief Efforts” (Press release). Department of Defense. 7 January 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2008.
[80] “Combat Control Fact Sheet”. Air Force Special Operations Command. United States Air Force. Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 13 January 2013. [81] “Combat Control career description”. Retrieved 12 January 2013. [82] “1st SOW Fact Sheet”. AFSOC. Retrieved 20 January 2008. [83] “Air Force launches first special tactics wing”. 201206-13. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012. Retrieved January 15, 2013. [84] “24th SOW Factsheet”. Retrieved January 15, 2013. [85] “N.M. Delegation Welcomes 27th Special Ops. Wing to Cannon” (Press release). 29 August 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2008. [86] “352nd Fact Sheet”. AFSOC. Retrieved 21 January 2008. [87] “353rd SOG Fact Sheet”. AFSOC. Retrieved 21 January 2008. [88] “USAFOS Fact Sheet”. Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
[67] “PSYOP fact sheet”. Archived from the original on 3 February 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
[89] Kenyon, Henry (May 2006).“Marine Corps Special Operations Command Hits the Beach”. Signal Magazine. Retrieved 10 April 2008.
[68] “95th Civil Affairs Fact Sheet”. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
[90] “MARSOC”. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
[69] “SOSCOM Home Page”. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008. [70] “USAJFKSWCS”. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2008. [71] “NAVSOC info website”. Retrieved 8 January 2008. [72] “Official U.S. Navy SEAL Info Website”. Retrieved 11 January 2008. [73] Couch, Dick (October 2001). The Warrior Elite: The Forging of SEAL Class 228. Crown. ISBN 0-609-607103.
[91] “MARSOC, MSOS Info website”. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 21 January 2008. [92] USSOCOM Medal recipients [93] “NEWS | USSOCOM Commander visits POLSOCOM | Dowództwo Wojsk Specjalnych”. Wojskaspecjalne.mil.pl. 2010-05-14. Retrieved 2013-04-22. [94] “Amerykańskie Dowództwo Operacji Specjalnych wojsko-polskie.pl. doceniło polskiego generała”. 2014-06-03. Retrieved 2014-06-03. [95]“Medal USSOCOM dla polskiego generała”. mon.gov.pl. 2014-10-29. Retrieved 2014-10-29.
46.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
46.7.2
Bibliography
• Briscoe, Charles (2001). Weapon of Choice: ARSOF in Afghanistan. Combat Studies Institute Press. • Couch, Dick (March 2007). Chosen Soldier: The Making of a Special Forces Warrior. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-307-33939-4. • Couch, Dick (2006). Down Range: Navy SEALs in the War on Terrorism. New York, New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-8101-7. • Kelley, Stephen Andrew (June 2007). “Better Lucky Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as Gunboat Diplomacy” (PDF). Naval Postgraduate School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2008. • Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (June 2007). Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8. • Pirnie, Bruce R. (August 1998). Assessing Requirements for Peacekeeping, Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief. RAND Corporation. ISBN 08330-2594-5. • Pushies, Fred (2007). U.S. Air Force Special Ops. Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7603-0733-4. • Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team. New York, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-36272-2. • Sweetman, Jack (March 1999). Great American Naval Battles. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750794-5. • David Tucker, Christopher J. Lamb (2007). United States Special Operations Forces. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13190-9. • Wise, Harold Lee (May 2007). Inside the Danger Zone: The U.S. Military in the Persian Gulf, 1987– 1988. US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114970-3. Web • USDOD. U.S. DOD Dictionary of Military Terms. United States of America: U.S. Department of Defense. 5 June 2003. • USDOD. U.S. DOD Dictionary of Military Terms: Joint Acronyms and Abbreviations. United States of America: U.S. Department of Defense. 5 June 2003.
375 • Talmadge, Eric (27 February 2008).“New US Submarines Trade Nukes for SEALs”. Fox News. Associated Press. • Eric Schmitt, Michael R. Gordon (4 February 2008). “Leak on Cross-Border Chases From Iraq” . New York Times. • von Zielbauer, Paul (27 April 2007). “Criminal Charges Are Expected Against Marines, Official Says”. New York Times. • Graham, Bradley (2 November 2005). “Elite Marine Unit to Help Fight Terrorism”. Washington Post. Retrieved 27 May 2010. Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
46.8 External links • U.S. Special Operations Command • Air Force Special Operations Command • U.S. Army Special Operations Command • U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command • U.S. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command • Department of Defense • Joint Special Operations University
Chapter 47
Utility aircraft A utility aircraft is a general-purpose light aircraft or helicopter, usually used for transporting people or freight, but also for other duties when more specialized aircraft are not required or available. The term can also refer to an aircraft certified under American, Canadian, European or Australian regulations as a Utility Category Aircraft, which indicates that it is permitted to conduct limited aerobatics. The approved maneuvers include chandelles, lazy eights, spins and steep turns over 60° of bank.* [1]* [2]* [3] In the United States, military utility aircraft are given the prefix U in their designations.
47.1 See also • FAR Part 23 (refers to“utility category”in United States aviation regulations) • Utility helicopter
47.2 References [1] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 535. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2 [2] Federal Aviation Administration (July 2011). “Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 23 ̶Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart A ̶General”. Retrieved 15 July 2011. [3] Transport Canada (July 2011). “Part V - Airworthiness Manual Chapter 523 - Normal, Utility, Aerobatic And Commuter Category Aeroplanes”. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
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47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
377
47.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 47.3.1
Text
• .45 ACP Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.45%20ACP?oldid=662282531 Contributors: The Epopt, PhilipMW, Evercat, Cabalamat, Johnleemk, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, RedWolf, Spamhog, Seano1, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Lefty, Bird, Rpyle731, Mboverload, Meswiss, Siroxo, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Wmahan, OverlordQ, DNewhall, Phil1988, Lord Bodak, AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, ESkog, S.R. Heller, PrOeliuM, Sukiari, Alansohn, Ashley Pomeroy, Spangineer, SidP, Gene Nygaard, Heypete, Dan100, Kznf, Dismas, D.E. Watters, Sburke, GregorB, BlaiseFEgan, Mtloweman, Deansfa, Marudubshinki, Kane5187, Rjwilmsi, Georgejs, Ud terrorist, YurikBot, Jimp, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Friday, Ve3, TDogg310, MakeChooChooGoNow, Asams10, Hayden120, Lowell Silverman, Darren Lee, GMan552, Patiwat, SmackBot, KocjoBot~enwiki, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubuffalo, Geoff B, Gilliam, Hmains, Kaiserb, Cbh, Ajaka, Sbharris, Trekphiler, Yaf, KaiserbBot, RavenStorm, Cavell, TGC55, ThegunsofNevada, Hotspur23, LWF, Uber555, HashiriyaGDB, Critic-at-Arms, Davemcarlson, Godfrey Daniel, Iridescent, Tawkerbot2, Vanisaac, Novous, Ennerk, Timothylord, Orca1 9904, Gogo Dodo, Highonhendrix, Nabokov, Cancun771, Lord Satorious, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Deathbunny, Saibo, Nslsmith, Wikidenizen, PhiLiP, AntiVandalBot, Jaw1964, Lumbercutter, Sheepdog tx, Mark Grant, JSEldred, Vituperex, Henning M, Jeff dean, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, Mike Searson, LorenzoB, ROsattin, Memotype, Climax Void, Petter Bøckman, Expertfp1, OttoMäkelä, Jon Ascton, Skottt1978, DanMP5, Ana Nim, Jetwave Dave, VoidLurker, Fantasia69, Priceman86, Thai714, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Secarius, Liko81, Jackfork, Kilmer-san, (MOB)DeadMeat, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, Bobo The Ninja, Fuessler, Insane Burner, Motorrad-67, BonesBrigade, BotMultichill, VVVBot, Dbryant 94560, Skyoon, PianoKeys, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, EFrahm, Spartan198, Alatari, Hamiltondaniel, Asher196, MenoBot, DuaneThomas, ClueBot, Gerwen, PipepBot, Fyyer, Drmies, Theholst, RafaAzevedo, Three-quarter-ten, Noca2plus, John Nevard, Trbenning, Clantz1, Joe4570, Thewellman, HarrivBOT, Berean Hunter, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Winterkrieg, Nukes4Tots, Elmo iscariot, Addbot, Binary TSO, Mac Dreamstate, Saurabh111, Mjquinn id, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ConquerorPBN, Ptbotgourou, JippoJabber, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Aneah, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Mlpearc, WotWeiller, WebCiteBOT, Chaheel Riens, Pukepwnage, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, LMSPEED, Miguel Escopeta, Vrenator, 777sms, ROG5728, Dennis503, Boatdink, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, Derek280, Gburgyan, Ajraddatz, Rin tin tin, Faceless Enemy, Kekator, Solarra, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, L1A1 FAL, ArsenicofManila, Avatar9n, ChuispastonBot, Bfreund422, ClueBot NG, Ralph X. Williams III, Frietjes, ThatKid98, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Asdf44~enwiki, Shashenka, Mogism, Goldenbirdman, Trickrun, Tekogi, Bardbom, Michael E. Cumpston, JaconaFrere, Elderlee, Rezin, Cowkid183, All412day and Anonymous: 267 • .50 BMG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.50%20BMG?oldid=662723607 Contributors: JidGom, Cabalamat, Riddley, Donreed, Clngre, Xanzzibar, Carnildo, Jrash, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Lefty, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Mzajac, Wikster E, Phil1988, Cynical, Greenwave75, Karl Dickman, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Avriette, Hydrox, MCBastos, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, Helicon, Tjic, Bob the Cannibal, Tronno, Hooperbloob, Thatguy96, Anthony Appleyard, Redxiv, Geo Swan, Thewalrus, Lectonar, Ledrug, Voltagedrop, Kenyon, Marasmusine, Alvis, Woohookitty, D.E. Watters, Christopher Welsh, Jrkarp, Abel29a, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Jclemens, Rjwilmsi, Gewhere, FlaBot, Ysangkok, Nemo5576, Kerowyn, Alvin-cs, Alex Klotz, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Spacepotato, Petiatil, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Lavenderbunny, Friday, NawlinWiki, Dudtz, Ve3, Froth, BOT-Superzerocool, Asams10, Pejhman, Sandstein, Hayden120, Jonathan.s.kt, Vidarlo, Ricka0, Groyolo, Attilios, Jsnx, SmackBot, Beatle1967, Pielover87, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubuffalo, Klauth, Hmains, Stuart P. Bentley, Chris the speller, MrNonchalant, Thumperward, Wikisamh, Jlochoap, Yaf, ApolloCreed, Sephiroth BCR, MJCdetroit, RavenStorm, MrRadioGuy, Jumping cheese, Mr Minchin, Ohconfucius, Luigi-ish, Hotspur23, LWF, TauntingElf, Regan123, Slogby, Jmcneill2, Dr Smith, RyJones, Meco, Buckboard, Therealhazel, Citicat, RMHED, Wwagner, JoeBot, Blackhawk charlie2003, Blehfu, Alexander Iwaschkin, CmdrObot, B4Ctom1, Timothylord, Karenjc, Mato, SyntaxError55, Go229, Jimduchek, AtTheAbyss, Hebrides, ST47, BMG~enwiki, Carguychris, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Totensiebush, CynicalMe, Deathbunny, Dtgriscom, Peter Deer, Marek69, Ryan Scott, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luna Santin, MegaTroopX, Spencer, Lklundin, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Aki009, Bencherlite, Robsavoie, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Apollyon48, Carom, Avicennasis, Thernlund, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Eastsidehastings, BilCat, Havanafreestone, Patpend, Gwern, Bebopspike13, Jarhed, J.delanoy, Greg Glover, Zorakoid, Icseaturtles, New Hampshirite, Cannibalicious!, Gurchzilla, Richard D. LeCour, Nwbeeson, Extermino, Hunter2506, S, Xiahou, Zazzer, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Amikake3, Scubaguybill, VasilievVV, Mustafa 69, Hydra351, Hqb, Lexington50, Sanfranman59, Jeff 8, Postie77, Robert1947, Clmckelvie, SQL, Francis Flinch, Zachjeli, Kjun1 3, MCTales, Muzlie, Koalorka, Alucard365, Ryhajlo, JAMESTHESAGE, StAnselm, Sonicology, RJaguar3, Radon210, Mockingbus, Buttons, Faradayplank, Lightmouse, Greatrobo76, Dodger67, Wuhwuzdat, Hamiltondaniel, Lenny1776, Msjayhawk, Stevecalloway, Martarius, Malis-cs, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Desertus Sagittarius, The ms dos nerd, Gattsuru, Rockfang, Jfdavis668, John Nevard, Lopbisz, Vikings80, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Efddd, Monkey52, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Gazimoff, Inchiquin, 13Tawaazun14, MatthewVanitas, Dave1185, Addbot, Nohomers48, DutchDevil, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Nathan58, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jaws5263, NYEcom, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Donfbreed, Snook6869, QueenCake, YungJo$h, Tokarevsvt, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Deboj, Hodgy91, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Quebec99, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, SassoBot, SCΛRECROW, Kenny10210, Tempuser4321, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, Erik9, K3x, Surv1v4l1st, Krj373, Sushinut, Nitrousmudbogger, MGA73bot, Weetoddid, Killer12384, DrilBot, FiremanDave6024, Jshankern, Calmer Waters, Kalmbach, Mbrendzel, Overjive, 777sms, Cowlibob, Reaper Eternal, Specs112, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Ironraptor, GoingBatty, BobbieCharlton, K6ka, AvicBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Bollyjeff, Shuipzv3, 1kn0wtruth, Kyle Jewell, Cymru.lass, TheLastPotato, L1A1 FAL, Δ, Peterh5322, Sahimrobot, L Kensington, Zeta1127,89thLegion, ChuispastonBot, Johnmorris1967, PeterKneer, ClueBot NG, Baartvaark, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, Ose\fio, Jreston3750, Helpful Pixie Bot, Addihockey10 (automated), Mrafferty526, PhnomPencil, Omar 586, Geraldo Perez, MilitaryHistorian1990-PD, Tld55, America789, Wjcw, Treaduuue, ThereIsNoNeedToBeUpset, Marcello Pas, Donfbreed2, JDHuff185, Rider99, Finnusertop, Kingrhem, Bloblo78, Lghjr, Joestanding, Cadradcas, ScrapIronIV, ToonLucas22, I love guns95, ToXic12345one i caught a fish alive, Gholland1.0, Gholland0 and Anonymous: 374 • 5.56×45mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.56%C3%9745mm%20NATO?oldid=662772581 Contributors: The Epopt, BlckKnght, Banshee~enwiki, Cyde, JidGom, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Random832, Topbanana, Riddley, Dale Arnett, Modulatum, Adeio, Cyrius, Alan Liefting, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, Oberiko, MathKnight, HangingCurve, Marcika, Lefty, Shane Lin, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, AlexanderWinston, Pettifogger, Ary29, Phil1988, Gurkha, Tobias Wolter, AliveFreeHappy, Avriette, Rama, Darren Olivier, Fluzwup, Paul August, Night Gyr, Bender235, ESkog, GeZe, Iamtheari, El C, Kiand, Sietse Snel, Chuckstar, Sukiari, Thatguy96, Redxiv, The RedBurn, TheAznSensation, AN(Ger), Aquaseafoam, Bobrayner, Pekinensis, D.E. Watters, Mrbigg9969, Jeff3000, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Tomtheman5, SchuminWeb, Nemo5576, Rune.welsh, BjKa, Pete.Hurd, WouterBot, MoRsE, Chobot, Bgwhite, Sus scrofa, Measure, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Superknijn, Junky, Epolk, Russoc4, CambridgeBayWeather, Adam Martinez, Evan-
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CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
turner, Alex43223, EEMIV, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Kassie, Asams10, Stiletto Null, Chriszuma, Hayden120, Curpsbot-unicodify, Diagraph01~enwiki, Tirronan, SmackBot, Reedy, Gigs, Boris Barowski, Scott Paeth, JLRAtwil, KingRaptor, Winterheart, Bluebot, JackSparrow, LinguistAtLarge, Jprg1966, Scienz Guy, Htra0497, Chameleons84, Squalla, Sommers, ThirtyOneKnots, Magore, Blake-, TGC55, P33M, Synthe, BHC, Jpogi, Hotspur23, LWF, AllStarZ, Tim bates, Breno, Stevecudmore, Stwalkerster, Beetstra, 2T, Andrwsc, Krispos42, Ossipewsk, Johnnydc, Sketch051, Musashi1600, Orca1 9904, Overmind 900, Fnlayson, Meno25, AtTheAbyss, Gbondy, Myscrnnm, Nabokov, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Oldwildbill, Donovan515, Deathbunny, Ryan Scott, Hcobb, Rotundo, Blauer Heinrich, USMA, Bobbfwed, Twagger, JAnDbot, Mark Grant, Mstrawn, Cgwhitsett, Acroterion, J.R.W., JamesBWatson, Cantle, Gabe1972, Degenret01, Thernlund, Nubius, Eastsidehastings, Xen 7, BeadleB, Bissinger, Trixt, CommonsDelinker, Smokizzy, Dutchguy, NATOss109, Reginhild, Bjsdoc, Erik1980, Cannibalicious!, AntiSpamBot, SJP, Robertgreer, DanMP5, Ana Nim, Kyle the bot, Achroma, FergusM1970, Takeitupalevel, Broadbot, Mzmadmike, Shdowcrwler, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, Francis Flinch, Bahamut0013, Insanity Incarnate, Koalorka, C0N6R355, MattW93, AdRock, SieBot, Work permit, Chinese3126, BonesBrigade, ToePeu.bot, Tonemanbam, Cadwallader, Radon210, Recon sunshine, Buttons, Jackal214, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, Spartan198, ZH Evers, The9breaker2001, Francvs, Hoplon, Malis-cs, ClueBot, Scartboy, Cfsenel, MrBelvadere, Alexbot, Anon lynx, PixelBot, John Nevard, Rhododendrites, Thewellman, Pichpich, Nukes4Tots, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Wiki Mateo, Boomur, CarsracBot, SpBot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, MTWEmperor, IW.HG, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Ccyg8774, 661kts, C-D-P78, Sophus Bie, Nantucketnoon, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Wikipe-tan, RicHard-59, Kalel007, MGA73bot, MythMech, Wksdj, Nikto, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, BufordTJustice, Darkman IV, RedBot, DixonDBot, AntiNegativity, Jsbrigo, Math.geek3.1415926, 777sms, ROG5728, Remnar, Sheltot, Ceg098, DASHBot, EmausBot, FatherSarducci, Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, ZéroBot, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Casual Internet Surfer, MithrandirAgain, Nickjf22, Ὁ οἶστρος, Kyle Jewell, L1A1 FAL, Obotlig, Avatar9n, ChuispastonBot, Jill Orly, FeatherPluma, Mjbmrbot, Support.and.Defend, Lukeno94, Frietjes, BG19bot, Lck222, Hackercraft, Registreernu, MusikAnimal, 30.06fan, Virtuallyironic, Themanwich212, Socom385, Tpmcnamara, Zackmann08, Alex 25032, America789, Spurrious, Modernarms, AceraUSA, JYBot, Brainplay, BTRand1, Gbeecher54, Gato63, Bouowmx, RAF910, Kingrhem, StraightAsADie, Ballistic studies, Stamptrader, 946towguy, Press2eject, Rickysnips, Grizzly chipmunk, Shane Stachwick, Abbotjom, Crystallizedcarbon, DrawnLotus, Osmrford, Soletmansin, Thandieu123, California Walnut, Bopinbop and Anonymous: 292 • 7.62×51mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm%20NATO?oldid=662665212 Contributors: The Epopt, Maury Markowitz, Leandrod, GTBacchus, Zoicon5, David.Monniaux, Riddley, Sbisolo, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Tom harrison, Bobblewik, Vvizard, Neilc, One Salient Oversight, Sam Hocevar, Karl Dickman, BMS, AliveFreeHappy, Twinxor, Fluzwup, JPX7, Night Gyr, Iamtheari, El C, Dennis Brown, Bobo192, Harald Hansen, Diceman, King nothing, Thatguy96, Anthony Appleyard, The RedBurn, TaintedMustard, Dziban303, Kmartin, Kurmis~enwiki, D.E. Watters, Raygun, Jeff3000, Bluemoose, GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Patl, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, Nemo5576, Kolbasz, WouterBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Peregrine Fisher, Gaius Cornelius, Shanel, Ve3, Asams10, Curpsbot-unicodify, Ilmari Karonen, Mikkow, Diagraph01~enwiki, SmackBot, Padawane, Bjelleklang, Pielover87, Rfugina, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubuffalo, Geoff B, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Oatmeal batman, Yaf, OrphanBot, Squalla, Thatnewguy, TGC55, Pkang0327, Malambis, Tazmaniacs, Jpogi, Hotspur23, LWF, Mr. Vernon, Ransom Stoddard, JoeBot, Grendzy, Izaakb, Sanandros, CapitalR, CP\M, Supersquid, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Orca1 9904, Hga, CumbiaDude, Mato, AtTheAbyss, Argus fin, Kevin23, Myscrnnm, Nabokov, Aldis90, CynicalMe, Commander Zulu, Headbomb, Deathbunny, Nick Number, MarvinCZ, DagosNavy, Arsenikk, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, HanzoSword2517, Climax Void, Ordosingularis, Bissinger, Nono64, Dutchguy, BJ Axel, Notreallydavid, Cannibalicious!, Robertgreer, DanMP5, TeamZissou, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Mudwater, Stopping Power, T0008sa, TXiKiBoT, Eddiehimself, Dictouray, Indochinetn, Liko81, Broadbot, Capper13, Clmckelvie, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, AlleborgoBot, Solicitr, Karmo0, ToePeu.bot, Kurokishi, ShadowSix, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, Spartan198, Alatari, Maliscs, EoGuy, Winky Bill, Ridge Runner, DragonBot, Ghostrider, Cglabe, Jellyfish dave, Sustructu, Jfunnyguy, DumZiBoT, Nukes4Tots, MystBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Heavenlyblue, Magus732, U000tbm, Pietrow, Takashi kurita, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Tragino, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, Tornadowhiz, CaboverPete, D'ohBot, MGA73bot, Ferkeundigung, BenzolBot, MythMech, Wksdj, Diremarc, Footwarrior, 777sms, Vovchyck, ROG5728, Ceg098, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, Ksu6500, Kyle Jewell, 3006fan, L1A1 FAL, JeffBengtson, George Makepeace, ClueBot NG, Dr-liberal, DieSwartzPunkt, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, America789, Sixgunslinger, Liamsoprych, Juanitoy32, Khazar2, Mogism, Nosaj2011, Kingrhem, Shane Stachwick, Wqwt, Hibob841 and Anonymous: 241 • 9×19mm Parabellum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%C3%9719mm%20Parabellum?oldid=662819069 Contributors: The Epopt, Zippy, Delirium, JonathanDP81, Jeffq, Riddley, Romanm, Profoss, Seano1, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Marcika, Wwoods, Meswiss, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Chowbok, Sonjaaa, Mark5677, Qleem, Tin soldier, Phil1988, Marc Mongenet, Oknazevad, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, 3~enwiki, Fluzwup, MDCore, Bender235, S.R. Heller, Srbauer, BenM, Jigen III, Linmhall, Super-Magician, Wterrell, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, D.E. Watters, Raygun, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Gerbrant, DePiep, Mendaliv, Jshadias, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Wikibofh, Authalic, Nemo5576, Moroboshi, Scimitar, Chobot, Bgwhite, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Jimp, RussBot, Spirituallyinsane, Allister MacLeod, KamuiShirou, DanMS, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Haizum, Welsh, Dudtz, Ve3, Moe Epsilon, Elkman, Botteville, Asams10, Sandstein, CWenger, Ilmari Karonen, Sacxpert, SmackBot, Lepeu1999, Gigs, CyclePat, KocjoBot~enwiki, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubuffalo, ZS, TOMNORTHWALES, Geoff B, Hmains, Winterheart, Kaiserb, JudithSouth, Thumperward, Cbh, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, MJBurrage, UNHchabo, KaiserbBot, Squalla, RavenStorm, Mr.Z-man, ThegunsofNevada, Ohconfucius, Lambiam, Swatjester, John, CorvetteZ51, Jpogi, Hotspur23, Twalls, Funnybunny, Torana, Jachim, Nfutvol, Rkosh, Tawkerbot2, EightyOne, CuriosityCosby, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Vyznev Xnebara, WeggeBot, LCpl, Orca1 9904, Phædrus, Rifleman 82, Myscrnnm, SquareWave, Legend78, Nabokov, Old port, Thijs!bot, Mr kitehead, Zaphar, Headbomb, Titofer, Wikidenizen, Doktor Faustus, JAnDbot, Ktt, Max Hyre, Appraiser, Gabe1972, Paularized, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, Mike Searson, ROsattin, CeeWhy2, FlieGerFaUstMe262, GoldThong, R'n'B, PrestonH, Rrostrom, Austin512, Tatrgel, DanMP5, BrettAllen, Ana Nim, Shraka, Hunter2506, S, Dragor66, Thomas.W, Vandervahn, DOHC Holiday, TobyDZ, WatchingDragon, Secarius, Technopat, Rei-bot, Liko81, Broadbot, Kilmer-san, SQL, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, Wavehunter, AlleborgoBot, C0N6R355, NHRHS2010, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Work permit, BonesBrigade, Jack wallace, MazVaz, Lcurtis-GIG, HappyStopper, Spectre9, Happysailor, ShadowSix, Mark Aged, Greatrobo76, Michael Courtney, EFrahm, Spartan198, Alatari, Escape Orbit, Msjayhawk, ClueBot, PipepBot, Niceguyedc, Jersey emt, Marlow10, Clantz1, Thewellman, MelonBot, Berean Hunter, DumZiBoT, Pichpich, Bilsonius, Feinoha, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Nukes4Tots, Elmo iscariot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, JBsupreme, Magus732, Glane23, HandThatFeeds, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Letuño, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Gevar234, Plexipajzs, GrouchoBot, Morgan Phoenix, Surv1v4l1st, D'ohBot, MGA73bot, Keserman, Javert, DrilBot, Metricmike, Shashwat986, Maltedneon, SoloUnEditor, Darkman IV, RedBot, Macgyver-bd 896, IVAN3MAN, 777sms, Pilot850, ROG5728, Grasparv, Sideways713, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Noommos, Burmiester, DASHBot, Zaqq, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sophie, Faceless Enemy, Bobkart, Kekator, Thecheesykid, Bollyjeff, Ksu6500, H3llBot, 3006fan, Niggon, BP OMowe, XxDestinyxX, L1A1 FAL, ChuispastonBot, Disphenoidal, Support.and.Defend, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, Loginnigol, NamenlosX, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kungfu2187, Amk10003, Lucwelch976,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
379
PhnomPencil, Trevayne08, Infomationist, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, Uno b4, ÄDA - DÄP, CorneliusA, Connor 12345, Ovsek, M11rtinb, SMGeorge34, 8000Shooter, Tekogi, Gbeecher54, Shooter8000, Smokemup, Someone not using his real name, StraightAsADie, Bigdaddygirl, BethNaught, Grizzly chipmunk, Publius-Mad, Shane Stachwick and Anonymous: 271 • Anti-materiel rifle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-materiel%20rifle?oldid=650915606 Contributors: Julesd, Owen, Riddley, Donreed, Rholton, DocWatson42, Djinn112, Gtrmp, Greyengine5, St3vo, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Twinxor, Avriette, Roo72, Kross, Tronno, LtNOWIS, Calton, TaintedMustard, SteinbDJ, D.E. Watters, Dmol, Abel29a, BlaiseFEgan, GraemeLeggett, Allen3, DVdm, Rollie, Hydrargyrum, Neilbeach, Sandstein, Mursel, Faulty, Matt Heard, Deon Steyn, Geoff B, Bluebot, Silent SAM, Shabbs, Yaf, Frap, Addshore, WhosAsking, Nakamura2828, Gjp23, Hvn0413, Vanisaac, DiVaD, Shoe1127, N5iln, Deathbunny, Nick Number, DPdH, FidelFair, Adavies42, Thernlund, Gwern, Alexmcalpine, R'n'B, Jizzy p, Catobleman, Dawright12, Halmstad, Bharanideepan, Dirkbb, Francis Flinch, UnneededAplomb, Imthelimodriver9, Spunking, Socrates2008, Lopbisz, Shem1805, Aloysius the Gaul, Addbot, Leszek Jańczuk, Eivindbot, Dominicg100, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Donfbreed, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Ajpralston1, Amendola90, Chaheel Riens, Beşiktaşlı48, Rushbugled13, TheMightyGeneral, EmausBot, Slightsmile, Donedata, CRCJianan, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, Lukas Tobing, Polmas, AvocatoBot, MilitaryHistorian1990-PD, G PViB, Maxx786, SatCa, Carbon dubbs, Neff2641, Verosaurus and Anonymous: 79 • Anti-tank warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank%20warfare?oldid=659916914 Contributors: Christian List, Deb, Maury Markowitz, JohnOwens, Ahoerstemeier, Jll, Nikai, Itai, Riddley, AlainV, Securiger, Radomil, Matt Gies, Oberiko, Marcika, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Geni, Mzajac, Wikster E, Balcer, Sam Hocevar, Klemen Kocjancic, Ulflarsen, Rama, Xezbeth, Aerodotus, SpookyMulder, Night Gyr, Darkone, RJHall, Bobo192, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Espoo, Wendell, The RedBurn, Joshbaumgartner, Bukvoed, Hohum, Ashlux, Gene Nygaard, Dennis Bratland, SteveHFish, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, LOL, Tabletop, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Eyu100, Muchenhaeser, MWAK, SchuminWeb, Catsmeat, Ahpook, BlueJaeger, Sus scrofa, RussBot, Arado, Gaius Cornelius, Los688, Nahallac Silverwinds, Rmackenzie, FoolsWar, DisambigBot, Jinxs, SmackBot, DMorpheus, Mike McGregor (Can), Hmains, Ppntori, Chris the speller, Rcbutcher, Emrrans, MinuteHand, Latre, Wiki.capwn, The PIPE, DMacks, Mlorton, Falard, ZBrisk, Zahid Abdassabur, LWF, AllStarZ, RomanSpa, Swartik, Ka34, Therealhazel, CBM, Neelix, Fnlayson, Cancun771, Aldis90, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, Nick Number, -m-i-k-e-y-, Corella, Ingolfson, Mwarren us, Hut 8.5, Meeowow, RebelRobot, Fairnokesh, Magioladitis, Lenticel, The Sanctuary Sparrow, STBot, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, MoiraMoira, Yonidebot, Mrg3105, Youngjim, MisterBee1966, The Spanish Inquisitor, Inwind, Idioma-bot, RaptorR3d, Philip Trueman, Gypsyjosh, Josepy, BotKung, Cuddlyable3, Usergreatpower, Testmaennchen, MajorHazard, Logan, Läyhä, Skipweasel, Cryonic07, SieBot, DerbyCountyinNZ, Dreamafter, Trigaranus, Flyer22, Spartan-James, Anchor Link Bot, Brian Geppert, ClueBot, Egermino, Hutcher, Lastdingo, Chmelchert, Richrakh, Mild Bill Hiccup, NiD.29, Foofbun, Masterblooregard, Auntof6, DragonBot, NinSmartSpasms, Eeekster, Zarzhu, ShipFan, DumZiBoT, Alanthehat, Addbot, Dieydierson, PaterMcFly, SpellingBot, Favonian, Fireaxe888, Lightbot, Pietrow, Mfhulskemper, MuZemike, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, Vedran12, Yobot, PentiumIV, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Guy1890, AnomieBOT, Srobak, LordShonus, Metalhead94, Safferon Spano, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Dellant, Glisenti, ThuVT, Vladchan, Mark Schierbecker, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, FrescoBot, Remotelysensed, JolietJakeBlues, Koakhtzvigad, TobeBot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Oddbodkin, Beyond My Ken, Chessofnerd, John of Reading, Slightsmile, K6ka, Fencebridge, AutoGeek, Victory in Germany, ClueBot NG, Hofmic, Ur gay 666, Jigben, Yowanvista, Katangais, Khazar2, ÄDA - DÄP, Cerabot~enwiki, Rajmaan, URTh, Kratos007745757, Dough34, HHubi, Vareckin, Samf4u and Anonymous: 155 • Armored car (military) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored%20car%20(military)?oldid=659075099 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Topory, Patrick, Liftarn, DJ Clayworth, David.Monniaux, Riddley, AlainV, Altenmann, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wikibot, Leonard G., Per Honor et Gloria, Piotrus, Mzajac, Blue387, Tsemii, Jcw69, Klemen Kocjancic, Intrigue, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Rama, Roo72, MBisanz, Kross, Cmdrjameson, QuantumEleven, Denniss, Hohum, XB-70, J Heath, Axeman89, JohnC, Jdorney, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Graham87, XLerate, Ian Dunster, Catsmeat, Bubbleboys, Elmer Clark, Sus scrofa, Hairy Dude, Op. Deo, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Msoos, Dudtz, Taco325i, Rmackenzie, DeadEyeArrow, Zzuuzz, GraemeL, Tyrenius, ArielGold, Nixer, SmackBot, Bigbluefish, GoldDragon, Jibbajabba, Thumperward, BrendelSignature, Tewfik, OrphanBot, Newsmare, Drunken Pirate, JackLumber, Vgy7ujm, Gobonobo, Volker89, Muadd, Therealhazel, Peter Horn, Phuzion, Hetar, OnBeyondZebrax, Clarityfiend, Octane, CmdrObot, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Thijs!bot, Liquid-aim-bot, Ingolfson, Niagara, Argie boy, Pax:Vobiscum, JRWalko, KTo288, Jcraig, ArmorSolutions, Ian.thomson, DkEgy, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, YorkshireM, A4bot, Mbvanleeuwen, Mkpumphrey, Brianga, SieBot, Sdlewis, Seedbot, Hutcher, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Niceguyedc, Fatsamsgrandslam, Mumia-w-18, Niteshift36, MickMacNee, Eddaido, Berean Hunter, NocturnalA6 2.7, Wikiuser100, MatthewVanitas, Download, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, PMLawrence, Karanne, ZapThunderstrike, 4twenty42o, Lordelicht, Anna Frodesiak, Doorvery far, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Ionisiso, Σύμμαχος, EmausBot, Akerans, Guiltlessgecko, SporkBot, Noodleki, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Biggleswiki, Hengistmate, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcosarts, Katangais, R9109, Glacialfox, Yadsl, Mediran, Kbog, Frosty, SteenthIWbot, DMorpheus2, Jamesw007, Lesser Cartographies, Ultimate Broseph Stalin, Monkbot, Mitchell328, Tomandjerry211 and Anonymous: 100 • Armoured personnel carrier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured%20personnel%20carrier?oldid=655514785 Contributors: The Epopt, Bryan Derksen, Heron, Patrick, Nikai, Rob Hooft, Cabalamat, David.Monniaux, AlainV, RedWolf, Pibwl, Altenmann, Nurg, Wikibot, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marc Venot, Oberiko, Pretzelpaws, MathKnight, Brona, DO'Neil, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Mzajac, Burgundavia, Klemen Kocjancic, Leibniz, Pmsyyz, Rama, Night Gyr, CanisRufus, KuriosD, Harald Hansen, Get It, Maurreen, Russ3Z, Haham hanuka, DimaY2K, Sandstig, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, Tobyc75, Bastin, Shikai shaw, Drak2, GraemeLeggett, Descendall, Muchenhaeser, Ian Dunster, MWAK, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Noclador, Borgx, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Theredstarswl, Gaius Cornelius, PatCheng, Ergbert, Breathstealer, OettingerCroat, Nate1481, Mieciu K, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Petri Krohn, NickD, Groyolo, SmackBot, Brossow, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Redline, Ajaxkroon, Radagast83, Pissant, Jiddisch~enwiki, Wiki.capwn, Kukini, Rheo1905, Synthe, Khazar, Gobonobo, AllStarZ, Darz Mol~enwiki, Wilhelm Wiesel, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, SkyWalker, Zarex, Noha307, Fnlayson, Danrok, Aldis90, Ildin~enwiki, PaulVIF, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Flayer, MajesticX, Arz1969, Martynas Patasius, Bobanny, JaGa, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Rebell18190, Numbo3, Rencas, Wickiwolf, TXiKiBoT, Plaidwarrior101, Tmaull, Andy Dingley, Mharrsch, SieBot, Dreamafter, Lightmouse, Seedbot, Nhacdangian~enwiki, CohesionBot, Estirabot, Arjayay, Peter.C, Xander89, SchreiberBike, Vivo, SilvonenBot, Jaanusele, Addbot, Pelex, AndersBot, Abi.insani, Numbo3-bot, Pietrow, Beren, Ptbotgourou, IraqVet225, Jimderkaisser, Ufim, Kalamkaar, Pipeafcr, ArthurBot, B. Fairbairn, Xqbot, Sharpterov, Ricosenna, Doorvery far, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Scoot-Overload, Bus-bus-bus, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Simalsim, Tobby72, D'ohBot, Rgvis, RJE2012, Degen Earthfast, Rastaman3000, Solid State Survivor, DocYako, Ionisiso, FoxBot, DexDor, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Mircea87, Italia2006, Oblivion Lost, SporkBot, KazekageTR, AgentTasmania, Biggleswiki, Delusion23, MilyMart, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GeoMartal, Ranggamalvino, Mdann52, ZuluKane, 93, Alfy32, Jloughry, YiFeiBot, Ancholm, Abe Atkins, Ronald Ledecky, 2TonyTony and Anonymous: 119 • Armoured recovery vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured%20recovery%20vehicle?oldid=662585327 Contributors: Alan Liefting, MathKnight, Mark.murphy, Quadell, Mzajac, Rama, Harald Hansen, RussBlau, Bukvoed, Hohum, Bobrayner, Mindmatrix, Wdyoung, PoccilScript, Tabletop, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Ian Dunster, Catsmeat, RussBot, Los688, Royalbroil, Mieciu K, BOT-
380
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Superzerocool, JakkoWesterbeke, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, H2ppyme, Trekphiler, PsychoCola, Semi-Lobster, Corran.pl, Avantman42, Túrelio, RSido, SuperTank17, Wikist, CmdrObot, Michal.Pohorelsky, Aldis90, SGGH, DPdH, Lklundin, Ingolfson, Siman, Magioladitis, MCG, Pax:Vobiscum, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Cannibalicious!, Nwbeeson, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Telecineguy, Andy Dingley, Zephyrus67, Seedbot, ZH Evers, Ibericus Lusitanus, Reforger, Ridge Runner, Wikiuser100, WikHead, SelfQ, Dave1185, Addbot, Nohomers48, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Delta 51, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Themfromspace, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Lotje, IRISZOOM, John of Reading, GoingBatty, L1A1 FAL, Plinio Cayo Cilesio, SojerPL, KLBot2, Glevum, ChrisGualtieri, LittleFoxJpn, Cadet Pilot, ZBIGNIEW1963, Mogism, Lemnaminor and Anonymous: 19 • Assault rifle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault%20rifle?oldid=662864157 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Robert Merkel, Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, 0, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Edward, Patrick, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Jpatokal, Snoyes, Djmutex, Michael Shields, Nikai, Scott, Jonik, JidGom, Adam Bishop, Giddytrace, Fuzheado, Andrewman327, Sertrel, Steinsky, Nv8200pa, DTanner, Indefatigable, Huangdi, Riddley, AlainV, Astronautics~enwiki, RedWolf, Romanm, Naddy, Modulatum, Lowellian, Mirv, Tualha, Henrygb, Dersonlwd, Meelar, Profoss, Robbe~enwiki, GreatWhiteNortherner, Oberiko, Lethe, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Mark Richards, Marcika, Elf-friend, Lefty, Thierryc, Jfdwolff, Gracefool, Grant65, PlatinumX, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, Christopherlin, Kudz75, Chowbok, Jasper Chua, Knutux, Kjetil r, Quadell, Antandrus, Oneiros, Mzajac, Balcer, Qleem, Mouser, Sam Hocevar, Cglassey, Greventlv, Cab88, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, DanielCD, Cd4337, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Deh, YUL89YYZ, Buddyweiser, Frogman~enwiki, Michael Zimmermann, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, ZeroOne, Zaslav, El C, Kross, Gilgamesh he, Edward Z. Yang, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Solra Bizna, Maurreen, La goutte de pluie, King nothing, Idleguy, Justinc, ReconTanto, OGoncho, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, LtNOWIS, Echuck215, Denniss, RPellessier, Oneliner, Sobolewski, Evil Monkey, 2mcm, Deathphoenix, Dziban303, Dan100, Dennis Bratland, BerserkerBen, Kenyon, Bastin, Kelly Martin, D.E. Watters, CyrilleDunant, JHolman, Raygun, Jeff3000, Kelisi, Dmol, Jimbo489, GregorB, Tsunade, SDC, Kralizec!, GraemeLeggett, Scottanon, Ashmoo, Graham87, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Dragoneye776, Josh Parris, Crzrussian, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Gewhere, Poliorcetes, SLi, FlaBot, RexNL, Chobot, DVdm, Sus scrofa, Borgx, Edward Wakelin, Fabartus, DanMS, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, Friday, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Kvn8907, Ve3, Ergbert, Ospalh, Rosensteel, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Asams10, Unforgiven24, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Great Cthulhu, VAgentZero, Pb30, Hayden120, Garion96, Diagraph01~enwiki, Vanka5, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Kavol, Haza-w, Robotbeat, Reedy, Abalcar, WookieInHeat, Exukvera, Boris Barowski, By78, Gilliam, Hmains, Winterheart, Mikoyan21, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller, MK8, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Cbh, SchfiftyThree, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Rhurst1945, Yaf, Crad0010, Rjhansen, Squalla, Crboyer, T-borg, MrPMonday, IrisKawling, Howard the Duck, DIRTRIDER32191, Sigma 7, Hezbot, Didero, SirIsaacBrock, Synthe, Swatjester, Harryboyles, Anlace, Vgy7ujm, LWF, Slogby, DOSphantom, Beetstra, Therealhazel, Veritas Panther, JeffW, DouglasCalvert, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Twas Now, Izaakb, Octane, Courcelles, CmdrObot, ThreeBlindMice, Orca1 9904, Gizmo2511, Mualphachi, PepijnvdG, Myscrnnm, Solidpoint, ADude, Nabokov, Monsieur Fou, CalculatinAvatar, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Ante Aikio, Harry Lake, Deathbunny, Artydude, CharlotteWebb, JimScott, Seaphoto, Alexselkirk1704, Askhaiz, Corella, Tangurena, JAnDbot, Bravobulldog403, Avaya1, Cannen9, Andonic, Boris B, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Twigler, Carom, JamesBWatson, AlG, Cobrachen, Skew-t, OHFM~enwiki, Thernlund, Allstarecho, Davidwiz, Memotype, Pax:Vobiscum, Calltech, MartinBot, Nyp, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, MapleTree, Patar knight, Dutchguy, J.delanoy, Reginhild, Blue Note, Octopus-Hands, Xazy, JamesL85, GandalfDaGraay, Tony360X, SenorBeef, Davandron, Cannibalicious!, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Plasticup, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Ko Soi IX, Tatrgel, DanMP5, Prhartcom, STBotD, Bogdan~enwiki, Tigerwolf753, Natl1, L1f3Long, Hwbehrens, Halmstad, Rantingmadhare, CardinalDan, Tonyob, Thomas.W, Mudwater, Andyvphil, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, RealBigFlipsbrain, Dictouray, Liko81, TwilligToves, DennyColt, Franklum, BotKung, Ancjr, Greswik, Andy Dingley, Enigmaman, SQL, Soccer stud, Koalorka, EnviroGranny, Manyties, Darxus, NHRHS2010, Signsolid, Lightbreather, SieBot, Degourdon, Reevnar, Milnivri, Work permit, BonesBrigade, Kleshni, Sf46, Lightmouse, Greatrobo76, Waves00, Anchor Link Bot, Tominator93, BHenry1969, ImageRemovalBot, Ejnogarb, Martarius, ClueBot, Binksternet, Nailedtooth, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Defiant15E, Rjd0060, Wessex00, Wysprgr2005, Drmies, JTBX, Hostile Amish, Leadwind, Neverquick, Razvanjr, Auntof6, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, PixelBot, Posix memalign, Tyler, Camerajohn, SoxBot, Staygyro, 7, Gineokat, Wujuanyu, Scalhotrod, IJA, Berean Hunter, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Sholokhov, DumZiBoT, 20percent, Andy Fisher-Scott, Pichpich, SilvonenBot, Quickload, WikiDao, Nukes4Tots, Elmo iscariot, Harjk, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Timpryor97SVT, Pelex, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, CarsracBot, Glane23, Tassedethe, Greyhood, Yobot, Legobot II, Vendettanjm, Nirvana888, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Actionarms, 5infBrig, AnomieBOT, Octillion88, Piano non troppo, Jeff Muscato, Materialscientist, Gotgod86, The High Fin Sperm Whale, E2eamon, Onesius, Wranadu2, Branxton, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Karagamber, WotWeiller, Dave Smith, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Fitgolfpro, Hj108, Martineejames, Andrewr05, Neil Clancy, Bpselvam, QFlux, FrescoBot, Varoonk5, Themaan25, Juno, AndresHerutJaim, Biker Biker, Pinethicket, Degen Earthfast, MJ94, Rahlgd, RedBot, Hbrackett, Miguel Escopeta, North8000, Lotje, Pakkid101, Zaidpk786, Bilawalo, Aoidh, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Nutarama, Ripchip Bot, Barbula, Slon02, EmausBot, AssiPunjabi, Mrarmyrules, 9Martel9, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, Skyy Train, Sdicastro, Solarra, Animal-wiki, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Ll0l00l, Wikipelli, Lucas Thoms, RajeshPriemJagdeo, East of Borschov, Ksu6500, Will I aml2them2they, Battoe19, Access Denied, Kilopi, FinalRapture, L1A1 FAL, Mojowiha, Rusala1965, Δ, L Kensington, Skrunyak, Puffin, FeatherPluma, Rocketrod1960, Whoop whoop pull up, UCRstudent, ClueBot NG, The Master, Phili211, Route3, Yomama123987, Helpful Pixie Bot, DMac1326, Calabe1992, BG19bot, Ouikimedia, MusikAnimal, Makrom, Dr. Whooves, Axel334, Ranggamalvino, -dam-, Nmabhinandan, 2minty, Cojue 25, Atork85, Historyphysics, The Illusive Man, UserConfirm, Khazar2, EuroCarGT, Jabotito48, Mogism, Kbog, 2018bhum, Lugia2453, BillxMach, Sturmgewehr88, Rupert loup, NewNew22, G PViB, Ar-15ish, Harrydawson, Blythwood, Icemanwcs, B14709, Neorakian, Someone not using his real name, RAF910, Speak123451, Vitek232, Vieque, Skylandersrahil, HK9900, OiBlud, Utrutrzr, Corster24, AldairXD, Veday1945, MARINE MIKE0311, KasparBot and Anonymous: 582 • Attack helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack%20helicopter?oldid=662782857 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Rlandmann, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Mirv, SoLando, Rossrs, MathKnight, Trujaman, Gadfium, Latitudinarian, Sam Hocevar, C14, Karl Dickman, Darren Olivier, GeZe, Cap'n Refsmmat, PPGMD, Kross, Sietse Snel, Amerika, Harald Hansen, Hooperbloob, Denniss, Dr Gangrene, Akerkhof, GSlicer, Alvinying, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, GagHalfrunt, Russavia, Vidkun, Coolhawks88, Ahpook, Sus scrofa, Noclador, Arado, Los688, Anetode, Lomn, Donald Albury, De Administrando Imperio, Shyam, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Deon Steyn, Delldot, By78, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Lyta79, Kellyprice, The PIPE, Fireswordfight, MilborneOne, JorisvS, Casg, Crocodilicus, Generalcp702, Lahiru k, CmdrObot, Stevo1000, Fnlayson, Rifleman 82, Gogo Dodo, GSTQ21C, Thirdstar, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, Hcberkowitz, Dfrg.msc, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Spud Gun, Born2flie, Dan D. Ric, Chanakyathegreat, Magioladitis, Apocno10, Sarahj2107, BilCat, NJR ZA, STBot, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Ash sul, ILoveFuturama, MchlWngr, VolkovBot, Sporti, Pjm4474, A4bot, CobraDragoon, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Usergreatpower, Kobalt64, Docclabo, SieBot, Ivan Štambuk, Flyer22, Onopearls, ClueBot, Neverquick, DragonBot, Ktr101, Nolispanmo, The Founders Intent, BOTarate, DumZiBoT, Harman malhotra, LordJesseD, DanielAgorander, Avik pram, Addbot, Jecario, Metagraph, AkhtaBot, BlackGT, LaaknorBot, Blaylockjam10, Westrim, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Mjf3719, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Trivelt, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Jineshgopinathan, Leb90, FrescoBot, Part Time Security, Everlasting Winner, Bambuway, Citation bot 1, King Zebu, Bcs09,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
