European Atlas of Forest Tree Species

EUROPEAN ATLAS OF

FOREST TREE SPECIES

EUROPEAN ATLAS OF

FOREST TREE SPECIES

JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 1

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Preambles Publication details The preferred citation for the chapters in this document is provided in each specific chapter (see also the Appendix “Information on copyright, citation and disclaimer”, p. 195). The full version of each chapter (expanded and fully peerreviewed) will be published in the online version of the Atlas in the Forest Information System for Europe web site (permanent URL https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/). The online version of each chapter is the recommended version to cite. Citing individual chapters should be the preferred option. To refer to the entire book as opposed to individual chapters, please cite as: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), 2016. European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

Contributors HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS

Editorial Board

Free publications:

Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz

• one copy: via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu); • more than one copy or posters/maps: from the European Union’s representations (http://ec.europa.eu/represent_en.htm);

Daniele de Rigo Giovanni Caudullo Tracy Houston Durrant Achille Mauri

from the delegations in non-EU countries (http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/index_en.htm); by contacting the Europe Direct service (http://europa.eu/europedirect/index_en.htm) or calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) (*). (*) The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone boxes or hotels may charge you).

In order to refer to the online fully peer-reviewed version of each chapter (as recommended), please consult the recommended citation format at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/. This is the URL to access the index of the online version of the Atlas, where you may easily find the chapter of interest. © European Union, 2016 The information and views set out in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein. Reuse is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged. The reuse policy of the European Commission is implemented by a Decision of 12 December 20111 . The general principle of reuse can be subject to conditions which may be specified in individual copyright notices. Therefore readers are advised to refer to the copyright notices of the individual documents (including individual images, diagrams, ...). Reuse is not applicable to documents subject to intellectual property rights of third parties. Published by the Publications Office of the European Union, L-2995 Luxembourg, Luxembourg.

Priced publications: • via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu).

WANT TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE EU?

http://europa.eu Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union: Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone boxes or hotels may charge you).

Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of the following information.

Printed version

Underlying cartographic features depicted on the maps in this atlas are derived from the Digital Chart of the World and Lovell Johns Cartographic Base. These data do not have any explicit legal status; hence, no legal aspects should be derived from the information depicted on any of the maps in this publication.

Catalogue number LB-04-14-282-EN-C Online version ISBN 978-92-79-52833-0

H. John B. Birks, University of Bergen, Department of Biology, Bergen, Norway Giovanni Caudullo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Daniele de Rigo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Giorgio Guariso, Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Milan, Italy

Cartographic Representations

doi:10.2788/4251

Scientific board

Dave Durrant, Forestry Commission, Forest Research, Farnham, United Kingdom (retired)

European Atlas of Forest Tree Species ISBN 978-92-79-36740-3

The editorial board (Daniele, Achille, Jesús, Giovanni, Tracy).

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet at:

Tracy Houston Durrant, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Achille Mauri, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Sandra Oliveira, University of Lisbon, Institute of Geography and Territorial Planning, Lisbon, Portugal Salvatore Pasta, National Research Council, Institute of Biosceinces and Bioresources, Palermo, Italy Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Willy Tinner, University of Bern, Institute of Plant Sciences and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, Bern, Switzerland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Chart_of_the_World www.lovelljohns.com

doi:10.2788/038466 Catalogue number LB-04-14-282-EN-N

2016 – 200 pp. – 30.1 × 42.4 cm Printed in Belgium. Printed on elemental chlorine-free bleached paper (ECF).

References [1] European Commission, Official Journal of the European Union 54, 39 (2011).

Front cover image: Photograph of a holm oak (Quercus ilex) taken in Despeñaperros Natural Park (Andalusia, Spain) a Natura 2000 site, in which a LIFE project was implemented for the conservation of protected species such as the Iberian imperial eagle, the Iberian lynx, the black vulture and the black stork. The open holm oak forest in the area favours the production of a multiplicity of forest ecosystems such as game, timber, range, cattle feed and acorns, and sustains a high level of animal and plant biodiversity.

Disclaimer of Liability The European Commission has taken considerable care in preparing the information presented in this atlas. The political boundaries shown on the maps are only indicative. The European Commission assumes no responsibility for the information contained in this publication.

Design and graphic support Final design and graphic support by Lovell Johns Limited, 10 Hanborough Business Park, Long Hanborough, Witney, Oxfordshire, OX29 8RU, United Kingdom. http://www.lovelljohns.com

(Copyright go2life, pixabay.com: CC0)

"Mighty oaks from little acorns grow"

(Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Back cover images: Top: Copyright Giovanni Caudullo, CC-BY Centre row far left: Copyright Valentin Sabau, CC0, http://archive.is/GyEvu Centre row middle left: Copyright Alfonso San Miguel, CC-BY Centre row middle right: Copyright Alfonso San Miguel, CC-BY Centre row far right: Copyright Alfonso San Miguel, CC-BY Bottom: Copyright Alfonso San Miguel, CC-BY

2

This QR code points to the full online version of the Atlas, where the most updated content may be freely accessed.

European Atlas of Forest Tree Species | Introduction


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Authors

Data contributors

Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Francesca Giannetti, University of Florence, Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Systems, Firenze, Italy

Austria (Dr. Klemens Schadauer)

Daniele de Rigo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Núria Guerrero Hue, Independent researcher

Denmark (Ms. Vivian Kvist Johannsen, Annemarie Bastrup-Birke)

Natalia Guerrero Maldonado, Estudios Europeos de Medioambiente S.L., Departamento de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Madrid, Spain

Estonia (Mr. Veiko Adermann, Mr. Mati Valgepea)

Giovanni Caudullo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Tracy Houston Durrant, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Achille Mauri, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Willy Tinner, University of Bern, Institute of Plant Sciences and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, Bern, Switzerland Dalibor Ballian, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Forestry, Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina Pieter Beck, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy H. John B. Birks, University of Bergen, Department of Biology, Bergen, Norway Edward Eaton, Forestry Commission, Forest Research, Centre for Sustainable Forestry and Climate Change, Farnham, United Kingdom Cristian Mihai Enescu, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Department of Soil Sciences, Forestry Specialization, Bucharest, Romania Salvatore Pasta, National Research Council, Institute of Biosceinces and Bioresources, Palermo, Italy Ioana Popescu, Drury University, Biology Department, Springfield Missouri, USA Cesare Ravazzi, National Research Council, Institute for the Dynamics of Environmental Processes, Milano, Italy Erik Welk, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Department of Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Halle (Saale), Germany Raul Abad Viñas, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy João C. Azevedo, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Agrarian School, Department of Environmental and Natural Resources, Bragança, Portugal Anna Barbati, University of Tuscia, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Viterbo, Italy José I. Barredo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Suzanne E. Benham, Forestry Commission, Forest Research, Centre for Ecosystem, Society and Biosecurity, Farnham, United Kingdom Roberto Boca, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Claudio Bosco, Loughborough University, Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough, United Kingdom Maria C. Caldeira, University of Lisbon, Forest Research Centre, School of Agriculture, Lisbon, Portugal Sofia Cerasoli, University of Lisbon, School of Agriculture, Forest Research Centre, Lisbon, Portugal Gherardo Chirici, University of Florence, Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Systems, Firenze, Italy Arne Cierjacks, University of Hamburg, Biocenter Klein Flottbek, Department of Biodiversity of Useful Plants, Hamburg, Germany Marco Conedera, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Insubric Ecosystem Research Group, Bellinzona, Switzerland Flavio Da Ronch, University of Padova, Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural resources, Animals and Environment, Legnaro (PD), Italy Margherita Di Leo, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Juan Ignacio García-Viñas, Technical University of Madrid, ECOGESFOR Research Group, Department of Natural Systems and Resources, ETSI Montes, Forestales y del Medio Natural, Madrid, Spain. Aitor Gastón González, Technical University of Madrid, ECOGESFOR Research Group, Department of Natural Systems and Resources, ETSI Montes, Forestales y del Medio Natural, Madrid, Spain.

Marcelo Javier López, Fundación Global Nature, Madrid, Spain Ragnar Jonsson, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Patrik Krebs, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Insubric Ecosystem Research Group, Bellinzona, Switzerland

Czech Republic (Mr. Martin Pospíšil)

Finland (Kari T. Korhonen) France (Claude Vidal, Jean-Marc Frémont) Germany (Dr. Heino Polley) Hungary (Mr. Laszlo Kolozs) Ireland (Mr. John Redmond) Italy (Mrs. Patrizia Gasparini, Mr. Enrico Pompei)

Diego Magni, Independent researcher

Latvia (Ms. Ieva Licite, Mr. Toms Zālītis)

Sarah Mubareka, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Lithuania (M. Albertas Kasperavicius)

Gráinne Mulhern, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Portugal (Ms. Ferreira Maria Conceição, Ana Paula Dias)

Paula Nieto Quintano, University of Edinburgh, School of Geosciences, Edinburgh, UK

Sweden (Dr. Jonas Fridman)

Sandra Oliveira, University of Lisbon, Institute of Geography and Territorial Planning, Lisbon, Portugal João S. Pereira, Forest Research Centre, School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Portugal

The Netherlands (Mr. Jan Oldenburger) Romania (Mr. Gheorghe Marin) Slovak Republic (Ms. Zuzana Kmetova) Spain (Mr. Santiago Saura Martínez de Toda, Iciar Alberdi Asensio, Mr. Guillermo Fernandez Centeno, Roberto Vallejo Bombín) United Kingdom (Mr Mark Lawrence)

Mario Pividori, University of Padova, Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, Legnaro (PD), Italy

Norway (Mr. Stein Tomter)

Minna Räty, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy

Forest Focus/Monitoring dataset, BioSoil dataset, European Forest Genetic Resources (EUFORGEN), European Information System on Forest Genetic Resources (EUFGIS) - www.eufgis.org, Geo-referenced Database of Genetic Diversity (GD)2 - www.evoltree. eu (see also the Chapter “The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species: modelling, data and information on forest tree species”, p. 40)

Francesca Rinaldi, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Santiago Saura, Technical University of Madrid, ECOGESFOR Research Group, Department of Natural Systems and Resources, ETSI Montes, Forestales y del Medio Natural, Madrid, Spain. Richard Sikkema, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Tommaso Sitzia, University of Padova, Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, Legnaro (PD), Italy Giovanni Strona, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Claude Vidal, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (VA), Italy Lara Vilar, Spanish National Research Council, Institute of Economics, Geography and Demography, Madrid, Spain Barbara Zecchin, Independent researcher

Acknowledgements This publication is the culmination of a fruitful collaboration between the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre and numerous forest and vegetation experts from institutions and universities across Europe. The completion of this Atlas would have not been possible without their contribution. The exhaustive knowledge on environment, forest ecosystem and tree species of Claude Vidal, Günther Seufert, Ola Sallnäs, Anne Ghisla, Franz Starlinger, and Michael Frankis was crucial for adding new insights on the preparation of the Atlas chapters. In particular, the JRC is grateful for the support and commitment offered by the forestry administrations in the member states that provided the necessary data for the preparation of the Atlas. A list of contributors is shown below. The Editors wish to extend their gratitude to the anonymous referees, to Grainne Mulhern and the army of other proof-readers for their ability to spot errors and inconsistencies through the Atlas. This led to an improved scientific soundness, readability and standardisation of the atlas. In addition, the authors are grateful for the assistance of William Adnams and in particular, Ian Dewsbery at Lovell Johns Ltd (UK) whose patience, understanding and high professional standards have significantly added to the quality of this publication. Thanks also to Arlette Goergen of the EU Publications Office for her assistance in coordinating the printing process and to Matteo Cassanelli for providing support through the publication process. Finally, the Editorial Board has put every effort to credit all contributors and trace all copyright holders. We apologise for any unintentional omission, for which we would be pleased to rectify in future editions or online versions of the atlas.

Switzerland (Mr. Adrian Lanz)

Photo Credits A. Steven Munson, Aanjhan Ranganathan, Achille Mauri, Agnieska Ovaskainen, Agnieszka Kwiecień (Nova), Alan Gregg, Alan Semper, Aldo De Bastiani, Aleksasfi, Alessio Sbarbaro (Yoggysot), Alexander Cahlenstein, Alexej Potupin, Alfie Ianni, Alfonso San Miguel, Allie Caulfield, Alpes de Haute Provence, Alpo Roikola, Andreas Rockstein (AnRo0002), Andrew, Andrew_Writer, Andrey Zharkikh, Angela Benito, Anssi Koskinen, Arnaud 25, Arnstein Rønning, Ashley Basil, Atif Rafik, Axel Kristinsson, Benediktv, benet2006, Bernt Rostad, Bj.schoenmakers, Botaurus stellaris, Bri Weldon, Brian Gratwicke, Bruce Kirchoff, cafepampas, Carl Mueller, Caroline Sada, Cesare Ravazzi, Chris De Wit, Chris M. Morris, Christa Regina, Christinamari, claude05alleva, Claudio Bosco, Crusier, Dalibor Ballian, Dan Nordal, Daniele de Rigo, Danielgrad, Dave Durrant, Dave Hamster, David Friel, David Nicholls, David Wright, Davide Fumagalli, davidgsteadman, Dezidor, Doc Searls, Domenico Salvagnin, Donald Hobern, Drahkrub, echoe69, Elin, Emma Silviana Mauri, Enrico Romani, Entomart, Eran Finkle, Estormiz, Ettore Balocchi, F. Delventhal, F. Lamiot, Forest & Kim Starr, Forestry Commission, Francesco Ciabatti, Francesco Gasparetti, Francisco Antunes, Franco Caldararo, Franco Giordana, Franco Rossi, Frank Vassen, Franz Josef, Frauke Feind, Fredi Bach, Free Photos, Gary Houston, Gaston Aitor, Georgi Kunev, Giallopolenta, Giancarlo Pasquali, Gianluca Nicolella, Gian-Reto Tarnutzer, Giovanni Caudullo, Giovanni Trentanovi, Giulia Corradini, Giuseppe Milo, Göranssons Åkeri AB i Färila, Graham Calow, gravitat-OFF, Graziano Propetto, Guilhem Vellut, Hannu, Hans Braxmeier, Hans Fransen, Harald Deischinger, Hauke Musicaloris, Horla Varlan, Huskarl, Ian Andrews, IKB, ilovebutter, Inga Vitola, ioa8320, Irina Kazanskaya, ISeneca, J. Kelley, J.R. Pinho, Jan Homann, Ján Sokoly, Jannik Selz, Javi MF, Javier Martin, Jean Latour, Jean-Baptiste Bellet, Jean-Pol Grandmont, Jennifer Slot, Jeremy Atkinson, Jevgenij Voronov, Jevgēnijs Šlihto, jez.atkinson, Jim Ferguson, Jiří Berkovec, Jiricek72, Jo Simon, John Tann, Jongleur100, Jonson22, Jorge Franganillo, Jose Luis Cernadas Iglesias, Josh Egan-Wyer (je_wyer), Juan Ignacio García Viñas, Karl Brodowsky, Kenraiz, Kimberly Vardeman, László Szalai, Leonid Mamchenkov, lifar, liz west, Lukasz Szmigiel, Magnus Manske, Maher27777, Mahlum, Maja Dumat, MajaDumat, Manfred Gut, Marilyn Peddle, Marina Torres, Marinella Zepigi, MarioM, Marion Schneider & Christoph Aistleitner (Mediocrity), Mattivirtala, MemoryCatcher, Michael Kranewitter, Michael Simoncini, Michael Wunderli, Miguel Vieira, Mihai Enescu, Miltos Gikas, miluz, Miquel Llop, Molekuel, mornarsamotarsky, MrT HK, Murray B. Henson, Nacho, NASA, NatureServe, Neil McIntosh, NH53, Nicholas A. Tonelli, Nicolas Raymond, Niki.L, Ninara, No-author, Nociveglia, Noel Feans, Norlando Pobre, Nova, NTNU Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, Nuno Lavrador, Pablo, Pancrazio Campagna, Paolo da Reggio, Patrice, Patrik Krebs, Paul Schulze, Pavel Buršík, Pedro Dias, Peter Smith, Peter Trimming, Phil Sellens, Pieter Beck, Ptelea, Ragnar Jonsson, Rainer Lippert, Richard Allaway, Richard Sikkema, Rob Hille, Robert Anders, Roberta Alberti, Roberto Verzo, Roland Tanglao, Ronnie Nijboer, Rosendahl, Rosenzweig, Ruben Holthuijsen, S. Rae, Sallyofmayflower, Samuel Killworth, Santos Cirujano Bracamonte, Sarah Millar, Sarang, Schwabe90, Sean MacEntee, Sergey Norin, Sergey Urzhumskov, Sergio Piccolo, Shankar S., Silvano Radivo, Soldatnytt, Somepics, Son of Groucho, Stan, Stanislav Doronenko, Stefano Zerauschek, Stefanst, Sten Porse, Steven Gill, Stewart Black, Stuart Caie, Superior National Forest, Sven Scheuermeier, Svíčková, Takeshi Kuboki, Tanaka Juuyoh, Tara2, Taxelson, Thomas Quine, Thomas Richter, Tom Brandt, Tomás Royo, Tomasz Proszek, Tracy Houston Durrant, tree-species, Umberto Salvagnin, US Forest Service, Valentin Sabau, Vasile Cotovanu, Vassil, Velella, Verollanos93, Victor M. Vicente Selvas, Vince Smith, Vito Buono, Vlad Butsky, weisserstier, Wendy Cutler, William Warby, Willow, Willy Tinner, Wojciech Przybylski, Wolfgang Staudt, Wouter Hagens, Xemenendura, Yuri Timofeyev, Zseeee.

Introduction | European Atlas of Forest Tree Species


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Contents Preambles

2

Publication details

2

Contributors

2

Introduction

5

Preface on the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species

6

The European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe

7

Forest resources in Europe: an integrated perspective on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats

8

Forest bio-based economy in Europe

20

European forests: an ecological overview

24

European forest classifications

32

European Forest Types: tree species matrix

34

Past forests of Europe

36

Tree species

4

40

The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species: modelling, data and information on forest tree species

40

How to read the Atlas

46

Abies alba

Silver fir

48

Picea omorika

Serbian spruce

117

Abies spp.

Circum-Mediterranean firs

50

Picea sitchensis

Sitka Spruce

118

Acer campestre

Field maple

52

Pinus cembra

Arolla pine

120

Acer platanoides

Norway maple

54

Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia

Aleppo pine and Turkish pine

122

Acer pseudoplatanus

Sycamore or sycamore maple

56

Pinus mugo

Dwarf mountain pine

124

Aesculus hippocastanum

European horse-chestnut

60

Pinus nigra

Black pine

126

Ailanthus altissima

Tree of heaven

61

Pinus pinaster

Maritime pine

128

Alnus cordata

Italian alder

62

Pinus pinea

Stone pine

130

Alnus glutinosa

Common or black alder

64

Pinus sylvestris

Scots pine

132

Alnus incana

Grey alder

66

Populus alba

White poplar

134

Alnus viridis

Green alder

68

Populus nigra

Black poplar

136

Betula sp.

Birches

70

Populus tremula

Eurasian aspen

138

Carpinus betulus

Common hornbeam

74

Prunus avium

Wild cherry

140

Carpinus orientalis

Oriental hornbeam

76

Prunus cerasifera

Cherry plum

142

Castanea sativa

Sweet chestnut

78

Prunus mahaleb

Mahaleb cherry

143

Bird cherry

144

Celtis australis

Nettle tree

80

Prunus padus

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

Lawson cypress

81

Prunus spinosa

Blackthorn

145

Cornus mas

Cornelian cherry

82

Pseudotsuga menziesii

Douglas fir

146

Cornus sanguinea

Common or red dogwood

84

Quercus cerris

Turkey oak

148

Corylus avellana

Common or European hazel

86

Quercus frainetto

Hungarian oak

150

Cupressus sempervirens

Mediterranean cypress

88

Quercus ilex

Holm or evergreen oak

152

Eucalyptus globulus

Tasmanian blue gum

90

Quercus palustris

Pin oak

154

Euonymus europaeus

Spindle tree

92

Quercus pubescens

Downy or pubescent oak

156

Fagus sylvatica

European beech

94

Quercus pyrenaica

Pyrenean oak

158

Frangula alnus

Alder buckthorn

96

Quercus robur and Quercus petraea Pedunculate oak and sessile oak 160

Fraxinus angustifolia

Narrow-leaved ash

97

Quercus suber

Cork oak

164

Fraxinus excelsior

Common ash

98

Robinia pseudoacacia

Black locust

166

Fraxinus ornus

Manna ash

100

Salix alba

White willow

168

Ilex aquifolium

European holly

102

Salix caprea

Goat willow

170

Juglans regia

Common walnut

103

Sambucus nigra

Black elderberry

172

Juniperus communis

Common juniper

104

Sorbus aria

Common whitebeam

174

Juniperus oxycedrus

Prickly juniper

105

Sorbus aucuparia

Rowan or Mountain ash

176

Juniperus phoenicea

Phoenician juniper

106

Sorbus domestica

Service tree

178

Juniperus thurifera

Spanish juniper

107

Sorbus torminalis

Wild service tree

180

Larix decidua

European larch

108

Tamarix spp.

Tamarisks

182

Olea europaea

Olive

111

Taxus baccata

European or English yew

183

Ostrya carpinifolia

European hop-hornbeam

112

Tilia spp.

Limes (Linden)

184

Picea abies

Norway spruce

114

Ulmus spp.

Elms

186



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Glossary 190

Appendices 194 The European Commission

194

Information on copyright, citation and disclaimer

196

Spring foliage of Norway maple (Acer platanoides). (Copyright Jiricek72, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Introduction Preface Dear readers, Over the past 200 years, Europe's forests have been in a period of recovery after centuries of deforestation and degradation. Today, forests and other wooded lands cover some 40% of the European Union’s landmass. They are remarkable ecosystems, a precious natural resource and a source of income and wealth. Forests capture and store carbon, prevent soil erosion, protect us from floods and landslides, provide habitats for plants and animals, and support leisure and recreation – as well as providing timber and other forest products. However, forests are under pressure. Storms, fires and pests are expected to damage forests more frequently and more intensely as a result of climate change. Unsustainable management practices have resulted in habitat and biodiversity loss. And continued high nitrogen depositions are a concern. In order to continue providing European citizens with their wide range of economic, environmental and social benefits, but also to protect them and keep them in good condition, it is crucial that our forests are managed sustainably – and this requires improving our knowledge. Knowing how forest tree species are distributed across the EU is vital for making decisions about forest management, the protection of areas of high nature value, the selection of species for afforestation and the measures for adapting to climate change. This European Atlas of Forest Tree Species is the first report to compile and make this essential information available to forest managers, researchers, citizens and policy makers. An enormous amount of work has gone into creating this Atlas, involving collaborations with national forest services, research organisations, universities and international institutions dealing with the many different aspects of forest life; the botanical sciences, soils, biodiversity, vegetation and pests for example. I believe that this European Atlas of Forest Tree Species will soon become an important reference text for this rich European resource. By learning more about our trees and forests, we can truly appreciate their critical role in our environment, our economies and our lives. Happy reading!

Rainbow over Sierra Morena (southern Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Karmenu Vella

European Commissioner for the Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries

Tibor Navracsics

European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Youth and Sport

Field maple (Acer campestre) in a rapeseed (Brassica napus) cultivation near Dorchester (Dorset, UK). (Copyright Ian Andrews,www.geograph.org.uk: AP)

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The European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe J. San-Miguel-Ayanz Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is a key objective of all European countries. A commitment to SFM forms the basis of the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (Forest Europe1), which were held in Strasbourg (1993), Lisbon (1998), Vienna (2003), Warsaw (2007), Oslo (2011) and Madrid (2015). As part of the Forest Europe process, countries report national information on a series of forest criteria and indicators every four years. This information is used to assess the sustainable management of forests in the different regions of Europe and to elaborate the series of reports on the State of Europe’s Forests, the latest of which was published in 2015. While the information contained within this series of reports is very valuable, it does not lend itself to a more detailed assessment of environmental processes as the reports are made at national rather than local or regional scales. It is difficult to produce detailed harmonised information on forests at European level. As countries have their own national or regional forest information systems, and often their own definition of forests, a compilation of national datasets does not provide a reliable pan-European assessment of the state of the forests. For this reason, it is necessary to harmonise national information at the European scale so as to derive pan-European forest information. Within the European Union, a series of regulations were established over the years to collect information on forests and to ensure their sustainable management. Chronologically, Regulation EEC No 3528/862 and Regulation EEC No 2157/923 helped establish information systems for the monitoring of air pollution in forests and for forest fire prevention. Both regulations were substituted by the Forest Focus regulation4 during the period 2003-2006, which facilitated the establishment of common European forest information systems for air pollution (the Forest Focus database5, 6) and for forest fires (the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS)7). However, with the expiration of the Forest Focus regulation in 2006, European countries are currently under no obligation to report information on forest resources to European forest information systems. Although there is no comprehensive common European forest information system to which countries report, most countries in Europe have their own systems in place to collect information about their forests. The most common systems are the National Forest Inventories (NFIs). While NFIs are very different in most countries, they collect ground data and forest parameters that can be processed to obtain harmonised European forest information. Initiatives to support this harmonisation process were first financed through the Forest Focus regulation. Several projects were financed for the harmonisation of different forest parameters, including forest area, carbon stocks, forest protection indicators in mountain regions, etc. The largest of these was the Biosoil project8, 9 , as part of which a soil survey was conducted in 22 EU countries, and biodiversity data were collected in standardised plots in 19 countries. The information from these projects was incorporated and is available in the Forest Focus database of the Joint Research Centre. Additionally, research initiatives on the harmonisation of reporting activities from NFIs were launched in the form of Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Actions. Although essential for the process of harmonising forest information from NFIs, the COST Actions do not in themselves produce harmonised European datasets (which would be necessary to assess the state of forest resources at the European level), but instead develop definitions and methods that may allow for the derivation of these datasets. Attempts to establish common information systems at the European level were launched through the EFICS regulation (1989)10 and followed by the setting up of a European Forest Information and Communication Platform (EFICP)10 . However, the lack of standardised forest information systems across countries and the difficulties faced in establishing common protocols for data transmission impeded the successful establishment of a common forest information system in Europe. Although a common EU Forest Strategy had existed since 1998, little progress was made in setting up a comprehensive common European forest information system. However, initiatives to bring together European forestrelated information systems were still ongoing11 .

In 2005, an agreement between several Commission services and the European Environment Agency led to the creation of 10 environmental data centres. The responsibility for the establishment of two of these centres, those dealing with forests and soils, was given to the JRC. These environmental data centres were named EFDAC (European Forest Data Centre) and ESDAC (European Soil Data Centre). In order to further support the collection of harmonised information on forest resources in Europe, the JRC set up a four-year Framework Contract in 2009 for the provision of data and services to EFDAC. A second fouryear Framework Contract was established in 2012. In this context, the European Commission has been collaborating with European NFI services to produce harmonised forest datasets at European level, and datasets on forest basal areas, forest biomass and the distribution of forest tree species have been compiled. The latter dataset is one of the core datasets used for the production of the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species.

The adoption of the new EU Forest Strategy12 by the European Commission in 2013 opened a new opportunity for the establishment of a common European forest information system. Within this strategy, the European Commission and the EU Member States are establishing a Forest Information System for Europe (FISE). FISE is currently under development, and a prototype is already available at http://fise.jrc.ec.europa.eu. The development of FISE builds on existing European systems such as EFDAC, EFFIS and the Forest Focus database, and aims to become the focal point for information on forest resources in Europe. The forest-based sector plays a crucial role within a growing bioeconomy in terms of value-added, job creation, and (through the sequestration of carbon and providing a substitute for fossil-fuel-based materials and energy) climate change mitigation. Different EU policies affect the forest-based sector (and therefore European forests), including the Climate and Energy Framework, the EU Biodiversity Strategy & Natura 2000. To ensure coherence among policies, their impacts need to be modelled. The establishment of FISE is at the core of the EU Forest Strategy as the instrument to assess progress towards the targets established in the cross-sectorial policies that affect forests and forest resources, and to ensure the sustainable management of forest resources in Europe.

Spruce forest surrounding the Atorno Lake (Belluno, Italy). (Copyright Domenico Salvagnin, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, Forest Europe - growing life (2016). http://www.foresteurope.org. [2] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 29, 2 (1986). [3] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 35, 3 (1992). [4] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 1, 1 (2003). [5] R. Hiederer, et al., Forest focus monitoring database system - Validation methodology, vol. EUR 23020 EN (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2007). [6] T. Houston Durrant, R. Hiederer, Journal of Environmental Monitoring 11, 774 (2009). [7] J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, et al., Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts, J. Tiefenbacher, ed. (InTech, 2012), chap. 5.

Autumnal foliage of the horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum). (Copyright Hans Braxmeier, pixabay.com: CC0)

[8] R. Hiederer, T. Houston Durrant, E. Micheli, Evaluation of BioSoil Demonstration Project - Soil Data Analysis, vol. 24729 of EUR - Scientific and Technical Research (Publications Office of the European Union, 2011). [9] T. Houston Durrant, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, E. Schulte, A. Suarez Meyer, Evaluation of BioSoil Demonstration Project: Forest biodiversity - Analysis of biodiversity module, vol. 24777 of EUR - Scientific and Technical Research (Publications Office of the European Union, 2011). [10] D. Tilsner, et al., International Journal of Spatial Data Infrastructures Research 2, 112 (2007). [11] J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, G. Schmuck, R. Flies, E. Schulte, I. Seoane, Database and Expert Systems Applications, 2005. Proceedings. Sixteenth International Workshop on (IEEE, 2005), pp. 669–673. [12] European Commission, COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION pp. 1–17 (2013).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012228. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., 2016. The European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012228+



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Forest resources in Europe: an integrated perspective on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats D. de Rigo, C. Bosco, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, T. Houston Durrant, J.I. Barredo, G. Strona, G. Caudullo, M. Di Leo, R. Boca In Europea , 33 % of the total land area (215 million ha) is covered by forests, with a positive trend of increase for the forested areas. Other wooded lands cover an additional area of 36 million ha. 113 million ha are covered by coniferous forests, 90 million ha by broadleaved ones and 48 million ha by mixed forests1 . Forest resources should not be considered as a monolithic entity. Instead, they play a multifaceted role, with complex patterns and relationships among forests and other wooded lands, their usage and their interaction with other natural and anthropic systems. Wood is a primary source of renewable energy in Europe2, 3 (Fig 4 top). At the same time, primary feedstocks for wood-based biofuels frequently compete for a variety of non-energy uses. For example, wood can be used as material for furniture production and on construction sites as building material2 (see also chapter “Forest bio-based economy in Europe”). 150 million ha are considered available for wood supply1 . In 2010, the value of marketed roundwood reached 11 500 million Euro, while the overall value of marketed non-wood goods related to forest resources reached 2.3 billion Euro1 . An estimate of 103 million euro (0.8 % of the European GDP) constitutes the gross value added by the forest sector1 . Forestry and forestbased industries in Europe allow almost 3 million people to earn their living (estimates for 2010)1 . However, monetary value alone does not provide a complete picture of the real impact of forest resources in Europe (see the next section of this chapter). Recreational and tourism aspects play an important role. 90 % of forest and other wooded land has been reported as available for recreational purposes1 . Although data are incomplete, at least 1.25 million cultural sites are located in European forests, of which around three-quarters classified as ‘Cultural heritage’1 . Cultural services are part of the rich set of ecosystem services provided by forests, the value of which reverberates far outside the forest sector (see Box 1). For example, considering only the protective functions of forests, they affect soil resources, water resources and biodiversity1 . 30 million hectares of European forests have been protected with the main objective to support biodiversity or landscape conservation, and a large majority of European countries (more than 90 %) have specific objectives in relation to biodiversity1 (see Box 1). Forests can offer a key contribution to mitigate the effects of climate change. European forest biomass adsorbs a remarkable amount of atmospheric CO2. This service of forest resources amounts in Europe to an average (from 2005 to 2015) annual carbon sequestration of 719 million tonnes, which is about 9 % of the net greenhouse gas emission in the region (414 million tonnes in the EU-28)1 . In addition, carbon is also stored in long-lasting structures (e.g. wooden buildings) and another “carbon sink” is constituted by wood products which replace more energy-demanding materials or industrial processes/sectors1 . Wood-based biofuels also help to reduce the necessity to use fossil fuels, thus contributing to decrease greenhouse gas emissions1 . A significant share of European forests (more than 110 million ha) is designated for protecting water, soil, ecosystem and infrastructures1 . Forests protect soil resources by significantly reducing soil erosion. This role is especially relevant in mountainous areas and areas with extreme climates. Ultimately, the soil-protection services offered by European forests reverberate also as climate change mitigation. In particular, this may be appreciated by considering that the larger proportion of overall forest carbon pools is constituted by forest soils (54.1 %), compared to the living above ground biomass (leaves, branches, trunks, etc.) with 28.5 %, the litter with 9.0 % and the living below ground biomass (roots, etc.) with 7.1 % of the total1 . However, not all types of forest can provide the same level of functions, services, biodiversity and sustainability. They also interact with other natural resources, bioclimatic and anthropogenic aspects, some of which are introduced in the next section. In this respect, details on the forest ecology, composition and age structure may be relevant. For example, evidence suggests that old forests may provide higher water storage from storm rainfall and local flooding mitigation4, 5 . They may also offer more suitable habitats for some animals than young forests6 while the age of forest stands shows peculiar relationships with species richness which appear specific to functional groups (e.g. richness of lichens, ectomycorrhizal fungi, and saprophytic beetles appears higher in undisturbed old-growth forest)7. In Europe, 40 % of the forests are between 20 and 80 years old and 18 % are over 80 years old, while 70 % are dominated In this chapter, when referring to statistics from the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (FOREST EUROPE)¹, it is assumed the definition of Europe and its Country Groups as provided in foresteurope.org.

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by at least two tree species (during the last 15 years, the area of forests composed by a single tree species has continuously decreased)1 . Recent research results suggest how the density of above-ground biomass carbon of mature forests may increase as forests age from 80 to 400 years8 . More in general, biodiversity and cultural ecosystem services linked to recreation are generally more favourable in uneven-aged and old even-aged forests than in young even-aged forests1 . However, the distribution of tree ages suggests that, over the past century, several forests in boreal and temperate ecological zones have been disturbed by natural causes (e.g. wildfires, pests, weather), or land management9 . Furthermore, tree species composition and management practices may affect a multiplicity of ecosystem functions and services6, 10, 11 . Tradeoffs may emerge between competing usages and adaptation/ mitigation strategies for forest resources in view of climate and global changes - highlighting the key role of the scientific state of art, its progress and open problems on wide-scale integrated problems (data and modelling uncertainties, intrinsic complexity due to transdisciplinary modelling and knowledge integration)12-20 .

Fig. 1: Short rotation forestry (SRF) of willows, Dormagen, Germany. (Adapted from an image authored by Alexej Potupin, PD)

context so as to “maintain and enhance forest cover to ensure soil protection, water quality and quantity”21 .

Fig. 2: Qualitative illustration of some ecosystem functions, processes and services associated to forest resources. They may range from the local scale (e.g. wood, soil formation, ....) to the catchment scale (e.g. water regulation and purification), regional scale (e.g. aesthetic, cultural heritage) and beyond (e.g. global aspects of climate regulation). (Adapted from an image authored by Harald Deischinger, CC-BY, https://archive.is/aoYxd)

Unfortunately, almost 3.7 million ha of the overall forested areas in Europe are affected by forest damage, frequently due to biotic causal factors (1.9 million ha damaged by insects and diseases). Among the abiotic factors, fire causes the damage of 0.5 million ha forests while storm, wind and snow damage have been estimated to affect 0.8 million ha of forest resources (estimation based on reports covering 73 % of the forested area)1 . This brief overview of facts and statistics aims to provide a descriptive picture of the multifaceted aspects of forests in Europe. However, a deeper understanding of the structure and functional relationships among forest resources and other natural and anthropic systems requires some underpinning concept to be considered in an integrated way. This may be essential even at the science-policy interface in order to provide policy-making with a robust science-based support. In the recent Forest Strategy of the European Union (see on page 7 the chapter "European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe"), one of the four strategic orientations explicitly recommends “advanced research and modelling tools to fill data and knowledge gaps to better understand the complex issues around social, economic and environmental changes related to forests” within a general strategy which “promotes a coherent, holistic view of forest management, covers the multiple benefits of forests, integrates internal and external forest-policy issues, and addresses the whole forest value-chain”21 . This could be achieved by integrating diverse data, information systems and models in a modular way, considering forests in relation with natural disturbances like fires and pests, the bio-economy (see the next chapter), climate change and ecosystem services21, 22 . As an example, sustainable forest management practices are recommended in a broader

Similar forestry practices are exploited or investigated in several European countries as energy crops23-26 . Fast-growing trees are used which are able to reach their economically optimum size in 8-20 years. Positive services of short rotation forestry (SRF) include carbon sequestration. However, the potential impact of some of these types of plantations (see also Figures 1 and 3) on biodiversity or soil acidification is debated27-30 .

Fig. 3: Another example of short rotation forestry. Coppice short rotation of willows, irrigated by water from a purification plant in northern France. This kind of plantation is here exploited for the final stage of purification of water from nitrates and phosphates. The coppice is then used to produce wood chips. (Adapted from an image authored by F. Lamiot, CC-BY, http://archive.is/AxELA)



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Fig. 4. Top: The role of wood and other solid biofuel among the renewable sources for the primary production of energy. Data for the EU-28, from 1990 to 2013. (Source: Eurostat2)

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Bottom: An indicator of biodiversity such as the common bird index is a composite multispecies statistic and is considered by Eurostat as a headline indicator on the status of natural resources in the European Union31-33 . Overall, the index declined between 1990 and 2013. However, while the common farmland bird index experiences a noticeable decrease (which has mainly been associated with agricultural changes33), the index associated with common forest birds shows a recovery with a positive trend between 2000 and 2013. (Source: Eurostat33)

Setting the complexity of European forests in a broader context: integrated natural resources modelling and management The reductionist classification of forests as a domainspecific sector ideally segmented in parallel with others (and as such, suitable to be investigated and managed within welldefined boundaries of its scientific/technical domain, then seamlessly “embedded” in a more general economic frame) has been challenged by the growing evidence of the transdisciplinary nature of forest systems as a highly connected hub interacting with a large network of other natural and anthropic systems (see Figure 6). As mentioned, this holistic multifunctional role is underlined by the Forest Strategy of the European Union, and the specificities of the European continent easily confirm the interdependence of sound forest information and management with the management of other natural resources. This also calls for a cooperative information approach towards “integrating diverse information systems [...] into a dynamic modular system that combines data and models”21 . The complexity and heterogeneity of the landscape, climate, orography and anthropic patterns in the European continent characterise the local peculiarities of the forest resources in Europe, which highly depend upon abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors. The anthropic component may dominate some European landscapes. For example, approximately 95 % of the original floodplain area in Europe has been converted to other uses and 88 % of alluvial forests in 45 European countries have

disappeared from their potential range34 . Another example may refer to the landscape-wide losses of biodiversity concerning the decline of several European farmland birds as a trade-off linked to agricultural intensification (see also Figure 4, bottom), although some multiple-use agroforestry practices may effectively support biodiversity and ecosystem services provision35-38 . The anthropogenic impact on the connectivity and fragmentation of European forests shows a variety of diverse patterns. While 40 % of the forest lands are within a 100 m distance from other lands and 70 % of the European territory shows landscapes with poorly connected woodlands, the regional share of “physically connected” sites (complex forest subnets) is highly variable, ranging from 5 % to 40 % depending on the country, and a meaningful assessment of forest patterns may require the integrated analysis of the local landscape composition, edge interface, habitat morphology and connectivity39-41 . Considering the level of invasion by alien plants, although an average lower impact is reported for most European woodlands, sclerophyllous vegetation, heathlands and peatlands, nevertheless uneven patterns are evident42 . The European continent has high geographic43 and climatic heterogeneity44-46 (see also the chapter “European forests: an ecological overview”), along with high population densities and intense landscape diversity47.

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Fig. 5: Some of the forest birds monitored in the common bird index (see Figure 4, bottom)31-33 . A: Accipiter nisus in Galicia, Spain. (Copyright Jose Luis Cernadas Iglesias, CC-BY, http://archive.is/7ubCv)

B: Phylloscopus sibilatrix in Luopioinen, Finland. (Copyright Alpo Roikola, CC-BY, http://archive.is/k2MLw)

C: Dryocopus martius, Haukipudas, Finland. (Copyright Estormiz, CC0, http://archive.is/C4K1F)

D: Pyrrhula pyrrhula, Kittilä, Finland. (Copyright Estormiz, CC0, http://archive.is/7Vouu)

E: Regulus ignicapilla in Galicia, Spain. (Copyright Noel Feans, CC-BY, http://archive.is/5xloK)

F: Turdus viscivorus, Lake district, United Kingdom (Copyright David Friel, CC-BY, http://archive.is/6hhk5)



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From a broader perspective, natural resources and ecosystems, their related services6, 48-52 and projected perturbations under climate change53-59 appear as highly differentiated and interconnected by complex patterns which require integration of advanced modelling and management approaches25, 60-66 . The particular composition and health of a forest is influenced by the suitability of its plant species to the local climate, the extent of preservation of forest core areas and genetic diversity as well as by the management practices to which the forest is subject3, 10, 20, 22, 25, 41, 67-71 . Furthermore, pathogenic agents injurious to plants such as parasites, plant pests and diseases (see Box 4) show multifaceted patterns of spread, also depending on their suitability to the local environmental conditions of the ecosystem they affect72-83 . As previously mentioned, the impact of these biotic disturbances may occasionally be destructive, implying severe consequences for both ecological and economic aspects. Another family of forest disturbances is linked to abiotic factors and may also display catastrophic effects on forests73, 74, 84 . Examples are wildfires (see Box 2), rain or wind storms (see Box 3) or large landslides sometimes connected to the impact of intense runoff on the geological peculiarities of a given catchment or region74, 85-95 . Forest composition and management may display complex transdisciplinary interactions and trade-offs not yet completely understood, for example concerning carbon sequestration, albedo, cloudiness and global warming, energy and wood production, precipitation interception, surface waters and ground water reserves18, 59, 96-100 . The elements directly affecting forest resources are tightly connected with other factors, sometimes more remote but essential in order to understand the status, dynamics and trends of forests, and the threats to which they may be exposed. Ultimately, this general goal is critical for ensuring the sustainable provision of economic assets and ecosystem services by forests. Recently, Europe has experienced a series of particularly severe disasters101, 102 . Impacts of similar disasters may potentially persist or intensify under future projected scenarios of economy, society and climate change103, 104 . They range from flash floods105-107 and severe storms in Western Europe with an expected trend of increasing intensity108 , large-scale floods in Central Europe109 , and large forest fires in the Mediterranean countries88-90, 110 . Biological invasions such as emerging plant pests and diseases have the potential to further interact e.g. with wildfires111 and to impact on ecosystem services112 and the economy with substantial uncertainties113 . Natural resources are intrinsically entangled in complex causal networks (Figure 6)114, 115 whose management is increasingly complicated due to the need to reliably model the climate change along with the “feedbacks between the social and biophysical systems”116 and due to huge economic and social impacts of their management policies. These policies could greatly benefit from the possibility to integrate risk assessment and multipurpose use optimisation of different resources: a challenge which is progressing on different fronts25, 60, 72, 117-120 .

Water resources directly affect agriculture, drinking water and energy supply while also determining flood and drought risks, whose mitigation impose severe constraints to the effectiveness of seasonal water allocation. This is because dams and other water reservoirs (e.g. regulated lakes) can store/release water when more appropriate for maximising the combined multipurpose efficiency of agriculture irrigation, hydro-power and other key usages of water (e.g. domestic, environmental, industrial, navigational, and recreational)122-124 . A water management designed to be efficient under the assumption that upstream and riparian forests are relatively stable may be impaired by the consequences of altered land-cover and thus run-off dynamics125-128 . An increasing frequency of seasonal droughts may require the stored water not to be exploited when otherwise more valuable; conversely, an increasing frequency of seasonal floods may prevent water reservoirs to exploit their full storage capacity, for them to be ready to accumulate more upstream water during flooding events and thus better contribute to their mitigation122, 124, 127, 129, 130 . The land cover of river catchments influences the precipitation-runoff relationship. In particular, the share, distribution and sustainability of forest resources play a decisive role in exacerbating or mitigating droughts, moderate floods and soil erosion5, 128, 131-135 . While land cover directly affects soil erosion either positively (i.e. forest cover and good agricultural practices) or negatively (wildfire- or pest-degraded cover and bad agricultural practices136, 137), climate and climate

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Fig. 6: A simplified overview of some key interactions among forest resources and other natural and anthropic systems (adapted from de Rigo121 , AP, http://w3id.org/mtv/Mastrave/img/INRMM-simpl; for more details, see also http://w3id.org/mtv/Mastrave/img/INRMM114, 115). Ecological and biotic/abiotic stressors influence the health, composition and sustainability of forests. Some factors act at the local scale (e.g. fires, pest outbreaks, landslides). However, given the spatial permeability among connected areas, for example the spread of pests and pathogens may potentially affect the regional/continental scale, with consequences for plant health, canopy cover, deadwood and fuel accumulation, and ultimately fire risk and erosion patterns. These regional patterns may locally reverberate at the catchment scale, locally altering the sediment transport in water resources and the relationship between precipitation and run-off. Changes in the regional patterns of precipitation and temperature may potentially affect the local soil water dynamics, the snow/ice melt and accumulation, the frequency and intensity of floods and droughts and, as a consequence, agriculture, hydro-power and other water usages. Regional and local scale changes are also driven by global scale climate changes and by general economy/technology drivers which may modify local land use and other anthropic influences on ecosystems (e.g. due to industry, energy, etc.). At the same time, regional changing patterns of forests, vegetation and other land cover may influence the global climatic system. This network of interactions is the transdisciplinary subject of the integrated natural resources modelling and management (INRMM)114 .

change affect soil erosion both indirectly by driving land cover changes and directly varying precipitation intensity and duration. At the same time, soil erosion (with its connection with the dynamics, disturbances and management of upstream forests and vegetation cover) influences water sediment transport (see Figure 6), water resources quality and water storage loss138-140 .

This may induce water-managers to alter established water resources management at the river-basin scale142-144 . Forests and water resources are further connected in some recent approaches to reduce tree drought stress by increasing the retention of water in forest sites145, 146 .

Fig. 7: Steep hills and slopes may be particularly vulnerable to erosion. In absence of a sustainable vegetation cover and of a developed root system protection (i.e. because of unfavourable land use or climate change), these phenomena might persistently alter the landscape due to the complete removal of soil and exposure of the underlying parental material. Impressive examples are constituted by the badlands. Left: Canossa, Italy. (Copyright: Paolo da Reggio, CC-BY, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Canossa_castle.jpg ).

Right: Adret de l’Escure, France. Adapted from an image authored by Alpes de Haute Provence, CC-BY, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adret_de_l'Escure_badlands.jpg).



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The water cycle is linked with land use and with water and forest resources management, with possible repercussions on the local micro-climate147, 148 if not, occasionally, the wider-scale climate (determining a complex land-use/forest/water/climate feedback which might be simply invisible to single sectoral approaches)149, 150 . Forest fires and deforestation in semi-arid Mediterranean areas may contribute to severe land degradation151, 152 . The opposite feedback also holds: forest resources may help to control even advanced stages of land degradation such as desertification153 (see Figure 13).

Fig. 8: The ability of forest tree species to tolerate periodic flooding and soil-water saturation varies from taxon to taxon. Different trees are better suited to cope with different intensity of soil moisture, flooding and waterlogging. Among other factors, this also depends on the flooding tolerance of the rooting system, while anthropic factors (e.g. agriculture, pasture, management of forests or water bodies, ...) may alter the natural stratification of taxa with respect to the frequency of waterlogging154-156 . Within forested mountain valleys of hills, some areas may be subject to more intense run-off (gullies, shallow secondary drainages or valleys). There, a sustainable, healthy forest cover requires the presence of suitable tree species. Riparian forest buffers also provide remarkable services and require flooding-tolerant tree species38, 157, 158 . Left: the side of a secondary valley (Italy, Trentino Alto Adige) clearly shows the stratification of coniferous trees (upper part) and more floodingtolerant broadleaved trees/shrubs (lower part). Right: qualitative visualisation of the typical dendritic network along which flow accumulation due to run-off is more intense (gullies). Correspondingly, erosion rates and thus forest soil carbon losses may be concentrated in relatively few critical areas. The presence of floodingtolerant vegetation may mitigate erosive phenomena and protect the carbon accumulated in the forest soil. The partial coverage by debris and sediments with high permeability (due to periodic intense runoff and sediment transport) may sometimes require these strategic tree species also to be drought tolerant20, 159, 160 . (Adapted from an image authored by F. Delventhal, CC-BY, http://archive.is/TNMT8)

Fig. 9: Source: Daniele de Rigo, CC-BY, http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.2204755 (doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.2204755). Top right image: a typical valley in the temperate

mountain system. Vallorcine Valley towards Mont Blanc, Alps. Adapted from an image authored by Richard Allaway, CC-BY, http://archive.is/yuBCM . Right top, middle, bottom: qualitative visualisation of the typical local topography of a valley side. Within forested areas, gullies and small secondary valleys are a consequence of the geomorphological processes, influenced by the local climate and also by the local patterns of vegetation.



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Fig. 10: Source: Daniele de Rigo, et al., http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.2247472 (doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.2247472). In Europe, the larger proportion of forest carbon pools is constituted by forest soils (54.1 %)1 . Continent-wide, the boreal, temperate and subtropical mountain systems host a variety of forest ecosystems44, 161, 162 . At the same time, European mountainous areas are among the one more susceptible to potential soil erosion by water163 . Forests and other vegetation may provide a very effective protection to mitigate soil and carbon loss and can support the provision of some key ecosystem services concerning mass stabilisation and buffering/attenuation of mass flow such as sediments, rockfall, shallow landslides117, 131, 164, 165 . The extent of this protection is also related to particular species composition of forests166 . In particular, some forested areas in hills and mountains may be subject to a multiplicity of disturbances, with a limited number of tree species suitable to thrive under the combined effect of these stressors154, 155, 159, 160, 167. This box qualitatively illustrates the network of valleys, hollows, gullies and riparian areas where higher rates of potential erosion coexist with higher frequency of waterlogging or flooding. A healthy, sustainable forest cover in these critical areas is able to display a multifunctional mitigation and protection.

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Fig. 11: Some feedbacks between vegetation, disturbances, land use and management may intensify degradation phenomena. However, positive feedbacks may partly counteract negative ones. Agriculture practices over hills may expose bare soil to erosion and contribute to generating rills (picture foreground), deep gullies (background) and slope instability, which in turn may intensify erosion - e.g. by means of shallow landslides93 . However, deeply incised gullies with their more intense runoff and flow accumulation (which may generate ephemeral streams) may become suitable for flooding-tolerant trees, whose establishment may help to counteract a further erosion. In the picture, Salix and other shrubs and trees tolerant to soils wetter than the surrounding landscape occupy a small valley between eroded crops in a hill close to the Apennines in Central Italy, at the boundary between two subtropical ecological zones (subtropical mountain system and subtropical dry forest). (Adapted from an image authored by Claudio Bosco: CC-BY)

Considering some forest threats, plant pest outbreaks also intensely affect land cover168 , and wildfires169, 170 and other disturbances108, 171 also influence the connectivity of habitats and the overall landscape, either quantitatively (the plant species composition of forests and of agriculture areas) or qualitatively (e.g. sudden pest-induced disruption of forests).

Fig. 12: Austria, a flood meadow. Areas subject to frequent intense run-off and even occasional waterlogging tend to host flooding-tolerant tree species and other resistant vegetation.

A further complication lies in the intrinsic complexity of forest ecosystems, which are not monolithic systems but instead a composition of uneven subsystems. The overall impact of the aforementioned threats may be challengingly difficult to assess within the complex chain of interactions among taxa in forest ecosystems. Even vegetation and forest management may affect different taxa in substantially different ways depending on their habitat (for example, dead wood and infrequently disturbed areas may be more sensitive to some management practices)172 . Evidence suggests that vegetation in European areas characterised by a high summer temperature is more sensitive to droughtstress and that droughts have more influence on grasslands than forests173 . In Europe, taller forest vegetation appears to mitigate the effect of even severe summer heatwaves and droughts (for example, the extreme event of the 2003 drought) compared with shorter vegetation174 . More diverse forest ecosystems appear to be more stable and species mixtures may have lower levels of pest damage and higher resistance to invaders73 . As already mentioned, tree species richness has been correlated with higher levels of provision for a multiplicity of ecosystem services175 . However, monitoring these effects may require an integrated perspective, as the major impacts of forest plant species biodiversity and its pattern of losses may become evident at wider than local spatial scales176, 177. Furthermore, knowledge on these key aspects is still subject to substantial uncertainties which may lead to quantification of impacts ranging over orders of magnitude178 . This array of relationships suggests the importance of improving and integrating the modelling and management of these natural resources – forest, soil, water resources – along with land use management (integrated natural resources modelling and management)114 . The important case of forests in mountainous areas may help to exemplify some of the aforementioned interactions among uneven subsystems. The Figures 9 and 10 provide an overview on the many disturbances and stressors to which forested areas in hills and mountains may be subject, and the corresponding rich set of ecosystem functions and services they may provide.

Fig. 15: Top: an extratropical cyclone over the United Kingdom, on February 2014. The storm was associated with intense precipitation, flooding and winds exceeding 160 kilometres per hour. Bottom: in the beginning of 2014, a series of storms affected northern and central Europe. Some evidences suggest that storm intensity is increasing with a potentially deeper penetration into mainland Europe, local patterns of increased precipitation and subsequently more saturated soils, while higher temperatures in Fennoscandia may expose unfrozen soils for longer periods – which may overall increase the risk of wind damage to European forests74, 108, 179 . (Adapted from images authored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, CC-BY, https://archive. is/sgHwD and http://archive.is/gvtGH)

a

b

c

d

e

f

(Adapted from an image authored by Stanislav Doronenko, CC-BY, http://archive.is/EwMjv)

Fig. 13: Forest tree species may serve to mitigate and control desertification. Forested sand dunes in Fårö, Gotland, Sweden. (Adapted from an original image authored by Bernt Rostad, CC-BY, https://archive.is/oMGnD )

Fig. 14: Biodiversity of forest ecosystems may also be appreciated for the rich variety of animals living in European forests and woodlands, which include birds (see Figures 4-bottom and 5) and mammals, along with other key vertebrates and invertebrates. Although it is impossible to summarise even a simplistic overview of these animals in a picture, a few well known mammals are here illustrated in their forest environment. A: Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus), Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. Copyright MrT HK, CC-BY, http://archive.is/4abQB B: Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. Copyright MrT HK, CC-BY, https://archive.is/SBD3v C: Red deer (Cervus elaphus), United Kingdom. Copyright Dave Hamster, CC-BY, https://archive.is/zrInn D: European beaver, (Castor fiber). Copyright NTNU, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, CC-BY, https://archive.is/CIbc5 E: Red fox, (Vulpes vulpes), United Kingdom. Copyright Neil McIntosh, CC-BY, https://archive.is/GpQUM F: Wolverine (Gulo gulo). Copyright NH53, CC-BY, https://archive.is/qUpx0



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Box 1: Forest ecosystem services and Biodiversity Forest is the largest terrestrial ecosystem in Europe and is home to much of the continent’s biodiversity. In addition, forests provide a multitude of benefits to humans in terms of climate regulation, water supply, timber, energy, clean air, erosion control and many others. These benefits are defined as ecosystem services, which are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems180 . They are the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being181 .