381
Cnwilliams, Gagan11111, 777sms, Jojo7727644it, Dewritech, Thecheesykid, Werieth, ZéroBot, Subtropical-man, Victory in Germany, Arson beetle, Plotting it out, I, Englishman, ClueBot NG, Simonstone, AktiNo, JesseW900, A06em2, Touchtheskywithglory, Justintbassett, Northamerica1000, Chanthujohnson, Ranggamalvino, CitationCleanerBot, Edit00100, Harshvardhansonkar, Juakoblabla, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, Mail2arunjith, Cidarr, Lakun.patra, HHubi, DanieB52, Sierra-Hawk, Mikhail The Russian, Indiandefence, Filedelinkerbot, GSh630, Sir Richard Richard VC and Anonymous: 129 • Carbine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbine?oldid=661044505 Contributors: Mav, Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, Alex.tan, David spector, Ixfd64, Delirium, Claypipe, Aarchiba, Александър, Ugen64, Fuzheado, Selket, Ed g2s, Flockmeal, Riddley, Astronautics~enwiki, Nurg, Alba, Profoss, Kent Wang, Buster2058, Fudoreaper, MathKnight, Marcika, Per Honor et Gloria, Jasontn, Bobblewik, Alan Au, Chowbok, Manuel Anastácio, Pgan002, LiDaobing, Sam Hocevar, Blue387, Sonett72, AliveFreeHappy, Erc, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, Leibniz, Ffirehorse, Cfailde, Rama, Fluzwup, Kenb215, Kbh3rd, Kwamikagami, Keno, Rhaas, Tronno, John Fader, Anthony Appleyard, Paul Bonneau, Moanzhu, Filladdar, Evil Monkey, Sleigh, SteinbDJ, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, Behun, Jclemens, Nightscream, George Burgess, Vary, Gewhere, Kajmal, Bubba73, Brighterorange, Bubbleboys, BjKa, Srleffler, Zotel, Chobot, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, DanMS, Hellbus, IanManka, Gaius Cornelius, Ve3, Saberwyn, Rosensteel, Flapeyre, Asams10, Koblentz, Suburbanslice, Kungfuadam, Some guy, Wallie, Groyolo, SmackBot, Reedy, KocjoBot~enwiki, Niayre, Jab843, Boris Barowski, Geoff B, Macintosh User, Hmains, Betacommand, Souper b, Chris the speller, Kurykh, GoldDragon, SchfiftyThree, Hellfire83, Dr. Dan, Citronym, Attakmint, Lazar Taxon, MJCdetroit, RavenStorm, Jumping cheese, Chrylis, Soooper B, Robomaeyhem, The9muse, Fanx, LWF, Robofish, Mgiganteus1, Nobunaga24, 16@r, K K~enwiki, Naaman Brown, Krispos42, Marysunshine, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, CmdrObot, CBM, Neelix, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Achangeisasgoodasa, TenthEagle, MafiaCapo, Starsword333, Thijs!bot, Seng Yew, Commander Zulu, Deathbunny, Legaiaflame, Brianmarx, USMA, Rsciaccio, Tlabshier, Deflective, Hut 8.5, Neil McCauley, Magioladitis, Nyet, Sdcrym, Jeff dean, Thernlund, Viperix, STBot, CommonsDelinker, Re34646, Slash, Krisirk, New Hampshirite, InspectorTiger, DanMP5, Jevansen, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, DOHC Holiday, Kwsn, Ulstulst, Robk6364, TXiKiBoT, Hqb, Oxfordwang, Rumiton, Andy Dingley, SQL, Curtis~enwiki, Alucard365, Paul J Williams, NHRHS2010, Insane Burner, SieBot, Moogle 12, Thehornet, Matt5572, Demonic1993, Aruton, Martarius, Kajigoddess, ClueBot, IPAddressConflict, Hutcher, Takamini, Fredgamble, Nick19thind, Jersey emt, Kitsunegami, Crywalt, Hillsen, Sflorman, Dekisugi, Jellyfish dave, Scalhotrod, Berean Hunter, Wikieditor24, Wikiuser100, MystBot, Wickie37, Wirehead2501, Akyoyo94, Pigoutultra, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Ufim, Jfcinternationalinc, Xqbot, Ched, GrouchoBot, Midnightvisions, RibotBOT, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Coppermallow, DivineAlpha, OgreBot, SaturdayNightSpecial, Miguel Escopeta, Vometia, Jauhienij, Misconceptions2, EmausBot, Slatibarfast, Sdafhgh, Slightsmile, Winner 42, Battoe19, L1A1 FAL, JoeSperrazza, Euzen, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Tosh.0expert, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Makecat-bot, Cerabot~enwiki, Smohammed2, Ckharyal, Camrynnel, TeriEmbrey, Thegreatmuka, Rezin, Felsic, Knife-in-thedrawer and Anonymous: 235 • Cargo aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo%20aircraft?oldid=662900179 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Xlation, Arpingstone, AugPi, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Ulflarsen, Marsian~enwiki, Kross, Adrian~enwiki, Alansohn, Iothiania, GL, Korrigan, Before My Ken, A Train, Icey, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Amire80, Rillian, Wongm, Russavia, Mmx1, Borgx, Arado, Hede2000, Pigman, Veledan, Logawi, Change1211, Closedmouth, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ssbohio, Hmains, Betacommand, Bluebot, Jlochoap, Radagast83, TGC55, Richsage, The PIPE, Will Beback, Alan.ca, Hayttom, Ageoflo, FairuseBot, Henrickson, N2e, Neelix, Stewartfip, Fnlayson, Pascal.Tesson, RottweilerCS, Aldis90, Golf Bravo, JAnDbot, Chanakyathegreat, PaleAqua, PhilKnight, Fabricebaro, BilCat, Tondose, Olegwiki, Paddy.carroll, Hammersoft, Itsfullofstars, DoorsAjar, Jkstark, Poligraf, Beyond silence, Brian Ammon, Sce03066, JetLover, Anchor Link Bot, Alpha Centaury, YSSYguy, MenoBot, Martarius, Ramif 47, T18, XLinkBot, MystBot, Addbot, Andyjamesuk, CvetanPetrov1940, Legobot II, Gobbleswoggler, Mo7amedsalim, Sorruno, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Aquitania, LilHelpa, Xqbot, The Magnificent Clean-keeper, Incidious, Slickh20, PeterEastern, Aogouguo, Panagiotis Pietris, Snlf1, EmausBot, Sanjana s j, Dewritech, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, VtTN, Noodleki, O.Koslowski, YuGo0dy, 隼鷹, Demon Hill, Strower, Shivamsetu, Khazar2, Omid, Spray787, Dagmar.reinerth, EPsi, Phantom1209, HuffTheWeevil, Justinalanbass, KasparBot and Anonymous: 74 • Cartridge (firearms) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge%20(firearms)?oldid=656261148 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Ellmist, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Sannse, Aarchiba, Julesd, Jll, Whkoh, RadRafe, Nikai, ²¹², JidGom, Jon Roland, Riddley, Robbot, Moriori, Pibwl, Seano1, Buster2058, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Ferkelparade, Ds13, Lefty, Wicked~enwiki, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Wiki Wikardo, Kudz75, Apotheon, Sam Hocevar, Io usurped, Khatores, LiSrt, Mormegil, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Twinxor, Edentrad, Fluzwup, Mani1, Night Gyr, Brian0918, Shanes, Prsephone1674, Harald Hansen, Duk, Hooperbloob, Pouya, Ynhockey, Dragunova, Velho, Kelly Martin, D.E. Watters, Jeff3000, Dmol, GregorB, Julo, GraemeLeggett, Descendall, BD2412, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Nneonneo, Parababelico, Chobot, Fourdee, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Jimp, Kvuo, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Jrideout, Friday, Dialectric, Ve3, Koblentz, HereToHelp, Katieh5584, Groyolo, Nick Michael, SmackBot, Hux, Reedy, Melchoir, Deon Steyn, Unyoyega, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Boris Barowski, Geoff B, Shai-kun, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Chris the speller, LinguistAtLarge, Thumperward, Silent SAM, Appaloosa2k, Badger151, Trekphiler, Yaf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, OrphanBot, KaiserbBot, Kellyprice, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, SirIsaacBrock, Marzolian, LWF, AllStarZ, Jack Rarebit, Gungho, WalterWalrus3, Adamq, Phasmatisnox, Tawkerbot2, Swwright, Andkore, MrFish, ElectricEye, Trasel, RelentlessRecusant, Myscrnnm, Nabokov, Thijs!bot, ShaggyZed, Commander Zulu, Deathbunny, Philippe, Wikidenizen, SummerPhD, Fru1tbat, L0b0t, JAnDbot, Nthep, .anacondabot, Geniac, Magioladitis, Avicennasis, MachIV, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, STBot, BeadleB, Trixt, Glrx, R'n'B, Maurice Carbonaro, Northmetpit, Johnbod, Mikael Häggström, Cannibalicious!, Skullers, Trilobitealive, Remember the dot, Dorftrottel, Rantingmadhare, Idioma-bot, Kurosa~enwiki, DarkShroom, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, Una Smith, Wordsmith, Raymondwinn, Andy Dingley, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, Symane, Solicitr, Paul J Williams, UnneededAplomb, SieBot, Dwane E Anderson, Gecko G, Permacultura, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, Fratrep, ZH Evers, ImageRemovalBot, Drake2ao, ClueBot, Paul Iliano, Webley442, Mild Bill Hiccup, RFST, Masterblooregard, Jersey emt, DragonBot, Three-quarter-ten, Thewellman, Jmlane, Cmacauley, Triathlete1, Jellyfish dave, Scalhotrod, Mdeby, DumZiBoT, Ayjazz, Rickremember, Hereward777, Kintaro, Ost316, Quickload, Mimarx, Nukes4Tots, Tiathlete1, Neutrino 1, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Jncraton, Darth Cracker, SamatBot, Oakphotozone, Pigoutultra, Lightbot, Vasiľ, Zorrobot, The Bushranger, Legobot, Luckasbot, Yobot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Hunnjazal, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Drilnoth, AaronN322, Gbchaosmaster, Joan Rocaguinard, Eugene-elgato, Nitpyck, FrescoBot, CaboverPete, Regigiti, Þjóðólfr, Pinethicket, LittleWink, Jonesey95, Hlvirton, Jauhienij, Mercy11, ,کاشف عقیل777sms, ROG5728, PraxisThanatopsis, Beyond My Ken, NerdyScienceDude, BobbieCharlton, Catalaalatac, Zakdak, GenomicaUASLP, Kilinkie, Rodentguy, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Technician Fry, KySharpshooter, Frietjes, Mesoderm, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GWFrog, Kyrmyzy gul, Aggarank, Writ Keeper, JunoBeach, Finkeltje, RudolfRed, Fdsdh1, S1D3winder016, ChrisGualtieri, Fundamental Motivation, Nouniquenames, Kjorg23, Aymankamelwiki, Reconmarinecanada, YiFeiBot, Pravito, StraightAsADie, NoMoreGuns, JaconaFrere, Dict1111, Figugegl and Anonymous: 196 • CBRN defense Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN%20defense?oldid=661316787 Contributors: The Anome, Karada, Jerzy, DocWatson42, Michael Devore, Falcon Kirtaran, Zantolak, Mzajac, Pippo~enwiki, Urhixidur, Nick Precision, Hohum, Zntrip, Pol098,
382
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Jonnabuz, Rjwilmsi, King of Hearts, Cactus.man, Arado, Malcolma, TDogg310, Syed, Intershark, Clayhalliwell, ViperSnake151, BiH, SmackBot, Vincent de Ruijter, Mauls, Hibernian, Factorylad, Radagast83, Thegraham, Jvandyke, Zaniac, Beetstra, Dl2000, Eastlaw, JohnCD, Cahk, Kenster102.5, Alphachimpbot, CosineKitty, Magioladitis, Yurei-eggtart, Chris G, D.h, IvoShandor, Pvosta, Lithium57, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Fusion7, KTo288, Nono64, Kvdveer, RVJ, Marine0922, Meltonkt, Reillykw, Doctorfluffy, Reecem27, Stillwaterising, Twinsday, ClueBot, Tomas e, Arjayay, Ottodog~enwiki, Pgpotvin, EpicDream86, DumZiBoT, Viking6, Dthomsen8, SilvonenBot, Sameer0s, Dave1185, Iceblock, Fieldday-sunday, Arunrama, Curlupndie, Csf.shoot, Fraggle81, TehGus, Hvannorman, Roux-HG, GB fan, Kddodge, Biophysiscool, Brad101AWB, Tsuchida54, Iljambonsen, Hsrc, Pratheekrebala, Diannaa, Fry1989, Afcbrne, DexDor, Slatibarfast, Maliepa, Tyrsepheus, Heralder, ClueBot NG, Jgkratky, Delusion23, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Goldwindow47, Yowanvista, AdFerrao, Yash528, Ligne11, ChrisGualtieri, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Josephc3000, Limnalid, Curlupndie85, Iljamb, Jimbock, IrishSpook, Trendyrandy7290, IQLessThanCustard, Jlayerbear and Anonymous: 97 • Combat engineer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat%20engineer?oldid=662370538 Contributors: Hephaestos, Rschroev, Liftarn, CORNELIUSSEON, Stan Shebs, CatherineMunro, Aarchiba, Nikai, Netsnipe, Mako, Lou Sander, Wik, Maximus Rex, Grendelkhan, Wernher, Cjrother, Greybeard, Johnleemk, David.Monniaux, Securiger, Chris Roy, Rholton, Steeev, GreatWhiteNortherner, Andries, MathKnight, Btphelps, SimonArlott, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Neutrality, Gest, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Fluzwup, Neko-chan, CanisRufus, El C, Sietse Snel, Bobo192, Harley peters, Sentience, Alansohn, TShilo12, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Turnstep, Mandarax, BD2412, Jmcc150, MZMcBride, Vegaswikian, Aapo Laitinen, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Mark83, Srleffler, Chobot, RussBot, Bhny, Mipadi, Geoff NoNick, Pb30, Jhamner, DisambigBot, Sacxpert, Marksburg, SmackBot, Ifnord, Mike McGregor (Can), Hmains, Sadads, Hongooi, Tewfik, Sapper Ancient, Shuki, Ww2censor, Elendil's Heir, Nahum Reduta, Completesentence, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Kuru, IronGargoyle, FrostyBytes, Rainwarrior, Ebnz~enwiki, Polybos~enwiki, Atomicnewt, Wilhelm Wiesel, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Hemlock Martinis, Necessary Evil, Rifleman 82, Phydend, Saintrain, Buistr, A3RO, Signaleer, WinBot, Jaredroberts, Ingolfson, Leuko, OhanaUnited, PhilKnight, Caffeinepuppy, Askari Mark, JamesBWatson, Buckshot06, MCG, KTo288, Nono64, DomBot, Stephanwehner, Reedy Bot, Katalaveno, Mrg3105, Buddha379, FergusM1970, Koonter, Relaxtoday, Sid513, Oxfordwang, Avro-Lancaster, Telecineguy, Timt1006, Mharrsch, ASJ94, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Ibericus Lusitanus, TabooTikiGod, Byzerodivide, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Madpostie, EoGuy, Ryoutou, Niceguyedc, Ngebendi, WH40k guy, XLinkBot, Baron von HoopleDoople, Wikiuser100, Addbot, DougsTech, Leszek Jańczuk, Glane23, West.andrew.g, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Pietrow, QuadrivialMind, Legobot II, Fizyxnrd, Washburnmav, AnomieBOT, VeroAraujo, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Erud, TurboLT, Aristeiakorps, Pinethicket, Hillarin, Monstrelet, Saayiit, Lotje, Markkannedy, Dewritech, UltimaRatio, Engini86, NTox, ClueBot NG, MerlIwBot, ProtoFire, Muhammad Shuaib Nadwi, SoledadKabocha, Mogism, BRABBIN, Donchipman, A Dictionary and Anonymous: 151 • Designated marksman rifle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designated%20marksman%20rifle?oldid=662389401 Contributors: Riddley, Xanzzibar, MathKnight, Avriette, Bobrayner, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, Mmx1, Jimp, Shotgunlee, Phichanad, Ominae, Deon Steyn, JudithSouth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, JHunterJ, Dl2000, Eastlaw, Orca1 9904, Tr1290, Gogo Dodo, Darrenhusted, Mike Searson, CommonsDelinker, Francis Flinch, Drmies, Kjeserud, Pigoutultra, Markunator, Pmfap, C.Mezzo-1, Mark Schierbecker, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Shiftyfifty, EmausBot, Mircea87, Shuipzv3, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Sonaz, BG19bot, Cosmosgu, Oinbuh, BattyBot, Squirrel523, G PViB, DanieB52, Leobold111 and Anonymous: 36 • Electronic warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20warfare?oldid=656058015 Contributors: The Anome, Karen Johnson, Europrobe, Heron, Michael Hardy, Wernher, Rossumcapek, Robbot, Donreed, GreatWhiteNortherner, Timffl, Micru, Andycjp, Beland, Gazpacho, Rama, El C, Pjrich, Art LaPella, Cmdrjameson, ZayZayEM, Maurreen, John Fader, Dziban303, Sylvain Mielot, Kyle Maxwell, Nvinen, Turnstep, KharBevNor, Ian Dunster, SchuminWeb, Cherubino, Wongm, Krishnavedala, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, Tom Barnwell 0, Matanya (renamed), Fabartus, Kirill Lokshin, Wimt, Schneiderb, TDogg310, Donald Albury, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Rjohanning, Xaosflux, Gilliam, Dual Freq, Sim man, TheGerm, Frap, Ne0Freedom, A.R., Eliyak, Robbie.daniell, Recondaddy, BoH, Random name, NRLBuilder, Necessary Evil, Ttoensing, Thijs!bot, Hcberkowitz, Nuworld, Sazaedo, Hcobb, List of marijuana slang terms, Smartse, JAnDbot, JeltLuthor, Careless hx, Buckshot06, Soulbot, Graven69, Demodemodemon, The freddinator, C7L5N9, Beowulf7120, Hans Dunkelberg, Terrek, Mrg3105, EH101, WOSlinker, Applehead77, CarlosFlys, Ipankonin, Yintan, Comint, Martarius, ClueBot, Zackwee, Chessy999, TypoBoy, Masterblooregard, Supremedemency, PotentialDanger, Iam666, Addbot, Tanhabot, NjardarBot, MrOllie, 3rdgenarmybrat, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, إماراتي1971, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, IRP, Accuruss, Materialscientist, Xqbot, EWProp, DSisyphBot, GrouchoBot, Jbourque, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Sidna, Steve Quinn, Qwikifix, Adlerbot, Tinton5, RedBot, Wickelyby, Thái Nhi, Jeremystalked, Orphan Wiki, Ibbn, TuHan-Bot, Yattum, Barrysandell, Rangoon11, Grampion76, Zabanio, ClueBot NG, Beyondsquirrelly, Widr, 220 of Borg, Sander.v.Ginkel, ChrisGualtieri, Jjstrydom, Mogism, Radicalmix66, ArmbrustBot, BigO717, Gunningmt, Neutralphrasing, Moonbeamio, Quantres and Anonymous: 84 • Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20of%20Medium%20Tactical%20Vehicles?oldid= 661706243 Contributors: Finlay McWalter, Chowbok, Hohum, Gene Nygaard, Bobrayner, Before My Ken, Rjwilmsi, Mark83, Choess, Tony1, Kaelorr, Endomion, SmackBot, Quidam65, Bluebot, Lyta79, Jumping cheese, Nobunaga24, Fnlayson, ALittleSlow, Burningchrome, Andy1188, Nono64, Aleksandr Grigoryev, RaptorR3d, Tmaull, Bachcell, Angelscatie, Senseisk, Mongol003, Russl5445, DumZiBoT, Ngs61, Addbot, Yobot, IraqVet225, JackieBot, RevelationDirect, Mark Schierbecker, Softboyled, Beagle1987, Degen Earthfast, Dana60Cummins, Chessmasterx, DexDor, Robert Bin Peters, SporkBot, WI5454, Ain92, Mućkalo, Andresvu, Frietjes, America789, Sammy D III, Ickandgak and Anonymous: 31 • Firearm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm?oldid=663010271 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Jimbo Wales, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Chuckhoffmann, Rmhermen, Zoe, Tfischer, Tbarron, Stevertigo, Edward, Banshee~enwiki, Patrick, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Dominus, Ixfd64, AlexR, CrucifiedChrist, CesarB, Ronabop, DavidWBrooks, Mac, Notheruser, Jaimenote, Kingturtle, BigFatBuddha, Rlandmann, GCarty, º¡º, Alaric, EALacey, Daniel Quinlan, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Thue, AaronSw, Flockmeal, Riddley, Pibwl, Nurg, Modulatum, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Halibutt, Sheridan, JesseW, Saforrest, Hcheney, Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Fabiform, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Djinn112, Oberiko, Philwelch, Greyengine5, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Lupin, Yekrats, Mboverload, Gracefool, Jrdioko, Edcolins, Dingo~enwiki, SoWhy, Antandrus, Beland, Jmueller71, Mzajac, Maximaximax, Tubedogg, Sam Hocevar, Tsemii, RevRagnarok, Brianjd, AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Rama, Adam850, Talldean, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, Jgrosch, Ground, J-Star, Shanes, Sietse Snel, Thunderbrand, Jonathan Drain, Bobo192, Xevious, Whiskers, Giraffedata, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, MSex, Physicistjedi, Rje, Sukiari, Kbir1, Ranveig, Alansohn, Duffman~enwiki, Joshbaumgartner, TerryElliott, Lord Pistachio, Primalchaos, Denniss, Hohum, Velella, ArminTamzarian, Evil Monkey, Randy Johnston, Cmapm, Magicjigpipe, MIT Trekkie, Alai, Axeman89, DSatz, Stemonitis, Roland2~enwiki, Nuno Tavares, D.E. Watters, LOL, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Dmol, Al E., JRHorse, GregorB, BlaiseFEgan, SDC, Wayward, GraemeLeggett, Rad Racer, Dysepsion, Graham87, Edison, Search4Lancer, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, George Burgess, Boccobrock, Graibeard, Matt Deres, The Deviant, SchuminWeb, Windchaser, Ground Zero, Ffaarr, Nemo5576, GnuDoyng, Hottentot, RexNL, Kolbasz, Athelek, Benjwong, Coolhawks88, WouterBot, DVdm, Ste1n, RussBot, Junky, DanMS, Ksyrie, Wgungfu, Friday, NawlinWiki, Arima, A.BigHead, JFD, Mikeblas, Grafikm fr, Lomn, Emersoni, Brat32,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
383
Cinik, Wknight94, Natmaka, Open2universe, Closedmouth, GraemeL, Bagheera, AGToth, SmackBot, JimmyGuano, Prodego, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Anastrophe, Eaglizard, Kintetsubuffalo, Geoff B, Gilliam, Hmains, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Qwasty, Persian Poet Gal, Djheini, Janipewter, Badger151, Yaf, Emrrans, UNHchabo, KaiserbBot, Nixeagle, Corebowe, BRCConsultations, Smooth O, RandomP, Batman2005, Ultor Solis, Will Beback, SashatoBot, Vriullop, Hakanhansson, Kipala, LWF, HashiriyaGDB, JohnI, Statsone, Phancy Physicist, Rodrigue, 16@r, George The Dragon, Intranetusa, Flipperinu, Peter Horn, Adamq, E71, Hu12, Levineps, BSI, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, IvanLanin, Igoldste, Octane, Tawkerbot2, ChrisCork, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dread Specter, KyraVixen, Sulfis, Searles2sels, Argon233, Neelix, Orca1 9904, Karenjc, Gregbard, SirFluffington, H.M.S Me, Mblumber, Trasel, Gogo Dodo, Adolphus79, Christian75, Narayanese, Jeanp1948, PhishNeslo, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Deathbunny, Legaiaflame, Bobblehead, Dtolnay, Satesclop, Catsmoke, Wikidenizen, Daviddecraene, Natalie Erin, Alkashi~enwiki, AntiVandalBot, Yonatan, Dalgspleh, Darklilac, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Matthew Fennell, QuantumEngineer, Struthious Bandersnatch, Andonic, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jeff Dahl, Ling.Nut, Slayerment, DAGwyn, Thernlund, Animum, Loonymonkey, Ferrija1, Frotz, Canyouhearmenow, Spellmaster, DerHexer, Gunstocks, MartinBot, Fredrosse, R'n'B, Mycroft7, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Nono64, Player 03, FMAFan1990, Tgeairn, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Nev1, Mindgames11, Dbiel, Octopus-Hands, Katalaveno, Smeira, Nemo bis, Balthazarduju, Mrg3105, HiLo48, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Trilobitealive, Tatrgel, ThinkBlue, Kovo138, DanMP5, KylieTastic, Cometstyles, Bonadea, Red Thrush, Dorftrottel, Useight, Idiomabot, Lights, Gothbag, VolkovBot, Erdesky, Ulstulst, Theskylinegtr, TXiKiBoT, Secarius, Technopat, NPrice, Qxz, Liko81, Abdullais4u, LeaveSleaves, Gbaor, Mvarvil, Quindraco, BigDunc, Dankenka, DavesPlanet, Meters, SQL, Groupthink, MCTales, Master of the Oríchalcos, Koalorka, Brianga, Doc James, Symane, Solicitr, PericlesofAthens, Jycaza93, SaltyBoatr, Lightbreather, Scottbai, SieBot, Crserrano, Calliopejen1, Portalian, Tiddly Tom, Chinese3126, WereSpielChequers, BonesBrigade, Robbor, Viskonsas, Caltas, Commodore Guff, Yintan, Deer Assassin, Arda Xi, Davethehorrible, Dwane E Anderson, Shmoigen, Oda Mari, Snideology, Yerpo, KPH2293, Lightmouse, Alex.muller, ZH Evers, StaticGull, Scott tappa, Jacob.jose, ProkopHapala, ClueBot, Clavicule, Princewally, Rawilson52, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Theholst, Razvanjr, PMDrive1061, Fox2030, Excirial, Three-quarter-ten, John Nevard, Abrech, NuclearWarfare, Bledsoet, Blemo 23, Arjayay, Iohannes Animosus, VsevolodKrolikov, La Pianista, Sparta300xps, Aitias, Scalhotrod, Kruusamägi, Meske, Berean Hunter, Apparition11, Loops1414, Blaz42, BarretB, XLinkBot, Peanutthegreat, Pichpich, Theguyguyy, Jovianeye, Bigfootaffecionado, OlenWhitaker, Ninja27, Nukes4Tots, Dubmill, Lingerie92, Good Olfactory, RyanCross, Thatguyflint, Waverider 93, Addbot, Altinator, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Some jerk on the Internet, Bunchofapples, Wikirocks911, Nohomers48, Ilikemenalot, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Stevefrench9, Spymatty, Download, Mjr162006, Favonian, Aunva6, Aktsu, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Teles, Quantumobserver, LuK3, Сергей Олегович, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Theserialcomma, Fraggle81, Bandana Jones, KamikazeBot, Your-Greatest-Nightmare, WizardOfOz, AnomieBOT, Cubsforever56, Quangbao, Floquenbeam, Praiyachat, Langcliffe, Ulric1313, Ritwikbmca, Materialscientist, Rocketpeacock, Savi0627, GB fan, Occlusian, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Jeffwang, Tad Lincoln, Chen Guangming, Mjriley93, AbigailAbernathy, Nuckafut, Ani medjool, Wizardist, Dmarks0019, Mark Schierbecker, 100%BulletProof, Treedel, Luciandrei, GhalyBot, Shadowjams, Žiedas, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Tobby72, 125t, Justsail, Finalius, Todavia no se, Cannolis, Citation bot 1, LarryNoMates, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, RedBot, Akdgaljsdgjkkal, Miguel Escopeta, C messier, Tgv8925, Lotje, Vrenator, Reaper Eternal, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Weedwhacker128, Stroppolo, Peoplemonkeys, Zilyuki, Hellobumcheeks, Mukogodo, EmausBot, Yuhter, Acather96, Superboy12, Cekm96, ScottyBerg, Faceless Enemy, Crazysid, Rarevogel, Wikipelli, K6ka, Evanh2008, Akemimi, Guninformation, Acategory, Lordgodalmighty, SporkBot, L1A1 FAL, Stumok, Burritobutt, Vbdjfvhfkdnfh, ChuispastonBot, Clementina, Pogge36, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Astatine211, Megaheil88, Mornungol, This lousy T-shirt, Thisbites, Satellizer, Chester Markel, The legi, O.Koslowski, U.Steele, Widr, Rurik the Varangian, ساجد امجد ساجد, Zacharyklein, GIGVUY, Helpful Pixie Bot, SchroCat, Wurk4food, Tf2man, Northamerica1000, Amp71, Cold Season, Ugncreative Usergname, Altaïr, Ekmaghran, Kazaplam, Markekb, Jpr127, StarkeySuper64, Lieutenant of Melkor, Achilles Ormson, Jhonmcbooger, RichardMills65, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Commander v99, Nickb1111, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Graphium, Leighperson, Smohammed2, WilliamDigiCol, JaviP96, Shambinos, PinkAmpersand, EyeTruth, Kap 7, TrollTyler, Icemanwcs, LordOli, Junwell, Garicula15, Caasi88, Garicula50, Hi tharr 111599, Valery Staricov, Sam Sailor, Themasterisback, Mnyonge44, HK9900, Rezin, Mypowerpuff, Ohsokelsay08, Richard C. Stone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 580 • General-purpose machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose%20machine%20gun?oldid=658879760 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Michael Hardy, Big Bob the Finder, Cjrother, Securiger, Buster2058, DocWatson42, Oberiko, MathKnight, Wwoods, PeterC, Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, Vsmith, Smyth, Sietse Snel, Bobo192, Longhair, Ricky81682, Ynhockey, Evil Monkey, Dan100, Mathmo, Kglavin, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Gewhere, Chobot, Chwyatt, Sus scrofa, Hairy Dude, Ve3, Shotgunlee, Asams10, Maphisto86, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Tyrenius, Appleseed, Hirudo, Diagraph01~enwiki, SmackBot, Billy Goat, Winterheart, Chris the speller, Snori, OrphanBot, KaiserbBot, TenPoundHammer, RASAM, Jacopo, Nobunaga24, Fasach Nua, Jebediah springfield, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, Nabokov, Deathbunny, JHFTC, Thernlund, Gwern, Climax Void, Tgeairn, Grim Revenant, AKucia, DanMP5, KylieTastic, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, Jeremy Bolwell, Koalorka, EX STAB, SieBot, ToePeu.bot, Jotel, ZH Evers, BlueOrb, ClueBot, Binksternet, Winky Bill, Boing! said Zebedee, Ficbot, Scottywottydoodles, Addbot, Fluffernutter, TheWatcherREME, Htews, Luckas-bot, AadaamS, Yobot, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Amendola90, 777sms, EmausBot, DominicConnor, Sdicastro, Blahdumb, ZéroBot, Mh7kJ, L1A1 FAL, Skrunyak, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Lukeno94, Kobalt064, AvocatoBot, Glevum, Iuytgr, Fizzycally, G PViB, Icemanwcs, Someone not using his real name, RAF910, Oowayaway, America M60E4 Guys, JaconaFrere, Krutoi dezigner and Anonymous: 72 • Grenade launcher Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenade%20launcher?oldid=659258232 Contributors: TomCerul, Docu, Kingturtle, Lommer, Dysprosia, Furrykef, Thue, Riddley, Jmabel, Pibwl, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Per Honor et Gloria, Bobblewik, Joseph Dwayne, Mzajac, Karl-Henner, Rama, Dgorsline, Harald Hansen, Tronno, Russ3Z, Geo Swan, Joshbaumgartner, Andrewpmk, Lectonar, Hohum, Dragunova, Tobyc75, Dan100, LOL, Decrease789, Robert K S, Tabletop, GraemeLeggett, WNivek, RexNL, DVdm, Sus scrofa, Matanya (renamed), Coltius, Phantomsteve, Theredstarswl, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Gram123, Manxruler, NawlinWiki, Welsh, Alpha 4615, Asams10, Zero Gravitas, JLaTondre, Yvwv, SmackBot, Bluebot, JDCMAN, Thumperward, SheeEttin, ApolloCreed, Marktan, Richard0612, Rivalarrival, LWF, AllStarZ, Billybobo3, Ryulong, Exander, Courcelles, Vanisaac, CmdrObot, NinjaKid, Orca1 9904, Tr1290, Lord Hawk, N5iln, Deathbunny, Mentifisto, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Dor Posner, Mike Searson, BilCat, Mschel, Nono64, J.delanoy, Mrg3105, Idioma-bot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Jorgezoltan, Anna Lincoln, Cerebellum, BotKung, Aubri, SieBot, BonesBrigade, Dodger67, JordanRC, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, Tomas e, Wirtual~enwiki, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Fairfieldfencer, SchreiberBike, Thingg, Vanished User 1004, Feinoha, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Willking1979, Vishnava, Favonian, 5 albert square, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, South Bay, AnomieBOT, Pyrrhus16, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Thatguy321, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Thehelpfulbot, James1902004, Surv1v4l1st, Qurozon, Diwas, Pinethicket, Dc987, Zonglowe, Chomper6, DergMinister, Metalllinux, Suffusion of Yellow, DASHBot, Zaqq, EmausBot, Spongie555, Nexu54322, L1A1 FAL, Scythia, Victory in Germany, L Kensington, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Ose\fio, Quintessential British Gentleman, Glevum, BattyBot, Redlancer22, Ministerzzz, RAF910, Pravito, ScrabbleZ, Felsic and Anonymous: 133 • Heavy machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy%20machine%20gun?oldid=630335407 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Mzajac, WegianWarrior, ZeroOne, Longhair, Harald Hansen, Tronno, Kaganer, Thatguy96, Arthena, Denniss, Cal 1234, Gene Nygaard,
384
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Alai, Wayward, Marudubshinki, Graham87, RexNL, Chobot, Rxnd, Bullzeye, Ve3, Shotgunlee, Luweixian, GMan552, SmackBot, Kintetsubuffalo, Hmains, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Thumperward, LV, KaiserbBot, Synthe, Ergative rlt, SMasters, RekishiEJ, Sir Vicious, Teratornis, Deathbunny, Legaiaflame, Wikidenizen, Thernlund, Kynikos Vodyanoi, STBot, CommonsDelinker, Aureez, Squids and Chips, BotKung, Synthebot, UnneededAplomb, Matthew Yeager, Yerpo, Faradayplank, Skillet5, ClueBot, Staygyro, PotentialDanger, Abeall, HappyJake, Harjk, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Andering J. REDDSON, Lightbot, Mohsenkazempur, Troymacgill, Luke85, Srich32977, Amendola90, FrescoBot, DrilBot, ZomB-man17, LandonJaeger, Tnt1984, GoingBatty, Slightsmile, K6ka, Tyler Seltzer, TheC0zen0ne, Wayne Slam, Skrunyak, 105683EEE, BretZeller, MerlIwBot, Ranggamalvino, Geohem, Mastersmithgunworks and Anonymous: 44 • Helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter?oldid=662725999 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Peter Winnberg, The Epopt, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Drj, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Snorre, Rmhermen, Christian List, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Panairjdde~enwiki, Heron, Jinian, Olivier, Paul Ebermann, Edward, Patrick, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, Tannin, Ixfd64, Fruge~enwiki, Arpingstone, Blimpguy, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Rlandmann, Александър, Glenn, Andres, BRG, JidGom, Mulad, Roepers, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Omegatron, Shizhao, Eugene van der Pijll, Hajor, Lumos3, RadicalBender, Mrdice, Robbot, Juro, Vardion, Donreed, Pibwl, Romanm, Chris Roy, Rfc1394, Hemanshu, Sekicho, Blainster, Cbm, Eliashedberg, Neckro, Jrash, DocWatson42, Paul Richter, Jhf, Greyengine5, Wolfkeeper, Lupin, Marcika, Elf-friend, Moyogo, Dratman, Joconnor, Rick Block, Duncharris, BigBen212, Sundar, Rchandra, Youngoat, Elgaard, Bobblewik, Johansosa, Manuel Anastácio, Wasabie, Ray Trygstad, Xmnemonic, Quadell, Antandrus, OrangUtanUK, JoJan, Quarl, PDH, Maximaximax, Enhandle, Sam Hocevar, TonyW, Asbestos, Urhixidur, Ojw, Ukexpat, Robin klein, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, Mike Rosoft, N328KF, Nick Precision, EugeneZelenko, Discospinster, Solitude, Soupisgoodfood, Rama, Pluke, Wk muriithi, Aris Katsaris, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Dewet, ZeroOne, Kbh3rd, ReallyNiceGuy, Plugwash, STHayden, Aqua008, MBisanz, Gnomz007, Chairboy, Art LaPella, Drhex, Bobo192, NetBot, Uw badgers, Fir0002, Smalljim, Davidswelt, .:Ajvol:., Giraffedata, Edgeworth, MPerel, Sam Korn, Pearle, Hooperbloob, Thatguy96, Merope, Friviere, Jumbuck, Zachlipton, Stephen G. Brown, Frank101, Anthony Appleyard, Gargaj, Lucaarnu, Atlant, Geo Swan, Ricky81682, Lord Pistachio, Nick Moss, Redfarmer, Laurencetimms, Spangineer, TaintedMustard, BRW, Dalillama, Santerih, Algocu, Saxifrage, Kbolino, Taylortbb, Siafu, Ondrejk, Angr, Sylvain Mielot, Kelly Martin, Will-h, Woohookitty, LOL, Peng~enwiki, John Cardinal, MONGO, Kelisi, GregorB, SDC, Bubeck, M100, GraemeLeggett, HiFiGuy, Dysepsion, Msiddalingaiah, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Chun-hian, FreplySpang, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Саша Стефановић, XLerate, Golija~enwiki, HappyCamper, CQJ, Keimzelle, MikeJ9919, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, FuelWagon, FlaBot, Jcmurphy, Intersofia, Bmpower, Nihiltres, Dusty78, Mark83, RandomSF, Gurch, Sp00n, Wars, Mordien, TheDJ, Lambyuk, Chobot, HKT, Jared Preston, DVdm, Cactus.man, Cornellrockey, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Dimimimon4, Adam1213, Midgley, DMahalko, Arado, Kyle Andrew Brown, Art Navsegda, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Fabricationary, Hellbus, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, TK-134, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Src1, Grafen, W33v1l, Exir Kamalabadi, Cleared as filed, D. F. Schmidt, Gooberliberation, Davemck, Raven4x4x, Scs, GeorgeC, Syrthiss, Lockesdonkey, Mysid, Gadget850, Kkmurray, Mareklug, Djdaedalus, Wknight94, Jkelly, Omtay38, Nachoman-au, Closedmouth, Mike Selinker, E Wing, Pb30, Roberts83, Josh3580, De Administrando Imperio, JuJube, JoanneB, Jor70, Fram, JLaTondre, Calilasseia, Ybbor, Katieh5584, NeilN, Paul Erik, Samuel Blanning, SkerHawx, Groyolo, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Looper5920, Dbalderzak, VigilancePrime, JanusDC, Petemyers, Charele, Delldot, Ozone77, CGameProgrammer, Canthusus, HalfShadow, Zephyris, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, ERcheck, Hraefen, Dyvroeth, Iancaddy, Tolivero, Hitman012, Chris the speller, Geniu~enwiki, HELLO, WORLD!, B00P, FireTracks, Moogle001, AndrewBuck, Afasmit, Dtp1969, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Dual Freq, Spellcheck8, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, AntiVan, Dbiagioli, OrphanBot, AlternativePlus, Kittybrewster, Benet Allen, Kcordina, Pascaweb, Dinga Bell, Krich, Fuhghettaboutit, MightyEthan, Yulia Romero, Invincible Ninja, Ryan Roos, Weregerbil, DenisRS, Lifewatcher, The PIPE, Zonk43, Kotjze, Springnuts, Kukini, Drunken Pirate, Keyesc, RNLion, SashatoBot, Rockvee, Lambiam, MattHucke, T-dot, Kuru, John, Microchip08, Bilboon, Lires, J 1982, LWF, Jaganath, MilborneOne, Coredesat, Joffeloff, Civ~enwiki, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Dilcoe, Special-T, Tasc, Catphive, Beetstra, Peter Horn, Jose77, Peyre, Mfield, Xionbox, Dl2000, Bryanwxup, Keahapana, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Alessandro57, Clarityfiend, Joseph Solis in Australia, Younusporteous, Dimitris1, Paul Foxworthy, Provocateur, Hdw, Igoldste, Cbrown1023, O1ive, Majora4, Tawkerbot2, George100, Fvasconcellos, Sutlej, Tony Oliver, JForget, Mostergr, Elmers00, CmdrObot, Rorshacma, Ale jrb, Wafulz, Van helsing, Makeemlighter, N2e, Dwolsten, NickW557, El aprendelenguas, Orca1 9904, Ken Gallager, MrFish, Slazenger, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Peripitus, Msa1701, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Sean the Spook, Steel, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Nbv4, Trident13, Lerm, Chrislk02, Teratornis, Viridae, Heliman, Omicronpersei8, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Generalmiaow, Epbr123, Junckerg, Qwyrxian, Mbell, Robtff, Memty Bot, Frozenport, 24fan24, Marek69, Davidlawrence, Smile a While, Dfrg.msc, Mattman1153, Ryyko, AgentPeppermint, Mikeeg555, Piotr Mikołajski, Signaleer, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, [email protected], KrakatoaKatie, Baa44, AntiVandalBot, Nisselua, Majorly, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Akradecki, Seaphoto, Uvaphdman, Sgt. dell970, Prolog, Mschneblin, Tillman, Jaredroberts, Tomertomer, Born2flie, Bigjimr, Barek, MER-C, Chanakyathegreat, Hello32020, Bzuk, Xblackoutx, .anacondabot, Bencherlite, Hphdoc, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mcavic, JNW, Samofi, Norden1990, JamesBWatson, Think outside the box, Ling.Nut, Rivertorch, Catgut, Giggy, Animum, Originalname37, Krishna1234, BilCat, Paris By Night, DerHexer, Ajayvius, B. Wolterding, SquidSK, Climax Void, MartinBot, CliffC, APT, Jonaboff, K.Gersper, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Nono64, W.Smith, Tgeairn, Teachereddie, !jim, J.delanoy, Hu Totya, Trusilver, Svetovid, Tntdj, Bapho~enwiki, Tdadamemd, Speasley, LordAnubisBOT, Tannkremen, McSly, Koven.rm, Maik789, Thoglette, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, ArmadilloProcess, Wikigi, Jrcla2, Dhaluza, Cometstyles, WJBscribe, Equazcion, DH85868993, Jetwave Dave, WarFox, Xyl 54, DorganBot, Bonadea, TWCarlson, JavierMC, Allzzz, Jerry106, The Behnam, Joshlongstaff, BrentPatrick, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Vranak, Deor, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Error9312, CWii, ABF, Hawkeye 88, Bobby pickett, Macedonian, Mr.Nimrod, Rainforests, Fagiolonero, PRoMiScUoUs BaBe, BlazeTheMovieFan, Shotcr, Pokemon11365, Philip Trueman, Kubaan, Trashbag, Canuckle, Zurishaddai, Jemtme, Siming.guo, Aequitas1234, Ian2203, Littlealien182, Seraphim, Thefrood, Martin451, Abdullais4u, Marbe166, Jackfork, Monkeynoze, Mnfiero, Blabla101, Robert1947, Andy Dingley, Happyme22, Meters, TiagoQuintino, Yougotjaked95, MickycOZ, Maethordaer, ANigg, Julian Herzog, Thanatos666, Chofo1979, Why Not A Duck, Monty845, Andreas Carter, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Megadane529, Demize, Signsolid, EmxBot, HybridBoy, Pglloyd, Legokid, Azn-devil-boi, SieBot, Gohamfather, Tiddly Tom, Dreamafter, Mbz1, Dawn Bard, Yintan, Mvadu, Bad tea, Keilana, Dwane E Anderson, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Radon210, The Evil Spartan, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, LangAM, KPH2293, Lightmouse, AMCKen, Sdlewis, Thiris, OKBot, Tgiguiere, Lineriderjonny, Chrisnz007, UB65, WordsExpert, Kidpoker15, Huku-chan, Helicopter59, Sphilbrick, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Floorwalker, ImageRemovalBot, YSSYguy, Loren.wilton, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Meaty85203, Eetvartti, Marcinjeske, Zeerak88, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Abhinav, Marko sk~enwiki, Donny476, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Saddhiyama, NiD.29, Wikihistorian, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Jackins, Auntof6, Soccerrox18, Takarazuka Family Land, Excirial, Bagworm, -Midorihana-, Flux123, Imsoprowiki, Bsktbll4life15, Cojones22, The Founders Intent, Ngebendi, ATS 500, DeltaQuad, Jimanator, Searcher 1990, SyedNaqvi90, AeroEngineer2008, Thingg, Wikiboy311, Mattj92, Oxyruyyyur, Kruusamägi, Berean Hunter, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, Clausc, Renodivorce, Pichpich, Rror, Pimpmaster5, TropicalAngel, Austin95, Avoided, WikHead, Hollaatchaboi915, Kristianrj, Addbot, Midi-mania, Mina-Mania, Wikikillerz, Narayansg, Some jerk on the Internet, Mickaël Delahaye, Nicestuff2k8, Fyrael, Twinzor, M.nelson, Vernk, Postmanpat2k89, Efc222, NailPuppy, Buddha24, Cjst, LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Norman21, Mdnavman,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
385
Anonymius, Numbo3-bot, Dayewalker, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, Apteva, Dstecks91, Arbitrarily0, Helipilot1, Vels, आशीष भटनागर, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Glatisant, Dilwad, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, J woods70, Legobot II, Rsquire3, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, RIBEYE special, PMLawrence, Mini-mania2k8, Madmada, Professionalseoindia, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Microlight.flyer, Kostan1, Tempodivalse, Magog the Ogre, Superdoopergipsy, Martin-vogel, AnomieBOT, Direnzoa, Motherdp, 1exec1, Jim1138, Ttyyuu1234, Taosan, Verma2000, WikiUser0001, Stinkypie, Materialscientist, DAFMM, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Wikisucki, LilHelpa, Shcha, Xqbot, Iaaasi, Transity, Capricorn42, Orangelight..., Jex3455, Yerpdog, Ivan A. Krestinin, GrouchoBot, Tdjewell, Wizardist, Omnipaedista, Mihir29, Anotherclown, RibotBOT, Amaury, Jpbarbier, Wōdenhelm, Jfadone, Erik9, Photnart, Cekli829, Pukepwnage, Kinko tibbar, GliderMaven, Thomascjackson, FrescoBot, Cetacean21, Tobby72, MBelzer, KennethBranagh, HJ Mitchell, BenzolBot, Tetraedycal, Louperibot, Krish Dulal, Anonymous07921, Pinethicket, LittleWink, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, RedBot, Serols, JlNiap, Waerfelu, Lissajous, FoxBot, TobeBot, Jayabharat, Callanecc, Vrenator, CaesarAugustusDivusIulius, Cutelyaware, Tbhotch, Kjecko10, Stears159, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Altes2009, Bento00, DexDor, Jackehammond, Filipthecup, Ssgreporter, TGCP, J36miles, EmausBot, Helium4, Mhinterseher, Rajkiandris, Winner 42, Rkononenko, Thecheesykid, AvicBot, John Cline, Bollyjeff, Daniash007, Harshavardhanan S, AvicAWB, Wayne Slam, Abovesalls, Josh The Many But Still One, Noodleki, Donner60, Smackerlacker, Aurie81272, BigFan1, Teapeat, Ismbuff, DASHBotAV, Planetscared, ClueBot NG, Heysford, Funemator, MelbourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, Joecarter96, Millermk, JesseW900, Cardaffman, MkativerataCCI, IlyaMazurin, Widr, Zwozi, Rurik the Varangian, Ronaldka, Iaaasi the romani-an, Iaaasi the romani-an n+1, Miracle dream, Helpful Pixie Bot, M0ment0m, Jv kyle eclarin, Nickmario88, Tellmegoodbyelover, Lowercase sigmabot, Thefreddy12354, Flyingstarstorm, Unitedstates1000, Ryutaji, Northamerica1000, Eric M. Jones, AvocatoBot, Gunnai, Gunman24, Davidiad, Mark Arsten, Ghb3, Sparkie82, Moulnj00, Sixty-y, Pateras-Pescara, Bobsfuzzburger, Insidiae, Bluebluetoy, NHughes829, Klilidiplomus, Luckypenutnose, Trentdg12, Francis Meyrick, Penguin6617, BattyBot, Eduardofeld, Axel Stone, Fdsdh1, Randy102, Cmasanz10, Mdann52, EuroCarGT, MadGuy7023, Dexbot, Lukmanulrafiq, Webclient101, Jonymouse, Frosty, Graphium, Prof. H . Khelman, Mksenzov, FOX 52, Rawrzar890, Drdenirolondon, Epicgenius, Thecon man99, Captain Password, Cmckain14, Rhyswill10, JWJONZ3, Rebel1615, Infamous Castle, Icemanwcs, E-kopter2011, Tymakz, Hansmuller, OmniArticleEditor, Ginsuloft, Emw22, Mike Crandall, Anonposeidon, Antonmars321, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Cockcopter, Cabman267, Jajahada, Filedelinkerbot, Sheyda1971, Vieque, Sweta Oooh 567, Eman235, Jamiedoesbudder, Helloiamchloehbu123, Helicopter23456, IMadeYouReadThis, Dunhovrin, Donestoilkov, TiRoMa, Nimrainayat6290, KH-1, Lolarocker12234, Innocentpossum, Gracie2339, Weirdking1, Frederichgundogan, Kirglach, Cnbr15, Shibinpshaji, NGCBenjamin, Ercan Caner, Chimichangasman and Anonymous: 1005 • HK 4.6×30mm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HK%204.6%C3%9730mm?oldid=648953282 Contributors: Riddley, Chowbok, AliveFreeHappy, Tronno, The RedBurn, JoaoRicardo, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, D.E. Watters, Jeff3000, GregorB, Metroplex~enwiki, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, RussBot, Asams10, Hayden120, Some guy, SmackBot, Deon Steyn, Boris Barowski, Bluebot, KaiserbBot, Aluminator, Derek R Bullamore, LWF, Aleenf1, Veritas Panther, CapitalR, Jack's Revenge, J Milburn, Erik Kennedy, JFreeman, Kevin23, Bigwhiteyeti, Thijs!bot, Oldwildbill, Lklundin, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Eastsidehastings, DanMP5, STBotD, DOHC Holiday, GianMarco Tavazzani, Fortnern, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, Justinchudgar, Editore99, Lightmouse, Mustafa Mustamann, Hostile Amish, Alexbot, PixelBot, Nate Ott, Shin-chan01, Tubesship, Ccandersen94, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Gevar234, GrouchoBot, ArikamaI, Steve9x19, Surv1v4l1st, ClickRick, DrilBot, Darkman IV, Chenfehuang, 777sms, ROG5728, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sdafhgh, Kekator, Ashley32407, Josve05a, Minionator, Avatar9n, Quake44, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kungfu2187, Fraulein451, Flat Out, UltimateBoss, Rezin and Anonymous: 40 • Infantry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry?oldid=656726412 Contributors: Ed Poor, Jagged, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Fredbauder, Ortolan88, Olivier, TeunSpaans, Michael Hardy, Vera Cruz, Tannin, CORNELIUSSEON, Zeno Gantner, Cyde, TakuyaMurata, Stan Shebs, Александър, Glenn, Mulad, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Indefatigable, Ortonmc, Johnleemk, PBS, Altenmann, Romanm, Securiger, Halibutt, Hadal, Aetheling, SoLando, GreatWhiteNortherner, Matt Gies, Centrx, Axeman, Mark.murphy, Jfdwolff, JoJan, Piotrus, Mzajac, Mitaphane, Husnock, Necrothesp, Blue387, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Clemwang, Canterbury Tail, Mr Bound, Mr. Billion, El C, Ndewitz, Kross, Tom, Spearhead, Palm dogg, RobNS, Ypacaraí, Harald Hansen, Kormoran, Maurreen, SpeedyGonsales, Pearle, Alansohn, Matthewharvey, SnowFire, Richard Harvey, 119, Andrew Gray, Hohum, Pioneer-12, TaintedMustard, RainbowOfLight, Skyring, K3rb, Mhazard9, A D Monroe III, Hoziron, Woohookitty, RHaworth, Feldmarschall, Acerperi, Isnow, BlaiseFEgan, GraemeLeggett, Palica, Graham87, BD2412, Ratamacue, Miq, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Funnyhat, Ghepeu, FlavrSavr, Fish and karate, Dionyseus, FlaBot, Sydbarrett74, Margosbot~enwiki, Nivix, Major.T, Elmer Clark, Ahunt, DoomBringer, Chobot, Sharkface217, YurikBot, Noclador, Wavelength, Huw Powell, Taibhse169, DanMS, Ksyrie, Ritchy, Msoos, Adaxl, Snek01, Justin Eiler, Jpbowen, Elkman, GMan552, Footsoldier, Nick-D, SmackBot, Unschool, Haymaker, TestPilot, CMD Beaker, Michael Dorosh, Geoff B, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Hmains, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot, Neo-Jay, DHN-bot~enwiki, Htra0497, Suicidalhamster, OrphanBot, MrRadioGuy, Jiddisch~enwiki, Algore2008, ZBrisk, SashatoBot, Swatjester, Soap, John, MayerG, LWF, Edwy, Simen 88, Gunray, Mushmush123, Owenmundy, A Clown in the Dark, Dl2000, Keith-264, Iridescent, Wjejskenewr, Saturday, Exander, Courcelles, Shudda, Jonathanvarunbenjamin, SkyWalker, JForget, CmdrObot, Paulc206, Vwriterman, Makeemlighter, Banedon, Cydebot, Daniel J. Leivick, Monsieur Fou, JamesAM, Grebstad, Easter rising, Kylebrennan1, Nick Number, 49oxen, RDT2, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, Kenny.am, .anacondabot, Parsecboy, SHCarter, Buckshot06, Brisbane2000, Ledhed1968, The rocket man, MCG, DerHexer, Mattinbgn, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Vigyani, Arjun01, WhyTanFox, CommonsDelinker, Carre, Silverxxx, Uncle Dick, AThousandYoung, BRGillespie, LordAnubisBOT, Deathmf, Hillock65, Mrg3105, Nwbeeson, JHeinonen, Treisijs, WinterSpw, GGG65, CA387, Xnuala, VolkovBot, Nik Sage, Dom Kaos, MrRK, TXiKiBoT, GodlyAvatar, Gwinva, Gjonwoolfolk, Champsdfw, Broadbot, StillTrill, Jeremy Bolwell, SQL, Enviroboy, Risorgimento, Shark kid, Quantpole, SieBot, Gianmillette, Portalian, Makotti, Avnjay, Lightmouse, Mesoso2, Alex.muller, Fratrep, OKBot, Mojoworker, Mentor397, ProfGrunt, Escape Orbit, Rabbiofdoom, Abramsgavin, Cuprum17, ClueBot, NickCT, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Chessy999, Illiteratemonkey1234, Specac, Boing! said Zebedee, Excirial, Relata refero, Thefudgeone, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, Mcain31, Jellyfish dave, USMarinesTanker, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Oğuz Ergin, TomPointTwo, Snapperman2, Hueydoc, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Lomax343, DougsTech, SpellingBot, Jncraton, Reedmalloy, Coquimbano, Download, Favonian, ChenzwBot, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Blaylockjam10, Numbo3-bot, Zorrobot, HerculeBot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, AadaamS, Yobot, GateKeeper, AnomieBOT, Ships at a Distance, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, DemocraticLuntz, Bobi.1, Μυρμηγκάκι, JackieBot, VeroAraujo, Ufim, Law, Bielasko, Xqbot, Anders Torlind, Bihco, 4twenty42o, Jeffrey Mall, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, Brutaldeluxe, SD5, FrescoBot, HJ Mitchell, Gire 3pich2005, OgreBot, 14Ave, SuperJew, Pinethicket, Throup09x, MastiBot, Koakhtzvigad, Tim1357, MFIreland, Dasha14, Icetrooper, Persia2099, Phoenix and Winslow, Beyond My Ken, John of Reading, Dewritech, Wikipelli, Stubes99, HiW-Bot, Brookesward, Quantumor, Donner60, Werefaw, $1LENCE D00600D, ChuispastonBot, Grampion76, Canadian Infantry, Splashburn, ResearchRave, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Spkfank1, Widr, O'Rourke1, Helpful Pixie Bot, Oxford Menace, Frze, FutureTrillionaire, Dainomite, Shirudo, Fraulein451, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, AH1775, Jwelter2, Lugia2453, Tranjordan, Janus Savimbi, Icemanwcs, LCS check, Itc editor2, Djakarta97, SarahPML, UnbiasedVictory, Mr.gardocki, Lucas.wogernese, Erikwesley, Zach1zach2zach, Sdfgvzsdfasfd and Anonymous: 391 • Infantry fighting vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry%20fighting%20vehicle?oldid=659640245 Contributors: Patrick,
386
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Jniemenmaa, Kimiko, Andres, Thue, Riddley, Robbot, AlainV, Pibwl, Nurg, GreatWhiteNortherner, Oberiko, Greyengine5, MathKnight, Vina, Mzajac, Jcw69, Klemen Kocjancic, Gazpacho, Leibniz, Rama, Zscout370, Harald Hansen, Get It, DimaY2K, Sandstig, Denniss, Hohum, TaintedMustard, Vedant, Gonegonegone, Falcorian, GraemeLeggett, Miq, DannyF, Leithp, Chobot, Sharkface217, YurikBot, Noclador, Borgx, Lavenderbunny, Welsh, Schrei, OettingerCroat, Bota47, Maphisto86, Ekeb, Nick-D, Kf4bdy, SmackBot, Ominae, DMorpheus, Geoff B, Septegram, By78, Skizzik, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Bellahdoll, Snowmanradio, Huon, Fireswordfight, Breno, Jodamn, 667NotB~enwiki, Darz Mol~enwiki, Peter Horn, Dl2000, CmdrObot, Redlock, ShelfSkewed, Orca1 9904, Bridgecross, Pishposh, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, SkonesMickLoud, Deathbunny, BokicaK, Tashtastic, JAnDbot, Avaya1, Chanakyathegreat, Flayer, TrentonGB, Rich257, Gellio3, Eskayzer0, Bobanny, Ibn Abihi~enwiki, Bryson109, Walle83, Homeboy88, CommonsDelinker, Padrone, Ko Soi IX, Reymma, BernardZ, Idioma-bot, Tourbillon, W. B. Wilson, TXiKiBoT, Mosmof, Don4of4, Signsolid, SieBot, Bachcell, Gerakibot, Seedbot, Hamiltondaniel, ClueBot, Gits (Neo), Niceguyedc, Marlow10, Cyrilator, Jellyfish dave, Addbot, Friginator, M.nelson, AndersBot, Tide rolls, Pietrow, Beren, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Karanne, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, ArthurBot, Branxton, Chen Guangming, Comesgoals, Mark Schierbecker, Aaaatu, XM8 Carbine, Eugeneelgato, Jonathon A H, Lumoy, Xaveq, 14Ave, Rahlgd, King Zebu, RedBot, Jomanted, Ionisiso, Donavan1988, MacArthur1945, Soupysoap, DexDor, GoingBatty, SporkBot, Victory in Germany, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, AktiNo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ranggamalvino, CitationCleanerBot, JoeAppleby, Plasmafish, AllenZh, DarafshBot, ChrisGualtieri, Irondome, Mogism, Ancholm, SomethingsNotRight and Anonymous: 112 • Iraq War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq%20War?oldid=663010081 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, MarXidad, The Anome, Taw, Gareth Owen, Ed Poor, Fnielsen, Rmhermen, SJK, William Avery, SimonP, Zoe, Jacobgreenbaum, Noung, Stevertigo, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Liftarn, Gabbe, Ixfd64, 172, GTBacchus, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Pjamescowie, William M. Connolley, Kevin Baas, Susurrus, Kaihsu, Deisenbe, Jeandré du Toit, Mxn, Conti, Uriber, The Tom, Rob.derosa, Reddi, Lfh, Hydnjo, Colipon, Doradus, WhisperToMe, Timc, DJ Clayworth, CBDunkerson, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Nv8200pa, MiLo28, Topbanana, Cabalamat, Fvw, CW, Kenatipo, Raul654, Drernie, Hajor, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoffer, Adamahill, Kizor, PBS, Donreed, Moncrief, Jmabel, E0N, Goethean, Modulatum, Lowellian, Mirv, Academic Challenger, TimR, Rholton, SchmuckyTheCat, Texture, Litefantastic, Auric, Timrollpickering, Saforrest, Mushroom, SoLando, Juglugs, Xanzzibar, PBP, Mattflaschen, Connelly, Centrx, DocWatson42, Akadruid, Luis Dantas, Leflyman, Dissident, Marcika, Myriad, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Curps, NeoJustin, Jonathan O'Donnell, Varlaam, Thetorpedodog, Jfdwolff, Malyctenar, Robertson, Scott Wilson, Mboverload, Get-back-world-respect, Siroxo, Luigi30, Jackol, Bobblewik, Kmsiever, Edcolins, Lucky 6.9, John Abbe, Dfrankow, Btphelps, Stevietheman, Oklonia, Chowbok, Dvavasour, SarekOfVulcan, Sonjaaa, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Bhuck, Beland, Margana, OverlordQ, Paedia, Bcameron54, Kaldari, Arsene, Josquius, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, Latitude0116, Ricimer, Comandante, ErikNY, Talrias, Commodore Sloat, SamSim, Neutrality, LQ, Klemen Kocjancic, Syvanen, Trilobite, Zondor, Barnaby dawson, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Gazpacho, Tyger, Kingal86, Shahab, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Miborovsky, Imroy, Juan Ponderas, DanielCD, Bornintheguz, Felix Wiemann, RossPatterson, Trypa, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, FT2, Pie4all88, Smyth, Ross Uber, Rex071404, Darren Olivier, Paul August, MarkS, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, TerraFrost, Kaisershatner, Kelvinc, Loren36, Geoking66, Mr. Billion, MBisanz, El C, Szyslak, Freakimus, Kwamikagami, Kross, Shanes, Tom, Susvolans, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Palm dogg, Richard Cane, MPS, 96T, Keane4, Deathawk, NetBot, Longhair, Kizzle, Jasonjmartin, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Dpaajones, Cwolfsheep, Foobaz, Maurreen, Ygfperson, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Urthogie, La goutte de pluie, Shereth, Bawolff, SVera1NY, Vanished user 19794758563875, Idleguy, Silverback, Pharos, Hagerman, Pearle, Officiallyover, QuantumEleven, Edital, Conny, Kwigell, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Psyche~enwiki, Eleland, SnowFire, LtNOWIS, Sherurcij, Mo0, Miranche, Interiot, Mr Adequate, Carbon Caryatid, Hipocrite, Sandstig, Ricky81682, Howrealisreal, Darrelljon, ABCD, Swarve, MarkGallagher, Hoary, Halcyon, JeffreyAtW, SidneySM, Avenue, Hohum, JK the unwise, Wtmitchell, Dhartung, Binabik80, BanyanTree, TaintedMustard, Fourthords, RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Orthotox, Mikeo, Tuggler, Pethr, Geraldshields11, H2g2bob, Scott Gall, Ianblair23, CinnamonCinder, Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme, Sleigh, SteinbDJ, Alai, Zereshk, Redvers, Cmc0, Karpada, Axeman89, Tobyc75, Czolgolz, Galaxiaad, Saxifrage, Dennis Bratland, RyanGerbil10, RPIRED, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Shimeru, GreatGatsby, Zntrip, Ondrejk, Hojimachong, FrancisTyers, Jgofborg, Angr, Velho, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Jeffrey O. Gustafson, OwenX, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Camw, BeenBeren, 25or6to4, LeonWhite, TheArmadillo, Grillo, TomTheHand, Pol098, Commander Keane, Fbv65edel, MONGO, Alfakim, Miss Madeline, Linkspro, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacifist, Uris, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, Jamesmassola, TreveX, Terence, GregorB, Eaolson, Isnow, Zzyzx11, JohnBlaz, Wayward, Hgd4th, Newprogressive, Rangeley, Stefanomione, Rjecina, Radiant!, Rnt20, Ashmoo, Graham87, RussellS1989, Descendall, BD2412, Wachholder0, FreplySpang, Ando228, RxS, Seyon, Jhskg7843hjskdyg7843ythiul43h, Kane5187, Ciroa, TheronJ, Ketiltrout, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Thelistman, Tim!, Nightscream, Koavf, Plainsong, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, Ikh, Andreas Brakoulias, Eyu100, Hiberniantears, Josiah Rowe, JHMM13, Feydey, MZMcBride, Funnyhat, Heezy, HappyCamper, Ligulem, CQJ, Daniel Collins, ElKevbo, Bubba73, Yug, Klonimus, DuKot, DickClarkMises, Sango123, Matjlav, SNIyer12, Heptor, Dionyseus, FayssalF, Ace-o-aces, Kallemax, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Pitamakan, Joewithajay, Winhunter, Who, Spirit2112, SuperDude115, CraigWyllie, RexNL, Gurch, Mark J, Jay-W, Str1977, DevastatorIIC, Rvinall, OrbitOne, Patken4, Militaryace, Atrix20, Blackberrylaw, Simishag, Alphachimp, Shahram, GoryBlizzard, Tyro, Sszark, Samxli, Russavia, BMF81, Eric.j.g, Theshibboleth, Coolhawks88, Lamrock, King of Hearts, Joetheguy, Jersey Devil, Sherool, Theo Pardilla, DTOx, Mmx1, Hermitage, VolatileChemical, Chwyatt, Cactus.man, Digitalme, Amibidhrohi, Gwernol, Wjfox2005, Straker, Tskaze, Jason.cinema, Bubbachuck, EamonnPKeane, Raelx, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Jeffpw, Kinneyboy90, Sceptre, Wester, Tavish Artair, Moondog88, Hairy Dude, Beltz, Jimp, Jlittlet, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, Woseph, Zaq12wsx, Red Slash, John Quincy Adding Machine, Anonymous editor, Taejo, TheDoober, Witan, King Zeal, Superjaberwocky, Hendrixski, Pigman, Paulb42, Kirill Lokshin, Akamad, Manop, Hyperbole, CambridgeBayWeather, Tungsten, Redspork02, Ritchy, MarcK, Daveswagon, Anomalocaris, Manxruler, NawlinWiki, IAMTHEEGGMAN, Atfyfe, WulfTheSaxon, Wiki alf, Motor.on, Mipadi, Msikma, Nirvana2013, Robertvan1, Tfine80, Welsh, Joel7687, CJK, Korny O'Near, IndieJones, NYScholar, Howcheng, Cleared as filed, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Nick, Aaron Brenneman, Anetode, Brandon, RFBailey, Moe Epsilon, RL0919, Farmanesh, Misza13, Nick C, Zagalejo, Zelphics, Tony1, DGJM, Aaron Schulz, Gertie, Zythe, RonCram, Lockesdonkey, M3taphysical, Khalid!, Mysid, Psy guy, Nescio, Ac101, Thommybe~enwiki, Bronks, Black Falcon, Macskeeball, Tajmahall, Robertbyrne, SeaFox, David Underdown, Hackit12, Wknight94, Ms2ger, Bob247, Slaman, Tzustrategy, Tuckerresearch, Richardcavell, Pawyilee, Saric, WAS 4.250, FF2010, Georgewilliamherbert, DieWeisseRose, Sperril, Sandstein, Doldrums, Vonfraginoff, Alecmconroy, Mike Serfas, YEPPOON, Sabsingh, Deville, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Bhumiya, Elistoughton, Don Williams, Bayerischermann, Ageekgal, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Mappychris, Closedmouth, Keithd, Toddgee, Brian Tvedt, Rocksea, Doktor Waterhouse, Dspradau, Pejman, JRawle, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k, GraemeL, Rlove, JoanneB, Barbatus, Shawnc, Carabinieri, HereToHelp, Wikipeditor, Otebig, Batvette, Ddspell, ArielGold, Smurfy, RunOrDie, Rdhs100, Thadswanek, DisambigBot, Kungfuadam, Arkon, Hathaldir~enwiki, Calder0003, Lawyer2b, Teryx, Kingboyk, Xiaojeng~enwiki, Asterion, Nick-D, Jeff Silvers, Sam Weber, Wallie, Lunch, DVD R W, Victor falk, Matt Heard, Prantasa, Common Wealth, Wai Hong, Cfm865, Crystallina, ItzDatDude, SmackBot, RDBury, Looper5920, FocalPoint, ShadowRanger, Selfworm, Elonka, Slarre, Ex0pos, Impaciente, Shiverballmann, Uneartheddrake, Reedy, Cdogsimmons, KnowledgeOfSelf, Lambejim, PeoplesWar, Jtuba, Alex1011, Kimon,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
387
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C. Hood, Ante Aikio, Daniel, Wombdpsw, Hydra2~enwiki, Brainboy109, HappyInGeneral, Gwjones2, Varavour, Jd2718, Keraunos, Sobesurfski, PerfectStorm, Tobz1000, Ryanw315, MattHunter, CipherPixy, Publicola, Headbomb, Vertium, John254, Bobblehead, SGGH, Kathovo, Gopman1, Ufwuct, 25162995, Hotpiebob, Ljean, Java13690, MainlyTwelve, Jimbob615, Brett Dunbar, BehnamFarid, The Proffesor, Elhector, Neutralaccounting, Hcobb, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Nirvana77, JuWiki, Therequiembellishere, Nick Number, Signaleer, Dsw, 00666, Tocino, Pkpat2011, HalfOfElement29, Robert Ham, Dawnseeker2000, GLGerman~enwiki, Speedykid2000, Sad mouse, Scented Guano, Oreo Priest, SNx, Dantheman531, Mentifisto, Porqin, Dr-dyhr, Mgerb, 213421241a, Tomburr91, AntiVandalBot, Cydperez, JiveAlive5, MarkV, CrazedYankee, Azzors~enwiki, KarlXII, Fedayee, Luna Santin, Opelio, Bigtimepeace, Carolmooredc, Prolog, AaronY, Home Computer, SmokeyTheCat, Jj137, Tmopkisn, Rainonwood, Smartse, Etsuna, Lingeron, Pikalax, Socold, Dylan Lake, Superzohar, Farbotron, Darklilac, TheoGB, Christtheband, Tyler Moore, Yellowdesk, Hoponpop69, Kepin, Ex-Nintendo Employee, Davidlondon~enwiki, Astrometrics, LegitimateAndEvenCompelling, Logical Argument, Mrmr, Killerman2, Larry Lawrence, Buy1get1free, Kprobst, Lask3r, Robp, Leuqarte, 1of3, PresN, Ingolfson, Res2216firestar, Tomertomer, KBry, D.freeman, Z@ch, HanzoHattori, Fennessy, JAnDbot, AnAccount2, Maxpower37, Dogru144, Leuko, Freepsbane, Ncmattj, Roving Wordslinger, Fidelfair, RM Gillespie, AniRaptor2001, Raan0001, Matthewcollins1989, Cleanleon, MER-C, Epeefleche, Planetary, ZZninepluralZalpha, Jsmith256, Drpak, Matthew Fennell, Scythian1, Lilcheeto1, Lan Di, Fetchcomms, Nwe, Pwnish3r, Italiavivi, Seddon, Jmu2108, Hello32020, Wumbo, Ribonucleic, Realismadder, E Pluribus Americanus, Nathanjp, BenB4, Ccrashh, Gringo44, Hut 8.5, UtDicitur, Tvinniet, GurchBot, Oliver222, Photobiker, Sirkan, Mantion, DanPMK, Kitdaddio, Cynwolfe, Y2kcrazyjoker4, SteveSims, Top Gun, Penubag, Bogdanszabo, Magioladitis, Creationlaw, Vlad Dracula, Varese Sarabande~enwiki, Parsecboy, VoABot II, SDas, Dentren, QbicCreation, Bigpilgrim, MastCell, Mrld, Yandman, JamesBWatson, Darkshadow2247, Mclay1, Sloan21, BekiB, Ispyhumanfly, DefendOurConstitution, Connor51212, Frogsprog, Macutty, Bangledexter, Richrobison, Buckshot06, Lucyin, Terrell j shields, CTF83!, Rsi73, Galifardeu, Jatkins, Redsoxfan415, Cartoon Boy, Homunq, AlexKM, PEAR, Hisownspace, ROOB323, KConWiki, Sierra 9, Bleh999, Benzocane, Eiyuu Kou, Slappyjoe, Cgingold, D.Kurdistani, Blhart216, Jeb8828, Markm62, Everyday Citizens, Loonymonkey, Wrad, Chivista~enwiki, Bjerko, The end is near, Elliotb2, Gomm, Nielswik, Crash Comet, Just James, THobern, Jtk6204, Gusuku, Chris G, Merat, Mussab iraq, Zick0604, Funkmonkey, GuelphGryphon98, Warchef, TheRanger, Laubz83, Heqwm, Warren Dew, Romulus19, Clintonesque, Mmmpieisgood, The Mass, Cerebral Warrior, Jacknicholson, FisherQueen, Raoulduke47, Firemarth, Ineffable3000, Pauly04, Quixoto, M3tal H3ad, Clavecin, Okloster, Drew1369, Antennaman, Grandia01, Martius Caius, EyeSerene, Plaws1856, Darkrulingpoet, Boris 1991, Autosol, Democraticboy, Dx87, Wowaconia, NuclearUmpf, Snespn10, Click Here!, Sm8900, TheEgyptian, Padillah, Loudsirens, Averross, CommonsDelinker, Atomx2, Mschroeder666, KTo288, Nono64, Rich Carlson, S.dedalus, Yuval a, Mbhiii, Emleaman, Wiki Raja, Cinnamon colbert, Bill Williams, Gene Stoner, RockMFR, Midwestmax, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Stealthco4545, Windows2142, Rgoodermote, RatSkrew, Evomaster, UBeR, Communisimo, Richiekim, Tikiwont, Uncle Dick, J intela,
388
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Athaenara, Paradise-FH-, TrueCRaysball, AlphaFactor, Cocoaguy, A Nobody, Paco411, Anewerhope, Pajfarmor, NimChief, NerdyNSK, Grahamasaur, Commoncents, Littlebettis, Longbranch, Octopus-Hands, Oppositesattract, AvatarMN, Pjalter, Kuzwa, Thucydides411, Dispenser, It Is Me Here, Grantyboy14, Bad Night, BlueGuy213, Nosfartu, Einstein49, AKA MBG, Igutgold, Fairness And Accuracy For All, Novis-M, Jhattara, Unintended~enwiki, Trumpet marietta 45750, Mikael Häggström, Jsguntzel, Xenoto, Mjb1981, PocklingtonDan, Nav the 13th, Adrián V.M., Mrg3105, 97198, RenniePet, GhostPirate, Jonay81687, Redreadersdigest, Urzadek, In Transit, TragicHipster, Taxico, Drake Dun, LegendaryBk, Whoblitzell, Marshalbannana, SriMesh, Tascha96, Student7, Unflavoured, Olegwiki, Madhava 1947, Mkluge, Osaboramirez, Angular, Eniac turing, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Atheuz, Entropy, Cometstyles, Nobodycantbeatme1, Benjaminso, Bogdan~enwiki, Corriebertus, Dylanj2001, Extermino, Heliogabalus227, Ssault, Stymphal, Lampost9, Corporaljohnny, Quickdart, Interlaker, Jetwave Dave, Commonsensei, Trip Johnson, Hlsstudent, Bonadea, The Mirror of the Sea, Mujahid wikipedia, Scott Illini, VatooVatoo, Andy Marchbanks, Dorftrottel, Biggipp023, Wewelsburg, WLRoss, Alain10, Permafrost, Mortalias, TheDoc911, InsaneOstrich, Halmstad, Izzy1985, Chryrmedial, Homologeo, EndurinFreedom, Spellcast, Granita1, MaplePorter, Signalhead, Histo ed, ACSE, Mburba, Sam Blacketer, Gunnerdevil4, PinkyShow, Annoynmous, Yitzhak1995, Hammersoft, Alienlifeformz, FireWeed, Rucha58, Rhthpr, Indubitably, Simonft, Dskaushik, Wildframe, Mrbill66, Blaze53, Lifeguardmusic, Gpeilon, Adrian two, Jedravent, UnfairlyImbalanced, Guleed, Philip Trueman, Lilidor, YorkshireM, Danpong, XavierGreen, Ebay3, Lft6771, Zidonuke, Erik the Red 2, Toll booth, Mark v1.0, Intruder131, WeekendKruzr, Jeremy221, Waresuns26, Malichai, Samurijak, SilentOne17, Wikipediatoperfection, D. patterson, m.d., Odamarasengan07, Walor, Bwebb00, FrstFrs, Zurishaddai, Crockett john, Kellym133, Rob944s2, Mantipula, Wikiphenomena, Lvivske, Bbrown8370, Zamkudi, C.J. Griffin, Ultrabeater, By749b, Killedinthename, Sakura43, NathanielPoe, Beyond silence, The Wilschon, Btmachine333667, Cerebellum, Martin451, Wikieditor12, VulcanOfWalden, Mout12, Fishmonger16, Manchurian candidate, Tpk5010, Bleaney, Raymondwinn, PDFbot, Ftblplya1, StillTrill, Bearian, Wikiisawesome, Timhogs, Robert1947, Maxim, Titandm, Bonnielass, Gladiator2155, Spreefan, Kronsteen, Esteban“Lex”Saborío, Ryan vandyke, Peace keeper II, Briggia, Dustndown, Happyme22, Fearlessfool, Milwaukeewobbly, Danrolo~enwiki, Graymornings, Buttockhat, AlexJSmith, Wassamatta, Orestek, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Hughstew, Omphg, Kermanshahi, Trojan51, GoPurpleNGold24, Kulikovsky, PoeticX, Mackabean, BlackCab, Tylerhickey, BoOgunsuyi, Tiquicia, Ppierce365, Munci, Evergreens78, Atlantabravz, 4mehwuzn, Legoktm, Abcdabcd1, JohnHistory, Robkehr, Signsolid, Uncle Scrooge, Robbskey, JoeMP, Dmontin, Worldthoughts, Fanatix, GirasoleDE, Madman, Ipankonin, Desertjakl, Dusti, Brenont, Goulais69, Politics rule, John Stattic, Dems on the move, 4wajzkd02, Citizen, BonesBrigade, Malcolmxl5, ITBlair, Aboomazin, PeterPredator, Ilyacadiz, Hchrishicks, Avargasm, Vexorg, YourEyesOnly, Dawn Bard, Mburn16, Lucasbfrbot, Mangostar, Santas back3, JabbaTheBot, Vanished user skj3ioo3jwifjsek35y, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg, Giantquesadilla, Grundle2600, Acct4, GlassCobra, Keilana, McGrupp10799, Poyani, RucasHost, Wolfiefox, Flyer22, Langloisrg, Perspicacite, Kingsuperdude, The Evil Spartan, Editore99, Arbor to SJ, Nopetro, Ursasapien, Jc-S0CO, SuperSpy00bob, Yerpo, JSpung, Freetown, Mimihitam, Andrewtheblacksheep, Atticussawatzki, ByronHudson, ThinkpadR50, Lightmouse, Mayalld, Greatrobo76, Sub619, Brettzwo, Ahangar-e-Gaz, Manic755, Fratrep, Eugen Simion 14, Gunmetal Angel, Emesee, Kumioko (renamed), RestlessPegLegSyndrome, Seedbot, Rooboy715, JohnSawyer, Count Bleck, Jmj713, Spitfire19, Belligero, Maelgwnbot, Aumnamahashiva, Calatayudboy, LonelyMarble, Jóhann Heiðar Árnason, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Americanprogress, Callowschoolboy, Taxiboyjdg, Capitalismojo, The Four Deuces, Realm of Shadows, Pexise, Huku-chan, Felpeyu, SFC MAC, Verdadero, Wjemather, Beetree123, Roverfan77, Escape Orbit, Mumble45, Djlarsu, Kanonkas, Miyokan, Budhen, Naturespace, Squash Racket, TheCatalyst31, ImageRemovalBot, Joe54897415, Josh60798, SallyForth123, Atif.t2, Twinsday, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Tanvir Ahmmed, MBK004, Reydeyo, ClueBot, Dreist, SummerWithMorons, Engelalber, Comander E.I. Davis2, Kerry Perry, Toddy Ball 2, Goodtedesco, Sennen goroshi, QueenofBattle, Joehoe665, Noorkhanuk85, Garthhh, Neptunes2007, WikiSkeptic, Hippykid99, Dem393, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow's Wraith, Nassirya, Atlanic wave2., Gaulwiki, EoGuy, General Epitaph, Bosnia 2007, Lawrence Cohen, Mx3, DIRed14.2, Boo1210, Seektruthfromfacts, Rise Above the Vile, Arakunem, Saddhiyama, Richrakh, Senzangakhona, Mt hg, Mild Bill Hiccup, Chris Bainbridge, Uncle Milty, Z2oman, Night Goblin, SuperHamster, Skäpperöd, Helpnovel, Xavexgoem, Niceguyedc, Real eyes realize real lies, Darth NormaN, Gyrcompass, LizardJr8, TypoBoy, Fendue, MrBosnia, Bravesfan043, 718 Bot, Ag782578, Thisglad, Klrichar, Bearian'sBooties, Supergodzilla2090, Sirius85, EnigmaMcmxc, Dr. B. R. Lang, Titanicmovieluvr, Pravuil1, Atomsgive, Ktr101, Excirial, Vze21gwa, Jusdafax, ImNotRichImStillLyin, Jaro7788, Rastov, Fchristo, G.I Bob, Ludwigs2, Zaharous, Jørgen88, SpikeToronto, Ykhwong, Plastic Fish, V7-sport, Ahmed987147, Coinmanj, NuclearWarfare, MickMacNee, Pushbreak, Cenarium, Lunchscale, Jandrews23jandrews23, Okiefromokla, Antodav2007, Rmouser, Galen100, SoxBot, CompScientist, Razorflame, Huntthetroll, Kplynchpk, Polly, The golden easter party man, Thehelpfulone, CharleyHart, MilesAgain, Salon Essahj, TheDarkSavant, C628, Geo0910, Pbt54, Boowah59, Thingg, Dsmurat, Inclinerator, CKCortez, Ed Moise, Amodernphoenix, Scalhotrod, Versus22, FairyPrincessBoo, Kiftaan, Chester polarbear, Rasmasyean, DOR (HK), Ace2209, Stantheman sylvie, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Onward&Upward, MB83, Ryder Spearmann, BigK HeX, Alphabravo11, 20percent, BarretB, Jax 0677, XLinkBot, Vjmlhds, Thelaw1021, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Travk22, Altaybal, Boyd Reimer, Duncan, Thornberrylc, Little Mountain 5, Rreagan007, Mitch Ames, WikHead, Manyanswer, Netrat, Moshiman, Doc9871, Mhsb, WikiDao, Asidemes, SBPrakash, JCDenton2052, SelfQ, Saxonthedog, Lemmey, Atoric, Rogimoto, Thatguyflint, Zirguezi, Hunter Kahn, TWMM91, Kbdankbot, Wyatt915, BigNSmart, Khakannn, Yaik9a, Kajabla, Mackook, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Yodalee, Mortense, Rustedhandle, P4p5, Gaintes, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Rupert Cole, Zozo2kx, Tsunanet, EZ1234, Dream Academy, SuperSmashBros.Brawl777, Stnewton09, M.nelson, Northwestgnome, Trasman, Fgnievinski, Dunnsworth, Listing Port, Ronhjones, Elmondo21st, Laurinavicius, Startstop123, Tuscumbia, Bertrc, Jey86, CanadianLinuxUser, Danielutz2~enwiki, MrOllie, Download, SoSaysChappy, Sillyfolkboy, Jreconomy, Glane23, Lihaas, Debresser, Roux, Aiyen kin Leary, Mufan701, Akyoyo94, Ericg33, Blaylockjam10, Bob K31416, Ilike2edit113, Sam.engle, RVRVRVRVRVRVC, Berkunt, Paulbriggs, Terrillja, Tassedethe, ConnorIBurnett, Tide rolls, William S. Saturn, SamB135, Lightbot, Krano, 1j1z2, Justafriendofmine, Gail, MuZemike, Samuel Pepys, Jarble, Nonno88, Shah 88, KEN, Kalvinus, Wikifan12345, Swarm, Odder, Andre Toulon, Roar888, Legobot, Kurtis, Abonazzi, MarkDalit, Yobot, AzureFury, Granpuff, 2D, Bunnyhop11, JohnnyCalifornia, Mename2332, O Fenian, Fraggle81, Cflm001, Kadrun, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Rab777hp, VitalSignsAreFadingDoctor, Evans1982, Guy1890, Betternow, GateKeeper, Bugnot, Reenem, A Stop at Willoughby, QueenCake, Upward15, Gladusing, Bill Ladd, Angsc09, Xnacional, Daniel 1992, Xxdavester, Tempodivalse, NorthCarolinaboy, OregonD00d, Bbb23, Liberal92, AnomieBOT, Apollo1758, John Holmes II, Rjanag, Grey Fox-9589, Lebanonman19, Hello4321, Jim1138, IRP, Tavrian, Warhero100, Neut Nuttinbutter, Guyver85, Piano non troppo, Qajar, Ipatrol, Ambrosiaster, Joel amos, Knowledgekid87, Ulric1313, Flewis, Kavas, Rtyq2, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Gregmweir3, Eumolpo, Maxis ftw, Roux-HG, Platypus2012, Dynablaster, NurseryRhyme, Neurolysis, Goyaz, EverettMcGill, Cliftonian, LilHelpa, Pandim, The Firewall, Supercaliber, Lickpussy, Jamy313, Maliagirl3321, James XV, KHirsch, Nappyrootslistener, Capricorn42, Peol97, Poetaris, Sara gurl33, GrandTorino, UnderTow2, Lucky to be me, Elsiehasse, ChildofMidnight, Live Light, Stars4change, Jeffwang, BritishWatcher, GetLinkPrimitiveParams, Peych, Srich32977, Southern Command Stooge, Guto2003, J04n, Russki516, Zendell, Paulus Gun, Riotrocket8676, Miesianiacal, Shirik, Mr George R. Allison, Anhydrobiosis, Fiskehaps, Coltsfan, Ιων, Mark Schierbecker, BobaFett85, Bahahs, Pieter33, Mttll, Traditionalindependent, Amaury, Hafs96, Spesh531, Jleather, Jean-Jacques Georges, Sophus Bie, Motherfer, MerlLinkBot, Glal14, Octavio Sunland, Howsa12, AodCommander, Shadowjams, BignBad, Philitup23, JayJay, Wikiman699, VasOling, A.amitkumar, Banmetoo, Homedog21, RightCowLeftCoast, Thejadefalcon, Spaceshuttlediscovery, Spazturtle, Legobot III, Edgars2007,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
389
Banak, MoparManiac89, FrescoBot, Scoutstr295, Sumtin fishy, Tobby72, Lothar von Richthofen, VS6507, LavenhamHistorian, Lumoy, Izzedine, HCPUNXKID, Haeinous, HJ Mitchell, Steve Quinn, Trust Is All You Need, Outback the koala, Ben76266, Juno, Bambuway, Kassjab, Iqinn, AndresHerutJaim, Mart572, Gire 3pich2005, Berny68, Cannolis, Slastic, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Galmicmi, SL93, Patty wack, Sopher99, Redrose64, WQUlrich, Bobmack89x, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Abductive, PrincessofLlyr, Jonesey95, Supreme Deliciousness, Tinton5, SoccerMan2009, A8UDI, Jusses2, Xfansd, Tupsumato, Solid State Survivor, Snooker, Secret Saturdays, Jujutacular, Plasticspork, Ashitagaarusa, Saayiit, Justice and Arbitration, Zhonghuo~enwiki, IJBall, White Shadows, Boulton4mufc, Pieisthe, Tim1357, Flosssock1, JokerXtreme, LAKSJD1, Formats, GregKaye, RoadTrain, Sangjinhwa, IJGainey, Vula-Ost, Begoon, SlashinatorZ, Jeremy889, Lizetterobles04251996, Aoidh, Nerdman316, Dorshil, Mynameisnotofimportance, Trackerwiki, Fh jd sk la, Venomviper, Jessecamc, Diannaa, Forumstroll, ThinkEnemies, ROG5728, Dalai lama2345, 114m4 duck, Cman1146, Suffusion of Yellow, Tstormcandy, Merrikat, Tbhotch, Alex Ji LT-21, Editor99999, Sabumohareb, Keegscee, Misterjay12490, Chilcott1, The Pink Oboe, Stern5011, Andrea105, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Duramax, IshmaelMarcos, Klcattafi, FetchcommsAWB, VernoWhitney, Gameboy1947, DRAGON BOOSTER, Hentrino, Foigsindahaus, CatJar, Dingotronscat, 3M3RY, Omarlegend, IamVance, Kiko4564, Sirfranky, TalibanSlayer, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, Nl993RTlTS, Marlarkey, Woodbey, Solopiel, CurlyGangster, Era7, Kaptinavenger, Snow storm in Eastern Asia, La434, Clark42, Andajew, Marcin Łukasz Kiejzik, Distal24, Montgolfière, AbbaIkea2010, Mujahid1947, FoxR, Fellytone, GoingBatty, DrStrangeFlu, Cmgf26, Thekirby619, RenamedUser01302013, 8digits, Huckamike, ZxxZxxZ, Dom7453, USMCMIDN, Cglb13, Solarra, Bluestockings31, Passionless, Smallchief, MrGRA, HMS Vanguard, Wikipelli, FunkyCanute, Italia2006, Thomaskh, Werieth, Its snowing in East Asia, Kkm010, Ashmare, QuentinUK, John Cline, Sandeylife, Illegitimate Barrister, Jenks24, Mrmatiko, Michael Essmeyer, Blueftbl, Lagomen, Unused000705, 1234r00t, N512ma, Bamyers99, H3llBot, Bxj, Unreal7, Greyshark09, Vaaarr, Wayne Slam, XxDestinyxX, Tyler775, Wingman4l7, L1A1 FAL, EkoGraf, Simbagraphix, Djapa84, Kirothereaper, L Kensington, Wikipedian192, YnnusOiramo, VanSisean, Diving2010, Benvewikilerim, Donner60, Stefan Milosevski, BBrad31, Laci.d, Spuum, ShaiPDaKing, Nebuliser, JOHNNARAS, Caturday2, Lapolis, Puffin, John Smith 104668, Jasonakagary88, Diefgross, What was this guy eating?, Kristijh, 48Lugur, CiriloMechas, Matthewrbowker, Gigasolus, 19thPharaoh, Grampion76, Insommia, Neil P. Quinn, BabbaQ, Afranelli, Aravindsrivatsa, Whoop whoop pull up, TitaniumCarbide, Eclectic Angel, Davey2010, TheTimesAreAChanging, Woolfy123, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Registered Contributor, Ronaldc0224, Somedifferentstuff, Cyperuspapyrus, Ydwthi, Toolen, Zklaer01, This lousy T-shirt, HeadlessMaster, IJVin, Satellizer, Birdshot9, Yourmomblah, BrekekekexKoaxKoax, Zenithfel, Frietjes, Hazhk, Bobbyb373, Widr, TopGearR814, North Atlanticist Usonian, MerlIwBot, 死, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mr. Credible, HMSSolent, Dday124, Gob Lofa, Srithikdatta, Stas-Adolf, BG19bot, 19Nice70Guy2013, Pine, Articseahorse, Sematz, Icarus the younger, John Sheridan 1234, 155blue, MusikAnimal, Darouet, Pzrschreck, Mark Arsten, MrPenguin20, Sergevan, FutureTrillionaire, Misterechelon, Dainomite, Victoria garden, Vintagemilitary, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, Safehaven86, Philpill691, Polmandc, Glacialfox, Slymnfb, AntanO, Eric4223, Nullhandle, Le Bosch, Rubinkumar, Rohiljkny, BattyBot, Factsearch, HectorMoffet, Ogaitnasind99, LibreLearner, America789, Ddcm8991, MyRx, DemirBajraktarevic, Comatmebro, Nick.mon, Khazar2, Soulparadox, Billbowler2, Stumink, DylanLacey, Mały koleżka, Asisman, MrAustin390, Dexbot, ToBeFree, Neicdk, PepeEscobar, LightandDark2000, Hmainsbot1, BukLau00, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Pepe1x1, Jackninja5, XXzoonamiXX, Acoma Magic, 255.255.Z55.0, Zhoban, Lugia2453, Fuebar, Jamesx12345, Pregnantembryo, Corn cheese, Dr Dinosaur IV, Rakkalrast, I am One of Many, A11n-research, Howicus, AmaryllisGardener, LemonadeMug, Mcdowellju, Byuntaeng, CSBamb14, Truthwillneverdie, Hendrick 99, Supersaiyen312, NevenSubotic2, United Nations1x, LudicrousTripe, EllenCT, ElHef, Babitaarora, Arthur goes shopping, Wikiuser13, BlackBaton, Kharkiv07, Flak155, Quenhitran, Fitzcarmalan, Coolbreeze29er, Ben Tuckett, Thebuscamebyandigoton, UnbiasedVictory, Bernardwoodpecker, AbelM7, Samanthaplove, Jrishton, Hongshinjoo, Spivorg, Jmaun411, Redoer3, Alphamale2000, The Tepes, Thegreatmuka, Tervealbeeps, Babestress, Hanibal911, Jpl09c, OJOM, 105hummel, Monkbot, Abeerajafar, Armynut15, Lugnuthemvar, Sofia Koutsouveli, Wnicholas70, Monopoly31121993, Jesyka325, Cassandra Truth, Sciophobiaranger, Koncord111, Marytheo45, Swdoody, Robespierre 8286, Gouncbeatduke, Mragsa, Daxter71199, Creativeboss, Drawosh499, Ucelik83, Caealn, Obama is a socialist, Johnbothan101, Tank7150, Revihist, StanTheMan87, Jlanzer, Myth420, Korrywatain, The Unbiased Truth, Sabot Cat, Nina Companeez, Balkan Boxer, Magedq, PleaseConsider, Pishcal, Alpharit, YeOldeGentleman, Hey170, Anonymous awesome, AdamBzeek, Usama zide, Kennsington, Joseph2302, Cmanlegend, Xharm, Jmoore1188, Aidep.a.pedia, Isla incum, Sabrinala20022, Fishmaan, Bobmurleyman, Relevantdad, TGIFFTW!, Ssssss124234, Dickchaneymademoneyofftheiraqwar, Pacquaio and Anonymous: 1776 • Joint Special Operations Command Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20Special%20Operations%20Command?oldid= 659311506 Contributors: Edward, Nurg, JerryFriedman, DocWatson42, Beland, OwenBlacker, DragonflySixtyseven, Canterbury Tail, Jayjg, Discospinster, JoeHenzi, Rackham, Nsaa, Orangemarlin, Geo Swan, Vcelloho, Alai, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Apokrif, Kgrr, RicJac, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe, Vegaswikian, The wub, Windchaser, Sus scrofa, Sanjosanjo, Manys, Thiseye, TDogg310, Syrthiss, Smvans7, K.Nevelsteen, Ninly, Parrothead1234, Nick-D, SmackBot, John Lunney, Cdogsimmons, C.Fred, Lindus, Cla68, Brossow, ERcheck, Jprg1966, Scienz Guy, Florian Adler, Rrburke, Ohconfucius, Swatjester, Nkcs, Neovu79, MonkeyCMonkeyDo, MrDolomite, DouglasCalvert, MARK S., CzarB, LeyteWolfer, Lahiru k, Rob1bureau, CmdrObot, Cydebot, RelentlessRecusant, Cra0422, N5iln, Signaleer, Seaphoto, HolyT, .K, Epeefleche, Faizhaider, Buckshot06, Papalatiolais, Jaigurudev, Tracer9999, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, SaviorSix, Novis-M, Bennynoneck, Asymmetric, Sdsds, Thundermaker, Black6, Aaron mcd, StAnselm, Claudevsq, Capitalismojo, Outdawg, Mill cleaner, U2r2h, DiagonalArg, Dr. B. R. Lang, Ktr101, PixelBot, Niteshift36, NuclearWarfare, Bonewah, EpicDream86, Loranchet, Erobos, TomPointTwo, MystBot, Addbot, Hda3ku, AtheWeatherman, Blaylockjam10, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Waxworklibation, Charlie Tango Bravo, Magreenberg, AnomieBOT, EverettMcGill, Ace SOCNET, MakeBelieveMonster, Earlypsychosis, HoyaProff, AustralianRupert, FFlixx7481, LucienBOT, DrilBot, Spcop, Bobmack89x, Reconsider the static, Lotje, EmausBot, Dewritech, ZéroBot, Shuipzv3, Pathfinder71, H3llBot, Julierbutler, Thewolfchild, ChuispastonBot, Afranelli, TheTimesAreAChanging, ClueBot NG, Zechola, Intforce, Kevin Gorman, Widr, Paolau.kalani, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Chris0834, Mark Arsten, Dainomite, WikiHannibal, BattyBot, Choor monster, EvergreenFir, Trident1983, Monkbot, Ceboolitas Chavarria and Anonymous: 120 • Light machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20machine%20gun?oldid=662667596 Contributors: The Anome, Marknen, Romanm, Securiger, Halibutt, Buster2058, Oberiko, Piotrus, Pettifogger, One Salient Oversight, Phil1988, WikiDon, RevRagnarok, Miborovsky, Twinxor, WegianWarrior, Kross, Longhair, Tronno, Viriditas, La goutte de pluie, Mysdaao, Denniss, Cecil, Gene Nygaard, Alai, GraemeLeggett, Matt Deres, Nemo5576, YurikBot, Borgx, RobotE, Hairy Dude, Manxruler, Ve3, Ergbert, LeoX, Shotgunlee, Mieciu K, Maphisto86, GMan552, Paganpan, SmackBot, Emoscopes, Ariedartin, Gjs238, Geoff B, Hmains, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Snori, Trekphiler, Squalla, Synthe, SashatoBot, LWF, Cyclopaedic, Lkegley9, Kencf0618, Tawkerbot2, Orca1 9904, Clovis Sangrail, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Deathbunny, Marek69, WhaleyTim, F l a n k e r, Matteo Amato, Sebastian R., CeeWhy2, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, JamesL85, NewEnglandYankee, Idioma-bot, Broadbot, Tmaull, Sevela.p, Koalorka, Kobalt64, Läyhä, Ridepo, EmxBot, 13dble, Sorstalan, ClueBot, Binksternet, John Nevard, Staygyro, Eleven even, Kakrackle, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Irish Duck, LatitudeBot, LaaknorBot, West.andrew.g, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Uckersas, ArthurBot, Man74, WotWeiller, SCΛRECROW, Locobot, Haeinous, NetherSarum, Hoo man, Yadayadayaday, EmausBot, WhereItNeedstoBe, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, Eltomo85, ZéroBot, L1A1 FAL, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Raghith, Hengistmate, Widr, McCull1n, Ranggamalvino, Glevum, Oinbuh, 0989bv, Touranushertz,