The multiplicity and complexity of services provided by forest ecosystems necessitates a comprehensive framework and a systematic extensible classification of those services. To this end at EU level the CICES classification185 was adopted as a reference typology of ecosystem services. A large number of forest services have been identified at European level categorised into three main types: provisioning, regulating/maintenance and cultural services (Figure 17).

The provision of forest ecosystem services includes three interlinked concepts. The first, ecosystem process, is any change or reaction which occurs within forest ecosystems. These include decomposition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of nutrients and energy. The second is ecosystem function, which is a subset of the interactions between biophysical structures, biodiversity and ecosystem processes that underpin the capacity to provide ecosystem services. Finally, ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems51, 182 .

Provisioning services include all nutritional, material and energetic outputs from forest ecosystems. Specifically they include forest production of biomass, water and energy. Regulating and maintenance services are derived from forest ecosystems mediation or moderation of the environment that affects people’s performance. They include the degradation of wastes and toxic substances; the mediation of flows in solids, liquids and gases; as well as the regulation of the physico-chemical and biological environment. Forest cultural services include the non-material outputs of forest ecosystems. They are the physical settings, locations or situations that produce benefits in the physical, intellectual or spiritual state of people. They can involve individual species, forest habitats and whole ecosystems.

Unlike forest market services, such as timber, the contribution of non-market forest services to society is sometimes neglected because their full value is often not accounted in economic terms. Understanding the complex interactions influencing the provision of forest services requires the underlying factors and relations of these three concepts integrating the biophysical and socio-economic domain to be addressed. In addition, European forest ecosystems face multiple natural and anthropogenic threats. For instance, a changing climate is producing increased droughts in the Mediterranean; forest disturbances are foreseen to increase (forest fires, invasive pests) and competing socio-economic demands for forest services can result in multiple drivers of forest change, and all these processes are having an effect on the provision of ecosystem services from forests. In the EU, the mapping and assessment of ecosystems and their services (MAES) initiative is a key action for the advancement of biodiversity objectives, and also to inform the development and implementation of related policies on forest among others. The MAES analytical framework of Figures 16 and 17 ensures consistent approaches are used throughout the EU regarding mapping and assessment of ecosystem50, 182 . The framework links human societies and their well-being with the biophysical environment. Specifically, target 2 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy183 aims to maintain and enhance ecosystems and their services by establishing green infrastructure and restoring at least 15 % of degraded ecosystems. Three concrete actions are proposed in the Biodiversity Strategy to achieve target 2. Action 5 improves the knowledge base on ecosystems and ecosystem services; Action 6 sets priorities to restore ecosystems and promote the use of green infrastructure; and Action 7 launches an initiative to ensure no net loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These actions are in synergy with the provisions of the EU Forest Strategy regarding enhancing forest biodiversity and forest multifunctionality184 .

Nutrition (biomass and potable water)

In line with the guiding principles of the Forest Strategy and the Biodiversity Strategy, the concept of multifunctional forest relies on the need to maintain forest productivity while increasing the provision of non-market services that meets societal demands. At this juncture, sustainable forest management plays a fundamental role in multifunctional forest. The two concepts, sustainable forest management and multifunctional forests, ensure the delivery of multiple market and non-market services in a balanced way, simultaneously maintaining and improving forest health, vitality and biodiversity.

Fig. 16: Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystems and socioeconomic systems in the conceptual framework for supporting ecosystem assessments in the European Union, from Maes et al.182 .

Regulation and Maintenance

Provisioning

Mediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances Mediation of flows (mass, liquid, gaseous / air flows)

Materials (biomass, fibre, non-potable water supply)

Maintenance of biological, chemical, physical conditions

Energy (biomass-based and mechanical energy)

Regulating and maintenance section: it covers all the ways in which living organisms in forest ecosystems can mediate or moderate the ambient environment that affects human performance.

Provisioning section: it covers all nutritional, material and energetic outputs from living forest systems.

Forest ecosystem services

Simplified overview of the main forest ecosystem services. The schema is based on the categorisations proposed by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) and the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES). The complete classification defines a hierarchy of four levels. Here, a simplified visualisation is proposed.

Cultural section: it covers all the non-material, and normally non-consumptive, outputs of forest ecosystems that affect physical and mental states of people.

Non-material interactions with ecosystems and land-/ seascapes (coastal forests):

Some aspects of ecosystem services may reverberate in multiple categories with complex feedbacks (e.g. surface / ground water; hydrological cycle / water flow, filtration and chemical conditions of freshwaters).

Physical and intellectual Spiritual, symbolic and other interactions

Forest biodiversity refers “to all life forms found within forested areas and the ecological roles they perform”186 . Despite the existence of some knowledge gaps on how biodiversity supports and interacts with forest ecosystem functions and services, there is evidence suggesting the dependency of specific functions and services on biodiversity175, 187. Decreased levels of biodiversity affect ecosystem functions and service delivery. Likewise, there is growing consensus that increasing levels of biodiversity increases the stability of forest ecosystem functions, thus maintaining the provision of multiple services. Evidence in this respect supports, for instance, greater temporal stability of total biomass at higher levels of diversity175, 187.

Cultural Fig. 17: Source: Daniele de Rigo, CC-BY, https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.3047380 (doi: 10.6084/ m9.figshare.3047380). Simplified overview of the main ecosystem services provided by forest and other woodland ecosystems. The classification is based on the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES)185 . and on MAES (Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services) approach50, 51, 182, 188 .

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Forests above- and below-ground: the interaction between soil and forest resources, biotic and abiotic factors It is not rare for European forests to have experienced for decades an increment of tree biomass, with more numerous and larger trees potentially producing more litter. The carbon budget of soils and trees in the forests of several European countries, estimated from 1950 to 2040, suggests a noticeable increment of carbon stock of the soils235 . Aside from this potential increment, which might eventually saturate236 , the overall amount of forest soil carbon deserves a specific focus. For example, although in Europe the soil carbon concentration appears to decrease with decreasing latitude237, in Spain alone, soils of forests, shrublands and grasslands are estimated to store about 2,500 million tons of carbon. This is four times the amount of carbon estimated to be stored in the biomass of Spanish forests. To compare, in the last 29 years the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 in Spain are almost equivalent to the carbon stored in Spanish forest soils238 .

Fig. 18: In mountainous area, forest systems are characterised by a complex array of functions and feedbacks. In particular, tree roots influence water run-off, filtration and soil stabilisation. (Adapted from an image authored by NH53, CC-BY, http://archive.is/hoHtF)

This remarkable service of forest soils is not uniformly provided by all types of forests and tree species associations. Carbon stock in forest soils has been found to significantly vary with site factors, such as local climatic zones44, 235 . Carbon stock in the forest floor and mineral soil also appears to be highly dependent on the local tree species. Evidences suggest that in temperate and boreal forests it could be increased by 200500 % in forest floors and by 40-50 % in top mineral soil by changing the local composition of tree species239 . Irrespective of these considerations, the total soil organic carbon supporting European forests is estimated in the order of 12 billion tonnes, a figure to compare with the total carbon stock of forest trees (whole tree) estimated to be about 7.9 billion tonnes240, 241 . Therefore, forest soils in Europe are the main component of forest-related carbon stock. Beside carbon stock, forest soil is an essential resource providing critical ecosystem functions and services. It supports plant growth, retaining and delivering nutrients to vegetation. More generally, forest soil also has the capacity to retain and release

water, contributing to flood mitigation and water purification and it takes a fundamental part in biogeochemical cycles. However, soil resources in Europe may often be fragile. In Europe, soil degradation is mainly caused by erosion by water (93 million ha affected by at least moderate or higher degradation) followed by wind erosion (39 million ha affected), physical and chemical degradation (respectively, 36 and 26 million ha affected)241 . Forests soils, especially in the European areas with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems163, may occasionally be subject to intense degradation where forest disturbances damage the vegetation cover, composition and health. Along with this risk, other European forested areas might be affected by less obvious potential threats. Mediterranean areas generally show a less rainy climate often semi-arid or arid. This factor means that forest soils in these areas can be less subject to erosion degradation. However, several Mediterranean areas experience an alternation of long-lasting droughts with intense rainstorm events. Considering the current trends of land-use change and the corresponding vegetationclimate feedback, an intensification of both phenomena may be possible in the Mediterranean region, leading to more frequent and intense torrential rains in autumn with associated flash floods over the coasts and nearby mountain slopes and increased erosion150 . On the other hand, longer droughts may seriously affect the future forest cover and composition151, 242 . This trend highlights the worrying impact of additional forest soil losses in this region, in particular considering that Mediterranean soils are often already very thin and that the Mediterranean forest disturbances are predicted to increase due to climate change (e.g. in the period 2071-2100, for a scenario with a global temperature increase of 3.5 °C, the area burned by forest fires could more than double in Southern Europe, compared with the period 1961-1990)104, 243 . The loss of forest soil as a result of erosion processes leads to a decline in organic matter and carbon cycling, a reduced productivity of forest resources, agroforestry and agriculture, a breakdown of soil structure and to other processes such as an enhanced flood risk244-248 . Soil erosion is also closely related with the enhanced susceptibility for a given landscape to generate mass movements; either can be a cause or an effect of the other93, 249, 250 . Forest management may influence all these aspects. Paired catchment studies identified some alterations in runoff, suspended solid and nutrient fluxes due to management practices20 . Vegetation cover, soil, water resources and the land use and management are intrinsically linked.

A typical example is the relationship between vegetation cover (e.g. forests, grasslands, crops, etc.) and soil erosion (see also Figures 8-11). The vegetation cover is able to positively or negatively influence the precipitation-runoff relationship. A healthy vegetation cover and good agroforestry practices positively influence soil erosion while heavily perturbed forest resources (e.g. after a clear-cut), agricultural practices exposing bare-soil or, more generally, a degraded vegetation land cover (e.g. as a consequence of wildfires or pest spreads) have a negative impact on the soil erosion process. In turn, the ongoing changes in the climatic conditions can directly or indirectly affect the loss of forest soil.

Fig. 20: Within forests, erosion may be unnoticed by non-experts due to the leaf litter and the geological irregularities of the terrain in mountainous areas (although litter dams may ease the identification of erosive phenomena). Top: minor gullies converging in a beech forest (Fagus sylvatica), Italy. It may be observed that beech trees are absent where the intensity of run-off causes high soil moisture or even occasional waterlogging. In this particular example, no flooding-tolerant species appears to occupy the niche left empty by beech. In these cases, the erosion of forest soil might progress in the gullies with a weakened protective effect by vegetation. (Adapted from an image authored by Francesco Ciabatti, CC-BY, http://archive.is/rhon5)

Middle: Example of deep rill, apparently induced or intensified by human alteration of the forest topsoil, exposed on a track. (Adapted from an image authored by Chris M. Morris, CC-BY, http://archive.is/lCSsD)

Fig. 19: Rills and incipient gullies of erosion within a forest of broadleaved trees, where the understorey has been removed close to a cattle crossing. Weakened protection is offered during wintertime, with a subsequent unsustainable imbalance between soil formation and soil erosion rates. Similar circumstances may reduce the provision of soil protection ecosystem services by a forested area.

Bottom: removal of trees within forest gullies may intensify erosion and slope instability. Occasionally, intense precipitation and subsequent runoff/waterlogging may remove as sediments the forest topsoil, negatively affecting or even preventing the establishment of a new forest cover. (Adapted from an image authored by Nociveglia, CC-BY, http://archive.is/wdJQi)

(Adapted from an image authored by J. Kelley, CC-BY, http://archive.is/dPvzB)



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Box 2: Wildfires and adaptation strategies of forest tree species Natural and human-caused fires associated with agriculture and grazing have historically defined the Mediterranean landscape203, 204 . Wildfires are not only destructive factors, but they can, if moderate and not frequent, increase the biodiversity and complexity of the Mediterranean vegetation communities205 . Mediterranean woody and scrub vegetation has been exposed to recurring fires for long periods206 , and has developed different adaptation strategies to survive. Fire-adapted plants are defined as pyrophytes (fire loving plants), in some cases requiring wildfire for their reproduction. They can be divided into passive and active types in relation to the feed-back responses to fire205, 207. The active pyrophytes are able to regenerate after a fire even if damaged. Two main strategies are identified. One is vegetative regeneration through re-sprouting from roots. These plants in fact store their nutrient reserves underground where they are protected from fires, and are heliophilous, so that the light of burnt areas stimulates their growth. Most of these trees and shrubs belong to the sclerophyllous vegetation group, such as oaks (Quercus coccifera, Quercus ilex, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus pyrenaica), but also carob (Ceratonia siliqua), heath plants (Erica arborea, Erica australis), myrtle (Myrtus communis), mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), Mediterranean buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus), etc.206, 208-211 . The other active strategy is seed protection and the requirement for the stimulation of fire to germinate. This is the case for some of the Mediterranean conifers, such as Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) and maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), which are unable to re-sprout, but develop cones which protect the seeds and which are opened by the heat of fires (serotinous cones)206, 212, 213 .

The same strategy is also adopted by some rock roses of the genus Cistus, which have seeds protected by thick teguments214, 215 . On the other hand, the passive pyrophytes are plants adapted to avoid or limit fire damage. These species can have thick or suberized barks which protect the cambium from heat damage, such as stone pine (Pinus pinea) or cork oak (Quercus suber). Some limit the exposure of the crown to fire thanks to rapid height growth during the juvenile period or to a strong self-pruning habit which increases the height of the lowest part of the crown, adopted by various species of the genre Pinus. Others have leaves with low flammability due to high water or ash content, or lower amounts of resins; e.g cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) or many broadleaves216-218 . In Mediterranean climes, terpenoids play an important role in wildfires and vegetation dynamics. They are present in conifers and in several sclerophyllous plants rich in essential oils, increasing their flammability rate. When in high concentration in litter, terpenoids also inhibit seed germination. Wildfires, by destroying these substances accumulated on the ground, promote the colonisation of new species, including the germination of seeds from the same plant that originally produced the terpenoids, which needs fire for its regeneration219-221 . The top right map enlargement shows clearly the damage caused by a single fire of over 12 000 ha that occurred in Sweden in 2014, the largest fire of the year and among the largest recorded anywhere in Europe in recent years88 .

Fig. 21: The European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) was established jointly by the European Commission (EC) services (DG ENV and JRC) and the relevant fire services in the EU Member States and the Forest and Civil Protection services other countries222 as the EC focal point of information on forest fires. The Rapid Damage Assessment module of EFFIS was set up to provide reliable and harmonised estimates of the areas affected by forest fires during the fire season. The methodology and the spatial resolution of the satellite sensor data used for this purpose can map all fires of about 40 hectares or larger. Although fires smaller this are not mapped, the analysis of historical fire data has determined that the area burned by wildfires of at least 40 ha accounts for about 75 % of the total area burnt every year in the Southern EU. The figure shows the total cumulated burnt areas mapped by EFFIS from 2000 to 2015 across the entire region covered. As expected, the regions with the most fires are in a band across southern Europe, and the five most affected countries (Portugal, Spain, Mediterranean part of France, Italy and Greece) account for around 85 % of the total burnt area each year222 . However, almost all countries have been affected, at least in some years, by large fires of more than 40 ha. The northern regions such as UK, Ireland and Scandinavia are not usually as affected the southern regions, but in dry years, especially in the early parts of the season before the new green vegetation has started to sprout, large wildfires can occur.

This enlargement shows some the large fires that have occurred in the last 15 years in Ireland and Scotland. Some of these fires occur on peatland, and can be very difficult to extinguish if the fire penetrates the surface and becomes a smouldering fire.

The northern half of Portugal and parts of northern Spain are historically the most affected regions with a significant proportion of the annual total burnt area recorded here. In these regions, the main fire season occurs in summer.

16

The other most affected parts of Europe are concentrated around the Mediterranean region. Particularly affected are the large islands (Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily), Greece and Croatia. Like the other most affected countries, the main fire season for these countries is in summer.



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Fig. 23: Forest fire in Degaña, Asturias, Spain in August 2009. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Fig. 22: Serotinous cone opening after a fire. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Box 3: Forest disturbances by wind and storms Wind is a natural disturbance agent in forests189 . Although windstorms at small scale constitute part of the forest ecosystem dynamics, catastrophic windstorms or wind throws are possibly the most intense and economic damaging abiotic agent in European forests. They are responsible for more than 50 % of the primary damage to forest stocks in Europe179 . Although information gathering on windstorm frequency and damage is not comprehensive, since there is no European system in place for this purpose, it is estimated that about 0.12 % of the standing volume of Europe is damaged annually (1950-2010)190 . Over 275 wind storms were recorded in Europe in the last 112 years, which means that, on average, nearly 2.5 wind storms take place every year22, 191 . Windstorm damage to forests is not only produced at the time of the storm, when trees are broken or blown over by the wind speed and intensity, but through subsequent agents that may affect the damaged area, which can be biotic, such as pests and diseases that originate in the fallen trees (such as bark beetle attacks), or fires, which may happen due to the large availability of woody material (fuel) on the ground. Interaction between windstorms and bark beetles has occurred historically192 . The potential damage caused by windstorms to forests depends on a variety of factors, including meteorological conditions, especially wind speed, soil type and condition, tree species composition193 and forest management practices. Trees with shallow roots are the most vulnerable; this vulnerability increases if trees grow on sandy soils or very wet soils, and also with the height of trees. In general, conifer species seem to be more vulnerable than broadleaves, although vulnerability is also affected by forest management and site conditions194 . Windstorms often affect species composition and may accelerate tree succession; they alter stand structure, diameter distribution and canopy gap size within a forest195-197. However, the natural effects of windstorms are often non-lasting. In intensively managed forests, often felled trees and the affected areas replanted soon after the event, have a strong influence in tree regeneration in the affected area198, 199 . Despite the limitations in the way that climate change effects have been modelled, predictions of future climate scenarios indicate a trend to an increase in the number and intensity of wind storms in Europe200 and in other world areas where they are already happening201 . However, forest management and adaptation strategies can help in mitigating potential future wind storm damage202 .

Fig. 24. Top left: Pine damaged by wind snap after a storm in Germany in 2013. (Copyright AnRo0002, CC0, https://archive.is/NP9VI)

Bottom left: Wind throw of pine after a storm in Germany in 2013 (Copyright AnRo0002, CC0, https://archive.is/pGHo2)

Top right: Significant wind throw damage after a storm in Loch Bharcasaig, Scotland. (Copyright Andrew, CC-BY, https://archive.is/gWjss)

Bottom right: Storm Gudrun struck Denmark and Sweden in January 2005. The damage resulted in the creation of the world’s largest wood stockpile. (Copyright Göranssons Åkeri AB i FÄRILA: AP)



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Box 4: Biotic disturbances: forest tree pests and diseases Trees can be infected by a wide range of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and insects. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) identified more than 150 quarantine pests as locally present in the European and Mediterranean region. Most of the research on tree pests focuses on species having direct economical relevance. Yet, severe epidemics often involve species that, despite not commercially valuable, occupy key positions in ecosystems. These events may have profound negative effects on the ‘value’ of forests in a broad sense, weakening or hampering the ability of a forest to store carbon, to reduce risk of floods and to purify water112 . In addition, there is an increasing recognition of an invisible network of species interactions that is fundamental for ecosystem functioning223 . From this perspective, the detrimental effect pests may have on a few species could set in motion a cascade of consequences eventually leading to a general reduction of species diversity. A particular case much relevant to pest risk assessment is that of planted forests, which represent about 10 % of European forests in terms of area224 . Planted forests usually consist of one or few species, and are increasingly threatened by both typical and newly emerging pathogens225 . Epidemics may have greater effects in planted forests than in natural ones, due to the absence of the dilution effect typical of diverse ecosystems, which acts as a natural barrier for the spread of host-specific pathogens by lowering the probability of a pest individual to find a suitable host226 . Molecular techniques offer important new tools to tackle the problem of forest pests from new perspectives. In particular, they could help to get a better grasp on pathogen virulence, host specificity and host susceptibility, making it possible to identify sensitive pests that could be harmful if moved to other regions, or under future climatic and/or ecological scenarios227, 228 . Clearly, monitoring all possible pests is not feasible, so that a priority is identifying potential pathways of introduction in order to prevent possible future situations such as, for example, those caused by Xylella fastidiosa in Italy229, 230 and by the pine wood nematode (PWN) in Portugal231 . These two diseases are now creating great concern, and are both presumably consequences of single involuntary introductions230, 231 . The strong difficulties

in counteracting their spread highlight how vectors can play a fundamental, and largely unpredictable, role in promoting large scale epidemics (both X. fastidiosa and the PWN are transported from a host to another by flying insects). For X. fastidiosa, this aspect is particularly compelling, since the large number (some tens) of insect species capable of carrying the pathogen, combined with its very large host range (more than 300 plant species) makes any intervention measure aiming at the eradication of the pathogen extremely difficult. A possible strategy would be that of selecting resistant hosts, as has been suggested for the common ash dieback, a lethal fungal disease that represents a serious threat for European forests, due to the key role played in ecosystems by the common ash232 . These paradigmatic cases also emphasize several problems in communicating biological understanding of concepts to the political sphere of society, and possible philosophical obstacles related to the common negative public perception towards managing natural forests233 . In general, the management and prevention of epidemic spreads require coordinated actions that should go beyond the national scale, especially because one of the leading causes of epidemics is represented by the involuntary transport of pathogens through international trade. Nevertheless, climate change clearly plays a fundamental role in promoting the spread and increasing the virulence of alien pathogens, and so do human induced habitat alterations. Consequently, future conservation actions should necessarily target multiple threat drivers simultaneously234 . Within this Atlas, each chapter focusing on specific tree species provides a section with a summary of main threats and diseases (see also chapter How to read the Atlas). For further details (e.g. for host-pest and pest-host lists of the tree taxa which are susceptible hosts for a given mentioned pest or disease) and for a more detailed overview of main pests and diseases of European forest tree species, an extensive selection of periodically updated literature is available in de Rigo et al78 .

Fig. 25: Clockwise from top: Hymenoscyphus fraxineus (Ash dieback disease) in Kocherwald, Germany. (Copyright Sarang, PD, https://archive.is/cN9Ij)

Hylobius abietis.

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(Copyright Arnstein Rønning, CC-BY, https://archive.is/W1KKh)

Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) adult. (Copyright Entomart, CC-BY, https://archive.is/HNgYL)

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[215] R. Corral, J. M. Pita, F. Pérez-García, Seed Science and Technology 18, 321 (1990). [216] G. Della Rocca, et al., Journal of Environmental Management 159, 68 (2015). [217] P. M. Fernandes, J. A. Vega, E. Jiménez, E. Rigolot, Forest Ecology and Management 256, 246 (2008). [218] J. G. Pausas, Journal of Vegetation Science 8, 703 (1997). [219] M. Michelozzi, Atti del I Congresso Nazionale SISEF “La ricerca italiana per le foreste e la selvicoltura”, Legnaro 4-6 giugno 1997, M. Borghetti, ed. (1997), pp. c1.3.16+. [220] C. H. Muller, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 93 (1966). [221] B. Piotto, C. Piccini, P. Arcadu, Propagazione per seme di alberi e arbusti della flora mediterranea, B. Piotto, A. Di Noi, eds. (Agenzia Nazionale per la Protezione dell’Ambiente, Dipartimento Prevenzione e Risanamento Ambientali, Roma, 2001), pp. 31–38. [222] J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, et al., Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts, J. Tiefenbacher, ed. (InTech, 2012), chap. 5. [223] M. Hagen, et al., Biodiversity, Species Interactions and Ecological Networks in a Fragmented World (Elsevier, 2012), vol. 46, pp. 89–210. [224] J. P. Siry, F. W. Cubbage, M. R. Ahmed, Forest Policy and Economics 7, 551 (2005). [225] M. J. Wingfield, E. G. Brockerhoff, B. D. Wingfield, B. Slippers, Science 349, 832 (2015). [226] V. Guyot, et al., PLoS ONE 10, e136469 (2015). [227] G. S. Gilbert, R. Magarey, K. Suiter, C. O. Webb, Evol Appl 5, 869 (2012). [228] P. Perdiguero, M. Venturas, M. T. Cervera, L. Gil, C. Collada, Frontiers in Plant Science 6 (2015). [229] M. Saponari, et al., Journal of Plant Pathology 96 (2014). [230] G. P. Martelli, D. Boscia, F. Porcelli, M. Saponari, European Journal of Plant Pathology pp. 1–9 (2015). [231] S. Mallez, et al. 17, 1199 (2015). [232] M. Pautasso, G. Aas, V. Queloz, O. Holdenrieder, Biological Conservation 158, 37 (2013). [233] J. Stenlid, J. Oliva, J. B. Boberg, A. J. M. Hopkins, Forests 2, 486 (2011). [234] B. A. Roy, et al., Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 457 (2014). [235] J. Liski, D. Perruchoud, T. Karjalainen, Forest Ecology and Management 169, 159 (2002). [236] G.-J. Nabuurs, et al., Nature Climate Change 3, 792 (2013). [237] R. Baritz, G. Seufert, L. Montanarella, E. Van Ranst, Forest Ecology and Management 260, 262 (2010). [238] E. Doblas-Miranda, et al., Biogeosciences 10, 8353 (2013). [239] L. Vesterdal, N. Clarke, B. D. Sigurdsson, P. Gundersen, Forest Ecology and Management 309, 4 (2013). [240] G. J. Nabuurs, R. Päivinen, R. Sikkema, G. M. J. Mohren, Biomass and Bioenergy 13, 345 (1997). [241] R. Lal, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 81, 113 (2008). [242] C. I. Millar, N. L. Stephenson, Science 349, 823 (2015). [243] O. Cerdan, et al., Geomorphology 122, 167 (2010). [244] D. Pimentel, et al., Science 267, 1117 (1995). [245] M. M. Bakker, G. Govers, M. D. A. Rounsevell, CATENA 57, 55 (2004). [246] K. Van Oost, G. Govers, P. Desmet, Landscape Ecology 15, 577 (2000). [247] C. Bosco, E. Rusco, L. Montanarella, P. Panagos, Studi Trentini di scienze naturali 85, 119 (2009). [248] J. N. Quinton, G. Govers, K. Van Oost, R. D. Bardgett, Nature Geoscience 3, 311 (2010). [249] I. J. Larsen, D. R. Montgomery, O. Korup, Nature Geoscience 3, 247 (2010). [250] A. Burton, J. C. Bathurst, Environmental Geology 35, 89 (1998).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015b50. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Bosco, C., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Houston Durrant, T., Barredo, J. I., Strona, G., Caudullo, G., Di Leo, M., Boca, R., 2016. Forest resources in Europe: an overview on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015b50+



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Forest bio-based economy in Europe S. Mubareka, R. Jonsson, F. Rinaldi, J. Azevedo, D. de Rigo, R. Sikkema A bio-based economy may be defined as one using “... production paradigms that rely on biological processes and, as with natural ecosystems, use natural inputs, expend minimum amounts of energy and do not produce waste as all materials discarded by one process are inputs for another process and are reused in the ecosystem.”1 . The transition towards a more sustainable primary production and resource efficiency will certainly benefit the environment but also induce a number of significant economic benefits, such as stimulating the economy through encouraging innovation and building new and competitive industries through the emergence of new sectors such as biomaterials and green chemistry. The bioeconomy in Europe already exists, and has been estimated at 2.4 billion Euro for 2012, employing more than 22 million people2 . The Commission’s bioeconomy strategy and action plan aims at further shifting the European economy towards a greater and more sustainable use of renewable resources; however the transition towards a true bioeconomy relies on a series of breakthroughs in technology and cost effectiveness, as well as the pure availability of biomass2 .

Box 1: Wood in modern urban construction Many countries across Europe, encouraged by EU policies, have set targets to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and are adopting legislative methods to ensure that buildings and materials satisfy the requirements implicit in individual country targets. In many cases this has led to an increased use, or at least consideration, of wood as an alternative to conventional construction materials such as steel and concrete6 . Until the late 1980s, wood-framed buildings with more than two storeys were prohibited by building regulations in most European countries, due to the negative perceptions arising from historic city fires. However, national building regulations are being revised towards functional criteria as opposed to prescriptive criteria, driven by the Construction Products Directive adopted in the EU in 1988. Thus, a larger number of storeys with a wooden frame is being allowed throughout Europe7. As a result of the adoption of functional building regulations and technological development, the share of wood-frame in multistorey construction is on the rise, particularly so in the Nordic countries, the UK, Ireland and the Alpine region of Europe7. In Sweden wood-frame multistorey construction (WMC) already has a market share of around 10 %6 , and also in Finland WMC is approaching a ten per cent market share7.

In the UK, the market share of wood-frame in residential construction increased from 8 % in 1998 to 25 % in 2008, but there are as yet no data on the WMC segment specifically. However, residential WMC has made a breakthrough in the UK as a result of environmental policies, the rising interest towards WMC among the developers, and the lightness of wood making it possible to utilise building sites that could not sustain corresponding buildings made of concrete. Also in Ireland, the building practice has been changing from on-site construction to wood-frame off-site construction. However, while the overall market share of wood-frame in all construction increased from 1 % in 1990 to 30 % in 2007, the market share in the WMC segment is still rather small. In Austria, wood-frame is common in the single-family housing sector, with a 40 % market share, yet the regulations and attitudes towards wood use vary from one province to another, and on average the market share of WMC has remained low. Likewise, in Germany and Italy, there are regional differences in the attitudes towards WMC. In Southern Germany, the use of wood for construction has been increasing in the 2000s, and it has been suggested that the market share of WMC could increase from 2 % to 10 % towards 20307.

Pine logs, Cannock Chase, UK. (Copyright Jeremy Atkinson, CC-BY, https://archive.is/q6jvZ )

Fig. 1: Three different wood-frame multi-storey construction (WMC) techniques and corresponding key wood elements7. 1: Platforms may be based on pole frame structures (1a) or on panel elements (1b). 2: In the post-and-beam technique, massive supporting columns are exploited. 3: Modular elements are instead directly manufactured at the factory, including several final elements such as doors and windows, electricity appliances, or heating. Different WMC techniques imply different industrial workflows. WMC diffusion is dependent on regulatory framework and industry structure7. Modified from Hurmekoski, et al.7

Forests and Europe’s economy The forest-based sector plays an important role within the European Union (EU) in terms of value added, trade balance, and job creation. The forest industry includes products such as buildings (see box on “Wood in modern urban construction”), books, magazines and newsprint, furniture, food (see box on “The importance of non-wood forest products in Europe”), textiles, packages, energy (see box on “Forest-based energy”) and bio-based products (see box on “Forest resources in biobased products”). The values of sales for these products total to more than 200 billion Euro3 . Overall, 58 % of harvested EU wood biomass is processed by EU forest-based industries, which represents approximately 7 % of EU manufacturing GDP and nearly 3.5 million jobs. The remaining 42 % is exploited for energy and accounts for about 5 % of the total energy consumption in EU4 . As an example, some 101 million m3 of sawnwood were produced in the EU-28 in 2013, close to two thirds of which came from the five largest producing EU Member States; namely Germany (21.3 %), Sweden (16.2 %, 2012 data), Finland (10.1 %), Austria (8.8 %) and France (8.0 %)5 . The volume of roundwood produced is strongly linked to the value added to the raw material (see Figure 3). The important role of forests in reaching the EU’s Renewable Energy Directive targets, which include the production of energy from renewable sources in the EU, has raised questions about the sustainability of mobilising biomass for these purposes and the forest economy-environment-energy nexus.

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(Copyright Elias Hurmekoski: AP)

Timber Bridge Construction in Arbon, Bodensee in Steinach, Canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland.

Traditional timber frame building in the Burgenstraße (Castle Road), southern Germany.

(Copyright Norlando Pobre, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

(Copyright Thomas Quine, CC-BY, https://archive.is/sdVn7)



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Box 2: The importance of non-wood forest products in Europe Forests systems are responsible for a diversity of very valuable ecosystem services throughout Europe. Among these, Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) such as mushrooms, chestnuts, cork, pine nuts, honey truffles and berries are among the most important from economic and social points of view. The FAO has classified NWFPs into two broad categories: animal and plant products.

In northern Europe, the Nordic common rights allow access for picking berries, mushrooms and other non-wood forest products (NWFP), even from private forests. This free access, facilitated by a dense network of forest roads, makes berry and mushroom picking an essential part of the way of life in rural areas of the Nordic countries. Opportunities in the sale and processing of NWFPs to provide additional income vary widely between products, regions and seasons. Earlier interventions to promote NWFP utilisation have included training in identification, picking, processing and marketing of natural products. As an example, in Finland 55 000 commercial mushroom pickers have been trained since the early 1970s. Sales tax and income tax exemptions on selling berries and mushrooms picked by an individual continue to be key incentives for commercial picking. About one-third of berries and some one tenth of mushrooms picked in the Nordic countries enter the market. In recent years, berries sales have decreased as a result of urbanisation and aging of the rural population, as well as low berry prices. As a result, commercial berry picking has, during the past decade, relied largely on migrant pickers, including workers from neighbouring countries and from as far as SE Asia11 .

to cities in the region and abroad and by the abandonment of traditional agriculture systems. Chestnut diseases such as “ink disease” and “chestnut blight” and the newly arrived “chestnut gall wasp” (Dryocosmus kuriphilus) are serious threats to this product. Localised research (for example17) and forest extension promoted by forest associations has, however, contributed to minimise the effects of these agents.

In the Mediterranean region, non-wood forest products such as mushrooms, cork, pine nuts, chestnuts, resin, honey and truffles are of extreme importance to the economy. Despite this, there is a general lack of regulation of the cultivation of these non-forest wood products12 . For example, in the Northeast of Portugal, mushrooms have traditionally been picked for self-consumption. This region is one of the few in the country where there is a strong local knowledge concerning wild (and even cultivated) mushrooms. Thanks to this strong tradition and a rich stock of mushrooms, commercial picking has become a very important economic activity in the region since the 1980s. This activity has provided significant income for families and individuals on an annual basis. At the same time, the first studies on mushrooms in the region were conducted with the purpose of assessing diversity, productivity and the economic potential of mushrooms as a forest resource13, 14 . This activity is still mainly undertaken by locals, usually self-employed or retired elderly woman, individually or in groups of two, and within the limits of the village where they reside or the neighbouring village15 . Almost all the mushrooms picked locally have international markets as final destination including Spain, France, Germany, and Italy. Although no official statistics are available for the production and trade in the region, mushrooms are estimated to contribute 5 to 10 million Euro to the local economy every year. Population in cities have recently developed an interest in wild mushrooms which has led to the organisation of courses, workshops and other training initiatives by forest, agriculture and environment associations. Formal education in mushrooms has been offered in the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança since 199116 . In several European countries, the Nordic common rights (right of public access to the wilderness, or freedom to roam) grant access for picking non-wood forest products such as berries. Top: Blueberry picking. (Copyright Ragnar Jonsson, CC-BY)

Bottom: Understorey of Vaccinium myrtillus in a coniferous forest. (Copyright Yuri Timofeyev, CC-BY, https://archive.is/D6fqw)

Chestnuts are a very important non-wood forest product of forests in Mediterranean countries. The high market price of chestnuts and the low level of inputs required in the chestnut systems have led to the recent expansion of chestnut agro-forestry systems in some Mediterranean regions. This process is favoured by the movement of people from the countryside

In 1993-2013, the European average production of chestnuts has been 130 000 tonnes per year, i.e. more than 10 % of the global production18 . Top: Chestnut bur. (Copyright William Warby, CC-BY, https://archive.is/0qaSn)

Bottom: Chestnuts. (Copyright Maja Dumat, CC-BY, https://archive.is/05xeX)

Variety of mushrooms found in the forests of Priekuļi, Latvia.

Raspberries.

(Copyright Inga Vitola, CC-BY, https://archive.is/5L6W2)

(Copyright Maja Dumat, CC-BY, https://archive.is/wqkTZ )

Truffle hunter with his dog, Tuscany, Italy. Italian white truffles are highly sought after and have high value. (Copyright Michela Simoncini, CC-BY, https://archive.is/P2xPu)



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Fig. 2: Qualitative evolution from the pre-industrial society to two subsequent transitions. First, the transition to the industrial society and economy. Then, toward a bio-based economy. The short-term patterns of the actual evolution may be complex since they are subject to several sources of local fluctuations. The qualitative future trend will also depend on the cumulative feedback effect due to different potential technology and policy scenarios. (Author: Daniele de Rigo)

Box 3: Pulp and Paper Industry The pulp & paper industry is an important industry within the forest-based bioeconomy of Europe. Using some 150 million cubic meters of wood per annum, this industry provides 1.5 million jobs in the value chain, adding 15 billion euros to the Gross Domestic Product of the European Union. The industry is going through structural changes. Thus, while the consumption trend for graphic paper is a decreasing one, consumption of paper for sanitary and packaging purposes is rising. Recycling plays an important role within this industry. Indeed, paper is the most recycled product in Europe, with a recycling rate that increased from 40% in 1991 to 72% by 2014. Recovered paper make up 54% of the raw material used in the paper industry34 .

Corrugated cardboard.

Waste paper for recycling.

(Copyright jaymethunt, CCO, https://archive.is/cG356)

(Copyright sonja_paetow, CC0, https://archive.is/8ETQX)

Fig. 3: Roundwood production in 2012 and gross value added of forestry and logging. For Italy, Lithuania and the Netherlands, the available data refer to 2006. For Spain, data refer to 2007. For Hungary and Malta, data refer to 2009. For Greece, Latvia and Luxembourg, data refer to 2011. France, Portugal and Norway data are provisional. (Source: Eurostat5)

Fig. 4: Integrated forest resources management within the context of a bio-based economy. Qualitative trade-off between monetary and non-monetary benefits. The trade-off emerges considering different optimisation frameworks. Two extreme frameworks optimise policy / management options towards classic economic optimum (forestry marked economics and other provisioning services of forest resources) or instead towards pure forest ecosystem conservation / restoration (maximising nonmonetary forest ecosystem services). Intermediate efficient options to support policy and society decisions may emerge with a multi-criteria framework for integrated forest resources modelling and management. (Author: Daniele de Rigo)

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Box 4: Forest-based energy Forest-based woody biomass is currently the most important source of renewable energy in the European Union (EU), accounting for around half of the total renewable energy consumption. The targets for renewable energy have resulted in a surge in the use of wood pellets within the EU. The EU-28 is the largest global producer of wood pellets, its output reaching an estimated 13.2 million tonnes in 2013; production in the EU-28 rose by 97.6 % overall between 2009 and 2013. The EU-28 is a net importer of wood pellets: the level of imports from non-EU Member States rose to 6.4 million tonnes by 2013, which was an overall increase of a staggering 267.6 % compared with 200919. In countries such as Germany, Austria and Italy, wood pellets are exclusively used in heat production for the residential sector while the industrial use for power generation prevails in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Belgium. In Sweden and Denmark, both sectors are well established20. According to the National Renewable Energy Action Plans, biomass used for heating, cooling and electricity would supply about two-fifths of the 20 % renewable energy target for 2020. If achieved, the amount of wood used for energy purposes in the EU would be equivalent to today’s total wood harvest4 . Left: Forest-based production of wood pellets. (Copyright Richard Sikkema, CC-BY).

Right: wood pellets, detail. (Copyright Andrew_Writer, CC-BY, https://archive.is/cv7JF )

Relationship between bioeconomy and nonmonetary aspects of forest ecosystem services Aside from the monetary value associated with forest resources considering the wide variety of industry products, energy and bio-based assets, forests provide important nonmonetary services to the economy and society (see previous chapter). As discussed, a forest bio-based economy already considers some crucial aspects linked to sustainability and to minimising energy consumption and waste material production; e.g. emphasising the role of chaining processes so that materials discarded by one process become inputs for another process, or so that they can be reused in the ecosystem. In a wider perspective on the overall role of forest resources, the monetary benefits associated with the bioeconomy may be considered together along with the ecosystem services which forests can provide to the society. There is a partial overlap between these two concepts, highlighted by the clear monetary value of some ecosystem services (e.g. recreational activities and the tourism industry/sector). However, a significant part of forest ecosystem services provides a non-monetary benefit which requires a sometimes quite challenging21 multi-criteria economic framework to be properly assessed22-24 . A few examples of this last category are summarised below. One of the major sources of damage to soil resources in Europe, unfortunately leading to surprisingly high direct and indirect costs, is due to soil erosion by rainfall and runoff and its monetary and non-monetary impacts25, 26 . Landslides are also associated with considerable costs27, 28 and the impact of both erosion and slope instability hazards may occur together with even greater effects29 . The multiple layers of vegetation in a typical forest (canopy, sub-canopy or midstorey, shrub of understorey and ground-layers) make a significant contribution to reducing the potential erosion caused by rainfall30, 31 . Forest soil and topsoil are also able to reduce the surface runoff mitigating the risk of both erosion and slope instability32 . Moreover, the soil layers of forests have a high filtering capacity regarding most of the chemical components of pollutants32 . In Europe, 65 % of public water supplies come from groundwater. Part of the remaining water supplies relies on rivers, lakes, water dams and reservoirs, whose water quality critically depends on land use within the catchments33 . Several of the main European cities either obtain a significant proportion of their drinking water from protected forest areas, or explicitly manage forests for watershed protection33 . Furthermore, many European forest authorities explicitly mention watershed functions within their plans33 . These few examples among many underline the tight relationship between environmental economics and conservation/ restoration efforts focusing on key functional aspects of healthy forest ecosystems. Depending on the society and policy needs, these efforts may require an integrated perspective focusing on both monetary and non-monetary aspects. Research innovation on both forest bioeconomy and ecosystem services may thus contribute to integrated modelling and management of forest resources, providing a science-based support to critical policy and society decisions.

Box 5: Forest resources in bio-based products Products are considered “bio-based” if they are either wholly or partially composed of materials of biological origins. Bio-based materials should be able to replace fossil fuels on a large scale for chemicals and materials applications. Methods such as fermentation and biological catalysts replace traditional chemical approaches, thus increasing efficiency in processing products and ultimately resulting in reduced resource-use and toxic waste production. A shift towards bio-based products can lower our dependence on fossil fuels. According to the European Commission, bio-based products and biofuels represent approximately EUR 57 billion in annual revenue and involve 300 000 jobs. Large quantities of different types of base or platform chemicals can be isolated or produced from wood, pulping liquors and different types of forest residues in bio-refineries8 . Forest products can be used in biopolymers; as phenol substitutes through liquefaction or pyrolysis of forest biomass9; as injection moulding for musical instruments; for cups, plates and utensils by mixing natural fibres and plastics; in food, drink and cosmetic industries (tree sap). Slowly, anaerobic digestion-based biorefineries may replace our main source of energy and materials: petroleum. This depends on the efficient conversion of feedstocks, often low-value, into high-value biofuels and bio-based products. These range from municipal and industrial organic wastes, to agricultural and forest residues, and energy crops10 .

References [1] European Commission, DirectorateGeneral for Research and Innovation , S. Nebe, Bio-based economy in Europe: State of play and future potential - Part 2 Summary of position papers received in response to the European Commission’s Public on-line Consultation (Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2011). [2] N. Scarlat, J.-F. Dallemand, F. MonfortiFerrario, V. Nita, Environmental Development 15, 3 (2015). [3] L. Hetemäki, ThinkForest seminar “Forests and the bioeconomy: future steps”, ThinkForest (European Forest Institute, 2014). [4] European Commission, Communication from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - A new EU forest strategy: for forests and the forestbased sector, no. COM(2013) 659 final (Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, 2013). [5] Eurostat, Statistics Explained (Eurostat, 2015), pp. 1195+. Revision 253698 of ch. “Forestry statistics”. [6] R. Jonsson, Prospects for timber frame in multi-storey house building in England, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Sweden, vol. 52 of School of Technology and Design Reports (Växjö University, Växjö, Sweden, 2009). [7] E. Hurmekoski, R. Jonsson, T. Nord, Technological Forecasting and Social Change 99, 181 (2015). [8] RoK-FOR Project, Bio-based products (2015). [9] Y. Zhao, N. Yan, Journal of Biobased Materials and Bioenergy pp. 465–480 (2014). [10] K. C. Surendra, C. Sawatdeenarunat, S. Shrestha, S. Sung, S. K. Khanal, Industrial Biotechnology 11, 103 (2015). [11] Y. Gerasimov, et al., Making boreal forests work for people and nature, Tech. rep. (2012). [12] G. Allard, et al., State of Mediterranean forests 2013 (FAO, 2013). 177 pp. [13] J. C. M. Azevedo, Inventário de macrofungos em povoamentos de castanea sativa em Trás-os-Montes, Master’s thesis, Vila Real (1989). [14] A. F. C. Meneses, Inventário de cogumelos em soutos e castinçais de Trás-os-Montes, Master’s thesis, Vila Real (1990).

[15] M. M. Garcia, M. Carvalheira, J. C. Azevedo, Anais da Associação Micológica A Pantorra 6, 141 (2006). [16] J. C. Azevedo, J. P. Cortez, Ensino em gestão de recursos florestais na Escola Superior Agrária do Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal (Universidad de León, León, 2012). [17] E. Gouveia, Vida Rural pp. 40–41 (2013). [18] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division, 2015). [19] Eurostat, Statistics Explained (Eurostat, 2015), pp. 29576+. Revision 225852 of ch. “Forestry statistics in detail”. [20] R. Sikkema, et al., Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 5, 250 (2011). [21] T. Kirchhoff, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, E3146 (2012). [22] P. C. Baveye, J. Baveye, J. Gowdy, Ecological Economics 95, 231 (2013). [23] J. Hausman, Journal of Economic Perspectives 26, 43 (2012). [24] K. M. A. Chan, et al., BioScience 62, 744 (2012). [25] G. Verstraeten, J. Poesen, Geomorphology 29, 275 (1999). [26] D. Pimentel, Environment, Development and Sustainability 8, 119 (2006). [27] L. Vranken, P. Van Turnhout, M. Van Den Eeckhaut, L. Vandekerckhove, J. Poesen, Science of The Total Environment 447, 323 (2013). [28] M. Klose, L. Highland, B. Damm, B. Terhorst, Landslide Science for a Safer Geoenvironment, K. Sassa, P. Canuti, Y. Yin, eds. (Springer International Publishing, 2014), pp. 661–667. [29] C. Bosco, G. Sander, IEEE Earthzine 7, 910137+ (2014). [30] D. de Rigo, C. Bosco, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 359, 310 (2011). [31] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [32] M. Marchetti, M. Vizzarri, B. Lasserre, L. Sallustio, A. Tavone, Annals of Silvicultural Research 38 (2014). [33] N. Dudley, et al., Running Pure: The importance of forest protected areas to drinking water (World Bank / WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use, 2003). [34] CEPI Key statistics 2014: European Pulp and Paper Industry

Timber stack, Barrow Haven, United Kindgom. (Copyright David Wright, CC-BY, https://archive.is/Mqv4W)

(Copyright Agnieska Ovaskainen: CC-BY)

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01a52d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Mubareka, S., Jonsson, R., Rinaldi, F., Azevedo, J. C., de Rigo, D., Sikkema, R., 2016. Forest bio-based economy in Europe. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01a52d+



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European forests: an ecological overview D. de Rigo, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo, J.I. Barredo Ecosystems may be classified into a variety of groups or zones according to their homogeneity1-9 . An Ecological Zone may be defined as an area with broad yet relatively homogeneous natural vegetation formations that are similar, although not necessarily identical. Several key aspects of forest resources are influenced at the global and continental scale by the ecological zone where a given forest or woodland grows10-17. Even at the regional and country scale, the distribution of environmental and ecological zones may contribute to the understanding of core differences in local forest ecosystems18-22 . For its Global Forest Resources Assessment, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) produced a global ecological zoning classification1, 2 . The FAO zoning is exploited by a rich variety of applications11-13, 17, 23-25 . In this chapter, the classification of FAO is summarised and complemented by a qualitative analysis of the secondary ecozone components which may coexist in a given European area as subordinate constituents of the local forest ecosystems. These components have been derived by means of a robust fuzzy analysis of climatic similarity26 .

The FAO Ecological Zones Boundaries of the Ecological Zones approximately coincide with Köppen-Trewartha climatic types, which are based on temperature and rainfall27, 28 . At the first level a total of five domains are distinguished based on temperature: Tropical, Subtropical, Temperate, Boreal and Polar. Four of these domains can be found in Europe (Tropical is absent). At the second level, precipitation is also used to subdivide the domains into a total of 20 subclasses, of which 12 can be found across the European continent. "Mountain systems" are classified as a separate Ecological Zone in each domain and are characterized by a high variation in both vegetation formations and climatic conditions1, 2, 27.

Temperate domain The temperate domain lies in a region where average temperatures above 10 °C can be found from 4 to 8 months of the year. The temperate domain covers a large area across mainland Europe and is subdivided into Temperate Oceanic Forest, Temperate Continental Forest, Temperate Steppe and Temperate Mountain Systems. Temperate Oceanic Forest is typically found on the western or windward side of the continent and has the mildest climate of the four temperate zones. The average monthly temperature is always above 0 °C and there is adequate rainfall in all seasons. The annual rainfall may vary quite significantly from 400-800 mm in lowlands up to 2 000-3 000 mm on windward lower coastal mountain slopes. The main vegetation type in these areas is deciduous broadleaved forest. In Western Europe a typical example is beech. Temperate Continental Forest may be found in the interior and eastern areas of the continent. Winters are colder, with a shorter frost-free season and at least one month having average temperatures below 0 °C. There is a larger annual range of temperatures than in the Oceanic zone. Rainfall generally decreases with distance from the ocean and also at the higher latitudes. Similar to the Oceanic zone the main vegetation cover is deciduous broadleaved forest or mixed forest: a typical example in Europe is oak-hornbeam in Central Europe. Temperate Steppe is found in the deep interior of the continent and is characterised by cold winters and relatively low rainfall (200400 mm per year). Evaporation exceeds precipitation. The vegetation is dominated by grass and low shrubs. Temperate Mountain Systems are found in the Alps and the Pyrenees in Europe. They share several characteristics of the boreal zone and are snow covered for large parts of the year. Typical vegetation is pine forest.

Fig. 1: A key factor in the local variability of ecosystems is the influence of water bodies. Water resources, such as lakes or rivers, may exercise a variety of effects on the surrounding microclima. Beside providing additional humidity, they may contribute to mitigate the temperature range inducing a stabler pattern, and influence the local geomorphology - being a factor e.g. in shaping the slope of mountain and hill sides. Top: Subtropical dry ecological zone. France, Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur. (Copyright Jean Latour, CC-BY, http://archive.is/vqbxT)

Bottom: Temperate oceanic ecological zone. The Saar river influences part of northeastern France and western Germany. (Copyright Wolfgang Staudt, CC-BY, http://archive.is/2XBaO)

Introduction Boundaries of the Ecological Zones approximately coincide with Köppen-Trewartha climatic types, which are based on temperature and rainfall27, 28 . At the first level a total of five domains are distinguished based on temperature: Tropical, Subtropical, Temperate, Boreal and Polar. Four of these domains can be found in Europe (Tropical is absent). At the second level, precipitation is also used to subdivide the domains into a total of 20 subclasses, of which 12 can be found across the European continent. “Mountain systems” are classified as a separate Ecological Zone in each domain and are characterised by a high variation in both vegetation formations and climatic conditions1, 2, 27.

Subtropical domain The subtropical domain is generally characterised by having on average at least 8 months above 10 °C. It occurs throughout the southern regions of Europe and is divided into Subtropical Humid Forest, Subtropical Dry Forest, Subtropical Steppe and Subtropical Mountain Systems. The Subtropical Humid Forest zone has high humidity every month with annual rainfall usually over 1 000 mm distributed throughout the year. Relatively few regions of Europe can be classified as Subtropical Humid Forest, but some may be found on the northern coast of Turkey, north-eastern Spain and parts of central south-east Italy. Vegetation may comprise evergreen broadleaved forest, evergreen coniferous forest and deciduous forest. Subtropical Dry Forest is the typical Mediterranean climate with dry, hot summers and humid, mild winters with an annual rainfall of 400-900 mm. Found throughout the Mediterranean Basin, typical vegetation is sclerophyllous evergreen forest, woodland and shrub, for example maquis dominated by Quercus ilex. In the Subtropical Steppe zone, evaporation generally exceeds precipitation. These regions are found at the southern parts of the Mediterranean Basin and vegetation is dominated by shrubs adapted to arid environments. Subtropical Mountain systems can be found in the southern mountain regions of Europe and the Middle East. The vegetation may be quite varied depending on the altitude, exposure and humidity.

Fig. 2: FAO ecological zones for forest reporting (2010).

Polar

Temperate mountain system

Subtropical mountain system

Boreal tundra woodland

Temperate steppe

Subtropical steppe

Boreal mountain system

Temperate continental forest

Subtropical dry forest

Boreal coniferous forest

Temperate oceanic forest

Subtropical humid forest Note: Only the main ecological components are represented.

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Boreal domain The boreal, or subarctic, domain is characterised by a large annual range of temperatures, with one to four months with average temperatures above 10 °C and generally low levels of rainfall, usually below 500 mm. The name taiga has been given to the subarctic lands of Eurasia with their extensive coniferous forests. This domain is found across the northern regions of Eurasia and is subdivided into Boreal Tundra woodland, Boreal Coniferous Forest and Boreal Mountain systems. In Boreal Coniferous Forests the summers are short with at most 3 months having temperatures above 10 °C. Winters are long and cold. Geographically this zone covers the northern part of Eurasia, and is typified by dense coniferous forests, dominated by spruce and fir in northern Europe and western Siberia, and larch in central and eastern Siberia. Boreal Tundra occurs at the northern limit of the Boreal zone, where it meets the Polar domain. Climatic conditions are similar to the Boreal Coniferous Forest zone but are colder and more extreme with very low winter temperatures and permafrost. Species are similar to those found in the Boreal Coniferous Forest zone, but the vegetation cover is more open. Boreal mountain systems may be found in parts of Norway and the eastern part of the Russian Federation. Temperatures are extremely cold and there is continuous permafrost. Vegetation comprises open woodlands and scrub.