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CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Icemanwcs, Wukkawakka, HK9900, 1994thegoodolddays and Anonymous: 105 • Machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20gun?oldid=662680222 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Epopt, Mav, The Anome, BlckKnght, Andre Engels, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, TomCerul, Panairjdde~enwiki, Topory, Stevertigo, Rbrwr, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Jtdirl, Delirium, CatherineMunro, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Aarchiba, Cgs, Glenn, Evercat, EdH, Elvis, JidGom, Daniel Quinlan, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Head, Cjrother, Russell Dovey, David.Monniaux, Riddley, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, Kristof vt, RedWolf, Donreed, Romanm, Securiger, Mayooranathan, Mirv, Ojigiri~enwiki, Halibutt, Hadal, UtherSRG, Profoss, GreatWhiteNortherner, Carnildo, Acm, Buster2058, Fabiform, Julianp, Crculver, Djinn112, Darklight, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Samuel J. Howard, Zigger, Everyking, Lefty, DO'Neil, Jrdioko, Joseph Dwayne, Magicmike, Utcursch, R. fiend, Ejgm, Vina, MacGyverMagic, Mzajac, Wikster E, Pettifogger, Sam Hocevar, Ojw, Mike Rosoft, N328KF, Wesha, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, FranksValli, Trkkazulu, Mecanismo, Xezbeth, Fluzwup, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, ESkog, ZeroOne, Nekochan, El C, Kross, Sietse Snel, Deztrd, Bobo192, TomStar81, Ypacaraí, Viriditas, Nomist, La goutte de pluie, Darwinek, Larry V, Thatguy96, Zachlipton, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Xanxz, Spangineer, Denniss, Malo, Katefan0, Hohum, Snowolf, Blobglob, Dhartung, Icewolf34, Cburnett, Evil Monkey, Gene Nygaard, Alai, ErtVVV, Killing Vector, DeAceShooter, Wharrel, Zanaq, Firsfron, Woohookitty, LOL, John1107, PoccilScript, Nvinen, Mandor, Pol098, The Wordsmith, MONGO, Jrkarp, Jok2000, JRHorse, Chris Buckey, SCEhardt, BlaiseFEgan, SDC, Wayward, Fxer, GraemeLeggett, Gerbrant, Dysepsion, Noit, Deltabeignet, Amorrow, Icey, Crzrussian, Sjö, Marasama, Eyu100, Muchenhaeser, Vegaswikian, MMad, The wub, Nguyen Thanh Quang, FlaBot, TheMidnighters, Flowerparty, Alphachimp, WouterBot, Chobot, Moocha, DVdm, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Apancu, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Pseudomonas, Ugur Basak, NawlinWiki, Astral, Jaxl, Trovatore, Megapixie, Ve3, Irishguy, FlintWestwood, Saberwyn, Zagalejo, Real World, JHCaufield, Shotgunlee, Asams10, Wknight94, Pil56, Phgao, Arthur Rubin, KGasso, Josh3580, Dooley, Hayden120, GinaDana, GMan552, Some guy, Arcadie, Veinor, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ominae, Yuyudevil, Jagged 85, Jab843, Boris Barowski, Edgar181, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, ERcheck, Yonniepegger, Chris the speller, Statue of limitations, Safeground, Bidgee, Quinsareth, Thumperward, Gracenotes, Andrew Reynolds, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Kotare, Frap, KaiserbBot, Squalla, KevM, Rrburke, Tboneblue, Jjjsixsix, BUF4Life, Dreadstar, RandomP, Wuzzy, Mwtoews, Richard0612, SashatoBot, SEWalk, John, Kipala, LWF, Cyclopaedic, Matt489, AllStarZ, Tim Q. Wells, Accurizer, Stev2k, Ckatz, MarkSutton, Mushmush123, Doczilla, Iridescent, JoeBot, J Di, CapitalR, Newyorkbrad, Blehfu, Tawkerbot2, George100, Ghaly, Jack's Revenge, JForget, FleetCommand, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Sir Vicious, Earthlyreason, Megaboz, GHe, Noha307, ShelfSkewed, MarsRover, Meodipt, Orca1 9904, Yaris678, Reywas92, Perfect Proposal, Rifleman 82, Gogo Dodo, Magiere, Tawkerbot4, Nabokov, Aldis90, EvocativeIntrigue, Epbr123, Thedirkus, Leedeth, Mojo Hand, Deathbunny, Marek69, The Fat Man Who Never Came Back, Captain Crawdad, Wikidenizen, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Fayenatic london, Myanw, Leuqarte, Sluzzelin, HanzoHattori, JAnDbot, Nathanjp, Taxerz, PhilKnight, Matthew Husdon, Aki009, Griffinity, Mewtwowimmer, Sebastian R., Jaysweet, Bakilas, VoABot II, Thedoorhinge, Dekimasu, Hasek is the best, Slartibartfast1992, Divine Avenger, Thernlund, Mike Searson, BilCat, Adavy, Kthiede, Gun Powder Ma, MartinBot, Kinetik138, Shadowphrogg32642342, APT, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, J.delanoy, Nev1, Bogey97, Numbo3, Mr.Irish, Cerevox, SenorBeef, Mrg3105, Ceiltich, SJP, Tatrgel, Olegwiki, Go0dwin0, DanMP5, Cmichael, Prhartcom, Ssault, Guitarh75, Jetwave Dave, Straw Cat, S, Useight, Trackorack, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Mastrchf91, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, ABF, Andyvphil, Nburden, Brianhurley, Dom Kaos, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Rancypants, Soundofmusicals, Petebutt, Qxz, Shindo9Hikaru, Leafyplant, Drappel, BotKung, Jjmckool, Mwilso24, Agent of the Reds, Haseo9999, SQL, Falcon8765, Godsguy345, Burntsauce, Ebonyskye, Master of the Oríchalcos, Sesshomaru, EX STAB, Zdenek F, Symane, Alucard365, Rock2e, EmxBot, Ababdabad, Skipweasel, EJF, SieBot, DerbyCountyinNZ, Dusti, Mwzzhang~enwiki, BonesBrigade, CurranH, Yintan, JohnATallon, Nummer29, Exozero, Keilana, Deprogram, Dhatfield, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Harry~enwiki, Lightmouse, Diego Grez, Jongleur100, Chillum, Atif.t2, ClueBot, Armydude, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jan1nad, Azmurath, Neverquick, Crazyblockhead, Excirial, Iner22, ChrisHodgesUK, Thewellman, La Pianista, Matthew Desjardins, C628, Jellyfish dave, Aitias, Versus22, Firefinger00, Nmenezes, DJ Sturm, Berean Hunter, Qwfp, Apparition11, BarretB, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, Little Mountain 5, Bobbokid, Kylos h, Holoeconomics, Quickload, Klemon14, Candylandman11, HexaChord, Harjk, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Friginator, Tom Ketchum, GeneralAtrocity, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Madden12, Glane23, Bahamut Star, AndersBot, Eddabed, Kyle1278, TheWatcherREME, Fireaxe888, Herr Gruber, TangLab, Kisbesbot, Numbo3bot, Radar2102, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Deatthslayer, Krano, TheSimsFreak, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Kartano, Ptbotgourou, Bandana Jones, Actionarms, Lachy13, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, A More Perfect Onion, Anon665, Jim1138, Kingpin13, Bpoling, M8tate, Csigabi, Ironc, Citation bot, E2eamon, Wranadu2, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Dsgamer1993, TheWeakWilled, Ched, NFD9001, FlashHawk4, Eiffel56, GrouchoBot, Ben be dat fye, Engineer comp geek, Mark Schierbecker, Silverije, Yoganate79, Trafford09, N419BH, Neil Clancy, How'd you do that?, FrescoBot, Zachmcginty, Pinethicket, Hard Sin, Bigdok, Btilm, Ezhuttukari, Kingmeme, Saintonge235, ItsZippy, North8000, Alexmilt, Vrenator, Zonglowe, Reaper Eternal, Pilot850, Luckyfox, Tbhotch, Stroppolo, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Wikisidd, Phoenix ICR, Jackehammond, Shiftyfifty, Beyond My Ken, Skamecrazy123, EmausBot, Acather96, Stryn, Immunize, Bennyboys800, Ajraddatz, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Italia2006, ZéroBot, Lhdty, Lesswealth, Fæ, Wackywace, Lateg, Bahudhara, HK417, Brettburcham, Wayne Slam, Jgavinfl, Mcmatter, Tolly4bolly, UltimaRatio, Thine Antique Pen, L1A1 FAL, L Kensington, Stefan Milosevski, Skrunyak, Babybabybaby123, ChuispastonBot, Dthakkar8, Whoop whoop pull up, Sonicyouth86, Grandmof101, Eworrall, ClueBot NG, Chumpstump777, Astatine211, Jake4cmdh, Gilderien, Piast93, Cntras, ⾃教育, Widr, Picturepurfect, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ucantfindme77, Bobthebuilder18, Teh fail myn, Lowercase sigmabot, TRnD xFuZe, BG19bot, Roidlover606, Beethoven123456, LuckySevens777, Boogieman90, Ranggamalvino, Erickson660, Muzzy136, Danmoberly, EuroCarGT, TotallyThatGuy, DudeManGuy1223, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Smohammed2, Jcoolkid, Jakec, Emeliieeee, Icemanwcs, WPGA2345, Chemistguy27, Caydenluke, Rezin, TranquilHope, Issparkly, Kjfhny, 1994thegoodolddays, Felsic, Goodathon, KasparBot and Anonymous: 631 • Magazine (firearms) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine%20(firearms)?oldid=662678061 Contributors: Ray Van De Walker, Edward, Patrick, Mulad, Riddley, Robbot, Toiyabe, Gtrmp, Mcapdevila, Per Honor et Gloria, Maclyn611, AliveFreeHappy, Mecanismo, Fluzwup, Night Gyr, CanisRufus, Kross, Shanes, Bobo192, Harald Hansen, Tronno, Zwilson, Matani2005~enwiki, Redxiv, Geo Swan, Pouya, Hohum, Ashlux, RJFJR, Mikeo, OwenX, Woohookitty, LOL, Raygun, GregorB, SDC, GraemeLeggett, Jclemens, Vary, WouterBot, Scoo, NSR, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Borgx, Filippof, Hellbus, Gaius Cornelius, Kvn8907, AeonicOmega, Ve3, Ergbert, Shotgunlee, Asams10, Georgewilliamherbert, Jmackaerospace, Sarefo, Hayden120, Jaranda, Diagraph01~enwiki, Groyolo, SmackBot, TestPilot, McGeddon, Deon Steyn, Gilliam, Winterheart, Drake2, Chris the speller, LinguistAtLarge, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Trekphiler, Yaf, MJBurrage, Squalla, SEWalk, John, Hotspur23, LWF, Breno, GCW50, Svippong, Muadd, 2T, Veritas Panther, KJS77, Dakart, HowardSelsam, FlyingToaster, Orca1 9904, Cydebot, Danrok, Trasel, Myscrnnm, Luccas, Christian75, Msnicki, Pbla4024, Ultimus, Commander Zulu, Legaiaflame, Marek69, Noclevername, Dehneshin, Corella, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Plm209, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Nyttend, Froid, Thernlund, Alex Spade, Edward321, Tacticus, FlieGerFaUstMe262, CommonsDelinker, RWyn, KTo288, J.delanoy, Ops101ex, Lucaswilkins, Benscripps, Cephlapod, DanMP5, SnitchyCat, Ana Nim, Jetwave Dave, Num1dgen, Station1, Anynobody, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Agricola44, Liko81, JhsBot, Andy Dingley, Francis Flinch, MajorHazard, Koalorka, Mukster, Aubri, Logan, Alucard365, Lightbreather, SieBot, Skiendog, BonesBrigade, Zephyrus67, Sf46, Zarakinthish, Sinfulparade, Svick, Capitalismojo, Maltzer, ImageRe-
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
391
movalBot, ClueBot, Paul Iliano, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Ze Imaginary Muffin, Excirial, Theheraticleader, John Nevard, Scalhotrod, Montourage, Bilsonius, WikHead, Nukes4Tots, Andrewrstevens, Nohomers48, CanadianLinuxUser, Someguyfromhell, Glane23, TheWatcherREME, Herr Gruber, Lightbot, Evers, CrimsonSage, Luckas-bot, Yobot, إماراتي1971, Donfbreed, Bhikshu Nagarjuna, AnomieBOT, PeskySaurus, RevelationDirect, Eumolpo, ArthurBot, Karagamber, 4twenty42o, Nathaniel Mikkola, FlashHawk4, Anotherclown, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Kwiki, Onjacktallcuca, A8UDI, MKFI, Brebre4180, Miguel Escopeta, Newt Winkler, Elizabeth Gordon, Vrenator, Reaper Eternal, ROG5728, RjwilmsiBot, Misconceptions2, Martin Meise, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, GoingBatty, Dffgd, Wingman4l7, RaptureBot, Skrunyak, Avatar9n, ClueBot NG, Intlaware, Zenonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kungfu2187, Stumpi88, Sporktek, Khazar2, Captmoonlight, SuperbowserX, CelerSilensMortalis, Rbizzy1343, JPhebus, Smohammed2, BigJackman, Betasniper, Bardbom, Himni1, RAF910, Kateszymborski, Monkbot, KitFistoPL, Rezin, Everybodyswillyisaspeedboat, Ibropalic and Anonymous: 173 • Main battle tank Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20battle%20tank?oldid=661274945 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Andrewman327, Bender235, Giraffedata, Anthony Appleyard, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, Hohum, A D Monroe III, Pol098, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Rillian, Me and, Arima, Lockesdonkey, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Trekphiler, Elryacko, Orca1 9904, Fnlayson, Aldis90, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Hans Dunkelberg, TXiKiBoT, Rumiton, Andy Dingley, Brozozo, Hamiltondaniel, Denisarona, ClueBot, Binksternet, Bliskner, IVP, Sun Creator, 7&6=thirteen, Pichpich, Addbot, Graham.Fountain, Atlantians, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Amqui, Mark Schierbecker, Fortdj33, Gire 3pich2005, Jonesey95, RedBot, Bcs09, VEO15, Visite fortuitement prolongée, Phoenix and Winslow, DexDor, TGCP, Look2See1, Winner 42, MintCCC, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Kieranlatty, Space25689, Coloursoftherainbow, Simbagraphix, At612, KazekageTR, Victory in Germany, Iron Archer, Riotforlife, Quite vivid blur, EdoBot, Zedenstein, Georgiaboy 15, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Khalidawais, Michaelmas1957, AktiNo, AD66, Vagobot, Ranggamalvino, 220 of Borg, Tankwarfare, 4Jays1034, BattyBot, Markharis07, ChrisGualtieri, Guywholikesca2+, VitisAestivalis, Ярпен, BTRand1, Limefrost Spiral, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, Ancholm, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Indiandefence, Monkbot, Brutal Russian, TuntematonSika, Aliaharian, Yolozzzzzzz and Anonymous: 112 • Military helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20helicopter?oldid=662737593 Contributors: Lowellian, Jason Quinn, Woohookitty, Pol098, Hovea, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, Chwyatt, Cornellrockey, Arado, Saberwyn, Chris93, SmackBot, Flamarande, Tnkr111, Chris the speller, Neo-Jay, Colonies Chris, Will Beback, Willy turner, Levineps, Stewartfip, Fnlayson, Barticus88, Bobblehead, BenTremblay, Darklilac, Born2flie, BilCat, Ekki01, Anaxial, R'n'B, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Tatrgel, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Usergreatpower, Schnellundleicht, Heb, Zephyrus67, Yerpo, Hoplon, Binksternet, Gits (Neo), Shentosara, Ktr101, Excirial, Jusdafax, The Founders Intent, XLinkBot, Subversive.sound, Addbot, ContiAWB, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, SpBot, Samuel Pepys, Galoubet, Citation bot, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, MGA73bot, Theo10011, Jeffrd10, DexDor, EmausBot, John of Reading, Naev, ClueBot NG, AktiNo, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Jay8g, Northamerica1000, MusikAnimal, Hurricanefan24, Cyberbot II, Adnan bogi, MilleniumBlue, Keijhae, KasparBot and Anonymous: 33 • Pistol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol?oldid=662889138 Contributors: Patrick, Andrewman327, Altenmann, Antandrus, Rama, Dbachmann, LtNOWIS, Spangineer, Svartalf, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Koavf, Tedd, Huw Powell, NawlinWiki, ThunderE6, A.BigHead, CWenger, SmackBot, Skizzik, Emurphy42, Seduisant, Lambiam, Mouse Nightshirt, Ergative rlt, J 1982, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, DumbBOT, Legaiaflame, QuiteUnusual, Bongwarrior, KConWiki, Keith D, Tulkolahten, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Adamdaley, Andy Dingley, Happysailor, Jdaloner, Excirial, Three-quarter-ten, Addbot, Pigoutultra, Fruckert, LuK3, Sprachpfleger, DemocraticLuntz, Materialscientist, Mark Schierbecker, Sabrebd, Gulftanker, FrescoBot, Knightwhosayni, The Great Detective, HJ Mitchell, Pinethicket, Jschnur, Callanecc, ROG5728, Misconceptions2, Rabbabodrool, Wikipelli, Thecheesykid, John Cline, Cimmerian praetor, SporkBot, Mayur, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Status, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Snotbot, Lukeno94, User89113, Nightenbelle, Wbm1058, Mh3rocksdude, Jimeradams, PHD-teacher, Elijahranensiegal, Maxdudeyo, Cman411, Matrin44, Kitisgay, CorneliusA, Mcneill97, Soumyascholar, Halo Jerk1, Miningpyropony, Marigold100, Glaisher, HK9900, Prodigy 16, NQ, Gomu gomu no pistol, KasparBot and Anonymous: 112 • Reconnaissance vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance%20vehicle?oldid=662859828 Contributors: Versageek, GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Aldis90, Lexington50, Andy Dingley, Addbot, Rubinbot, Mark Schierbecker, Kyng, Jonesey95, John of Reading, SporkBot, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Katangais, DanieB52, Monkbot, Cavalryman V31, Inyouchuu shoku, KasparBot and Anonymous: 2 • Rifle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle?oldid=654561308 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, LA2, Rmhermen, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Edward, Banshee~enwiki, Patrick, Voidvector, Oliver Pereira, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Theresa knott, Notheruser, Cadastral, Anshumangaur, Julesd, Rossami, Tkinias, Evercat, Lancevortex, Dino, Dysprosia, Furrykef, Ed g2s, Jason M, Nptr, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jwpurple, Kadin2048, Romanm, FeZn~enwiki, Ojigiri~enwiki, Meelar, Marc Venot, Oberiko, Cobaltbluetony, Lee J Haywood, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Hagedis, Leonard G., Radius, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn, Finn-Zoltan, Gracefool, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Jrdioko, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Kilogulf59, Mzajac, Michael Rowe, Tin soldier, CesarFelipe, Mrrhum, Klemen Kocjancic, Kevin Rector, RevRagnarok, Mubli, HedgeHog, AliveFreeHappy, CALR, DanielCD, Vincom2, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, MeltBanana, Deelkar, Pavel Vozenilek, Night Gyr, WegianWarrior, Kaisershatner, Panu~enwiki, El C, Workster, Kross, Shanes, RoyBoy, Ypacaraí, FETuriousness, BrokenSegue, Captain Blood~enwiki, Rje, King nothing, Nsaa, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Atlant, Geo Swan, Joshbaumgartner, Yamla, Hohum, Wtmitchell, Velella, SidP, Jrleighton, Kenyon, Mahanga, A D Monroe III, D.E. Watters, Pol098, Kristaga, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, TheBlunderbuss, Graham87, Bikeable, Gewhere, Vegaswikian, Ian Dunster, DickClarkMises, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, DDerby, SchuminWeb, Anurag Garg, Gurch, CoolFox, Alphachimp, Bedford, Digitalme, Wavelength, Wolfmankurd, Longbow4u, DanMS, Bullzeye, Friday, NawlinWiki, Dialectric, Brandon, Xdenizen, DeadEyeArrow, Wknight94, JoshMahar, Leptictidium, Pil56, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Viveksinha in, KingCarrot, MrBook, Fantagu, Hayden120, GMan552, NeilN, Jsnx, SmackBot, Herostratus, Boris Barowski, Hmains, Skizzik, Hraefen, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Mekem~enwiki, Quinsareth, Anthonzi, Fluri, CSWarren, Konstable, Yaf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Kotare, KaiserbBot, Sommers, CorbinSimpson, Krich, Nakon, Zonedar, Astroview120mm, S@bre, Ck lostsword, Anss123, HQCentral, LtPowers, Treyt021, Wtwilson3, Heimstern, LWF, AllStarZ, Benesch, Joffeloff, Mgiganteus1, Gregorydavid, A. Parrot, Gjp23, Julthep, Mushmush123, 2T, KokomoNYC, Doczilla, Tayger, Dl2000, Will122194, J Di, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, IronSheep, Tawkerbot2, Erikringmar, Kevin Murray, Toabaltabeta, Qrc2006, ObjectivistC, Trasel, Gogo Dodo, D. C. Plunkett, Billyt, A Softer Answer, Adolphus79, Legend78, DumbBOT, Nabokov, Aldis90, 24fan24, Oliver202, Deathbunny, Bobblehead, Gerry Ashton, Klausness, Wikidenizen, Escarbot, Mentifisto, Bobdole1123, AntiVandalBot, Blankku, Jj137, Alphachimpbot, JAnDbot, Xhienne, Tigga, Nthep, Cannen9, PhilKnight, MSBOT, McMonster, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Freedomlinux, Creationlaw, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, -Kerplunk-, Mbc362, Swpb, Mwsilvabreen, Rich257, Arz1969, Thernlund, Nubius, Ahmad87, DerHexer, LarsHoej, CeeWhy2, Ocs, MartinBot, Freezing the mainstream, El Krem, BeadleB, Jim.henderson, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Victor Blacus, Robertotr, J.delanoy, Rrostrom, Josephthetall, Dslimti22, BrokenSphere, Katalaveno, Gunnap, Uturnme, NewEnglandYankee, Literacola, Toon05, Lostinletters, Cleverkid99, Ionescuac, Burzmali, Trackorack, MalikCarr, Thank you for everyone, VolkovBot, ABF, TheOtherJesse, Philip Trueman, DerGolgo, Dictouray, Buxton12, Zac Gochenour, LeaveSleaves, Quindraco,
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CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
ARUNKUMAR P.R, ETO Buff, Billinghurst, Demigod Ron, Andy Dingley, Clmckelvie, Francis Flinch, Symane, Logan, Solicitr, Demize, Paul J Williams, Grumblepunk, Ratsbew, Totalpedia, SaltyBoatr, Lightbreather, EJF, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Chinese3126, Caltas, Oleg.anashkin, Ehccheehcche, KPH2293, Lightmouse, KathrynLybarger, Smilo Don, Changor, Dodger67, Hamiltondaniel, ClueBot, Wikievil666, Rjd0060, Typical08, Wysprgr2005, Arakunem, Buonaparte69, CrazieXninja, WDM27, Crazyblockhead, Dman17ford, Ktr101, Excirial, Socrates2008, Danscool, Pjsouza, Den Hieperboree, Versus22, Apparition11, Otr500, InternetMeme, BarretB, XLinkBot, DaL33T, Avoided, SexyAzn2, Albertachong33, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Cxz111, Deutschew, DOI bot, Element16, Fieldday-sunday, Doniago, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Incola, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, TaBOT-zerem, EnochBethany, Troymacgill, Hemmers, AnomieBOT, Kristen Eriksen, Jim1138, Ufim, Ambaryer, Citation bot, Apollo, ArthurBot, MauritsBot, Cureden, Karagamber, Winged Brick, Howwi, GrouchoBot, Engineer comp geek, Kyng, Masrudin, FrescoBot, Juno, Pinethicket, Vicenarian, HRoestBot, User name two, A8UDI, Bigdok, RedBot, Sherifhaider, BadBadNugget, Miguel Escopeta, SeikoEn, FoxBot, کاشف عقیل, Cowlibob, JETHOBIE13, Stroppolo, Bricaniwi, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Misconceptions2, VernoWhitney, NerdyScienceDude, EmausBot, Eekerz, Logical Cowboy, Sophie, ScottyBerg, Faceless Enemy, Sdafhgh, Bawallace21, مانفی, Meow2885, Bears9086, 1brettsnyder, ZéroBot, Guninformation, Shuipzv3, Michael Essmeyer, Battoe19, Kilopi, Donner60, Skrunyak, ErinGoBragh555, Bill william compton, -revi, Optobume, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Cmccluskey33, Muon, Nathanielsgay, Mkwnap, MerlIwBot, Novusuna, Matthew.j.obrien, BILLjoe918, Showtime34, Kndimov, Dangerang, J991, CoalTrain16, User from Pécs, Baranya, Hungary, Alexeyev, Trinjac, HueSatLum, Camdman93, Kitty098356, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, TheFlarbar, PretoriaTravel, Smohammed2, Bettyboop330, Halo Jerk1, Filippo campione, Bro(sv), Snowager, GarrettSwimsInThePussy, Nadams10, HK9900, Jyaku1, Tiepdt88, Filjil, Forhistoryonly, KIFFLOM1256789 and Anonymous: 478 • Shotgun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun?oldid=652772166 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Jimbo Wales, Bryan Derksen, Stephen Gilbert, Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Edward, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Modster, Ixfd64, Karada, Ellywa, CatherineMunro, JayTau, TUF-KAT, Angela, BigFatBuddha, Error, Evercat, ²¹², Charles Matthews, JeffTL, Daniel Quinlan, Selket, Furrykef, Tempshill, SD6-Agent, Riddley, Phil Boswell, ZimZalaBim, Nurg, Romanm, Ojigiri~enwiki, Hcheney, GreatWhiteNortherner, Carnildo, Buster2058, Fabiform, Werbwerb, Smjg, Oberiko, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Ds13, Leonard G., Dav4is, Iota, Finn-Zoltan, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Ryanaxp, Chowbok, Utcursch, Antandrus, Kilogulf59, ThC, Andy Christ, Trevor MacInnis, Gest, AliveFreeHappy, DanielCD, Jiy, Discospinster, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, FT2, Fluzwup, Mani1, Night Gyr, ESkog, Mashford, Calair, El C, Tom, Sietse Snel, Sajt, Bobo192, Tronno, Sasquatch, Sukiari, Hooperbloob, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Free Bear, Primalchaos, Great Scott, Stillnotelf, Snowolf, RPellessier, RainbowOfLight, Sumergocognito, Gene Nygaard, Netkinetic, Dan100, Pekinensis, Firsfron, Interslice, Mindmatrix, Blackeagle, Camw, Jeff3000, MONGO, Kmg90, BlaiseFEgan, Crazysunshine, Yesukai, MikeWilson, Mtloweman, GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Ashmoo, Graham87, NCdave, BD2412, Kbdank71, Bdrewery, FreplySpang, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Dimitrii, Hitssquad, Quale, Seraphimblade, AliasXIII, Ligulem, Gilesmorant, DickClarkMises, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, RexNL, LeCire~enwiki, Coolhawks88, Chobot, Knife Knut, WriterHound, RobotE, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Filippof, Hydrargyrum, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Toecutter, SEWilcoBot, Greenlead, Mipadi, Mike18xx, Howcheng, Dr. R, Matnkat, Shotgunlee, Kyle Barbour, DeadEyeArrow, .marc., Decromin, Haemo, CLW, Asams10, Slaarti, Deeday-UK, Deville, Closedmouth, Derek1G, Dspradau, TheQuaker, ArielGold, SodiumBenzoate, Mebden, Kstingily, Luk, Sacxpert, Blastwizard, Wulfilia, User24, SmackBot, Prodego, Gigs, Pgk, KocjoBot~enwiki, ScaldingHotSoup, DrStrangeLove, Jongpil Yun, Vilerage, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubuffalo, Geoff B, Shaikun, Septegram, Xaosflux, Canonblack, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Crashmasterd, Snori, Droll, Adpete, Jgrabbs, Sbharris, Colonies Chris, Trekphiler, Yaf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, DéRahier, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, KaiserbBot, Daleraby, Scottie theNerd, BRCConsultations, Nahum Reduta, Flyguy649, Fuhghettaboutit, Cybercobra, Davptb, T-borg, Funky Monkey, RaCha'ar, Bubby the Tour G, Dreadstar, Orion Minor, Derek R Bullamore, Wacki, DMacks, Kukini, Kuru, Carnby, Dialecticas, LWF, AllStarZ, Warfire, Doobuzz, PseudoSudo, Pikipiki, Svippong, MarkSutton, The Bread, Mushmush123, 2T, Moretz, Haveronjones, Btillman, Blue eyed writer, Yes0song, Krispos42, Levineps, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Teddings, Mikehelms, Blackhawk charlie2003, Haystacker, Ewulp, Arto B, Az1568, Ggarfield, Mcwatson, Tawkerbot2, Penguincornguy, Xcentaur, Twipie, CmdrObot, Escaper7, Ale jrb, Apfox, Mattbr, Fieldmarshal Miyagi, IceColdKilla, Makeemlighter, Cautaro, Im.a.lumberjack, Jesse Viviano, Pgr94, Orca1 9904, Cahk, A876, Trasel, Erik E., Mortus Est, Flowerpotman, A Softer Answer, Tawkerbot4, Drrobertdecker, Chuto, JCO312, Bugsbunny86, Cancun771, Hippapaflagapapedal, Epbr123, Skyfire.michael, Cosmi, CynicalMe, Commander Zulu, Sukisuki, Legaiaflame, Tapir Terrific, Nslsmith, Universe Man, Cverlo, Cool Blue, VaneWimsey, Philippe, Nick Number, Wikidenizen, Siggis, I already forgot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Vic226, Alphachimpbot, Cynic2, Benmwah, Kagrenak, JAnDbot, Hmaag, Instinct, Andonic, Hut 8.5, Matthew Husdon, Ryan4314, Boris B, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Aberhow, Kuyabribri, Slayerment, WODUP, Avicennasis, Nick Cooper, Thernlund, Heliac, Memotype, Ahmad87, DerHexer, Patstuart, Calltech, IvoShandor, CeeWhy2, S3000, Giblets, Katana314, MartinBot, Fedfan0001, Pupster21, UnfriendlyFire, Tholly, SouthernStang93, Bjørn som tegner, CommonsDelinker, Johnsomb, J.delanoy, Kimse, Goldfishsoldier, Garnett F, Bejammin, Rrostrom, Silverxxx, Jerry, Omfgtehpwnage, Tonyrenploki, New Hampshirite, Davandron, AntiSpamBot, Jo7hs2, Robertgreer, SlightlyMad, Flatscan, Jaimeastorga2000, Red Thrush, Inwind, S, Adam Zivner, Xiahou, Sooner Dave, Lights, Vranak, Atexhoffman, ABF, ShienYang, Mudwater, Blindboy22, Noware7, DOHC Holiday, Nburden, Aicchalmers, TXiKiBoT, Weapons, Eddiehimself, Kritikos99, ElinorD, Tinkerer2, Someguy1221, Liko81, Kempires1111, Sintaku, John michael bibbings, Mzmadmike, Jeremy Bolwell, Quindraco, Mray1, SQL, Grsz11, Lawless101, Thinkcentrenoob, Onceonthisisland, Kyle112, Mroduner, Solicitr, Alucard365, Burgercat, Are2dee2, Ratsbew, SaltyBoatr, BonesBrigade, ToePeu.bot, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Letter 7, Alucard51717, Barliner, Andersmusician, Robbie999, Keilana, Radon210, BirdHunters, ZombieWacker, Faradayplank, Lightmouse, Jarrodhollinger, ZH Evers, Squizzyfish, Anchor Link Bot, Georgette2, Latics, Witchkraut, Maralia, Dabomb87, Jons63, BHenry1969, Hoplon, Ironman1104, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, TableManners, Tos42, Quackiv, Wysprgr2005, Chessy999, Rawness, Uncle Milty, CounterVandalismBot, Epsilon60198, Blanchardb, Daredavil, Malomaboy06, Neverquick, Razvanjr, Boneyard90, Tackdriver, Monkeytree, Excirial, Gbrims, John Nevard, Raptor2k7, Gwguffey, Niteshift36, Jacksly, DeltaQuad, Gcdonaldson, Dmxx99, La Pianista, Fungusdookie, Thingg, Fordag, Versus22, Hahayoya, MrDeodorant, Berean Hunter, SoxBot III, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, Jackhelm93, Thomasplutapl, Hahayoyo, Mifter, Nukes4Tots, Kace7, MatthewVanitas, Birdman1138, Marshdog, Hoplophile, Addbot, American Eagle, Yousou, Wvonkessler, Rj734, MartinezMD, CanadianLinuxUser, Fixit23, Fabi666, The Wings of UK, Patton123, Lightbot, Totorotroll, Gail, Ontask, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Onetwo345, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, NuBz Banyai, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Csigabi, Mogdonazia, Rocketpeacock, Citation bot, Onesius, Quebec99, Sionus, Karagamber, Winged Brick, Boots1120, The Magnificent Clean-keeper, Muscat0, Gigemag76, Tyrol5, FlashHawk4, Ute in DC, Amendola90, DoomScooper, Acranney, Thehelpfulbot, Elcochan, Captain Weirdo the Great, TerraHikaru, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Tobby72, Krj373, DJEFFER, Keserman, Endofskull, Full-date unlinking bot, Miguel Escopeta, FoxBot, Mercy11, Felis domestica, Vrenator, Begoon, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Kory207, Nutarama, Jackehammond, Beyond My Ken, PoorRichard22, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Tnt1984, Fly by Night, Faceless Enemy, Bears9086, K6ka, Terribleidea, Dffgd, AvicAWB, L1A1 FAL, L Kensington, Marrune, MALLUS, ChuispastonBot, JohnLloydScharf, Doctor Ruud, Catlemur, Primergrey, Ose\fio, Helpful Pixie Bot, I donotwork, Regulov, BG19bot, AvocatoBot, Godzilladude123, BattyBot, Historyphysics, Mogism, Kbog, Smohammed2, Gatitbat, Monkbot, Rezin and Anonymous: 589
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
393
• Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder-launched%20Multipurpose% 20Assault%20Weapon?oldid=656315234 Contributors: The Anome, Conti, Katana0182, Riddley, DocWatson42, MathKnight, Bobblewik, Mzajac, Kramer, Grunt, Night Gyr, ZeroOne, Loren36, CanisRufus, Gmarine3000, David kitson, Cmdrjameson, Kjkolb, King nothing, Thatguy96, Joshbaumgartner, Sandstig, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, Dan100, Mahanga, BlaiseFEgan, Kralizec!, GraemeLeggett, Ratamacue, Dpv, YurikBot, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Arima, CLW, Raistlin8r, Hayden120, ThunderBird, SmackBot, Looper5920, EvilCouch, Ominae, Kintetsubuffalo, Htra0497, Uri R, LWF, 667NotB~enwiki, PETN, Patrick Berry, Wafulz, Tufftoon, Cydebot, Rifleman 82, Aldis90, F-451, Flayer, Tins128, Jarl of Torvaldsland, Wonton, CommonsDelinker, Thurinym, Tourbillon, Falcon8765, Bahamut0013, MajorHazard, Why Not A Duck, Basilisk59, Dodger67, JEM153012, EnigmaMcmxc, Scalhotrod, NellieBly, Nukes4Tots, Addbot, Nohomers48, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Ohmygod766, Jackehammond, Acsian88, FastZcar, L1A1 FAL, HupHollandHup, ClueBot NG, Dainomite, BattyBot, America789, Khazar2, Redalert2fan, Shkvoz, DanieB52, Bulldogdaniel24 and Anonymous: 78 • Sniper rifle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sniper%20rifle?oldid=661341202 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Malcolm Farmer, Александър, Julesd, Nikai, JidGom, DJ Clayworth, Cabalamat, David.Monniaux, RadicalBender, Riddley, Aenar, Yuenkitmun, Donreed, Hadal, ElBenevolente, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marc Venot, Christopher Parham, Andries, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Halda, MathKnight, Everyking, Lefty, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Quadell, Antandrus, ALE!, Vina, Klox, Pettifogger, Tin soldier, Grunt, Kate, N328KF, AliveFreeHappy, Brianhe, Hipshot49, TomPreuss, Xezbeth, Fluzwup, WegianWarrior, ZeroOne, El C, Kross, Chairboy, Sietse Snel, Dinu, Tjic, Jonathan Drain, Tronno, Ralphmerridew, MARQUIS111, 3mta3, Jeffc, Sam Korn, Thatguy96, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, Free Bear, Trysha, Arthena, Snowolf, Say1988, Deathphoenix, Lkinkade, Firsfron, D.E. Watters, LOL, Pol098, Dmol, Abel29a, GregorB, Macaddct1984, Holger1076, Zzyzx11, Deansfa, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, Runarb, MicTronic, SNIyer12, DDerby, TheDaveRoss, Ichudov, Antiuser, YurikBot, Borgx, Mushin, Splintercellguy, Sceptre, RussBot, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Bullzeye, NawlinWiki, Ve3, Zwobot, Jennet, Shotgunlee, LaLa, SColombo, Elnuko, FoolsWar, Pickelweasel, Sandstein, Divide, Theda, Closedmouth, Pirate2000, Bumpoh, Tarawneh, Hayden120, RG2, Rikimaru~enwiki, DasBub, Tom Morris, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, Deon Steyn, C.Fred, KocjoBot~enwiki, Fnfd, TOMNORTHWALES, Geoff B, Gilliam, Saros136, Chris the speller, Qwasty, Thumperward, Energysword, Yaf, Squalla, TKD, Britmax, AndySimpson, Brainhell, Coolbho3000, ODChuck, Dreadstar, Bloblaw, Jeremyb, Kukini, SashatoBot, Swatjester, Dr. Sunglasses, Kuru, John, Euchiasmus, Moojoe, Jpogi, LWF, HashiriyaGDB, Csari, Gjp23, Hvn0413, Timmeh, Mr Stephen, Mushmush123, Andrwsc, Sameboat, Tawkerbot2, Kevin Murray, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Ennerk, Shyran, Chazsylvester, Future Perfect at Sunrise, AtTheAbyss, Flowerpotman, Adolphus79, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, A Sniper, Teh tennisman, Commander Zulu, Nonagonal Spider, Deathbunny, Legaiaflame, Vertium, John254, Zak Smith~enwiki, Wikidenizen, I already forgot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Xent28, Lklundin, Marcca, Jspitsen, Andonic, Nemissimo, LittleOldMe, Meeples, Sensi.fr, Orangehead, Apollyon48, Slayerment, Fallenangei, DAGwyn, Spartan078, Thernlund, Animum, Allstarecho, DerHexer, A2-computist, Calltech, Kur0, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, PapalAuthoritah, Trusilver, Diazgranadosj, It Is Me Here, DanMP5, John2510, Iceman1991, Steel1943, Spellcast, Filipo, Scorcher117, VolkovBot, Ph8l, Wg0637, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, EuTuga, Prep111, Technopat, Staples11, Qxz, Liko81, Ng.j, Moogleluvr, Razvan NEAGOE, Madhero88, Dirkbb, Kimber1911, Francis Flinch, Schnellundleicht, Solicitr, Alucard365, Onidemon91, SieBot, Caltas, Wdgiles, Kurokishi, Yintan, Tiptoety, CutOffTies, RyanParis, C'est moi, Anchor Link Bot, WikiLaurent, Kanonkas, BK DC, ClueBot, Kl4m, Drmies, TheOldJacobite, Boing! said Zebedee, Hostile Amish, Niceguyedc, Dylan620, Jersey emt, DarkerthanLarry, Excirial, Jusdafax, PixelBot, Goon Noot, Caddox4, Blemo 23, Razorflame, Ottawa4ever, Berean Hunter, Leo2333, SoxBot III, Reizah, SilvonenBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Willking1979, Wsvlqc, Wolfhowl91, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, LaaknorBot, ChenzwBot, Runeguy13, AtheWeatherman, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Krano, Phantom in ca, Dominicg100, Sugeesh, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Donfbreed, South Bay, Bengal9377, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Aneah, Analphabot, Xqbot, Count Esme Baudelaire, 4twenty42o, Jeffrey Mall, Mark Schierbecker, Kyng, Marmotton, Shadowjams, E0steven, Cekli829, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Blah blan, Michael93555, Ripo20, A little insignificant, HamburgerRadio, Bobmack89x, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, RedBot, Xeworlebi, Lotje, Raidon Kane, Stalwart111, Fireflybob94, EmausBot, Immunize, Az29, Zumwanda, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Jamaicanbobsleigh123, Bucsrwaybetter, Slightsmile, Winner 42, Deoxy99, John Cline, Модернист, Hey apple, Kyle Jewell, Dr Black Knife, Wayne Slam, Flightx52, Noodleki, Donner60, Zabanio, JonRichfield, ClueBot NG, TucsonDavid, Catlemur, Rainiermark, Concord113, O.Koslowski, Widr, Calabe1992, Codman1212, Tox784543zbs, Mysterytrey, Wiki13, Kendall-K1, Glevum, AntanO, Kindz1, Awesomeman1027, MahdiBot, MathKnight-at-TAU, YFdyh-bot, Ducknish, Svenmaestro123, Iivvoo1997, MilitaryJournal, Ntdfa, Standardschecker, Lugia2453, Ornikol, Athomeinkobe, Cadillac000, Svenmaestro, Yomammaissosexy, Fishing247, Captain Conundrum, HIST406-13jlsilver, Delija Do Groba, Pacman359, SirJackLee, Sauer202, Nimrainayat6290, Crystallizedcarbon, Chruinne, The Fat Rat of Chepstow, Hotshot6352, Dumbbasee and Anonymous: 448 • Submachine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submachine%20gun?oldid=661828564 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Taw, Europrobe, Hephaestos, Kchishol1970, Liftarn, Angela, Nikai, Andres, VeryVerily, Riddley, Robbot, Vardion, Chrism, Donreed, Sam Spade, Stewartadcock, Ojigiri~enwiki, Kent Wang, Xanzzibar, Buster2058, Werbwerb, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Tom harrison, Jcttrll, Marcika, Rchandra, Grant65, Bobblewik, Quadell, Vina, AlexanderWinston, Wikster E, Cubelodyte, CesarFelipe, Limpan, Master Of Ninja, AliveFreeHappy, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Frogman~enwiki, ZeroOne, LuciferBlack, Kross, Ypacaraí, Rackham, Tronno, Mtruch, Get It, Anthony Appleyard, Denniss, Wtmitchell, Alai, JALockhart, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, D.E. Watters, Smguy, GregorB, SDC, Plrk, Prashanthns, 790, Wisq, GraemeLeggett, Search4Lancer, Sjö, DarkMaster, Gewhere, PhilBradley, FlaBot, Nemo5576, Chobot, Pathogen1014, Uvaduck, Sus scrofa, Wavelength, Hede2000, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Injinera, Grafen, Sylvain1972, Ve3, Yonwe, Tree climber, Mikemapa, M3taphysical, Bota47, Asams10, Ageekgal, Ash Crow, Mikkow, GMan552, One, SmackBot, TestPilot, Kintetsubuffalo, Winterheart, Chris the speller, GoldDragon, Anthonzi, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Takua108, Yaf, Shuki, OrphanBot, KaiserbBot, Squalla, OOODDD, Jguy101, Wiki Fox, Derek R Bullamore, Atirador, John, Mugsywwiii, LWF, 667NotB~enwiki, Mushmush123, Twalls, 2T, Asatruer, OnBeyondZebrax, Twas Now, RekishiEJ, Randomauthor, 5shot, Gammaflightleader, Heqs, Maximilli, Ddillon, Orca1 9904, Cyhawk, Gogo Dodo, Nabokov, Corporal Punishment, John Lake, Gimmetrow, Aldis90, Swix, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Deathbunny, Nick Number, Bald Chihuahua, Fayenatic london, Kent Witham, Bogger, JAnDbot, Dricherby, MegX, Mikli, Stenroos, VoABot II, Camhusmj38, Slayerment, Thernlund, Loonymonkey, Calltech, MartinBot, WhyTanFox, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Dharion, Icseaturtles, Abloy, G8summit, Cannibalicious!, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, DanMP5, SirBob42, Hunter2506, Idioma-bot, Ariobarzan, Vranak, Msrbl49, Jeff G., JimmyHat, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, KajiTetsushi, Liko81, Vaughn121, Jack Naven Rulez, Miwanya, Egyptian lion, SQL, Falcon8765, Master of the Oríchalcos, Koalorka, Alucard365, Chinese3126, WereSpielChequers, Invmog, BonesBrigade, Spectre9, Dwane E Anderson, Flyer22, Gliu, RickD88, CutOffTies, Freeman501, Greatrobo76, Star-of-David92, Beemer69, Twinsday, ClueBot, Binksternet, Zikky, Dean Wormer, Oracleofdelphi, R000t, Hostile Amish, Auntof6, Melizg, SapientiaSativa, Mythrilfan, Thingg, Apanuggpak, Berean Hunter, Sholokhov, XLinkBot, Skarebo, Quickload, Nukes4Tots, Eleman, Caza16, Addbot, Ossianb, Landon1980, Glane23, Favonian, Tide rolls, Luckyz, Swarm, Kurogen, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dmsjit67, Mr T (Based), The Flying Spaghetti Monster, AnomieBOT, Bpoling, MauritsBot, TinucherianBot II, Winged Brick, 4twenty42o, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Mark Schierbecker, Joan Rocaguinard, Dtfa thedza, Surv1v4l1st, Dnhfjisfhbvibsdjvbi, Calmer Waters, Jiujitsuguy, 343GuiltySpark343, Idahofallsguy, Clickpop, Yadayadayaday, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Qwwman, Minimac, RjwilmsiBot, FetchcommsAWB, NerdyScienceDude,
394
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ScottyBerg, Tommy2010, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Youngreptile, Wayne Slam, L1A1 FAL, Insommia, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Faizanalivarya, Jack Greenmaven, Ose\fio, Helpful Pixie Bot, Roberticus, Northamerica1000, Dangerang, Mark Arsten, Dr. Whooves, Ranggamalvino, Glevum, Asadwahid, Waipaak, JoshuSasori, Aapop, MyFactsAreRight, Mogism, Kbog, 2018bhum, Touranushertz, SAP159, Vintovka Dragunova, Tango303, Icemanwcs, Court Appointed Shrub, Jhnlngly, RAF910, Lyssielooloo, Monkbot, MaximQ421, Rezin, OiBlud, YavinEight, LDNBoi, Bal Mungram, George Jonez 98012 and Anonymous: 268 • Surveillance aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance%20aircraft?oldid=662325636 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Derek Ross, Robert Merkel, Alex.tan, Nknight, Edward, Liftarn, Tannin, Arpingstone, BigFatBuddha, David Newton, Warofdreams, RadicalBender, Chris 73, Pibwl, Naddy, Chris Roy, Sverdrup, Cyrius, DocWatson42, Bobblewik, R. fiend, Rama, Darren Olivier, ZeroOne, Gilgamesh he, Leif, Maurreen, Alphatwo~enwiki, Nick Moss, Echuck215, Denniss, Guthrie, Nuno Tavares, Bonus Onus, Xaliqen, Tabletop, Bluemoose, Isnow, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, Jcmurphy, Coll7, Chobot, Vmenkov, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, DMahalko, Arado, Ksyrie, CambridgeBayWeather, Eurosong, Xiphon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, CSWarren, Frap, SCDBob~enwiki, John, Bwmoll3, -js-, Stephen B Streater, Paul venter, IvanLanin, Skartsis, Trialsanderrors, MarylandArtLover, Harold f, CmdrObot, Charvex, N2e, Jukka K., Necessary Evil, Aodhdubh, SithiR, Nabokov, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, CommonsDelinker, RJASE1, Philip Trueman, Sweetness46, EuTuga, Petebutt, JhsBot, ToePeu.bot, Syngori, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rmckay630, Jusdafax, WikHead, Addbot, Download, Oldmountains, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Sorruno, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Erik9, LittleWink, DexDor, Lzpt, John of Reading, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, AktiNo, Glassfish~enwiki, Jay8g, BattyBot, Khazar2, Mutley1989, Antiochus the Great and Anonymous: 37 • United States Army Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Army?oldid=662987797 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Berek, -- April, XJaM, Rmhermen, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Jinian, Hephaestos, Olivier, Edward, Michael Hardy, GABaker, TimShell, Llywrch, BoNoMoJo (old), Liftarn, CORNELIUSSEON, Lquilter, IZAK, Qaz, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW, Stan Shebs, Jniemenmaa, Angela, Kingturtle, Rlandmann, Kurtbw, Ugen64, Jll, Kwekubo, Jiang, Revprez, Ghewgill, Jengod, PaulinSaudi, David Newton, JeffTL, Clown, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Dougjih, Astrotrain, Maximus Rex, Matithyahu, ZeWrestler, SEWilco, Ark30inf, JonathanDP81, Cjrother, Flockmeal, Dimadick, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Chealer, Modulatum, Postdlf, Stewartadcock, Academic Challenger, Look upon my works, ye Mighty, and despair!, Wally, Danceswithzerglings, Pifactorial, HaeB, Guy Peters, SpellBott, Alan Liefting, Dave6, Ancheta Wis, Tophcito, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, YanA, Pretzelpaws, Mintleaf~enwiki, Tom harrison, Wwoods, Everyking, Aoi, Niteowlneils, Eyball, Ikari, Mboverload, Matt Crypto, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Golbez, Maclyn611, Stevietheman, Gadfium, Ben Arnold, Utcursch, Alexf, Geni, Dvavasour, Quadell, Antandrus, Alaz, Mark5677, Mzajac, Balcer, Husnock, Krupo, Necrothesp, Gscshoyru, Mark Millard, Neutrality, Joyous!, Oknazevad, Dcandeto, Klemen Kocjancic, Adashiel, Mike Rosoft, D6, Steven Andrew Miller, N328KF, Pmadrid, Mongrel 8, Lan56, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Berkut, Fluzwup, Michael Zimmermann, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Mateo SA, Brian0918, Aranel, Cdheald, RJHall, CanisRufus, Mwanner, Kross, Chairboy, Tom, Art LaPella, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Okelle, Kghusker, Adraeus, Kevin Myers, Cavrdg, Microtony, Rmeguy1, Larry V, Awolsoldier, King nothing, Pocket Rockets, Cyrillic, Thatguy96, Autopilots, Jigen III, Alansohn, Mick Knapton, LtNOWIS, Mo0, ExpatEgghead, Joshbaumgartner, Sandstig, Andrew Gray, Lord Pistachio, Thirtyeyes, Goldom, Redfarmer, Malo, Hohum, Yossiea~enwiki, Wtmitchell, Velella, BaronLarf, Fourthords, Docboat, Evil Monkey, Omphaloscope, RJFJR, Amorymeltzer, Carioca, CloudNine, Mikeo, Zxcvbnm, Deathphoenix, Zereshk, HunterAmor, Czolgolz, Ceyockey, Deror avi, Falcorian, Oleg Alexandrov, RPIRED, Yousaf465, Matthew238, Lkinkade, KUsam, Dr Gangrene, Kelly Martin, OwenX, Woohookitty, DowneyOcean, RHaworth, TigerShark, LOL, CyrilleDunant, Bonus Onus, Qaddosh, Rbcwa, Twthmoses, Uris, Isnow, Macaddct1984, RicJac, Hughcharlesparker, Zzyzx11, とある⽩い猫, Prashanthns, MarcoTolo, Smug Irony, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Yuriybrisk, Descendall, Kdar, BD2412, Wachholder0, Kbdank71, MrLeo, Miq, Josh Parris, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Rogerd, War, Srjjones, Vary, Hiberniantears, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Crazynas, ElKevbo, Enoch Lai, SNIyer12, Leithp, Titoxd, Jamesmusik, FlaBot, Pogoman, IchBinRommel, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, Flydpnkrtn, Doc glasgow, Latka, Vclaw, Sanbeg, Nivix, Mark83, Gurch, Thorell, NeoFreak, Wars, DevastatorIIC, G. Moore, ViriiK, Dukiebbtwin, JonathanFreed, Victor12, Moocha, DVdm, Guliolopez, Mmx1, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Chwyatt, Therefore, Gwernol, SOCL, Cornellrockey, BramvR, Subwayguy, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Arado, Supasheep, Pigman, Anders.Warga, Kirill Lokshin, Wbfergus, Gaius Cornelius, Thesmokingmonkey, NawlinWiki, Hawkeye7, Mbr7975, Wiki alf, Grafen, Wrightchr, Rjensen, R'son-W, Ches88, Caladein, PhilipO, PonyToast, Tony1, Zwobot, Scottfisher, Gahread, Gadget850, Asarelah, Mddake, DRosenbach, CLW, Caerwine, Nlu, David Underdown, Wknight94, Ms2ger, TransUtopian, Searchme, Sperril, Capt Jim, Mercury1, Shinhan, Cynicism addict, Zytron, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Closedmouth, Josh3580, Buffalob07, Streltzer, Smurrayinchester, Amren, ArielGold, Easter Monkey, Raveled, Aeosynth, RG2, John Broughton, Auroranorth, Greeky, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Looper5920, Pmppk, KnowledgeOfSelf, VigilancePrime, DMorpheus, Pgk, Ikip, Autobahnsho, Cyane, AnOddName, Bburton, Edgar181, Avatarcourt, HalfShadow, Bryan Nguyen, Tnkr111, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Hmains, Daysleeper47, ERcheck, Tigertrax, Marc Kupper, Scaife, Bluebot, Kurykh, Bidgee, Rex Germanus, AndrewRT, Jprg1966, Delfeye, Rhtcmu, SchfiftyThree, Balin42632003, Ryecatcher773, Sadads, Chainclaw, BohicaTwentyTwo, Baa, CMacMillan, DHN-bot~enwiki, Oatmeal batman, Trekphiler, EagleWSO, Shalom Yechiel, DéRahier, Jwillbur, Zentuk~enwiki, OrphanBot, Onorem, KaiserbBot, Matthew, Mhym, Lyta79, Addshore, Rassilon, Midnightcomm, Crboyer, Rarelibra, YankeeDoodle14, Peidu, Nakon, ShawnLee, Qui9, Treima, RandomP, B Cas, Tomtom9041, Tomcool, DMacks, Ultraexactzz, Scalga, Jeff22003, Ifrit, Cvieg, Ohconfucius, Krashlandon, Swatjester, Doug Bell, Valfontis, Kuru, John, Gobonobo, Jayf0h, Gerbennn, MilborneOne, LordFenix, Slinga, JoshuaZ, Neovu79, Green Giant, Drumzandspace2000, Tinturtle, Nobunaga24, Mofomojo, -js-, Thefranzkafkafront, NovaFan8311, SCOTT FISHER, Godfrey Daniel, Publicus, Rwboa22, Darz Mol~enwiki, PRRfan, Meco, Dhp1080, Ryulong, Tonster, Mfield, Pere Serafi, MrDolomite, TJ Spyke, ScreaminEagle, Djharrity, Kshipps, Levineps, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Lord Anubis, JaMikePA, TwistOfCain, MARK S., NativeForeigner, Dp462090, CapitalR, Aaron DT, Kevinnussbaum, Courcelles, Anger22, Tawkerbot2, Jh12, The Letter J, Stealthcheetah, Emote, Americasroof, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Caf3623, Shiva's Trident, Jlivewell, Iuio, Picaroon, Kylu, OldSoldier, Imaginationac, Requestion, Biblioholic, Cracker017, James5, LCpl, Orca1 9904, Ken Gallager, Wykebjs, Hemlock Martinis, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Clappingsimon, Wikien2009, Bcruss, Red4tribe, Reywas92, LeanneIK, [email protected], Bell'Orso, MC10, DrunkenSmurf, Gogo Dodo, Robohm, BlueAg09, Hebrides, Jon Stockton, Corpx, DumbBOT, JCO312, Aborrows, Kozuch, KnoxSGT, Omicronpersei8, Xprintman, Satori Son, Quartic, JohnInDC, Rougher07, Canute, Thijs!bot, Wandalstouring, Epbr123, Ranger Andy, Signify, FRANKT, Kablammo, 1234567890qwer, N5iln, Hcberkowitz, Mojo Hand, Bolman Deal, Oliver202, Deathbunny, Marek69, John254, SGGH, Carloseduardo~enwiki, JustAGal, E. Ripley, Mbabker, Commander123, Hcobb, Signaleer, Mmulcahy1, Escarbot, Dcfowler1, Mentifisto, Ju66l3r, CubanBaseball, USMA, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, LvlaTr1X, Thunderbird15, Lyricmac, Jty03, Adaywijaya, Jj137, Farosdaughter, DTAD, Togarida41, Wenka~enwiki, Gökhan, Golgofrinchian, MikeLynch, Res2216firestar, DOSGuy, Born2flie, JAnDbot, Tigga, Leuko, Thaimoss, FidelFair, Falcon9857, Barek, Nthep, Hizkiel, Andonic, EvenAMonkeyCouldDoIt, Dricherby, Mikelane84, Desertsky85451, 1mike12, Aeh4543, SiobhanHansa, Magioladitis, Exerda, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, RBBrittain, Appraiser, Jay Gatsby, Acb200, TheLoon, Puddhe, Hokiefan, Buckshot06, Ed!, Jatkins, Twsx, Recurring dreams, Jvhertum, DXRAW, Bleh999, Fallschirmjäger, Atb129, Arthunter, MLeg11, BilCat, Lethaniol, Schumi555, Spellmaster, MCG, ArmadilloFromHell, Vssun, Chris G, Patstuart, Oroso, RichMac, HiB2Bornot2B, Mike f, Milece, Pauly04, MartinBot,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Vodkastan, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, ACM2, Mmainguy, Dubbleup99, Sardines en huile, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Teles, Zorrobot, Innapoy, Quantumobserver, Bisanu, Panzerschreck 2~enwiki, LuK3, Swarm, Lamimanp, Ben Ben, Legobot, Abonazzi, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, 2D, Bunnyhop11, FridayCell7, Ptbotgourou, Dodgerblue777, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Evans1982, Charlie Tango Bravo, Tiger1990, Rafo123, Troymacgill, Jar789, Kaimac77, Ajh16, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, GateKeeper, Jrboi, Thechin7, MOhistory, Wienchs, Simpsonsfan01, Cuttita, Eric-Wester, EHDI5YS, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Frogg2, Danielbaer, Jidandmarysue, 1exec1, Coopkev2, CrucibleXXX, Jsj12, IRP, Galoubet, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Piano non troppo, Valeriekenison, Daredude10, Cyberkid ua, Stavhp, RobertEves92, Armygunz, Joker1189, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Tintero, McSush, OllieFury, E2eamon, Slyvan.rls09, Neurolysis, Rmorecook, SFBubba, Xqbot, Imcomkorea, Vagabondwheeler, Ledsabbath165, Melmann, Capricorn42, Poetaris, Mister Osama Bin Laden, 4twenty42o, Beshai, DSisyphBot, Kaimac72, Anna Frodesiak, Srich32977, Grumpy 01, Hi878, Goarmy57, Permethius, GrouchoBot, A dullard, Riotrocket8676, Ute in DC, Coltsfan, Mark Schierbecker, Skaterof85, Mathonius, Erujiu12, SCΛRECROW, Gsälzbär, LeAviateur537, I.mool.i, Shadowjams, Infanteriesoldat, SchnitzelMannGreek, LyOnS409, Completelyanon, A.amitkumar, Tktru, Xander7498, TerraHikaru, Dtlwarrior, FrescoBot, AtomsOrSystems, Fortdj33, Streak195, Ryryrules100, Tobby72, Wikipe-tan, Www06035, USARMY1997, Jdneverpassesabar, ZStoler, Mistercheezl, Pussystench, Jhoover62, Vishnu2011, Ben76266, Juno, Eagle4000, Dietzak, BenzolBot, Jmrider350, HamburgerRadio, M4arnold, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Madden88, Stikko, Cristhian1301, LittleWink, Sctechlaw, MrSoldierToBe, MJ94, Der ohne Benutzername, Skyerise, JohnakaJohnED, Dyco1526, SpaceFlight89, Fenderbassnguitar, Wikiain, Wikidmage, Cullen328, Chris1294, RandomStringOfCharacters, Editc, Nickasaurr, 172nd, Mt91403, Koakhtzvigad, Arj224, Wikimffi, Kildruf, Ras678, RaptorF22, Yunshui, Flybywire e2c, Corvettecrazy262, Lotje, Grobt7, Vrenator, Lucifer13392, January, Mgmcbride, E.w.bullock, MaxEspinho, Me1775, PleaseStand, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Minimac, Ryan.opel, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, JustinRJoneZ, Pi zza314159, Tmlf, RjwilmsiBot, Alangojak, Javascript21, Shaqpack609, Techhead7890, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, TGCP, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, Coolio1234567, White Knight Chan, WikitanvirBot, Stryn, Ski8000, Babak902003, Gfoley4, CODY0149, Ajraddatz, Alex3yoyo, Rademire, Two bills, Nations United, Ralphtroll, NWGro, Panelvan, Boring39, Lmurphy030, Sp33dyphil, Nineeightsevensixfive, Solarra, Tommy2010, Scgtrp, Schrist4ever, Ryukin182, M16A6, Wikipelli, Illegitimate Barrister, Fæ, Josve05a, Shuipzv3, Anthony.cerella, Doomedtx, Kellybells224, Zach1718, Saad.tahir, ObscureReality, Supertrooper21, BradySU, Ianmcvey, Alpha Quadrant (alt), H3llBot, Zloyvolsheb, Zap Rowsdower, Sponvic, Assassain'screedisawesome, Wayne Slam, MasterArashi, Hopscrotch, Usarmyranger14, RaptureBot, Miccoolestcook, YOVILLE, L1A1 FAL, Seattle, Bullmoosebell, TyA, Coycan, L Kensington, Bambergpao, Slucido, Dysonej, Orange Suede Sofa, Snubcube, ChuispastonBot, Phillipc69, EleoTager, Mano601, Sunshine4921, Afranelli, Ebehn, Cgt, ClueBot NG, TucsonDavid, Cwmhiraeth, CRJ200flyer, Adair2324, Deenyah, Ocalafla, WarCrimes 1971, Cntras, Tpeake1, Learsiqari, O.Koslowski, Widr, Ssgschuler, Adam0905, Gavin.perch, CgShields, Rsehokie, Helpful Pixie Bot, Icearmy2000, Electriccatfish2, Sabre ball, Gob Lofa, Srithikdatta, Infantryman1-6, BG19bot, Jackebower, Ditto51, Krenair, Fredralph, YahwehSaves, McChizzle, Petrarchan47, Ahd1601, Nickthegod, Kndimov, Yosramba, Bacon467, Wiki13, Phd8511, MusikAnimal, Gunnai, Compfreak7, Glenvarfootball, Reefer Dude, Nautilusvideo, JB707, NeptuneSpeared, Notdruids, Glacialfox, Rozy88, Klilidiplomus, Ashtin spencer, Estrada99, Youwillrepent, Blattnera, Wikiedit984, Menhire, Luna Ariya, Killershelf, Agent 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FreakyFred49, Sargeant Stone Cold, Lincbosch, Dixon1123, HellButton, Chingesu, BashFist, Deunanknute, Mstanphi, California Walnut, SyriaWarLato, Monty462, Personthatyouknow, Whatever223, Francis Weinstein and Anonymous: 1906 • United States Marine Corps Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Marine%20Corps?oldid=662183820 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, BenBaker, Rmhermen, SJK, William Avery, Camembert, Jinian, Hephaestos, Nknight, AntonioMartin, Edward, RTC, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, GABaker, Kwertii, Isomorphic, Gabbe, Prefect, Zanimum, IZAK, Delirium, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Rlandmann, Sir Paul, Nikai, Jiang, Cherkash, Lommer,