Polar domain In the Polar domain there are months with average temperatures below 10 °C throughout the year. There are no sub-divisions in this domain as it is generally only very sparsely vegetated. In Europe there is a small Polar region in the very northern tip of Scandinavia.

Fig. 3: Local-scale pattern of ecological components. Orography, prevailing wind direction and intensity, slope, aspect and the presence of surrounding peaks influencing the local solar radiation and rain shadow effects are among the factors able to alter vegetation at very local scales by affecting the local pattern of disturbances and the availability of resources. Top: canton of Bern, Switzerland. Forest areas and grassland alternating along the peaks of a mountain ridge. Human influence is evident in the complex patchiness of pastures/grassland fragmenting the forests in the lower part of the valley. Along the mountain ridge, the impact of differential solar radiation, dominant winds and peak-induced rain shadow effects may contribute to the regularity of the pattern of forests (in the picture, shadow side of the peaks) and grassland/sparse vegetation (sunny side and saddle landforms). See also Figure 5. (Adapted from an image authored by Vasile Cotovanu, CC-BY, https://archive.is/8dGPq)

Middle: Northern Sweden subarctic landscape. In the foreground, a dominant ecological component of boreal tundra woodland is visible. However, the water body on the right and the partial wind protection offered by the corresponding valley allow a boreal coniferous forest component to survive. (Adapted from an image authored by Alexander Cahlenstein, CC-BY, https://archive.is/AxnHo)

Bottom: Retezat Mountains, Romania. At very local scale, the transition between sparse trees (right of the picture), pine shrubland (right side of the two small valleys, i.e. their left bank) and grassland (left side of the picture) is clearly connected with the aspect of the banks. See also Figure 6. Wider scale ecosystem characteristics may be influenced by these details (for example, average connectivity and fragmentation of forest/shrub patches, average availability of core undisturbed patches40-43). (Adapted from an image authored by Horia Varlan, CC-BY, https://archive.is/aIL3J)



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Polar

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Fig. 5: The transition between different bioclimatic conditions and ecosystems (even within the same ecological zone) may occasionally happen along sharp boundaries. Slovakia, Western Carpathians. The sides of this mountain ridge show a sudden transition between a dense coniferous forest and a grassland with sparse trees. Different solar radiation, dominant winds and induced rain shadow effects may contribute to this kind of transition along mountain ridges (see also Figure 3). Anthropogenic factors such as delimited pastures may also induce or reinforce these sudden transitions. The different ecosystems may even influence the local micro-climate: for example, coniferous forests may have a lower albedo than areas with predominant grassland - with subsequent differential radiation/warming feedbacks10, 29, 30 . (Adapted from an image authored by Ján Sokoly, CC-BY, http://archive.is/Oxamq)

FIg. 4: The transition between ecological zones sometimes happens within relatively low distances. Top: Italy, geographic sudden transition between the Alps (temperate mountain system) and the Po valley (whose sparse forests are predominantly characterised by a temperate oceanic climate). Although this transition may be smoother in other areas of the Alps, in the picture the urban/agricultural landscape (foreground, Schio, Italy) lies at an elevation of less than 300 m above sea level while the mountain peaks (background, at a distance of few kilometres) are more than 1000 m higher. Ecological zones classified according to the Global Forest Resources Assessment of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO FRA) 1, 2. (Adapted from an image authored by Doc Searls, CC-BY, https://archive.is/pGEPG)

Middle: France, Massif Central, Puy de Sancy (foreground) and the contiguous plain with low elevation hills (background). Even in this case, the sudden transition is between temperate mountain ecosystems to temperate oceanic forests. The transition is smoother in other areas of the Massif Central. (Adapted from an image authored by Patrice, CC-BY, https://archive.is/BcSK5)

Bottom: Wider scale view of the Alpine transition between the temperate mountain system and the surrounding plains hosting fragmented temperate oceanic forests. (Adapted from an image authored by Francisco Antunes, CC-BY, http://archive.is/vy5Fa)

Fig. 6: Norway, Femundsmarka National Park at the transition between the ecological zone of the boreal mountain system and that of the boreal coniferous forests. Top: Compared to the sometimes sudden transitions highlighted in Fig. 4, in this region the component of boreal coniferous forests may show a smoother shift towards the boreal mountain component. (Adapted from an image authored by Mahlum, PD, http://archive.is/r23pC)

Bottom: Detail of a typical forest ecosystem in the region. (Adapted from an image authored by Robert Anders, CC-BY, https://archive.is/1EIGx)

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Pages 26-29: Polar zone: polar shrub vegetation in Sør-Varanger (Finnmark, Norway).

Temperate continental zone: mixed broadleaved forest on Veľká homoľa mountain near Modra (Bratislava, Slovakia).

(Copyright Soldatnytt, CC-BY, https://archive.is/yiNIK)

(Copyright Ján Sokoly, CC-BY, https://archive.is/WRHEj)

Boreal tundra zone: shrub tundra vegetation in northern Kola Peninsula (Murmansk, Russia).

Temperate oceanic zone: mixed broadleaved forest along Ystwyth river (Ceredigion, Wales).

(Copyright Ninara, CC-BY, http://archive.is/AXysf)

(Copyright Ruben Holthuijsen, CC-BY, https://archive.is/0JCCJ)

Boreal mountain zone: boreal forests on the side of the cliff over the Aurlandsfjorden (Sogn, Norway).

Subtropical mountain zone: mediterranean mixed forest on mountain area of the Pollino National Park (south Italy).

(Copyright Stan, CC-BY, https://archive.is/I1IvB)

(Copyright Brian Gratwicke, CC-BY, https://archive.is/47l9B)

Boreal coniferous zone: coniferous forest by Hundtjärnen lake near Floda (Dalarna, central Sweden).

Subtropical steppe zone: steppe dry grassland on Djurdjura Massif of the Tell Atlas chain (Kabylie, Algeria).

(Copyright Taxelson, CC0, https://archive.is/KEuAl)

(Copyright Atif Rafik, CC-BY, https://archive.is/Chq1H)

Temperate mountain zone: mixed broadleaved and coniferous stands in the Black Forest (Freiburg, Germany).

Subtropical dry forest zone: sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation on the coasts of the Fethiye Gulf (Muğla, south-western Turkey)

(Copyright ilovebutter, CC-BY, https://archive.is/mNK71)

(Copyright Jorge Franganillo, CC-BY, https://archive.is/ONm91)

Temperate steppe zone: steppe grasslands near Poltava (Poltava Oblast, Ukraine).

Subtropical humid forest zone: mixed broadleaved and coniferous forest on the side of Pontic Mountains near Trabzon (Trebisonda, Turkey).

(Copyright Vlad Butsky, CC-BY, http://archive.is/qf8qf)

(Copyright Aleksasfi, PD, https://archive.is/W8Ffz)

Local ecology characterisation by means of Ecological zones components

(Copyright Alexandru Badarau, AP, https://archive.is/mQfqE )

This implies the existence of forest areas where the main ecozone component (e.g. a forest whose natural vegetation formations are predominantly similar to those typical of boreal coniferous forests) is complemented by other secondary components (e.g. ancillary characteristics typical of temperate continental forests). In order to make a first attempt to account for these phenomena and to model a pan-European ecological zoning with a more gradual transition between the zones (where needed), for each ecozone a qualitative fuzzy set map was computed26 by estimating the similarity of each grid-cell’s climatic and geographic conditions to the distribution of values typically observed within the corresponding FAO ecozone. The modelling of robust fuzzy ecological zones has been based on a geospatial application32 of the semantic array programming paradigm33, 34 . The similarity analysis exploited the relative distance similarity (RDS) approach which is designed to support semantically enhanced, scalable data-transformation models35-39 . The set of maps on pages 26-29 show the most prevalent ecozones of Europe along with where the computed qualitative fuzzy boundaries might lie.26 Further details on the modelling aspects can be accessed in the full online version of this chapter.

At local scale, the transition between different ecosystems may be definite due to sudden changes of key bioclimatic factors (e.g. see Figures 3, 4 and 5). The FAO ecological zones offer a partition of the European continent in categories whose sharp boundary may be associated with geographic sudden transitions (e.g. the boundary between mountain systems and nonmountainous areas within a certain ecological domain, see Figure 4). However, the spatial distribution of biomes may frequently be “interspersed rather than sharply delineated”31 . Some of the sharp boundaries between FAO ecozones, such as those between the boreal coniferous forest and the temperate continental forest, or that between the temperate continental forest and the temperate steppe, are located in areas which in reality show a smooth transition of bioclimatic and geographic features. In these cases, the necessarily sudden transition between two different classes - with a relatively homogeneous set of average characteristics for all the areas within the first class and an abrupt, relatively homogeneous change of average characteristics when crossing the boundary into the second class - may not find an ecological correspondence in the actual smoother transition of ecosystems.

Box 1: Other classification systems biotemperature (mean of temperatures between freezing and 30 °C) and aridity (potential evaporation ratio to mean total annual precipitation) as its main axes for classification44-47. The system was originally designed and is most appropriate for tropical and subtropical areas, although it can also be used globally.

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The FAO classification of ecological zones is not the only one in use. A number of other systems use bioclimatic variables to distinguish between broad categories1-9 , with similar although not identical results. Another classical, simple categorization family is based on the Holdridge Life Zones (Figure 7). This classification was first described in 1947 and uses annual precipitation (logarithmic scale),

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latitudinal regions

Fig. 8: Romania, Transsylvania, Fanatele Oroiului. A meadow-steppe grasslands in the temperate continental ecological zone. This landscape shows components of temperate steppe and the beginning of some characteristics from the temperate mountain system.

References [1] H. Simons, et al., Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Final Report, vol. 56 of Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy, 2001). [2] Food, A. O. of the United Nations, Global ecological Zones for FAO forest reporting: 2010 update, vol. 179 of Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper (FAO, Forestry Department, 2012). [3] D. M. Olson, et al., BioScience 51, 933 (2001). [4] M. J. Metzger, R. G. H. Bunce, R. H. G. Jongman, C. A. Mücher, J. W. Watkins, Global Ecology and Biogeography 14, 549 (2005). [5] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [6] U. Bohn, et al., Interaktive CD-ROM zur karte der natürlichen vegetation europas / interactive CD-rom map of the natural vegetation of europe. (2004). [7] R. G. Bailey, Environmental Conservation 16, 307 (1989). [8] B. Ruefenacht, et al., Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing pp. 1379–1388 (2008). [9] M. D. F. Udvardy, A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world, vol. 18 of IUCN Occasional Paper (International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland, 1975). [10] P. D’Odorico, et al., Global Ecology and Biogeography 22, 364 (2013). [11] Y. Liu, G. Yu, Q. Wang, Y. Zhang, Global Ecology and Biogeography 23, 323 (2014). [12] M. Santoro, et al., Remote Sensing of Environment 168, 316 (2015). [13] Y. Pan, R. A. Birdsey, O. L. Phillips, R. B. Jackson, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 44, 593 (2013). [14] M. Lindner, et al., Impacts of climate change on European forests and options for adaptation, European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development, Brussels (2008). [15] M. Lindner, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 259, 698 (2010). [16] R. Baritz, G. Seufert, L. Montanarella, E. Van Ranst, Forest Ecology and Management 260, 262 (2010). [17] M. van Zonneveld, N. Castañeda, X. Scheldeman, J. van Etten, P. Van Damme, Applied Vegetation Science 17, 528 (2014). [18] I. Atalay, R. Efe, Journal of Environmental Biology 31, 61 (2010). [19] M. G. Barbour, et al., North American Terrestrial Vegetation (Second Edition) (Cambridge University Press, 2000). [20] X. Yue, L. J. Mickley, J. A. Logan, J. O. Kaplan, Atmospheric Environment 77, 767 (2013). [21] I. Atalay, R. Efe, M. Öztürk, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 120, 788 (2014). [22] F. Evrendilek, S. Berberoglu, O. Gulbeyaz, C. Ertekin, Sensors 7, 2273 (2007). [23] P. S. A. Beck, S. J. Goetz, Environmental Research Letters 6, 045501+ (2011). [24] J. I. Barredo, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, G. Caudullo, L. Busetto, Reference Report by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. EUR - Scientific and Technical Research 25730, 16 pp (2012). [25] A. Langner, F. Achard, G. Grassi, Environmental Research Letters 9, 124008+ (2014).

[26] D. de Rigo, J. I. Barredo, L. Busetto, G. Caudullo, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 413, 271 (2013). [27] G. T. Trewartha, R. D. Sale, An introduction to climate, McGraw-Hill series in geography (McGraw-Hill, 1968), fourth edn. [28] W. P. Köppen, Grundriss der Klimakunde (W. de Gruyter, 1931). [29] L. Breuer, K. Eckhardt, H.-G. Frede, Ecological Modelling 169, 237 (2003). [30] J. Schwaab, et al., Biogeosciences 12, 467 (2015). [31] F. I. Woodward, M. R. Lomas, C. K. Kelly, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 359, 1465 (2004). [32] D. de Rigo, et al., Geophysical Research Abstracts 15, 13245+ (2013). [33] D. de Rigo, Study of a collaborative repository of semantic metadata and models for regional environmental datasets’ multivariate transformations, Ph.D. thesis, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy (2015). [34] D. de Rigo, International Environmental Modelling and Software Society (iEMSs) 2012 International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software. Managing Resources of a Limited Planet: Pathways and Visions under Uncertainty, Sixth Biennial Meeting, R. Seppelt, A. A. Voinov, S. Lange, D. Bankamp, eds. (2012), pp. 1167–1176. [35] D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, L. Busetto, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, EFSA Supporting Publications 2014, 61pp. (2014). [36] J.-C. Ciscar, et al., Climate Impacts in Europe - The JRC PESETA II project, vol. 26586 of EUR - Scientific and Technical Research (Publications Office of the European Union, 2014). 155 pp. [37] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [38] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, T. A. Dijkstra, G. Sander, J. Wasowski, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 413, 321 (2013). ISSN:18684238. Special issue: “Environmental Software Systems. Fostering sharing information”. [39] E. Mulder Osenga, IEEE Earthzine 7, 827545+ (2014). [40] C. Estreguil, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, Environmental Modelling & Software 52, 176 (2014). [41] C. Estreguil, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, Supplementary materials for: a proposal for an integrated modelling framework to characterise habitat pattern, Tech. rep. (2014). (Extended version of the supplementary materials as published in Environmental Modelling & Software 52, 176-191, DOI:10.1016/j. envsoft.2013.10.011). [42] V. Amici, et al., Ecological Complexity 21, 44 (2015). [43] C. Estreguil, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo, C. Whitmore, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, IEEE Earthzine 5, 384031+ (2012). 2nd quarter theme: Forest Resource Information. [44] L. R. Holdridge, J. A. Tosi, Life Zone Ecology (1967). [45] W. R. Emanuel, H. H. Shugart, M. P. Stevenson, Climatic Change 7, 29 (1985). [46] A. E. Lugo, S. L. Brown, R. Dodson, T. S. Smith, H. H. Shugart, Journal of Biogeography 26, 1025 (1999). [47] T. Yue, et al., Ecological Modelling 144, 153 (2001).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01e873. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., Barredo, J. I., 2016. European forests: an ecological overview. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01e873+



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European forest classifications G. Caudullo, S. Pasta, F. Giannetti, A. Barbati, G. Chirici

Phytosociology Phytosociology is a rather young discipline which started in Europe in the early decades of the last century with the Swiss botanist and ecologist Josias Braun-Blanquet1 . This discipline is focused on describing plant communities through a multi-purpose approach, taking into consideration different parameters such as species composition, frequency, cover, structure (tree, shrub, herb, moss layers), spatial distribution (the so-called sociability; i.e. causal, clumped, etc.). The aim of phytosociology is to provide effective synthetic information about plant communities in order to assign them to different and recognisable units called syntaxa. Syntaxa are then grouped hierarchically within a classification system which is ruled by the ICPN (International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature)2 . Phytosociologists usually collect data through vegetation relevés recording the species occurrences within selected plot areas using a semi-quantitative cover-abundance scale. Collected data are then analysed looking for similarities and dissimilarities in order to detect distinct vegetation types. More recently several numerical models have been developed, which help to identify dominant and diagnostic species, to evaluate species-richness and species-evenness, and which can lead to a more objective classification of vegetation units3 . The hierarchical classification foresees, as the botanical one, different ranks. The association is the basic vegetation unit: it represents a plant community defined by a particular and uniform floristic composition and habitat structure, where a relative constancy or abundance of characteristic species is recognisable (called also diagnostic or dominant), which can describe the community and its ecology. The upper units are a group of lower ones, which share one or more diagnostic and dominant species4 . Each unit is assigned a scientific name and is defined with compound names formed by one or two scientific names of the dominant and diagnostic plant species with a different suffix for each rank2 .

The sector of phytosociology which deals with vegetation dynamics and aims at detecting successional series is known as symphytosociology. The vegetation series (or sigmetum) is a group of spatially and/or temporally interconnected vegetation units that may co-occur in different succession stages or steps within the same place. Progressive succession is the natural dynamic process from pioneer to mature and stable communities (the so-called ‘climax’ or head series), while regressive succession is a disruptive process from more complex communities to open and less developed plant assemblages; the latter mostly issues from intense and/or frequent anthropogenic disturbance. In the last century a very large body of phytosociological literature has been published, and a variety of schools with different approaches formed, especially in southern and eastern Europe, while this approach found no or little consensus in the United Kingdom and in north European countries. Recently the European Vegetation Survey, a working group established in 1992, joined European phytosociologists in order to develop common standards, organize scientific meetings and survey programmes, and to produce shared protocols and publications5, 6 (http://euroveg.org). In the first overview of vegetation units, 80 classes, 233 orders and 928 alliances have been detected all over Europe7.

EUNIS Habitat Classification The European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity (ETC/BC), an international consortium working with the European Environment Agency (EEA), developed the European nature information RANK

SUFFIX

EXAMPLE

system (EUNIS), available at http://eunis.eea.europa.eu. This database provides information about European habitat classification, data sheets on species, habitats and designed protected sites compiled in the framework of Natura 20008 , and species mentioned in relevant international conventions and in the IUCN Red Lists. The EUNIS habitat classification is a hierarchical classification of the terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats for the whole of Europe9 . Up to now this classification provides a pan-European reference set of units for meeting requirements in policy objectives and in supporting applications that relate to biodiversity monitoring and reporting. A crosswalk from the EUNIS habitats at level 3 to the European phytosociological syntaxa and vice-versa is also available10 .

European Forest Types The European Forest Types (EFTs) scheme has been developed by an international consortium of experts with the aim to create a user-friendly classification system. It is, in fact, able to facilitate understanding, interpretation and communication of data on indicators describing the status and trends of forests, and forest management in Europe. The EFTs is a hierarchical classification consisting of 14 categories, including 78 forest types11-13 . The 14 categories represent groups of ecologically distinct forest communities dominated by specific assemblages of trees, including introduced tree species, while the types correspond to a finer level of division of the category in terms of tree species composition. The EFTs is, therefore, a flexible system to compare forest information on ecologically similar forests, unlike other classification systems that present an DESCRIPTION

Class

-etea

Quercetea ilicis

All the evergreen woody plant communities of the Mediterranean basin.

Order

-etalia

Quercetalia ilicis

All the Mediterranean forests dominated by evergreen broadleaved trees.

Alliance

-ion

Quercion ilicis

All the Mediterranean forests dominated by holm oak (Quercus ilex).

Association

-etum

Aceri campestrisQuercetum ilicis

Mixed wood dominated by holm oak (Quercus ilex) and several deciduous broadleaved species typical of the North-Western Sicilian calcareous mountains in the meso- and supra-Mediterranean bioclimatic belts. Table 1: Example of the hierarchical classification of a forest dominated by holm oak according to the nomenclature used in phytosociology.

Subalpine larch-arolla pine forest near Morgex (Valle d’Aosta, North-West Italy). (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

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Fluvial forest in Záhorie Protected Landscape Area along the Morava River (West Slovakia). (Copyright Stanislav Doronenko, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Spruce-birch boreal forest in Norra Kvill National Park (Kalmar County, South Sweden). (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)

Atlantic lowland beech forest in the New Forest National Park (Hampshire, South England).

impractical number of classes: e.g. the EUNIS classification at level 39 counts more than 700 forest units, while the European phytosociological communities, defined by Rodwell and colleagues7, count 110 alliances and do not cover plantations and anthropogenic forests. So far, the EFTs have been applied in several EU level forest monitoring initiatives as a reference framework to report data on biodiversity14, 15 and sustainable forest management indicators for Forest Europe (Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe: MCPFE)11, 12 .

(Copyright Marilyn Peddle, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Evergreen sclerophyllous scrub forest near Faro (Algarve, South Portugal). (Copyright Miguel Vieira, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] J. Braun-Blanquet, Pflanzensoziologie: Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1964). [2] H. E. Weber, J. Moravec, J. P. Theurillat, Journal of Vegetation Science 11, 739 (2000). [3] L. Mucina, E. van der Maarel, Vegetatio 81, 1 (1989). [4] M. D. Jennings, D. Faber-Langendoen, O. L. Loucks, R. K. Peet, D. Roberts, Ecological Monographs 79, 173 (2009). [5] L. Mucina, et al., Lazaroa 30, 267 (2009). [6] M. Chytrý, et al., Applied Vegetation Science 19, 173 (2015). [7] J. S. Rodwell, et al., The diversity of European vegetation - An overview of phytosociological alliances and their relationships to EUNIS habitats (National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature and Fisheries, Wageningen, 2002). [8] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 35, 7 (1992). [9] C. E. Davies, D. Moss, M. O. Hill, EUNIS habitat classification - revised, Tech. rep., European Environment Agency, European Topic Centre on Nature Protection and Biodiversity, Paris (2004). [10] J. H. J. Schaminée, et al., Development of vegetation syntaxa crosswalks to EUNIS

Dwarf pine forest in Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park (Pyrenees of Huesca, North Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

habitat classification and related data sets, Tech. rep., Alterra, Wageningen, NL (2014). [11] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 141, 93 (2007). [12] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, European forest types: Categories and types for sustainable forest management reporting and policy (European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 2007), second edn. [13] A. Barbati, M. Marchetti, G. Chirici, P. Corona, Forest Ecology and Management 321, 145 (2014). [14] T. Houston Durrant, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz, E. Schulte, A. Suarez Meyer, Evaluation of BioSoil Demonstration Project: Forest biodiversity - Analysis of biodiversity module, vol. 24777 of EUR - Scientific and Technical Research (Publications Office of the European Union, 2011). [15] R. McRoberts, et al., National Forest Inventories: Contributions to Forest Biodiversity Assessments, G. Chirici, S. Winter, R. E. McRoberts, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2011), vol. 20 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 41–97.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01e1b6. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Pasta, S., Giannetti, F., Barbati, A., Chirici, G., 2016. European forest classifications. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01e1b6+



33 08/04/2016 11:07

European Forest Types: tree species matrix M. Pividori, F. Giannetti, A. Barbati, G. Chirici

1. Boreal 1. Boreal forestforest

1.1 Spruce 1.1 Spruce and spruce-birch and spruce-birch borealboreal forestforest 1.2 Pine 1.2 and Pinepine-birch and pine-birch borealboreal forestforest

2.1 Hemiboreal forestforest 2. Hemiboreal 2. Hemiboreal forestforest and nemoral and nemoral2.1 Hemiboreal coniferous coniferous and mixed and mixed broadleavedbroadleaved2.2 Nemoral 2.2 Nemoral ScotsScots pine forest pine forest coniferous coniferous forestforest 2.3 Nemoral 2.3 Nemoral sprucespruce forestforest

2.4 Nemoral 2.4 Nemoral BlackBlack pine forest pine forest 2.5 Mixed 2.5 Mixed ScotsScots pine-birch pine-birch forestforest 2.6 Mixed 2.6 Mixed ScotsScots pine-pedunculate pine-pedunculate oak forest oak forest 2.7 Atlantic 2.7 Atlantic maritime maritime pine forest pine forest 2.8 Nemoral 2.8 Nemoral silversilver fir fir

3. Alpine 3. Alpine coniferous coniferous forestforest

3.1 Subalpine 3.1 Subalpine larch-arolla larch-arolla pine and pinedwarf and dwarf pine forest pine forest 3.2 Subalpine 3.2 Subalpine and mountainous and mountainous sprucespruce and mountainous and mountainous mixedmixed spruce-silver spruce-silver fir forest fir forest 3.3 Alpine 3.3 Alpine ScotsScots pine and pineBlack and Black pine forest pine forest 3.4 Mountainous 3.4 Mountainous birch birch forestforest

4.1 Acidophilous oakwood oakwood 4. Acidophilous 4. Acidophilous oak and oakoak-birch and oak-birch4.1 Acidophilous forestforest 4.2 Oak-birch 4.2 Oak-birch forestforest 5.1 Pedunculate oak–hornbeam oak–hornbeam forestforest 5. Mesophytic 5. Mesophytic deciduous deciduous forestforest 5.1 Pedunculate 5.2 Sessile 5.2 Sessile oak–hornbeam oak–hornbeam forestforest 5.3.1 5.3.1 Ashwood Ashwood and oak-ash and oak-ash forestforest lowlands lowlands 5.3.2 5.3.2 Ashwood Ashwood and oak-ash and oak-ash forestforest uplands uplands 5.4 Maple-oak 5.4 Maple-oak forestforest 5.5 Lime-oak 5.5 Lime-oak forestforest 5.6 Maple-lime 5.6 Maple-lime forestforest 5.7 Lime 5.7 Lime forestforest 5.8 Ravine 5.8 Ravine and slope and slope forestforest 5.9 Other 5.9 Other mesophytic mesophytic deciduous deciduous forests forests

6. Beech 6. Beech forestforest

6.1 Lowland 6.1 Lowland beechbeech forestforest of southern of southern Scandinavia Scandinavia and north and north central central Europe Europe 6.2 Atlantic 6.2 Atlantic and subatlantic and subatlantic lowland lowland beechbeech forestforest 6.3 Subatlantic 6.3 Subatlantic submountainous submountainous beechbeech forestforest 6.4 Central 6.4 Central European European submountainous submountainous beechbeech forestforest 6.5 Carpathian 6.5 Carpathian submountainous submountainous beechbeech forestforest 6.6 Illyrian 6.6 Illyrian submountainous submountainous beechbeech forestforest 6.7 Moesian 6.7 Moesian submountainous submountainous beechbeech forestforest

7. Mountainous 7. Mountainous beechbeech forestforest

7.1 South 7.1 South western western European European mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.2 Central 7.2 Central European European mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.3 Apennine-Corsican 7.3 Apennine-Corsican mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.4 Illyrian 7.4 Illyrian mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.5 Carpathian 7.5 Carpathian mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.6 Moesian 7.6 Moesian mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.7 Crimean 7.7 Crimean mountainous mountainous beechbeech forestforest 7.8 Oriental 7.8 Oriental beechbeech and hornbeam-oriental and hornbeam-oriental beechbeech forestforest

8.1.1 8.1.1 Downy Downy oak forest oak forest - western - western 8. Thermophilous 8. Thermophilous deciduous deciduous forestforest 8.1.2 8.1.2 Downy Downy oak forest oak forest - Italian - Italian 8.1.3 8.1.3 Downy Downy oak forest oak forest - Greek, - Greek, Anatolian Anatolian 8.1.4 8.1.4 Downy Downy oak forest oak forest - steppe - steppe 8.2 Turkey 8.2 Turkey oak, Hungarian oak, Hungarian oak and oakSessile and Sessile oak forest oak forest 8.3 Pyrenean 8.3 Pyrenean oak forest oak forest 8.4 Portuguese 8.4 Portuguese oak and oakMirbeck’s and Mirbeck’s oak Iberian oak Iberian forestforest 8.5 Macedonian 8.5 Macedonian oak forest oak forest 8.6 Valonia 8.6 Valonia oak forest oak forest 8.7 Chestnut 8.7 Chestnut forestforest 8.8.1 8.8.1 Thermophilous Thermophilous ash forest ash forest 8.8.2 8.8.2 Fraxinus Fraxinus ornusornus and Ostrya and Ostrya carpinifolia carpinifolia forestforest 8.8.3 8.8.3 Hop-hornbeam Hop-hornbeam (Ostrya (Ostrya carpinifolia) carpinifolia) forestforest 8.8.4 8.8.4 Oriental Oriental hornbeam hornbeam (Carpinus (Carpinus orientalis) orientalis) forestforest 8.8.5 8.8.5 Thermophilous Thermophilous maplemaple (Acer (Acer spp.) forest spp.) forest 8.8.6 8.8.6 Mediterranean Mediterranean lime (Tilia lime (Tilia spp.) forest spp.) forest 8.8.7 8.8.7 CeltisCeltis australis australis forestforest 8.8.8 8.8.8 HorseHorse chestnut chestnut and walnut and walnut mixedmixed woodswoods 9.1 Mediterranean evergreen evergreen oak forest oak forest 9. Broadleaved 9. Broadleaved evergreen evergreen forestforest 9.1 Mediterranean 9.2 Olive-carob 9.2 Olive-carob forestforest 9.3 Palm 9.3 Palm groves groves 9.4 Macaronesian 9.4 Macaronesian laurisilva laurisilva 9.5 Other 9.5 Other sclerophlyllous sclerophlyllous forests forests

10. Coniferous 10. Coniferous forests forests of theof the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, Anatolian Anatolian and and Macaronesian Macaronesian regions regions

10.1.110.1.1 Mediterranean Mediterranean pine forest pine forest - Pinus - Pinus pinaster pinaster 10.1.210.1.2 Mediterranean Mediterranean pine forest pine forest - Pinus - Pinus halepensis halepensis 10.1.310.1.3 Mediterranean Mediterranean pine forest pine forest - Pinus - Pinus pineapinea 10.2.110.2.1 Mediterranean Mediterranean BlackBlack pine forest pine forest 10.2.210.2.2 Anatolian Anatolian BlackBlack pine forest pine forest 10.3 10.3 Canarian Canarian pine forest pine forest 10.4 10.4 Mediterranean Mediterranean and Anatolian and Anatolian ScotsScots pine forest pine forest 10.5 10.5 Alti-Mediterranean Alti-Mediterranean pine forest pine forest 10.6 10.6 Mediterranean Mediterranean and Anatolian and Anatolian fir forest fir forest 10.7 10.7 Juniper Juniper forestforest 10.8 10.8 Cypress Cypress forestforest 10.9 10.9 CedarCedar forestforest 10.1010.10 Tetraclinis Tetraclinis articulata articulata stands stands 10.1110.11 Mediterranean Mediterranean yew stands yew stands

11. Mire 11. and Mireswamp and swamp forestforest

11.1 11.1 Spruce Spruce mire forest mire forest 11.2 11.2 Pine mire Pine forest mire forest 11.3 11.3 Alder Alder swamp swamp forestforest 11.4 11.4 Birch Birch swamp swamp forestforest 11.5 11.5 Pedunculate Pedunculate oak swamp oak swamp forestforest 11.6 11.6 AspenAspen swamp swamp forestforest

12. Floodplain 12. Floodplain forestforest

12.1 12.1 Riparian Riparian forestforest 12.2 12.2 FluvialFluvial forestforest 12.3 12.3 Mediterranean Mediterranean and Macaronesian and Macaronesian riparian riparian forestforest

Alder Alder forestforest 13. Non 13. riverine Non riverine alder,alder, birch,birch, or or 13.1 13.1 aspenaspen forestforest 13.2 13.2 ItalianItalian alder alder forestforest 13.3 13.3 Birch Birch forestforest 13.4 13.4 AspenAspen forestforest

14. Introduced 14. Introduced tree species tree species forestforest

In this table the European Forest Types (EFTs) scheme is presented as proposed and revised by Barbati and colleagues1-3, counting 14 broad categories which include 78 forest types, some of which are divided into sub-types. For every EFT the presence

34

of the main tree and shrub species of forest interest in Europe has been evaluated, separated into three main groups: conifers, broadleaved and alien trees. The species presence in the EFTs is categorized in three classes: the species is abundant and dominant

in the EFT; the species presence in the EFT is either secondary or predominant but in peculiar and not characteristic ecological conditions of the EFT; the presence in the EFT is both dominant and secondary in some cases. It has to be taken into account that



08/04/2016 11:08

Quercus Quercus ilex coccifera Quercus Quercus suber ilex

Castanea sativa Fagus orientalis Quercus Castaneacoccifera sativa

Fagus Fagus moesiaca sylvatica Fagus moesiaca orientalis Fagus

Corylus avellana Ostrya carpinifolia Fagus sylvatica Corylus avellana

Carpinus Carpinus orientalis betulus Ostrya carpinifolia Carpinus orientalis

Alnus Alnus orientalis cordata Carpinus betulus Alnus orientalis

Alnus Alnus incana glutinosa Alnus Alnus cordata incana

Alnus Betulaviridis pendula Alnus Alnus glutinosa viridis

Betula Juglanspubescens regia Betula pubescens pendula Betula

Myrica Populusfaya nigra Juglansfaya regia Myrica

Populus Populus tremula canescens Populus tremula nigra Populus

Populus alba Salix eleagnos Populus Populus canescens alba

Salix Salix caprea atrocinerea Salix Salix eleagnos caprea

Salix Salix cinerea alba Salix cinerea atrocinerea Salix

Salix Taxusfragilis baccata Salix fragilis alba Salix

Tetraclinis articulata Juniperus sp. Taxus baccata Tetraclinis articulata

Juniperus Juniperus thurifera phoenicea Juniperus Juniperus sp. thurifera

Juniperus Juniperus oxycedrus communis Juniperus Juniperus phoenicea oxycedrus

Cedrus Cedrus brevifolia libani Juniperus communis Cedrus brevifolia

Cupressus Pinus peucesempervirens Cedrus libani Cupressus sempervirens

Pinus Pinus heldreichii canariensis Pinus heldreichii peuce Pinus

Pinus Pinus cembra pinea Pinus Pinus canariensis cembra

Pinus Pinus halepensis mugo Pinus Pinus pinea halepensis

Pinus Pinus sylvestris nigra Pinus Pinus mugo sylvestris

BROADLEAVES BROADLEAVES

Pinus pinaster Larix decidua Pinus pinaster nigra Pinus

Picea Picea omorika abies Larix decidua Picea omorika

Abies Abies others borisii-regi Picea Abies abies others

FOREST FOREST TYPE TYPE

Abies nordmanniana

CATEGORY CATEGORY

Abies Abies alba nordmanniana Abies Abies borisii-regi alba

CONIFERS CONIFERS


in many cases the EFTs are wide forest communities having inner variability in their species composition and structure according to more local ecological conditions. For this reason the presence of some species can be both, dominant or secondary in some cases.


Acer negundo

Acer negundo Prunus serotina

Eucalyptus sp. Ailanthus altissima Prunus serotina Eucalyptus sp.

Robinia Quercuspseudoacacia palustris Ailanthus altissima Robinia pseudoacacia

Quercus rubra Populus hyb. Quercus Quercus palustris rubra

Pinus Pinus radiata strobus Populus hyb. Pinus radiata

[2] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, European forest types: Categories and types for sustainable forest management reporting and policy (European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 2007), second edn.

Pinus contorta Larix kaempferi Pinus Pinus strobus contorta

Picea Tsugasitchensis heterophylla Larix kaempferi Picea sitchensis

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Pseudotsuga menziesii Tsuga heterophylla Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

Sambucus nigra Phillyrea latifolia Pseudotsuga menziesii Sambucus nigra

Olea europaea Fraxinus angustifolia Phillyrea latifolia Olea europaea

Fraxinus Fraxinus excelsior ornus Fraxinus Fraxinus angustifolia excelsior

Arbutus unedo Erica scoparia Fraxinusunedo ornus Arbutus

[1] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 141, 93 (2007).

Erica arborea Cornus mas Erica arborea scoparia Erica

Cornus Tamarixsanguinea sp. Cornus sanguinea mas Cornus

Tilia Tilia platyphyllos cordata Tamarix sp. Tilia platyphyllos

Tilia tomentosa Rhamnus frangula Tilia Tilia cordata tomentosa

Rhamnus alaternus Buxus sempervirens Rhamnus alaternus frangula Rhamnus

Euonymus europaeus Ilex aquifolium Buxus sempervirens Euonymus europaeus

Species is present in either category

Acer Acer monspessulanum opalus Ilex aquifolium Acer monspessulanum

Species is present but not dominant

Acer Acer pseudoplatanus sempervirens Acer Acer opalus pseudoplatanus

Acer Acer tataricum campestre Acer Acer sempervirens tataricum

Acer platanoides Pistacia terebinthus Acer Acer campestre platanoides

Ceratonia siliqua Cercis siliquastrum Pistacia terebinthus Ceratonia siliqua

Prunus Prunus lusitanica padus Cercis siliquastrum Prunus lusitanica

Prunus Prunus mahaleb avium Prunus Prunus padus mahaleb

Prunus Prunus spinosa cerasifera Prunus Prunus avium spinosa

Crataegus Crataegus monogyna laevigata Prunus cerasifera Crataegus monogyna

Sorbus Sorbus aria torminalis Crataegus Sorbus arialaevigata

Sorbus Sorbus aucuparia domestica Sorbus aucuparia torminalis Sorbus

Malus Malus domestica sylvestris Sorbusdomestica domestica Malus

Pyrus Pyrus communis pyraster Malus sylvestris Pyrus communis

Platanus orientalis Laurus nobilis Pyrus pyraster Platanus orientalis

Aesculus ippocastanus Celtis australis Laurus nobilis Aesculus ippocastanus

Ulmus Ulmus laevis grabra Celtis australis Ulmus laevis

Ulmus Quercusminor macrolepis Ulmus minor grabra Ulmus

Quercus Quercus ithaburensis faginea Quercus Quercus macrolepis ithaburensis

Quercus Quercus pubescens pyrenaica Quercus Quercus faginea pubescens

Quercus Quercus frainetto robur Quercus frainetto pyrenaica Quercus

Quercus Quercus petraea cerroides Quercus petraea robur Quercus

Quercus Quercus cerris trojana Quercus cerris cerroides Quercus

Quercus Quercus suber ilex Quercus Quercus trojana suber

Quercus Castaneacoccifera sativa Quercus Quercus ilex coccifera

Fagus Fagus orientalis moesiaca Castanea sativa Fagus orientalis

Fagus Corylussylvatica avellana Fagus sylvatica moesiaca Fagus

Species is dominant in that forest type

References [3] A. Barbati, M. Marchetti, G. Chirici, P. Corona, Forest Ecology and Management 321, 145 (2014).

ALIENS ALIENS

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peerreviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01e1b6. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Pividori, M., Giannetti, F., Barbati, A., Chirici, G., 2016. European Forest Types: tree species matrix. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01f162+

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Past forests of Europe H. J. B. Birks, W. Tinner European forests have varied in their composition, structure, and extent over the last 5 million years or more in response to global climate changes. European forests have also undergone very major changes due to the alternating glacial-interglacial cycles of the Quaternary (last 2.6 million years). European forests have greatly changed in their extent and structure in the last 5 000 years due to human activities (the Homo sapiens phase) in the current Holocene interglacial in which we live. Contemporary ecologists and foresters can learn from ‘lessons from the past’ about forest responses and resilience to environmental changes in the past.

Introduction Were European forests 500, 5 000, 15 000, 150 000, 1.5 million, 2.5 million, and 5 million years ago similar in species composition, structure, and extent to the forests of Europe today? As we cannot directly observe the forests of the past, to answer these questions we need to reconstruct past forests indirectly using the fossil record. This involves the study of seeds, fruits, leaves, wood, and charcoal (macrofossils)1 and of microscopic pollen grains, spores, cells (e.g. stomata), and charred particles (microfossils) preserved in lake, bog, alluvial, and other sediments where organic material can be preserved2 . Pollen analysis as a tool for vegetation reconstruction - invented in 1916 by the Swedish geologist Lennart von Post - was and still is the dominant technique in the Quaternary period, especially the last 15 000 years of the late-Quaternary. Von Post had the idea of expressing fossil pollen assemblages as percentages of the sum of pollen grains counted, and of presenting these percentages as stratigraphical pollen diagrams with pollen assemblages plotted against their stratigraphical position through the sediment sequence (Fig. 1). He showed strong similarities in pollen diagrams from a small area, and striking differences between different areas. He was thus able to provide the dimension of time (vegetation’s fourth dimension) to the study of past vegetation and forests2, 3 .

Pollen analysis There are ten basic principles of pollen analysis1 (see Box 1). The results of a pollen analysis are most commonly presented as a pollen diagram, showing how the percentages of different pollen types vary with depth, and hence age, in the sedimentary sequence (Fig. 1). When many sequences have been studied, their pollen data can be mapped for a particular time interval (e.g. 5 000 years ago) to produce so-called ‘isopollen’ maps for particular pollen types where the contours represent different pollen values (e.g. 2.5 %, 5 %, 10 %) (Fig. 2)4 . Alternatively when interest is centred on the directions and rates of tree spreading, so-called ‘isochrone’ maps can be constructed where the contours represent ages established by radiocarbon dating (e.g. 5 000, 6 000, 7 000 years ago). When the value of a particular pollen type exceeds a certain threshold value it can be interpreted as reflecting the first expansion of that taxon at different sites (Fig. 3)5 . The first arrival of a taxon is more difficult to assess, because the absence of pollen or macrofossils may not mean a true absence of the taxon in the landscape. Interpretation of pollen-stratigraphical data in a qualitative manner in terms of major past vegetational changes is relatively straightforward2 . Quantitative interpretation of such data in terms of quantitative estimates of past plant abundances is less straightforward because of the differential production, dispersal, and hence representation of different pollen types. Approaches for quantitative interpretation are currently an area of active research within Europe and elsewhere (e.g. 6, 7).

Fig. 2: ‘Isopollen’ maps of Quercus (oak) pollen percentages across Europe for 12 000, 10 000, 8 000, 6 000, 4 000, and 2 000 radiocarbon years before present (BP). Note the progressive northward spread into southern Scandinavia by 6 000 BP and the subsequent contraction at 2 000 BP in Norway. The percentage contours are percentages of total tree and shrub pollen. (Modified from Huntley and Birks4)

Fig. 1: Summary pollen diagram from Loch Cill an Aonghais (Argyll), a small lake in south-west Scotland covering the last 12 000 radiocarbon years. The horizontal lines represent partitions of the pollen stratigraphy into pollenassemblage zones. The vertical axis is radiocarbon (14C) years before present (BP) based on eight radiocarbon dates. The small arrows by the Betula (birch), Quercus (oak), Alnus (alder), and Corylus/Myrica (hazel/bog myrtle) indicate when these trees or shrubs are inferred to have first expanded near this site. Cryocratic taxa are coloured red and stippled. These taxa become abundant again in the open conditions of the Homo sapiens phase where they are shown in plain red. Protocratic trees are coloured blue, mesocratic trees are green, oligocratic and telocratic taxa are orange, and taxa associated with human activity and the Homo sapiens phase of the Holocene are shown in red. All the pollen and spore percentages are expressed as percentages of the total number of terrestrial pollen and spores counted (generally 500-600 per sample). Pollen analyses by Sylvia M. Peglar.

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Box 1: Principles of pollen analysis i

Pollen grains and spores are produced in great abundance by plants

ii A very small fraction of these fulfil their natural reproductive function of transferring the male gamete to the female ovary: the vast majority fall to the ground iii Pollen and spores decay more or less rapidly, unless the processes of biological decomposition are inhibited by a lack of oxygen, such as in bogs, lakes, and the ocean floor where pollen is preserved iv Before reaching the ground, pollen is well mixed by atmospheric turbulence, which results in a more or less uniform pollen rain within an area of similar vegetation and landform v The proportion of each pollen type depends on the number of parent plants and their pollen productivity and dispersal. Hence the pollen rain is a complex function of the composition of the vegetation. A sample of the pollen rain is thus an indirect record of the regional vegetation at that point in space and time vi Different pollen grains and spores can be identified to various taxonomic levels (e.g. species, genus, family) vii In vegetated areas pollen is ubiquitous in lake and bog sediments. Very high concentrations (usually around 100 000 cm-3) in the sediment permit efficient analyses and statistically robust results (standard pollen counts are usually ca. 300-1 000 grains per sample). viii If a sample of the pollen rain is examined from a peat or lakemud sample of known age (dated by annual layers or radiocarbon dating), the pollen assemblage is an indirect record of the regional and local vegetation surrounding the sampled site at a point of time in the past ix If pollen assemblages are obtained from several levels through a sediment sequence, they provide a record, admittedly an indirect record, of the regional and local vegetation and their development near the sampled site at various times through the time interval represented by the sedimentary record (Fig. 1) x If two or more series of pollen assemblage are obtained from several sites, it is possible to study changes in past pollen assemblages and hence in the regional and local vegetation through both time and space (Figs. 2 and 3)

Fig 3: ‘Isochrone’ map for Quercus (oak) in Britain and Ireland showing its progressive rate and/or expansion from the south-west at 9 500 radiocarbon years before present (BP) through England and southern and central Ireland to 8 500 BP and its declining rate as it spreads north into Scotland between 8 000 and 6 000 BP. (Modified from Birks ) 5

Europe’s forests prior to the Quaternary ice-ages The Quaternary period with its multiple glacial stages with ice-sheets and intervening temperate interglacial stages began about 2.6 million years ago. What were European forests like prior to the Quaternary?

Period

Quaternary

Neogene

Palaeogene

Epoch

Age (Million years)

Holocene

0.01

Pleistocene

2.6

Pliocene

5.3

Miocene

23

Oligocene

33.9

Eocene

56

Palaeocene

66

Table 1. Partial geological time scale. Time is shown in million years with youngest epoch at the top going down to older epochs at the bottom.

Knowledge of the flora and vegetation of the Palaeogene and Neogene (‘Tertiary’) periods (66-2.6 million years ago, see Table 1 for an outline of the relevant geological time scales) is very fragmentary due to the shortage of fossiliferous sedimentary sequences in Europe8 . Following the tropical and sub-tropical Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene epochs (66-5.3 million years ago) when plants (e.g. Nipa palm) found today in the tropical lowlands of the Indo-Malaya region occurred in northwest Europe9 , the European tree flora of the Pliocene epoch (5.32.6 million years ago) contained many genera characteristic of modern European forests (e.g. Quercus oak, Carpinus hornbeam, Fagus beech, Pinus pine, Picea spruce, Abies fir) as well as genera growing today in eastern Asia and/or eastern North American (e.g. Pterocarya wing-nut, Liriodendron tulip-tree, Tsuga hemlock, Liquidambar sweetgum, Nyssa blackgum, Sequoia redwood, Taxodium cypress, Magnolia magnolia, Carya hickory, Clethra pepper-bush, Engelhardia, Aesculus chestnut)9, 10 . These trees belong to the so-called Arcto-Tertiary geoflora that in the Neogene existed widely in the Northern Hemisphere across North America, Europe, and Asia. This geoflora was first defined by J.S. Gardner and C. Ettinghausen in 1869. The successive loss of these taxa during the Pliocene epoch and the early Pleistocene of the Quaternary and their restriction today to two almost opposite areas of the globe (eastern Asia and eastern North America) is explained by the hypothesis explicitly presented in the 1850s by the American botanist Asa Gray (1810-88). The cool phases within the late Pliocene epoch and the subsequent Pleistocene continental glaciations, combined with the west-east chains of glaciated mountains (e.g. Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus mountains) and the Mediterranean Sea provided barriers to the southward retreat of many of the Arcto-Tertiary geoflora resulting in their progressive extinction in Europe. In contrast, the mountain chains and valleys of south-eastern Asia (e.g. Yunnan) and North America (e.g. Appalachians, Rocky Mountains) run north-west to south-east or north to south reaching low latitudes without sea barriers, thereby permitting temperate and warm temperate trees to spread southward along unglaciated areas or valley corridors in cold stages and to spread northward during temperate intervals. As a result of the west-east barriers and the many relatively cold stages in the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene, Europe lost many trees or their close relatives that today are found in the warm-temperate-subtropical ‘evergreen forest’ of south-eastern China11 . These were largely replaced by trees of the temperate ‘mixed mesophytic forest’. Many taxa had already disappeared at the beginning of the Quaternary (e.g. Liquidambar, Meliosma, Pseudolarix false larch, Stewartia), while others survived longer (e.g. Liriodendron, Magnolia, Taxodium, Sequoia, Phellodendron cork tree, Tsuga, Carya) to vanish finally from Europe during the course of the early- or mid-Quaternary9, 11 .

Europe’s forests in the Quaternary period The Quaternary period (last 2.6 million years) witnessed very marked and widespread climatic and environmental changes12 . Large terrestrial ice-sheets started to form in the Northern Hemisphere about 2.75 million years ago, resulting in multiple (at least 50) glacial-interglacial cycles driven by secular variations in insolation as a result of periodic fluctuations in the Earth’s orbit around the sun. Glacial-stage conditions account for 80 % of

the Quaternary whereas the remaining 20 % consists of shorter interglacial stages during which conditions were similar to, or slightly warmer than, the present day12 . During the glacial stages, environmental conditions were very different from the present interglacial (Holocene or post-glacial plus the recent Anthropocene) in which we live today. Much of the region north of 40° N was covered by large terrestrial ice-sheets and widespread permafrost with temperatures possibly 10-25 ° C lower than present. High aridity and temperature 2-5 ° C lower than today were features of low-latitude areas. Global atmospheric CO2 concentrations were as low as 180 ppm during glacial stages, rising to pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm in interglacial stages. Given these extreme conditions in the glacial stages that cover 80 % of the last 2.6 million years, an obvious question12 is how did European forest trees survive these repeated long glacial-stage conditions and where did they grow in the glacial stages? The evidence we have suggests that many European trees survived the last glacial maximum (LGM) in relatively narrow refugial elevational belts (ca. 500-800m) in the mountains of southern Europe (including the Caucasus) and possibly in parts of western Asia13 . These belts lay between lowland xeric steppe-like vegetation too dry for tree growth and high-elevation tundra-like vegetation, or permanent snow or ice, too cold for tree growth. Such mid-elevation belts of trees can be seen today in the Andes, American Rockies, the Californian Sierra Nevada, the Pamir, parts of the Sino-Himalayan region, and the Tien Shan in Kazakhstan12 . Trees may also have occurred scattered in locally moist sites (water seepages, ravines), so-called ‘cryptic’ or ‘micro’ refugia in Europe during the LGM as they do today on the Tibetan Plateau in Sichuan and Qinghai, in the Zagros mountains of Iran, and in parts of south-east Turkey, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan12 . There is increasing evidence from macrofossils and charcoal remains in central, eastern, and north-eastern Europe that conifer trees such as Pinus, Picea, and Larix larch may have grown locally in such microrefugia during the LGM, along with Betula birch, Salix willow, and possibly Alnus alder, Populus aspen, and Ulmus elm, as far north as the north-eastern edge of the great Fennoscandian ice-sheet in Russia at 60° N (12 , but see 14 for a contrasting view).

Europe’s forests during Quaternary interglacial stages Pollen analysis and macrofossil studies reveal that in northwestern and central Europe15 there is strikingly similar vegetation development from the end of a glacial stage through the ensuing interglacial (about 10 000-15 000 years duration) and into the next glacial stage. Although the species and their relative abundances may vary from one interglacial to another, there are such strong ecological similarities that the Danish pollen analyst Johannes Iversen recognised in 195816 an interglacial cycle consisting of four or five ecological phases (Box 2 and Fig. 4)17, 18 . The cryocratic phase represents the cold and dry, often glacial, stage with sparse assemblages of pioneer, arctic-alpine, steppe, and ruderal herbs growing on skeletal mineral soils, frequently disturbed by groundice activities. Trees are absent, except in specialised refugia. At the onset of an interglacial, temperature and moisture rise and the protocratic phase begins. Base-demanding shade-intolerant herbs, shrubs, and trees (e.g. Betula, Salix, Populus, Pinus, Juniperus juniper, Sorbus aucuparia rowan) immigrate into formerly glaciated areas and expand to form a mosaic of grassland, scrub, and open woodland growing on unleached, fertile soils rich in nitrogen and phosphorus and with a low humus content (Fig. 1). The mesocratic phase is characterised by the development of temperate deciduous forests of Quercus, Ulmus, Tilia lime, Corylus hazel, Fraxinus ash, and Alnus on fertile brown-earth soils (Fig. 1). Shade-intolerant herbs and shrubs are rare as a result of competition and habitat loss, except in openings caused by fire, wind-throw, and, possibly, grazing megafauna19. The next phase, the oligocratic phase, comprises open coniferdominated woods (Pinus, Picea, Abies), ericaceous heaths, and bog vegetation growing on infertile (low available phosphorus18) humusrich podsols and peats. Climatic deterioration (temperature decreases, reduced moisture, etc.) occur in the final telocratic phase and, most especially, at the onset of the next glacial cryocratic phase as forests decline, frost action and cryoturbation destroy the leached infertile acid soils, and herbs expand on the newly exposed mineral soils. The telocratic forest vegetation is very similar to the oligocratic phase except that as the climate cools towards the end of the interglacial, warmth-demanding and or frost-sensitive trees and shrubs (e.g. Tilia, Ilex, Hedera) decline. These ecological phases within an interglacial are not synchronous between sites because the onset of a phase such as the oligocratic phase may depend on local site features such as bedrock geology, topography, climate, and land-use.



37 08/04/2016 11:08

Fe r

Ma

as

N

e

&

P

L ow bio m a

Base-

Homo sapiens: • mid-late Holocene (6 000 years ago-present) • forest clearance, agriculture • range of soil types, often fertilised

ss

e ric h in fertil

G la cial

s oi

asing temp Decre e r a tur e

m

Cryocratic s

fertility, P limitation soil g biomass reasin Dec

Telocratic

g

ur

Unique to the Holocene

Protocratic

bio

sin

Oligocratic & Telocratic: • late interglacial stage • open conifer (spruce, pine), ericaceous heaths, bogs • infertile, humus-rich podsols and peats

De

Mesocratic Oligocratic In cre a sin g

Mesocratic: • mid interglacial stage • temperate deciduous forests • fertile brown-earth soils

N&P high , s l oi es ass til biom m u xim

ing as cre

Protocratic: • early interglacial stage • rich assemblages of herbs, shrubs, and trees (birch, pine, willow) • unleached fertile soils

Interglacial

rat

38

Cryocratic: • glacial stage • sparse assemblages of pioneer, arctic-alpine, steppe, and ruderal plants • skeletal mineral soils

ea M or e fe rtile s olis, in cr

The mesocratic phase in the Holocene interglacial stage was greatly modified about 5 000-6 000 years ago by the onset of forest clearance and prehistoric shifting cultivation and livestock farming (Fig. 1). This new phase, unique to the Holocene is called the Homo sapiens phase (see Box 2)17. There was a steep fall in Ulmus pollen values (Fig. 1), probably a result of an interaction between prehistoric human activities and a tree pathogen, with elm pollen values halving within 5 years at a site in southern England24 . Similarly, 5 000-6 000 years ago Abies disappeared from the Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean lowlands of the Italian Peninsula, probably in response to excessive Neolithic disturbance by fire and by browsing25, 26 . As with Ulmus in England, Abies collapses were rapid, with pollen values of Abies halving within 13 and 22 years at sites in Italy27 and Italian Switzerland28 , respectively. In some areas of central and north-west Europe, forest clearance and subsequent dereliction of clearings may have facilitated local colonisation and expansion of new immigrants such as Fagus sylvatica European beech, Picea abies Norway spruce, and possibly Carpinus betulus European hornbeam4 . While the establishment of Fagus sylvatica during Mesolithic times followed climate change (cooling and a moisture increase) in southern and southern-central Europe29, it is possible that the rapid spread of Fagus across central Europe in the last 4 000-5 000 years4 may have only been facilitated by the creation of abundant, large clearings within Tiliaor Quercus-dominated forests on well-drained soils. In some areas

The glacial-interglacial cycle showing the broad changes in biomass, soil, and temperature that take place during a glacial (cryocratic) stage and associated interglacial stage. The phases of the interglacial (protocratic, mesocratic, oligocratic, and telocratic) are shown along with the dominant soil features.

e a sin g te m p e

Europe’s forests in the Holocene (11 700 years ago-today)

Box 2: Glacial-interglacial phases in north-west Europe

Incr

The characteristic trees of the interglacial phases differ in their reproductive and population biology and ecological and competitive tolerances17, 20, 21 . Protocratic trees have high reproduction rates, low competitive tolerances, high rates of population increase, and display ‘pioneer’ and ‘exploitation’ traits17. Mesocratic trees have low reproductive rates, high competitive tolerances, medium-low rates of population increase, arbuscular phosphorus-scavenging mycorrhiza, and ‘late-successional’, ‘competitive’, and ‘saturation’ traits 17. Oligocratic and telocratic trees have medium reproductive rates, high competitive tolerances, medium-low rates of population increase, ectomycorrhiza with a phosphorus-mining strategy, and ‘cold-stress tolerant’ and ‘adversity’ traits17. Within these three broad groups of protocratic, mesocratic, and oligocratic and telocratic plants, the actual floristic and forest composition varies from interglacial to interglacial in northwestern and central Europe17. Factors such as location of refugia in the cryocratic phase, rates of spreading, distances over which spread occurred, competition, predation, genotypic variation, and chance as it affects survival, dispersal, and establishment may all have contributed to the observed differences in interglacial forest patterns17. Similar cycles occurred in southern Europe, yet with substantial differences in comparison to central and northwestern Europe10, 11, 22 . Due to warmer conditions, European tree species persisted locally, although strongly reduced, in the steppelike environments of the glacial stages. This corresponds to the cryocratic phase in central and northern Europe. At the onset of an interglacial, corresponding to the protocratic phase in central and north-western Europe, temperate taxa (e.g. deciduous Quercus, Ulmus, Ostrya hop-hornbeam, Carpinus) form open forests together with evergreen broad-leaved trees (e.g. Quercus ilex holm oak, Olea europaea olive) and mediterranean shrubs (e.g. Pistacia pistachio), while boreal and steppe vegetation declines (e.g. Betula, Juniperus, Artemisia wormwood, Chenopodiaceae goosefoot)11, 22, 23 . In the following phase during the mid-interglacial, corresponding to the mesocratic phase in central and north-western Europe, warmtemperate and Mediterranean conifers (e.g. Abies, Pinus) expand into the broad-leaved deciduous and broad-leaved evergreen forests and arboreal cover increases, probably in response to rising moisture availability. Towards the end of the interglacials, corresponding to the oligocratic phase in north-western and central Europe, moisture-loving taxa such as Fagus, Alnus, and Abies gradually replace Mediterranean evergreen broad-leaved trees, while broad-leaved deciduous trees remain important11, 22, 23 . Finally, forest cover declines and steppe-like environments expand during the climatic deterioration at the transition from the interglacial to the next glacial (temperature decreases, reduced moisture), corresponding to the telocratic phase. There is an apparent order within interglacial forest patterns when viewed at the broad-scale of an entire interglacial cycle of 10 000-15 000 years, whereas within each phase of an interglacial (ca. 5 000 years) there is often great variation between interglacials, hence the ability of pollen stratigraphy to differentiate between many of the different interglacials17.

ls

(Modified from Birks and Birks18)

cleared or cultivated areas, relaxation in grazing pressure, or reduction in fire frequency17. The westward, northward, and southward spread and expansion of Picea abies through Finland, Sweden, and Norway over the last 6 000-7 000 years4, 31 may be a contemporaneous response to subtle step-wise climate change, a delayed migration unrelated to simple climate change, a response to forest disturbance creating gaps for colonisation, or a combination of these factors32 . Whatever its causes, the invasion of Picea into northern and central Fennoscandia over the last 6 000-7 000 years resulted in major changes in forest composition and structure and in soil conditions, with widespread accumulation of mor humus, soil leaching, and podsolisation and changes in the natural fire regime within the boreal forest15, 33.

mixed Fagus-Ilex holly-Quercus forests developed whereas in other areas there was a rapid change from Tilia- or Quercus-dominance to Fagus-dominance17. These changes commonly occurred after an extensive phase of human activity involving clearance and grazing followed by the abandonment of cleared and cultivated areas. This abandonment may have occurred as a result of local population collapse following, for example, climate change, emigration, or over-exploitation of environmental resources30 . Other types of secondary woodland developed in areas beyond the natural geographical range of Fagus, for example woods of pure Fraxinus excelsior European ash, Quercus spp., Taxus baccata English yew, Betula spp., or Ilex aquifolium common holly became established on particular soil types following abandonment of

Box 3: Palaeo-model comparison: past, present and future Mediterranean vegetation Simulation of future vegetation dynamics at Lago di Massaciuccoli, a coastal lake in Tuscany (central Italy), with a dynamic vegetation model (LANDCLIM) for different climatic conditions (today vs. warming) and levels of disturbance (low vs. moderate). The mid- to late-Holocene sedimentary pollen record of Lago di Massaciuccoli is used to validate the model, in particular LANDCLIM is able to simulate extinct vegetation types which were growing in the past at the site before anthropogenic disturbance became excessive.

a

b

c

d

e

a) Present-day (1950-2000 AD) mean monthly temperature (±1 standard deviation) and average total monthly precipitation at Lago di Massaciuccoli close to Pisa (Tuscany). b) Map of Italy and Switzerland with Lago di Massaciuccoli denoted by a black star, red star shows position of Gorgo Basso in southern Sicily (Fig 4).

f

c) Future (2071-2100 AD) mean monthly temperature and precipitation projected by a regional climate model (SMHI) for Lago di Massaciuccoli. d) and e) Vegetation simulated at Lago di Massaciuccoli with LANDCLIM, a dynamic vegetation model with d) present climate and future climate e). All vegetation models were initialised with the same present-day climate scenario and moderate disturbance before 2010.

Figure from Henne et al.52

f) Holocene pollen percentages of upland trees and shrubs at Lago di Massaciuccoli. Simulations of today’s vegetation under low disturbance shows Abies alba co-dominance with Quercus ilex (see right image) in the Mediterranean forest. This vegetation type disappeared during the late Holocene most likely in response to excessive anthropogenic burning and land use25 . In agreement, simulations show the disappearance of this vegetation type under current climate with moderate land use. Future climate and vegetation conditions at Lago di Massaciuccoli are comparable to present climate and vegetation conditions at Gorgo Basso, southern Sicily (Fig 5). With low land use, evergreen oak forest will prevail16 , while under moderate land use forests will be reduced and maquis (low biomass) will expand.

Spontaneous regeneration of Abies alba and Quercus ilex in a cryptic Mediterranean stand in lowland Tuscany. (Copyright Willy Tinner: CC-BY)



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Fig. 4: Xeric maquis and cultivated land north of Gorgo Basso, a small lake in southern coastal Sicily. This sclerophyllous vegetation type expanded 2 700-2 000 years ago with Greek and Roman colonisation involving regular vegetation burning, pastoral and arable farming37. (Copyright Willy Tinner: CC-BY)

Fig. 5: Dense evergreen oak forest (Quercus ilex) south of Gorgo Basso. This vegetation type is representative of natural conditions in coastal Sicily prior to human-induced creation of maquis vegetation (Fig. 4). Forest vegetation survived on rocky calcareous slopes less suited for agriculture. (Copyright Willy Tinner: CC-BY)

In general, disturbance-sensitive taxa such as Tilia, Ulmus, Fraxinus, Acer maple, Abies, and Hedera ivy declined while disturbance-resistant taxa such as Quercus, Ostrya, Corylus, Betula, Alnus, Salix, Fagus (re-sprouters), and Picea (nonpalatable) expanded34 . Quercus, Fagus, and Picea were also favoured by humans for their valuable acorns or timber, ultimately forming monospecific forests25, 35 . Continued forest clearances and agriculture, interspersed by periods of abandonment and secondary regeneration, occurred as the result of the development and expansion of more permanent land-use practices (e.g. animal husbandry, ploughing, crop cultivation, woodland management) during the late Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman, Viking, Medieval, and recent times. Forests initially became more open, and wood- and scrub-pasture and hazel coppice expanded. However, increased human interference including regular burning36 led ultimately to the widespread deforestation of much of Europe and the development of extensive pastures of ‘commons’, fields, heaths, maquis, and settlements (Figs. 4 and 5). This process was particularly intense in the lowlands of Mediterranean Europe, where practically no unplanted forest environments survive (e.g.27, 37). Almost all extensive and naturally forested areas surviving today have been extensively managed by selective silviculture over many centuries38, 39 .

Why is European forest history important to modern ecologists? What ‘lessons from the past’ can be learnt from the everchanging composition, structure, and extent of forests in Europe? We see that European forests have been changing since the Palaeogene, with progressive extinction from Europe of trees of the so-called Arcto-Tertiary geoflora in the Pliocene and early Pleistocene9, 10 . The repeated glacial-interglacial cycles15, 17 that are so characteristic of the Quaternary (Pleistocene, Holocene) have resulted in a continuous dynamic of tree survival in refugia during glacial stages and rapid spread and expansion and unique tree combinations in the different interglacial stages13, 17. Human impact with forest clearance and agriculture (Fig. 4, maquis and Fig. 5, Quercus ilex forest) are unique to the Holocene, the socalled Homo sapiens phase (see Box 2)17. What emerges from the many palaeoecological studies (mainly based on pollen analysis but increasingly strengthened by macrofossil studies) is continual change at time scales of millions, thousands, and hundreds of years. Forests develop when certain plant species become abundant and dominant at specific areas under particular environmental conditions40 . These forests may change gradually

or abruptly when the dominant trees are replaced by other trees, usually in response to extrinsic environmental change41 or major disturbances (e.g. forest pathogens, fire, human activity)17. Few major terrestrial forest systems have existed for more than 10 000 years and most are considerably younger, some developing only within the last few centuries38-40 . Future forest systems are thus inevitably uncertain and historically contingent. Given the richness of forest-tree responses during the Quaternary with all its climatic shifts10, 13, 15, 17, many novel future responses, outcomes, and ecological surprises are certainly possible42-46 . Assessing whether current forest systems are sustainable in the face of future global change is aided by considering the range of environmental variation that these systems have experienced in the past and by reconstructing the environmental conditions under which these systems were initiated and developed40 . A narrow time window (e.g. 200-300 years) underestimates the range of variation within which a forest system is sustainable, and this underestimates the risk of major disruption of the system by environmental change40 . Longer time periods (e.g. 1 000-2 000 years) inevitably increase the inherent range of natural variation in the earth system40 . Most systems disappear, as shown by the palaeoecological record, when the time window extends to 10 000-15 000 due to major changes in the Earth’s climate system due to orbital forcing9 . The palaeoecological record can pinpoint the time of origination of particular forest systems (e.g. 30, 38 ) and can, by inference in some cases, indicate the specific environmental changes that led to the development of the system and the range of environmental variation under which the system maintained itself in the past40 . Such information, only obtainable from the palaeoecological record, can thus help to identify critical environmental thresholds beyond which specific modern forest systems can no longer be sustained47, 48 . The palaeoecological record for European forests provides several additional insights and important lessons from the past40 . First, all existing forest systems have a finite time limit to growing in the places where they occur and all have been preceded by ecosystems (not necessarily forest systems) that differ in composition, structure, plant-functional traits, and ecosystem properties40 . Second, similar forest ecosystems, as defined by their dominant species have developed in different places and at different times17, 40 . Third, similar systems had different antecedents in different places. Thus apparently similar systems may have different properties owing to different histories and to legacy effects of different antecedents40 . Fourth, several different systems arose at approximately the same time in different places, presumably in response to regional- or global-scale shifts in atmospheric circulation involving climatic shifts that led to widespread synchronous transformations of ecosystems40, 49, 50 . This pattern is not, however, universal but rapid regime-shifts in the earth system may be accompanied by widespread ecosystem changes in diverse regions40, 41 . Fifth, forest ecosystems of today have no long history even in the time span of the Holocene and forest systems existed in the past that have no modern counterparts (‘analogues’)45, 46 . Examples include the former abundance of Corylus avellana in the early Holocene across much of north-west Europe4, 17 and the importance of Abies alba in southern Europe in the mid-Holocene (See Box 3)25, 26 . Palaeoecologists look to the past whereas global-change ecologists look to the future, but both rely solely on their understanding of modern ecosystems and ecological processes as a basis for past reconstructions or future predictions. Palaeoecologists apply the concept that “the present is the key to the past” whereas global-change ecologists project this forward and use “the present is the key to the future”. But the present is only one time-slice in the last 11 700 years since the last glacial stage. A critical question is thus are today’s ecosystems and climate representative of tree and ecosystem-climate relationships under past or future climate change? Are they robust to climate conditions beyond modern states? Are species ranges in equilibrium with environmental factors such as climate50 or have the realised environmental niches of species been significantly altered by climate-change or millennial-long land-use activities51? These palaeoecological questions suggest that it is inadequate to project future ecosystem conditions solely on the basis of presentday observations47. A promising novel approach is to combine dynamic eco-physiological models with palaeoecological evidence to produce palaeo-validated scenarios of future vegetation dynamics under global-change conditions52, 53 . The dynamic nature and the often non-analogue character of European forests in the time-span of the Holocene or even the last 5 000 years raises critical questions about appropriate targets (‘baselines’) for restoration efforts. Palaeoecological studies have revealed major human imprints on many, if not all, systems in Europe17,

and have shown that secular climate change has kept many targets moving at centennial to millennial time-scales9, 17, 54. Ongoing rapid environmental changes may almost certainly ensure that many historical restoration targets will be unsustainable in the coming decades 34. Restoration efforts should aim to conserve or restore historical systems if possible, but more importantly, to design, create, and manage emerging novel ecosystems to ensure high biodiversity and a supply of ecosystem goods and services in the future54. The palaeoecological record of European tree and forest history is a rich and largely untapped record of ecological dynamics over a wide range of time-scales. As Karl Flessa and Steve Jackson55 discuss, this record is a long-term ecological observatory where ecological responses to past climate change and the ecological legacies of societal activities can be deciphered, quantified, and used as a key to “understanding the biotic effects of future environmental change”55 . There is very much still to be learnt about past European forests using the vast amount of palaeoecological data available in Europe4, 15, 17, 25, 29, 36, 56 . 34

Acknowledgements We are very grateful to Cathy Jenks for preparing this text and figures in a very short time and for her meticulous editing.

References [1] H. H. Birks, Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, S. A. Elias, C. J. Mock, eds. (Elsevier, 2013), pp. 593-612, second edn. [2] H. J. B. Birks, H. H. Birks, Quaternary Palaeoecology (Edward Arnold, 1980). [3] H. J. B. Birks, Encyclopedia of Ecology, S. E. Jørgensen, ed. (Elsevier, 2008), pp. 2623-2634. [4] B. Huntley, H. J. B. Birks, An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe, 0-13,000 Years Ago, no. pt. 2 (Cambridge University Press, 1983). [5] H. J. B. Birks, Journal of Biogeography 16, 503 (1989). [6] L. Marquer, et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 90, 199 (2014). [7] A. K. Trondman, et al., Global Change Biology 21, 676 (2015). [8] D. H. Mai, Tertiäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Methoden und Ergebnisse., vol. 106 (Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1995) [9] K. J. Willis, J. C. McElwain, Evolution of Plants (Oxford, United Kingdom, 2014), second edn. [10] T. van der Hammen, T. A. Wijmstra, W. H. Zagwijn, The Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages, K. K. Turekian, ed. (Yale Univ. Press, 1971), pp. 391-424. [11] N. Combourieu-Nebout, et al., Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 218, 127 (2015). [12] Birks, K. J. Willis, Plant Ecology & Diversity 1, 147 (2008). [13] K. D. Bennett, P. C. Tzedakis, K. J. Willis, Journal of Biogeography 18, 103 (1991). [14] P. C. Tzedakis, B. C. Emerson, G. M. Hewitt, Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28, 696 (2013). [15] G. Lang, Quartäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Methoden und Ergebnisse, vol. 106 (Gustav Fischer, 1995). [16] J. Iversen, The bearing of glacial and interglacial epochs on the formation and extinction of plant taxa, vol. 6 (Uppsala Universiteit Årsskrift, 1958). [17] H. J. B. Birks, Handbook of holocene palaeoecology and palaeohydrology, vol. 3 (1986). [18] H. H. Birks, H. J. B. Birks, Science 305, 484 (2004). [19] F. J. G. Mitchell, Journal of Ecology 93, 168 (2005). [20] J. Iversen, Problems of the Early Post-Glacial Forest Development in Denmark, vol. 1 (Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse, 1960) [21] J. Iversen, The development of Denmark’s nature since the last glacial, vol. 1 (Koebenhavn, 1973). [22] P. C. Tzedakis, Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 2042 (2007). [23] J. R. M. Allen, B. Huntley, Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1521 (2009). [24] S. Peglar, H. J. B. Birks, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 2, 61 (1993). [25] W. Tinner, et al., Ecological Monographs 83, 419 (2013). [26] G. Di Pasquale, et al., Journal of vegetation science 25, 1299 (2014). [27] D. Colombaroli, A. Marchetto, W. Tinner, Journal of Ecology 95, 755 (2007).

[28] W. Tinner, P. Hubschmid, M. Wehrli, B. Ammann, M. Conedera, Journal of Ecology 87, 273 (1999). [29] W. Tinner, A. F. Lotter, Geology 29, 551 (2001). [30] R. H. W. Bradshaw, M. Lindbladh, Ecology 87, 1679 (1999) [31] T. Giesecke, K. D. Bennett, Journal of Biogeography 31, 1523 (2004). [32] T. Giesecke, The holocene spread of spruce in scandinavia, Ph.D. thesis, Uppsala University (2004). [33] M. Ohlson, et al., Journal of Ecology 99, 395 (2011). [34] W. Tinner, B. Ammann, Global Change and Mountain Regions, U. Huber, H. Bugmann, M. Reasoner, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2005), vol. 23 of Advances in Global Change Research, pp. 133–143. [35] C. Schwörer, D. Colombaroli, P. Kaltenrieder, F. Rey, W. Tinner, Journal of Ecology 103, 281 (2015). [36] W. Tinner, M. Conedera, B. Ammann, A. F. Lotter, The Holocene 15, 1214 (2005). [37] W. Tinner, et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1498 (2009). [38] H. J. B. Birks, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 79, 153 (1993). [39] R. H. W. Bradshaw, C. S. Jones, S. J. Edwards, G. E. Hannon, The Holocene 25, 194 (2015). [40] S. T. Jackson, Journal of Vegetation Science 17, 549 (2006). [41] J. W. Williams, J. L. Blois, B. N. Shuman, Journal of Ecology 99, 664 (2011). [42] S. D. Veloz, et al., Global Change Biology 18, 1698 (2012). [43] B. Reu, et al., Global Ecology and Biogeography 23, 156 (2014). [44] J. W. Williams, et al., Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1297, 29 (2013). [45] S. T. Jackson, J. W. Williams, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32, 495 (2004). [46] J. van Andel, Restor Ecol 21, 523 (2013). [47] K. J. Willis, H. J. B. Birks, Science 314, 1261 (2006). [48] Birks, International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management 8, 292 (2012). [49] A. W. R. Seddon, M. Macias-Fauria, K. J. Willis, The Holocene 25, 25 (2015). [50] J.-C. Svenning, B. Sandel, American Journal of Botany 100, 1266 (2013). [51] S. T. Jackson, J. T. Overpeck, Paleobiology 26, 194 (2000). [52] P. D. Henne, et al., Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 13, 356 (2015). [53] M. Ruosch, et al., Global Change Biology p. n/a (2015). [54] S. T. Jackson, R. J. Hobbs, Science 325, 567 (2009). [55] K. W. Flessa, S. T. Jackson, The Geological Record of Ecological Dynamics: Understanding the Biotic Effects of Future Environmental Change (The National Academies Press, 2005). [56] B. A. S. Davis, et al., Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 22, 521 (2013).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e010c45. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Birks, H. J. B., Tinner, W., 2016. Past forests of Europe. In: SanMiguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e010c45+



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The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species: modelling, data and information on forest tree species D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, T. Houston Durrant, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz The European Commission has recently published a Forest Strategy for the European Union (see chapter “The European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe”), explicitly calling for “advanced research and modelling tools to fill data and knowledge gaps to better understand the complex issues around social, economic and environmental changes related to forests”1 . The global change in its environmental (climate change), social and economic dimensions is expected to impact on European forest systems in complex ways (see chapter “Forest resources in Europe: an integrated perspective on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats”). Potential impacts include changes in the suitability of whole regions for certain forest taxa and types, and resulting variations in the spatial distribution of forest tree species in Europe, with a large array of possible environmental, economic and social consequences2, 3 . Beside future potential threats, transdisciplinary robust assessment is required to identify and address emerging immediate risks for forest ecosystems. As an example, risk assessment on emerging risks due to exotic forest pests and diseases often has to be performed coping with a broad set of uncertainties4 . A key piece of information to allow some of these impacts and threats to be reliably estimated is the availability of updated tree species distribution and habitat suitability for the current situation5-11 . However, even this apparently simpler objective displays an impressive set of challenges for it to be addressed at the continental scale.

Fig. 1: Top left: Croatia, Krka National Park. The park is characterised by very high biodiversity, with more than 800 identified species and subspecies of plants. (Adapted from an image authored by gravitat-OFF, CC-BY, http://archive.is/m11os)

Bottom left: France, Stratification over the years of forest and land management. Even the uniformity of tree species within managed forest stands may be subject to border effects with increased diversity of species. (Adapted from an image authored by Hans Fransen, CC-BY, http://archive.is/fqFff)

Top right: Romania. Grazing and managed forest stands generate patches of locally uniform vegetation. However, at the landscape scale this results in a high heterogeneity.

Heterogeneity of forests and forest data at the European scale Europe is densely populated, with about 3 % of world land hosting almost 7 % of the world population (estimates for 2014)12 . As a consequence, the anthropogenic pressure on forest ecosystems is elevated, with intense landscape diversity and relatively few undisturbed areas of high wilderness and low accessibility13, 14 (see Figure 2). Forest management may significantly alter the local composition of forests compared with the potential natural vegetation15, 16 , for example because management practices might prevent or mitigate the natural interspecific competition by other tree taxa. Therefore, while undisturbed areas may display a rich variety of species adapted to coexist in the same mature ecosystem, areas with predominantly managed forests may exhibit very diverse patterns with sudden

(Adapted from an image authored by Sergey Norin, CC-BY, http://archive.is/JYzDI)

changes species. In both cases, it might be that the available field observations are not dense enough to offer a statistical sampling without wide uncertainties on the real detailed composition and local distribution of tree species (see Figure 1). Europe spans over the subtropical, temperate, boreal up to the polar climate domain, experiencing highly a wide range of climate patterns17-19 . For example, mountains characterise more than one third of the European land (see Figure 2) with peculiarities associated to the

subtropical, temperate and boreal mountain systems, where highly variable bio-climatic conditions influence local forest ecosystems and their composition17, 20-22 (see also the chapters “European forests: an ecological overview” and “Forest resources in Europe: an integrated perspective on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats”). These characteristics of the continent contribute to define its overall high heterogeneity. Continental-scale modelling of tree species distribution and habitat suitability needs to adapt to this exceptional challenge with a harmonisation effort to integrate the different sources of forest-based field observations, also considering how to better take advantage from the already available land cover mapping. This Atlas is based on possibly the richest set of information harmonised at the European scale and focusing on recorded occurrences of forest tree species. Several hundred thousand harmonised field observations have been collected and integrated to cover several millions of square kilometres. However, the local density of available field observations (plot density, see Figure 6) is uneven with extensive areas of the continent very poorly covered. In the mountainous areas or where land use and landscape diversity is wide, a much denser network of field observations would have been required to reliably reconstruct at the km2 resolution the local distribution of forest tree species (not only including the ones that occupy

Fig. 2: A qualitative visual overview for some of the dimensions of complexity and heterogeneity in the European continent. Top left: A view of the European continent at night shows clearly the large centres of population, where anthropogenic influences might be greatest. From NASA, Earth Observatory40 . Top right: Accessibility may be defined as the travel time to a location of interest using land or water based travel, estimated using a cost-distance algorithm which computes the “cost” of travelling between two locations, and usually measured in units of time. The values in the map represent the cost required to travel across them (hence this is often termed a friction-surface). This shows the varying levels of human influence, darker areas - i.e. less accessible ones - more prevalent in the far north of the continent and along mountain ranges. From European Commission and the World Bank14 . The similarity with the top left view is evident. Bottom left: The peculiar administrative heterogeneity of Europe (28 member states in the European Union with 24 official languages and several states which are either federations, federacies or in any case providing large autonomy to internal administrative units) further increases the complexity and intrinsic uncertainty of continental-scale environmental modelling. This is because the many regional datasets are often autonomously collected and organised, with different spatial density of sampling, accuracy and uneven definitions of measured/estimated quantities for different taxa. For example, information gaps between multiple administrative units and institutions may potentially lead to classify regional field observations on a given species (missing from the local inventory) as false negatives. Bottom right: orographic complexity. About one third of the continent is covered by mountain systems (according to a recent revised classification based on the UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre approach20) and in most massifs the forest cover is a key component up to the timberline. Mountain forests are exposed to heterogeneous bio-climatic conditions: temperature, solar irradiation, precipitation patterns may vary greatly depending on the local elevation, slope, aspect, and resulting solar and rain shadow. Therefore, field observations of forest tree species in these areas may be associated with information limited to very local conditions.

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the overstorey canopy layer but also the ones in the midstorey and understorey, for which the information is sometime more incomplete). That said, the continental-scale modelling exercise here described can be exploited by users for a more consistent pan-European overview of forest tree species. The main goal of this Atlas is to offer a robust integrated synopsis harmonising information-rich areas with information-poor ones. At a finer scale, local richer information (although not yet harmonised with the information available elsewhere) may be able to provide locally more accurate estimates. The Commission staff working document accompanying the Forest Strategy for the European Union, notes that “harmonized information on forests and forest resources at EU level is still limited, notwithstanding important research efforts in this field”23 . In Europe, most countries collect information about forest resources by means of National Forest Inventories (NFIs)24 . Unfortunately, the definitions and methods underpinning the impressive amount of collected information are not yet uniform among the different inventories²⁴. See also Figure 2 and Box 2 for an overview on the underpinning uncertainty at different spatial scales. Additional sources of information are available by supra-national initiatives that collect forest-based field observations for a number of specific purposes25-29. Other sources provide coarse-resolution estimates on the chorology of vascular plants covering the whole of Europe or at least a substantial part of the continent30-35. Existing land cover mapping exercises may complement this information by providing high-resolution estimates of forest categories - such as broadleaved and coniferous trees - instead of specific forest tree species36-39 . The available European-wide data and information have been collected and harmonised within the Forest Information System for

Europe (FISE)1, 41(see chapter “The European Union Forest Strategy and the Forest Information System for Europe”) to integrate diverse database and information systems within a modular array of models. This European Atlas of Forest Tree Species provides for the first time a systematic coverage of forest tree taxa distribution and habitat suitability at the continental scale, based on the most comprehensively integrated set of available data and information. The modelling strategy here summarised is designed to be inclusive

Fig. 3: Left: Forest patchiness and variability: hills with a mixed land cover where forests show limited core undisturbed areas and extensive forest borders are exposed to the anthropic influence, as well as to different patterns of slope, aspect and subsequent solar irradiation. As a consequence, the detailed composition and proportion of forest tree species may locally vary. Switzerland, Canton of Lucerne. (Adapted from an image authored by Benediktv, CC-BY, https://archive.is/hUFIj)

Right: Italy, Marche region. Another mixed land cover. Although fragmented, here forests are more homogeneous with weaker evidences of border effects. (Adapted from an image authored by Francesco Gasparetti, CC-BY, https://archive.is/PRbcg)

Box 1: The review model and content-processing chain of the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species The making of the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species required several years of work for the editorial board and intense exchange with more than 50 international experts who devoted their efforts in co-authoring, revising, reviewing, providing additional information, insights and comments for the chapters of the Atlas. Here, a brief overview on the Atlas review model and on its content-processing chain is summarised. The modelling, data and information on forest tree species, as harmonised within FISE, has been complemented by open contributions from international authors, advisors and reviewers, under a clearly defined taxonomy of roles42 to ease the collaboration and with the systematic internal recording of all contributions and modifications by means of an internal version control system. After the initial design and implementation of core materials and methods (data, models, maps, diagrams, bibliography and text), a cycle of internal review – with the support of external reviewers – and subsequent content revision has been iterated up to finalise the extended summary for each chapter (see Figure 4). To obtain the printed version of this Atlas, the extended summaries with their cycles of review and revision required the support of novel computational tools, with the design and implementation of a dedicated chain of data-transformation modules (D-TM)43, 46 .

Concerning the modelled maps, chorology areas may integrate several sources within a single coarse-resolution overview. Each distribution (relative probability of presence) and suitability (maximum habitat suitability) map is the result of an ensemble of hundreds of intermediate maps generated via statistical resampling to ensure that the final estimate is more robust and able to tolerate a larger amount of outlier data or data affected by high uncertainties – a feature which is essential at the considered spatial scale (see section “Heterogeneity of forests and forest data at the European scale” in this chapter). Overall, this required about 20 000 core intermediate geospatial layers (at 1 km2 spatial resolution) to be processed, without considering other ancillary layers.

These few statistics refer to this printed version of the Atlas. As highlighted by Figure 4, the extended summaries of this book are associated with their corresponding updated online full version. The review model for the Online European Atlas of Forest Tree Species is similar to that applied to the printed edition. In addition, each updated manuscript will undergo a more extensive peer review. If accepted, a chapter will be persistently published in the FISE portal. Periodic updates might be possible for e.g. integrating recent or extended literature, improved data and modelling, extended statistics and iconography, with the potential contribution of additional co-authors. All previous peer-reviewed versions of an updated chapter will remain accessible.

For a given chapter version, the content-processing chain of D-TMs starts from text and references, annotated by the co-authors by using common word-processing formats (DOC, DOCX). Although easy to edit with images, tables and other supporting information, these formats are unsuitable for an automated semantic enhancement of their content. The manual harmonisation of the bibliography was based on the records stored in the Meta-information Database on Integrated Natural Resources Modelling and Management (INRMM-MiD, http://mfkp.org/INRMM ; about INRMM see also the chapter “Forest resources in Europe: an integrated perspective on ecosystem services, disturbances and threats”)43. The Atlas provides an overall bibliography with more than 2 400 cited references to scientific and technical publications, which correspond to over 1 600 unique references. For each of them, an INRMM-MiD public record is available with integrated metadata and meta-information on the cited publication. Furthermore, the INRMM-MiD catalogue covers about 5 000 indexed publications, of which more than 2 400 are on forest resources, which may serve for further readings. From the human-editable format, the D-TM chain for each chapter version generates intermediate information with semantic enhancements, to derive HTML, LaTeX, PDF and RTF documents with a harmonised, machine-readable semantic structure. The content-processing chain is implemented on a GNU/ Linux computing environment44, 45 under the semantic array programming paradigm43, 46 . Overall, the making of the printed version of the Atlas required the processing and generation of more than 18 000 files (considering only the textual information content) organised in more than 2 400 units of content. Fig. 4: The review model of the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species.

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and able to assimilate further forest information not yet exploited. The modelled maps, diagrams and statistics available in the printed version of this FISE Atlas will be further improved with additional modelling modules and data currently under harmonisation. Input and data from experts in local/regional distribution of specific tree species will be precious (see Figure 4). The online version of the Atlas (https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/) is designed to publish updated enriched information and maps with an increasing level of data and modelling integration, in order for FISE to offer a continuous delivery of advanced forest research and products (as a “dynamic modular system that combines data and models into applications”1) for supporting a multifaceted ecosystem of uses and customers in the scientific, policy-making, and society domains.

Materials and methods In this section, a more detailed summary of the data and information sources is provided. The modelling methodology for each typology of species specific map is also described. The semantics underpinning the array of different data sources has been systematically harmonised by exploiting the geospatial application47 of the semantic array programming (SemAP) paradigm43, 46 .

This has been achieved by means of SemAP array-based semantic constraints43, 48 . Some among the simpler of them are exemplified hereinafter with the notation ::constraint::. This notation refers to the online taxonomy of array-based semantic constraints which implements the paradigm (see Figure 8)48 .

Harmonising presence and presence/absence datasets FISE is putting an intensive effort toward harmonising the heterogeneous sources of information on forest-based field observations24-29 . The datasets considered in this Atlas are able to provide records on presence/absence or at least presence only (e.g. useful for the species chorology) for the main tree species in Europe (see also Box 2). They are collections of forest field surveys with information about the growing tree species and geographical localization. All datasets used have been harmonized to an INSPIRE compliant 1 km² grid (LAEA EPSG CODE 3035)49 .

European National Forestry Inventories database This dataset derived from National Forest Inventory data and provides information on the presence/absence of forest tree species in approximately 375 000 sample points with a spatial resolution of 1 km²/pixel, covering 21 European countries8 .

Forest Focus/Monitoring dataset This project is a Community scheme for harmonised, broadbased, comprehensive and long-term monitoring of air pollution effects in European forest ecosystems, normed by EC Regulation No. 2152/200350 . Under this scheme the monitoring is carried out by participating countries on the basis of a systematic network of observation points (Level I) and a network of observation plots for intensive and continuous monitoring (Level II). For managing the data JRC implemented a Forest Focus Monitoring Database System, from which the data used in this project27, 28 . The complete Forest Focus dataset covers 30 European Countries with more than 8 600 sample points.

BioSoil dataset This project was one of a number of demonstration studies initiated in response to the “Forest Focus” Regulation (EC) No. 2152/200350 mentioned above. The aim of the BioSoil project was to provide harmonised soil and forest biodiversity data. It comprised two modules: Soil Module51 and Biodiversity Module25. The dataset used in this project came from the Biodiversity module, in which plant species from both the tree layer and the ground vegetation layer was recorded for more than 3 300 sample points in 19 European Countries.

European Information System on Forest Genetic Resources (EUFGIS) This project is part of European Forest Genetic Resources (EUFORGEN) program, which aims to “maintain, conserve, restore and enhance the biological diversity of forests, including their genetic resources, through sustainable forest management” (Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forest in Europe, 200752). The EUFGIS maintains an online portal (www.eufgis. org) of the national focal points for 98 target tree species in 31 European countries. In these forest sites, tree populations are either within the natural environment to which they are adapted (in situ), or artificial, but dynamically evolving populations elsewhere (ex situ). EUFGIS dataset contains geo-referenced information on around 2 500 forest samples, providing data of the main tree species presence.

Geo-referenced Database of Genetic Diversity (GD)2 The (GD)2 is a dataset of sample points localising genetic units (populations, single trees) that are traditionally analysed in genetic surveys conducted in natural populations. The database is part of the EVOLTREE project (Evolution of Trees), a network of excellence addressing four major disciplines: Ecology, Genetics, Genomics and Evolution (www.evoltree.eu). It was launched in April 2006 and financially supported by the European Union within the 6th Framework Programme. The (GD)2 database contains geographic information of a limited number of tree species; specifically Pine, Oak, Beech and Ash.

Harmonising forest cover datasets Available maps of land cover in Europe have been harmonised within FISE as complementary information on forest categories (proportion of broadleaved and coniferous trees)36-39 . The data sources used are listed below.

Pan European Forest Type Map 2006 (FTM) This map is a 25 m spatial resolution raster derived from LISS III, SPOT4/5 and MODIS satellite imagery and Corine Land Cover 2006 data. It includes the classes “Broadleaved Forest” and “Coniferous Forest”, covering 38 European countries. The map was produced with an automatic classification technique based on a Neural Network clustering algorithm36 .

CORINE Land Cover map 2006 (CLC) CORINE project, launched by the Commission of the European Communities, aims to produce large-scale maps of national territories and keeping up-to-date inventories and maps of land cover. Based on earth observation satellite images, aerial photographs and ground surveys, the latest version of the map 2006 has been implemented by The European Environmental Agency)37, 38 . CLC map covers 36 European countries with a pixel size of 1 hectare, from which was extracted the forest cover from the classes “Broadleaved forest”, “Coniferous forest” and “Mixed forest”.

Fig. 5: Examples of sparsely forested areas with mixed land cover. Although the presence of tree species characterises these examples, some tree formations may not fulfil the definition of forest and thus may be classified differently in the available land cover maps. Furthermore, trees in nonforest areas may be supported by scarcer field observations, since the main effort of systematic data collections such as national forest inventories is more focused on forest areas. However, remarkable biotic disturbances (such as some forest pests) may spread also over landscapes with sparse but susceptible trees. Therefore, even approximate information able to systematically cover these European areas may be essential. Top: Germany, Baden-Wurttemberg. (Adapted from an image authored by Schwabe90, CC-BY, https://archive.is/GmS3a)

Middle: Turkey, and example of landscape with a scattered woodland component, at the boundary between the subtropical mountain system and the subtropical dry forest. (Adapted from an image authored by Fredi Bach, CC-BY, https://archive.is/YLP9o)

Bottom: France. Linear formations contribute to support connectivity among forest patches. (Adapted from an image authored by Fredi Bach, CC-BY, https://archive.is/9jRGz)

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Fig. 6: Plot density, computed with a spatial grid of 50 km2, (LAEA) for the datasets used: European Forest Inventories (EF), BioSoil (BS), Forest Focus (FF), EUFGIS (EG), Genetic Diversity (GD). Among other constraints, the array-based semantics of each harmonised dataset expects the corresponding geospatial records to have nonnegative values (::nonnegative::), after the removal of outliers, highly uncertain or missing data (::nanless::), all considered as not available information.



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As for the distribution maps based on the C-SMFA model, the integration of continental-scale arrays of geospatial filed observations, bioclimatic information constituted a challenging bigdata problem, similarly addressed with the GeoSemAP approach.

Chorology and frequency This category of maps summarises two basic pieces of information concerning the species: 1. The species frequency over a 50 km square grid (represented by means of dots with variable size): this shows the percentage of species presence related to the amount of sampling points inside the grid. The sampling points are derived from the same datasets which have been used to model the species distribution and the maximum habitat suitability.

ESA GlobCover 2009 (EGC) The GlobCover project in 2010 produced a global land cover map derived by an automatic and regionally-tuned classification of a time series of global Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer Instrument Fine Resolution mosaics for the year 2009. This map counts 22 land cover classes defined with the United Nations Land Cover Classification System and a spatial resolution of 10 degree seconds39. The forest cover classes have been extracted from land cover maps (CLC, EGC). In the EGC map the forest classes are described through percentage ranges of tree cover; for each class the maximum tree cover percentage was adopted as the potential value. This is due to the semantic role as a statistic constraint of the forest cover classes within the C-SMFA model. C-SMFA also supports statistical resampling and Monte Carlo analysis as enhancement for more advanced modules - object of ongoing research - to integrate forest cover classes.

Modelling methodology The data and information harmonised in FISE has been the basis for generating the modelled maps and diagrams which are associated to each tree species/taxon chapter (see chapter How to read the Atlas). In particular, high-resolution tree species distribution (relative probability of presence) and suitability (maximum habitat suitability), autoecology diagrams, coarseresolution chorology and frequency maps.

Spatial distribution: the C-SMFA model This model supports the generation of high resolution distribution maps at the taxon level (1 km2 pixel size). Each map estimates the relative probability of presence (RPP) of the taxon based on the datasets of field observations as harmonised within the Forest Information System for Europe (FISE)1, 8, 41 . Each map is modelled with a spatial frequency analysis of the available field observations. The analysis is performed with an innovative modelling methodology designed to preserve a consistent logics and quantitative meaning (i.e. a consistent semantics) within the heterogeneous array of data and information which is necessary for the diversity of the European continent to be covered. The frequency analysis considers multiple spatial scales to account for the different local density of data. Furthermore, it is constrained to have a consistent semantics with an additional array of geospatial information, in order to improve the overall map quality (constrained spatial multi-scale frequency analysis, C-SMFA)8 . In particular, information on the spatial probability of finding a broadleaved (or coniferous) tree species has been used as C-SMFA statistic constraint to improve the accuracy of the estimation36-39 . Together, combining the continental-scale arrays of geospatial data and information, along with their underpinning uncertainty and complex semantics constituted a challenging big-data problem. For this, the geospatial semantic array programming paradigm (GeoSemAP) has been exploited43, 46, 47, 53 .

Fig. 7: Broadleaved and coniferous forest density, computed with a spatial grid of 50 km2, (LAEA) for the datasets used: Pan European Forest Type Map 2006 (FTM), CORINE Land Cover map 2006 (CLC) and ESA GlobCover 2009 (EGC). Among other constraints, the array-based semantics of each harmonised forest density expects the corresponding geospatial raster layers to provide the proportion of forest cover (::proportion::), i.e. values in [0 1].

Maximum habitat suitability: the RDS-MHS model This model supports the generation of high resolution suitability maps at the taxon level (1 km2 pixel size). Each map estimates the maximum habitat suitability (MHS) of the taxon based on the datasets of field observations as harmonised within FISE1, 8, 41 . High values represent areas which are highly suitable for the taxon to survive (denoted in the legend as high survivability areas). In these areas, the local bioclimatic conditions are very similar to those of at least some of the field observations where the taxon occurs. Conversely, lower values highlight poor survivability conditions. This refers to areas with a bioclimatic pattern very dissimilar from all the observed patterns where the taxon is found. Each map is modelled with an innovative methodology following the relative distance similarity approach (RDS-MHS) based on high-resolution bioclimatic and geographic factors (e.g. based on temperature, precipitation, solar irradiation, elevation range, ...)8, 17, 54 . RDS-MHS estimates the maximum spatial extent where the taxon currently lives or could live. The map also highlights unsuitable areas in Europe: i.e. areas with bioclimatic conditions very dissimilar from all the ones observed for the taxon. This is not as easily obtained with classical approaches based instead on the average habitat suitability.

2. The species chorology: this is the broad range and qualitative spatial distribution of the tree species derived from one or more bibliographic sources. It is classified as “Native” (green area) when the species is thought to occur naturally and “Introduced” (orange area) when the species has been historically introduced and is nowadays naturalised. For producing the chorology maps, a heterogeneous collection of references has been gathered and consulted. Most of maps are principally based on historical works about the vascular plant chorology by Meusel and Jäger32 , Hultén and Fries33 and on the Atlas Florae Europaeae30, 31 . In some cases the chorology maps have been derived from the species distribution maps available on the EUFORGEN website34 . In all the tree species chapters where chorology maps are available, the detailed list of relevant references is provided.

Autoecology diagrams In most chapters, autoecology diagrams (also known as climate-space diagrams) have been derived for the described taxon, based on the datasets of field observations8, 25-28, 55 as harmonised within FISE1, 8, 41 . The field observations are the same as those exploited to estimate the coarse-resolution forest plot frequency maps. The local bioclimatic conditions where a given taxon is observed are obtained by means of high-resolution bioclimatic and geographic factors (e.g. based on temperature, precipitation, solar irradiation)8, 17, 54 . This array of factors allows the observed trees to be analysed in their distribution patterns within a multidimensional bioclimatic space. This is the basis for the RDSMHS model. To ease the visual interpretation of some patterns, twodimensional slices of the bioclimatic space are displayed. In particular, the distribution of observed trees is visualised against three pairs of bioclimatic factors: • annual average temperature vs. annual precipitation; • potential solar irradiation in spring-summer vs. the average temperature of the coldest month; • and the seasonal variation of the monthly precipitation (i.e. the difference between the total precipitation of the wettest and driest month, normalised by the precipitation of the wettest month) vs. the precipitation of the driest month. Further details on the modelling aspects can be accessed in the full online version of this chapter.

Fig. 8: Examples of the array-based semantic constraints, as exploited in the modelling methodology to generate tree species distribution and suitability maps. Left: an array of raster layers (e.g. multiple presence/absence raster maps, or bioclimatic input layers to estimate the tree species maximum habitat suitability). The elements composing the array may be accessed and denoted with different levels of granularity, from the single element of a given spatial cell (pixel value) up to sparse collection of them, entire matrix layers and list of matrices. Right: Another semantic dimension associated with the aforementioned arrays is defined by the numerical values of each array element. Permissible values may vary depending on specific requirements of the particular algorithm which is expected to operate on the arrays. For example, presence/absence data constitute a ::binary:: information, while the estimated probability of presence is a ::proportion:: between 0 and 100 %. The number of measured plots per each spatial pixel, or climatic information on e.g. precipitation patterns must be composed of ::nonnegative:: values. Source: Daniele de Rigo, AP, http://w3id.org/mtv/Mastrave/img/SemAP-checks



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Box 2: Modelling, software and data uncertainties: a qualitative integrated overview of trade-offs for estimating pan-European forest tree taxa information

Fig. 9: Overly simplistic models may be affected by high modelling uncertainty because too many non-negligible components of the real system are not taken into account by the model. However, with growing modelling complexity, even the complexity of the underpinning software code increases. Software engineering techniques and good computational science practices may help to mitigate the rise of software uncertainty. Since they cannot completely prevent software uncertainty, a trade-off exists between increased complexity of models (assuming that this increase is associated with a better approximation of the reality, which for some categories of models may be structurally impossible77, 78) and the resulting increased software complexity. Source: Daniele de Rigo, CC-BY, https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare

Fig. 10: Qualitative visualisation of the potential cumulated effect due to the combined uncertainty in modelling, software and data. Integrated modelling frequently exploits multiple heterogeneous data sources by combining specific data-processing and intermediate derived data as generated from specialised software modules. The uncertainty of each data-transformation is propagated up to the final combined output, whose cumulated uncertainty depends even on the initial uncertainty of the input data. More complex models might be associated with a higher sensitivity of their estimates to outliers and input uncertainty, sometime with higher prediction errors for new data77, 78 . This increase of the combined data uncertainty may be mitigated with robust modelling techniques (e.g. statistical resampling and robust statistics) which may also contribute to mitigate software uncertainty79-84 . Source: Daniele de Rigo, CC-BY, https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare

Fig. 11: Qualitative visualisation of varying trade-offs for different available spatial resolution of input data and information. A qualitative ranking is proposed to simplistically illustrate the different complexity associated to the modelling approaches discussed in this chapter. Coarser spatial resolution of input data may be associated with an intrinsic partial loss of information (e.g. finer-resolution details within highly heterogeneous areas such as mountain systems and high-diversity landscapes). This may reverberate in higher final data uncertainty. Among other aforementioned concepts and criteria, even this qualitative trade-off has been taken into account for adapting the modelling complexity of the discussed maps and diagrams. Source: Daniele de Rigo, CC-BY, https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare

On the semantics and interpretation of European-wide available presence/absence records In the section “Harmonising presence and presence/absence datasets” of this chapter, an overview of available field-observation datasets has been summarised. At local, regional or national scale, accurate datasets may be available with detailed annotation on survey methodology, sampling strategy and stratification, which typically differ from inventory to inventory (e.g. between different National Forest Invetories, NFIs24). The harmonisation process and some of its intrinsic challenges8 may be exemplified considering the dataset derived from NFI data. The data used refer to the presence/absence of a given forest tree species with a spatial resolution of 1 km2/pixel brought up into line with an INSPIRE compliant 1 km2 raster grid. In particular, the underlying information to assign the presence/absence value for a given pixel and a given tree species refers to measures within plot areas belonging to that pixel (i.e. the areas where field observations have been recorded). The information on the presence at the plot-scale of a given tree species may be useful for assessing the species chorology and the maximum extent of its distribution. This assessment may be performed without additional data-transformations, possibly with a supporting statistical analysis so as to more easily detect outliers. However, since the overall area of those plots can be considered as negligible with respect to the 1 km2 area of the pixel, the NFI-derived presence/absence information at pixel level needs to be properly processed to model more advanced statistics than the mere probability to find at least one tree of the given species in the 1 km2.

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Moreover, the relatively negligible area on which the presence/absence has been measured does not ensure that the measured absence of a given species within the plots implies the absence of the species within the entire 1 km2 pixel. A more meaningful interpretation of the NFI-derived presence/absence measures considers them as random samples of a binary quantity (the point presence/absence, not the pixel one). This binary quantity is a random variable having its own probability distribution which is a function of the unknown average probability of finding the given tree species within a plot of negligible area belonging to the considered 1 km² pixel. We denote this unknown statistic with the name of “probability of presence” and this is the quantity estimated in the C-SMFA based maps. This quantity differs from the measured records of presence/absence at the plot scale: ideally, the average of a high number of measures (assigning 0 to an absence and 1 to a presence) all taken within the same 1 km2 pixel, should tend to the value assumed in the pixel by the “probability of presence” quantity. It is worth recalling how this quantity is conceptually different from the percentage of area in 1 km2 pixel covered by the given tree species (see in particular the next section). Nevertheless, it is a proxy statistic which can be further modelled by estimating its values for all the tree species whose presence/absence data are included in the harmonised datasets. The probability of finding some tree species (irrespective of which particular species) within a given pixel can be linked with available and independent estimations of forest cover. In the section “Harmonising forest cover datasets”, a set of harmonised land cover maps has been summarised. The Pan-European Forest Type Map 2006 (FTM)36 may serve to better exemplify the semantics underpinning the integration between presence/absence and land cover information. FTM classifies each 25×25 m pixel in Europe into one of the categories broadleaved forest, coniferous forest or other non-forest categories. Within a 1 km2 pixel, 1 600 25×25 m sub-pixels estimates are available. If we consider each of them as approximating a negligible area, it is possible to independently compute the average probability of finding a broadleaved (or coniferous) tree species within a negligible area belonging to the considered 1 km2 pixel. This independent statistic is homogeneous with the combined “probability of presence” - as previously defined - of all of the tree species which are respectively broadleaved or coniferous and it

is also an obvious estimation of broadleaved (or coniferous) cover at the 1 km2 pixel level. Analogously, other maps of land cover may be exploited with the same aim. In particular, the CORINE Land Cover map 2006 (CLC) was systematically utilised as constraint in the first set of maps based on the C-SMFA model. The harmonisation between FTM, CLC, EGC and other potentially useful additional layers of information on forest types is ongoing to further improve the C-SMFA application at pan-European scale. In this context, the term “cover” is intended as the percentage of area covered by a given species or category of species. The way that “probabilities of presence” of single tree species can be properly combined together is the object of ongoing modelling research and will possibly enable a future estimation of the corresponding forest tree species cover.

On the difference between species frequency within forests and its relative probability of presence In the section “Modelling methodology” of this chapter, the integrated approach to model the spatial distribution of forest tree species has been summarised. In particular, two typologies of distribution maps refer to the relative probability of presence of a species (C-SMFA model) and the species frequency within forested areas. A first evident difference between the information conveyed by the two maps lies in their spatial resolution, much coarser for the species frequency (and thus susceptible to be estimated for a broader set of taxa, including those whose available field observations do not enable a more detailed spatial analysis to be performed). The coarser resolution is associated with a simpler modelling strategy, reducing as much as possible the number of data-transformation and modelling steps. This way, the biases and modelling errors generated due to assumptions and hypotheses required by intensive data-processing are reduced to a minimum degree – at the price of lower details and a lower resilience of the estimates to the heterogeneity of the available datasets. The potential impact of border effects between different forest inventories may be more easily mitigated with the robust statistical resampling exploited by the C-SMFA model and by its integrated use of panEuropean land cover information. However, this advanced modelling approach requires a far more complex chain of data-processing steps.

The second key difference between the two distribution maps lies in their reference context. The species frequency is estimated within forested areas. Instead, the relative probability of presence (RPP) of the same species refers to the whole pixel content, not only to forests. Therefore, two 1 km2 pixels whose forested areas have the same frequency of occurrence for a given tree species, may nevertheless have different RPP if the first pixel is e.g. completely covered by forests while the second one is sparsely forested. This is the case of several European areas with mixed land cover, either due to anthropic influence or due to natural reasons (e.g. sparse woodlands close to the treeline in the mountain systems, or located within ecological zones unable to support a dense forest cover).

On software uncertainty The software implementation of nontrivial computational science models is subject to a complex pattern of subtle errors, known as software uncertainty43, 53, 56-62 . Best practices and specific open issues have been identified for scientific software63-66 . The size of software code and its structural complexity (such as the number of loops, conditional statements, Boolean operators, code bifurcations and exceptional execution paths, frequently nested and sometime implicitly introduced in apparently simpler code67, 68) are highly correlated with the overall amount of software faults69-71 . Array programming allows the code size and its structural complexity to be significantly reduced72, 73 . A disciplined, semantically-enhanced modelling approach might help to mitigate the impact of software uncertainty43, 48, 74-76 . However, other sources of uncertainty should be considered in an integrated perspective to better design and implement modelling strategies adaptive to the trade-offs typical of multiple heterogeneous sources of data and information. Figs. 9-11 qualitatively illustrate some key categories of uncertainty. They have been considered relevant in the wide-scale transdisciplinary modelling here discussed for the European-wide harmonisation challenge on forest tree species information.