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CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Cyrenaic, Next Paige, Jengod, Dquiring, KorbenDirewolf, Fuzheado, Haukurth, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Astrotrain, Maximus Rex, Thechoipolloi, Furrykef, Nthomas, Wernher, Topbanana, JonathanDP81, Raul654, Ank329, Olathe, Flockmeal, Carbuncle, Jeffq, Dimadick, Riddley, Catskul, Branddobbe, Gentgeen, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Fifelfoo, Altenmann, Romanm, Naddy, Modulatum, Chris Roy, Postdlf, Dmadeo, Premeditated Chaos, Halibutt, Aggelophoros, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Dina, Sbetten, Wrenhunt, Alexwcovington, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Ydorb, Cormac Canales, TOttenville8, Axeman, Philwelch, MathKnight, Mark.murphy, Peruvianllama, Wwoods, Everyking, Elf-friend, Curps, Michael Devore, Sik0fewl, ElfMage, Adam McMaster, Matthäus Wander, Bobblewik, Golbez, Maclyn611, Stevietheman, Comatose51, Utcursch, SoWhy, Geni, Mike R, CryptoDerk, Gdr, Slowking Man, Antandrus, Phe, MarkSweep, J3ff, MisfitToys, Mark5677, Jossi, Mzajac, Balcer, RetiredUser2, Ellsworth, Husnock, Tin soldier, Turrican, Mozzerati, Rlcantwell, Deleting Unnecessary Words, Monk Bretton, Neutrality, Burschik, Oknazevad, Imjustmatthew, Marine 69-71, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, BeakerK44, Mtnerd, Trevor MacInnis, Ericg, Reflex Reaction, Ouro, Gmcapt, Discospinster, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Dpm64, WGFinley, Vsmith, Tomtom~enwiki, Andrew1718, Kooo, Ericamick, Berkut, Nard the Bard, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Kenb215, Stbalbach, Bender235, Sum0, Mateo SA, Goplat, El C, SpencerWilson, Mdf, Bletch, Mwanner, Kross, PhilHibbs, Tom, Art LaPella, Palm dogg, G worroll, Causa sui, Bobo192, TomStar81, Tronno, Duk, Cmdrjameson, Vortexrealm, Kevin Myers, JeffWhitledge, Maurreen, Nlfung, Hoss789, Mrandquist, Themindset, Larry V, MPerel, Sam Korn, Krellis, Fox1, Kaf, Glaucus, E is for Ian, Orangemarlin, Ommnomnomgulp, Jigen III, Alansohn, Gary, LtNOWIS, Sherurcij, Walter Görlitz, Arthena, AmbassadorShras, Ashley Pomeroy, Eagleamn, Great Scott, Fritzpoll, Sligocki, CJ, Malo, Collie, Hohum, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, TaintedMustard, Fourthords, Cburnett, Garzo, Evil Monkey, Bnguyen, Randy Johnston, Deathphoenix, Computerjoe, BDD, Alai, BryanHolland, Zereshk, Redvers, Tainter, LukeSurl, Johntex, Joekiser, Nilad, Galaxiaad, Kenyon, Tariqabjotu, Matthew238, Elchup4cabra, Genghisjahn, Angr, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Woohookitty, Dangman4ever, GrouchyDan, FeanorStar7, Scriberius, Sbutler, Yansa, PatGallacher, Uhlek, TomTheHand, BillC, Mrbigg9969, Before My Ken, WadeSimMiser, Don-Don, MONGO, Tabletop, Uris, Contele de Grozavesti, Bbatsell, Abel29a, Tsunade, M412k, RicJac, Zzyzx11, 790, Marudubshinki, LeoO3, Smug Irony, Graham87, Robfergusonjr, A Train, Ehayes, BD2412, MC MasterChef, FreplySpang, Ratamacue, RoadDoggFL, Edison, Ae86, Rjwilmsi, Markkawika, Koavf, Rogerd, Erebus555, Dpark, Sekoh, JoshuacUK, JHMM13, Tangotango, Seraphimblade, Kajmal, XLerate, HappyCamper, Ligulem, ElKevbo, Brighterorange, KAM, DuKot, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, FloK, FuelWagon, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Smajie, Rz350, GavinSimmons, Crazycomputers, SouthernNights, Nivix, Bubbleboys, Rune.welsh, NetSerfer, Kepelus, Gurch, Leesamuel, Leslie Mateus, NeoFreak, Riki, Alphachimp, Hobbie, Victor12, Chobot, Jersey Devil, SirGrant, Tarfu92, DVdm, Mhking, Mmx1, Xerex, Cactus.man, SOCL, Cornellrockey, Debivort, The Rambling Man, Cjs56, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, TexasAndroid, NTBot~enwiki, Kafziel, Brandmeister (old), Gridlock Joe, RussBot, Filippof, Arado, Fabartus, Diliff, Walbanger, Acefox, Pigman, Epolk, Anders.Warga, Lissoy, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Bolinstephen, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, ANaughty, Wimt, Flyguy33, NawlinWiki, Mbr7975, Wiki alf, Mipadi, Bachrach44, Spike Wilbury, Deskana, Fabulous Creature, Rjensen, Howcheng, Dvuyxx, Ve3, Cleared as filed, Nick, D. F. Schmidt, Drewp4vp, Derekg18, TDogg310, Alex43223, Occono, MSJapan, Gonzomac, Bota47, Asarelah, CLW, Arch o median, Alpha 4615, Djdaedalus, User27091, Wknight94, PGPirate, Searchme, Pawyilee, Ageekgal, Closedmouth, Tommythegun, ProdigySportsman, Mercenary2k, Streltzer, Alasdair, BME, Cjwright79, Tomdisy, Argo Navis, Kungfuadam, Mickelias811, Rogue 9, PvtDeth, D Monack, WellsLaRivière, Brentt, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, RaiderAspect, Silverspyder247, SmackBot, Looper5920, Narson, Moeron, Ckaiserca, Gelston, Cdogsimmons, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Melchoir, Deon Steyn, Deiaemeth, Davewild, Ultramandk, Zaqarbal, Delldot, Paulmeisel, Gjs238, Danmanmain, Geoff B, Mike McGregor (Can), David Fuchs, Pretendo, Moe Aboulkheir, Gilliam, Algont, Hmains, Skizzik, ERcheck, MaskedSheik, Smileyborg, Scaife, Chris the speller, Somewherepurple, Agateller, Persian Poet Gal, Postoak, Stubblyhead, Rmt2m, Naidim, MidgleyDJ, Droll, Sadads, Zegwin, Chainclaw, MarineCorps, TKE789, Dubeaux, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Dual Freq, Rlevse, Tewfik, Scwlong, Modest Genius, Salmar, OneVeryBadMan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chalko, EagleWSO, PeteShanosky, OrphanBot, Skunker, KaiserbBot, Squalla, ZachPruckowski, OOODDD, Cabanaguy, Azumanga1, RedHillian, Celarnor, DBBell, Jmlk17, Krich, Jumping cheese, Callandor, Cordless Larry, Dreadstar, D. Farr, GaiusTimiusAwesomus, ColonelM, Gump Stump, Wybot, DMacks, Jlujan69, BiggKwell, Mitchumch, Panchitaville, Jonnyapple, Fireswordfight, Samuel Sol, Kukini, Ohconfucius, Esrever, Rory096, Krashlandon, Swatjester, Harryboyles, Frankydp, Good Intentions, Neale, Kuru, Roguegeek, JohnI, Shlomke, Marsonia, Neovu79, Minna Sora no Shita, Joffeloff, Goodnightmush, Tlesher, Ocatecir, Mr. Lefty, Joshua Scott, IronGargoyle, Nobunaga24, KJ129, Stwalkerster, SimonATL, Godfrey Daniel, Eric76, Dagegen99, Darz Mol~enwiki, Moszczynski, Waggers, Buckboard, Geologyguy, Kurtle, A Clown in the Dark, Pseudoanonymous, Lacaid, Caiaffa, Tonster, Darry2385, MrDolomite, Politepunk, L0gic, Hetar, HisSpaceResearch, Iridescent, Xsmith, JoeBot, Skapur, Jmosman, Shoeofdeath, Highspeed, VSTiger, N-edits, Vinegar~enwiki, Dp462090, Hikui87~enwiki, Ealhmund27, CapitalR, DavidOaks, Aaron DT, Hokeman, Courcelles, Shemuel~enwiki, Rhetth, The archbisquick, Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, Generalcp702, Recondaddy, Will Pittenger, JForget, FleetCommand, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Iuio, Kushal one, Basawala, B-f, Dgw, OMGsplosion, Supermike42, LCpl, Smoove Z, Orca1 9904, Fordmadoxfraud, Oden, Roman Motley, Phl3djo, J-boogie, Nilfanion, Hakoniwa, Equendil, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Pergu, Fnlayson, Aodhdubh, Peripitus, Fl, Gogo Dodo, Alexfrance250291, Peptuck, Amandajm, Benvogel, NavalHistory, Tawkerbot4, Christian75, Xusmc7, DumbBOT, Asenine, Tbkflav, Daven200520, Brad101, Marielleh, Pustelnik, Aldis90, Añoranza, Rjm656s, Tboyerwi, Thijs!bot, Krishyaanis, Epbr123, Signify, SkonesMickLoud, DDog 3-4, TonyTheTiger, PSPMARINE, Danlibbo, Mojo Hand, Thecabinet, Deathbunny, Marek69, SGGH, Esemono, Ctu2485, Jack Bethune, Cool Blue, E. Ripley, Kc62301, Hcobb, OrenBochman, Signaleer, WhaleyTim, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, Dcfowler1, RUSMCUSA, AntiVandalBot, Kevphenry, Bunns USMC, Luna Santin, ChaceofSpades, Seaphoto, Socafan, Prolog, Superkunt, Moorematthews, Everef, Jj137, Ealgian, AznAcorn, Darklilac, Tombro77, Tashtastic, Arx Fortis, Kresock, Dmerrill, Robp, Jlmcdonald, Gökhan, Golgofrinchian, Born2flie, JAnDbot, Leuko, Husond, Thaimoss, Ndyguy, Kaobear, Barek, MER-C, Nthep, Lan Di, BenB4, Andonic, Agallais, Swearengen~enwiki, Desertsky85451, Chad Hennings, Kerotan, LittleOldMe, SugarMusk, Mikemill, Marginalia, Connormah, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Pratj, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Mmontes, Antilogy, Puddhe, BroodKiller, Buckshot06, Coffee4binky, Detroit.bus, Brown781, JaceCady, Kevinmon, [email protected], Cyrano 21, KConWiki, BrianGV, Catgut, Twoblocks, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Mike Searson, BilCat, Bobby H. Heffley, Macboots, SlamDiego, Nameless savage, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, Khalid Mahmood, Nova99, Tommo h, Mista'B, Khaosjr, Mike f, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Mmoneypenny, Dr Spam (MD), Axlq, MonkBirdDuke, Anaxial, LurkingInChicago, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Lilac Soul, Cyrus Andiron, Tgeairn, RockMFR, Manticore, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, MARINECORPSLONGACRE, Korealist, Msl5046, Wilsbadkarma, Rmkf1982, Michaelp7, Jasonrashaad, Extransit, -CentraSpike-, Icseaturtles, Drunkenintellectual, Mahumphrey, Tannkremen, Novis-M, Skier Dude, Pyrospirit, (jarbarf), Wildbill6789, Advancewars177, Ndunruh, Bobianite, JPatrickBedell, Wiki-wiki-tiki, BigHairRef, Cometstyles, WJBscribe, Equazcion, Jamesontai, HenryLarsen, Homer Landskirty, Jeffkw, Timvantas, Gtg204y, Num1dgen, Andy Marchbanks, Halmstad, Seanchristman, Idioma-bot, Speciate, Wikieditor06, X!, G2bambino, Shadowblade12088, Ripberger, Vulpesvelox, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, Underwooded, Rickjames13, Mrh30, Jeff G., Seattle Skier, HJ32, Dreddmoto, Jacroe, Magnet For Knowledge, Philip Trueman, PNG crusade bot, Staysecular, Revmqo, GimmeBot, BuickCenturyDriver, Quelinost, LabFox, Bluejena, Vandel~enwiki, PizzaBox, Hqb, Miranda, Wjagoe, Masterkey222, Dictouray, CobraDragoon, Sintaku, Corvus cornix, JhsBot, Pug pug, Jpdsgt1, Jjrules480, SGT141, Jschager, StillTrill, Hodierne, Soldier1177, Thrawn300, Tmaull, Enigmaman, Usergreatpower, Kilmer-san, Brianrusso, FCStaehle, McGrobbles, Drewclott,
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
397
Mthom0352, MasterSports10, Joseph A. Spadaro, Falcon8765, Ko3ak, Bahamut0013, Burntsauce, Fetor41, Eurocopter, Grsz11, Koalorka, Gorsbren, Brianga, J9mm, Nagy, Logan, LuigiManiac, Kobalt64, Solicitr, Eggishorn, Pdfpdf, Dudester411, Vladimir Stalin, SieBot, 3rdMC-Maj.Terror, Whiskey in the Jar, Ipankonin, Zenlax, Calliopejen1, Nubiatech, Tresiden, YonaBot, 4wajzkd02, Tiddly Tom, Okso, LealandA, Bib12342004, The Parsnip!, Backwalker, Sandersonjoe222, MonkeyKing786, LouisC8692, Rrussel, TravLFootball, Jjustin301, The One Drone, Elealmail, 0001jackal, 0001jackal2, Michael Brownz, Ashkani, Shadow master66, Doug4422, KCToker, Keilana, Android Mouse, Tiptoety, Mike0802, Arbor to SJ, Momo san, JetLover, MichelleWinkofer, Claudevsq, Bjomanson, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, Tombomp, KathrynLybarger, Mk32, Dino246, Macy, Kumioko (renamed), FIRST Rocks, Bluespade00, C'est moi, Mattkenn3, Spartan-James, Philly jawn, Innoculations, Swerve1, Hubertfarnsworth, Lowreeder, Latics, JFIITweb, Shovonma17, Hamiltondaniel, Maralia, Tony Webster, Ascidian, StuGrunt, Dabomb87, Msjayhawk, Stevecalloway, Trevindo, Barkjon, Smashville, DevilDog1110, SWJS, YSSYguy, File077, Loren.wilton, Gomericuskahn, Sfan00 IMG, MBK004, Ecjmartin, Profitfan, ClueBot, RobertLunaIII, Creedthoughts, Sennen goroshi, QueenofBattle, Timmy8891, Binksternet, Waukegan, Snigbrook, Hippykid99, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pbc1302, WriterListener, Vacio, FieldMarine, Godspy, Cp111, Frmorrison, TBustah, Nickersonl, Basportsfan, Officer781, Desertfuneral, Delta1989, Tswaters1, K Mauk, Ninjatheory, SgtBitzer, Ktr101, Excirial, Klenod, Edjonesusmc, Jack.Hartford, Nateemery, Mindcry, A. Dupin, Vivio Testarossa, DPCU, NuclearWarfare, Peter.C, JamieS93, Tnxman307, Doseedo, Eastcote, Kage2347, Sallicio, Thehelpfulone, Thingg, Doubledgedsoul, 7, Jbmarines, Floul1, Versus22, Burner0718, MelonBot, Spencer217, LaruaWA11, ברוקולי, LordJesseD, Aj00200, Grande101, Cooplayer51, RekonDog, Jovianeye, Bigshotje, Rror, Botpankonin, Brettstout, Cwilso, DaL33T, Iaminahappymood, Facts707, Jfs322, Dwr12, 2mrchio, Saad31, Noctibus, Eleven even, TravisAF, TomPointTwo, Airplaneman, Shoemaker's Holiday, CLUB RED, Thatguyflint, Mkohtz, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, Red Blaster, Marinecorps99, Schmeckeldorf, Mcfattyfatty, Addbot, TonisMagoo, Redjacket3827, Fuji13, Copol~enwiki, Willking1979, Jojhutton, Scientamata, Byager, Ucla90024, Alexjgunn, AkhtaBot, Datosde, 5mmcanen, Jeanne boleyn, Fieldday-sunday, Emperor1993, Bte99, Shirtwaist, CanadianLinuxUser, Timothy Woy, Richardrybolt, Morning277, Thrill going up, Glane23, Dough81, Ouketi.ego, FCSundae, Favonian, Blaylockjam10, Avenger1602, NavyPublicAffairs, Carprezz, Sally100123, Tassedethe, Aldrich Hanssen, Wwiiguitarhero, Scenario12, Dcas888, Tide rolls, ECLIPSE5441, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, Pietrow, Krano, David0811, Yankeeboy254, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, Kartano, Fraggle81, KendallCC, Rsquire3, Evans1982, Nirvana888, Gumbyrocks, Wrestleforpizza, Jar789, Combatcorrespndent, ArchonMagnus, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, Rtd54118, Professortimithy, Jeremiahmccarver, Citizen-of-wiki, Branded121, Vinniep77, Peasrbest, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Assod101, 1exec1, 9esb, Jsj12, Galoubet, LlywelynII, RandomAct, Flewis, MILESHILLMAN, Citation bot, Jtamad, OllieFury, E2eamon, Wæng, Hooah-hooah, Groverman45, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Floridaspongeman, Gsmgm, Logan nia, Xqbot, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Eddyisrich403, Fullmetalkubrick, Rmm235, Marsb76, Mlpearc, Smashmaniac2008, Srich32977, Pizzamaniac09, Jimman10, KOSOVO2004, GrouchoBot, JanDeFietser, Ute in DC, Digi42792, Brandon5485, Anotherclown, Mark Schierbecker, Tycoon24, SassoBot, Carrite, HoyaProff, MerlLinkBot, Jonorza, Anthony is the best, MarinesRwarriors, Kulkwais, SD5, Solarium2, Tzadkiel43, Tktru, FrescoBot, Thaoth~enwiki, Tobby72, RyanBraun57, Codysomeone, Dirtnap89, Danielson183, Dantepyro, TheVirginiaHistorian, Marines323, Pussystench, Juno, Eagle4000, Lastgladen, BenzolBot, RipperK, Mcfattyfattyfatty, HamburgerRadio, Diremarc, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Cdoger22, Markjambas, RCPayne, Will2057, Pinethicket, Usmcboy1775, Mamasaywhat, Fuzbaby, Dyco1526, Doodoobear1856, Doodoobear1857, Meaghan, Chris1294, RandomStringOfCharacters, Plasticspork, Kibi78704, Nposey, Himynameissudip, Rollersox, TobeBot, VxOsx, NortyNort, Corvettecrazy262, Fox Wilson, UrukHaiLoR, Suomi Finland 2009, Skater70, (usmc)joe-boxer, Aoidh, Reaper Eternal, Rvail136, Weedwhacker128, Mttcmbs, Spihcotatop, Innotata, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Wiggalama, Biomeister, Ulbrichdj, RjwilmsiBot, Yaush, WildBot, Slon02, Bunnyman78, Canada Hky, Inglorious Busters, DASHBot, Bonnee123, Zaqq, EmausBot, John of Reading, Davejohnsan, Nima1024, JohnDWashington, Babak902003, Immunize, Sirdan180, Nations United, GoingBatty, JohnValeron, RenamedUser01302013, Lmiller14, R.T. Rangebum, Sp33dyphil, Ich hieße Nick, Tommy2010, Suarez Mason, Wikipelli, Kmore4567, Traveller52, Zdng4, Adonis702, Foaxtivator, GBU4, ZéroBot, John Cline, HM1FMFRECON, Ida Shaw, Illegitimate Barrister, Fæ, Josve05a, メサミ怒フォス, The Nut, UsmcMARSOC, Aidan1226, H3llBot, Usmc0481, L Kensington, Sailsbystars, Orange Suede Sofa, Usarmyguardsman, DooDooBear69, Rebekah best, Matthewrbowker, Insommia, DooDooBear68, Doodoobear67, Afranelli, CharlieEchoTango, FeatherPluma, Mattlavedit, ClueBot NG, Coderc2845, Michaelmas1957, Alexthesailor, Obamapinoy1982, FOXTROT795, Bulldog73, Loginnigol, Cntras, Egm6341.s11.team2.franklin, Jscardon, Auchansa, Logan412, Tunny7092, Frankcalasogne, 777bmwfan, Radatovich, Helpful Pixie Bot, Fudgenugs, HMSSolent, Gminckley, Calidum, Srithikdatta, Snow4451, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Ditto51, Miraanda.Dawn, Juro2351, Usmc1775, Ugottoknowme2, TheOligator, Planetary Chaos Redux, Dan653, FrostyMojito, Jivan82, Dmanrock29, TSGxTACTIKZ, Rangers 2x4, NeptuneSpeared, Calebusmc, Stearnsk11, Nacirema55, Operationstarlight, Oleg-ch, SgtSquirts, Klilidiplomus, Vandertramp, BattyBot, Xadius86, Us.marrines, America789, SchwarzeWitwe2, Rahsempergumby29, Luketek, 42d Miss Inf, Aliwal2012, Adnan bogi, AntiMonkeyButt, EuroCarGT, Flapollo, Ducknish, Cerabot~enwiki, Steve92341, 58.188user, AJ1776, Vanquisher.UA, Coeus24, Frosty, Sfthenerd, Fox2k11, Kyleleo, KeyboardWarriorOfZion, BTRand1, Ramos37, FiredocUSMC, Btfren3761, Benkickshaas, Howicus, Melonkelon, Jakec, NATAS1995, PuritWiki, Something96, Nik Greenwalt, Vycl1994, Ginsuloft, UnbiasedVictory, Paulor86, Michaelncsued, Fuzzs11, 1980sEnglehart, Stan 1978, PsuNROTC2013, OJOM, Devonta J, Jyjim, Concord hioz, Monkbot, Markhanson147, El Felberino, LawrencePrincipe, Lugnuthemvar, Nkbeeyatch, Dsykut, Cutofmyjib, Marketingbyerick, Mawiggx, Army all the way, Joshualeecampbell304, Swift killer12, Llammakey, Franz Stangl, Connman3, Wiki.Contributor110, Soldier of the Empire, Harmgsn, Irishpiper19, Mp925gg, Deunanknute, Bokrati, 20yardsaway, Parkertheparkster, Fury1998 and Anonymous: 2199 • United States Special Operations Command Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Special%20Operations% 20Command?oldid=656910583 Contributors: Ronabop, Jiang, Jengod, Emperorbma, Zoicon5, Robbot, Romanm, Postdlf, Unyounyo, DocWatson42, Wwoods, Matt Crypto, Joseph Dwayne, Pettifogger, Tin soldier, Neutrality, Oknazevad, G913, D6, N328KF, Noisy, Diagonalfish, Rich Farmbrough, Pmsyyz, Brian0918, Kross, Tronno, Shenme, Giraffedata, Jigen III, Preuninger, Duffman~enwiki, Geo Swan, Ricky81682, Lord Pistachio, Jobe6, Sciurinæ, Crosbiesmith, Scriberius, PoccilScript, Before My Ken, Apokrif, RicJac, Smug Irony, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Vegaswikian, Crazynas, The wub, SchuminWeb, Mark Sublette, Gurch, NeoFreak, Jrtayloriv, Beachman, Simishag, Russavia, Igordebraga, Bgwhite, Albrozdude, Noclador, Wavelength, RussBot, Hyad, Hede2000, Anders.Warga, Jpm2112, Cleared as filed, TDogg310, Tony1, Zwobot, Syrthiss, Dlyons493, PGPirate, TransUtopian, Holderca1, Pawyilee, K.Nevelsteen, Knotnic, Tommythegun, Streltzer, Otto ter Haar, Aerno, SmackBot, EvilCouch, Deon Steyn, Pgk, Hockenbe, KocjoBot~enwiki, Onebravemonkey, Hmains, Skizzik, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jprg1966, MarineCorps, Scienz Guy, Dual Freq, Attention whore, HoodedMan, Parent5446, Starshadow, Batman2005, Ohconfucius, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Swatjester, Nkcs, Neovu79, Jballentine, Nobunaga24, MrDolomite, Djharrity, DouglasCalvert, MARK S., Supersquid, Phoenixrod, Sph147, Tawkerbot2, CalebNoble, Fvasconcellos, Freizen2006, Marinebiopa, Rob1bureau, CmdrObot, Estéban, James5, Kemiriv, Cydebot, RelentlessRecusant, ST47, JCO312, Heavydpj, Crum375, Jmg38, Signaleer, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, L0b0t, HolyT, PhilKnight, Slides, Yorxs, Puddhe, Ling.Nut, Buckshot06, Fallschirmjäger, BilCat, Patstuart, WhyTanFox, CommonsDelinker, Consciousnessbliss, Rovingardener, Punkyhiggs, It Is Me Here, Novis-M, Ndunruh, MatthewBurton, Robertgreer, Olegwiki, KylieTastic, Lauren.kat.johnson, Toddy1, Aesopos, SGT141, StillTrill, Warlord~enwiki, Buffs, Desert thndr01, Lrrr IV, LanceBarber, Enviroboy, Bahamut0013, Codharris, StAnselm, PINTofCARLING, Meltonkt,
398
CHAPTER 47. UTILITY AIRCRAFT
Swliv, Lucasbfrbot, Mywood, Specops1, Brozozo, Claudevsq, Lightmouse, KathrynLybarger, Fratrep, Spartan198, Ulrezaj, Outdawg, Jmattthew, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, FieldMarine, Bayspatriot, Dr. B. R. Lang, Excirial, Iohannes Animosus, RekonDog, Texasroad707, TomPointTwo, MystBot, Lgx8, Addbot, DOI bot, Okhota, Groundsquirrel13, Reedmalloy, Download, Sc250, Mr. Nobody 0625, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Taudelt, AnomieBOT, Cotorrito, Archon 2488, 1exec1, EverettMcGill, LilHelpa, Xqbot, CaliSEAL, Srich32977, Fightin' Phillie, HoyaProff, Mark Renier, Citation bot 1, HRoestBot, Awakko, LittleWink, RedBot, Himynameissudip, Terissn, Il Dorico, Toolsurfer, Espfutbol98, War Machine Alpha, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, General Tbag, Alderete74, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Infinitjest, N512ma, H3llBot, Bullmoosebell, Thewolfchild, Alpha7248, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Regulov, TCN7JM, Momboo, MusikAnimal, Frze, Mark Arsten, IluvatarBot, Dainomite, Glacialfox, F111ECM, Khazar2, No parking here, Pama73, Howtohandlearope, Ramos37, StayBehind, Thesassypenguin, Bfranz82, Minhquangdo, ChickenBar, Monkbot, El Felberino, Lugnuthemvar, Tabit Harik, Kapt.Olive, BEARtruth89, XxxArcanxxX, SyriaWarLato and Anonymous: 206 • Utility aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility%20aircraft?oldid=638999407 Contributors: Rlandmann, Yuriybrisk, Vegaswikian, Ysangkok, Ahunt, Hydrargyrum, YSSYguy, PixelBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, LucienBOT, D'ohBot, DexDor, SojerPL, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
47.3.2
Images
• File:"WE_CLEAR_THE_WAY_-_ENGINEERS”,_1941_-_1945.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/ %22WE_CLEAR_THE_WAY_-_ENGINEERS%22%2C_1941_-_1945.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://research. archives.gov Original artist: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers • File:.303ammunition.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/.303ammunition.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here * 01:43, 5 April 2004 283×118 (51,276 bytes) Original artist: User Moriori on en.wikipedia • File:.45ACP.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/.45ACP.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Derek280 • File:.45_ACP.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/.45_ACP.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Francis Flinch • File:060105-A-3283V-011.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/060105-A-3283V-011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=31136 Original artist: U.S. Army photo by Pfc. Timothy J. Villareal (RELEASED) • File:080216_3-14_graduation.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/080216_3-14_graduation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mnf-iraq.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17105&Itemid=1 Original artist: US Navy Petty Officer 2nd Class Erica R. Gardner • File:1-175_INF_Trains_at_Fort_Dix.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/1-175_INF_Trains_at_Fort_ Dix.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.army.mil Original artist: US Army • File:100329-M-6001S-166.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/100329-M-6001S-166.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USMC website: http://www.marines.mil/unit/24thmeu/_layouts/imagemeta.aspx?image=http://www.marines. mil/unit/24thmeu/PublishingImages/2010/April%202010/100329-M-6001S-166.JPG Original artist: Sgt. Alex C. Sauceda • File:100419M3599F027.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/100419M3599F027.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: DoD website: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#a=search&s=100419-M-3599F-027&chk=6cfe0& guid=e75d160ae67c5877abfde5cb4f44d06a81c1d308 Original artist: GySgt James Frank • File:106mm_land_rover.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/106mm_land_rover.JPG License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Nick Dowling Original artist: User Nick Dowling on en.wikipedia • File:10th_Mountain_Division_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/10th_Mountain_Division_SSI. svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:11th_Armored_Cavalry_Regiment_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/11th_Armored_ Cavalry_Regiment_SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:12,7-мм_станковый_пулемёт_ДШК_образца_1938_года_(3-1).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/1/12/12%2C7-%D0%BC%D0%BC_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B% D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%91%D1%82_%D0%94%D0%A8%D0%9A_%D0%BE%D0%B1% D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%86%D0%B0_1938_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%283-1%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:173Airborne_Brigade_Shoulder_Patch.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/173Airborne_ Brigade_Shoulder_Patch.png License: Public domain Contributors: Army Institue of Heraldry Original artist: ? • File:17_HMR_-_SB_-_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/17_HMR_-_SB_-_3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This foto was taken by me with my camera. Original artist: commons:user:Malis • File:17th_Sergeant_Major_of_the_Marine_Corps_Micheal_P._Barrett.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/65/17th_Sergeant_Major_of_the_Marine_Corps_Micheal_P._Barrett.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/unit/hqmc/smmc/PublishingImages/SMMC_highres.jpg Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:185swc.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/185swc.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Michael E. Cumpston • File:1_CAV_DIV_charge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/1_CAV_DIV_charge.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/soldiersmediacenter/3120568664/ Original artist: United States Army. • File:1_Cav_Shoulder_Insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/1_Cav_Shoulder_Insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from w:Image:1CD SSI.gif Original artist: Ipankonin
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:1st_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/1st_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:1st_US_Armored_Division_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/1st_US_Armored_Division_ SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • 1st_US_Armored_Division_SSI.png Original artist: 1st_US_Armored_Division_SSI.png: Noclador • File:1st_US_Infantry_Division.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/1st_US_Infantry_Division.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:2008_Moscow_May_Parade_Rehearsal_-_BMP-3.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/2008_ Moscow_May_Parade_Rehearsal_-_BMP-3.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Репетиция парада Original artist: Vovan • File:2009_Iraqi_elections.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/2009_Iraqi_elections.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Liftarn using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Kermanshahi (talk). Original uploader was Kermanshahi at en.wikipedia • File:22-45.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/22-45.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:25th_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/25th_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:2_Infantry_Div_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/2_Infantry_Div_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:3-3_India_CO_Desert_Storm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/3-3_India_CO_Desert_Storm. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1st Platoon, India Company, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines on unitpages.military.com; provided by Mark Metler Original artist: Mark Metler, U.S. Marine Corps • File:30CalCompareVelocity.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/30CalCompareVelocity.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by Sreejith K (talk) Original artist: 3006fan at en.wikipedia • File:37mm_bofors_antitank_gun_parola_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/37mm_bofors_ antitank_gun_parola_2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:3_Infantry_Div_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/3_Infantry_Div_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:3dACRSSI.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/3dACRSSI.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:3rd_Battalion_3rd_Marines_dawn_patrol.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/3rd_Battalion_ 3rd_Marines_dawn_patrol.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Sgt. Mark Fayloga Original artist: Sgt. Mark Fayloga • File:3rd_ID_M1A1_Abrams_TC_and_Gunner_2008.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/3rd_ID_ M1A1_Abrams_TC_and_Gunner_2008.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1], taken from en.wikipedia.org Original artist: Specialist Thornberry (U.S. Army), uploaded by Signaleer from en.wikipedia.org • File:3rd_Special_Forces_Group.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/3rd_Special_Forces_Group.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/ Original artist: Department of Defense • File:4,6_x_30.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/4%2C6_x_30.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Francis Flinch • File:4.6x30mm,_5.7x28mm,_.30_M1_Carbine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/4.6x30mm%2C_5. 7x28mm%2C_.30_M1_Carbine.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: from author via. email Original artist: Dean Grua • File:4.73x33_Caseless-crop.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/4.73x33_Caseless-crop.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Drake00 at English Wikipedia • File:40P2.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/40P2.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billyhill • File:45Shortbbl.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/45Shortbbl.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Michael E. Cumpston • File:45_ACP_-_FMJ_-_SB_-_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/45_ACP_-_FMJ_-_SB_-_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This photo was taken by me with my camera. Original artist: Malis • File:45_ACP_-_FMJ_-_SB_-_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/45_ACP_-_FMJ_-_SB_-_3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This photo was taken by me with my camera. Original artist: Malis • File:45caliberACP.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/45caliberACP.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:4_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/4_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Original uploader was HiB2Bornot2B at en.wikipedia • File:4thTankBrigade_-_T-80U_-11.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/4thTankBrigade_-_T-80U_ -11.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://vitalykuzmin.net/?q=node/395 Original artist: Vitaly V. Kuzmin • File:5.56_M855A1_Enhanced_Performance_Round.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/5.56_ M855A1_Enhanced_Performance_Round.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.army.mil ( http://search.ahp.us.army. mil/search/images/ , http://usarmy.vo.llnwd.net/e1/-images/2011/05/08/107872/army.mil-107872-2011-05-06-190552.jpg ) Original artist: Photographer not specified • File:5.56_x_45_mm_NATO.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/5.56_x_45_mm_NATO.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: TKN
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• File:5.56mm-military-rounds.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/5.56mm-military-rounds.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Fig. 2-42 from U.S. Army Field Manual 3-22.9 Chapter 2 Section 11. Archived source link. Original artist: w:User:Maclyn611 • File:5.56x45mm_NATO.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/5.56x45mm_NATO.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: I created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Francis Flinch (talk) • File:50BMG_Rounds.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/50BMG_Rounds.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Aki009 at en.wikipedia • File:50_bmg_12.7x99.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/50_bmg_12.7x99.svg License: CC0 Contributors: • 50 bmg 12.7x99.PNG Original artist: 50 bmg 12.7x99.PNG: B4Ctom1 • File:528sb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/528sb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Heraldry/ArmyDUISSICOA/ArmyHeraldryUnit.aspx?u=4650 Original artist: US Army • File:6.5x55mm_Swedish_surplus_ammunition,_produced_in_1976.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 4/4c/6.5x55mm_Swedish_surplus_ammunition%2C_produced_in_1976.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arielnyc2006 • File:6_Star.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/6_Star.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image Image:6 Star.png Original artist: Ipankonin • File:7,62mm_G3_oder_MG3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/7%2C62mm_G3_oder_MG3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: btr • File:7.62_M118_Cartridge.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/7.62_M118_Cartridge.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/image1.nsf/Lookup/20068914337 Original artist: Lance Cpl. Kamran Sadaghiani • File:7.62_NATO_tracer_rounds,_in_stripper_clip.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/7.62_NATO_ tracer_rounds%2C_in_stripper_clip.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: own work • File:7.62x51_5.56x45.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/7.62x51_5.56x45.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:7040US using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Cannibalicious! at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Materialscientist at en.wikipedia. • File:7.7_mm_Japanese_navy.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/7.7_mm_Japanese_navy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: TM 9-1985-5, Japanese explosive ordnance Original artist: Departments of the Army and the Air force • File:75_Ranger_Regiment_Shoulder_Sleeve_Insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/75_Ranger_ Regiment_Shoulder_Sleeve_Insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:75th_Ranger_Regiment_Bravo_Company_3rd_Batallion_Somalia_1993.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/cb/75th_Ranger_Regiment_Bravo_Company_3rd_Batallion_Somalia_1993.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1]: Original artist: Original uploader was Maio at en.wikipedia • File:82_ABD_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/82_ABD_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:95CivilAffairsBdeSSI.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/95CivilAffairsBdeSSI.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:9_19_parabellum_FMJ.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/9_19_parabellum_FMJ.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from pl.wikipedia; description page is (was) here * 12:40, 19 lut 2005 300×216 (18 664 bajtów) Original artist: User Kamecha on pl.wikipedia • File:9_Div_Tobruk(AWM_020779).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/9_Div_Tobruk%28AWM_ 020779%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the ID Number: 020779 This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Original uploader was Nick Dowling at en.wikipedia • File:9_mm.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/9_mm.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Jpogi at English Wikipedia • File:9_mm_Luger_-_SP_-_SB_-_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/9_mm_Luger_-_SP_-_SB_-_ 1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This photo was taken by me with my camera. Original artist: Malis • File:9mm_blue_simunition_with_modified_m9_pistol.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/9mm_ blue_simunition_with_modified_m9_pistol.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.andersen.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/ photos/080730-F-9899G-019.JPG Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Nichelle Griffiths • File:9mm_pistol_magazine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/9mm_pistol_magazine.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Scoo. • File:9x19mm_Parabellum.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/9x19mm_Parabellum.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Morgan Phoenix • File:AAV-australia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/AAV-australia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defense.gov/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=2498 Original artist: Petty Officer 1st Class Daniel E. Smith, U.S. Navy
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:ADM_William_H._McRaven_2012.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/ADM_William_H. _McRaven_2012.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/ Original artist: United States Navy • File:AH-1Z_lands_on_USS_Makin_Island_LHD-8.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/AH-1Z_ lands_on_USS_Makin_Island_LHD-8.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USMC website: http://www.marines.mil/_layouts/ imagemeta.aspx?image=http://www.marines.mil/unit/11thmeu/PublishingImages/2010/101005-M-2547R-014.jpg Original artist: Cpl. Preston Reed • File:AK-47_type_II_Part_DM-ST-89-01131.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/AK-47_type_II_ Part_DM-ST-89-01131.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:AK-74M_with_GP-25.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/AK-74M_with_GP-25.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AK-74M_with_GP-25.png Original artist: S5switch • File:AMC_shoulder_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/AMC_shoulder_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:AMC_shoulder_insignia.gif Original artist: Traced by Gonzalogprado • File:AQMI_Flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/AQMI_Flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yo • File:AUG_A1_407mm_03.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/AUG_A1_407mm_03.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://www.steyr-mannlicher.com/index.php?id=626 Original artist: steyr-mannlicher.com • File:AUG_A1_508mm_04.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/AUG_A1_508mm_04.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://www.steyr-arms.at/index.php?id=80 Original artist: Steyr Mannlicher • File:Abrams_in_formation.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Abrams_in_formation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Still Asset Details for DNST9207834 Original artist: PHC D. W. HOLMES II, US Navy • File:Abu_Ghraib_39.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Abu_Ghraib_39.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Admiral_Eric_Olson.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Admiral_Eric_Olson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [email protected] Original artist: This photo is an official photo taken by Department of Defense for USSOCOM Public Affairs office for official biographies. • File:Aero-stub_img.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Aero-stub_img.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This is a remake of Aero-stub img.png Original artist: Bobarino • File:Aeroflot_Ilyushin_Il-76TD_at_Zurich_Airport_in_May_1985.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/ 41/Aeroflot_Ilyushin_Il-76TD_at_Zurich_Airport_in_May_1985.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/ photo/Aeroflot/Ilyushin-Il-76/1372676/L/ Original artist: Eduard Marmet • File:Air_India_Airbus_A310-304_VT-EQS.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Air_India_Airbus_ A310-304_VT-EQS.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User: IngerAlHaosului using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Nikkul at en.wikipedia • File:Aircraft.osprey.678pix.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Aircraft.osprey.678pix.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/v-22.html Original artist: Vernon Pugh • File:Alarmposten1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Alarmposten1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daniel Budde • File:AloutteIIBundeswehr.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/AloutteIIBundeswehr.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army Heritage Education Center (USAHEC) photo S.L.A. Marshall B1 no 72 Original artist: Unknown • File:AlphaDASR.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/AlphaDASR.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.socom.mil Original artist: SOCOM correspondent • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Ambox_rewrite.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made in Inkscape Original artist: penubag • File:American_World_War_II_senior_military_officials,_1945.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/ 0d/American_World_War_II_senior_military_officials%2C_1945.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 535983. Original artist: Army; part of the collection of the Office of War Information • File:Ammunition_Belt_5.56_mm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Ammunition_Belt_5.56_mm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Koalorka at en.wikipedia • File:An-124_ready.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/An-124_ready.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dtom • File:An32roh.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/An32roh.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Mo7amedsalim using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Rohan (talk). Original uploader was Toprohan at en.wikipedia • File:Apache-killing-Iraq.avi.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Apache-killing-Iraq.avi.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:ApacheWAH64.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/ApacheWAH64.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Users BobThePirate, Pirate2000 on en.wikipedia • File:Apache_Helicopter_Firing_Rockets_MOD_45154922.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/ Apache_Helicopter_Firing_Rockets_MOD_45154922.jpg License: OGL Contributors: • Photo http://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/fotoweb/fwbin/download.dll/45153802.jpg Original artist: Staff Sergeant Mike Harvey
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• File:Archer_SP_17_pdr_Tank_Destroyer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Archer_SP_17_pdr_ Tank_Destroyer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ariete_tank_of_the_Italian_Army.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Ariete_tank_of_the_ Italian_Army.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/equipaggiamenti/ariete_corre.asp Original artist: italian army • File:Armored_bulldozer_DSC00856.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Armored_bulldozer_ DSC00856.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Armoured_front_loader.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Armoured_front_loader.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shuki • File:Armouredgermanmachinegunnerworldwari.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/ Armouredgermanmachinegunnerworldwari.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photographed by DO'Neil. Original artist: User DO'Neil on en.wikipedia • File:Army-USA-OR-02.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Army-USA-OR-02.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created with Inkscape using graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: w:User:Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-03.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Army-USA-OR-03.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: w:User:Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-04a.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Army-USA-OR-04a.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-04b.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Army-USA-OR-04b.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on graphic from US Army Institute of Heraldry (seal taken from 911 commission seal.svg) Original artist: Darz Mol • File:Army-USA-OR-05.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Army-USA-OR-05.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-06.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Army-USA-OR-06.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: w:User:Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-07.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Army-USA-OR-07.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-08a.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Army-USA-OR-08a.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-08b.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Army-USA-OR-08b.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army-USA-OR-09a.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Army-USA-OR-09a.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on graphic from US Army Institute of Heraldry (seal taken from 911 commission seal.svg) Original artist: Darz Mol • File:Army-USA-OR-09b.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Army-USA-OR-09b.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon high-res graphic found here: http://www.dbmi.columbia.edu/homepages/jil9006/social/westpoint/ thumbnails/Image4004.gif and template based on graphic here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:US_Army_E-9_SMA.svg Reference: http://www.army.mil/symbols/armyranks.html Original artist: Waryklingon • File:Army-USA-OR-09c.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Army-USA-OR-09c.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based upon graphic from Army Institute of Heraldry website as reference for shape and color. Original artist: Braindrain0000 • File:Army.mil-2007-03-21-084518.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/US_Army_soldiers_in_a_ firefight_near_Al_Doura%2C_Baghdad.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Sean A. Foley • File:Army_Heritage_Museum_B.A.R..jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Army_Heritage_Museum_ B.A.R..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.army.mil/-images/2008/03/02/13005/ Original artist: United States Army • File:Army_mil-54118-2009-10-27-091030big.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Army_ mil-54118-2009-10-27-091030big.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.army.mil/-images/2009/10/26/54118/ Original artist: Spc. Joseph A. Wilson • File:Arty08.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Arty08.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Asa'ib_Ahl_al-Haq_flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Asa%27ib_Ahl_al-Haq_flag.svg License: ? Contributors: SVG created by MrPenguin20. Based on flag visible here and here. Original artist: Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq
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• File:At_close_grips2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/At_close_grips2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c04154. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: H. D. Girdwood • File:Aviacionavion.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Aviacionavion.png License: Public domain Contributors: • Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg Original artist: Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg: elfuser • File:Avro_York.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Avro_York.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lyneham.raf.mod.uk/24sqn/html/history/short_history.htm Original artist: ? • File:BMS_005.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/BMS_005.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: ? • File:BRDM-2_(1964)_owned_by_James_Stewart_pic6.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/ BRDM-2_%281964%29_owned_by_James_Stewart_pic6.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AlfvanBeem • File:Baasjan1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Baasjan1.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Katangais • File:Baghdad_-_airport_and_green_zone.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Baghdad_-_airport_ and_green_zone.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Baghdad_Convention_Center_inside.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Baghdad_Convention_ Center_inside.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Iraqi Parlament, Convention Center, Baghdad Original artist: James (Jim) Gordon • File:Baker_rifle_(no_bayonet).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Baker_rifle_%28no_bayonet%29. png License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Derivative work of Baker Rifle; originally posted to Flickr Original artist: Antique Military Rifles • File:Barack_Obama_shooting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Barack_Obama_shooting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: White House (P080412PS-0464) Original artist: Pete Souza • File:Barry_Goldwater.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Barry_Goldwater.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:1-4-2007-16.jpg Original artist: User:Beachanchor, cropped and retouched by Kjetil_r • File:Bataille_Yorktown.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Bataille_Yorktown.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Chief of Military Historians office, hosted at http://xenophongroup.com/mcjoynt/IMAGES.HTM Original artist: H. Charles McBarron • File:Battle_of_Changsha.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Battle_of_Changsha.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the ID Number: 011469 This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Australian War Memorial • File:Battle_of_Nassau.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Battle_of_Nassau.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Naval History and Heritage Command: Photo #: NH 79419-KN (color) Original artist: V. Zveg for the Navy Art Collection • File:Battle_of_New_Orleans.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Battle_of_New_Orleans.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress - at http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3f03796 Original artist: Edward Percy Moran • File:Battle_of_mogadishu_map_of_city.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Battle_of_mogadishu_ map_of_city.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.army.mil/cmh/brochures/Somalia/Somalia.htm#p9 Original artist: http://www.army.mil/cmh/ • File:Beanbag_shotgun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Beanbag_shotgun.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/2010observers/4354268939/in/photostream/ Original artist: 2010 Legal Observers • File:Beirut_Memorial_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Beirut_Memorial_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lejeune.usmc.mil/visitors/beirut_memorial Original artist: U.S.Marine Corps: internet site for Marine Corps Base Camp LeJeune • File:Bell_209.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Bell_209.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from it.wikipedia to Commons. Transfer was stated to be made by User:Peter Benjamin. Original artist: ? • File:Belts_of_7.62_mm_ammunition_are_prepared_for_distribution_to_international_competitors_before_an_international_ machine_gun_shooting_match_at_the_2012_Australian_Army_Skill_at_Arms_Meeting_(AASAM)_in_Puckapunyal_ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Belts_of_7.62_mm_ammunition_are_ 120509-F-MQ656-036.jpg Source: prepared_for_distribution_to_international_competitors_before_an_international_machine_gun_shooting_match_at_the_2012_ Australian_Army_Skill_at_Arms_Meeting_%28AASAM%29_in_Puckapunyal_120509-F-MQ656-036.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imageRetrieve.action?guid=db1c03c0e703b50b9927255b079ffa1b9e45bcbd&t=2 Original artist: TSgt Michael Holzworth • File:Beluga_n3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Beluga_n3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Duch.seb • File:Benchrest_mauser_rifle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Benchrest_mauser_rifle.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PretoriaTravel • File:Beretta_38.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Beretta_38.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:DL24. Original artist: Gerd 72 (talk). Original uploader was Gerd 72 at en.wikipedia
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• File:Beretta_mod12s_scheda.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Beretta_mod12s_scheda.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: http://www.esercito.difesa.it/root/equipaggiamenti/armi_legg.asp#individuali Original artist: italian army • File:Bergepanzer_Bueffel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Bergepanzer_Bueffel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sonaz • File:Bergmann_MP18.1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Bergmann_MP18.1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Edmond HUET Original artist: Quickload at English Wikipedia • File:Bits_&_Pieces_-_BP374_-_Test_flight_of_Pescara'{}s_helicopter_-_1922_-_EYE_FLM7760_-_OB105716.ogv Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Bits_%26_Pieces_-_BP374_-_Test_flight_of_Pescara%27s_helicopter_-_1922_ -_EYE_FLM7760_-_OB105716.ogv License: Public domain Contributors: EYE Film Institute Netherlands 
Original artist: unknown • File:Blaser-R8-Profesional.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Blaser-R8-Profesional.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arz • File:Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bluetank.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: LA2 • File:Boeing_747-400(LCF)_Dreamlifter.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Boeing_747-400% 28LCF%29_Dreamlifter.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Boeing Dreamlifter Original artist: Cory Barnes from Vancouver, WA, United States • File:Bremer_signing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/02/Bremer_signing.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bren1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Bren1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number NA and under the MIKAN ID number 3195829 Original artist: National Film Board of Canada • File:Bristol_Freighter,_Liverpool_1961.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Bristol_Freighter%2C_ Liverpool_1961.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: [[1] Flickr] Original artist: [[2] PhillipC, Felicity and Philip] • File:British_Mark_IX_Armoured_Personnel_Carrier.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/British_ Mark_IX_Armoured_Personnel_Carrier.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Browning_Auto-5_20g_Mag.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Browning_Auto-5_20g_Mag.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arthurrh • File:Browning_HP_(Finnish)_with_stock.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Browning_HP_ %28Finnish%29_with_stock.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.adamsguns.com/ Original artist: www.adamsguns.com • File:Buffalo_joins_full.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Buffalo_joins_full.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: wiki en Original artist: US Gov • File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P050127,_Manöver_der_Reichswehr_in_Königshofen-Franken.jpg Source: http: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P050127%2C_Man%C3%B6ver_der_Reichswehr_ in_K%C3%B6nigshofen-Franken.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-719-0240-26,_Pas_de_Calais,_Atlantikwall,_Panzersperren.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-719-0240-26%2C_Pas_de_Calais%2C_Atlantikwall%2C_Panzersperren.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Jesse • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28150,_Deutsche_Soldaten_mit_Panzerfäusten.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/3f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28150%2C_Deutsche_Soldaten_mit_Panzerf%C3%A4usten.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bush_and_al-Maliki.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Bush_and_al-Maliki.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenselink.mil/home/images/photos/2006-06/index/Hi-Res/060613c1-bush.jpg Original artist: U.S. Government • File:Bush_auth_jbc.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Bush_auth_jbc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bush_surge_announcement_jan_2007.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Bush_surge_ announcement_jan_2007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: whitehouse.gov, President's Address to the Nation Original artist: White House photo by Eric Draper
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• File:C-17_Medevac_mission,_Balad_AB,_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/C-17_Medevac_ mission%2C_Balad_AB%2C_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: immediate image source: C-17 Medevac mission, Balad AB, Iraq Original artist: U.S. Air Force Photo/Master Sgt. Scott Reed (see 'extended details' from metadata) • File:C-5_CH-46.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/C-5_CH-46.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USMC website Original artist: Gunnery Sgt. Shannon Arledge • File:C17.globemaster.arp.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/C17.globemaster.arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:C5_galaxy.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/C5_galaxy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.afmc.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/051003-F-4466M-002.jpg Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo by Tech. Sgt. Charlie Miller • File:CH-47_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/CH-47_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/Jul1998/980726-A-0089G-001.html Original artist: DoD photo by Spc. Russell J. Good • File:CSA-2006-01-12-095303_M249SAW.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/ CSA-2006-01-12-095303_M249SAW.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://web.archive.org/web/http://www4.army. mil/armyimages/armyimage.php?photo=9012 Original artist: Lance Cpl. Shane S. Keller • File:CSA-2006-02-24-095553.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/CSA-2006-02-24-095553.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Calgary_Highlanders_Exercise_Black_Bear_2004.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Calgary_ Highlanders_Exercise_Black_Bear_2004.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Calico_M960_SMG.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Calico_M960_SMG.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 Contributors: Image cropped from Image:Firearms (joelogon) .jpg Original artist: joelogon / Joe Loong, cropped by user:Atirador. • File:Campbell_Thompson.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Campbell_Thompson.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hmaag • File:Canadian_soldiers_afghanistan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Canadian_soldiers_ afghanistan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defendamerica.mil/images/photos/jul2002/pi071902a1.jpg Original artist: Staff Sgt. Robert Hyatt • File:Captain_Insignia_USMC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Captain_Insignia_USMC.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: SGT141. Original uploader was SGT141 at en.wikipedia • File:Car_bomb_in_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Car_bomb_in_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DOD Defense Visual Information Center Original artist: SPC Ronald Shaw Jr., U.S. Army • File:Car_bomb_victim_in_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Car_bomb_victim_in_Iraq.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: James Gordon from Los Angeles, California, USA • File:Carbine_mod_1793-IMG_4737-white.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Carbine_mod_ 1793-IMG_4737-white.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ludo29 & Rama • File:Cargolux_B747-400F.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Cargolux_B747-400F.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tak • File:Carl_W_Stiner.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Carl_W_Stiner.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: From [1] Original artist: Original uploader was Smoth 007 at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Nobunaga24 at en.wikipedia. • File:Caroline-chargeur-plein-p1000499b.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/ Caroline-chargeur-plein-p1000499b.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:Cartouches-Fass90-p1000785.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Cartouches-Fass90-p1000785. jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:Cartridge_Sample_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Cartridge_Sample_2.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arthurrh • File:Cartridge_detail_9mm_fx_red_marking_dodic_aa12.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/ Cartridge_detail_9mm_fx_red_marking_dodic_aa12.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.scguard.com/safety/guides/ DODIC%20AA12,%20AA21.doc Original artist: The South Carolina Military Department Office Of The Adjutant General • File:Cartridges_comparison.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Cartridges_comparison.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Fourdee at English Wikipedia • File:Centurion-ARV-MkII-latrun-2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/ Centurion-ARV-MkII-latrun-2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Centurion_cfb_borden_1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Centurion_cfb_borden_1.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Challenger_1_suspension.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Challenger_1_suspension.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/simononly/3666486452/ Original artist: Simononly • File:Challenger_II.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Challenger_II.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Andrew Skudder • File:Changhe_Z-10.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Changhe_Z-10.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.jetphotos.net/viewphoto.php?id=7480832&nseq=1 Original artist: Shimin Gu • File:Charron_Girardot_Voigt_1902.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Charron_Girardot_Voigt_ 1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Alain Gougaud, L'Aube de la Gloire, p.10 Original artist: Anonymous
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• File:Chassepot-p1000739.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Chassepot-p1000739.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:Chassepot_paper_cartridge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Chassepot_paper_cartridge.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Cropping of Image:Chassepot-p1000739.jpg Original artist: Rama • File:Chippewa.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Chippewa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Center of Military History Original artist: H. Charles McBarron • File:Chirac_Bush_Blair_Berlusconi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Chirac_Bush_Blair_ Berlusconi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Chosin_Range.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Chosin_Range.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Department of Defense; Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:KTo288. Original artist: Photo by Gerry J. Gilmore; Original uploader was Palm dogg at en.wikipedia • File:Cid_patch_color.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e0/Cid_patch_color.jpg License: PD Contributors: US Army Original artist: US Army • File:Clip_M1-SKS.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Clip_M1-SKS.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amenhtp • File:Clip_Mauser_Gewehr_88.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Clip_Mauser_Gewehr_88.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: RidgebackAttack • File:Coat_of_arms_(emblem)_of_Iraq_1991-2004.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Coat_of_ arms_%28emblem%29_of_Iraq_1991-2004.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: R-41. Original by User:Tonyjeff, based on national symbol, with the help of User:Omar86, User:Kafka1 and User:AnonMoos. • File:Cobra_and_Kiowa_DF-ST-86-10445.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Cobra_and_Kiowa_ DF-ST-86-10445.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Cody_Firearms_Museum.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Cody_Firearms_Museum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nickeyrc • File:Colt_SAA_Ladeklappe.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Colt_SAA_Ladeklappe.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hmaag • File:Colt_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/da/Colt_logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Combat_engineers_inspect_a_bridge_on_Route_Arnhem_in_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/81/Combat_engineers_inspect_a_bridge_on_Route_Arnhem_in_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defense.gov/DODCMSShare/NewsStoryPhoto/2009-09/hrs_207026.jpg Original artist: U.S. Army photo by Pfc. J. Princeville Lawrence • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Confederateshotgun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Confederateshotgun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Primalchaos at English Wikipedia • File:Congbench.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/92/Congbench.PNG License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Conqueror_ARV2_(FV222)_Tank.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Conqueror_ARV2_ %28FV222%29_Tank.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:DA_Pam_10-1_Figure_1-1.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/DA_Pam_10-1_Figure_1-1.png License: Public domain Contributors: DA Pam 10-1 Organization of the united States Army Original artist: US Army • File:DIRECTM16.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/DIRECTM16.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Edmond HUET (talk) Original uploader was Quickload at en.wikipedia • File:DRASH_Maintenance_Facility_in_Iraq.jpg Source: Facility_in_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a3/DRASH_Maintenance_
DHS Technologies Original artist: James Kozack • File:DakToVietnam1966.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/DakToVietnam1966.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: US Army Signal Corps • File:DanishResistanceAC2795.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/DanishResistanceAC2795.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Leonard G. • File:Decontaminant_of_a_T-64_MBT.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Decontaminant_of_a_ T-64_MBT.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenseimagery.mil; VIRIN: DD-ST87-08708 Original artist: Unknown
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• File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_041021-M-8096K-036.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Defense. gov_News_Photo_041021-M-8096K-036.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Marine Corps with the ID 041021-M-8096K-036 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Lance Cpl. Daniel J. Klein, U.S. Marine Corps • File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_051107-M-5865P-021.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Defense. gov_News_Photo_051107-M-5865P-021.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Marine Corps with the ID 051107-M-5865P-021 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Cpl. Andrew D. Pendracki, U.S. Marine Corps • File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_061220-M-9019H-060.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Defense. gov_News_Photo_061220-M-9019H-060.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Marine Corps with the ID 061220-M-9019H-060 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Cpl. Brian M. Henner, U.S. Marine Corps • File:Delvigne_system.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Delvigne_system.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gibbon The Artillerists' Manual 1860 [1] Original artist: Gibbon • File:Denel_Rooivalk_flying_2006.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Denel_Rooivalk_flying_2006. jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Rooivalk Attack Helicopter Original artist: Danie van der Merwe • File:Dingo_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Dingo_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: *Jonas* at nl.wikipedia, WVO • File:Double_drum_magazine_filled.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Double_drum_magazine_ filled.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin Meise • File:Double_row_box_magazine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Double_row_box_magazine.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin Meise • File:Drehling_GNM_W1984_ca_1580.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Drehling_GNM_W1984_ ca_1580.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Germanisches Nationalmuseum Original artist: Photographed by User:Bullenwächter • File:E-4_advanced_airborne_command_post_EMP_sim.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/E-4_ advanced_airborne_command_post_EMP_sim.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ID:DF-SC-82-04165 / National Archive# NN33300514 2005-06-30 Original artist: Camera Operator: SGT. ERNIE STONE • File:ERC90_IMARA_17may07.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/ERC90_IMARA_17may07.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Base Naval Puerto Belgrano Original artist: Martín Otero • File:Early_flight_02562u_(9).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Early_flight_02562u_%289%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Eighth_Army_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Eighth_Army_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Eighth Army.png Original artist: Fred the Oyster • File:Eland_90_(9688620042).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Eland_90_%289688620042%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Eland 90 Original artist: Bob Adams from George, South Africa • File:Elandy.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Elandy.png License: CC BY 2.5 za Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Katangais • File:Emblem_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/ 19/Emblem_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defense.gov/ multimedia/web_graphics/ Original artist: U.S. Dept. of Defense • File:En-wikivoice-okso-20070417.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/En-wikivoice-okso-20070417. ogg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
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• Derivative of Wikipedia:Today'{}s featured article/April 17, 2007 Original artist: Speaker: okso Authors of the article • File:Engineering_Technologies_-_2012_(1-37).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Engineering_ Technologies_-_2012_%281-37%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://vitalykuzmin.net/?q=node/456 Original artist: Vitaly V. Kuzmin • File:Eurocopter_EC-665_Tiger_UHT,_Germany_-_Army_AN1547187.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/3a/Eurocopter_EC-665_Tiger_UHT%2C_Germany_-_Army_AN1547187.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: • Gallery page http://www.airliners.net/photo/Germany---Army/Eurocopter-EC-665-Tiger/1547187/L Original artist: Alan Lebeda • File:Eurocopter_LE_TIGRE_-_Flickr_-_besopha.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Eurocopter_ LE_TIGRE_-_Flickr_-_besopha.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Eurocopter LE TIGRE Original artist: besopha • File:Evers_M4_SMG_mag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Evers_M4_SMG_mag.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: self made (inkscape) Original artist: Evers • File:Excavators_in_a_C5.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Excavators_in_a_C5.jpg License: PD Contributors: http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/080929-F-6448T-193.jpg - description fetched from http://www.af.mil/photos/index. asp?page=12 which is a dynamic URL which will change in the coming few days. Original artist: U.S. Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Timothy Taylor • File:Exercise_Desert_Rock_I_(Buster-Jangle_Dog)_003.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/ Exercise_Desert_Rock_I_%28Buster-Jangle_Dog%29_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://bill.ballpaul.net/iaph/main. php?g2_itemId=1309 Original artist: Cpl. McCauhey • File:FAL_IMG_1528.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/FAL_IMG_1528.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:FAMAS_dsc06877.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/FAMAS_dsc06877.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 2005 David Monniaux • File:FLMM_-_M60.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/FLMM_-_M60.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photo by Joe Mabel Original artist: Joe Mabel • File:FN-P90.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/FN-P90.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Interchange88 • File:FN-P90_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/FN-P90_2.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: The RedBurn • File:FNP90MAG01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/FNP90MAG01.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ROG5728 • File:FNP90MAG02.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/FNP90MAG02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ROG5728 • File:FORECON_CQB_trng_-001-.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/FORECON_CQB_trng_-001-. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Official United States Marine Corps website Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:FORECON_VBSS_training.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/FORECON_VBSS_training.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Official United States Marine Corps website Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:Familiarization_with_a_RPK_during_Exercise_Rescue_Eagle_2000.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/cb/Familiarization_with_a_RPK_during_Exercise_Rescue_Eagle_2000.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: defenselink.mil Original artist: Tech. Sgt. David W. Richards, U. S. Air Force • File:Fedayeen_Saddam_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Fedayeen_Saddam_SSI.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work. Based on patch visible in Iraqi Perspectives Project: A View of Operation Iraqi Freedom from Saddam's Senior Leadership, page 170. Original artist: MrPenguin20 • File:Felin_501556_fh000001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Felin_501556_fh000001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Festungsmuseum_Reuenthal_Sonderausstellung_Zuleger_britische_Patronen.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/2/20/Festungsmuseum_Reuenthal_Sonderausstellung_Zuleger_britische_Patronen.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Figugegl • File:Fiocchi_rubber_buckshot.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Fiocchi_rubber_buckshot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Amendola90. Original artist: Original uploader was Fluzwup at en.wikipedia • File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original artist: SKopp and others
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_ Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic • File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The flag of Bulgaria. The colors are specified at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&n= 000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code according Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi• File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden • File:Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP to match the image at [1]. • File:Flag_of_FR_Yugoslavia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_FR_Yugoslavia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Milan B. at English Wikipedia • File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) • File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others • File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/ lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Office of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist: Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie • File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1991-2004).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991-2004%29. svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. • File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi-
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• File:Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: 
iThe source code of the previous SVG was invalid due to 12 errors. • File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by SKopp Original artist: Latvija • File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi. • File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp • File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public domain Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others • File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian flag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS 6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1] Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Multi-National_Force_–_Iraq.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Flag_of_ Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq.png License: Public domain Contributors: https://www.flagspot.net/ Original artist: USAIOH • File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass and many others
• File:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: 
USF-I Logo.png. • File:Flag_of_al-Qaeda_in_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_al-Qaeda_in_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Originally uploaded by User:Lexicon as Image:Flag of al-Qaeda.svg. Original artist: Emerson Begolly • File:Flag_of_the_Ba'ath_Party.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • -xfi-'s file • -xfi-'s code • Zirland's codes of colors Original artist: (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. • File:Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_ Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden • File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_ People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/ design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist: User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_ China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://pravo.levonevsky.org/ Original artist: СССР • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_the_United_ States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/ Original artist: United States Army
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• File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Flag_of_the_ United_States_Marine_Corps.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Marine_corps_flag.gif Original artist: Marine_corps_flag.gif: Himasaram • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps_(1914-1939).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/ Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps_%281914-1939%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://blog.patriotsurplus.com/ Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:Flags,_USMC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Flags%2C_USMC.png License: Public domain Contributors: [1], This file was derived from: Flags USMC.gif Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Iraqi_Police_Build_Relationships_in_Basra.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/4d/Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Iraqi_Police_Build_Relationships_in_Basra.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Iraqi Police Build Relationships in Basra Original artist: DVIDSHUB • File:Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Operation_in_Nahr-e_Saraj_(Image_5_of_7).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/e4/Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Operation_in_Nahr-e_Saraj_%28Image_5_of_7%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Operation in Nahr-e Saraj [Image 5 of 7] Original artist: DVIDSHUB • File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_188th_Brigade_Training_Day,_March_2008-cropped.jpg Source: http://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_188th_Brigade_Training_Day%2C_March_2008-cropped. jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: • Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_188th_Brigade_Training_Day,_March_2008.jpg Original artist: _188th_Brigade_Training_Day,_March_2008.jpg: Israel Defense Forces from Israel
Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-