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[72] S. Taylor, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2675, 334 (2003). [73] K. E. Iverson, Communications of the ACM 23, 444 (1980). [74] R. M. Stallman, GNU Coding Standards (Free Software Foundation, 2015). [75] B. H. Liskov, J. M. Wing, Formal Methods For Distributed Processing: An ObjectOriented Approach, H. Bowman, J. Derrick, eds. (1999). [76] D. S. Rosenblum, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 21, 19 (1995). [77] S. Fortmann-Roe, Accurately Measuring Model Prediction Error (2012). [78] S. Fortmann-Roe, Understanding the BiasVariance Tradeoff (2012). [79] W. E. Walker, R. J. Lempert, J. H. Kwakkel, Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, S. I. Gass, M. C. Fu, eds. (Springer US, 2013), pp. 395–402. [80] A. F. Siegel, Biometrika 69, 242 (1982). [81] D. Rodriguez-Aseretto, C. E. Schaerer, D. de Rigo, 3rd Conference of Computational Interdisciplinary Sciences, C. E. Schaerer, C. A. Caretta, eds. (2014), pp. 46–57. [82] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, T. A. Dijkstra, G. Sander, J. Wasowski, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 413, 321 (2013). ISSN:18684238. Special issue: “Environmental Software Systems. Fostering sharing information”. [83] M. Rebaudengo, M. Reorda, M. Violante, Soft Errors in Modern Electronic Systems, M. Nicolaidis, ed. (Springer US, 2011), vol. 41 of Frontiers in Electronic Testing, pp. 253–285. [84] R. J. Lempert, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99, 7309 (2002).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01aa69. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., 2016. The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species: modelling, data and information on forest tree species. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01aa69+



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How to read the Atlas General information This section provides a brief overview on how to understand the information provided in the species chapters present in this Atlas. In each chapter there is an extended summary of the current state of knowledge about that species, which is aimed to be written in an easily accessible style but at the same time scientifically grounded. Therefore, each chapter has been through a revision by scientific experts and includes a comprehensive list of scientific references. Although the chapters have been written by a number of different authors, they have been harmonized to obtain species information that is as homogeneous as possible throughout the Atlas. The full version of each chapter (expanded and fully peer-reviewed) will be published in the online version of the Atlas at http://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/. Each chapter starts with a summary and description of the species to continue with paragraphs concerning the species distribution, habitat and ecology, importance and usage and finally threats and diseases. Most chapters deal with a single species, although in a few cases the information is presented at taxon level (e.g. circum-Mediterranean firs). A key contribution of this Atlas is the inclusion of innovative maps and diagrams concerning: 1) Frequency and Chorology; 2) Modelled Distribution; 3) Maximum Habitat Suitability; 4) Autoecology, for all those species for which sufficient data exist. High quality images are also included relative to forest habitat, individual trees or more detailed images concerning the bark, leaves, fruits and flowers.

Fagus sylvatica Fagus sylvatica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo

The European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a large deciduous tree that commonly reaches 30-40 m and is capable of attaining heights up to 50 m in some locations1 . In contrast to many other tree species, it is able to maintain a high rate of growth until a relatively mature age. The tree is usually single-stemmed with silver-grey bark. The leaves are typically 10 × 7 cm, dark and shiny green. They have an oval to elliptic shape, with wavy margins and short teeth at the end of the parallel veins on each side2, 3 . Beech is monoecious: the male and female flowers are borne on the same branches. It has a typical life span of around 150-300 years, and reproduces very late (40-50 years old). Fruiting normally occurs every 5 to 8 years. Its seed production is characterised by irregular mast years (when a very heavy crop is produced), usually following hot summers of the previous year. The bitter edible nuts are sharply tri-angled and are borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks. The beech nuts are an important source of food for several animals and birds including squirrels, woodpigeons, woodpeckers and jays; they also play a major part in seed dispersal by hiding the seeds and failing to retrieve all of them1 .

Distribution

This map summarises two basic pieces of information concerning the species: 1. The species frequency over a 50 km square grid (blue dots): this shows the percentage of plots inside the grid that contain the species of interest. The sampling points are derived from the same datasets used to model the species distribution (Map 2) and the maximum habitat suitability (Map 3). 2. The species chorology: this is the broad range and qualitative spatial distribution of the tree species derived from one or more bibliographic sources. It is classified as “Native” (green area) when the species is thought to occur naturally and “Introduced” (orange area) when the species has been historically introduced and is nowadays naturalised. In cases where it is not possible to distinguish between the natural and introduced range, “Actual” range is shown. For more details on the datasets and methodology used, as well as a list of the bibliographic sources used to construct the chorology, see the chapter “modelling, data and information on forest tree species” on page 40.

Beech is widespread across Europe: it can be found from Sicily in the south to Bergen in southern Norway4-6 . An analysis of pollen records indicate that the species has spread across Europe from small scattered populations left after the last glaciation, and is currently probably at its maximum post-glacial spread7. It needs a growing season of at least 140 days, and for this reason cannot survive too far north in Scandinavia7. Longitudinally its range is from the Cantabrian Mountains in the west to the Carpathians and Balkan Mountains in the east, although there are some areas in Europe where it is not found as a native tree, such as the Po valley and the Hungarian plain. As the climate becomes more continental in the eastern parts of Europe it is replaced by oriental beech (Fagus

Fagus Some them very s those oppos the Ca of the two18 . the va becau

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Native

Large beech in a mountain pasture in Piani di Praglia (Genova, North Italy). (Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fagus sylvatica. Frequency of Fagus sylvatica occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. sylvatica is derived after Meusel and Jäger, and EUFORGEN27, 28 .

orientalis). At the southern part of its range (Spain, Sicily) it is only normally present at altitudes of more than 1 000 m, and can even be found at elevations of up to 2 000 m1, 8 . High summer temperatures, drought and moisture availability are limiting factors for the distribution of beech in Europe, but continentality is also associated with limiting its spread in north-western regions4 . Climate change may have impacts on its future distribution, particularly at the extremes of its range where it is likely to become less competitive in the south and east (primarily because of drought), but could expand its range into Scandinavia and the Baltic9.

Beech is a hardy species. It tolerates very shady situations (it is the most shade-tolerant broadleaved tree in its range10), so that natural regeneration is possible in silvicultural systems with continuous crown coverage as the seedlings are able to survive and grow below the canopy of established trees. The predominance of beech means a reduction of light level in the understorey vegetation level and in that case beech seeds survive better than those of other tree species. It is not particularly soilsensitive11 and grows on a wide variety of soils with a pH range from 3.5 to 8.5, although it cannot tolerate the most acidic conditions. Beech shows a moderate soil-acidifying ability12 . It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic and is also sensitive to late frosts13; therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of a clayey basin. It grows well on soft soils in which the root system can easily penetrate and its optimal growth is in humid soils situated on calcareous or volcanic parent rocks. On the contrary, it does not thrive on sites that are regularly flooded or which have stagnant water, since it needs good drainage and will not tolerate waterlogged or compacted soils1, 14 . Beech furthers soil conservation due to its production of a large quantity of litter (around 900 g/m2 per year). The root system tends to be shallow, making it susceptible to drought when compared to coniferous stands15 . However, there appears to be some genetic variability across different climatic zones, since trees in southern Europe are able to cope better with drought than those in the north1 .

Uncertain, no-data

Importance and Usage

Marginal/no presence < 5%

Beech is an important European forestry tree. Fine grained and knot-free, the wood is hard and has a pale cream colour and good workability16 . With around 250 known usages, it is one of the most diversely used tree species in Europe. Its wear-resistance, strength, and excellent bending capabilities make it ideal for boatbuilding, flooring, stairs, furniture, musical instruments (piano pinblocks), plywood, panels, veneering and cooking utensils such as bowls, platters and wooden spoons. It is also used for pulp and can be coppiced for fire wood and charcoal due to its relatively high energetic potential1, 8, 16 .

Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%

Threats and Diseases The root system architecture of beech may vary depending on local soil conditions17. While generally showing a noticeable resistance to rockfall and wind-throw17, 18 , under unfavourable local conditions a relatively shallow root system may make the tree vulnerable to wind-throw1 . The thin bark provides little

Field d

Technical terms Technical words are presented in this font and are listed in the glossary on page 190 at the end of the Atlas. Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence.

94

Shiny dark green leaves with red galls caused by the fly Mikiola fagi (Diptera Cecidomyiidae). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)


Modelled spatial distribution of the species This map represents the relative probability of presence of the species derived from a harmonised dataset of forest field observations made from a number of different surveys and available within the Forest Information System for Europe (FISE). The maps are presented at a high-spatial resolution of 1 km. Dark green colour means the species is very likely to be found at that location, while the pale brown colour signifies a low probability of presence. For some regions there were

46

not enough data available to make any predictions about the probability of presence; these are coloured pale grey. The map has been modelled with an innovative methodology designed to take into account the different local densities of the underlying data sets. For more details on the data set and modelling techniques used, see the Atlas chapter “modelling, data and information on forest tree species” on page 40.



protec and gn deer is frosts same woolly Ganod ’red he among

Annual precipitation (mm)

Frequency and Chorology

Fag

Fagus sylvatica L., or European beech, is one of the most important and widespread broadleaved trees in Europe. It is a large deciduous tree that can maintain its high growth rate until late maturity. Its natural range extends from southern Scandinavia to Sicily, from Spain in the west to northwest Turkey in the east. Though not demanding of soil type, beech requires a humid atmosphere with precipitation well distributed throughout the year and a well-drained soil. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. Owing to the capacity of its root system for assisting in the circulation of air throughout the soil, and the amount of potash in its leaves, Beech trees conserve the productive capacity of the soil better than many other species. Its wood is strong and wears well making it ideal for a wide range of uses, from furniture to musical instruments, as well as for pulp and firewood.

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Key Fact In some chapters there is a supplementary box focusing on some particular aspects of the species or taxon considered (e.g. notes on the taxonomy of the species or information about a related species).

Modelled maximum habitat suitability This map represents the Maximum Habitat Suitability of the species, namely the areas where the species could potentially occur if climatic conditions and ecological conditions are met. It is modelled based on a harmonised and very dense dataset of forest plots available for most of Europe (see Map 1, Frequency) in combination with high-resolution bioclimatic parameters (e.g. temperature and precipitation), solar irradiation and elevation range. The maps are presented at a high-spatial resolution of 1 km. Dark blue areas represent areas that are highly suitable for the species to survive (denoted in the legend as high survivability areas). In these areas, the local bioclimatic conditions are very similar to those of at least some of the field observations where the species occurs. Conversely, orange areas highlight low survivability conditions. This refers to areas with a bioclimatic pattern very dissimilar from all the observed patterns where the species is found. In practice, a given species may not be found in all the areas marked “high survivability” for other reasons (e.g. competition from or preferential planting of other species). However, in those areas marked “negligible survivability” the species is unlikely to grow, even if deliberately planted there. The map is modelled with an innovative methodology taking into account the different spatial distributions of the underlying datasets as well as a number of bioclimatic and geographic factors. Detailed information on the data and techniques used can be found in the chapter “modelling, data and information on forest tree species” on page 40.

Fagus sylvatica

Fagus orientalis Fagus orientalis, or oriental beech, is closely related to Fagus sylvatica. Some authorities consider them to be sub-species; others consider them to be two separate species1 . In appearance they are generally very similar. The leaves are slightly longer, darker and less glossy than those of European beech, and tend to have more vein-pairs (9-14 as opposed to 5-9)3 . Oriental beech can be found in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Caucasus, northern Iran and Crimea18 . Its range overlaps with that of the European beech and there is frequently hybridisation between the two18 . Where both species are present, oriental beech tends to favour the valleys while European beech is found further up the slopes; this is because the European beech is more susceptible to late frosts12 .

Uncertain, no-data Tundra, cold desert Negligible survivability Low survivability Mid-low survivability Medium survivability Mid-high survivability High survivability

th Italy).

uations nge10), ystems able to es. The in the survive ly soilH range acidic ty12 . It and is ften on grows netrate areous rive on water, logged due to m2 per eptible r, there limatic er with

Foliage and fruits of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis). (Copyright Drahkrub, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

protection from fire, and can also be damaged through stripping and gnawing by squirrels and other mammals. The presence of deer is a limiting factor because they eat young stands. Spring frosts often damage young trees or flowers appearing at the same time as leaves. Young beech trees are susceptible to woolly aphid; mature trees can suffer internal rot by the fungus Ganoderma applanatum. Old trees (100-1200 years) may suffer ’red heart’ which reduces stability and timber value8 . Beech is among the susceptible hosts to Phytophthora ramorum and

Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability.

large regions across Europe have climatic suitability to this pest, which may become a more serious problem in the future5 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is harmful for beech and markedly coexists with part of its natural niche19-22 . Herbivory by short-snouted weevils (Strophosoma melanogrammum Forst. and Otiorhynchus scaber) is another threat to beech21, 22 .

References

grained colour ges, it ope. Its abilities musical ng and ns. It is harcoal

ending iceable ourable make es little

Mature beech forest with autumn colour foliage in Delamere forest, Cheshire, UK. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

Observed presences in Europe

Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots.

Sum of precipitation of the driest month (mm)


Average temperature of the coldest month (°C)

Field data in Europe (including absences)

ola fagi Annual average temperature (°C)

Potential spring-summer solar irradiation (kWh m-2)

Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation (dimensionless)

[1] J. R. Packham, P. A. Thomas, M. D. Atkinson, T. Degen, Journal of Ecology 100, 1557 (2012). [2] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] J. Fang, M. J. Lechowicz, Journal of Biogeography 33, 1804 (2006). [5] R. Baker, et al., EFSA Journal 9, 2186+ (2011). 108 pp. [6] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [7] D. Magri, Journal of Biogeography 35, 450 (2008). [8] T. Horgan, et al., A guide to forest tree species selection and silviculture in Ireland. (National Council for Forest Research and Development (COFORD), 2003). [9] K. Kramer, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 259, 2213 (2010). The ecology and silviculture of beech: from gene to landscape. [10] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [11] L. Walthert, E. Graf Pannatier, E. S. Meier, Forest Ecology and Management 297, 94 (2013). [12] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [13] L. Paule, Forest Genetics 2, 161 (1995). [14] A. Geßler, et al., Trees - Structure and Function 21, 1 (2007). [15] A. Granier, et al., Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 143, 123 (2007). [16] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995).

[17] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [18] L. K. A. Dorren, F. Berger, C. le Hir, E. Mermin, P. Tardif, Forest Ecology and Management 215, 183 (2005). [19] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [20] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. [21] M. Löf, Forest Ecology and Management 134, 111 (2000). [22] M. Löf, G. Isacsson, D. Rydberg, T. N. Welander, Forest Ecology and Management 190, 281 (2004). [23] G. Kandemir, Z. Kaya, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) (Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 2009). [24] A. Oprea, C. Sîrbu, I. Goia, Contributii Botanice 46, 17 (2011). [25] M. Šijačić Nikolić, J. Milovanović, M. Nonić, R. Knežević, D. Stanković, Genetika 45, 369 (2013). [26] T. Denk, G. Grimm, K. Stögerer, M. Langer, V. Hemleben, Plant Systematics and Evolution 232, 213 (2002). [27] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989). [28] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of beech (Fagus sylvatica) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [29] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [30] K. Browicks, J. Zieliński, Chorology of trees and shrubs in south-west Asia and adjacent regions, vol. 1 (Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa, Poznań, 1982).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012b90. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, 2016. Fagus sylvatica and other beeches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. e012b90+, Publ. Off. EU.


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Images Images have been carefully selected to help identification/ understanding of species. Captions also identify the individuals who have provided the image and the relative copyrights. A complete list of contributors is at the beginning of the atlas.

References Each chapter has been fully referenced with the most upto-date scientific literature, which has been revised by three scientific experts. All the references are sequentially included through the text and listed at the end of the chapter. A revised and extended set of references will be available in the full online version of each chapter.

QR chapter code and citation information This code points to the full online version of the species chapter, where the most up-to-date content can be found. The correct way to cite this extended summary is also shown here (in the online version, readers will find the correct way to cite the full chapter). In the online version it will additionally be possible to navigate through the expanded, fully peer-reviewed version of the chapter having the possibility to download maps, diagrams and text. The online version will be hosted within the newly established Forest Information System for Europe (FISE). The Online European Atlas of Forest Tree Species will be part of the FISE Communications (FISE-Comm): http://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/

Autoecology Diagrams In most chapters, autoecology diagrams (also known as climate-space diagrams) have been derived for the described species, based on the datasets of field observations as harmonised within the Forest Information System for Europe (FISE). These observations are the same as those used to estimate the coarse-resolution forest plot distribution presented in Map 1. The local bioclimatic conditions where a given species is observed are obtained by means of a number of high-resolution bioclimatic and geographic variables. The number of

possible combinations of variables is very large and for this Atlas we have focussed on three: 1. Annual average temperature vs Annual precipitation; 2. Potential springsummer solar irradiation vs. Average temperature of the coldest month; 3. Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation vs. Sum of precipitation of the driest month. In the online version of the Atlas other combinations of variables may also be found. The overall climate space occupied by each of the field observations on every species is represented by a grey

spot (one for every plot), while those plots containing the species of interest are coloured blue, thus illustrating the specific climate niche of that species, and showing how a given species might be constrained by one or more climatic conditions. Grey patches on this page may be coloured blue in others where different species are adapted to different conditions. For more details on the data and modelling aspects, see the Atlas chapter “modelling, data and information on forest tree species” on page 40.



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Abies alba Abies alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats A. Mauri, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) is a large conifer that can be found in central Europe and some parts of Southern and Eastern Europe. It is one of the tallest tree species of the genus Abies in Europe. This tree is considered an important ecological and functional balancer of European forests and a fundamental species for maintaining high biodiversity in forested ecosystems. Its future distribution is subject of a debate between palaeoecologists and modellers, with contrasting climate-response forecasts. Silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) is a large evergreen coniferous tree mainly distributed in montane areas in Central Europe, but is also present in Southern and Eastern Europe. It is a distinctive tree, straight-stemmed with a silver-grey trunk1 . Growth is very slow in early years, and then rapid as the tree matures. The uppermost part of young trees has a conical shape gradually changing to become a rounded dome as the tree grows older2 . The needles are dark green and glossy on their upper side while the lower side has two silvergreen waxy bands of 6-8 rows of stomata, and can live for up to six or eight years. Flowers only appear after 30 to 40 years, generally in April or May, and the buds are red-brown and non-resinous. The fully developed seeds are mainly dispersed by wind. With particularly cool and moist habitats this tree can live up to 500600 years3, 4 and reach heights above 60 m4-7 making it among the tallest tree species of the genus Abies in Europe. This tree is also the most heavily browsed of the commercially important tree species in montane forests of central and southeastern Europe8 .


Distribution Silver fir is often distributed on relatively high elevated areas (500-2000 m a.s.l.). It requires relatively high moisture conditions throughout the year, with mean yearly precipitation between 700 and 1800 mm9 . Its main distribution is concentrated in Central Europe, on the Suisse plateau and in South and Eastern Germany as well as in the Czech Republic and Austria. There are conspicuous numbers in the Pyrenees, Southern Alps of Northern Italy and Ticino and the Eastern Alps, the Carpathians and Albania. It is also found more sporadically in Eastern France, on the Massif Central, and in the Apennines. Stands of silver fir are present in the Dinaric Alps and are continuously connected towards the Rodopi mountains in Bulgaria and Greece, where it naturally hybridises with the Greek fir (Abies cephalonica) forming stable populations of intermediate forms described as Bulgarian firs (Abies x borisii-regis)2 . Plantations of silver fir are rare outside its natural range, possibly because of increased potential for insect damage in monocultures1 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Abies alba. Frequency of Abies alba occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. alba is derived after several sources29-31 .

Concerning its past distribution palaeo evidence suggests different ice-age refugia of silver fir in northern, central and southern Italy, the Balkans, the Pyrenees and potentially France, which is in agreement with results obtained using biochemical and molecular markers10 . During the past decades silver fir was positively responding to climate warming in Central Europe and adjacent areas, as documented in many tree ring series11 . However, in Switzerland, silver fir is decreasing as a result of animal browsing and replacement by Norway spruce (Picea abies), a more economically valuable species12 . The future distribution of Silver Fir is subject of a debate. Some studies suggest a reduction in response to future expected warming13, 14 , while others suggest stable conditions or expansions15, 16 .

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%

Young tree near Zwardoń village (South Poland). (Copyright Crusier, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology Silver fir tolerates a wide variety of soil types with different nutrient content and alkalinity conditions except compact and hydromorphic soils. Deep and moist but not too wet soils are preferred with a pH from acid to neutral. Silver fir shows a noticeable soil-acidifying ability15 . Unlike the other European and Mediterranean Abies species, it prefers cooler and moister conditions, favouring summer temperatures ranging from approximately 14 °C to 19 °C9 . The main limiting factors are a lack of summer heat and adequate moisture during the growing season, while new seedlings are extremely sensitive to frost damage. This tree is mostly found mixed with Norway spruce (Picea abies) or Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) at the upper tree limit1, 4, 18 . At lower altitudes it competes with beech (Fagus sylvatica), being the first conifer species to appear among them4 . It is very shade tolerant and can remain as a “seedling bank” under the canopy of older dominant trees for decades. It often invades deciduous forests due to its easy natural regeneration.

Importance and Usage Silver fir is considered an important ecological and functional balancer of European forests and can serve as a keystone species for maintaining high biodiversity in forested ecosystems9 . The wood is non-resinous, light and fine-grained and also easy to work, which makes it a good material for carpentry and furniture. During the seventeenth century, its wood was used to produce ships’ masts. The essential oils obtained from the leaves were also used in the past to heal bruises as well as for treating coughs and colds1 . Along with Norway spruce (Picea abies), silver fir is also used for paper production. During the 19th century it was popular as a Christmas tree, although it has lately been replaced by the cheaper Norway spruce1 .

Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence.

48

Silver fir is particularly susceptible to frost desiccation due to late spring frosts. It is also very sensitive to fire19, 20 , insects, fungi and industrial emissions, in particular to sulphur dioxide SO2 exposure during winter19 . In the next decades the climate of central and southern Europe is predicted to become warmer and somewhat drier22 , favouring diseases and plant pests. Insect pests such as mistletoe and bark beetles have already been responsible for a reduction of silver fir in the Mediterranean, especially in those areas where drought stress is more frequent21 . The fungi Armillaria mellea agg. and Heterobasidion annosum are responsible for butt rot and windthrow. Phytophagous insects such as Mindarus abietinus and Dreyfusia normannianae are often the cause of infections to needles and bark. Other insects



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Threats and Diseases

Abies alba


Branches with dark-green needles: leaves have an elliptical insertion but are positioned to avoid shading. (Copyright Vassil, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

such as Cinaria pectinatae and Epinotia nigricana are affecting bark and buds2 . Silver fir is vulnerable to Ips typographus which is also associated to potentially harmful fungal assemblages24-26 . It is also a susceptible host to Dothistroma septosporum and vulnerable to Gremmeniella abietina and Dothistroma septosporum 8, 25, 27, 28 . Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability.

References

Erect maturing seed cones on a branch. Old cones do not fall but remain and disintegrate on the tree.

Dark-grey bark of a mature tree with fissured plates. (Copyright Crusier, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

(Copyright IKB, www.flickr.com: AP)


Annual average temperature (°C)








[1] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] S. Pignatti, Flora d’Italia (Edagricole, Bologna., 1982). [4] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [5] K. Lauber, G. Wagner, Flora Helvetica, vol. 108 (2008). [6] B. G. Bowes, Trees and Forests: A Colour Guide: Biology, Pathology, Propagation, Silviculture, Surgery, Biomes, Ecology, Conservation, vol. 25 (2010). [7] H. H. Ellenberg, C. Leuschner, Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen (Verlag Eugen Ulmer, 2010). [8] J. Senn, W. Suter, Forest Ecology and Management 181, 151 (2003). [9] W. Tinner, et al., Ecological Monographs 83, 419 (2013). [10] R. Cheddadi, et al., Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23, 113 (2014). [11] U. Büntgen, et al., Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 100 (2014). [12] R. Hanel, S. Thurner, M. Gell-Mann, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, 6905 (2014). [13] L. Maiorano, et al., Global Ecology and Biogeography 22, 302 (2013). [14] M. Cailleret, M. Heurich, H. Bugmann, Forest Ecology and Management 328, 179 (2014). [15] M. Ruosch, et al., Global Change Biology p. n/a (2015). [16] H. Bugmann, et al., Toward Quantitative Scenarios of Climate Change Impacts in Switzerland, C. Appenzeller, et al., eds. (OCCR, FOEN, MeteoSwiss, C2SM, Agroscope and ProClim, Bern, Switzerland, 2014), pp. 79–88. [17] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002).

[18] E. G. de Andrés, J. J. Camarero, I. Martìnez, L. Coll, Forest Ecology and Management 319, 18 (2014). [19] W. Tinner, et al., The Holocene 10, 565 (2000). [20] L. Wick, A. Möhl, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15, 435 (2006). [21] J. B. Larsen, X. M. Qian, F. Scholz, I. Wagner, European Journal of Forest Pathology 18, 44 (1988). [22] V. R. Barros, et al., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2014). [23] M. Durand-Gillmann, M. Cailleret, T. Boivin, L.-M. Nageleisen, H. Davi, Annals of Forest Science 71, 659 (2014). [24] R. Kirschner, D. Begerow, F. Oberwinkler, Mycological Research 105, 1403 (2001). [25] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [26] L. Giordano, M. Garbelotto, G. Nicolotti, P. Gonthier, Mycological Progress 12, 127 (2013). [27] R. Burgess, Risks of Exotic Forest Pests and Their Impact on Trade (The American Phytopathological Society, 2001). [28] R. Drenkhan, K. Adamson, K. Jürimaa, M. Hanso, Forest Pathology 44, 250 (2014). [29] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of silver fir (Abies alba) (2011). www.euforgen.org. [30] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [31] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01493b. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Mauri, A., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Abies alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01493b+



49 08/04/2016 11:09

Abies Abies – Circum-Mediterranean firs in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, W. Tinner Most European firs occur predominantly in small to medium-sized populations in the Mediterranean region, sometimes with fragmented and limited distributions, except for silver fir (Abies alba). They all are genetically closely related and can easily hybridise, perhaps as a consequence of late speciation during the late Quaternary. Circum-Mediterranean firs occur principally in mountain areas with medium to high precipitations rates which are mostly concentrated during the winter period. The species are able to tolerate long droughts in summer and tend to form pure stands when in optimal habitats. In the past firs have been extensively logged for construction and fire wood and their stands were replaced by other more disturbance adapted species or converted into rural areas. Nowadays with the exception of silver fir and Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana), circum-Mediterranean firs do not have a wide commercial interest. In Turkey they are still exploited for timber wood, while other firs have an ornamental use in gardening. Great importance is given to their preservation, especially to those populations which have very limited areas and specimens, with the creation of protected reserves and conservation programmes. Wild fires, livestock grazing and genetic drift represent actually their main threats. Circum-Mediterranean firs are evergreen conifers from medium (25 m in height for Abies numidica) to large size (up to over 60 m in height for Abies alba and Abies nordmanniana), with columnar trunk and conical crown, which often becomes flattened or rounded in old trees. The stem is straight, composed of short and horizontal branches regularly spaced. The needles are spirally arranged, radially perpendicular and brush-like (Abies nebrodensis, Abies pinsapo, A. numidica), twisted to point upward (Abies cephalonica, Abies cilicica, A. nordmanniana) or pectinate in two lateral sets (Abies alba). They are from 1 to 4 cm long, flattened, linear, with two white bands of stomata beneath, rounded or more or less notched at the apex. Pollen cones are clustered along the undersides of the current year’s twigs, globular or conic, yellow-grey (A. alba, A. nebrodensis, A. cilicica) or reddish purplish (A. cephalonica, A. numidica, A. nordmanniana, A. pinsapo). Cones are ovoid to cylindrical, resinous, reddish or dark brown at maturity, with rounded scales which present hidden (A. pinsapo, A. numidica, A. cilicica) or protruding bracts (A. alba, A. nordmanniana, A. cephalonica, A. nebrodensis). Seeds are held in a membranous winged cup, brown-reddish, from 5 to 20 mm long. Wood is soft, white to light tan, with little difference between sapwood and heartwood 8-10 .

Distribution Today most of these fir species are segregated in small areas as relict and endemic populations, separated by geographical barriers. A. pinsapo var. pinsapo occurs in South Spain in the provinces of Malaga and Granada. A. pinsapo var. marocana grows in the western Rif Mountains in northern Morocco. A. numidica occupies an area on Mounts Babor and Talahor in the Kabylia region of Algeria. A. cilicica occurs in North Syria, Lebanon and South Turkey. A. nordmanniana has a wider range and is native to West Caucasus and the mountains of North-East Turkey along the Black Sea. A. nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani forms

1

Abies pinsapo var. pinsapo

2

Abies pinsapo var. marocana

3

Abies numidica

4

Abies nebrodensis

5

Abies alba

6

Abies x borisii-regis

7

Abies cephalonica

8

Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani

9

Abies nordmanniana subsp. nordmanniana

10 Abies cilicica

9

5

8 6 4

1 2

7

10

3

Reddish pollen cones of Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo var. pinsapo). Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map. Chorology of the native spatial range for the Circum-Mediterranean firs. Derived after Alizoti et al. and Jalas and Suominen17, 31 .

pure stands on mountains in western Anatolia near to the Aegean Sea. Similarly, A. cephalonica has a widespread distribution; it occurs in the Regions of Espiros, Macedonia, Peloponnesus, Sterea Ellas and the Ionian Islands. A. x borisii-regis grows in the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula in Bulgaria, northern Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Albania and Serbia, overlapping the distribution areas of A. alba and A. cephalonica. A. nebrodensis forms only a small population located in the Madonie Mountains in the north-central part of Sicily9, 11-18.

Habitat and Ecology Except for A. nordmanniana, which can be found also at sea level, generally the circum-Mediterranean firs occur in mountain habitats at altitudes of above 400 m, up to 2 400 m for A. pinsapo var. marocana19 . They are located in humid or even very humid climates with an annual precipitation over 700-800 mm, concentrated principally during the winter period20-22 . When well established, mature trees can tolerate long drought periods, but suffer spring frosts. They develop in different parental materials, but grow best on deeper acid soils with high water reserves. Natural regeneration is normally abundant and easy inside their habitat range, but is best below a level of cover which limits the risk of late frost damage and water transpiration losses. CircumMediterranean firs commonly form pure stands in their optimal habitat, while at the borders they can be mixed with other tree species, such as beech (Fagus spp.), deciduous and evergreen oaks (Quercus spp.), pines (Pinus spp.), cedars (Cedrus spp.) and junipers (Juniperus spp.)12-16, 18, 19, 23, 24 .


Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana) is one of the tallest European trees, growing over 60 m tall. (Copyright weisserstier, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

50

interest and due to the threats, endemism and geographically scattered distribution, their preservation as genetic resources is a major challenge. Diverse genetic conservation strategies have been elaborated, complementing the protection of natural stands (national or local parks and reserve) with the conservation of genetic resources outside their natural habitats (plantations, orchards and conservation of genetic material in vitro and with cryopreservation30, 31). Southern fir populations deserve special attention under global warming conditions, particularly in regard to their genetic characters, which may be relevant for future adaptation processes of firs30 .

Fir wood is appreciated because it is easy to work with and aesthetically pleasant, due to its soft and light structure. Even if its quality is mediocre compared with other more valuable woods, like spruce (Picea abies), pines and cedars, it has been utilized locally for many purposes. Today A. nordmanniana, A. cilicica and A. x borisii-regis, where abundant, are still exploited and the wood is widely utilized in the building sector, for furniture manufacture, veneer and plywood. A. nordmanniana is particularly appreciated for its potential large sized and regular timbers10, 25-28 . Thanks to their aptitude to inter-species breeding, some firs have been used for selecting hybrids and cultivars with particular foliage colours, habit and dimensions, and are widely planted as ornamental trees in garden and parks. For example, A. pinsapo is particularly appreciated for their brush-shape twigs, A. nordmanniana is a popular Christmas tree because indoors young plants keep their needles longer and A. numidica is sometimes planted in hedges as it takes trimming well10, 29 . Since most of the circum-Mediterranean firs have no wide commercial

(Copyright MPF, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases In the past, deforestation due to logging and forest clearance for agricultural purposes was the main threat, especially for those fir species with a limited distribution area32 . In Lebanon and Syria fragmented and degraded forests of A. cilicica still suffer from urban pressure with ongoing cutting in marginal rural areas for fuel wood, while A. nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani stands are more threatened by tourism development10, 13, 15, 33 . Unlike others, A. pinsapo has never been extensively felled, probably due to the difficulty of access and the unsuitability for farming of lands occupied by those firs34 . Actually, in many countries the most endangered fir forests are regulated by conservation laws and protected in natural reserves, which limit human activities. In these protected areas

Taxonomic notes Circum-Mediterranean firs have been historically classified on the base of macro-morphological and anatomical differences. However, paleobotanic, genetic and micro-morphometric studies have recently modified their classification1-4 . In fact these firs are closely related genetically and they can easily hybridise naturally and artificially, so that it is not easy to distinguish between them5 . The speciation probably occurred from a common Tertiary ancestor. Later, firs expanded and contracted following the glacial cycles. Around the Mediterranean basin firs now occupy fragmented and sometimes limited areas. This is largely the result of the geological and climatic history of the Mediterranean region where firs have evolved, having fostered differentiations and local adaptations, which have led to the emergence of many species, subspecies, and varieties6, 7. Actually, the genus Abies is classified in 10 sections, of which two include the circum-Mediterranean fir species. The Abies section comprises fir species distributed in the Centre-North of the Mediterranean Basin: Abies alba Mill. (silver fir), Abies cephalonica Loudon (Greek fir), Abies x borisiiregis Mattf. (Bulgarian fir), which is a hybrid of Abies cephalonica and Abies alba, Abies nebrodensis (Lojac.) Mattei (Sicilian fir), Abies cilicica Ant. & Kotschy Carriére (Syrian fir), and Abies nordmanniana (Steven) Spach, for which two subspecies are recognised: Abies nordmanniana subsp. nordmanniana (Caucasian fir) and Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani (Turkish fir). Some authors consider this latter as a separate species Abies equi-trojani or as a hybrid Abies x equi-trojani between Abies cephalonica and Abies nordmanniana. Disjunct fir populations of the subspecies equitrojani in North-West Turkey, which show minor morphological differences, have led some authors to recognise the subspecies Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmuelleriana, sometimes considered as separated species Abies bornmuelleriana. The Piceaster section comprises fir species distributed in the South-West of the Mediterranean basin: Abies pinsapo var. pinsapo Boiss. (Spanish fir), Abies pinsapo var. marocana (Trab.) Cebalos & Bolaño (Moroccan fir) and Abies numidica de Lannoy ex Carrière (Algerian fir)8-10 .



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Abies

accidental fires represent the major cause of forest loss. Firs are particularly sensitive to excessive (anthropogenic) fire disturbance, which is pervasive in most Mediterranean areas. When severe, wild fires can destroy entire stands and degrade the habitat, making it less suitable for firs, so that post-fire regeneration is not always guaranteed12, 16, 34-37. Goat and cattle grazing activity can be particularly destructive when intensive, damaging seedlings and young shoots of juvenile plants and limiting forest regeneration. Now in most fir forests pasturing continues under control, but in some isolated A. cilicica stands livestock grazing is still one of the main threats13, 18, 33 . Forests degraded by fire and grazing activity are more susceptible to pathogens. A. pinsapo has seen an increase in attacks of the root rot fungus Heterobasidion spp. and the coleopteran Cryphalus numidicus in recent decades, especially in drought periods34, 38, 39 .

Syrian fir forest (Abies cilicica) in Western Taurus Mountains (South Turkey). (Copyright Vince Smith, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

The total Sicilian fir (Abies nebrodensis) population counts 24 mature trees which are protected by fences. (Copyright Verollanos93, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

The isolation of populations due to fragmentation could give rise to a low genetic flow and therefore genetic diversity, which may represent another important factor weakening populations

and making them more susceptible to diseases. This is the case for A. nebrodensis, which is currently one of the rarest conifer species in the world, counting a population of just 24 mature trees14 . This fir is under an extensive conservation programme locally and abroad for its protection. However, it has not yet been entirely successful, due to the harsh summer conditions and the depleted soil of native areas. New attempts have been planned with the use of compost and summer watering40 . On the other hand, A. cephalonica needs to be genetically protected, since it is potentially threatened by hybridisation with other fir species, such as A. alba, used in the past for plantations, and their hybrid A. x borisii-regis, which naturally co-exists in the northern part of A. cephalonica distribution. The latter benefits from wetter conditions, therefore A. x borisii-regis ingression may occur influenced by a change toward a warming climate 11 .

Forest of Spanish firs (Abies pinsapo var. pinsapo) in Sierra Bermeja (South Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

References [1] B. Ziegenhagen, B. Fady, V. Kuhlenkamp, S. Liepelt, Silvae Genetica 54, 123 (2005). [2] S. Liepelt, E. Mayland-Quellhorst, M. Lahme, B. Ziegenhagen, Plant Systematics and Evolution 284, 141 (2010). [3] A. Terrab, et al., Taxon 56, 409 (2007). [4] K. Sękiewicz, et al., Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 147, 125 (2012). [5] F. U. Klaehn, J. A. Winieski, Silvae Genetica 11, 130 (1962). [6] J. C. Linares, Journal of Biogeography 38, 619 (2011). [7] B. Fady, M. Arbez, A. Marpeau, Trees 6, 162 (1992). [8] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [9] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [10] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [11] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [12] M. Gardner, S. Knees, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2011), pp. 38320/0+. [13] M. Gardner, S. Knees, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42275/0+. [14] P. Thomas, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 30478/0+. [15] S. Knees, M. Gardner, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2011), pp. 42293/0+. [16] A. Arista, M. L. Alaoui, S. Knees, M. Gardner, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2011), pp. 42295/0+. [17] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [18] N. Yahi, S. Knees, M. Gardner, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2011), pp. 30320/0+. [19] G. Aussenac, Annals of Forest Science 59, 823 (2002). [20] W. Tinner, et al., Ecological Monographs 83, 419 (2013). [21] H. J. Schuck, H. Weisgerber, P. Schütt, Lexikon der Nadelbäume (Nikol, Hamburg, 2008). [22] L. Awad, B. Fady, C. Khater, A. Roig, R. Cheddadi, PLoS ONE 9, e90086 (2014).

[23] M. Arista, F. J. Herrera, S. Talavera, Biologìa del pinsapo (Consejerìa de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucìa, Sevilla, 1997). [24] Z. Kaya, D. J. Raynal, Biological Conservation 97, 131 (2001). [25] I. Usta, Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 28, 1 (2004). [26] N. Seyidoglu Akdeniz, D. Yayim Yener, Journal of Forestry Faculty of Kastamonu University 12, 256 (2012). [27] H. Hafizoglu, B. Holmbom, Holz als Rohund Werkstoff 53, 273 (1995). [28] L. García Esteban, P. de Palacios, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques 292, 39 (2007). [29] A. Ulus, Journal of Forestry Faculty of Kastamonu University 12, 242 (2012). [30] J. Krajňáková, D. Gömöry, H. Häggman, Biotechnology and Biodiversity, M. R. Ahuja, K. G. Ramawat, eds. (Springer International Publishing, 2014), vol. 4 of Sustainable Development and Biodiversity, pp. 287–310. [31] P. G. Alizoti, B. Fady, M. A. Prada, G. G. Vendramin, EUFORGEN technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use of mediterranean firs (abies spp.), Tech. rep., Bioversity International (2011). [32] M. Barbero, G. Bonin, R. Loisel, P. Quézel, Vegetatio 87, 151 (1990). [33] S. N. Talhouk, R. Zurayk, S. Khuri, Oryx 35, 206 (2001). [34] L. G. Esteban, P. de Palacios, R. L. Aguado, Oryx 44, 276 (2010). [35] M. Arista, J. Herrera, S. Talavera, Bocconea 7, 427 (1997). [36] P. Ganatsas, E. Daskalakou, D. Paitaridou, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 5, 6 (2012). [37] M. Arianoutsou, et al., Post-Fire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests, F. Moreira, M. Arianoutsou, P. Corona, J. De las Heras, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2012), vol. 24 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 257–291. [38] M. E. Sánchez, et al., Forest Pathology 37, 348 (2007). [39] J. Linares, J. Camarero, M. Bowker, V. Ochoa, J. Carreira, Oecologia 164, 1107 (2010). [40] J. a. P. Silva, et al., LIFE and endangered plants:Conserving Europe’s threatened flora (Environment Directorate-General, European Commission, 2008).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015be7. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Tinner, W., 2016. Abies - Circum-Mediterranean firs in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015be7+



51 08/04/2016 11:09

Acer campestre Acer campestre in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats B. Zecchin, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Field maple (Acer campestre L.) is a medium-size tree commonly growing in most of Europe and extending its range eastwards to the Caspian Sea. It is a mesophile species, forming part of temperate mixed deciduous forests as a subdominant tree. Together with elms, this maple has been planted traditionally in rural areas as living props for grapevines. It is also appreciated as an ornamental plant for its flowers and coloured foliage in autumn. Its wood is used mainly for fire and pulp, produced in coppiced mixed forests. There are few serious diseases affecting the field maple, principally causing damage on young seedling in nurseries. Field maple is a medium-sized tree, typically reaching 15 m tall (exceptionally 25 m) and 60-70 cm in trunk diameter. It can be present as a tree, but also as a shrub in the understorey1, 2 . The bark is light grey, rather smooth and hard but with shallow fissures, exfoliating in small flakes when older2 . The crown is domed, usually low, with short side-shoots; bole is sinuous and the branch ends droop, then turn upwards3 . Leaves are in opposite pairs, bright green when just unfolding, becoming darker. In autumn the foliage colour is rich gold over a long period, sometimes red. The leaf is simple, 5-16 cm long and 5-10 cm broad, with five blunt, rounded lobes with a smooth margin2, 3 . Flowers are small and yellow-green, about ten widely spaced in an erect head; flowering usually starts in late April, either simultaneously with, or several days before bud burst4 . Field maple is a monoecious species, producing hermaphrodite flowers. Usually individuals show complex temporal patterns of sex expression during the flowering season. Pollination is typically entomophilous, but it is supposedly capable of dispersing some portion of its pollen by wind1 . The fruits are double samaras, crimson coloured with wings horizontally aligned at 180°, 2.5-3 cm long and grouped in 3-4 bunches. The samaras ripen in late September and are dispersed by the wind from mid October on. Seed dormancy lasts at least one year, natural germination usually takes 18 months; well-established 5 to 8 year-old seedlings begin rapid growth that lasts for about 25 years3-5 .

Distribution This species is adapted to areas that are in transition between Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian ecoregions. The natural distribution of field maple covers most of Europe: the latitudinal distribution ranges from 55° to 38° N, from central and southern England, southern Sweden and Denmark to the Pyrenees, Sicily, Greece and northern Turkey. Isolated occurrences can be found in Spain and North Africa. Field maple reaches its eastern limits in the Voronezh Region in Russia, in the Crimean Peninsula, in the


water needs and avoids waterlogging, favouring calcareous soils, but also grows well on heavy clay and is able to subsist on soils with pH lower than 6 or higher than 8. It is extremely shadetolerant during the first decade, but light requirements are higher in seed-bearing years. It coppices very freely up to an age of 60100 years and it is very tolerant of cutting and grazing of shoots; these factors make it well adapted for hedges2, 4 . Across its natural range, field maple does not form pure stands, but instead it is often a subdominant species in many plant communities. Given its low commercial importance, field maple is not normally silviculturally managed and often grows in spontaneously established and semi-natural populations1 . On the continent it can be characteristic of mixed broad-leaved woodland, especially with species of genera such as Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus and Castanea, and it is rare in coniferous forests2, 10 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Acer campestre. Frequency of Acer campestre occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. campestre is derived after EUFORGEN15 .

Caucasus and at the southern shores of the Caspian Sea4, 6-8 . This species has not been planted widely outside its natural range, except as an ornamental tree9 .

Habitat and Ecology Field maple has a very wide ecological range, although it is more common in mesophile stands, especially deciduous oak forests, from sea level up to 1 600 m in altitude4, 9 . It prefers warmer climates but it can also be winter hardy and tolerate the temperature extremes of continental sites, even if late frosts at the beginning of a vegetative season potentially have an impact on the distribution of the species1, 5 . Field maple has moderate

Corymb of hermaphrodite flowers with green-yellow stamens and sepals and no petals. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Importance and Usage Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%

The scientific name Acer campestre, which means properly field maple, probably originates from Italy, where this maple together with the elm (Ulmus spp.) were planted in fields and vineyards as living props for grapevines, and considered an important element of the landscape4 . It is also commonly planted in gardens and parks and for street and roadside, as tree, scrub or in hedges, appreciated for its beautiful colours in autumn and for blossoms before leaves appear9 . The wood is white, hard and strong and, when sizeable timber is available, it is used


Very-high presence > 90%


Five-lobed yellow leaves with smooth margins, displaying autumn colours. (Copyright Wendy Cutler, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

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for furniture, joinery and flooring. However, due to the small dimensions and low quantities produced, field maple wood is mostly used as firewood and pulpwood in coppiced mixed stands, in combination with other valuable broadleaved tree species. This species represents an interesting alternative to other maples for plantation in open areas with significant Mediterranean influence and sun-facing conditions, including protection forests on watershed slopes, as long as they are not too exposed. The bark is used in medicine as decoctions to treat sore eyes and as anticholesterol and astringent. Field maple flowers provide abundant pollen and its nectar used by bees resulting in good honey and honeydew yield4, 9 . The field maple distribution range overlaps with many areas in Europe with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems11 . Its adventitious roots are suitable to be exploited for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion12 .


Threats and Diseases There are few serious health problems affecting the field maple, either in the field or in the nursery. As other maples, this species can be a host for the fungus Cryptostroma corticale, which causes sooty bark disease, a pathogen common in northern America and now present Europe. It affects principally the sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), causing serious damage after hot and dry summers. A fungal pathogen of genus Rhytisma causes conspicuous dark round spots on leaves, affecting mainly sycamore maple, but with negligible impact on field maple growth13 . In nurseries young maple seedlings can be damaged or killed by Ceratocystis virescens or infected by the powdery mildew caused by Unicinula bicornis. The field maple and other species of genus Acer are highly vulnerable14 to the Asian longhorn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) which is a large wood-boring beetle native of Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea and China. Other negative agents affecting different maple trees include aphids as well as defoliating (Lymantria, Operophtera) and drilling (Cossus, Xyleborus) insects2, 6, 9 . Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability.

Seeds are green double samaras with horizontally aligned wings. (Copyright Pancrazio Campagna, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References

Large field maples with large domed crown in a garden park (Weinsberg, South Germany). (Copyright Rosenzweig, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)










[1] I. Chybicki, B. Waldon-Rudzionek, K. Meyza 10, 1739 (2014). [2] E. W. Jones, Journal of Ecology 32, 239 (1945). [3] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [4] L. Nagy, F. Ducci, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for field maple (Acer campestre) (Bioversity International, 2004). [5] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [6] J. Coello, et al., Ecology and silviculture of the main valuable broadleaved species in the Pyrenean area and neighbouring regions (Centre de la Propietat Forestal, Generalitat de Catalunya, Santa Perpètua de Mogoda (Spain), 2013). [7] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [8] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986).

[9] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [10] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Final Report (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy, 2001). [11] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [12] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837. [13] EPPO, EPPO Global Database (2015). https://gd.eppo.int [14] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [15] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of field maple (Acer campestre) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012c65. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Zecchin B., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Acer campestre in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012c65+



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Acer platanoides Acer platanoides in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Acer platanoides L., commonly known as Norway maple, is a large tree that is widespread in central Europe and reaching eastwards the Ural Mountains. It is a fast-growing species, able to grow in a wide range of soils and habitat conditions. In natural stands it occurs in fresh and humid sites in temperate mixed forests, both with conifers and broadleaves. It is a secondary species, growing in small groups or individually. It has been planted intensively as an ornamental and shade tree, appreciated for its colourful foliage and large, spreading crown, in combination with its tolerance of urban conditions. Its wood is also valued for its attractive flaming figures and is used for music instruments, furniture, marquetry and turned objects. This maple is generally free of serious diseases, except in urban areas, where it is more vulnerable to pathogens. In North America it has been widely planted and is now naturalised, becoming an invasive species. The Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.) is a large and talldomed tree, sometimes very broad, growing to 25-30 m tall and 60-80 cm in diameter, although exceptionally over 150 cm. The stem is straight, short with perpendicular shoots and the crown is dense with foliage. The leaves are opposite, simple, 10-15 cm long, very variable in dimension depending on the age and the vigour of the tree. They have five lobes with long and acuminate teeth and smooth margins. The colour is bright to shiny green turning yellow in autumn; the stalk is reddish, 10-20 cm long. The Norway maple is a monoecious hermaphrodite species with inflorescences grouped in panicles of 30-40 flowers, each 6-8 mm long with five yellow-green petals. In this species flowers appear from about 25-30 years and are insect pollinated. The fruit is a double samara, 3-5 cm each, greenish-yellow, dispersed by the wind. The two samaras are set at a wide angle approaching 180°. The bark of young trees is smooth and grey-brown; on older trees the bark becomes darker and shallowly furrowed with long narrow ridges in a network. The wood is dark reddish-brown; the grain is straight, with a fine, uniform texture. Many cultivars have been selected for their distinctive leaf shape and coloration and for crown shape1-5 .

Distribution Norway maple is the most widespread native maple in Europe. Its natural distribution ranging from Greece, Balkans, North Italy and Pyrenees to southern Fennoscandia, and toward the East it arrives as far as Russia but not over the Ural Mountains. It grows from sea level up to 1400 m in the Alps. In Europe it is not native of western France, British Isles, Netherlands and Denmark. The subspecies Acer platanoides turkestanicum occurs in mountain forests of Turkey, Caucasus and northern Iran on the southern coasts of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, reaching 2400 m in elevation. Norway maple is commonly found throughout mainland Europe, even in countries where it is non-native. It was also introduced in the United States in the 18th century and now it is naturalised in some areas of central-east United States

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Native Introduced

Flowers are insect pollinated and are produced when the tree is 25-30 years of age. (Copyright Maja Dumat, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Acer platanoides. Frequency of Acer platanoides occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native and introduced spatial range for A. platanoides is derived after several sources6, 28-31 .

and south-east Canada. It shares the ecological range of sugar maple (Acer saccharum), which is taxonomically close. Norway maple may be found all over the world in towns and villages as an ornamental and shade tree6-8 .

Habitat and Ecology The Norway maple is a fast-growing tree species, able to grow well across a wide range of soil conditions, shade, drought and pollution. However, it thrives best in deep, fertile, moist soils, which are adequately drained and with a sub-acid pH. Exposure and strong calcareous soils are well tolerated4, 5 . It is intolerant of low soil nitrogen conditions, high evapo-transpiration or prolonged drought and it is rare on acidic soils (pH near 4)8 .

The large five-lobed leaves appear after the flowers. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

54

It tends to be located at the base of hills where it receives a surface runoff and subsurface soil water flow. It also thrives at higher elevations with sufficient precipitation8 . It germinates and grows quickly in shade, even under close canopy. When mature, it becomes more light-demanding9, 10 . The height increment is about 1 m/year in the first 10 years. With its wide crown it tends to shade and suppress other slow-growing competitor species4 . Under optimal conditions Norway maple may live for more than 250 years1 . Over Europe it occurs in fresh and humid sites both in coniferous and deciduous forests. In natural stands Norway maple occurs as a secondary species with low frequency, thus not forming pure stands but generally found in small groups or as individual trees. In temperate continental mixed forests it can codominate with other broadleaves such as English oak (Quercus robur) and small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata)3, 8, 10-13 .

Importance and Usage The Norway maple has been used extensively as an ornamental, shade and street-side tree because of its attractiveness, colourful foliage and large, spreading crown, in combination with its tolerance of urban conditions. Its ability to resprout vigorously after trimming makes it suitable to be used as a live fence4 . The Norway maple distribution range overlaps with many areas

This species is frequently planted as an ornamental for its attractive autumn colouration. (Copyright Nicholas A. Tonelli, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Leaves are generally 10-20cm in length, varying widely in size depending on the age and vigour of the tree. (Copyright Donald Hobern, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

in Europe with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems14 . Its adventitious roots are suitable to be exploited for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion15 . The species shows a high efficacy against rockfall16 . The wood of Norway maple is similar to other maple species in colour, grain and texture, bearing closest relation to field maple (Acer campestre) with an intermediate hardness5 . Wavy-grained maple is in great demand for its attractive flaming figures, used principally for music instruments, such as guitars and violins4 . The Italian violinmaker Stradivari in the 17th and early 18th centuries used spruce wood (Picea abies) for the top plates of their instruments and Norway maple wood for the rest17. The wood of this species is also used for furniture, marquetry, turned objects, and other small speciality wood items4 .



References

In its natural habitats Norway maple is generally free of serious diseases. However, in urban areas, along with other maple trees it can suffer from different diseases caused by a combination of stresses due to pollution, site alteration, soil compaction, etc.4 . Sooty bark disease caused by Cryptostroma corticale is an important pathogen common in northern America and central Europe, affecting principally the sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), but also dangerous for the Norway maple, with serious damage after hot and dry summers. The Asian longhorn beetle Anoplophora glabripennis is a large wood-boring beetle native of Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea and China. Its larvae tunnel and feed on the cambium layer of bark, attacking healthy trees as well as trees under stress and eventually killing the host species. It is creating serious economic, ecological and aesthetic impacts on different hardwood tree species mainly in the United States and recently in Europe. Norway maple and other species of genus Acer are particularly vulnerable18 and one of the major hosts in urban areas19 . Fungi of the genus Rhytisma infect the leaves of maples and cause black spots on upper leaf surfaces. The wilt fungi of genus Verticillium infect ornamental and nursery plants through the root system along waterFruit is a double samara; this shape enables it to be dispersed far from the parent tree by the wind. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Bark on a mature tree showing network of long narrow ridges. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

conducting tissues and resulting in blockage of water movement to the foliage4, 20, 21 . Although Cameraria ochridella (horse-chestnut leafminer) is mainly known for its impressive impact on the European horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.), it is also harmful to Norway maple which partly coexists with the natural niche of the horse-chestnut leafminer22, 23 . During the middle of the 20th century this species was widely planted in United States to replace American elm (Ulmus americana) that were lost due to Dutch elm disease. However, with its fast growth, dense shade, and shallow roots, the species has since demonstrated itself to be a proficiently invasive species, reducing abundance and diversity of native species and altering the natural forest community structures24 . It has invaded mixed-deciduous forests especially on disturbed sites in parts of eastern North America, requiring in some cases mechanical or chemical control measures7, 9, 25-27.