• File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Lightweight_.50-Caliber_Machine_Gun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/7d/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Lightweight_.50-Caliber_Machine_Gun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lightweight .50-Caliber Machine Gun Original artist: The U.S. Army • File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Marksmanship_training_(1).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/ Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Marksmanship_training_%281%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marksmanship training Original artist: The U.S. Army Sgt. Michael J. MacLeod • File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Mountain_patrol.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Flickr_-_ The_U.S._Army_-_Mountain_patrol.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mountain patrol Original artist: The U.S. Army • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fordson_Armoured_Car_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Fordson_Armoured_Car_Iraq. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Imperial War Museum Collections Collection No.: 4700-20; Reference Number: CM 923 Original artist: Royal Air Force official photographer • File:French_Infantry_Machine_Guns.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/French_Infantry_Machine_ Guns.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2006685925/ Original artist: George & Kleine. • File:French_army_EFA_DSC00859.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/French_army_EFA_ DSC00859.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:French_medical_VAB_dsc06842.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/French_medical_VAB_ dsc06842.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Monniaux • File:Full_cock3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Full_cock3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Mike Cumpston. Original uploader was Mcumpston at en.wikipedia • File:Fusil_Gras_M80_1874_metallic_cartridge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Fusil_Gras_M80_ 1874_metallic_cartridge.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PHGCOM, photographed at the Musee de l'Armee • File:Fusil_Gras_M80_Mle_1874_with_10_cartridge_magazine_1883.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 3/37/Fusil_Gras_M80_Mle_1874_with_10_cartridge_magazine_1883.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PHGCOM, photographed at the Musee de l'Armee • File:G22_ohne_Schalldaempfer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/G22_ohne_Schalldaempfer.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: „own work“Original artist: Sonaz • File:GCV_Infantry_Fighting_Vehicle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/GCV_Infantry_Fighting_ Vehicle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bctmod.army.mil/GCV_focus/images/gcv.jpg Original artist: U.S. Army • File:GEN_Bryan_Brown_official_portrait.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/GEN_Bryan_Brown_ official_portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USSOCOM History, 1987-2007 Original artist: Unknown • File:GEN_James_Lindsay_1986.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/GEN_James_Lindsay_1986.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Defense Visual Information Center official site Original artist: Russell Roederer • File:GP90.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/GP90.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: w:de: Bild:GP90.jpg Original artist: Clément Dominik • File:GP_90_Lum.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/GP_90_Lum.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bouterolle • File:GP_K100_target.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/GP_K100_target.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: Grand Power Slovakia, official site Original artist: Grand Power Ltd., Slovakia • File:GROM_DN-SD-04-01612.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/GROM_DN-SD-04-01612. JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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• File:GTK_Boxer_side.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/GTK_Boxer_side.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Heldt • File:Garandcar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Garandcar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from pt.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Econt. Original artist: Original uploader was Fab-pe at pt.wikipedia • File:Gate_closing_Iraq-Kuwait_border.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Gate_closing_ Iraq-Kuwait_border.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Army with the ID hires_111218-A-5968J-023ab (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Corporal Jordan Johnson, United States Army • File:Gau_17_7.62mm_minigun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gau_17_7.62mm_minigun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://t2navy.m7z.net/view_single.asp?id=12757 Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Jeffrey Lehrberg. • File:General_David_Petraeus_in_testimony_before_Congress.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/ General_David_Petraeus_in_testimony_before_Congress.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:BanyanTree using CommonsHelper. Original artist: U.S. State Department photograph. Original uploader was Dream Academy at en.wikipedia • File:General_Joseph_F._Dunford,_Jr._(CMC).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/General_Joseph_ F._Dunford%2C_Jr._%28CMC%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/61/site%20images/ 141017-M-ZZZ99-001.jpg http://www.hqmc.marines.mil/cmc/Biography.aspx Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:Girdled_bullet_and_twin_rifle_groove.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Girdled_bullet_and_ twin_rifle_groove.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Artillerist's Manual By John Gibbon p.125 [1] Original artist: John Gibbon • File:Globeanchor.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Globeanchor.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:USMC_logo.svg Original artist: Gringer (talk) • File:Glock17.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Glock17.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ken Lunde, http://lundestudio.com • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/ Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart. svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides • File:Greek_soldiers_of_Greco–Persian_Wars.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Greek_soldiers_ of_Greco%E2%80%93Persian_Wars.png License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from book Всемирная история (в четырёх томах) Древний мир. Сочинение профессора Оскара Егера(† 1910). Издательство «Специальная литература» Санкт-Петербург 1997 isbn 5-87685-085-3 (т. 1) тираж 10000. 824 стр. Reprint of 1904 year edition by А. Ф. Маркс († 1904). Original artist: scan by ru:user:Кучумов Андрей • File:Gurkha_IOC_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Gurkha_IOC_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:H&K_MP7.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/H%26K_MP7.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:BundeswehrMP7.JPG Original artist: KrisfromGermany • File:HAL_LCH.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/HAL_LCH.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anand t83 • File:HE2G8.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/HE2G8.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G8.htm Original artist: Unknown • File:Handguncalibercomparison.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Handguncalibercomparison.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Taken by Owner Original artist: Chickenwing • File:Harbin_Z-19.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Harbin_Z-19.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/China---Army/Harbin-Z-19/2319623/L/ Original artist: YU Ming • File:Headquarters_US_Army_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/43/Headquarters_US_Army_SSI.png License: PD Contributors: The Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/Heraldry.aspx?HeraldryId=5226&CategoryId=2986&grp=2& menu=Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:Heli_Air_Robinson_R44_Raven_II_arrives_RIAT_Fairford_10thJuly2014_arp.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Heli_Air_Robinson_R44_Raven_II_arrives_RIAT_Fairford_10thJuly2014_arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: My own photograph, taken with a Nikon D50 DSLR. Original artist: Myself (Adrian Pingstone) • File:Helicopter_air_mail,_1947_.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/24/Helicopter_air_mail%2C_1947_.jpg License: ? Contributors: Los Angeles Times photographic archive, UCLA Library. http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/dlib/lat/display.cfm?ms=uclalat_1429_b25_48087&searchType=subject&subjectID=215181 Original artist: Los Angeles Times
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• File:Helicopter_controls_layout.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Helicopter_controls_layout.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: recreated from this Bell 206 Cockpit Original artist: FOX 52 • File:Henry_Shelton_official_portrait.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Henry_Shelton_official_ portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hkmp5count-terr-wiki.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Hkmp5count-terr-wiki.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Cyrillic at en.wikipedia • File:Holland_cr.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Holland_cr.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=5834 - Originally uploaded to en:wiki on March 12, 2007 by w:User:Hollandjustin Original artist: Unknown • File:Hover_OGE_1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Hover_OGE_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: E-kopter2011 • File:IA-Sadr-City-04242008.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/IA-Sadr-City-04242008.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2008/04/us_iraqi_forces_enga.php Original artist: Technical Sergeant Adrian Cadiz • File:IAILogo.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/IAILogo.png License: ? Contributors: http://iaisite-eng.org/ Original artist: Islamic Army of Iraq • File:IDF-Barak-338-rifle-001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/IDF-Barak-338-rifle-001.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Flickr: https://www.flickr.com/photos/zachievenor/14110860471/ Original artist: Zachi Evenor • File:IDF-machineguns-67.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/IDF-machineguns-67.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MathKnight and Zachi Evenor • File:IED_detonator.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/IED_detonator.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Dept. of Defense here. Original artist: Lance Cpl. Bobby J. Segovia • File:INSAS_LMG.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/INSAS_LMG.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vikramaadityasumbria • File:INSCOM.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/INSCOM.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MrInfo2012 • File:ISF_member_armed_with_RPG-7.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/ISF_member_armed_ with_RPG-7.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/Assets/Still/2005/Marines/DM-SD-05-13310.JPEG Original artist: LCPL KENNETH LANE, USMC • File:Imbox_content.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/38/Imbox_content.png License: PD Contributors: Derived from Image:Information icon.svg Original artist: El T (original icon); David Levy (modified design); Penubag (modified color) • File:Indian_air_force_dhruv_helicopter_j4042_arp.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Indian_air_ force_dhruv_helicopter_j4042_arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Iraq-War-Map.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Iraq-War-Map.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: self-made, based on [1] with colors added in Photoshop off of widely-available maps of the region Original artist: ADuran • File:Iraq_2003_occupation.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Iraq_2003_occupation.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: Kpalion • File:Iraq_War_montage.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Iraq_War_montage.png License: BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Top (Public Domain)
CC
Middle-right (CC BY-SA 2.5) Bottom-right (Public Domain) Original artist: Futuretrillionaire • File:Iraqi_Republican_Guard_Symbol.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Iraqi_Republican_Guard_ Symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Militaryace • File:Iraqi_army_03_2011.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Iraqi_army_03_2011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://search.ahp.us.army.mil/search/images/ -- Direct link: http://usarmy.vo.llnwd.net/e1/-images/2010/12/09/ 94135/army.mil-94135-2010-12-09-081240.jpg Original artist: US Army • File:Iraqi_insurgents_with_MANPADS.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Iraqi_insurgents_with_ MANPADS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.webcitation.org/6F39H7PJR Original artist: U.S. Department of Homeland Security • File:Iraqi_soldiers_and_Blackhawk.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Iraqi_soldiers_and_ Blackhawk.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://web.archive.org/web/http://www4.army.mil/armyimages/armyimage.php? photo=6796 Original artist: Spc. Ronald Shaw Jr • File:JFKSWCS_SSI.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/JFKSWCS_SSI.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Nobunaga24. Original artist: Original uploader was Nobunaga24 at en.wikipedia • File:JGSDF_Type73_Kogata_Truck_(camouflage)_20100110.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/ JGSDF_Type73_Kogata_Truck_%28camouflage%29_20100110.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: my own work Original artist: Los688 • File:JSOC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/JSOC.png License: Public domain Contributors:
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• page - http://www.ndu.edu/nwc/nwcCLIPART/COMBATANT_COMMANDS/USSOCOM/0002.html (archive.org copy) Original artist: Unknown, US Government / Military • File:Jacob_de_Gheyn_-_Wapenhandelinge_4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Jacob_de_Gheyn_ -_Wapenhandelinge_4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from one of many colored copies from the original. Original artist: Jacob de Gheyn (II) (circa 1565-1629) • File:Japanese50mmGrenadeMortar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/ Japanese50mmGrenadeMortar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Japanese_Minie_rifle(Mirror).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Japanese_Minie_rifle% 28Mirror%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Japanese_Minie_rifle.jpg Original artist: 19th Century Firearms/Uploadalt • File:Japanese_Type_91_50_mm_grenade.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Japanese_Type_91_50_ mm_grenade.gif License: Public domain Contributors: based on images in US Army technical manuals at http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/ Japan/IJA/HB/HB-9-2.html and Original artist: en:User:Megapixie based on US Army manuals. • File:JohnBrowning.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/JohnBrowning.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Transfered from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Hephaestos at en.wikipedia • File:John_Philip_Sousa_-_U.S._Marine_Band_-_Semper_Fidelis_March.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/f/ff/John_Philip_Sousa_-_U.S._Marine_Band_-_Semper_Fidelis_March.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Modified version of MP3 found at [1]. Changes: Hiss reduced. Original artist: • John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) • File:Ju290-3s.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Ju290-3s.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Juli2001Matejce.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Juli2001Matejce.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MilitaryJournal • File:Jungle_Carbine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Jungle_Carbine.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ka-50_helicopters_over_Moscow.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Ka-50_helicopters_ over_Moscow.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Russia---Air/Kamov-Ka-50/1837647/L/&sid= fd029f5c619015cbab73045425b310c6 Original artist: Dmitry Pichugin • File:Karabiner_98k.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Karabiner_98k.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Karabiner 98k Original artist: Antique Military Rifles • File:Kel-Tec_SUB-2000.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Kel-Tec_SUB-2000.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was DOHC Holiday at en.wikipedia • File:Koreacloseairsupport1950.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Koreacloseairsupport1950.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. DefenseImagery photo VIRIN: 127-GK-234F-A54388 Original artist: Cpl. P. McDonald, USMC • File:Kulomet_UK-L_vzor_59.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Kulomet_UK-L_vzor_59.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Michal Maňas (User:Snek01) • File:Kurdish_lands_(3D).gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Kurdish_lands_%283D%29.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:LAPD_Bell_206_Jetranger.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/LAPD_Bell_206_Jetranger.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mfield - Matthew Field, http://www.photography.mattfield.com • File:LCH_(HEMANT_RAWAT_)_(2).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/LCH_%28HEMANT_ RAWAT_%29_%282%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hemant.rawat1234 • File:LVTP5-vietnam.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/LVTP5-vietnam.gif License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 532508. Original artist: USMC • File:L_company_3rd_Battalion_3rd_Marines_search_house.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/L_ company_3rd_Battalion_3rd_Marines_search_house.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:KTo288. Original artist: Original uploader was Looper5920 at en.wikipedia • File:Lebel_8mm_round.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Lebel_8mm_round.jpg License: CC BY 1.0 Contributors: Transferred from fr.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Lax at French Wikipedia • File:Leclerc-IMG_1744.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Leclerc-IMG_1744.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:Leo2_PSO_front.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Leo2_PSO_front.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Veppar • File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_helicopter.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Leonardo_da_Vinci_ helicopter.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ausschnitt aus http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonardo_da_Vinci_ helicopter_and_lifting_wing.jpg Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci • File:Leopard_2_A5_der_Bundeswehr.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Leopard_2_A5_der_ Bundeswehr.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Leopard 2 A5 Original artist: Bundeswehr-Fotos • File:Lepage_silex_gun_dite_du_Premier_Consul_circa_1800.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/ Lepage_silex_gun_dite_du_Premier_Consul_circa_1800.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, Musee de l'Armee Original artist: PHGCOM
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• File:Lgehumble_1400.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Lgehumble_1400.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lgehumble_1400.jpg Original artist: Konrad Kyeser • File:Logo_of_the_Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/ Logo_of_the_Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order.png License: ? Contributors: http://www.alnakshabandia.net/army/ Original artist: Logo of the Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order • File:Logo_of_the_Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/10/ Logo_of_the_Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation.png License: ? Contributors: wahdahurriyaishtirakiya.blogspot.com Original artist: Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation • File:Lomonocov_s_Aerodynamic_Machine_01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Lomonocov_s_ Aerodynamic_Machine_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Михаил Васильевич Ломоносов. 275 лет со дня рождения. Разрезной фотоальбом. М.: Планета. 1986. Музей М. В. Ломоносова. Санкт-Петербург Original artist: Serge lachinov (обработка для wiki) • File:London_anti-war_protest_banners.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/London_anti-war_ protest_banners.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Users AK7, William M. Connolley on en.wikipedia • File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contributors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by Zoid • File:Lun_Ekranoplan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5f/Lun_Ekranoplan.jpg License: ? Contributors: Stock Archives of Soviet Navy Original artist: Soviet Navy • File:Lunge_AT_Mine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Lunge_AT_Mine.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: 100_9214 Original artist: Ian Armstrong from Travelling the world at moment, Australia • File:Lupara.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Lupara.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bluedog • File:M-40A3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/M-40A3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:M1-M14-M16-magazines.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/M1-M14-M16-magazines.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M62 • File:M113.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/M113.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:// www.army.mil/cmh/books/Vietnam/mounted/chapter2.htm [1] Original artist: US Army • File:M16A1_brimob.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/M16A1_brimob.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Personal photo Original artist: User:Dragunova • File:M16A2_M855_5.56X45mm_NATO_wound_ballistics.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/ M16A2_M855_5.56X45mm_NATO_wound_ballistics.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ciar.org/ttk/mbt/papers/ misc/paper.x.small-arms.wounding-ballistics.patterns_of_military_rifle_bullets.fackler.unk.html Original artist: Wound Ballistics Profiles of M16A2 M855 5.56x45mm NATO small arms ammunition compiled on behalf of the U.S. military, by Dr. Martin L. Fackler who is a retired Colonel in the US Army's Medical Corps, he was a battlefield surgeon, and the head of the Wound Ballistics Laboratory for the US Armyʼs Medical Training Center, Letterman Institute • File:M16_5.56x45mm_wound_ballistics.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/M16_5.56x45mm_ wound_ballistics.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ciar.org/ttk/mbt/papers/misc/paper.x.small-arms. wounding-ballistics.patterns_of_military_rifle_bullets.fackler.unk.html Original artist: Wound Ballistics Profiles of M16 5.56x45mm small arms ammunition compiled on behalf of the U.S. military, by Dr. Martin L. Fackler who is a retired Colonel in the US Army's Medical Corps, he was a battlefield surgeon, and the head of the Wound Ballistics Laboratory for the US Armyʼs Medical Training Center, Letterman Institute. • File:M16a2m203_afmil.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/M16a2m203_afmil.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Af.mil Original artist: Airman magazine • File:M1887_LH.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/M1887_LH.JPG License: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Common Good using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Commander Zulu at en.wikipedia • File:M1A1_desant.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/M1A1_desant.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Marine Corps with the ID 030409-M-5150A-029 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: SGT PAUL L. ANSTINE II USMC • File:M1_Abrams_diagram_num.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/M1_Abrams_diagram_num.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • M1_Abrams-TUSK.svg Original artist: • derivative work: Dhatfield
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Original artist: Original uploader was Marcus Qwertyus at en.wikipedia • File:M249mg.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/M249mg.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Source: [1], more specifically [2] (US Army photo) Original artist: Unknown • File:M2Round.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/M2Round.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User Xanzzibar on en.wikipedia • File:M2_machine_gun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/M2_machine_gun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:M2m60c2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/M2m60c2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:M32-ARV-HVSS-latrun-1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/M32-ARV-HVSS-latrun-1.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? 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Original artist: Unknown Original uploader was Koalorka at en.wikipedia • File:MCMAP_shoulder_throw.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/MCMAP_shoulder_throw.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (Fwd) PAO Original artist: GySgt Walker, Michael • File:MCMAPstretch_MCRDSD_20060818.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/MCMAPstretch_ MCRDSD_20060818.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenselink.mil/dodcmsshare/homepagephoto%5C2006-08% 5Chires_04mcmap04.jpg DefenseLINK Homepage photos, U.S. Department of Defense Original artist: U.S. Marine Corps photo by Lance Corporal James Green • File:MEDCOM.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/MEDCOM.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Jecowa at en.wikipedia • File:MESFABOT.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/MESFABOT.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: hello_rizzudo... • File:MG4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/MG4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: KrisfromGermany • File:MG42-Display.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/MG42-Display.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: photo taken by baku13 Original artist: baku13
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• File:MH-60_Blackhawk_landing_on_Hercules.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/MH-60_ Blackhawk_landing_on_Hercules.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: DoD Image number DN-SN-88-10165 Original artist: PHCS TERRY MITCHELL, USN • File:MK19-02.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/MK19-02.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Machine_gun_M2_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Machine_gun_M2_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Magazynek_Lewisa_z_polska_amunicja_792mm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/ Magazynek_Lewisa_z_polska_amunicja_792mm.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Topory • File:Marder1A3.5.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Marder1A3.5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hqjmtc.army.mil, http://www.hqjmtc.army.mil/feature/bwtrain/ Original artist: Paula Guzman, 7th ATC Public Affairs • File:Marine_AK-47.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Marine_AK-47.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/Photos.aspx?igphoto=7052 Original artist: Original uploader was Koalorka at en.wikipedia • File:Marine_Security_Guard_reviews_the_embassy'{}s_security_alarm_system_with_the_regional_security_officer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Marine_Security_Guard_reviews_the_embassy%27s_security_alarm_ system_with_the_regional_security_officer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] (descr.) Original artist: Photo credit: U.S. Department of State (Released July 25, 2005) • File:Marines01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Marines01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cwpb.04148. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Unknown • File:Marines_in_Saddams_palace_DM-SD-04-12222.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Marines_ in_Saddams_palace_DM-SD-04-12222.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Defense Visual Information Center Original artist: Lance Corporal Kevin C. Quihuis Jr. (USMC) • File:Marineshumping2001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Marineshumping2001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pacom.mil Original artist: Sergeant Joseph R. Chenelly, United States Marine Corps • File:Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Marlin_35_rem_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rickochet at English Wikipedia • File:Marlin_Model_1894C_.357_Magnum.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Marlin_Model_ 1894C_.357_Magnum.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:TFCforever. Original artist: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia • File:Maschinenpistole_MP40.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Maschinenpistole_MP40.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Md500n.g-smac.arp.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Md500n.g-smac.arp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian Pingstone • File:Menwith-hill-radomes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Menwith-hill-radomes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Matt Crypto • File:Meritorious_Unit_Commendation_(Navy-Marine)_Streamer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ f7/Meritorious_Unit_Commendation_%28Navy-Marine%29_Streamer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Palm dogg at en.wikipedia • File:Merkava4paz.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Merkava4paz.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: My own work • File:Meyers_b8_s0102a.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Meyers_b8_s0102a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://susi.e-technik.uni-ulm.de:8080/Meyers2/index/index.html Original artist: ? • File:Mi-24_Desert_Rescue.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Mi-24_Desert_Rescue.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from English Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mi-24_Desert_Rescue.jpg Original artist: Camera Operator: MSGT STEVEN TURNER • File:Mi-28N_from_Berkuti_aerobatics_team.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Mi-28N_from_ Berkuti_aerobatics_team.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://vitalykuzmin.net/?q=node/464 Original artist: Vitaly V. Kuzmin • File:Minutes_of_arc1.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Minutes_of_arc1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Mao1.png Original artist: Mao1.png: Deon Steyn • File:Modern-rifle-cartridges-cases.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Modern-rifle-cartridges-cases. jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DL24 • File:Modern_Hunting_Rifle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Modern_Hunting_Rifle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Fantagu • File:Mortar_firing_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Mortar_firing_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DVIC_View/Display_CD.cfm (http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/Assets/2005/Air_Force/ DF-SD-05-03897.JPG) (http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#a=search&s=DF-SD-05-03897&guid=0d56acb5b7aa13112927e826fad2237da98c347a) Original artist: SSGT AARON D. ALLMON II, USAF • File:Munster_SdKfz234_4_side_(dark1).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Munster_SdKfz234_4_ side_%28dark1%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darkone
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• File:Muskets_carbines_musketoons_blunderbuss.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6d/Muskets_carbines_ musketoons_blunderbuss.gif License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Muzej_Međimurja,_Čakovec_(Croatia)_-_mitraljezi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/ Muzej_Me%C4%91imurja%2C_%C4%8Cakovec_%28Croatia%29_-_mitraljezi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Silverije • File:NATO_7.62x51.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/NATO_7.62x51.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:NATO_flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Flag_of_NATO.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.nato.int Original artist: • Vectorized by Mysid and uploaded to Flag of NATO.svg • File:NAVSPECWARCOM.logo.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/NAVSPECWARCOM.logo.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Bulwersator using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was JohnCrawford at en.wikipedia • File:Naboj23_mm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Naboj23_mm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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• File:Paxton_2013_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Paxton_2013_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/Leaders.aspx Original artist: U. S. Marine Corps • File:People_icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Peter_Schoomaker.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Peter_Schoomaker.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Pilatus_Agusta_A109_Flug.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Pilatus_Agusta_A109_Flug.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ikiwaner • File:Pionierpanzer_Dachs_right_Side.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Pionierpanzer_Dachs_ right_Side.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Powidl at German Wikipedia • File:Pionnier-legion.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Pionnier-legion.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: davric • File:Pistolet_marine_1837-IMG_6935.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Pistolet_marine_ 1837-IMG_6935.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rama • File:Pitcairn_Autogiro_NASA_GPN-2000-001990.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/ Pitcairn_Autogiro_NASA_GPN-2000-001990.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/ GPN-2000-001990.html Original artist: NASA/NACA, LARC • File:Platzpatronen762_9.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Platzpatronen762_9.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? 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Original artist: Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer Bryson Jack. Original uploader was Skinny87 at en.wikipedia • File:Proload.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Proload.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: SquareWave at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Poccil at en.wikipedia. • File:Protitankový_kanón_3,7_cm_vz.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Protitankov%C3%BD_kan% C3%B3n_3%2C7_cm_vz.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Czech archive Original artist: Unknown • File:Pso-1_grid.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Pso-1_grid.png License: Public domain Contributors: Личный архив Original artist: Бухряков Михаил • File:Ptrs003.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Ptrs003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //tools-of-death.ru/hot/ho01/ptrs003.jpg Original artist: unknown war correspondent • File:Puckle_gun_Photo.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Puckle_gun_Photo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:User:Tawcnysc Original artist: Simon Cousins (Tawcnysc) • File:QAMR_vehicle.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/QAMR_vehicle.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Ox glennwhite at en.wikipedia • File:Qatar_Cargo_777F.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Qatar_Cargo_777F.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VtTN • File:Queen'{}s_Cobras_Conduct_a_Search_and_Sweep_Mission_in_Phuoc_Tho,_11-67_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Queen%27s_Cobras_Conduct_a_Search_and_Sweep_Mission_in_Phuoc_Tho%2C_11-67_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.history.army.mil/books/Vietnam/allied/ch02.htm#p1 Original artist: US military personnel
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Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:R-4_AC_HNS1_3_300.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/R-4_AC_HNS1_3_300.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.uscg.mil/history/WEBAIRCRAFT/AC_Sikorsky_HNS1.html Original artist: USCG Photo #: 232-8 Photographer: U.S. Coast Guard • File:Rackandchamber.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Rackandchamber.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/image1.nsf/Lookup/20041110221919 Original artist: Submitted by: MCB Hawaii Operation/Exercise/Event: Training • File:Raf-sentinel-ZJ692-071029-08-16.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/ Raf-sentinel-ZJ692-071029-08-16.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan Radecki Akradecki • File:Raid_during_Operation_Thar_Thar_Dam.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Raid_during_ Operation_Thar_Thar_Dam.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; Transfer was stated to be made by User:Alaniaris. Original artist: Original uploader was Looper5920 at en.wikipedia • File:Ramadi_august_2006_patrol.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Ramadi_august_2006_patrol.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lock, Tech. Sgt. Jeremy T.. 16_01. United States Third Army. Retrieved on 20 March 2012. Original artist: Air Force Tech. Sgt. Jeremy T. Lock. • File:Ranger_MOUT_exercise.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Ranger_MOUT_exercise.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.soc.mil/uns/Photo/2009/album/slides/090422-A-6095H-164.html Original artist: Trish Harris • File:Rangers_from_the_75th_Ranger_Regiment_fast-rope_from_an_MH-47_Chinook_during_a_capabilities_exercise.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Rangers_from_the_75th_Ranger_Regiment_fast-rope_from_an_MH-47_ Chinook_during_a_capabilities_exercise.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://news.soc.mil/Photo%20Archive/2010/2010% 20UNS%20Archives/album/slides/100428-A-6095H-004.html Original artist: Trish Harris, USASOC Public Affairs Office • File:Rangervietnam1969.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Rangervietnam1969.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: carlisle.army.mil Original artist: U.S. Army Military History Institute (USAMHI), Collection: Marshall, S.L.A. • File:Raymond_C._Smith_Jr_1992.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Raymond_C._Smith_Jr_1992. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil Original artist: RICHARD L. 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• File:SaddamSpiderHole.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/SaddamSpiderHole.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army photo Original artist: Original uploader was G3pro at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Joseph Dwayne at en.wikipedia. • File:Samopal_Vz_25.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Samopal_Vz_25.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Atirador • File:Samsung_Galaxy_S5_Vector.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Samsung_Galaxy_S5_Vector. svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rafael Fernandez • File:Scott_Belleau_Wood.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Scott_Belleau_Wood.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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Enrique Saenz • File:Shield_of_the_United_States_Air_Force_Special_Operations_Command.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/cc/Shield_of_the_United_States_Air_Force_Special_Operations_Command.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //www.af.mil/shared/media/ggallery/other/afg_021220_008.eps Original artist: en:United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:Shiism_arabic_blue.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Shiism_arabic_blue.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector equivalent of File:Shiism arabic blue.PNG. This is a self-made image (based on font), declared by me to be PD. Original artist: AnonMoos • File:Shotgun-shot-sequence-1g.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Shotgun-shot-sequence-1g.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Benchill using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Andrew Davidhazy Original uploader was Ratsbew at en.wikipedia • File:Shotgun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Shotgun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //web.archive.org/web/http://www4.army.mil/armyimages/armyimage.php?photo=1507 Original artist: United States Army photo by Staff Sergeant Joseph Roberts • File:ShotgunAction.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/ShotgunAction.JPG License: Attribution Contributors: Transfered from en.wikipedia Transfer was stated to be made by User:evers. Original artist: Original uploader was Commander Zulu at en.wikipedia • File:Shotgun_in_training_US_military.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Shotgun_in_training_US_ military.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Navy Photo. Original artist: Eric A. Clement (U.S. Navy) • File:Shotgunammo.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Shotgunammo.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Shoulder-launched_Multipurpose_Assault_Weapon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/ Shoulder-launched_Multipurpose_Assault_Weapon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Simms_Motor_Scout_from_Autocar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Simms_Motor_Scout_ from_Autocar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Autocar Magazine 26 August 1899 Original artist: Iliffe Press • File:Simms_Motor_War_Car_1902.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2f/Simms_Motor_War_Car_1902.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Early Armoured Cars by E. 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Original uploader was Commander Zulu at en.wikipedia 2006-12-17 (original upload date) Original artist: Image taken by Commander Zulu, December 2006. • File:Sniper_Rifle_Mosin_1891_30.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Sniper_Rifle_Mosin_1891_30. jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Sniper_Rifles_M40_XM21.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Sniper_Rifles_M40_XM21.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Curiosandrelics • File:Sniperscope.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Sniperscope.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=14702 Original artist: U.S. Marine Corps photo by Cpl. Ryan Walker • File:Sound-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set
LGPL Contributors:
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47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:Special_Operations_Weathermen_training_at_Hurlburt_Field.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 4/4e/Special_Operations_Weathermen_training_at_Hurlburt_Field.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Desert thndr01 at English Wikipedia • File:Spencer_rifle_diagram.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Spencer_rifle_diagram.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=scia;cc=scia;rgn=full%20text;idno=scia1006-4; didno=scia1006-4;view=image;seq=00053;node=scia1006-4%3A1 Original artist: Scientific American • File:Split-arrows.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Springfield_Armory_M1911A1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Springfield_Armory_ M1911A1.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Stag2wi_c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Stag2wi_c.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Derivative work of File:Stag2wi.jpg Original artist: Lightbreather • File:Stanag_mags.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Stanag_mags.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Raygun at English Wikipedia • File:Stangenbüchsen_bei_Burgebelagerung_1475.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Stangenb% C3%BCchsen_bei_Burgebelagerung_1475.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AxelHH • File:State_positions_Iraq_war.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/State_positions_Iraq_war.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; vectorized from the original that was created by w:User:Merat. Data was from this Wikipedia article. Original artist: ? • File:Sten_Mk_II_IMG_4764_(Nemo5576).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Sten_Mk_II_IMG_ 4764_%28Nemo5576%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nemo5576 • File:Steyr_HS_.50-frontal-scope.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Steyr_HS_.50-frontal-scope.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://www.steyr-arms.at/index.php?id=83 Original artist: Steyr Mannlicher • File:Storming_of_Chapultepec.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Storming_of_Chapultepec.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Streamer_FCDG.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Streamer_FCDG.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC Historical Division. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_JMUA.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Streamer_JMUA.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC employee. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_KPUC.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Streamer_KPUC.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC Historical Division. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_MUC_Army.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Streamer_MUC_Army.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC Historical Division. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_PUC_Army.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Streamer_PUC_Army.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: USMC Historical Division website: http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/HD/Customes_Traditions/Streamers_02. htm Original artist: USMC employee Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_PUC_Navy.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Streamer_PUC_Navy.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: none. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_RVMUCCA.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Streamer_RVMUCCA.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC Historical Division. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Streamer_VUA_Army.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Streamer_VUA_Army.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by Tanvir using CommonsHelper. Original artist: USMC employee. Original uploader was Bahamut0013 at en.wikipedia • File:Stryker_RV_front_q.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Stryker_RV_front_q.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sbct.army.mil/product_rv.html Original artist: Not listed on the Army web site • File:Sturmgewehr_44.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sturmgewehr_44.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Suomi_M31_Torpin_Tykit_2.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Suomi_M31_Torpin_Tykit_2. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: MKFI • File:Surface_Deployment_and_Distribution_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ Public domain Contributors: Own work, after e/e9/Surface_Deployment_and_Distribution_Command_SSI.svg License: Image:USSMTMTS-SSI.png. Original artist: Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs) • File:Svalbard_helicotper.ogv Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Svalbard_helicotper.ogv License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Niels Elgaard Larsen • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil • File:Syria_and_Iraq_2014-onward_War_map.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Syria_and_Iraq_ 2014-onward_War_map.png License: CC0 Contributors:
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• w:en:Template:Syrian and Iraqi insurgency detailed map Original artist: Haghal Jagul • File:T-54s,_T-55s,_Type_59s_or_Type_69s_at_Diwaniyah,_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/d1/T-54s%2C_T-55s%2C_Type_59s_or_Type_69s_at_Diwaniyah%2C_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html;jsessionid=7A9D938F468B91AFAE8F2B408DEA455B#guid= 8decbdc85984fe187ea88fc787d1cab43b79b14d Original artist: MSGT Howard J. Farrell, US Marine Corps • File:T-64_tanks_of_the_Ukrainian_Army.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/T-64_tanks_of_the_ Ukrainian_Army.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Parade @ Kiev Original artist: Michael • File:T-90_Bhisma_cropped.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/T-90_Bhisma_cropped.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Cropped from T-90_Bhisma.jpg Original artist: T-90_Bhisma.jpg: cell105 (flickr user) • File:THAAD_Launcher.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/THAAD_Launcher.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:TRADOC_patch.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/TRADOC_patch.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:Taketombo.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Taketombo.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Photo taken by Haragayato using a FinePix F30, and edited. Original artist: Haragayato • File:Talvisota_Molotov_Cocktail.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Talvisota_Molotov_Cocktail. PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Anden verdenskrig: Finlands krig by Eddy Bauer, Lademann, ISBN: 87-15-08591-0 Original artist: Unknown • File:Teufel_Hunden_US_Marines_recruiting_poster.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Teufel_ Hunden_US_Marines_recruiting_poster.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: University Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Original artist: United States Marine Corps • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_Campaign_in_Italy_1945_NA22176.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/The_Campaign_in_ Italy_1945_NA22176.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//47/media-47714/large.jpg Original artist: Lambert (Sgt), No 2 Army Film & Photographic Unit • File:The_hornet_and_penguin.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/33/The_hornet_and_penguin.jpg License: PD Contributors: [1] Original artist: n.a. • File:Thompson-and-his-gun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Thompson-and-his-gun.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: • Thompson-SMG-M1928.jpg Original artist: Thompson-SMG-M1928.jpg: Jamie C • File:Thompson_Magazine.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Thompson_Magazine.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hmaag • File:Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Thure_de_Thulstrup_-_L._Prang_and_Co._-_Battle_of_Gettysburg_-_ Restoration_by_Adam_Cuerden.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original scan: Library of Congress - N.B. The description the LoC gives manages to combine George Pickett (Confederate, leader of the charge) and Winfield Hancock (Union, defended against the charge) into one person, George Hancock. This is, of course, nonsense, and an error has been reported. Original artist: Thure de Thulstrup • File:TrailBlazer-latrun-2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/TrailBlazer-latrun-2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Trigat-LR-detoured.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Trigat-LR-detoured.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Troops_advance_in_a_snowstorm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Troops_advance_in_a_ snowstorm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Two_MD-11Fs_at_Chennai_Airport.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Two_MD-11Fs_at_ Chennai_Airport.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VtTN • File:Type_69_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Type_69_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/assetDetails.action?guid=241c6e187d067caa64990ac273c42caec49b060c Original artist: Sgt. Paul L. Anstine III, U.S. Marine Corps • File:U.S._Army_Africa_Shoulder_Sleeve_Insignia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/U.S._Army_ Africa_Shoulder_Sleeve_Insignia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/ImageProxy.ashx?n=1& t=original&id=5169 Original artist: U.S. Army • File:U.S._Army_firefight_in_Kunar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/U.S._Army_firefight_in_ Kunar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/soldiersmediacenter/5619029758/in/photostream/ Original artist: Pfc. Cameron Boyd • File:U.S._Marines_in_Operation_Allen_Brook_(Vietnam_War)_001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ a/ac/U.S._Marines_in_Operation_Allen_Brook_%28Vietnam_War%29_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.tecom. usmc.mil (U.S. Marine Corps History website) Original artist: (http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/HD/Home_Page.htm)
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• File:U.S._Marines_with_Iraqi_POWs_-_March_21,_2003.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/U.S. _Marines_with_Iraqi_POWs_-_March_21%2C_2003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Marine Corps with the ID 030321-M-3692W-053 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Lance Cpl. Brian L. Wickliffe, U.S. Marine Corps • File:U.S._Soldiers_at_Bougainville_(Solomon_Islands)_March_1944.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ d/d7/U.S._Soldiers_at_Bougainville_%28Solomon_Islands%29_March_1944.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 531183. Original artist: U.S. Army • File:UNITED_STATES_ARMY_SOUTH_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/UNITED_ STATES_ARMY_SOUTH_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:US-Army-CW2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/US-Army-CW2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • US-Army-CW2.png Original artist: US-Army-CW2.png: US Army • File:US-Army-CW3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/US-Army-CW3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • US-Army-CW3.png Original artist: US-Army-CW3.png: US Army • File:US-Army-CW4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/US-Army-CW4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • US-Army-CW4.png Original artist: US-Army-CW4.png: US Army • File:US-Army-CW5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/US-Army-CW5.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • US-Army-CW5.png Original artist: US-Army-CW5.png: US Army • File:US-Army-WO1.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/US-Army-WO1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • US-Army-WO1.png Original artist: US-Army-WO1.png: US Army • File:US-O10_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/US-O10_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O11_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/US-O11_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O1_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/US-O1_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US-O2_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/US-O2_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US-O3_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/US-O3_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O4_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/US-O4_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O5_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/US-O5_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O6_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/US-O6_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Converted from the Encapsulated Postscript here. Original artist: U.S. federal government • File:US-O7_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/US-O7_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O8_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/US-O8_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-O9_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/US-O9_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image here Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US-OF1A.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/US-O2_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US-OF1B.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/US-O1_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US3ASSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/US3ASSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/ Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:USACE.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/USACE.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raymondstaley • File:USAREUR_Insignia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/USAREUR_Insignia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army Europe Original artist: Unknown
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• File:USARPAC_insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/USARPAC_insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on the image from The Institute of Heraldry (TIOH) [1] Original artist: Life of Riley • File:USMA_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/USMA_SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:USMC-05459.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/USMC-05459.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/unit/basecamppendleton/PublishingImages/2007/focus1high.jpg Original artist: ? • File:USMC-10539.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/USMC-10539.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/unit/mcasiwakuni/PublishingImages/2001-2008/2006/openingceremony2raw.jpg Original artist: ? • File:USMC-E2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/USMC-E2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/USMC-E3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/USMC-E4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/USMC-E5.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E6.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/USMC-E6.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E7.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/USMC-E7.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E8-1SG.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/USMC-E8-1SG.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E8-MSG.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/USMC-E8-MSG.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E9-MGyS.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/USMC-E9-MGyS.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E9-SGM.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/USMC-E9-SGM.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin
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• File:USMC-E9-SGMMC.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/USMC-E9-SGMMC.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC_CWO2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/USMC_CWO2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 2.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/USMC_CWO3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 3.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/USMC_CWO4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 4.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/USMC_CWO5.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 5.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_Sniper_M24.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/USMC_Sniper_M24.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Thumbnail and caption Original artist: Corporal Ryan Walker, USMC • File:USMC_WO1.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/USMC_WO1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC WO 1.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_War_Memorial_Night.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/USMC_War_Memorial_ Night.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/byways/photos/63476 Original artist: Catie Drew • File:USMC_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/USMC_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: DoD website: http://www.defenselink.mil/multimedia/web_graphics/#mc Original artist: U.S. Government • File:USMC_uniforms.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/USMC_uniforms.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made from w:Image:PlateIV Enlisted Dress Uniform.jpg, w:Image:PlateI Officer Service Uniform.jpg, w:Image:PlateV Evening Dress.jpg, and Image:MARPAT combat.jpg Original artist: Bahamut0013 • File:USMarineTankinBaghdad.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/USMarineTankinBaghdad.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/image1.nsf/lookup/2003555231?opendocument Original artist: U.S. Marine Corps • File:USS_Bonhomme_Richard_(LHD-6)_welldeck.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/USS_ Bonhomme_Richard_%28LHD-6%29_welldeck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id= 13685 Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Jennifer Swader. (RELEASED) • File:US_101st_Airborne_Division_patch.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/US_101st_Airborne_ Division_patch.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darz Mol • File:US_2nd_Cavalry_Regiment_SSI.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/US_2nd_Cavalry_ Regiment_SSI.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US_Army_Cyber_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a8/US_Army_Cyber_Command_SSI. png License: PD Contributors: The Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8072&grp=2&menu= Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_Reserve_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/US_Army_Reserve_ Command_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snubcube • File:US_Army_Special_Forces_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/US_Army_Special_Forces_ SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/SF/SpecialForcesGroup.htm Original artist: US Army • File:US_Army_Special_Operations_Aviation_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/ US_Army_Special_Operations_Aviation_Command_SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=9478&grp=2&menu=Uniformed%20Services&from= recent Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ b/b7/US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: redrawn of US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.png Original artist: U.S. Army Institute Of Heraldry - Redrawn: McSush • File:US_Army_Test_and_Evaluation_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e8/US_Army_Test_ and_Evaluation_Command_SSI.png License: PD Contributors: The Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=2989&grp=2&menu= Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_War_College_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d7/US_Army_War_College_SSI.png License: PD Contributors: The U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=6999&grp=2& menu=Uniformed%20ServicesCategoryId=2955&grp=2&menu=Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/US_Army_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/ Original artist: United States Army (USA)
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• File:US_Fifth_Army_patch.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/US_Fifth_Army_patch.svg License: Public domain Contributors: US Army Institute of Heraldry Original artist: United States Army • File:US_Joint_Special_Operations_Command.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/US_Joint_ Special_Operations_Command.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Noclador • File:US_Marine_Artillery_during_Iraq_Invasion_March_26_2003.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ a7/US_Marine_Artillery_during_Iraq_Invasion_March_26_2003.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: Diary Clips from First Lieutenant Mike Scotti that were included in the movie Severe Clear Original artist: First Lieutenant Mike Scotti • File:US_Marines_Talisman_Saber_07.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/US_Marines_Talisman_ Saber_07.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US_Navy_040117-N-0331L-023_Nuclear,_Biological,_and_Chemical_(NBC)_disposal_technicians_from_the_1st_ Marines_1st_Battalion_prepare_to_search_the_Military_Sealift_Command_(MSC)_combat_stores_ship_USNS_Saturn_ (T-AFS_10).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/US_Navy_040117-N-0331L-023_Nuclear%2C_ Biological%2C_and_Chemical_%28NBC%29_disposal_technicians_from_the_1st_Marines_1st_Battalion_prepare_to_search_the_ Military_Sealift_Command_%28MSC%29_combat_stores_ship_USNS_Saturn_%28T-AFS_10%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 040117-N-0331L-023 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Jeffrey Lehrberg. • File:US_Navy_100714-N-4965F-174_Chief_Mass_Communication_Specialist_Paula_Ludwick,_assigned_to_Fleet_Combat_ Camera_Group_Pacific,_shoots_at_a_target_during_a_Navy_Rifle_Qualification_Course.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/US_Navy_100714-N-4965F-174_Chief_Mass_Communication_Specialist_Paula_Ludwick%2C_ assigned_to_Fleet_Combat_Camera_Group_Pacific%2C_shoots_at_a_target_during_a_Navy_Rifle_Qualification_Course.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 100714-N-4965F-174 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class James Foehl • File:US_Navy_100717-N-0683T-292_A_U.S._Navy_SEAL_sniper_waves_to_the_crowd_during_a_capabilities_ demonstration_at_Joint_Expeditionary_Base_Little_Creek,_Va.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/ US_Navy_100717-N-0683T-292_A_U.S._Navy_SEAL_sniper_waves_to_the_crowd_during_a_capabilities_demonstration_at_Joint_ Expeditionary_Base_Little_Creek%2C_Va.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 100717-N-0683T-292 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Chief Mass Communication Specialist Stan Travioli • File:US_Navy_111003-N-ZZ999-002_An_F-35B_Lightning_II_makes_the_first_vertical_landing_on_a_flight_deck_at_ sea_aboard_the_amphibious_assault_ship_USS_W.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/US_ Navy_111003-N-ZZ999-002_An_F-35B_Lightning_II_makes_the_first_vertical_landing_on_a_flight_deck_at_sea_aboard_the_ amphibious_assault_ship_USS_W.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 111003-N-ZZ999-002 (next). This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Seaman Natasha R. Chalk • File:US_Second_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/US_Second_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:US Second Army.png Original artist: Fred the Oyster • File:US_Special_Operations_Command.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/US_Special_Operations_ Command.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Noclador • File:UStankParis-edit1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/UStankParis-edit1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 535975. Original artist: Office for Emergency Management. Office of War Information. Overseas Operations Branch. New York Office. News and Features Bureau. • File:UStanks_baghdad_2003.JPEG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/UStanks_baghdad_2003.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: http://arcweb.archives.gov/ Original artist: Technical Sergeant John L. Houghton, Jr., United States Air Force • File:Unbalanced_scales.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:United_States_Army_Forces_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/United_States_ Army_Forces_Command_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, after Image:FORCECOM SSI.png. Original artist: Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs) • File:United_States_Army_Installation_Management_Command_Shoulder_Patch.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/1/17/United_States_Army_Installation_Management_Command_Shoulder_Patch.png License: Public domain Contributors: United State Army Installation Managment Command Original artist: US Army
47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:United_States_Army_Military_District_of_Washington_Insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/99/United_States_Army_Military_District_of_Washington_Insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://spiritofamerica.mdw.army.mil/pubs/TeachersGuideR13Low%20RES%20Final.pdf Original artist: US Army • File:United_States_Army_Space_and_Missile_Defense_Command_Logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/a0/United_States_Army_Space_and_Missile_Defense_Command_Logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.smdc.army.mil/FactSheets/SMDC-One.pdf Original artist: US Army • File:United_States_Department_of_Defense_Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/United_States_ Department_of_Defense_Seal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: United States Department of Defense • File:United_States_Department_of_the_Army_Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Emblem_of_ the_United_States_Department_of_the_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defense.gov/multimedia/web_ graphics/ Original artist: U.S. Dept. of Defense • File:United_States_Department_of_the_Navy_Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Seal_of_the_ United_States_Department_of_the_Navy.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Keeleysam Original artist: United States Army Institute Of Heraldry • File:United_States_Special_Operations_Command_Insignia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/ United_States_Special_Operations_Command_Insignia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/ catalogue/S/121217.html Original artist: united states army contributor • File:Us_troop_iraq_casualty_memorial.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Us_troop_iraq_casualty_ memorial.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work (self-made photograph) Original artist: Nils Fretwurst Fretwurst • File:Us_troops_in_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Us_troops_in_Iraq.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Congressional Research Service, U.S. Department of Defense Original artist: Judy Treible • File:Uzi_of_the_israeli_armed_forces.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Uzi_of_the_israeli_armed_ forces.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Uziel Galishto • File:VCBI-openphotonet_PICT6027.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/VCBI-openphotonet_ PICT6027.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: openphoto.net Original artist: Daniel Steger (Lausanne, Switzerland) • File:VGCP_Streamer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/VGCP_Streamer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Battle Color of the Marine Corps Original artist: Original uploader was Palm dogg at en.wikipedia • File:VIU-55_Munja.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/VIU-55_Munja.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marko M • File:VS-1.6_anti-tank_mine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/VS-1.6_anti-tank_mine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://web.archive.org/web/http://www4.army.mil/armyimages/armyimage.php?photo=2246 Original artist: by Pfc. Elizabeth Erste • File:VanDoos_Urban_Warfare_training.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/VanDoos_Urban_ Warfare_training.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marines.mil/news/Pages/photos.aspx?start2=6091 http: //www.marines.mil/units/marforsouth/PublishingImages/Partnership%20of%20the%20Americas%202009/090418-M-9743B-021.JPG Original artist: Lance Cpl. Abby Burtner • File:Vickers_machine_gun_crew_with_gas_masks.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Vickers_ machine_gun_crew_with_gas_masks.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph Q 3995 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 1900-13) Original artist: John Warwick Brooke • File:VietnamCombatArtCAT08VictoryVReynoldsCombatEngineer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 2/2e/VietnamCombatArtCAT08VictoryVReynoldsCombatEngineer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army Combat Art Program Original artist: Victory V. Reynolds • File:Vincent_Hancock_at_2008_Summer_Olympics_men'{}s_skeet_finals_2008-08-16.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/90/Vincent_Hancock_at_2008_Summer_Olympics_men%27s_skeet_finals_2008-08-16.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imagery.html#guid=d7e950e78ab77932dbe8b711eff4b4b4b9747d34 Original artist: Tim Hipps • File:Votel_official_photo_USSOCOM.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Votel_official_photo_ USSOCOM.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: USSOCOM Original artist: TSgt Angelita Lawrence • File:Vz24.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Vz24.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Szuyuan huang • File:Wayne_Downing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Wayne_Downing.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfered to Commons by User:Nobunaga24 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Nobunaga24 at en.wikipedia • File:Wayne_Downing_funeral_honor_guard.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Wayne_Downing_ funeral_honor_guard.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.soc.mil/uns/Photo/2008/album/slides/downing-001.html Original artist: Special Operation Command News Service • File:WeaponsInspector.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/WeaponsInspector.JPG License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.iaea.org/ Original artist: Petr Pavlicek • File:White_M3A1.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/White_M3A1.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 nl Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Dammit • File:Whitworth_rifle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Whitworth_rifle.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Whitworth Original artist: Antique Military Rifles • File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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• File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:Winchester_1897.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Winchester_1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Amendola90. Original artist: Asams10 at English Wikipedia • File:Ww2marineshotgun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Ww2marineshotgun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Amendola90. Original artist: Original uploader was Primalchaos at en.wikipedia • File:АК−47.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/%D0%90%D0%9A-47.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Allatur
47.3.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Original artist: unknown • File:Blaser-R8-Profesional.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Blaser-R8-Profesional.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arz • File:Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Blue_iPod_Nano.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bluetank.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: LA2 • File:Boeing_747-400(LCF)_Dreamlifter.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Boeing_747-400% 28LCF%29_Dreamlifter.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Boeing Dreamlifter Original artist: Cory Barnes from Vancouver, WA, United States • File:Bremer_signing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/02/Bremer_signing.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bren1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Bren1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number NA and under the MIKAN ID number 3195829 Original artist: National Film Board of Canada • File:Bristol_Freighter,_Liverpool_1961.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Bristol_Freighter%2C_ Liverpool_1961.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: [[1] Flickr] Original artist: [[2] PhillipC, Felicity and Philip] • File:British_Mark_IX_Armoured_Personnel_Carrier.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/British_ Mark_IX_Armoured_Personnel_Carrier.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Browning_Auto-5_20g_Mag.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Browning_Auto-5_20g_Mag.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arthurrh • File:Browning_HP_(Finnish)_with_stock.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Browning_HP_ %28Finnish%29_with_stock.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.adamsguns.com/ Original artist: www.adamsguns.com • File:Buffalo_joins_full.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Buffalo_joins_full.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: wiki en Original artist: US Gov • File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P050127,_Manöver_der_Reichswehr_in_Königshofen-Franken.jpg Source: http: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P050127%2C_Man%C3%B6ver_der_Reichswehr_ in_K%C3%B6nigshofen-Franken.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-719-0240-26,_Pas_de_Calais,_Atlantikwall,_Panzersperren.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-719-0240-26%2C_Pas_de_Calais%2C_Atlantikwall%2C_Panzersperren.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Jesse • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28150,_Deutsche_Soldaten_mit_Panzerfäusten.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/3f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H28150%2C_Deutsche_Soldaten_mit_Panzerf%C3%A4usten.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Bush_and_al-Maliki.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Bush_and_al-Maliki.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defenselink.mil/home/images/photos/2006-06/index/Hi-Res/060613c1-bush.jpg Original artist: U.S. Government • File:Bush_auth_jbc.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Bush_auth_jbc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bush_surge_announcement_jan_2007.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Bush_surge_ announcement_jan_2007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: whitehouse.gov, President's Address to the Nation Original artist: White House photo by Eric Draper
iThe source code of the previous SVG was invalid due to 12 errors. • File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by SKopp Original artist: Latvija • File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi. • File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp • File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public domain Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others • File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian flag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS 6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1] Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Multi-National_Force_–_Iraq.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Flag_of_ Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq.png License: Public domain Contributors: https://www.flagspot.net/ Original artist: USAIOH • File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass and many others • File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources) • File:Flag_of_Promised_Day_Brigades.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Promised_Day_ Brigades.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Flag of the Promised Day Brigades; a Shiite militia aligned with the Sadrist movement in Iraq. Visible here, here, and here. Original artist: Promised Day Brigades • File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flag designed by Đorđe Andrejević-Kun[3] • File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users • File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various<br />
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47.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES<br />
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411<br />
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• File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet Credits: • File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_The_Islamic_State_of_Iraq.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Flag_of_The_Islamic_ State_of_Iraq.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Victor falk at English Wikipedia • File:Flag_of_Tonga.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author) • File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови SVG: 2010 Original artist: України • File:Flag_of_United_States_Forces_–_Iraq.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Flag_of_United_ States_Forces_%E2%80%93_Iraq.png License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from: USF-I Logo.png Original artist: This image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from this: <a href=){kind=small}
USF-I Logo.png. • File:Flag_of_al-Qaeda_in_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_al-Qaeda_in_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Originally uploaded by User:Lexicon as Image:Flag of al-Qaeda.svg. Original artist: Emerson Begolly • File:Flag_of_the_Ba'ath_Party.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • -xfi-'s file • -xfi-'s code • Zirland's codes of colors Original artist: (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. • File:Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_ Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden • File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_ People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/ design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist: User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_ China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://pravo.levonevsky.org/ Original artist: СССР • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_the_United_ States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/ Original artist: United States Army
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/USMC-E3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/USMC-E4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/USMC-E5.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E6.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/USMC-E6.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E7.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/USMC-E7.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E8-1SG.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/USMC-E8-1SG.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E8-MSG.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/USMC-E8-MSG.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E9-MGyS.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/USMC-E9-MGyS.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC-E9-SGM.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/USMC-E9-SGM.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from raster image 
Original artist: Ipankonin
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:USMC_CWO2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/USMC_CWO2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 2.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/USMC_CWO3.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 3.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/USMC_CWO4.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 4.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_CWO5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/USMC_CWO5.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC CWO 5.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_Sniper_M24.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/USMC_Sniper_M24.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Thumbnail and caption Original artist: Corporal Ryan Walker, USMC • File:USMC_WO1.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/USMC_WO1.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorised from Image:USMC WO 1.png Original artist: US Marine Corps • File:USMC_War_Memorial_Night.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/USMC_War_Memorial_ Night.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/byways/photos/63476 Original artist: Catie Drew • File:USMC_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/USMC_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: DoD website: http://www.defenselink.mil/multimedia/web_graphics/#mc Original artist: U.S. Government • File:USMC_uniforms.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/USMC_uniforms.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made from w:Image:PlateIV Enlisted Dress Uniform.jpg, w:Image:PlateI Officer Service Uniform.jpg, w:Image:PlateV Evening Dress.jpg, and Image:MARPAT combat.jpg Original artist: Bahamut0013 • File:USMarineTankinBaghdad.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/USMarineTankinBaghdad.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/image1.nsf/lookup/2003555231?opendocument Original artist: U.S. Marine Corps • File:USS_Bonhomme_Richard_(LHD-6)_welldeck.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/USS_ Bonhomme_Richard_%28LHD-6%29_welldeck.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id= 13685 Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 2nd Class Jennifer Swader. (RELEASED) • File:US_101st_Airborne_Division_patch.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/US_101st_Airborne_ Division_patch.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darz Mol • File:US_2nd_Cavalry_Regiment_SSI.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/US_2nd_Cavalry_ Regiment_SSI.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:US_Army_Cyber_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a8/US_Army_Cyber_Command_SSI. png License: PD Contributors: The Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=8072&grp=2&menu= Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_Reserve_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/US_Army_Reserve_ Command_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snubcube • File:US_Army_Special_Forces_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/US_Army_Special_Forces_ SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/SF/SpecialForcesGroup.htm Original artist: US Army • File:US_Army_Special_Operations_Aviation_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/ US_Army_Special_Operations_Aviation_Command_SSI.png License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=9478&grp=2&menu=Uniformed%20Services&from= recent Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ b/b7/US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.svg License: Public domain Contributors: redrawn of US_Army_Special_Operations_Command_SSI.png Original artist: U.S. Army Institute Of Heraldry - Redrawn: McSush • File:US_Army_Test_and_Evaluation_Command_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e8/US_Army_Test_ and_Evaluation_Command_SSI.png License: PD Contributors: The Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=2989&grp=2&menu= Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_War_College_SSI.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d7/US_Army_War_College_SSI.png License: PD Contributors: The U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry at http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/Catalog/HeraldryMulti.aspx?CategoryId=6999&grp=2& menu=Uniformed%20ServicesCategoryId=2955&grp=2&menu=Uniformed%20Services Original artist: United States Army Institute of Heraldry • File:US_Army_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/US_Army_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/ Original artist: United States Army (USA)