[1] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [4] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [5] G. Kerr, J. Niles, Forestry 71, 219 (1998). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [7] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [8] D. J. Nowak, R. A. Rowntree, Journal of Arboriculture 16, 291 (1990). [9] A. F. Rhoads, T. A. Block, Invasive species fact sheet (The Pennsylvania Flora Project, 2011). [10] H. Hytteborn, A. A. Maslov, D. I. Nazimova, L. P. Rysin, Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 6: Coniferous Forests, F. A. Andersson, ed. (Elsevier, 2005), pp. 23–99. [11] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [12] R. L. Hendrick, Forest Types and Classification (Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK, 2001), pp. 23–64. [13] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Final Report (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy, 2001). [14] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [15] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837.

[16] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [17] B. C. Stoel, T. M. Borman, PLoS ONE 3, e2554 (2008). [18] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [19] EPPO, EPPO Global Database (2015). https://gd.eppo.int [20] J. C. Goud, Verticillium wilt in trees: Detection, prediction and disease management, Ph.D. thesis, Wageningen Universiteit, The Netherlands (2003). [21] I. J. Grimmett, K. A. Smith, F. Bärlocher, Freshwater Science 31, 1088 (2012). [22] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [23] CABI, Cameraria ohridella (horsechestnut leafminer) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [24] C. R. Webster, K. Nelson, S. R. Wangen, Forest Ecology and Management 208, 85 (2005). [25] K. O. Reinhart, F. Maestre, R. Callaway, Biological Invasions 8, 231 (2006). [26] S. L. Webb, T. H. Pendergast, M. E. Dwyer, Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 128, 141 (2001). [27] CABI, Acer platanoides (norway maple) (2014). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [28] A. N. Afonin, S. L. Greene, N. I. Dzyubenko, A. N. Frolov, eds., Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries: Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds [Online] (2008). http://www.agroatlas.ru. [29] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org [30] R. Alìa Miranda, et al., Regiones de procedencia de especies forestales en España (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Madrid, 2009). [31] Bundesamtes für Naturschutz, ed., FloraWeb (2015). http://www.floraweb.de.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e019159. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Acer platanoides in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e019159+



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Acer pseudoplatanus Acer pseudoplatanus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats S. Pasta, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo The sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) is a large fast-growing deciduous tree with a broad, domed crown. Its primary range includes central, eastern and southern Europe, Caucasus and northern Minor Asia, but since the seventeenth century it started to be naturalised north of its native range both in Europe and in the other temperate regions of the world. It is rarely found in pure stands but often dominates mixed softwood deciduous forests and typically occurs on nutrient-rich soils that often accumulate in the shady micro-climates. Sycamore maple is tolerant to a variety of stresses including pollution and salt winds, making it suitable for urban and coastal planting. Its timber is useful for a variety of purposes including furniture, joinery, indoor flooring and musical instruments. The sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) is a large deciduous tree that can live for more than 350-400 years. It grows up to 30-35 m in height with a diameter of 60-80 cm and a very broad domed crown whose diameter can sometimes exceed the height of the tree1, 2 . However, it also has a strong root system making it quite wind-firm despite the large crown1 . It has large palmate opposite leaves with five pointed lobes that vary considerably in shape and size depending on the age and vigour of the shoot, but which may reach 18 × 26 cm in young vigorous trees. The leaves are dark green above with a slightly glaucous underside and a scarlet petiole2, 3 . The bark is smooth and grey in young trees, later becoming rougher and cracked into scaly squares that curl away at the edges2 . It is a monoecious species, producing yellow-green flowers on hanging racemes 6-12 cm long in mid-April when the tree is 10-20 years old. There is a wide array of pollinating insects4 ; each inflorescence may result in up to 30 fruits and a single tree may have more than 800 inflorescences5 . The seeds mature in the autumn and are double samaras set in a V shape, which catch the wind and spin as they fall3, 6 . These wind-dispersed seeds give rise to occasional longdistance dispersal (distances of up to 4 km have been recorded4), as well as to intense dispersal around the mother plant in a radius of about 200 m7. Its seeds do not accumulate in a persistent seed bank, but germinate in the early spring following dispersal5 .

Distribution The natural distribution range of sycamore includes Central and Eastern Europe and the mountain systems of Southern Europe (i.e. Apennines and Dinaric Alps), Caucasus and North of Minor Asia. Its northern limit is South Denmark at around the 55° North parallel8 . Although it has not yet managed to fill all of its potential range on its expansion from Ice-Age refugia in southern Europe9 , after its intensive plantation in the 18th century, it


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Acer pseudoplatanus. Frequency of Acer pseudoplatanus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. pseudoplatanusis derived after EUFORGEN69 .

has become naturalised north of its native range in Europe: e.g. United Kingdom and Scandinavia10 , and even in other continents: i.e. North and South America, New Zealand, Australia and India11 .

Habitat and Ecology The sycamore maple is not able to thrive in drought-prone regions12, 13 . Both germination and establishment take place under a wide pH range. It grows well in shaded conditions, particularly in its juvenile stage5 and this explains its ability to succeed within established forests14 . Nonetheless, seedlings and saplings

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%

The Sycamore Gap, iconic tree growing along Hadrian’s Wall near Northumberland (UK). (Copyright Sarah Millar, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

tolerate very well forest clearing practices15 . It typically occurs on nutrient-rich soils that often accumulate in the shady microclimates towards the bases of slopes and ravines. Therefore it is found on calcareous substrates associated with coarse scree, cliffs, steep rocky slopes and ravines, where inaccessibility has reduced human impact, forming a series of scattered patches grading into other types of woodland on level valley floors and on slopes above, or as narrow strips along stream-sides. More extensive stands occur on limestone and other base-rich rocks, but it may be encountered also on acidic soils5 . Sycamore maple rarely forms forests on its own, but generally dominates the cooler and more humid environments (shade-tolerant forests), where it supports a wide range of epiphytes, herbivores and a rather varied ground flora16 . The literature concerning the forest communities of Central Europe17-24 , the Alpine region25-28 and the more recent papers focused on those of Southern European peninsulas and Sicily29-38 points out that Acer pseudoplatanus is often a dominating species within mixed deciduous forests corresponding to the maple-lime forest type, also designated as protected priority habitat 9180 “Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines”39 . This forest type is referred to the phytosociological class Querco-Fagetea Br.-Bl. & Vlieger in Vlieger 1937, and it hosts secondary species such as ash (Fraxinus excelsior), wych elm (Ulmus glabra) and limes, mainly small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), more rarely large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos)40 .




Maturing double samars set in a V shape. (Copyright Wendy Cutler, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

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Bark cracked into plates curling away. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Importance and Usage The sycamore maple is tolerant to pollution, exposed sites including salt winds and low summer temperatures. Together with its striking and attractive appearance, this makes it a popular choice as an ornamental tree in urban and coastal locations1 . Its litter improves humus formation and nutrient cycling41, 42 and thus contributes to landscape diversity43, 44 . Its seeds contain large amounts of hypoglycin A, which may induce atypical myopathy on horses grazing under their canopies45 . On the other hand, some parts of sycamore maple can be consumed by men: for instance, in Poland fresh tree sap was drunk as a beverage, leaf buds were eaten raw by shepherds, and leaves were put in the oven under baking bread both to prevent it from sticking and to give it a special flavour46 . The leaves are still used to wrap local cheese in Northern Spain29 . Moreover, some promising chemical compounds which could be used against several types of cancer have been recently isolated in several Acer species47. The sycamore maple distribution range overlaps with many areas in Europe with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems48 . Its adventitious roots are very suitable to be exploited for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion49 . The species shows a high efficacy against rockfall50 . Sycamore is also one of the fastest growing broadleaved species when grown on suitable sites. Its timber is soft but tough and light with an attractive colour, and is used for turnery, furniture making, joinery, indoor flooring and musical instruments1, 51 . Its rapid growth and potentially high timber prices make it economically attractive52 , but despite its economic interest, the ecological services provided and its adaptability to a wide range of site conditions, sycamores only occupy a small proportion of European forest areas53 .


Threats and Diseases The sycamore maple and other species of genus Acer are highly vulnerable54 to the Asian longhorn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) which is a large wood-boring beetle native of Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea and China. Bark stripping by grey squirrels and damage by other browsing animals can reduce the amount of valuable timber52, 55 . The leaves may be severely Observed presences in Europe

(Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Group of sycamores in a forested area near Hockenheim (Baden-Württemberg, Germany). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)






Ovoid bud with greenish scales in winter.

Reddish leaves on young seedling with five deep lobes and long stalks. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)






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References

Ornamental sycamores with yellow autumn foliage in a park (Gloucestershire, UK). (Copyright Jongleur100, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

affected by ascomycete fungi such as Rhytisma acerinum56, 57, Pleuroceras pseudoplatani58 and Petrakia echinata59, 60 or by the imperfect fungus Deuteromycete Cristulariella depraedans. Several bark diseases are caused by fungi such as Nectria cinnabarina, Verticillium spp. (Verticillium dahliae, Verticillium alboatrum) and Cryptostroma corticale. The latter is harmful also for human beings61, 62 and causes the so-called 'sooty bark disease’, whose fatal attacks are triggered by high summer temperatures and drought, so that predicted climate change is likely to increase its incidence at lower altitudes and latitudes and in more continental sites63, 64 . Moreover, the North American ascomycete Eutypella parasitica may cause severe damage due to stem cankers; since its first record in Europe65 it has been spreading from Slovenia and Croatia towards Austria66 . The future possible response of sycamore maple to global warming is still under debate64, 67, 68 .

Grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), an alien species in Europe that damages the tree by stripping the bark. (Copyright Jim Ferguson, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

58

Influorescence of green flowers with yellow anthers and no petals.

Sycamores are appreciated ornamental trees for their attractive autumnal leaf colour.



[1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] C. J. Humphries, J. R. Press, D. A. Sutton, The Hamlyn Guide to Trees of Britain and Europe (Hamlyn, London, 1992). [4] G. Hegi, ed., Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, vol. 5.1 (Lehmann, München, 1925). [5] E. W. Jones, Journal of Ecology 32, 220 (1944). [6] K. Rushforth, Trees of Britain and Europe, Collins Wildlife Trust Guides (HarperCollins, UK, 1999). [7] E. Tillisch, Dansk Skovbrugs Tidsskrift 86, 1 (2001). [8] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [9] J.-C. Svenning, F. Skov, Ecology Letters 7, 565 (2004). [10] M. Rusanen, T. Myking, EUFORGEN technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, 2003). [11] I. Weidema, E. Buchwald, NOBANIS Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet - Acer pseudoplatanus, Online Database of the European Network on Invasive Alien Species, NOBANIS: www.nobanis.org (2010). [12] J. Tissier, L. Lambs, J. P. Peltier, G. Marigo, Annals of Forest Science 61, 81 (2004). [13] P. E. Pinto, J. C. Gégout, Annals of Forest Science 62, 761 (2005). [14] A. M. Petritan, B. Von Lüpke, I. C. Petritan, Forestry 80, 397 (2007). [15] B. Caquet, P. Montpied, E. Dreyer, D. Epron, C. Collet, Annals of Forest Science 67, 105 (2010). [16] P. Binggeli, Quarterly Journal of Forestry 87, 143 (1993). [17] J. Bartsch, M. Bartsch, Der Schluchtwald und der Bach-Eschenwald, vol. 8 of Angewandte Pflanzensoziologie (Springer, Vienna, 1952). [18] A. Noirfalise, Bulletin du Jardin botanique de l’État a Bruxelles 30, 37 (1960). [19] F. Clot, Phytocoenologia 18, 409 (1990). [20] T. Müller, Süddeutsche Pflanzengesellschaften, Band 4: Wälder und Gebüsche, E. Oberdorfer, ed. (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1992), pp. 173–192. [21] M. Chytrý, ed., Vegetace České republiky 4: Lesnì a křovinná vegetace - Vegetation of the Czech Republic 4: Forest and scrub vegetation (Academia, Praha, 2013). [22] J. Bardat, et al., Prodrome des végétations de France (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 2004). [23] C. Berg, J. Dengler, A. Abdank, M. Isermann, Die Pflanzengesellschaften MecklenburgVorpommerns und ihre Gefährdung, Landesamtfür Umwelt, Naturschutz und Geologie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Weissdorn-Verlag, Jena, 2004). [24] H. H. Ellenberg, C. Leuschner, Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen (Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, 2010), 6th edn. [25] M. Moor, Phytocoenologia 2, 244 (1975). [26] L. Mucina, G. Grabherr, T. Ellmauer, S. Wallnöfer, eds., Die Pflanzengesellschaften Österreichs - Teil III - Wälder und Gebüsche (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1993). [27] C. Lasen, C. Urbinati, Sauteria 6, 21 (1995). [28] W. Keller, T. Wohlgemuth, N. Kuhn, M. Schütz, O. Wildi, Mitteilung der Eidgenossischen Forschung fur Wald, Schnee und Landschaft 73, 91 (1998). [29] M. Costa, C. Morla, H. Sainz, eds., Los bosques ibéricos: una interpretación geobotánica (Ed. Planeta, Barcelona, 1997). [30] E. Biondi, S. Casavecchia, M. Pinzi, M. Allegrezza, M. Baldoni, Fitosociologia 39, 19 (2002). [31] E. Biondi, S. Casavecchia, N. Biscotti, Fitosociologia 45, 93 (2008). [32] C. Angiolini, B. Foggi, D. Viciani, A. Gabellin, Fitosociologia 42, 109 (2005). [33] C. Angiolini, B. Foggi, D. Viciani, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 81, 123 (2012). [34] P. Kosir, Hacquetia 4, 37 (2005). [35] P. Košir, v. Andraž, R. Di Pietro, Journal of Vegetation Science 19, 331 (2008). [36] A. Čarni, et al., Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 143, 1 (2009). [37] J. A. Campos, I. Garcìa-Mijangos, M. Herrera, J. Loidi, I. Biurrun, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 145, 172 (2011). [38] C. Brullo, et al., Annali di Botanica 2, 19 (2012).

[39] European Commission, Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats - EUR28 version, Directorate-General Environment, Brussels (2013). [40] E. Biondi, et al., Manuale italiano di interpretazione degli habitat (Direttiva 92/43/CEE) (Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Direzione per la Protezione della Natura, Roma, 2010). [41] G. Weber, K. E. Rehfuess, K. Kruetzer, Allgemeine Forst Zeitschrift/Der Wald 48, 68 (1993). [42] R. Heitz, K. E. Rehfuess, Management of mixed-species forest: silviculture and economics, A. F. M. Olsthoorn, et al., eds., IBN scientific contributions 15 (DLO Institute for Forestry and Nature Research (IBN-DLO), Wageningen, NL, 1999), pp. 46–57. [43] A. Pommerening, Deutschen Verband Forstlicher Forschungsanstalten - Sektion Ertragskundeim: 12-14 Mai 1997, Grünberg (1997), pp. 45–59. [44] S. Bell, Valuable broadleaved forests in Europe, H. Spiecker, S. Hein, K. MakkonenSpiecker, M. Thies, eds., EFI Volume 22 (Brill, Leiden, NL, 2009), pp. 171–200. [45] L. Unger, et al., Journal of veterinary internal medicine / American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine 28, 1289 (2014). [46] Ł. Łuczaj, W. M. Szymański, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3, 17+ (2007). [47] W.-H. Zhao, C. Gao, Y.-X. Zhang, W.-X. Tian, Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry 22, 501 (2007). [48] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [49] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837. [50] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [51] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [52] S. Hein, et al., Forestry 82, 361 (2009). [53] Valuable broadleaved forests in Europe, H. Spiecker, S. Hein, K. Makkonen-Spiecker, M. Thies, eds., EFI Volume 22 (Brill, Leiden, NL, 2009), pp. 251–256. [54] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [55] M. S. J. Broadmeadow, D. Ray, C. J. A. Samuel, Forestry 78, 145 (2005). [56] A. Wulf, Nachrichtenblatt des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 40, 65 (1988). [57] A. Wulf, Pilzbedingte Blattkrankheiten an Ahorn unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Bergahorns (Acer pseudoplatanus L.), vol. 116 of Schriften aus der Forstlichen Fakultaet der Universitaet Goettingen und der Niedersaechsischen Forstlichen Versuchsanstalt (Sauerländer, Frankfurt, 1994). [58] H. Butin, A. Wulf, Sydowia 40, 38 (1987). [59] T. Kirisits, Forstschutz Aktuell 40, 28 (2007). [60] R. Kehr, H. Butin, 56 Deutsche Pflanzenschutztagung in Kiel: 22-25 September, Mitteilungen aus dem Julius Kühn-Institut 417 (Julius KühnInstitut, Bundesforschungsinstitut für Kulturpflanzen, Berlin, 2008), pp. 350–351. [61] P. Robeck, R. Heinrich, J. Schumacher, R. Feindt, R. Kehr, Jahrbuch der Baumpflege, D. Dujesiefken, P. Kockerbeck, eds. (Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig, 2008), pp. 238–244. [62] J. Schumacher, A. Wulf, S. Leonhard, L. Pehl, 56 Deutsche Pflanzenschutztagung in Kiel: 22-25 September, Mitteilungen aus dem Julius Kühn-Institut 417 (Julius Kühn-Institut, Bundesforschungsinstitut für Kulturpflanzen, Berlin, 2008), pp. 349–350. [63] R. G. Strouts, T. G. Winter, Diagnosis Of Ill-Health In Trees, Forestry Commission, Research for amenity trees, No 2 (Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1994). [64] G. E. Hemery, et al., Forestry 83, 65 (2010). [65] D. Jurc, N. Ogris, B. Slippers, J. Stenlid, New Disease Reports 12, 37 (2005). [66] T. L. Cech, Forstschutz Aktuell 40, 10 (2007). [67] C. Kölling, L. Zimmermann, Gefahrstoffe 67, 259 (2007). [68] M. M. Carón, et al., Plant Biology 17, 52 (2015). [69] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01665a. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Pasta, S., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Acer pseudoplatanus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01665a+



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Strokkur Geyser (Selfoss, Iceland). (Copyright Gian-Reto Tarnutzer, unsplash.com: CC0)

Lysefjord in the Ryfylke area (Forsand, southwestern Norway). (Copyright Samuel Killworth, unsplash.com: CC0)

Native Scots pine forest in Cairngorms National Park (central Scotland). (Copyright MemoryCatcher, pixabay.com: CC0)



59 08/04/2016 11:10

Aesculus hippocastanum Aesculus hippocastanum in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. Ravazzi, G. Caudullo Aesculus hippocastanum L., the European horse-chestnut, is a mesophytic broad-leaved tree native to a few mountain ranges in the Balkan Peninsula, but widespread in the urban landscape of moist, warm-temperate Europe. The morphology and ecology of its large seeds are very distinctive, and they are also known for their medicinal properties. Natural populations are reduced and declining after strong insect infections, pollution, wood extraction and forest fires. For this reason it recently received the status of near-threatened species.

Description European horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) is the only European native species belonging to the Aesculus genus, which counts 13 tree and shrub species living in temperate deciduous forests1 . It is a large and tall tree growing up to 39 m and potentially very long-living2 . It develops an oval crown, bearing large shade-giving leaves composed by 5-7 palmate leaflets. Numerous white hermaphrodite flowers are born in a pyramidal inflorescence. The petals are yellow at the base, as are their major veins at pollination maturity, while later turning deep orange and thus afterwards rejected by bumblebees and honeybees3 . Pollen is very distinctive, with coarse spines4 . Only 2-5 (8) flowers from the base of each inflorescence develop the subglobose fruit, provided with sharp spines and containing one to three seeds. The ripe seed recalls the chestnut fruit in its dark brown colour and is used for horse feeding, justifying the origin of the common name5 . The surface of the seed also bears a large whitish scar-like mark, which is the hilum, attaching them to the ovary6 .

Distribution The European horse-chestnut is endemic for two relict main ranges, each containing small isolated populations respectively in mountains of Greece, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia7, 8 and in the Preslavski Balkan, Bulgaria9, 10 . It is a relic species from the Early Pleistocene, about 1 million years ago. At that time it was still widespread in Europe11, 12 . Its subsequent decline may be related to the extinction of large mammals acting as dispersers of its large seeds13 and to low tolerant seed physiology to desiccation14 . In 1557 AD seeds of uncertain provenance were imported from Turkey to Prague, beginning the tree cultivation in Europe5 . Claims of occurrence in the Bronze Age pile dwellings from North Italy15 turned to be modern contaminants.

Habitat and Ecology The European horse-chestnut is a mesophytic tree, growing in moist deciduous broad-leaved forests under a warmtemperate climate. It thrives especially at the bottom of shady ravines on limestone bedrock and on alluvial soils in association with hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), but also in mountain mixed forests up to 1600 m altitude16 . It is very sensitive to forest fire; moreover seed are both dormant and recalcitrant; i.e. they do not tolerate water desiccation even at maturity14 . This is why horsechestnut seedlings do not establish on open and dry substrates, limiting species ability to pioneering moist rocky and karstic sites only and preventing migration after forest withdrawals and climate worsening16 .

60


The large leaves are composed of 5-7 palmate leaflets. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Aesculus hippocastanum. Frequency of Aesculus hippocastanum occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. hippocastanum is derived after several sources8, 10, 26-28 .

Importance and Usage Horse-chestnuts are favourite trees of gardens, parks and roadways under moist climates. Numerous horticultural varieties have been described. The seeds have traditionally been used as a therapy for chronic venous inefficiency17 and are processed by the pharmaceutical industry. It has been shown that they contain escin, preventing accumulation of white blood cells responsible for poor blood flow in the legs, common with ageing18 . Unprocessed seeds are poisonous, but a decoction of the bark and leaves is also used in folk medicine of Albania, Kosovo and Central Italy to treat circulatory and rheumatic problems19, 20 . The large brown seeds are also known as conkers.

Threats and Diseases Total population in the native habitat is reduced to less than 2 500 mature individuals21 , with declining subpopulations due to strong infections by Cameraria ochridella (nocturnal moth, Lepidoptera), which feeds on the leaves, causing midsummer defoliation and exhaustion of the trees and may reduce reproduction in natural populations22-24 . Horse-chestnuts are highly vulnerable25 to the Asian longhorn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) which is a large wood-boring beetle native of Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea and China. Other threats are road construction, local tourism, wood extraction, pollution, and forest fires in the residual native areas. European horsechestnut is assessed as vulnerable in Greece and Bulgaria and near-threatened at European scale21 .

Isolated large European horse chestnut in a garden park.

The distinctive flowers appear in spring and are pollinated by bees.

(Copyright Nacho, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

(Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)


References [1] J. W. Hardin, Brittonia 12 (1960). [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] M. C. F. Proctor, P. Yeo, A. Lack, The natural history of pollination (Timber Press, 1996). [4] A. E. Pozhidaev, Grana 34, 10 (1995). [5] H. W. Lack, Arnoldia 61, 15 (2002). [6] A. Cronquist, An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (Columbia University Press, New York, 1981). [7] P. Fukarek, Problems of Balkan flora and vegetation: proceedings of the first International Symposium on Balkan Flora and Vegetation, Varna, June 7-14, 1973, D. Jordanov, ed. (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, 1975), pp. 146–161. [8] N. Avtzis, D. Avtzis, S. Vergos, S. Diamantis, Phytologia Balcanica 13, 11 (2007). [9] M. Anchev, et al., Phytologia Balcanica 15, 63 (2009). [10] L. Evstatieva, Red Data Book of the Republic of Bulgaria, Volume 1 - Plants & Fungi, D. Peev, V. Vladimirov, eds. (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Environment and Water, Sofia, Bulgaria, 2011). [11] C. Ravazzi, Giornale botanico italiano 128, 751 (1994). [12] J. M. Postigo Mijarra, F. Gómez Manzaneque, C. Morla, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17, 351 (2008). [13] L. van der Pijl, Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1982). [14] P. B. Tompsett, H. W. Pritchard, Annals of Botany 71, 107 (1993). [15] R. Battaglia, La palafitta del lago di Ledro nel Trentino : gli scavi e la stratigrafia, il contenuto del deposito antropozoico, la metallurgia e la cronologiadell’abitato palafitticolo, vol. 7 of Memorie Museo Storia Naturale Venezia Tridentina (Tipografia editrice mutilati e invalidi, 1943).

[16] I. Horvat, V. Glavač, H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Südosteuropas, vol. 4 of Geobotanica selecta (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1974). [17] E. Bombardelli, P. Morazzoni, A. Griffini, Fitoterapia 67, 483 (1996). [18] M. H. Pittler, E. Ernst, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2006). [19] A. Pieroni, et al., Journal of Ethnopharmacology 91, 331 (2004). [20] B. Mustafa, et al., Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8, 6+ (2012). [21] S. Khela, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 202914/0+. [22] C. Thalmann, J. Freise, W. Heitland, S. Bacher, Trees 17, 383 (2003) [23] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [24] CABI, Cameraria ohridella (horsechestnut leafminer) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [25] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [26] J. Acevski, B. Simovski, Proceedings of the International conference Integrated management of environmental resources: Suceava, November 4-6th, 2011, S.-A. Horodnic, M.-L. Duduman, C. Palaghianu, eds. (Editura Universităţii "Ştefan cel Mare", Suceava, Romania, 2012). [27] R. D. Smith, K. A. Smith, eds., Country Study for Biodiversity of the Republic of Macedonia - First National Report (Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, Skopje, Macedonia, 2003). [28] D. H. Peçi, A. Mullaj, A. Dervishi, Journal of Institute Alb-Shkenca 5, 153 (2012).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e017fc3. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Ravazzi, C., Caudullo, G., 2016. Aesculus hippocastanum in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e017fc3+



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Ailanthus altissima Ailanthus altissima in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, known as tree of heaven, is native to China, but it can be found in several countries across Europe and North America. Tree-of-Heaven is known as an invasive species that can rapidly spread onto disturbed sites or fragmented landscapes.

Description

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) is a shortlived, fast-growing tree, reaching a height of around 20 m and 70 cm in diameter. The bark is greyish and slightly rough1 . The leaves are 0.4-0.7 m long; each leaf comprises 11-25 ovatelanceolate leaflets which are 5-10 cm long2 . The leaflets usually have one or more coarse teeth at the base and each of these teeth has a characteristic gland on the underside1 . The flowers appear in late spring, the trees being usually dioecious, but in some cases both sexes exist on the same individual1 . Male plants have a foul odour while flowering1, 3-5 . The winged fruits are twisted at the top, membranous, purplish yellow and up to 5 cm long4 . Tree-ofHeaven is readily propagated both by seed and vegetatively3 .

Greysh smooth bark with longitudinal fessures becoming deeper in old trees. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases Tree of heaven is affected by very few disease and insect pests, although pathogens such as Verticillium spp. have the potential to become important fungal diseases3 . Since it is an invasive species, its presence should be carefully monitored especially around nature reserves or fragile forest stands. Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ailanthus altissima. Frequency of Ailanthus altissima occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.

abundant across the Mediterranean region4 . Its expansion has been facilitated by the worldwide transfer of seeds over the last two centuries and by its ability to grow on poor sites8, 9 , urban areas10 and fragmented landscapes11 .

Habitat and Ecology Tree of heaven tolerates a wide variety of soil types and climatic conditions. It demands a warm climate, but is resistant to drought and air pollution2, 4 , although it is sensitive to ozone12 . It is a shade intolerant species, preferring open spaces4 . Reddish maturing samaras at the top of a branch surrounded by the odd-pinnate long leaves. (Copyright NatureServe, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Distribution Tree of heaven is native of central Asia (China) and was first introduced to Europe by the French missionary Pierre d’Incaville more than 260 years ago, who sent seeds from Nanking to Paris3, 6 . Since then, the species has spread over all continents except Antarctica4 and is naturalised across large areas of Europe7. It is limited by low temperatures in the north but is

Importance and Usage Tree of heaven has been used for a variety of purposes such as: ornamental species3 , in folk medicine6 or for establishment of protective forest shelterbelts8, 13 . The species is known for its ability to produce allelopathic compounds in its leaflets and bark which are toxic to numerous species and which may have potential for development as a natural herbicide14 . However, its pollen is a known allergen3, 4, 15 and its invasive nature means that it is currently in the top 20 environmental weeds identified as targets of classical biological control in Europe5, 7.

Greenish-white flowers in a female tree with 5 petals and short steril stamens. (Copyright Wendy Cutler, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Mature samaras persist in the tree during the winter. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

References [1] B. Shah, Arnoldia pp. 21–27 (1997). [2] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [3] P. P. Feret, Journal of Arboriculture 11, 361 (1985). [4] I. Kowarik, I. Säumel, Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 8, 207 (2007). [5] A. W. Sheppard, R. H. Shaw, R. Sforza, Weed Research 46, 93 (2006). [6] S. Y. Hu, Arnoldia 39, 29 (1979). [7] P. Pyšek, et al., Handbook of Alien Species in Europe (Springer Netherlands, 2009), vol. 3 of Invading Nature - Springer Series in Invasion Ecology, pp. 43–61. [8] C. M. Enescu, Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology 18, 66 (2014).

Female shade-tree with fruits along an urban road (male trees are rarely used as they have a foul odour during flowering). (Copyright Marina Torres, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

[9] P. L. Burch, S. M. Zedaker, Journal of Arboriculture 29, 18 (2003). [10] E. Pan, N. Bussak, Journal of Environmental Horticulture 4, 1 (1986). [11] R. E. Landenberger, N. L. Kota, J. B. McGraw, Plant Ecology 192, 55 (2007). [12] E. Gravano, M. Ferretti, F. Bussotti, P. Grossoni, Forest Growth Responses to the Pollution Climate of the 21st Century, L. Sheppard, Cape, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 1999), pp. 267–272. [13] L. Udvardy, Acta Botanica Hungarica 41, 299 (1998). [14] R. M. Heisey, American Journal of Botany 83, 192 (1996). [15] M. Ballero, A. Ariu, P. Falagiani, Allergy 58, 532 (2003).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01ca33. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Ailanthus altissima in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01ca33+



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Alnus cordata Alnus cordata in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, A Mauri The Italian alder (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby) is a medium-sized pioneer tree, native of the hill and mountain areas in southern Italy. It is also present in Corsica and western Albania. This tree is a fast-growing species, able to colonise different kinds of soils in borders and open areas, so that it has been used widely for soil protection and wind breaks. In coppices this alder was traditionally used for firewood. Now it is more planted for biomass production or used as an ancillary species in high-quality timber plantation. This species is able to stimulate the growth of associated species thanks to its nitrogen-fixing root capacity, and to its nitrogen-rich and easily degradable leaves which improve the litter quality. As other alders, its wood is particularly appreciated for its durability when immersed in water. In natural ranges the Italian alder is threatened by the reduction of clear cuttings and by increasing temperatures, which can push this species into higher and more restricted areas. The Italian alder (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby) is a mediumsized tree growing up to 25 m tall, rarely to 30 m in even-age stands, and reaching 70-80 cm in diameter1 . The stem is straight; the crown is pyramidal, compact and dense. The leaves are dark bright green, lighter underneath. They are 5-12 cm long, heartshaped, with long stalks and persist from April to December. This species is monoecious with male and female catkins in the same shoot, appearing when 10-12 years old. The male catkins are in groups of 3-5 and pendulous, cylindrical, 7-10 cm long, pale purplish; they turn to gold from February to April when wind pollination occurs. The female catkins are ovoid, above the male ones, erect, on a 2-5 cm stalk, and with red stigmas when mature. The catkins appear at the beginning of summer, are dormant during winter until the end of February, when flowers are fully mature and functional. The fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, green then woody and dark brown when ripe, similar to conifer cones and called pseudo-strobili. The winged seed are small, leaving the pseudo-strobili from September-October up to a year after. The bark is brown-grey, smooth in young trees, and then blistered with fissures. The wood is a light tan to reddish brown, homogeneous, with a fine, even grain and with relatively wide annual rings resulting from the fast growth1-5 .

Distribution This species is endemic to the western side of the Apennines in southern Italy and mountains in south-central of Corsica and north-west of Albania, from 800 m to 1500 m of elevation, frequently down to 300-400 m with higher rainfall regimes1, 4-10 . It is considered a relict species of the Tertiary period for its resemblance to eastern alders, in particular to the Caucasian alder (Alnus subcordata)1 . In Italy it has been introduced in Sardinia, in the northern Apennines and up to the Southern Alps. Plantations were also established in different European countries during the late 20th century (France, Spain, Portugal, England, Netherlands, etc.) and it has been recently introduced in other continents (Chile, New Zealand)1, 11, 12 .

Habitat and Ecology Italian alder occurs in the Mediterranean sub-mountain and mountain belt. Unlike other alders, it is less dependent on riparian habitats and is more drought tolerant, although it still tends to concentrate in water accumulation zones and needs climates with an annual precipitation of at least 1 000 mm per year13 . It is a heliophilous species, but can be shade-tolerant under favourable rainfall regimes5, 11 . It grows in on most kinds of soils, including degraded, but preferring calcareous. The root system promotes a symbiosis with the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Actinomyces alni (Frankia alni) improving soil fertility1, 11 . In optimal habitats this alder is fast-growing and behaves as a pioneer species, forming pure stands beside Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) and beech (Fagus sylvatica) woods5, 13 . It also tends to colonise open woods such as black pine (Pinus nigra) plantations in wetter conditions and abandoned chestnut (Castanea sativa) orchards5, 10, 13 . It can be found as first-stage species in bare soils after wildfires or landslides13 .

Old woody fruits (pseudo-cones) which persist on the plant while new ones are maturing. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

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Dark green heart-shaped leaf with toothed margins. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Alnus cordata. Frequency of Alnus cordata occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. cordata is derived after EUFORGEN19 .

Importance and Usage In mountainous areas, Italian alder has been widely used for soil protection and wind breaks, as an ancillary species associated with walnut (Juglans regia), wild cherry (Prunus avium), English oak (Quercus robur) and other noble hardwoods for high-quality timber plantations. In fact it stimulates the growth of associated species thanks to its nitrogen-fixing root capacity, and to its nitrogen-rich and easily degradable leaves which improve the litter1, 5, 10, 11 . In France it has also been used for biomass production5 . Stands can be managed as coppice with rotations of 15-20 years, but also as high forest with cuts every 70-80 years13 . Timber quality is similar to other alders and hybrid poplars, used traditionally for firewood and also for turning and carving as well as for carpentry, furniture, panelling, plywood and paper pulp1, 5, 11, 14 . Like other alders, the wood is degraded rapidly when exposed to air or soil, but is more durable when immersed in water1, 5 .

Threats and Diseases Despite its limited natural range, Italian alder is not considered an endangered species, because it grows over a wide range of elevations and can spread very rapidly5 . Diseases are

Italian alder in the Soar valley, Leicestershire, UK. (Copyright Peter Smith, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

more frequent on plantations outside the natural area range, even if in general pathogens affecting the Italian alder are of limited importance11 . Root system damage is reported by fungi Armillaria spp., Phytophtora alni and Cryphonectria parasitica11, 15-17 . In northern Europe a new species of genus Phytophthora is affecting foliage and causing bark necrosis, recently also spreading in the Mediterranean region11, 18 . Insect pests Cossus cossus, Zeuzera pyrina and Saperda scalaris affect the cortical zones of plants in precarious health conditions1, 11 . In natural ranges actually the main threats endangering Italian alder are the reduction of clear cutting in mixed forests and in protected areas, heavy and unauthorised grazing in forests, and the isotherm shift in the Mediterranean regions. The possibly increase in temperature due to climate change may force alder ecosystems to shift to higher elevations in restricted areas5 .

Maturing catkins during mid summer: they appear in early summer, are dormant in winter and are fully functional at the end of winter. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References [1] V. M. Loewe, C. R. Delard, Monografía de aliso italiano (Alnus cordata), vol. 204 (Instituto Forestal, Santiago, Chile, 1998). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [5] F. Ducci, A. Tani, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Italian alder (Alnus cordata) (Bioversity International, 2009). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [7] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [8] P. W. Ball, Flora Europea. Volume 1. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 69–70, second edn. [9] J. Briquet, R. de LitardieÌre, Prodrome de la flore corse, comprenant les résultats botaniques de six voyages exécutés en Corse sous les auspices de M. Émile Burnat, Vol. 1 (Georg & Co., Genève, Bale, Lyon, 1910).

[10] A. Bezzi, P. Brandini, G. Menguzzato, G. Tabacchi, Annali dell’Istituto Sperimentale per l’Assestamento Forestale e per l’Alpicoltura 12, 3 (1989). [11] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [12] V. M. Loewe, A. C. Álvarez, L. M. Barrales, Proceedings of 4th International Scientific Conference on Hardwood Processing 2013, S. Berti, et al., eds. (2013), vol. 1, pp. 50–61. [13] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni meridionali e insulari d’Italia (Cleup, Padova, 2008). [14] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [15] J. F. Webber, J. N. Gibbs, S. J. Hendry, Phytophthora disease of Alder (Information note) (Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, 2004). [16] T. Jung, M. Blaschke, Plant Pathology 53, 197 (2004). [17] E. Dallavalle, A. Zambonelli, Forest Pathology 29, 97 (1999). [18] A. Santini, G. P. Barzanti, P. Capretti, Plant Disease 85, 560 (2001). [19] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of italian alder (Alnus cordata) (2009). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015443. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Mauri, A., 2016. Alnus cordata in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015443+



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Frosty catkins of pussy willow (Salix caprea) in late winter. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Beech leaves. (Copyright Jannik Selz, unsplash.com: CC0)

Foliose lichens on the bark of a Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica). (Copyright Nuno Lavrador: AP)

Rich moss carpet under a boreal forest in Norway. (Copyright ioa8320, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Alnus glutinosa Alnus glutinosa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Common or black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) is a short-lived, rather small but fast growing broadleaved tree that can be found over most of Europe. It needs a high availability of moisture to grow well, and can often be found along river banks, lake shores and in marshy locations. It is able to fix nitrogen in symbiotic root nodules making it useful for improving soil condition. The timber is durable under water and is often used for jetties and underwater supports, for example in Venice. The most damaging pathogen of alder is the pathogen Phytophthora alni, which has been observed in several countries since the 1990s and is likely to become more of a problem in the future. Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., known as common or black alder, is a broadleaved tree native to most of Europe. It is a relatively small, short-lived species: individuals normally live to around 60 years (with a maximum of up to 160 depending on the region) and normally grow to between 10 and 25 m tall, exceptionally 35-40 m1-3 . The bark is brown and smooth at first, becoming darker, rough and fissured with age4 . The dark green leaves are simple, obovate and measure 4-10 cm5 . Flowering starts before bud burst6 . The young buds are sticky, giving rise to the name “glutinosa”. Alder is monoecious and the male and female catkins develop in the autumn of the previous year, appearing early in the following spring. The fruits are woody and resemble small pine cones. After wind pollination the seeds, which float well owing to their corky float chambers and oily water-resistant outer coat, are mainly dispersed by water7.


Distribution Alder can be found over most of Europe, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean countries and parts of North Africa4 . It normally grows below 1 000 m in elevation, although in the mountains of central Europe it can occasionally be found along watercourses up to 1 800 m8 . Its current northern limit is around 65°, and its range is limited in the east by aridity3, 9 . A warmer changing climate could result in its natural range extending further north into Scandinavia and Russia in future decades, although it is limited by the length and intensity of frosts, and in other parts of Europe it is likely to be negatively affected in areas where rainfall is predicted to fall10 . Outside its native range, alder has been introduced into the Azores and is naturalised in northeastern United States and maritime Canada6, 11 .

Habitat and Ecology Alder is adapted to a wide range of temperatures and is relatively frost-tolerant4 . It can grow well in continental climates

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Alnus glutinosa. Frequency of Alnus glutinosa occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. glutinosa is derived after EUFORGEN22 .

but requires a high availability of water to thrive. It can be found on a wide range of soil types including poor soils and even coarse sands and gravels if the moisture is adequate, although it does not grow very well on calcareous soils11, 12 . Atmospheric humidity must remain high during all phases of its reproductive cycle and the roots are well-adapted to growing on very wet soils: it can survive flooding better than most other forest tree species13 . It tends to favour three main site types: marshy waterlogged sites; riverside and lake shore sites, and plateaux with high soil-moisture content14 . Unusually among European tree species, it is able to fix nitrogen in symbiotic root nodules with the bacteria Frankia alni12, 15 . It also retains relatively high levels of foliar nitrogen


(Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

through the year until leaf-fall in autumn, resulting in a nitrogenrich litter layer11 . This makes it a valuable pioneer species; it can colonise and grow quickly on disturbed sites, improving the soil condition for other species to take over later and minimising the need for nitrogen fertilisers3 . It can also be used as a nurse species to improve the growth of neighbouring plants, although in common with other pioneers it is light-demanding and tends to be replaced by other species once the canopy closes, preventing seedling growth4 . It is fast-growing when young, but growth generally slows significantly after canopy closure because of its inability to withstand competition from neighbours. As branches become shaded they die off (natural pruning) and the live crown size decreases relative to the size of the tree14 . Although it is not particularly common (less than 1 % of forest cover in most countries), it is an important component in open landscapes, especially along river banks and in marshy areas. The oldest and most productive stands are found in central Europe, where it can reach 35 m tall and may form up to 5 % of the forest area14 . It is often found together with ash (Fraxinus spp.), birch (Betula spp.), willow (Salix spp.) or oak (Quercus spp.)11 .

Importance and Usage The wood of alder is soft and porous, but durable if kept under water. It is used for jetties and underwater supports, bridge piles and small boats (parts of Venice were built on alder wood piles16, 17). It is not generally strong enough for heavy construction uses but good quality wood is sought after in joinery and wood veneer. However, it becomes prone to heart rot after around 60 years of age, which reduces the timber quality and also means that very large logs are rare14 .



Alder trees on the banks of the river Wey, England.


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Male inflorescence, Sierra Madrona, Spain. (Copyright Javier Martin, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



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Uncertain, no-data Tundra, cold desert Negligible survivability Low survivability Mid-low survivability Medium survivability Mid-high survivability High survivability Female catkins, Arnhem, the Netherlands. (Copyright Bj.schoenmakers, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Alder yields high quality charcoal4 . It can also be coppiced and provides material suitable for biomass production12 . Apart from its timber, alder also has a useful role to play in land reclamation, flood control, stabilisation of riverbanks and in the functioning of river ecosystems, and its nitrogen-fixing capabilities can improve soil fertility3, 18 . Alder stands are valuable for wildlife. The cones open gradually, releasing the seed and providing a reliable source of food throughout the winter11, 18 .

Threats and Diseases In the 1990s a new disease caused by the oomycete Phytophthora alni was observed19,20 . The symptoms include tarcoloured spots at the base of the stem and small yellowing leaves which fall early. Over a period of years, first fine branches and then larger ones die, and in serious cases the whole tree is killed. This disease has since been spreading throughout the population of alders in Europe and has now been reported in ten countries. Although the amount of reported damage varies by region, it poses a serious threat to the species. Trees growing on riverbanks or flood plains are particularly vulnerable since the presence of water appears to facilitate the transport of the pathogen21 .


Foliage and mature cones, Ispra, Italy. (Copyright Daniele de Rigo: CC-BY)

References

Alder forest in Spree, Germany. (Copyright Paul Schulze, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)










[1] P. Schütt, H. J. Schuck, B. Stimm, Lexikon der Baum- und Straucharten: Das Standardwerk der Forstbotanik (Nikol, Hamburg, 2002). [2] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [3] A. Krstinic, J. Gracan, D. Kajba, Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the Fourth Meeting, 4-6 September 1999, Gmunden, Austria and the Fifth Meeting, 17-19 May 2001, Blessington, Ireland, J. Turok, G. Eriksson, K. Russel, S. Borelli, eds. (Bioversity International, 2002), pp. 44–49. [4] D. N. McVean, Journal of Ecology 41 (1953). [5] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [6] D. Kajba, J. Gračan, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Black alder (Alnus glutinosa) (2003). [7] D. N. McVean, Journal of Ecology 43, 61 (1955). [8] U. Pietzarka, A. Roloff, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2000). [9] K. Shaw, S. Roy, B. Wilson, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 63517/0+. [10] G. E. Hemery, et al., Forestry 83, 65 (2010).

[11] D. T. Funk, Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. European Alder, Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 239–256. [12] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [13] D. N. McVean, Journal of Ecology 44 (1956). [14] H. Claessens, A. Oosterbaan, P. Savill, J. Rondeux, Forestry 83, 163 (2010). [15] A. Akkermans, et al., Nitrogen-fixing actinorhizal symbioses (Springer, 2008). [16] R. K. W. M. Klaassen, J. G. M. Creemers, Journal of Cultural Heritage 13, S123 (2012). Wood Science for Conservation. [17] R. A. Housley, A. J. Ammerman, C. E. McClennen, Journal of Wetland Archaeology 4, 139 (2004). [18] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [19] J. F. Webber, J. N. Gibbs, S. J. Hendry, Phytophthora disease of Alder (Information note) (Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, 2004). [20] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [21] J. N. Gibbs, M. A. Lipscombe, A. J. Peace, European Journal of Forest Pathology 29, 39 (1999). [22] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of black alder (Alnus glutinosa) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01f3c0. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Alnus glutinosa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01f3c0+



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Alnus incana Alnus incana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo The grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench) is a relatively small short-lived deciduous tree that can be found across the Northern Hemisphere. Normally associated with riparian areas, it is extremely frost tolerant and can be found up to the treeline in parts of northern Europe. Like the common alder (Alnus glutinosa), it is a fast-growing pioneer and it is also able to fix nitrogen in symbiotic root nodules, making it useful for improving soil condition and for reclaiming derelict or polluted land. Alnus incana (L.) Moench, or grey alder, is a short lived, small to medium sized deciduous tree. It lives for around 60 years1 and can reach a height of around 24 m2 but often also occurs as a multi-stemmed shrub3 . It is generally smaller than the common alder (Alnus glutinosa)1 . The bark is smooth and deep grey, developing fissures with age2, 4 . The leaves are oval to oval-lanceolate and deeply toothed with pointed tips, matt green above and grey and downy underneath2 . It is a monoecious and wind pollinated species5 . It flowers from late February to May before the leaves open. The yellow male catkins are 5-10 cm long and occur in clusters of three or four, while the female catkins are woody and resemble small cones 1-2 cm long, growing in clusters of 2 to 6. Both male and female catkins are formed during the previous growing season. The seeds are small flat obovate samaras which ripen and disperse between September and November, usually by wind or water5-7.


Green cones grouped in 3-4 in each stem. (Copyright Vassil, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Distribution Grey alder is native to most of central Europe, extending westwards towards France and east into Russia, the Caucasus and western Siberia3, 6 . It is widespread in Scandinavia and has been introduced in Britain6 . Two subspecies (subsp. rugosa and tenuifolia) are native to northern parts of the United States and Canada and a third subspecies (subsp. hirsuta) is found in central and northeast Asia3, 8 . Its European range overlaps with that of the common alder (Alnus glutinosa) but it extends further north. Conversely, its southern extent is less than that of the common alder and it is absent from the UK8 except as an introduced species.

Habitat and Ecology Grey alder can be found on stream banks, lake shores and damp meadows and also in bogs and nutrient-rich swamp communities3 . It prefers mesic and moist conditions and it is tolerant of acid soils, able to stand pH levels of 3.5-4.0 without problems, but it is able to grow on a wide range of soil types,

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Alnus incana. Frequency of Alnus incana occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. incana is derived after Meusel and Jäger21 .

moisture and texture classes9, 10 . In the Caucasus it can be found at elevations of up to 1 800 m11 . It replaces the common alder (Alnus glutinosa) at higher elevations in central Europe12 , and it is frost tolerant so it can grow up to the northern forest border in Scandinavia and European Russia, limited only in areas of permafrost1 . Able to withstand direct sunlight, it is a pioneer species, quickly colonising open disturbed areas and able to regenerate rapidly from root suckers1; at its northern and elevational limits this is its main method of reproduction13 . Where it overlaps with the common alder, they may occasionally form hybrids, although this is not common as the two species flower at slightly different times: the grey alder around a week earlier than the common alder14, 15 .


Old dry cones with new spring leaves. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage The timber of the grey alder has little commercial value except as fuel wood, although it is suitable for carpentry and turning and is reported to make good charcoal for drawing11 . It has several advantages as a short-rotation crop. It is relatively untroubled by grazing animals and has few pests and diseases, it has modest site requirements, coppices easily and combines fast growth with the ability to improve soil fertility5, 10, 13, 16, 17. It is now increasingly being considered for biomass production in several countries18, 19, as well as a potential suitable alternative species for reforestation of former noble hardwood areas18 . It is also useful for restoration of disturbed sites including old mines, for consolidating the ground in wet woods, river-banks and on unstable slopes3, 9, and it is suitable for planting on polluted sites10. It has been historically used for medicinal purposes for a range of ailments from sprains and bruises to urinary problems and anaemia3, 20 .




Ovate leaves with toothed margins. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

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Male catkins maturing before leaf development. (Copyright Magnus Manske, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Threats and Diseases Grey alder has relatively few major threats in the way of pests and diseases, although older stems are prone to decay by a number of fungus species18 . It is more resistant than other European alders to the oomycete Phytophthora alni 3, 6 . Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability.

Juvenile smooth grey bark: it develops fissures with age. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

References

Isolated grey alders in swamp areas in Rheinhessen-Pfalz (Germany). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)










[1] H. Hytteborn, A. A. Maslov, D. I. Nazimova, L. P. Rysin, Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 6: Coniferous Forests, F. A. Andersson, ed. (Elsevier, 2005), pp. 23–99. [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] K. Shaw, B. Wilson, S. Roy, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 194472/0+. [4] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] J. L. Fryer, Alnus incana. Fire Effects Information System (2011). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [6] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [7] V. Bojnanskỳ, A. Fargašová, Atlas of Seeds and Fruits of Central and East-European Flora: The Carpathian Mountains Region (Springer Netherlands, 2007). [8] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [9] K. Huss-Danell, J. E. Lundmark, Studia forestalia Suecica 181, 20 (1988). [10] L. Rytter, Short Rotation Willow Coppice for Renewable Energy and Improved Environment: Proceedings of a joint Swedish - Estonian seminar on Energy Forestry and Vegetation Filters held in Tartu 24-26 September 1995, K. Perttu, A. Koppel, eds. (1995), pp. 89–94.

[11] V. L. Komarov, et al., Flora of the USSR Volume V (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [12] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [13] L. Kullman, New Phytologist 120, 445 (1992). [14] E. V. Banaev, V. Bazant, Journal of Forest Science 53, 66 (2007). [15] P. A. Tallantire, New Phytologist 73, 529 (1974). [16] J. Aosaar, M. Varik, V. Uri, Biomass and Bioenergy 45, 11 (2012). [17] V. Uri, et al., Ecological Engineering 37, 920 (2011). [18] N. Arhipova, T. Gaitnieks, J. Donis, J. Stenlid, R. Vasaitis, Forestry 84, 337 (2011). [19] T. Kärki, M. Maltamo, K. Eerikäinen, New Forests 20, 65 (2000). [20] U. Quattrocchi, CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology (5 Volume Set) (Taylor & Francis, 2012). [21] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01ff87. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Alnus incana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01ff87+



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Alnus viridis Alnus viridis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats A. Mauri, G. Caudullo Alnus viridis (Chaix.) D.C., known as green alder, is a native deciduous shrub or small tree that grows up to 6 m, occasionally taller, distributed widely across the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere, from north-west America to Japan through Central Europe. It is a light-demanding, fast-growing shrub that grows well on poorer soils. The species is well known for soil enrichment through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, soil stabilisation by forming a highly fibrous system, and for producing abundant leaf litter. The species went through a considerable expansion during the last decades as a result of land abandonment. More recently a deterioration of Alnus viridis is occurring in the Alps as a consequence of pest damage and fungal disease. The green alder (Alnus viridis (Chaix.) D.C.) is a deciduous shrub or small tree. It forms many prostrate to ascending stems, and normally reaches a height of between 0.5 to 3 m. In ideal conditions it can live more than 50 years. The bark is thin and from grey to blue-grey colour. The leaves are alternate, sticky when young, from 7 to 14 cm long and from 3 to 10 cm wide. The flowers are monoecious with separate male and female catkins on the same plant. Flowering occurs in early or later spring depending on the elevation and latitude, while seeds mature between mid-September and December. Pollination occurs mainly by wind. The seeds are small, 1-2 mm long, light brown with a narrow encircling wing. The roots form a highly fibrous root system, which make this plant very suitable for preventing soil erosion1 . The roots also host a symbiosis with fungi enabling fixation of atmospheric nitrogen2 .


Isolated young alder in an alpine field at Col Vesco (Arabba, North-East Italy). (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

This phenomenon usually takes place after winters with low snow amounts, which reduce the alder vitality and makes it more sensitive to parasite attacks. This could develop into a widespread problem as a consequence of climatic changes16, 20 . Green alder is considered an invasive species in New Zealand, especially in South Island where it has been widely planted21 .

Distribution Green alder is distributed widely across the cooler parts of the Northern Hemisphere in form of different subspecies. The subsp. viridis is found in Europe mainly in the Alps, Balkans and Carpathians, but also in the Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric mountains and Norwegian mountains3-5 . The subsp. suaveolens is endemic in Corsica6 . The subsp. fruticosa occurs in Northeast Europe, northern Asia and northwestern North America7. The subsp. crispa is present in Northeastern North America and Greenland. The subsp. sinuata is found in Western North America and far northeastern Siberia8 , and the subsp. maximowiczii is constrained in Japan9 . In Europe its altitudinal range varies between 1600 m and 2300 m, although scattered individuals can be observed up to 2500 m10 .

Habitat and Ecology Green alder requires moist soil and is a colonist of screes and shallow stony slopes. It prefers moist and open areas, including avalanche tracks, edges of wet meadows, streambanks and/or other disturbed sites. It is usually found at medium to subalpine elevations. The abundant leaf litter is an important source of organic matter for soil building and nutrient cycling8 . This species plays an important role in primary successions, successfully colonising areas after strong disturbances such as glacial retreat or avalanches11 . This is because it recovers quickly from avalanches by being able to regrow from roots and broken stumps, while larger trees are killed. However, in European mountain areas, secondary succession is also important. The land abandonment occurring during the last decades at the upper tree line12 was the main trigger for the colonisation of green alder at

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Alnus viridis. Frequency of Alnus viridis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for A. viridis is derived after Jalas and Suominen22 .

the expense of subalpine grassland13 . This success is due to its strong ability to spread under a high disturbance regime14 .

Importance and Usage Green alder can be used for soil enrichment, for slope and stream bank stabilisation and more generally to prevent erosion on disturbed, nutrient poor soils15, 16 , although one recent study considers this species neither to protect against avalanches nor to secure slopes from erosion17. In the western Alps the rapid expansion of green alder on subalpine grasslands causes considerable environmental changes which have a mostly negative effect on the conservation of vascular plant diversity (particularly concerning conifer species) when it reaches more than 50 % cover. Below this level, it appears to contribute to the increasing floristic diversity of the subalpine belt18, 19 . The economic importance of this species is very low. Only in the past was it partly used as fuel wood16 .

Threats and Diseases During the last decades, the populations of green alder in the Alps went through a considerable deterioration, mainly as a result of pest damage and fungal disease, where Cryptodiaporthe oxystoma was considered to be the primary fungus involved.

Green alder scrub vegetation on the flanks of the Pizzo Nero (Monte Rosa Group, North Italy). (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

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Clusters of maturing green fruits which look like small coniferous cones. (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

References [1] T. S. Elias, The Complete Trees of North America: Field Guide and Natural History (Chapman & Hall, 1980). [2] E. Wiedmer, B. Senn-Irlet, Botanica Helvetica 116, 55 (2006). [3] D. Aeschimann, K. Lauber, D. M. Moser, J. P. Theurillat, Flora alpina: Ein Atlas sämtlicher 4500 Gefässpflanzen der Alpen (Haupt, 2004). [4] P. W. Ball, Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 69–70, second edn. [5] L. Richard, L’aire de repartition de l’aune vert. Documents pour la carte de la vegetation des Alpes (1967). [6] J. Gamisans, Phytocoenologia 4, 35 (1977). [7] T. C. Lantz, S. E. Gergel, G. H. R. Henry, Journal of Biogeography 37, 1597 (2010). [8] R. J. Uchytil, Alnus viridis subsp. sinuate. Fire Effects Information System (1989). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [9] K. Iwatsuki, T. Yamazaki, D. E. Boufford, Flora of Japan, vol. 3a,3b (Kodansha, 1993). [10] R. Gellini, P. Grossoni, Botanica Forestale, vol. 2 (1997). [11] White, Pickett, Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics: An Introduction (Elsevier, 1985), pp. 3–13.

[12] A. Hofgaard, Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 6, 419+ (1997). [13] F. Anthelme, L. Cornillon, J.-J. Brun, Annals of Forest Science 59, 419 (2002). [14] A. U. Mallik, F. W. Bell, Y. Gong, Forest Ecology and Management 95, 1 (1997). [15] D. C. Carris, Identification, Ecology, Use and Culture of Sitka Alder. Technical Notes (2005). [16] M. Pisetta, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 281, 75 (2012). [17] T. Bühlmann, E. Hiltbrunner, C. Körner, Alpine Botany 124, 187 (2014). [18] F. Anthelme, J.-L. Grossi, J.-J. Brun, L. Didier, Forest Ecology and Management 145, 57 (2001). [19] F. Anthelme, R. Michalet, L. Barbaro, J.-J. Brun, Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 35, 48 (2003). [20] I. Dakskobler1, A. Rozman, A. Seliškar, Hacquetia 12, 95 (2013). [21] C. Howell, Consolidated list of environmental weeds in New Zealand., 292 (New Zealand Department of Conservation Research and Development, 2008). [22] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01f0e4. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Mauri, A., Caudullo, G., 2016. Alnus viridis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01f0e4+



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Open area vegetation in the New Forest National Park (Hampshire, England). (Copyright davidgsteadman, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Lush mossy forest in Killarney National Park (Kerry, Ireland). (Copyright Nicolas Raymond, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Mixed oak forest in Peneda-Gerês National Park (Norte, Portugal). (Copyright Pedro Dias, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Pine forest canopy near Cabezón de la Sal (Cantabria, Spain). (Copyright Angela Benito, unsplash.com: CC0)



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Betula pendula and Betula pubescens Betula pendula, Betula pubescens and other birches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats P. Beck, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo, W. Tinner Silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) are short-lived, relatively small broadleaved trees that occur throughout most of Europe, particularly in northern regions. In southern Europe, birch trees are confined to mountainous areas, as they do not tolerate prolonged summer drought. Birch has a light canopy of small serrated leaves, and characteristic smooth, white to grey bark. In northern regions, birch trees can dominate the landscape up to the treeline, whereas in the centre of their range they often occur early in secondary succession because of their abundant seed production, low demands on soil quality, and intolerance of shade. Birch trees provide the predominant hard wood source in northern Europe, and some varieties of Betula pendula produce highly priced veneers, while Betula pubescens is mostly used for pulp and fire wood. Other rarer species of birch are endemic to Europe contributing to the continental biodiversity even at high elevations and latitudes. Betula pendula Roth is a medium-sized tree, growing up to 30 m, while Betula pubescens Ehrh. is relatively shorter, rarely growing beyond 20 m and also less towards its northern range limits, up to dwarf trees in extreme habitats in the northern tundra and on mountains1, 2 . The bark of young trees is brown in colour; when mature it turn to silvery-white, with horizontal dark grey lenticels, that with age darkens and develops fissures. The bark of the Betula pendula is a brighter white and shinier than that of Betula pubescens, and its branches characteristically droop, whereas those of Betula pubescens grow upwards or horizontally. In addition, Betula pubescens shoots are covered with a smooth fine down, as opposed to the hairless shoots of Betula pendula. Betula pendula leaves are coarsely and unequally double-serrated, larger than those of Betula pubescens (3-7 cm vs. 2-5 cm), and end in a fine point. Betula pubescens leaves are egg shaped, with a finely serrated margin and end in a shorter point3 . Both species are monoecious with male and female Silvery-white bark on a young tree with dark scars from dropped shoots and small horizontal dark grey lenticels. (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)

Isolated silver birches (Betula pendula) at the forest edge in Brkini Hills (South-West Slovenia).

Female catkin of silver birch (Betula pendula) in spring. (Copyright Marinella Zepigi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

(Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

inflorescences developing as unisexual catkins, wind pollinated. Male catkins develop in summer, shedding pollen the following spring, a few days after female flowers have emerged. Female catkins are smaller, shorter and more erect than the longer, hanging, and clustered, male ones. Female catkins develop into fruits that are 1 to 4 cm long and 6 mm wide cylinder-shaped aggregates that eventually each disperse hundreds of small, winged fruits around August, with the amount varying with tree age and site conditions4 . In denser stands, birch trees do not flower until they are 20-25 years old but free-standing trees can already flower at the age of ten. While it flowers every year, the production of viable seeds usually peaks every 2-3 years.

Distribution Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70%

Betula pendula and Betula pubescens occur naturally throughout most of Europe up to central Siberia. Betula pubescens has a more northerly and easterly distribution, growing further north in Europe than any other tree species, whereas Betula pendula can reach southern regions such as Iberian Peninsula, South Italy and Greece5 . Given their wide distribution, these two birches show a high morphological variability and different subspecies and varietals have been described6 . Moreover, in most parts of Europe they are sympatric and can naturally hybridise, generating plants

High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%

Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for the whole genus Betula.

Mixed broadleaved forest dominated by birch near Vallado (Asturia, North-West Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

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Betula pendula and Betula pubescens



Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Betula pendula.







Importance and Usage Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Native

Summer foliage and maturing green hanging fruits. (Copyright Alan Semper, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

with intermediate morphological traits6 . Birches can also generate polyploid forms, and this aptitude, associated with the variability, the hybridisation and the more recent introduction of artificially propagated cultivars outside the natural distribution, complicate remarkably not only their identification but also the taxonomical classification of the whole genus Betula2, 7-9 .

Habitat and Ecology Birch trees commonly live for 90-100 years, and, more rarely, up to 150 years. They are light-demanding, can grow rapidly also on poor soils, their winged fruits are very efficiently distributed by wind and its roots are easily associated with a large number of ectomycorrhizal fungi10 . These characteristics combine to make birch trees thrive as pioneers during early stages of secondary vegetation succession. They are valuable in the natural or anthropogenic regeneration of woodlands, particularly in the centre of their distribution range10-12 . Betula pendula grows best on fairly fertile, light, well-drained soils, particularly when soil conditions are acidic, while Betula pubescens tolerates damper soils and poorly drained heaths13 . Betula pendula shows a moderate soil-acidifying ability14 . Birches are most abundant in the boreal zone of northern Europe, where they can co-dominate or dominate in late-successional vegetation15 . Owing to its coldhardiness, Betula pubescens also has a higher elevational limit

Cylinder-shape mature fruits of birches, which are formed by hundreds of winged seeds. (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

Map 1-A: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Betula pendula. Frequency of Betula pendula occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for B. pendula is derived after EUFORGEN42 .

than Betula pendula, often forming the alpine treeline in Nordic countries. Both the northern and elevational distribution limits of Betula pubescens appear to be determined by exposure to cold, dry north-easterly winds in winter, since the species is not particularly wind resistant. Southern distribution limits appear to be set by summer drought, which both species, and particularly Betula pendula, do not tolerate10 .

Birch provides the commercially most important source of hardwood in northern Europe, and is often an important component in conifer plantations, such as those of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies). Birch plantations can also provide a protective habitat for seedlings of other tree species, including those that are more frost-sensitive, such as beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Norway spruce4 . Because it can tolerate a broad range of site conditions, and poor soils in particular, birch is often used for land reclamation and revegetation, improving the soil so other broad-leaved or coniferous tree species can be planted later4 . Birches are widely planted in urban areas, roadsides and parkland1, 16 . Some silver birch varieties, such as Betula pendula var. carelica (curly birch), are particularly sought after for veneers and ornamental wood products because they can produce curly grains12 . Betula pubescens is mainly grown for pulp wood and low-cost fuel wood, as its stems may be too small or poor for use as saw logs or veneers12 even if veneer compression may be exploited17. In spruce plantations in Scandinavia, naturally generating birch trees increase biodiversity of birds18 and lichens19, 20 . Root pressure builds in the lead up to bud burst and causes sap flow early in spring21 . This birch xylem sap was until recently commonly tapped and consumed in Eastern Europe, either fresh as a tonic, fermented (birch beer or wine), or concentrated into a syrup22, 23 . Betula pubescens is used as a medicinal and aromatic plant in Croatia1 . The leaves and bark of Betula pendula are used for their diuretic properties16 . Ointments for eczema and psoriasis may use birch tar as an astringent ingredient23 . Birches grow at high altitudes and in European boreal areas. Since mountainous areas in Europe show

Birch trunks with yellow leaves in autumn. (Copyright Superior National Forest, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Male catkins of silver birch (Betula pendula) pollinating in spring. (Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

Downy birch (Betula pubescens) in Vaglaskógur Forest (Fnjóskadalur, Iceland). (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

a soil erosion rate higher than the average - especially in the boreal mountain system24 , birches provide a particularly valuable service in watershed protection and soil stabilisation23, 25 . Both birches are effective in erosion control; furthermore, Betula pendula plays a role in soil strength enhancement and is used for vegetated crib walls25 . The observed colonisation of boreal areas above the treeline by Betula pubescens may indicate its further protection potential under climate change26 .

Threats and Diseases The bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius) constitutes an increasing threat to birch trees. It is a wood-boring beetle native to North America, known to attack all species of birch (with varying susceptibility). Although healthy trees are generally able to produce callus tissue around the Agrilus’ galleries, the European birches have little resistance and if the bronze birch borer were introduced in Europe no natural predators would mitigate its spread23 . Birch leaves are forage for the larvae of several butterflies, moths and

sawfly species. In some cases, such as that of geometrid moth species that feed on the leaves from the outside (e.g. Epirrita autumnata and Operophtera fagata) in northern Fennoscandia, this can cause pest outbreak conditions with cycles of mass defoliation, followed by collapse of the moth population27. Larvae of other insects consume birch tissue from the inside either by burrowing through the leaf tissue, so-called leaf miners, or creating outgrowths, i.e. galls, in leaves, fruits, or fruit scales. Birch trees weakened by leaf miners become more susceptible to secondary invasion by the aforementioned organisms4 . Fungal diseases can affect all parts of birch trees during all their life stages: birch rust (Melampsoridium botulinum) affects birch leaves, and stunts growth, and reduces life expectancy. Taphrina betulina and Taphrina nana cause abnormal shot growth (socalled witch’s broom) and leaf deformations. Yet other fungi, such as birch polypore (Piptoporus betulinus) causes wood rot, eventually killing infected trees. A range of fungal species are

Other birches in Europe Shoots of the artic dwarf birch (Betula nana) with small rounded leaves of 2 cm in diameter. (Copyright Frank Vassen, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Triangular smooth leaves of silver birch (Betula pendula) with toothed margins. (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)


In Europe other two main species of genus Betula are described: Betula nana (artic dwarf birch) and Betula humilis (dwarf birch). Some authors identify other birch species, often rare, endemic and at the limits of the geographical ranges, which have not explicitly a defined systematic status and are treated in some case as hybrids, varieties or subspecies7. Betula nana is a shrubby birch occurring in a broad geographic range of Northern Europe, which spans from Iceland, Scotland and northern England up to Scandinavia and the Baltic area. In Central Europe it occurs at high elevations (northern Alps from Austria west to France; Carpathian mountains)34 . This birch lives in Arctic of high-mountain exposed environments. It is found in immature or peaty soils within alpine tundra, rocky barrens and moorlands, subalpine damp moorlands and open raised bogs34 . Betula humilis is another shrubby birch which has a very wide but scattered distribution, ranging from Western Europe with few locations in Germany, Austria, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, through Siberia up to Korea35, 36 . It is a relict birch distributed from the hill to the montane zone, preferring wet soils in forests and the edges of lakes. It may grow in shrubby pastures and alder thickets, transitional mires, on open raised or acid valley bogs and in natural/drained fens35, 37. Both these dwarf birches are diploid. They can naturally and frequently hybridise with Betula pubescens and Betula pendula in the overlapping living ranges, showing intermediate morphologies36, 38-41 .

Foliage of dwarf birch (Betula humilis) with ovate and glabrous leaves. (Copyright Molekuel, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) stripping birch bark. (Copyright Peter Trimming: CC-BY)

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Winter silver birch (Betula pendula) with covering of hoar frost in Babno Polje (Loška Dolina, South Slovenia). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

References Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability for the whole genus Betula.

associated with more general die-back with affects crown health (i.e. Anisogramma virgultorum and Discula betulina)28, 29 . Although the large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is mostly known as one of the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in

Europe, it is also harmful for Betula pendula which partly coexists with the natural niche of the large pine weevil30-32 . Herbivory by short-snouted weevils (Strophosoma melanogrammum and Otiorhynchus scaber) is another threat to birch33 .


Young foliage of downy birch (Betula pubescens), which is covered by a smooth down, unlike the silver birch (Betula pendula). (Copyright S. Rae, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Betula pubescens.





Map 1-B: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Betula pubescens. Frequency of Betula pubescens occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for B. pubescens is derived after Meusel and Jäger5 .



[1] K. Shaw, S. Roy, B. Wilson, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 194521/0+. [2] M. Walters, Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 69–70, second edn. [3] J. Lid, Norsk flora (Norske samlaget, 1994), 6th edn. [4] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [5] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [6] Æ. T. Thórsson, E. Salmela, K. Anamthawat-Jónsson, Journal of Heredity 92, 404 (2001). [7] K. Jadwiszczak, Silva Fennica 46 (2012). [8] M. F. Schenk, C.-N. Thienpont, W. J. M. Koopman, L. J. W. J. Gilissen, M. J. M. Smulders, Tree Genetics & Genomes 4, 911 (2008). [9] M. D. Atkinson, A. P. Jervis, R. S. Sangha, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27, 1896 (1997). [10] M. D. Atkinson, Journal of Ecology 80, 837 (1992). [11] J. Webber, H. Evans, Annual Report and Accounts 2001-2002 (Forest Research, Edinburgh, 2003), pp. 16–27. [12] J. Hynynen, et al., Forestry 83, 103 (2010). [13] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [14] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [15] A. Moen, National atlas of Norway: vegetation (Norwegian Mapping Authority, Honefoss, 1999). [16] L. Stritch, K. Shaw, S. Roy, B. Wilson, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 62535/0+. [17] P. Bekhta, S. Hiziroglu, O. Shepelyuk, Materials & Design 30, 947 (2009). [18] A. Felton, E. Andersson, D. Ventorp, M. Lindbladh, Silva Fennica 45, 1143 (2011). [19] K. Wannebo-Nilsen, J. W. Bjerke, P. S. A. Beck, H. Tømmervik, Boreal Environment Research 15, 43 (2010). [20] P. Vakkari, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use of silver birch (Betula pendula) (Bioversity International, 2009). [21] H. Kallio, S. Ahtonen, Food Chemistry 25, 293 (1987).

[22] I. Svanberg, et al., Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 81, 343 (2012). [23] K. Shaw, et al., The Red List of Betulaceae (Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond, United Kingdom, 2014). [24] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [25] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [26] C. Truong, A. E. Palmé, F. Felber, Journal of Evolutionary Biology 20, 369 (2007). [27] J. U. Jepsen, S. B. Hagen, R. A. Ims, N. G. Yoccoz, Journal of Animal Ecology 77, 257 (2008). [28] S. Green, G. A. MacAskill, Plant Pathology 56, 242 (2007). [29] S.-O. Holm, Ecography 17, 60 (1994). [30] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [31] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [32] R. Toivonen, H. Viiri, Agricultural and Forest Entomology 8, 121 (2006). [33] M. Löf, G. Isacsson, D. Rydberg, T. N. Welander, Forest Ecology and Management 190, 281 (2004). [34] L. Stritch, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 194495/0+. [35] K. Shaw, S. Roy, B. Wilson, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 194645/0+. [36] K. A. Jadwiszczak, E. Jabłonska,, S. Kłosowski, A. Banaszek, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 80, 233 (2011). [37] H. McAllister, K. Ashburner, Curtis’s Botanical Magazine 24, 174 (2007). [38] K. Anamthawat-Jónsson, A. Thór Thórsson, Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 75, 99 (2003). [39] A. E. Palme, Q. Su, S. Palsson, M. Lascoux, Molecular Ecology 13, 167 (2004). [40] N. Wang, et al., Molecular Ecology 22, 3098 (2013). [41] O. Maliouchenko, A. E. Palmé, A. Buonamici, G. G. Vendramin, M. Lascoux, Journal of Biogeography 34, 1601 (2007). [42] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of silver birch (Betula pendula) (2009). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e010226. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Beck, P., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., Tinner, W., 2016. Betula pendula, Betula pubescens and other birches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e010226+



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Carpinus betulus Carpinus betulus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats R. Sikkema, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) is a small-medium deciduous tree which usually grows 20-25 m in height, rarely exceeding 30 m. In winter it is recognisable for its brown leaves which stay attached, dropping only in spring when the new green leaves are starting to come out. Its natural range extends from the Pyrenees to southern Sweden and eastwards to Iran. It is a typical temperate climate species along with deciduous oaks, requiring fairly abundant moisture and tolerant of a range of soil types. It can grow in full to partial sun, but it is also one of the few strongly shade tolerant native trees. Its wood is considered difficult to work due to its density and toughness, so this species has low silvicultural interest, except as a secondary species in mixed stands. In coppice forests it can provide firewood, very appreciated for its high calorific value. The common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) is a smallmedium sized deciduous tree normally reaching heights of 2025 metres1-3 , although in old growth forests heights can exceed 30 metres4, 5 . The crown is irregular, ovoid or conic, becoming domed in old trees. The bark is smooth and steel grey, having a muscled character to its appearance6 . The leaves are alternate, simple, obovate, with serrated margins, 8-10 cm long, opaque to dull green, with prominent parallel veins2 . They are quite similar to those of the beech (Fagus sylvatica), but less shiny6 . Leaves do not drop in winter, but only in spring when the new green leaves are starting to come out (marcescence). The autumn colour ranges from yellowish-green to golden yellow2, 6 . The hornbeam is monoecious: flowers are unisexual, borne in pendulous catkins3 . The male catkins are loose, up to 6 cm long, expanding in spring as yellow curtains2 . The female catkins are up to 15 cm long and to 6 cm broad. Flowers blossom from March to April and are wind-pollinated. The fruits are clustered in about 8 pairs of nutlets (achene), 6-8 mm, each pair at the base of a green leathery tri-lobate bract, 3.5 cm long1, 6, 7. The hornbeam is an abundant seeding tree and is marked by vigorous natural regeneration. Seeds often do not germinate until the spring of the second year after sowing7.

Distribution The hornbeam has a wide range which covers southern Europe (excluding the Iberian Peninsula), Central Europe, up to southern England and the south of Sweden. Eastwards it occurs across the Black Sea reaching the Caucasus and northern Iran8 . Its altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to 700 m in Central Europe, 1 000 m in the Western Alps and 1800 m in Iran8, 9 .


Mature male catkins in the spring. (Copyright Maja Dumat, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Carpinus betulus. Frequency of Carpinus betulus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. betulus is derived after several sources8, 23-25 .

Habitat and Ecology The hornbeam is a typical mesophilous species of temperate climates, occurring on lowlands, hills and the low mountain belt. High summer temperatures limit its distribution in the south, while it is a very hardy species and even found in frost hollows. It favours deep moist and well-drained soils from sub-acid to calcareous, although it can tolerate wet heavy clay to light dry sandy soils, but never acid3 . It grows in full to partial sunny conditions and it is also one of the few strongly shade-tolerant

native trees in Europe, though slightly less than beech7. For this reason this species can play roles both as a secondary species and as an understorey tree and also as a coloniser on bare and disturbed soils whose fertility is improved by its growth3 . In mixed forests it can be a dangerous invader, regenerating better and faster than valuable timber species, such as oaks, ash (Fraxinus excelsior) or Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)3, 10 . The common hornbeam grows mostly in mixed stands dominated by deciduous oaks (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea), forming oak-hornbeam forest communities. This vegetation represents the classic European temperate forest on fertile soils, typically with ash (Fraxinus excelsior), small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), wild cherry (Prunus avium), field maple (Acer campestre), common hazel (Corylus avellana) and spindle (Euonymus europaeus). The hornbeam can also be found in beech forests (Fagus sylvatica), while pure stands are more rare11-14 .


Mature tree in Schwetzinger Hardt forest (Upper Rhine Valley, Germany). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



74

The wood of the hornbeam is white, dense, very hard and strong3, 15 . In fact the name hornbeam means ‘horn tree’ in allusion to its hardness. However, trees tend to have irregular form. The wood has cross-grains and is therefore difficult to work.



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Carpinus betulus

It is not flexible and shrinks greatly during the drying process. For these reasons hornbeam has low commercial interest and has never been industrially cultivated16 . In the past when metals were scarce and costly it was used more, for making small items which require resistance to wear, such as tool handles, mill wheels, agricultural tools, wooden rivets, etc.1 . More recently it is used for flooring, billiard cues, drumsticks and piano mechanisms, and sometimes as an alternative to maple3, 7. The wood has a high calorific value as it burns slowly, making it excellent fuel wood and charcoal3, 7. Because of its ability to regenerate from root suckers, it can be cultivated in mixed coppices alongside oaks, limiting them in producing epicormic branches. It responds well even when pollarded, making it a good hedgerow and fodder tree. The hornbeam is also planted with oak in afforestation plantations on bare sloping areas for soil protection from erosion and landslides and maintained as a bush when needed3. Different varieties are available for ornamental purposes; one of the more frequently used is the ‘Fastigicata’ with a regular balloon-shape crown, more rare is the ‘Columnaris’ with densely teardrop shape, or the ‘Incisa’ with small and deeply lobed leaves. They can be found in urban parks, gardens and along roadsides, locally abundant on richer soils2, 6 .


Threats and Diseases Because of its minor importance as a species and the absence of recorded outbreaks, specific diseases and pests on hornbeam have not been exhaustively studied3 . Infections of generalist fungi of the genus Nectria, causing cankers, or of the genus Armillaria, causing root rot, are reported, as hornbeam can be a susceptible host alongside more valuable trees nearby. Hornbeam can be also a minor host of non-specialised invasive insects: e.g. polyphagous defoliators, such as the brown-tail moth Euproctis chrysorrhoea, the winter moth Operophtera brumata, or wood miners, such as the long-horned beetle Anoplophora chinensis3, 17-19 . As other species in the genus Carpinus, the common hornbeam may be attacked by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)20, 21 . It is also a susceptible host for the processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea)20, 22 .


References [1] V. L. Komarov, et al. , Flora of the USSR Volume V (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [4] S. Orzeł, Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities 10 (2007). [5] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees (2015). [6] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [7] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [8] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [9] I. C. Paridari, S. G. Jalali, A. Sonboli, M. Zarafshar, P. Bruschi, Journal of Forestry Research 24, 301 (2013). [10] A. J. Kwiatkowska, K. Spalik, E. Michalak, A. Palińska, D. Panufnik, Plant Ecology 129, 1 (1997). [11] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [12] P. Košir, et al., Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 147, 84 (2012). [13] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000).

[14] European Environment Agency, EUNIS, the European Nature Information System (2015). http://eunis.eea.europa.eu [15] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 6 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1912). [16] M. Christy, The Journal of Ecology 12, 39 (1924). [17] A. Turbé, et al., Disturbances of EU forests caused by biotic agents - final report, Tech. Rep. KH-32-13-151-EN-N (2011). Final Report prepared for European Commission (DG ENV). [18] T. Wesołowski, P. Rowiński, Forest Ecology and Management 221, 299 (2006). [19] G. E. King, British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 11, 153 (1999). [20] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [21] CABI, Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [22] CABI, Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [23] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [24] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk. [25] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org

Old neglected hornbeam coppice near Charlwood (West Sussex, England). (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)









Obovate leaves with serrated margins: they are quite similar to those of the beech, but less shiny. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01d8cf. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Sikkema, R., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Carpinus betulus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01d8cf+



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Carpinus orientalis Carpinus orientalis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats R. Sikkema, G. Caudullo Carpinus orientalis Mill., commonly known as oriental hornbeam, is a small tree or shrub commonly found on dry and rocky slopes of low elevation mountains in South-East Europe. Its wide distribution range reaches through the Black Sea to the Caucasus region. It is a frugal and drought-resistant species, which prefers calcareous soils and is frequently found in disturbed sites. Thanks to its strong suckering capacity and hard wood, it is often managed in coppiced stands for the production of quality firewood and charcoal. No significant pests or diseases are recorded for this tree. The oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis Mill.), is a large shrub or small tree, 1-5 metres tall, rarely up to 15 m, with a grey irregularly ribbed stem. The leaves are ovate-elliptic with evident veins, tomentose, with serrate margins and short petioles 5-8 mm long. This tree is monoecious with unisexual flowers blossoming in April. The male flowers are dense in short catkins 2-3 cm long, whereas the female catkins are 3-8 cm long with leaf-like un-lobed and coarsely toothed bracts that reach 12-18 mm size at maturity, and which cover the flowers and later the nuts1-4 .


The elliptical leaves have toothed margins and show evident veins. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Distribution

regions coppiced stands are also used as a food resource for livestock in drought summers, when grasslands are completely dry11, 18 . This frugal hornbeam is also suitable for the reforestation and restoration of degraded dry lands5 and is highly resistant to wildfire19 . It may be used as an ornamental plant, appreciated for its dense foliage and pollution resistance, and also as a hedge because of its re-sprouting capability20 .

The oriental hornbeam is a tree species native to southeast Europe, the Pontic region and western Asia. It is found in southern parts of Italy, Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Syria, Caucasus and northern Iran, usually occurring at lower altitudes or on southern slopes up to 1 300 m in Europe, but growing at over 2 500 m in the Caucasus mountains5-8 .

Threats and Diseases Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Carpinus orientalis. Frequency of Carpinus orientalis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. orientalis is derived after Meusel and Jäger24 .

As other hornbeams, the oriental hornbeam may be attacked by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)21, 22 . It is also a susceptible host for the processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea)21, 23 .

Fruits are small nuts covered by a leaf-like bract. (Copyright MPF, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

References The oriental hornbeam is a shrub or small tree and rarely reaches 15 m. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Habitat and Ecology This hornbeam is a thermophilous and xerophilous species, drought-resistant, thriving principally on slopes in shallow humus-poor or even rocky soils, and preferring calcareous substrates (rendzina)9 . Over its wide distribution range, this species exhibits different ecological habits. In eastwards regions it occurs at higher elevations tolerating lower temperatures in more temperate climates10 . In south-east Europe it is a typical element of the sub-Mediterranean vegetation, and it can also be found in the inner regions with some continental influences (colder winters)11-13 . It is very frugal, easily able to colonise open and degraded areas and to regenerate vigorously, promoting its presence in disturbed habitats, such as after the exploitation of primary oak forests11, 14 . This species is found both as a dominating and secondary species in wood and shrub lands11 . The principal tree communities in which it is found are the mixed deciduous forests with oaks, such as downy oak (Quercus pubescens), Turkey oak (Quercus cerris), Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto), and with hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and South European ash (Fraxinus ornus)11, 15, 16 .

The bark is smooth and grey. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

wood. It was used more in the past for making tool handles and other small household items1, 17. Thanks to its high aptitude for regeneration from root suckers, it can be managed in coppice stands for fuel production as firewood or charcoal5, 17. In southern

Importance and Usage Like other hornbeams (sometimes called ironwoods), the wood of the oriental hornbeam is very hard17. Because of its small size and bushy habit, this tree does not produce high value

Male catkins are 2-3 cm long. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

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[1] V. L. Komarov, et al. , Flora of the USSR Volume V (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [2] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 6 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1912). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [7] S. Gücel, K. Özkan, S. Celik, E. Yücel, M. Öztürk, Pakistan Journal of Botany 40, 1497 (2008). [8] F. Assadolahi, M. Barbero, P. Quezel, Ecologia Mediterranea 8, 365 (1982). [9] A. Chiarucci, D. Dominicis, V. A. Gabellini, Atti della Società Toscana di Scienze Naturali - Memorie serie B 103, 107 (1996). [10] H. Akhani, H. Ziegler, Phytocoenologia 32, 455 (2002). [11] C. Blasi, R. Di Pietro, L. Filesi, P. Fortini, Phytocoenologia 31, 33 (2001). [12] A. Kavgaci, A. Čarni, B. Tecimeni, G. Özalp, Archives of Biological Sciences 62, 705 (2010).

[13] A. Čarni, et al., Plant Biosystems 143, 1 (2009). [14] R. Popović, M. Kojić, B. Karadžić, Bocconea 5, 431 (1997). [15] V. Matevski, et al., Forest vegetation of the Galičica mountain range in Macedonia (Založba ZRC, Ljubljana, 2011). [16] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [17] P. M. Pijut, The Woody Plant Seed Manual, F. T. Bonner, R. P. Karrfalt, eds., Agriculture Handbook 727 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 2008), pp. 328–332. [18] V. P. Papanastasis, P. D. Platis, O. DiniPapanastasi 37, 187 (1997). [19] S. S. Radanova, Ecologia Balkanica 5, 55 (2014). [20] T. Tsitsoni, M. Tsakaldimi, C. Tsouri, African Journal of Agricultural Research 8, 4501 (2013). [21] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [22] CABI, Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [23] CABI, Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [24] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01bf18. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Sikkema, R., Caudullo, G., 2016. Carpinus orientalis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01bf18+



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Broadleaved forest near Biały Ług (Zwoleń, east-central Poland). (Copyright Lukasz Szmigiel, unsplash.com: CC0)

Mixed forests on a flank of the western Tatra Mountains (Czech Republic). (Copyright Dezidor, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Broadleaved and coniferous mixed forest over the coast cliffs of the Forggensee lake (Schwangau, Germany). (Copyright Thomas Richter, unsplash.com: CC0)

Winter fog over a coniferous forest in Germany. (Copyright cafepampas, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Castanea sativa Castanea sativa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats M. Conedera, W. Tinner, P. Krebs, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo The sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is the only native species of the genus in Europe. The broad diffusion and active management by man resulted in the establishment of the species at the limits of its potential ecological range, which makes it difficult to trace its original natural area. The present distribution ranges from North-Western Africa (e.g. Morocco) to North-Western Europe (southern England, Belgium) and from south-western Asia (e.g. Turkey) to Eastern Europe (e.g. Romania), the Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia) and the Caspian Sea. In Europe the main chestnut forests are concentrated in a few countries such as Italy, France and the Iberian Peninsula. The sweet chestnut has a remarkable multipurpose character, and may be managed for timber production (coppice and high forest) as well as for fruit production (traditional orchards), including a broad range of secondary products and ecosystem services. The sweet chestnut tree (Castanea sativa Mill.) is a mediumlarge deciduous tree that may reach 30-35 m. When cultivated, the tree is long-living (up to 1 000 years) and may also reach a significant girth (up to 12 m at breast height). The bark is brown-greyish and often has net-shaped venations with deep furrows or fissures. Leaves are oblong-lanceolate (8-25 cm long, 5-9 cm broad) with a dentate-crenate margin and a brighter green upper leaf surface. This species tree is monoecious and flowers develop in late June to July and may be pollinated by wind (more usual in case of dry weather during flowering) or insects (dominating in wet weather conditions). Male flowers are gathered in catkins (5 to 15 cm in length) whereas female flowers are usually positioned at the base of the male ones in the upper part of the current year’s shoots. By autumn the female flowers develop into spiny cupules (commonly called bur) containing 3-7 brownish nuts that are shed during (September)-October. Some cultivars, especially the varieties of the Marron-group, develop only one large nut per cupule (rarely up to three). The nut is an achene composed of two skins; the external part is shiny brown (pericarp) and the internal is a pellicle adhering to the fruit (episperm), and edible creamy-white cotyledons1 .

Distribution The distribution area ranges from Southern Europe (Iberian Peninsula, Italy, Balkans, Mediterranean Islands) and North Africa (Morocco), to North-Western Europe (England, Belgium) and eastward to Western Asia (North East Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Syria), with an altitudinal range between 200 and 1 800 m, depending on the latitude and site aspect2, 3 . In Europe the sweet chestnut covers an area of more than 2.5 million hectares (about the dimension of Sardinia Island). Most of the area (89 %) is concentrated in just a few countries (France, Italy, followed by Spain, Portugal, and Switzerland) with a long tradition of chestnut


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Castanea sativa. Frequency of Castanea sativa occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native and introduced spatial range for C. sativa is derived after several sources4, 7, 21-23 .

Chestnut plantation for fruit production in Bregaglia Valley (Canton of Grisons, Switzerland). (Copyright Patrik Krebs: CC-BY)

cultivation4 . European settlers introduced the species in other continents, so that chestnut trees or plantations are nowadays present in different parts of South and North America as well as Australia2 . The broad diffusion and active management by man have resulted in the establishment of the species at the limits of its fundamental niche, which makes it nowadays difficult to trace its original range5 and its ecology6 . The most probable natural range is delimited by several macro-regions: the Transcaucasian region, north-western Anatolia, the hinterland of the Tyrrhenian coast from Liguria to southern Italy along the Apennine range,

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10%

the Cantabrian coast on the Iberian peninsula, and probably also the Greek peninsula (Peloponnese and Thessaly) and northeastern Italy (Colli Euganei, Monti Berici, Emilia-Romagna)7, 8 . First unambiguous evidences of chestnut cultivation are reported in palynological data of several regions in the Anatolian Peninsula, North-eastern Greece and South-eastern Bulgaria and date back to around 2 100-2 050 B.C., while Neolithic evidence (4 000 B.C.) of cultivation together with walnut and cereals comes from Italy8 . Nevertheless, chestnut cultivation only took a subsidiary place in the ancient Greek civilization and in the pre-Christian Latin world. The role of chestnut in the Italian territory may have changed at the beginning of the Christian era when people realized that the wood produced from chestnut coppices was so useful and versatile. The Romans may thus have introduced the idea of cultivating the chestnut and in certain cases the tree itself, but no evidence of systematic tree planting exists9 .

Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%

Edible nuts of the sweet chestnut: they are traditionally roasted but can also be candied, boiled, dried, or used as flour. (Copyright Patrik Krebs: CC-BY)


78

The sweet chestnut is a warm-temperate deciduous species, that likes a mean yearly temperature ranging between 8 ° and 15 °C and monthly mean temperatures over 10 °C during 6 months. The species needs a minimum rainfall that ranges between 600 and 800 mm according to its distribution and interaction with temperatures. The lowest elevations are recommended for the highest latitudes and vice versa1 . The chestnut tree displays a high sensitivity to summer droughts issuing from the combination of high temperatures and lack of precipitation10, 11 . It does not thrive on limestone, preferring well-drained, from



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Habitat and Ecology

Castanea sativa

very acidic to neutral soils and nutritionally poor sites12 . This tree can rejuvenate in half-shadow conditions, but needs light for growing from the early pole stage1 . It is sensitive to late frost and very adapted to fire-disturbance (vigorous re-sprouter)5 . Due to the strong cultivation pressure, it is very difficult to define natural chestnut stands with consociated tree communities. In fact in about 90 % of chestnut forests, this tree is pure or the dominant species. A good example of a natural community might be the Georgian chestnut forests where the species grows with other thermophilous broadleaved deciduous species such as oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus syn. Carpinus caucasica), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), field elm (Ulmus minor), Cappadocian maple (Acer cappadocicum syn. Acer laetum), Quercus spp., Caucasian zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), red lime (Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica syn. Tilia caucasica) and yew (Taxus baccata)13 .



Unisexual male and female inflorescences: long yellow catkins of male flowers clustered in bundles and composed of numerous stamens and a solitary female inflorescence comprising an ovoid cupule with styles on top. (Copyright Patrik Krebs: CC-BY)

different ways: roasted, candied, boiled, dried, or transformed to flour. Orchards also provided several secondary products such as pasture, hay, mushrooms, berries, etc. In some cases, orchards were also intercropped with cereals14 . Flowers are rich in pollen and nectar and therefore really appreciated for honey production by bee keepers1 .



Due to its multipurpose character, the chestnut tree has always been cultivated in different management systems according to the targeted products and services. Chestnut wood is particularly suitable for external use, thanks to its natural high tannin content that acts as a protection against decay. In former times tannin extraction was also a very common use of the timber1 . Due to its high re-sprouting capacity, coppice represents the main type of forest management with about 80 % in cover of the chestnut forests, supplying principally fire wood, charcoal, poles (fence, pit-props, etc.), and wood for small products (barrels, shingles, sleepers, etc.). Pure chestnut high forests are rare with a cover of about 10 %, producing timber wood for construction, furniture or long poles14 . However, high quality uses of chestnut timber are in some cases limited due to the susceptibility of the chestnut to ring-shake1 . Traditional orchards for fruit production (or groves, as some authors call them), which cover about 20 % of chestnut forests, consist of open stands, usually composed of grafted trees because of the self-sterility of the species. The orchards for staple food consisted of a mix of varieties with different ripening periods. The edible fruits can be consumed in

Traditional chestnut management approaches (i.e. coppices, high forests, orchards) requires continuous cultural inputs. In the absence of management, chestnut stands tend to be invaded by other species and to evolve towards mixed deciduous forests15, 16 . With time over-aged and oversized chestnut orchard trees and coppice stools become unstable and tend to uproot17, disrupting the original chestnut structures within the post-cultural ecosystems. This has caused a severe decrease of biodiversity in the affected regions18, 19 and reduced ecosystem service provision20 . Further threats for chestnut trees include the ink disease (Phythophtora spp.), the spread of the newly introduced chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), and the impact of the Chinese gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus). The latter is a pest introduced in 2002 in Piedmont and now spreading to other regions, although successfully limited by the specific antagonist Torymus sinensis where this biological control has been applied. Further source of economic loss for the chestnut growers are fruit damaging insects such as the chestnut weevil (Curculio elephas) and tortrices (Cydia splendana; Cydia fagglandana; Pammene fasciana)1 .




[1] G. Bounous, ed., Il castagno (Edagricole, Bologna, 2014). [2] D. Avanzato, ed., Following Chestnut Footprints (Castanea spp.) - Cultivation and Culture, Folklore and History, Tradition and Uses, vol. 9 of Scripta Horticulturae (International Society for Horticultural Science, 2009). [3] P. Schütt, et al., Enzyklopädie der Laubbäume: Die große Enzyklopädie (Nikol, Hamburg, 2006). [4] M. Conedera, M. C. Manetti, F. Giudici, E. Amorini, Ecologia Mediterranea 30, 179 (2004). [5] W. Tinner, et al., The Holocene 10, 565 (2000). [6] A. Rubio, et al., InvestigacioÌn agraria: Sistemas y recursos forestales 11, 373 (2002). [7] P. Krebs, et al., Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 13, 145 (2004). [8] P. Kaltenrieder, G. Procacci, B. Vannière, W. Tinner, The Holocene 20, 679 (2010). [9] M. Conedera, P. Krebs, W. Tinner, M. Pradella, D. Torriani, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 13, 161 (2004). [10] M. Conedera, F. Barthold, D. Torriani, G. B. Pezzatti, Acta Horticulturae 866, 297 (2003). [11] J. Lemaire, Forêt-entreprise 179, 18 (2008). [12] S. Pereira-Lorenzo, et al., Fruit Breeding, M. L. Badenes, D. H. Byrne, eds. (Springer US, 2012), vol. 8 of Handbook of Plant Breeding, pp. 729–769.

[13] G. Nakhutsrishvili, The Vegetation of Georgia (South Caucasus) (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013). [14] M. Conedera, P. Krebs, Acta Horticulturae 784, 23 (2008). [15] M. Conedera, P. Stanga, B. Oester, P. Bachmann, Forest, Snow and Landscape Research 76, 487 (2001). [16] M. Pividori, F. Armando, M. Conedera, Acta Horticulturae 693, 219 (2005). [17] J. Vogt, P. Fonti, M. Conedera, B. Schröder, Forest Ecology and Management 235, 88 (2006). [18] H. Gondard, F. Romane, I. Regina, S. Leonardi, Forest Diversity and Management, D. Hawksworth, A. Bull, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2006), vol. 2 of Topics in Biodiversity and Conservation, pp. 69–82. [19] M. K. Obrist, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 261, 789 (2011). [20] A. San Roman Sanz, et al., Ecology and Society 18, n. 38 (2013). [21] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [22] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of chestnut (Castanea sativa) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [23] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk.






References

Oblong-lanceolate leaves, bright green in colour with toothed margins. (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0125e0. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Conedera, M., Tinner, W., Krebs, P., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Castanea sativa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0125e0+



79 08/04/2016 11:12

Celtis australis Celtis australis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. Magni, G. Caudullo Celtis australis L., commonly known as southern nettle tree or European hackberry, is native in South Europe from the Mediterranean Basin to Asia Minor. It prefers sunny exposures in thermophile mixed deciduous forests, well adapted to rocky soils lacking in humus, where it is able to crush rocks entering their fissures with its strong roots. Thanks to its frugality, this tree is used for afforestation in difficult terrains against erosion. It is also an ornamental tree because of its dome-shaped crown. During the last 50 years nettle tree has been showing decline symptoms especially in urban areas due to a combination of climate change effects and the action of different pathogens. The nettle tree, or European hackberry, (Celtis australis L.) is a deciduous tree which usually grows 15-20 m in height, only exceptionally reaching 25-30 m1 . Its shape appears as a low dome, with a wide, regular, dense, light green crown2 . The trunk is vertical, robust and enlarging at the bottom with age, with girth of 3 m, exceptionally up to 6 m3 . The bark is thin, grey or pale brown, and smooth, with horizontal wrinkles similar to beech; sometimes becoming more rugged with warty excrescences in old age2-4 . The leaves are simple, from 5 to 15 cm long, usually wavy, alternate, lanceolate or ovallanceolate, serrate with regular jagged teeth (except near the base), acuminate or twisted apex, and cuneate or rounded slightly asymmetric base3, 4 . They are dark green and scabrous above, green-greyish and tomentose beneath3-5 . This species is andromonoecious, the flowers are small, greenish, solitary or grouped in 3-5 elements, forming in the branches developed in the current year6 . The fruits are drupes, ovoid or spherical, 10-12 mm in diameter, with a scant sweetish fleshy part6 . The fruit colour changes from whitish to brown-reddish and then to blackish when the fruits ripe in late summer or autumn1, 2, 6 .

Distribution


Canopy of a large plant in the botanical garden of Villa Carlotta (Como Lake, North Italy).

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map. Frequency of Celtis australis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. australis is derived after several sources23-27.

(Copyright Davide Fumagalli: CC-BY)

The nettle tree is native to the Mediterranean basin and Western Asia. It occurs from Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula to Syria comprising the Mediterranean islands, up to the Black Sea and the Caucasus. It grows in lowlands and low hills from sea level to 1 200-1 300 m in Spain and Northwest Africa1-3, 6-8 . In the Middle East its distribution area overlaps with the Caucasian hackberry (Celtis caucasica Willd.)3, 7, 9 . They are very similar and difficult to identify; some authors consider them as subspecies10 . Outside its natural range it is present as an ornamental plant in Central Europe with a northern limit set by severe winter frosts5 . Outside Eurasia, this species is naturalised in Australia and in south-western United States11, 12 .

Habitat and Ecology The nettle tree grows in woods, meadows, riverbanks, cliffs, in dry and poor areas especially on rocky soils. Its strong and widely developed roots can crack rocks13 . It is a heliophilous species, preferring sunny exposures, and suffers during intense cold and late frosts2 . The fruits are very appetizing for birds (and also for foxes, badgers and martens), which are responsible for seed dissemination1 . It can also reproduce vegetatively by root suckers3 . This species can be often found in thermophile mixed deciduous forests together with downy oak (Quercus pubescens), hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), manna ash (Fraxinus ornus), common hazel (Corylus avellana), and maples (Acer spp.), or in riparian vegetation with willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.) and elms (Ulmus spp.), very rarely as the dominant species14 . This tree has a high growth rate and in its native range can live up to 1 000 years and attain significant size2, 3 .

Importance and Usage The grey-whitish wood is heavy, elastic, water resistant and lasting. It has been used in the past in carriage-building, in boat-building, for door or window lintels, and to make tools and tool-handles needing good resistance1, 3 . The wood was also appreciated for cabinet-making and lathe works and to produce musical instruments (e.g. flutes, small drums) and toys for children in the last century. Due to mechanization in agriculture and the availability of new more resistant materials, the wood industry of nettle tree is in clear decline and its use is now limited to local handmade manufacture1 . This tree also produces good coppice shoots when cut3 and yields high quality fuel wood and charcoal13 . Nettle tree is principally used for afforestation in rocky and difficult terrains against erosion thanks to its frugality, for plantations in urban areas and along roads because of its pollution tolerance, and as ornamental plant for its domed crown, with long arching branches13 . The fruits are edible and contain seeds from which sweet oil can be extracted. They are also used to produce specialist liqueurs or, in the past, to substitute sugar during famine periods1 . This tree has applications for natural medical remedies (e.g. in India and Spain) for amenorrhoea, diarrhoea and colic (fruits), to reduce blood pressure (leaves), as a diuretic agent or to reduce cholesterol (fruits and leaves), and

80

Oval-lanceolate leaves with serrated margins. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References

Spherical drupe fruits in different stages of maturity. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

to treat liver problems (the internal part of the bark)1 . The bark is also used to make a dye, yielding a yellow pigment. The foliage (and in some regions also the bark and thin branches) can be used as fodder for cattle1, 3, 9 .

Threats and Diseases Decline of nettle tree has been registered in its Mediterranean distribution area for more than fifty years, especially in towns, where more than 50 % of trees were already affected by the 1980s15, 16 . Symptoms of tree weakness are evident in drought years and cold winters. One of the causes seems to be the presence of phytoplasmas belonging to the aster yellows and elm yellows groups, affecting sprouting buds, fruit-set and adventitious buds15, 17. In Italy the decline of nettle tree is also increased by the eriophide mite Aceria bezzii, responsible for the delayed sprouting of buds and loss of fruit production17. In southern European towns the fungus Inonotus rickii was discovered to contribute to the decline of the species, causing decay and cankers. This fungus is able to infect several ornamental species making it particularly invasive and widespread in urban areas18-20. The oomycete Phytophthora megasperma can seriously damage nettle trees, with wilting, dieback and death. The long-term survival of spores in the soil makes this threat rather dangerous21 . In its easternmost Asian Minor distribution, with a possible future extension into the Mediterranean basin because of the hot dry climatic conditions, nettle tree is affected by Xylotrechus namanganensis (namangan longhorn beetle or willow longhorn beetle). Symptoms of the presence of this pest are wilting and drying leaves, holes made by larvae in the trunks, large branches and at the bases of infested trees, and beetles on the flowers and trunks22 .

[1] E. Barroso, et al., Inventario Español de los Conocimientos Tradicionales relativos a la Biodiversidad, M. Pardo de Santayana, R. Morales, L. Aceituno, M. Molina, eds. (Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Madrid, 2014), pp. 264–269. [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 4 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1909). [4] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles Volume 1: A-C (John Murray, 1970), 8th edn. [6] C. Navarro, S. Castroviejo, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula IbeÌrica e Islas Baleares, Volume 3: Plumbaginaceae (partim)-Capparaceae, S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1993), pp. 248–250. [7] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [8] EPPO, EPPO Reporting Service 6 (2013). Art. 134. [9] P. Hanelt, ed., Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Springer, 2001). [10] C. C. Townsend, Flora of Iraq, vol 4, C. C. Townsend, E. Guest, eds. (Ministry of Agriculture & Agrarian Reform, Baghdad, 1980), pp. 65–75. [11] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, USA, http://plants.usda.gov. [12] H. J. Hewson, Flora of Australia Volume 3: Hamamelidales to Casuarinales (ABRS/ CSIRO, Australia, 1989).

[13] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [14] European Environment Agency, EUNIS, the European Nature Information System (2015). http://eunis.eea.europa.eu. [15] A. Bertaccini, L. Mittempergher, M. Vibio, Annals of Applied Biology 128, 245 (1996). [16] N. Anselmi, A. Saric, G. P. Cellerino, Informatore fitopatologico 30, 11 (1980). [17] L. Mittempergher, A. Sfalanga, M. Vibio, A. Bertaccini, Acta Horticulturae 496, 87 (1999). [18] T. Annesi, R. Coppola, E. Motta, Forest Pathology 33, 405 (2003). [19] T. Annesi, L. D’Amico, D. Bressanin, E. Motta, G. Mazza, Phytopathologia Mediterranea 49 (2011). [20] A. P. Ramos, M. F. Caetano, I. Melo, Revista de Ciências Agrárias 31, 159 (2008). [21] L. Luongo, et al., Plant Disease 99, 155 (2015). [22] EPPO, EPPO Bulletin 35, 456 (2005). [23] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989). [24] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [25] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org [26] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [27] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0145f9. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Magni, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Celtis australis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0145f9+



08/04/2016 11:12

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Chamaecyparis lawsoniana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo The conifer Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murray) Parl.) is native to a small area in North America. Variable in form, there are over 200 cultivars selected for horticultural purposes. It has been planted in many countries in Europe, usually as an ornamental, although the timber is also of good quality. It has been severely affected in its native range by root rot disease, and this has now spread to the European population. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murray) Parl., known as Lawson cypress, or Port Orford cedar in the United States, is a large conifer native to North America. It belongs to the family Cupressaceae, and is sometimes referred to as a “false-cypress” to distinguish it from other cypresses in the family. It is longlived (more than 600 years) and can reach heights of up to 50 m (exceptionally up to 70 m in its native range) and a diameter exceeding 2 m1, 2 . The tree is narrowly columnar with slender, down-curving branches; frequently with forked stems. The bark is silvery-brown, becoming furrowed and very thick with age giving mature trees good fire resistance2, 3 . The wood is highly aromatic with a distinctive ginger-like odour, as is the foliage which has a parsley-like scent when crushed3, 4 . The evergreen scale-like leaves are around 2-3 mm long5 . Abundant, round pea-sized cones ripen in autumn with seed dispersal occurring immediately after and continuing until the following spring6 .

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

Distribution The native range of Lawson cypress is a narrow strip between Oregon and north-west California, mainly near the coast. It was introduced into Europe in 1854 and named after the Scottish nursery (Lawson & Son) where it was first sent7. It is now established, though not common, in Germany, France, the Netherlands, Denmark and United Kingdom, and also outside Europe in Australia, South Africa, Kenya, New Zealand and Sri Lanka1 . Other species of Chamaecyparis are present in Europe. In particular, Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) and Sawara cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera) are the most frequent ones after Lawson cypress8-10 .

Habitat and Ecology Lawson cypress prefers medium-textured soils with consistent summer moisture, but it can also grow in drier conditions. It is relatively shade-tolerant and can cope with a wide range of conditions and soil types. It is able to grow either under a forest canopy or as a pioneer in the open. Growth rate is relatively slow for young trees, but older trees retain their ability to respond to more light and space and can become dominant in old-growth forests. It is usually found in mixed coniferous forests (fir, spruce, pine), or with broadleaved species such as oak11 . It is an interesting species ecologically as its natural range is extremely small, yet it is able to survive in a wide variety of conditions4, 12 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Chamaecyparis lawsoniana. Frequency of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.


Ornamental specimen in a park in Varese (North Italy).

The main use for Lawson cypress outside its natural range is as an ornamental tree, and there are over 200 cultivars with different coloured foliage and forms1, 12 . The timber is also valuable as it has many good qualities: fine texture, straight grain, easy to work and resistant to decay, it is suitable for a wide range of applications including general construction, railway sleepers, doors, toys, and in the past, arrow shafts and venetian bind slats12 . Only lack of availability has prevented it being used more widely commercially12 . Chamaecyparis mature stands may offer a good protection from soil erosion and their root systems may mitigate shallow-landslide susceptibility13-15 .

(Copyright Achille Mauri: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases Lawson cypress is highly susceptible to the oomycete Phytophthora lateralis that has spread throughout much of its range, causing heavy losses since first being described in 19231 . The pathogen causes root rot and can quickly kill trees of all ages. This has resulted in Lawson cypress now being classed as “near threatened” in the United States. The pathogen has more recently been observed in Europe where it now poses an increasing threat16, 17.

Lawson’s Cypress killed by Phytophthora lateralis (Roseburg, Oregon). (Copyright US Forest Service, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

References [1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] R. J. Uchytil, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana. Fire Effects Information System (1990). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [3] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [4] D. B. Zobel, L. F. Roth, G. M. Hawk, Ecology, pathology, and management of PortOrford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Tech. rep., United States Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station (1985). [5] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [6] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [7] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [8] GBIF Secretariat, GBIF Backbone Taxonomy (Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), 2014), chap. GBIFID:2683849.

Immature cones developing at the ends of the shoots. (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

[9] GBIF Secretariat, GBIF Backbone Taxonomy (Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), 2014), chap. GBIFID:2683880. [10] GBIF Secretariat, GBIF Backbone Taxonomy (Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), 2014), chap. GBIFID:2683866. [11] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [12] J. A. Ohmann, Port-Orford-Cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl.) An American Wood, Tech. rep., Forest Service (1984). [13] H. Kitahara, Y. Okura, T. Sammori, A. Kawanami, Journal of Forest Research 5, 231 (2000). [14] M. Mmann, A. Böll, C. Rickli, T. Speck, O. Holdenrieder, Forest Snow and Landscape Research 82, 79 (2009). [15] A. C. Johnson, P. Wilcock, Geomorphology 46, 129 (2002). [16] S. Green, et al., Forest Pathology 43, 19 (2013). [17] C. Robin, et al., Forest Pathology 41, 417 (2011).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e018deb. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: SanMiguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e018deb+



81 08/04/2016 11:13

Cornus mas Cornus mas in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, T. Houston Durrant. D. de Rigo Cornus mas L., commonly named as cornelian cherry, is a bushy shrub or small tree producing olive-shaped red fruits which are fleshy and edible. It is native of temperate zones, from central to southern Europe and eastwards to Asia Minor. It is light-demanding and occurs in warm and dry sites at forest edges and open areas as an element of subMediterranean shrub vegetation communities. Its wood is very hardy and durable, prized for centuries for construction of weapons. It has been also cultivated, even outside its natural range, for its fruits, which have culinary and medical uses, and for ornamental purposes with a selection of several cultivars. This plant is apparently free of serious diseases, except in orchards. There is more attention focussed on the potential genetic erosion of natural populations, principally in those countries where cornelian cherry covers an important economic role. Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.) is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing 2-6 m tall, exceptionally reaching 8-9 m. The crown is regular, bushy, hemispherical, and may expand more horizontally up to 5 m. The trunk is straight, sometimes with sinuous or multiple stems, the branches ends often drooping. The bark is grey-brownish, peeling off in scaly flakes like crocodile skin. The young shoots are hairy grey-greenish, becoming hairless later. The leaves are opposite with a short stalk, oval, 3-5 cm wide and 6-8 cm long, with an entire margin that is shortly acuminate and supplied with visible parallel veins. They turn to mahogany red in autumn. The flowers are small, 5-10 mm in diameter, hermaphrodite, with four yellow petals and on long peduncles, clustered in groups of 10-25 together in umbels. They bloom in late winter before the leaves sprout. The fruit is a fleshy, bright red cherry-like drupe, which ripens in mid-late summer. It is olive-shaped, 12-15 mm long, with a smooth and shiny rind, and containing two seeds. The fruit is edible when it falls and is dispersed by animals1-5 .


Habitat and Ecology Generally, cornelian cherry occurs in warm and dry sites, from sea level up to 1500 m in the Alps (Switzerland) and in the Caucasus1, 5, 6 . It is a light-demanding and slow-growing species, which thrives in open areas or in semi-shade vegetation, such as forest hedges, steppe shrubs, and light woodlands. It prefers moist, alkaline soils rich in nutrients, although it is principally found in warm and dry conditions. The cornelian cherry has a high plasticity, growing in all kinds of soils, from light sandy to heavy clay, with a pH ranging from slightly acid to very alkaline. Wind and frost are also well tolerated, and it can survive up to -30 °C, while it is sensitive to salt and marine exposures. It also a longliving tree, surviving up to 300 years3, 11 . Cornelian cherry is found in the thermophilous mixed deciduous broadleaved forests, dominated by oaks (Quercus pubescens, Q. cerris, Q. frainetto, Q. ilex), hornbeams (Carpinus betulus, Carpinus orientalis) and manna ash (Fraxinus ornus). It can also be found in combinations with other sub-Mediterranean shrubs; e.g. wayfarer (Viburnum lantana), wild privet (Ligustrum vulgare), common dogwood (Cornus sanguinea), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), European barberry (Berberis vulgaris), etc.12 .


Distribution Cornelian cherry is native of the temperate zones of Eurasia, with a Pontic and Mediterranean distribution. It occurs from central and southern Europe (Pyrenees, France, Italy and Balkan Peninsula) to Asia Minor (Turkey, Caucasus)6 . However, it can also be commonly found all over Europe outside its natural range, as it has been exported for centuries first as a fruit and pharmaceutical plant, then as an ornamental shrub, and is now

a landscape ornamental8, 9 , and to China as an ornamental tree and for medical uses10 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Cornus mas. Frequency of Cornus mas occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. mas is derived after Meusel and Jäger6 .

naturalised in some countries4 . Although its natural northern limits are Belgium and Germany, it has been planted in colder regions: e.g. in Oslo, Cornelian cherry trees in parks and gardens ripen every year7. It has also been exported to North America as

The wood of cornelian cherry has been valued over the centuries for its hardiness, durability and flexibility. In ancient Greece, the wood of cornel was considered one of the most valuable precious woods, mentioned also in the writings by Homer. In the Virgil’s Aeneid the cornelian is cited as wood used for the Trojan horse3 . Ptolemy attested the use of this wood for the Macedonian cavalry spears. During the Roman period it was favoured to make the shafts of javelins. Pliny wrote that cornelian cherry wood was used for making “spokes of wheels, or else for making wedges for splitting wood, and pins or bolts, which have all the hardness of those of iron”. Records of its use continued for centuries, prized for weapon construction, such as bows, darts, pikes, etc., and other tools. More recently this wood has been used for the manufacture of wheel spokes, ladder rungs, and tool handles2, 4, 13, 14 . The wood has reddish sapwood and dark brown heartwood, of a fine texture and difficult to split. Together with common box (Buxus sempervirens) and strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), this species is among the toughest and most durable European woods with the highest specific gravity5, 15 . The fruits are edible and have a similar taste to sour cherries3 . The cornelian cherry is a species of economic interest for fruit production16 . Plants are cultivated in orchards in many countries of eastern Europe, Caucasus and central Asia, as its sweet-acid fruits are very valuable for fresh consumption and for processing to produce syrups, juices, jams and other traditional products17-21 .

Bright red cherry-like fruits are produced in summer. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Olive-shaped green drupes maturing in spring. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)







The fleshy fruits of Cornelian cherry are edible and used for a variey of culinary purposes. Annual average temperature (°C)

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(Copyright Marion Schneider & Christoph Aistleitner, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



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Cornus mas

the fungus Colletotrichum acutatum observed in Iran27, or rots on young seedlings caused by the oomycete Phytophthora citricola in Bulgaria 28 . The widespread use of cultivars vegetatively propagated and the deforestation of natural populations are increasing the attention on threats of genetic erosion. Mainly in the countries where the cornelian cherry covers an important economic role, new genetic protection programmes have been created for germplasm conservation 3, 17, 20, 29 .

Oval leaves with entire margins and evident veins. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Cluster of hermaphrodite flowers composed of 4 yellow stamens and petals and 4 greenish sepals. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

For this purpose several cultivars have been selected, bearing fruits with different sizes, taste (acidity and sweet) and colours (from creamy white, yellow, orange, red, violet to black); e.g. the ‘Macrocarpa’ variety bears large and pear-shaped fruits, ‘Alba’ white fruits and ‘Flava’ yellow and sweeter fruits4 . In Asia, Cornelian cherries are also made into an alcoholic beverage, similar to the ‘Drenja’ beverage produced in Serbia22 . Fruits are rich in tannins and sugars as well as phenols, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and anthocyanins23, 24 . Traditionally the fruits were used as a diuretic, analgesic and tonic. In Middle Age cornelian cherry shrubs were commonly planted in monastery gardens4 . Recently its therapeutic properties have been well documented, finding high antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties with beneficial effects on cardiovascular, endocrine, gastrointestinal and immune systems22, 24, 25 . The abundance of flowers

blossoming in late winter, its plasticity in growing in different kinds of soils and its trimming tolerance, make this species well adapted for use in gardens and parks as an ornamental, nectariferous, hedge and shade plant4, 5, 16 . As for fruits, many cultivars are available in trade all over the world with several habits, colours of leaves and flowering abundance; e.g. ‘Nana’ plump and growing in dwarf stature, ‘Elegantissima’ with leaves with yellow or pink margins, ‘Variegata’ with white margins26 .

Threats and Diseases The cornelian cherry has been apparently free of disease and pest problems, a highly appreciated characteristic which gained its use as an ornamental and orchard species. However, recently the first diseases have been reported, principally in nurseries and plantations, such as the leaf spot and fruit rot disease caused by

Shrub form of Cornelian cherry with yellow flowers blossoming before foliage develops in spring. (Copyright Marinella Zepigi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Floral bud blossoming in early spring. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References [1] S. Pignatti, Flora d’Italia (Edagricole, Bologna., 1982). [2] M. J. Saint-Hilare, Treatise on Trees and Shrubs Grown in France and in the Countryside - Version translated by J B Fleishman (Firmin Didot Press, Paris, 1825). [3] V. Dörken, Jahrbuch des Bochumer Botanischen Vereins 1, 213 (2010). [4] L. Reich, Arnoldia 56, 2 (1996). [5] B. K. Shishkin, et al., Flora of the USSR Volume XVII: Umbelliflorae (continued), vol. 17 of Flora of the USSR (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [7] F. C. Schübeler, Die Pflanzenwelt Norwegens. Ein Beitrag zur Naturund Culturgeschichte Nord-Europas (Christiania, A.W. Brögger, 1975). [8] C. S. Sargent, Manual of the Trees of North America (exclusive of Mexico), vol. 2 (Dover Publications, New York, 1961), second edn. [9] M. T. Mmbaga, E. C. Nnodu, HortScience 41, 721 (2006). [10] J. Q. Xiang, D. E. Boufford, Flora of China, Text Volume 14, Apiaceae through Ericaceae, F. of China Editorial Committee, ed. (Missouri Botanical Garden Press, 2005), pp. 206–221. [11] P. Brindza, J. Brindza, D. Toth, S. V. Klimenko, O. Grigorieva, Acta Horticulturae 760, 433 (2007). [12] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [13] R. E. Weaver, Arnoldia 36, 50 (1976).

[14] M. M. Markle, American Journal of Archaeology 81, 323 (1977). [15] I. Brémaud, et al., Annals of Forest Science 69, 373 (2012). [16] J. H. Wiersema, B. León, World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference (CRC Press, 2013). [17] S. Ercýslý, Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research 12, 87 (2004). [18] N. Mamedov, L. E. Craker, Acta Horticulturae 629, 83 (2004). [19] P. Brindza, J. Brindza, D. Tóth, S. V. Klimenko, O. Grigorieva, Acta Horticulturae 818, 85 (2009). [20] O. Rop, J. Mlcek, D. Kramarova, T. Jurikova, African Journal of Biotechnology 9, 1205 (2010). [21] H. Hassanpour, Y. Hamidoghli, H. Samizadeh, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 48, 257 (2013). [22] B. J. West, S. Deng, C. J. Jensen, A. K. Palu, L. F. Berrio, International Journal of Food Science & Technology 47, 1392 (2012). [23] E. Mratinić, M. F. Akšić, V. Rakonjac, R. Miletić, M. Žikić, Plant Systematics and Evolution 301, 365 (2015). [24] P. Mikaili, et al., Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences 35, 1732 (2013). [25] N. Ersoy, Y. Bagci, V. Gok, Scientific Research and Essays 6, 98 (2011). [26] A. McIndoe, The Horticulture Gardener’s Guides - Shrubs (David & Charles, Devon, UK, 2005). [27] M. Arzanlou, M. Torbati, Archives Of Phytopathology And Plant Protection 46, 518 (2013). [28] S. G. Bobev, K. Van Poucke, M. Maes, Plant Disease 93, 551 (2009). [29] S. Klimenko, Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research 12, 93 (2004).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01ddab. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., 2016. Cornus mas in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01ddab+



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Cornus sanguinea Cornus sanguinea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats I. Popescu, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The common, or red, dogwood (Cornus sanguinea L.) is a deciduous shrub of cool temperate climates. It is commonly present in most of Europe and West Asia in broadleaved forests as an understorey shrub or in fringes and glades. It grows in different types of soils and conditions, reproducing by seed and also propagating by adventitious roots. Thanks to its abundance of white inflorescences, its purplish red autumn leaves and the winter bright red twigs, it is cultivated as an ornamental plant. Its purplish-black fruits contain seeds rich in fat and are used to make soap and oil for illumination.

Description Cornus sanguinea L., known as common or red dogwood, is a deciduous shrub, which usually grows 3-4 m in height, but it can develop into a small tree reaching 6 m especially in southern ranges1 . Young slender twigs, especially those exposed to sun, are dark red and when crushed the bark has a characteristic smell2, 3 . The leaves are opposite, entire, 4-10 cm long and 3-4 cm wide, broadly elliptical or ovate, hairy, and with short stalks. Their colour is pale green, turning to reddish in autumn. Leaf veins are in 3-5 pairs, arching and convergent. This species is monoecious with numerous fragrant, hermaphrodite flowers, which are dull-white or creamy-white, in 4-5 cm wide, terminal, flat-topped inflorescence on long peduncles, without involucre of bracts. There are five petals which are 4-7 mm long, lanceolate and spreading. The nectar disk is yellowish. The fruit is a globose berry-like drupe, 5-8 mm wide, initially reddish, turning purplishblack at maturity. Sometimes it presents white dots towards the tip. Flowering occurs in May-June after the leaves appear, and fruits mature in September-October2-5 . Besides open pollinated sexual reproduction, it can also propagate vegetatively through adventitious roots5-8 .

Distribution This species is present in most of Europe and the Caucasian region, including the northern part of Iran. It is absent from Scandinavia (except in the southernmost part), from the northeastern part of the British Islands, southern half of the Iberian Peninsula, and southern Greece2-5, 8 . It grows from sea level to over 1500 m in the Alps (Switzerland) and Caucasus Mountains9 .


Leaves are 4-10 cm pale green, turning reddish in autumn. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

has an important ecological significance in forest habitats, offering flowers to insect pollinators8 , fruits to birds and creating understorey habitat for a variety of organisms6, 7, 26, 27.


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Cornus sanguinea. Frequency of Cornus sanguinea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. sanguinea is derived after Liesebach and Götz8 .

Its characteristic dark red twigs in full sun might be explained by an atypical layer of the outer bark formed at the end of each growing season, a layer which may increase the protective value of the bark against sun exposure13 . This species can adapt its reproductive behaviour to habitat conditions, reproducing by seeds, dispersed principally by birds, or limiting the flower blossom and promoting a vigorous clonal growth14 . This species is found in different mixed temperate broadleaved forests dominated by oaks (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea), limes (Tilia spp.), maples (Acer spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.), elms (Ulmus spp.) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), along with other mesophile shrub species, such as spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus), common hazel (Corylus avellana), black elder (Sambucus nigra), barberry (Berberis vulgaris)15 .


Ornamental plant with bright coloured winter stems. (Copyright je_wyer, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology The common dogwood requires cool temperate environments, growing predominantly in sub-Mediterranean and sub-oceanic climates, but penetrating also in more continental and Mediterranean areas1 . It occurs in deciduous forests in the understorey and in the fringes and glades. In the Mediterranean zones it finds refuge in shady areas, river banks and humid thorny thickets3, 4, 10 . It prefers consistently moist, well-drained soils, but it grows in a wide range of soils, from dry to humid with different pH levels6, 7, 10 . It thrives in full sun, tolerating also shade11, 12 .



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References [1] P. Schütt, U. M. Lang, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1994), vol. 3. [2] P. W. Ball, Flora Europaea, Volume 2: Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 77–80. [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] O. Polunin, Flowers of Europe: A Field Guide (Oxford University Press, 1969). [5] T. Săvulescu, ed., Flora Republicii Populare Române, vol 6 (Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1958). [6] S. Morgan, Horticulture Week pp. 18–19 (2007). [7] M. Kimberley, Horticulture Week pp. 22–23 (2012). [8] H. Liesebach, B. Götz, Silvae Genetica 57, 291 (2008). [9] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [10] M. Aránzazu Prada, D. Arizpe, Riparian Tree and Shrub Propagation Handbook: An Aid to Riverine Restoration in the Mediterranean Region (Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, 2008). [11] J. Kollmann, S. A. Reiner, Flora 161, 191 (1996). [12] B. Jelìnek, L. Úradnìček, European Countryside 6 (2014). [13] E. Myśkow, International Journal of Plant Sciences 175, 328 (2014). [14] B. O. Krüsi, M. Debussche, Oecologia 74, 592 (1988).

[15] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [16] E. Gossler, M. Gossler, R. Gossler, The Gossler Guide to the Best Hardy Shrubs (Timber Press, 2009). [17] J. Gardiner, The Timber Press Encyclopedia of Flowering Shrubs (Timber Press, UK, 2014). [18] P. Hanelt, ed., Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Springer, 2001). [19] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [20] M. Oskay, D. Oskay, F. Kalyoncu, Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 8, 293 (2009). [21] W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles Volume 1: A-C (John Murray, 1970), 8th edn. [22] G. Nieto Feliner, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares, Volume 8 HaloragaceaeEuphorbiaceae, S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 2007), pp. 135–138. [23] W. A. Out, Environmental Archaeology 13, 1 (2008). [24] M. S. Stanković, M. D. Topuzović, Acta Botanica Gallica 159, 79 (2012). [25] M. M. Özcan, et al., Grasas y Aceites 60, 147 (2009). [26] J. Kollmann, P. J. Grubb, Ecological Research 14, 9 (1999). [27] A. Hernandez, Bird Conservation International 19, 224 (2009).






This shrub is principally cultivated as an ornamental species for its small white flowers arranged in dense clusters blossoming in spring, its purplish red autumn leaves, and its bright-red winter twigs3, 6-8 . Different cultivars have been selected, such as ‘Midwinter Fire’ and ‘Winter Flame’, with winter stems yellow at the ground level changing to orange and red at the top, or ‘Compressa’ developing as dwarf form16, 17. It can be used in shelter-belts against wind and is frequently planted in the understorey18 . Like other dogwood species, the wood is tough, hard and elastic. It is difficult to work and needs to be dried slowly to avoid cracks19 . It is used only by craftsmen for making small objects, such as tool handles. The flexible twigs can be used as wickers for basket making or for fishing nets4, 5, 20-23 . The fruits are not toxic and have high concentration of vitamin C; however they have an unpleasant taste. They can be used for producing jams and juices1 . Its seeds contain 30 % fats and can be used to make soap, or for oil in gas lamps3-5 . Recent research on the antioxidant activity of leaf and fruit extracts have found an important use in areas of medical botany and pharmacology against multi-drug resistant human pathogens24, 25 . This species

There are no serious pest or disease problems recorded for the common dogwood. Ornamental plants can be prone to attack by anthracnoses or fungi, which reduce their vigour, but do not cause significant damage6, 7.

Flowers have 4 creamy white petals and 4 stamens and are arranged in flat-topped inflorescences. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e019631. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Popescu, I., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Cornus sanguinea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e019631+



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Open Scots pine forest in Finland. (Copyright Anssi Koskinen, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Aurora borealis in coniferous boreal forest (Finnmark, Norway). (Copyright Dan Nordal, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Bog in mire pine forest of the Ķemeri National Park (Jūrmala, Latvia). (Copyright Jevgenij Voronov, unsplash.com: CC0)

Flowering grassland in summer (central Estonia). (Copyright Caroline Sada, unsplash.com: CC0)



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Corylus avellana Corylus avellana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Corylus avellana L. (European hazel or common hazel) is a monoecious and wind-pollinated broadleaf species. It is usually an understorey shrub, very common in naturally regenerated mixed-hardwood stands. It can be found throughout Europe, from Norway to the Iberian Peninsula and east as far as the Urals. This species is very appreciated for its nuts, for which it is cultivated worldwide, especially in European countries such as Turkey, Italy and Spain, and further afield in the United States and Canada. The common hazel (Corylus avellana L.) is typically a shrub reaching 4-8 m tall, occasionally more than 10 m, and the stem is usually branched. The bark is grey with white and large spots. The leaves are deciduous, rounded, 6-12 cm long, with a double serrate margin and hairy on both sides. The flowers appear in early spring, before the leaves, and are monoecious with single-sex wind-pollinated catkins. Male catkins are usually grouped together (2-4 flowers) and are yellowish-brown and up to 10 cm long, while female catkins are very small. During flowering, the inflorescence becomes slender and doubles in length. The fruit is a nut, grouped in clusters of one to four together. Each nut is held in a short leafy involucre (husk) which encloses about half of the nut. The nut is roughly spherical, up to 2 cm long, yellow-brown with a pale scar at the base. The average life span of this species is about 80-90 years1 . Hazelnut can be propagated both in generative (by seeds) and vegetative ways. It is commonly vegetative propagated by shoot and root suckers1 and cuttings2 . In particular, it is able to sprout well and spread quickly after fires3 . Thanks to its larger nuts and thinner shells compared with other hazelnut species, the hazel has been used extensively in breeding programs4 , and there are now more than 400 described cultivars5 . Unfortunately, hazelnut has a well-known drawback: its pollen and nuts represent an important cause of allergic reactions to sensitive people6, 7.

Distribution Hazelnut is widely distributed in Europe, in natural stands ranging from Scandinavia to the south of the continent8 . In the north it can be found in Norway up to 67° N, although its northern limit decreases further to the east9 . It is absent only in Iceland, some of the Mediterranean islands (Cyprus, Malta, the Balearics) and in the northernmost and southeasternmost extremes of the continent. It is also present in North Africa and in Asia Minor10 . It was introduced into North America in the mid-1850s11 , where nowadays the hybrid between Corylus avellana and Corylus americana represents the main option for new crops12 .


Hairy leaves with double-serrated margins. (Copyright Daniele de Rigo: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Corylus avellana. Frequency of Corylus avellana occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for C. avellana is derived after several sources33-36 .

Habitat and Ecology Hazel generally grows as an understorey species in mixed deciduous forests13 . Due to several adaptations at leaf level, it has the capability to grow both in sun (in full light) and shade conditions14 . It grows best on fertile and nutrient-rich, only slightly acid or neutral soils, or it can also thrive on dry calcareous soils1, 15 . Hazelnut prefers moderate climates with enough high temperatures during the growing season, but it can resist cold temperatures or even frosts15 . In Turkey an average temperature of 13-16 °C and rainfall of over 700 mm is considered to provide optimal conditions for hazelnut cultivation16 .


Threats and Diseases In Europe, the pathogens Pseudomonas avellana and P. syringae pv. coryli are responsible for the bacterial canker and decline of hazelnut25, 26 . The disease is characterised by a sudden wilting of the twigs and branches, especially at the end of spring and during the summer27. Moreover, in some European countries such as Spain or Poland, hazelnut is affected by the Apple mosaic virus28, 29 . In North America, it was reported that the main diseases are caused by Anisogramma anomala30, 31 . The nuts could be affected by Fusarium lateritium, which is the causal agent of nut grey necrosis32 .



Traditionally the wood of hazel was used for fencing, barrel hoops, and the wattle in “wattle and daub” plasterwork, and the leaves were used for cattle fodder15 . However, the most valued part of this species is the fruit. From ancient times, hazelnuts have been among the main food components of our ancestors17. In present times it is cultivated for its nuts, and is one of the most economically important tree nut crops worldwide18 . The nuts are rich in protein and contain significant amounts of vitamin E, thiamine, and magnesium. The first five hazel producer and exporter countries in 2012 were Turkey, Italy, USA, Azerbaijan and Georgia19 . Turkish hazelnut production in 2012 was 660 000 tonnes which accounted for more than 75 % of worldwide production19 . The nuts also represent an important food supply during the cold season for several deer species, the edible dormouse, squirrels and birds20, 21 . During the growing season, the leaves provide food for several animals, including invertebrates such as Lepidoptera spp. Recently, it was found that hazel could be a good option for producing taxol, one of the most expensive anti-cancer drugs worldwide22, 23 . Last but not least, hazelnut is appreciated as an ornamental shrub, especially the form with an unusual leaf morphology, namely the cutleaf hazelnut [C. avellana L. f. heterophylla (Loud.) Rehder]24 .


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Maturing nuts can be up to 2 cm long when ripe. (Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Corylus avellana


Yellowish male catkins pollinating before leaf growth. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Ancient hazelnut coppice in Galloway, UK.



References

Typical shrub-form plant in a garden park (Lake Maggiore, North Italy). (Copyright Daniele de Rigo: CC-BY)










[1] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [2] C. Contesa, N. Valentini, M. Caviglione, R. Botta, European Journal of Horticultural Science 76, 170 (2011). [3] W. Tinner, P. Hubschmid, M. Wehrli, B. Ammann, M. Conedera, Journal of Ecology 87, 273 (1999). [4] V. Erdogan, S. A. Mehlenbacher, Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 125, 489 (2000). [5] S. Mehlenbacher, Acta Horticulturae 290, 791 (1991). [6] K. Foetisch, et al., Biochemical Journal 383, 327+ (2004). [7] N. Nikolaieva, J. Brindza, K. Garkava, R. Ostrovsky, Modern Phytomorphology 6, 53 (2014). [8] A. E. Palmé, G. G. Vendramin, Molecular Ecology 11, 1769 (2002). [9] J. Deacon, New Phytologist 73, 1055 (1974). [10] P. Boccacci, et al., Tree Genetics & Genomes 9, 1465 (2013). [11] K. E. Hummer, Acta Horticulturae 556, 25 (2001). [12] L. Braun, J. Gillman, E. Hoover, M. Russelle, Canadian Journal of Plant Science 91, 773 (2011). [13] O. Kull, U. Niinemets, Tree Physiology 12, 311 (1993). [14] R. Catoni, M. U. Granata, F. Sartori, L. Varone, L. Gratani, Photosynthetica 53, 35 (2015). [15] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [16] B. Ustaoglu, M. Karaca, Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 12, 309 (2014). [17] L. Kubiak-Martens, Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 8, 117 (1999). [18] A. İlhami Köksal, N. Artik, A. Şimşek, N. Güneş, Food Chemistry 99, 509 (2006). [19] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division, 2015).

[20] S. B. Vander Wall, The Botanical Review 67, 74 (2001). [21] G. Rodolfi, Acta Theriologica 39, 215 (1994). [22] Y. Wang, et al., Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 40, 861 (2007). [23] F. Bestoso, et al., BMC Biotechnology 6, 45+ (2006). [24] S. A. Mehlenbacher, D. C. Smith, HortScience 41, 482 (2006). [25] M. Scortichini, et al., Phytopathology 95, 1316 (2005). [26] M. Scortichini, Plant Disease 86, 704 (2002). [27] M. Scortichini, U. Marchesi, M. P. Rossi, P. Di Prospero, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, 476 (2002). [28] J. Aramburu, M. Rovira, Plant Pathology 49, 423 (2000). [29] T. Kobylko, B. Nowak, A. Urban, Folia Horticulturae 17, 153 (2005). [30] K. B. Johnson, S. A. Mehlenbacher, J. K. Stone, J. W. Pscheidt, J. N. Pinkerton, Plant Disease 80, 1308 (1996). [31] S. A. Mehlenbacher, J. N. Pinkerton, K. B. Johnson, J. W. Pscheidt, Acta Horticulturae 351, 551 (1994). [32] S. Vitale, et al., Phytopathology 101, 679 (2011). [33] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [34] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [35] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [36] O. de Bolòs, J. Vigo, Flora dels països catalans, vol I-IV (Barcino, Barcelona, 1984-2001).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015486. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Corylus avellana in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015486+



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Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Cupressus sempervirens L., known as Mediterranean or common cypress, is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree characterised by a very variable crown shape, from columnar to spread, dark green foliage and small ovoid brown cones. Its natural habitats are the semi-arid mountains around the eastern Mediterranean basin and Middle East. However, as it has had a long tradition of cultivation since the time of ancient civilizations, its natural range is still not clear. It is a pioneer species, growing quickly when young on most types of soils, including rocky and compact ones, adapted to the Mediterranean climate with dry and hot summers and rainy winters. It can form pure forests or be the dominant tree in pine forests or maquis vegetation. This cypress is widely planted as an ornamental tree, especially the columnar and conical forms, making a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean landscape. Its wood is also appreciated for its durability and scent. Main pests of this cypress are fungal cankers, caused by Seiridium cardinal and Diplodia pinea, and the sap-sucking aphid Cinara cupressi. The Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree, which grows up to 35-40 m with trunks of 1 m in diameter, rarely over 2 m1, 2 . The crown is very variable, from about as broad as it is tall with spreading branches, to the conical or columnar fastigiated form (known also as Italian cypress). Although the two forms have often been described as two different taxa, the columnar is considered to be a cultivated form selected for planting long ago and rare in natural habitats1, 3 . The scale-like dark-green leaves are dense and closely pressed against the twigs, 2-5 mm long. Flowers appear in early spring and may occur on 3-6 year old plants. The cypresses are monoecious wind-pollinated plants. The male flower is cylindrical, 3-5 mm long, yellow when ripe. Pollination occurs from mid-winter to early spring. The female flowers are brownish-green and globose, ripening after one year into brown-grey woody cones, ovoid-shaped, 2-4 cm long, composed of 8-14 opposite scales. Seeds are 8-20 per each scale, brown and narrowly winged, 3-5 mm long, releasing in autumnwinter. Bark is grey-brown with stringy ridges2, 4-7.


a light demanding, drought and heat tolerant species, growing with a rain rate of just 200 mm per year7, 12. Its vegetative growth period coincides with spring and autumn: during the winter period it is quiescent, while it is dormant during the hot summer, from which the cypress can quickly resume after rain thanks to its large shallow root system13. Young plants do not tolerate low temperatures, while adults can survive temperatures down to -20 °C7. It is a pioneer species, growing quickly when young on most substrates but not clay or waterlogged ones. It thrives better than other species on rocky, dry and compact soils, even if it prefers rich, deep, moist and well aerated soil with neutral pH, where however it less competitive12, 14. This cypress can live for over a hundred years: in natural stands 200-500 year old plants are not rare7. One of the oldest living cypresses is located in Italy and is dated as more than 800 years old15. Mediterranean cypress forms open woodlands, as its litter might prevent the development of understorey vegetation due to allelopathic effects12. Over its natural range it develops pure stands or is mixed with Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), black pine (Pinus nigra) or species of maquis scrubland often associated with junipers (Juniperus ssp.)1, 6, 16.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Cupressus sempervirens. Frequency of Cupressus sempervirens occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native and introduced spatial range for C. sempervirens is derived after Faini and Della Rocca16 .

Distribution The natural distribution of this cypress is unclear, due to its long horticultural history in the Mediterranean region2, 8 . Natural stands occur in the south-western Mediterranean basin over several geographically non-adjacent areas reaching eastwards the Caucasus and south-western Iran, from sea level (Crete) up to 2 000 m (Turkey)7. Various authorities attribute its native distribution to the Aegean islands (Crete, Samos, Rhodes, Kos and Symi), Cyprus, Turkey, Middle East (Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iran), and in North-East Africa (Libya, Tunisia)3, 7, 9 , although recent studies on genetic and paleobotanic records presume the presence of central Mediterranean natural populations10 . Today the distribution of this species, principally the columnar form, comprises most of the Mediterranean basin and Middle East, favoured by human cultivations since the time of ancient civilisations, and more recently all over the world as an ornamental tree3, 7. Some populations are recognised as separate varietals and for some authors are treated as different species: Cupressus sempervirens var. numidica in Tunisia and Cupressus sempervirens var. indica in northern Iran10 . The endemic Moroccan cypresses in the High Atlas Mountains are considered as a separate species (Cupressuss altantica)8, 11 , but some authors classify it as varietal of the common cypress (Cupressus sempervirens var. atlantica)2 or of the Tassili cypress (Cupressuss dupreziana var. atlantica)1, 10 .

Habitat and Ecology Tall ornamental cipress with columnar habit in an urban garden (Udine, North-East Italy). (Copyright Graziano Propetto, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)



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(Copyright Alan Gregg, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage The Mediterranean cypress has a long history of exploitation of its natural forests, leading to their strong decline. On the other hand it has been widespread planted throughout the Mediterranean area, and other regions, for ornamental and religious purposes7, 9. Since ancient times its wood has been particularly appreciated for its resistance to fungi and insects, especially if immersed in water7. The wood is suitable for small carpentry, exterior woodworks (doors, windows, garden furniture, etc.) and ship building. The insect repellent odour makes the wood suitable for chests and wardrobes to store linens and foods. It is also used for coffins6. The columnar or conical forms have been used since Greek and Roman times as an ornamental tree for shading gardens, cemeteries, as a windbreak along roads, and it has become a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean coastal and urban landscapes7, 9, 10. More recently, thanks to its ecological qualities, this cypress has been used in forest protection against desertification and soil conservation in hot areas, where the soil is shallow and degraded and no other forest tree species could grow16, 17. Its deep and dense litter and the crown are difficult to ignite, so it can be used as firebreak18, even if regeneration is scarce after wildfires12. Mediterranean cypress also tolerates salty winds, so it is used as coastal windbreak. It has a good resistance to frequent frost damage, trimming and grazing, as it is able to resprout quickly, thus is also suitable as evergreen hedge6, 7, 12, 17.






In natural habitats this cypress occurs in Mediterranean climates with dry and hot summers and rainy winters, or in semiarid climates in the eastern and interior areas of its range1 . It is

One-year old ovoid-shaped seed cones: they take two years to reach maturity.


The most dangerous and widespread disease of cypress is the bark canker caused by the fungus Seiridium cardinale. It was probably introduced from the USA during World War II with military materials sent to European combat zones (Italy, France) or earlier (end of XIX century) with the trade of ornamental cipresses from California19. This parasite has seen numerous successive severe outbreaks in Mediterranean countries since the 70s, also affecting other species of the genus Cupressus. The fungus disperses with water, wind and also with animals, such as birds and insects. It occurs in artificial stands and on ornamental trees. Its management requires the removal of infested trees and the use of genetically resistant forms.



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Cupressus sempervirens

Yellow-orange male flowers at the end of the twigs and a seed cone of the previous year. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Vegetation of a dry riverbed (wadi) with flowering oleander shrubs (Nerium oleander) and cypress trees behind in West Susa (Jabal al Akhdar, North-East Libya). (Copyright Maher27777, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

The fungus Diplodia pinea f. spp. cupressi causes cankers on the stem and branches of water stressed cypresses. Outbreaks have been reported principally in eastern countries of the Mediterranean basin, starting from Israel. The aphid Cinara cupressi is an important pest of several cypress species, causing death in affected trees with intensive sap-sucking activity during outbreaks. This aphid is presumed to have originated from the Mediterranean area; now it is reported in all countries where cypresses are planted. The mite Trisetacus juniperus colonises the foliage of several species of the genera Cupressus and Juniperus and causes also destruction of the apical sprout, giving to affected plants a typical bushy appearance6, 13, 20. Natural stands of Mediterranean cypress are relict of more widespread forests and nowadays are reduced and degraded by centuries of exploitation, deforestation, fires and cattle grazing. They cover an important environmental and naturalistic role, in addition to their genetic biodiversity value. Only recently these stands have been included in protected areas. However, Mediterranean cypress is sufficiently abundant, even in the truly wild forms, to be considered as not in danger of extinction6, 16.

Interior of the wooden seed cone containing up to 20 small winged seeds. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References [1] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [2] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [3] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [4] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [6] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [7] M. Intini, G. Della Rocca, Il cipresso comune (Cupressus sempervirens L.): caratteristiche botaniche, distribuzione, ecologia (Centro Promozione Pubblicità, Firenze, 2004), pp. 13–22. [8] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [9] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 32518/0+. [10] F. Bagnoli, et al., Molecular Ecology 18, 2276 (2009). [11] K. Rushforth, R. P. Adams, M. Zhong, Ma, R. N. Pandey, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 31, 17 (2003).

Cypress in the coastal cliffs near Paleokastritsa (Corfu Island, Greece). (Copyright Jennifer Slot, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

[12] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni dell’Italia centrale (Cleup, Padova, 2010). [13] A. Santini, V. Donardo, Forest Pathology 30, 87 (2000). [14] M. C. Vermigli, Genetic variability in italian populations of Cupressus sempervirens L. assessed by SSR and RAPD markers, Ph.D. thesis (2005). [15] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees (2015). [16] A. Faini, G. Della Rocca, Gestione selvicolturale dei boschi di cipresso in aree naturali e naturalizzate (Centro Promozione Pubblicità, Firenze, 2004), pp. 23–28. [17] G. Della Rocca, Il valore economico del cipresso: paesaggio e ambiente (Centro Promozione Pubblicità, Firenze, 2004), pp. 88–90. [18] G. Della Rocca, et al., Journal of Environmental Management 159, 68 (2015). [19] G. Della Rocca, C. A. Eyre, R. Danti, M. Garbelotto, Phytopathology 101, 1408 (2011). [20] Z. Solel, Z. Madar, M. Kimchi, Y. Golan, Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 9, 115 (1987).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01afb4. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Cupressus sempervirens in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01afb4+



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Eucalyptus globulus Eucalyptus globulus and other eucalypts in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats S. Cerasoli, M. C. Caldeira, J. S. Pereira, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The Eucalyptus globulus Labill., commonly named as Tasmanian blue gum, is an evergreen broadleaf tree native to south-eastern Australia. In Europe it is mainly cultivated in the Iberian Peninsula for paper pulp production, managed as short rotation coppice stands. It is appreciated for its adaptation and fast-growing aptitude. Rapid environmental changes in the Mediterranean region menace Tasmanian blue gum trees increasing the risk of fire, drought and the outbreaks of pests and diseases. The Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.) is a medium to large evergreen broadleaf tree, growing up to 70 m, and is the tallest tree species recorded in Europe1 . The bark is smooth and shed yearly in long ribbons when a new layer of the outermost tissue is formed. Juvenile leaves are ovate, thin, sub-horizontal and covered with a blue grey wax bloom that gives rise to the common name of the species. The adult leaves are lanceolate and shift to vertical hanging. The leaves have roughly circular glands containing aromatic oils. Flowers are solitary and are formed in the axils of leaves. The sepals and petals are united to form a cap (operculum) that covers stamens and that drops off at anthesis2 . The name Eucalyptus originates from this trait common to the entire genus, the words eu and kalyptos, meaning well and covered respectively2 . The fruit is a woody capsule 0.6 to 2.5 cm in diameter3.

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

Distribution The Tasmanian blue gum, a native tree of south-eastern Australia (Tasmania and southern Victoria4), belongs to the angiosperm family of Myrtaceae, which includes more than 800 species2 . It was introduced in south-western Europe (Portugal, Spain) and Northern Africa in the mid 19th century and was planted for industrial purposes, mainly timber and paper pulp3 . Nowadays it is the major pulpwood species planted in temperate regions of the world5 . In Europe, it covers 1.3 million hectares of forested area, mainly in the Iberian Peninsula (more than 80 %), France and Italy6 . In Portugal, the Tasmanian blue gum plantations are at their best in the northern half of the littoral, where winters are mild and precipitation higher (700-2000 mm) than in the Southern and inland regions of the country7. In Spain, eucalypt plantations are mainly in the North Western region (Galicia)8 .

Map 1: Plot distribution for Eucalyptus spp. Frequency of Eucalyptus spp. occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.

Bark sheds in long ribbons. (Copyright J.R. Pinho: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology Among eucalypts, Eucalyptus globulus is the species most used for industrial purposes in Europe. The tree is well adapted to the climate conditions of the Mediterranean region. Limited water supply, together with nutrient supply, are main limiting factors to the growth of the species9 . Also, low temperatures are a major constraint to growth, with air temperatures below -5 °C causing up to 50 % of foliar tissue mortality10 . The Tasmanian blue gum is a fast-growing tree usually managed as short rotation coppice stands (around 12 years) thanks to the ability of the species to regenerate from dormant buds on the stem (epicormics) after felling11 . The fast growth rates result largely from indeterminate shoot growth and the ability to increase leaf area whenever

Eucalypt plantation for industrial purposes. (Copyright J.R. Pinho: CC-BY)

the conditions of soil nutrients, moisture and temperature are good12 . Another feature favouring high growth rate during the early growth stage is the large partitioning of assimilated carbon to leaves at the expense of roots, enhancing leaf area and carbon assimilation rates7.

Juvenile leaves are ovate with a blue grey wax bloom. (Copyright J.R. Pinho: CC-BY)

90

This eucalypt species was introduced as an ornamental tree, but its rapid growth and adaptability to a variety of ecological conditions turned it into a widely planted species for industrial uses, mainly paper pulp, firewood and timber3 . Plantations are managed as short-term coppice crops with rotations from 8 to 12 years. Replanting usually takes place after 2-3 rotations5, 13 . The wood is light yellowish-brown, moderately durable, and has also a high incidence of spiral grains, so that it is difficult to nail. It needs care when sawing and drying to minimize defects. Generally the sawn timber is not of high quality13 . Tasmanian blue gum is also utilized for non-wood products, such as the extraction of essential oils for medical and cosmetic applications from leaves3 . Although this species has modest concentrations of crude oil compared with other eucalypts, the large amount of leaf biomass helps to increase the production per unit land area. Its flowers produce abundant pollen and nectar, which are used for honey production13 . It has also been planted for windbreak and shelter belts along orchards, pastures and roads, and also for environmental purposes, such as erosion and salinity control, or even mining site rehabilitation and for drying marshy areas13 .



Flower caps, which protect them before blossoming. (Copyright John Tann, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Eucalyptus globulus

Adult leaves are lanceolate and contain glands with aromatic oils. (Copyright Forest & Kim Starr, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases The Tasmanian blue gum is facing major rapid environmental changes in the Mediterranean region14, with increased risks of drought, fire, pests and diseases. As an exotic species in Europe, the Tasmanian blue gum was free of natural enemies for more than 100 years. However, a number of pests and diseases with biological and economic impact have been detected in the last decades15. Examples are the bark borer (Phoracantha semipunctata), defoliating insects from the genus Gonipterus spp. or fungal leaf pathogens (Mycosphaerella spp.). Although the risk of fire in the Mediterranean region is high, the Tasmanian blue gum is a fire-resilient species that has a high probability of surviving fires due to its capability of re-sprouting from epicormics and/or basal buds16 . Eucalypts are also vulnerable to the soil borne Phytophthora pathogens such as Phytophthora cinnamomi, that causes severe widespread tree dieback particularly in south-western Australia17-19 .

Flowers have numerous white stamens which give a feathery appearence. (Copyright J.R. Pinho: CC-BY)

References

Other eucalypts in Europe Other eucalypts have been selected for plantation in Europe for their better adaptation to different environmental conditions and purposes. The red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.) is the dominant species in plantations around the Mediterranean basin, appreciated for its ability to thrive and produce acceptable yields on relatively poor soils with a prolonged dry season3 . In Europe it is planted principally in Spain and Portugal22, 23 , but it is also present in past and recent plantations or afforestation programmes in Italy (Sardinia, Sicily, mainland coasts)24, 25 , France (French Riviera and Corsica)26, 27, Greece (Aegean Islands)28 , Malta 29 , Cyprus30, 31 and Turkey32 . This species is better adapted for timber than pulp production, and is also employed for shelterbelts and as an ornamental3 . The shining gum tree (Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) Maiden) is adapted to cold temperate climates, as it is less susceptible to low temperatures and frost. In Europe it is planted in northern Portugal and Spain, France, United Kingdom and Ireland for pulpwood, appreciated for its high yields and good quality wood33, 34 . The cider gum (Eucalyptus gunnii Hook. f.) has greater frost resistence and is cultivated in France, United Kingdom and Ireland. This species, usually used for ornamental purposes and windbreaks, has encountered recent interest as a source of wood fuel, even if it shows slower growth rates and poorer pulping quality in comparison with E. globulus and E. nitens3, 33, 35, 36 . In France and United Kingdom the Eucalyptus viminalis Labill. is planted for shelterbelts or as an ornamental3 . Beside the selection of well adapted species, genetic improvement of the eucalypts has been carried out targeting productivity, genetic diversity and wood quality, and improved clonal or seminal plants are nowadays used in European plantations mainly in Portugal and Spain37. Understorey of a eucalypt plantation with dense covering of shed bark making it difficult for other vegetation to grow. (Copyright Forest & Kim Starr, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)










[1] G. Iglesias-Trabado, Eucalyptus: The giants of spain & portugal (2007). GIT Forestry Consulting’s Ecualyptologics Blog. Availabe at: http://git-forestry-blog.blogspot.com/2007/07/ eucalyptus-giants-of-spain-portugal.html. [2] I. Brooker, Eucalyptus: the genus Eucalyptus, J. J. W. Coppen, ed. (Francis & Taylor, London, New York, 2002), pp. 14–46. [3] M. R. Jacobs, Eucalypts for planting, vol. 11 of FAO Forestry Series (Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1981). [4] G. W. Dutkowski, B. M. Potts, Australian Journal of Botany 47, 237 (1999). [5] W. N. Tibbits, D. B. Boomsma, S. Jarvis, Proceedings of the 24th Biennial Southern Tree Improvement Conference, June 9 to 12 1997, Orlando, Florida, T. White, D. Huber, G. Powell, eds. (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997), pp. 81–95. [6] G. Iglesias-Trabado, D. Wilstermann, Eucalyptus universalis,Global cultivated eucalypt forests map 2008, Version 1.0.1 (GIT Forestry Consulting’s Eucalyptologics, 2008). www.git-forestry.com. [7] A. M. Alves, A. V. Correia, J. a. S. Pereira, Silvicultura: a Gestão dos Ecossistemas Florestais (Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 2012). [8] F. González-Rio, A. Merino Barrios, J. Brañas Lasala, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 9, 317 (2000). [9] C. Araújo, et al., Annales des Sciences Forestières 46, 526s (1989). [10] M. H. Almeida, M. M. Chaves, J. C. Silva, Tree Physiology 14, 921 (1994). [11] R. D. Geoffry, Eucalyptus: the genus Eucalyptus, J. J. W. Coppen, ed. (Francis & Taylor, London, New York, 2002), pp. 193–211. [12] J. W. Turnbull, New Forests 17, 37 (1999). [13] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [14] P. Miranda, et al., Climate change in Portugal: Scenarios, Impacts and Adaptation Measures, F. D. Santos, K. Forbes, R. Moita, eds. (Gradiva, Lisbon, 2002), pp. 23–83. [15] M. Branco, O Eucaliptal em Portugal, Impactes ambientais e investigação cientifica, A. M. Alves, J. S. Pereira, J. M. N. Silva, eds. (ISAPress, Lisboa, 2007), pp. 255–282. [16] F. X. Catry, F. Moreira, R. Tujeira, J. S. Silva, Forest Ecology and Management 310, 194 (2013). [17] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [18] T. Burgess, M. J. Wingfield, Microorganisms in Plant Conservation and Biodiversity, K. Sivasithamparama, K. W. Dixon, R. L. Barrett, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2002), pp. 285–306. [19] D. Cahill, B. Grant’, G. Weste, Australasian Plant Pathology 14, 59 (1985).

[20] C. M. Brasier, F. Robredo, J. F. P. Ferraz, Plant Pathology 42, 140 (1993). [21] C. M. Brasier, Annales des Sciences Forestières 53, 347 (1996). [22] M. Menezes de Sequeira, D. Espìrito-Santo, C. Aguiar, J. Capelo, J. Honrado, eds., Checklist da Flora de Portugal (Continental, Açores e Madeira) (Associação Lusitana de Fitossociologia, Lisboa, 2011). [23] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [24] L. Celesti-Grapow, F. Pretto, E. Carli, C. Blasi, eds., Flora vascolare alloctona e invasiva delle regioni d’Italia (Casa Editrice Università La Sapienza, Roma, 2010). [25] E. Campisi, F. Mancianti, G. Pini, E. Faggi, G. Gargani, European Journal of Epidemiology 18, 357 (2003). [26] J.-C. Rameau, D. Mansion, G. Dumé, C. Gauberville, Flore forestière française: Région méditerranéenne, vol. 3 (Institut pour le Développement Forestier, Paris, 2008). [27] D. Jeanmonod, Candollea 70, 109 (2015). [28] E. Harvala, O. Kretsi, I. B. Chinou, Natural Products in the New Millennium: Prospects and Industrial Application, A. Rauter, F. Palma, J. Justino, M. Araújo, S. dos Santos, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2002), vol. 47 of Proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of Europe, pp. 235–239. [29] P. J. Schembri, E. Lanfranco, Proceedings of seminar "Introduction of alien species of flora and fauna", Qawra, Malta, 5 March 1996, A. E. Baldacchino, A. Pizzuto, eds. (Environment Protection Department, Floriana, Malta, 1996), pp. 29–54. [30] G. W. Chapman, Unasylva 6, 160 (1952). [31] M. Akin, A. Aktumsek, A. Nostro, African Journal of Biotechnology 9, 531 (2010). [32] O. Unsal, N. Ayrilmis, Journal of Wood Science 51, 405 (2005). [33] A. D. Leslie, M. Mencuccini, M. Perks, Quarterly Journal of Forestry 105, 43 (2011). [34] S. Pérez, C. J. Renedo, A. Ortiz, M. Mañana, D. Silió, Thermochimica Acta 451, 57 (2006). [35] A. D. Leslie, M. Mencuccini, M. Perks, Applied Energy 89, 176 (2012). [36] B. M. Potts, W. C. Potts, B. Cauvin, Silvae Genetica 36, 194 (1987). [37] M. Borralho, M. Almeida, B. Potts, O Eucaliptal em Portugal, Impactes ambientais e investigação cientifica, A. M. Alves, J. S. Pereira, J. M. N. Silva, eds. (ISAPress, Lisboa, 2007), pp. 61–110.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01b5bb. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Cerasoli, S., Caldeira, M. C., Pereira, J. S., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Eucalyptus globulus and other eucalypts in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01b5bb+



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Euonymus europaeus Euonymus europaeus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats I. Popescu, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Euonymus europaeus L., known as spindle, is a shrub or small tree, appreciated for its numerous, capsular pink and red fruits and the attractive autumn colouring foliage. It has a wide distribution in temperate regions, generally at low to middle elevations. It is present in Central and Eastern Europe up to the Caucasus as an understorey shrub principally in the mixed broadleaved oak-hornbeam forests. It is used as an ornamental plant and more recently for extracting compounds of medicinal and veterinary value. This species is free from serious threats, but it can be a host of several diseases of agricultural interest. The spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus L.) is a much-branched, non-spiny, deciduous shrub or small tree, growing 2-6 m tall, rarely reaching up to 8 m. The bark is grey in colour and smooth1 . The young twigs are green, 4-angled, without brown protuberances. New shoots grow vigorously, also 4-angled and winged. The buds are 2-4 mm long, ovoid, sharply pointed. The leaves are simple, opposite, lanceolate or ovate-elliptical, 3-10 cm long and 2-3.5 cm wide, narrowing at tip and base. The leaf margins are crenate and finely saw-toothed and the leaves have a rough surface and are bluish-green beneath. The petioles are 0.5-1 cm long1-5 . This species is gynodioecious, having female flowers on some individual plants and hermaphrodite flowers on others1 . The flowers are small, delicate and about 1 cm in diameter. They are arranged in inflorescences of 3-10 flowers in leaf axils, on 1-3.5 cm long pedicels, having 4 elements of each of the floral whorls (sepals, petals, stamens and carpels). They blossom in AprilJuly4, 6 . The fruits are capsules, 1-1.5 cm wide, with 4 angled lobes, green then dark pink or red when mature. Ripe fruits open through 4 valves, containing 4 whitish seeds covered by a fleshy red-orange layer (pseudo-aril). Fruits ripen in September-October2-5 .


Fleshy orange fruit ripening inside the four-valved red capsule. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

the current populations appear stable1, 17-19 . This species can be a host of other diseases, such as a strain of cucumber mosaic virus, strawberry latent ringspot and in some countries, a strain of cherry leaf roll virus1 . Despite its toxicity, scales and aphids can adapt to survive its otherwise ‘insecticidal’ chemistry1, 10, 17-19 . Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Euonymus europaeus. Frequency of Euonymus europaeus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for E. europaeus is derived after several sources7, 20-25 .

Distribution The spindle tree is present in temperate climates, from Central to Eastern Europe (except the extreme north and most of the Mediterranean area), and reaches eastwards the Urals and Caucasus2-5, 7. It grows generally at low to middle elevations, from sea level to 1 300 m of altitude in Sicily6, 8 . It has been planted outside its natural range, now naturalised in some areas (e.g. Scandinavia). Exported also to other continents, in northeast United States and in New Zealand it is considered an invasive species1 .

Habitat and Ecology It inhabits mainly forest margins, clearings and open woodlands, preferring medium moisture levels, and well-drained, preferably alkaline soils in full to partial shade1 . It is frequently found as an understorey shrub, principally in mixed mesophilous forests dominated by deciduous oaks (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea) and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), forming oakhornbeam forest communities, along with ash (Fraxinus excelsior), field maple (Acer campestre), etc.9 . The pseudo-aril is eaten by a range of animals and its seeds are widely dispersed mainly by birds (robins, blackbirds, blackcap, and song thrush) and rodents, but the seeds are poisonous1, 10, 11 .

effects to foxglove (Digitalis spp.). Dried, powdered fruits and seeds mixed in butter were used to deter lice4 . Antifungal chitin-binding proteins have been isolated from bark and leaves14-16 . The whole plant contains compounds of medicinal and veterinary value1, 10, 11 .

Threats and Diseases There are no serious threats for this species1 . The spindle tree is the primary overwintering host of the black bean aphid (Aphis fabae) which feeds on field beans (Vicia faba) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) and the peach potato aphid/green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), a widespread pest of a large number of crops1, 17-19 . As a measure against black bean aphid, in the past spindle trees have been removed from hedges and woodlands (e.g. England), although

Blossoming hermaphrodite flower with 4 green petals, sepals and 4 yellow stamens. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References

Importance and Usage The spindle tree is used mainly as an ornamental shrub for its impressive autumn display of orange, red and purple leaves, accented by magenta pink to red fruits with orange to red pseudoarils. For example, the cultivar ‘Red Cascade’ in autumn has red leaves and abundant red fruits with rose pseudo-arils12 . The wood of the spindle is homogenous, white or yellowish, and easy to work. It is used, more in the past, for plywood and toothpicks4, knitting needles, combs, and for making spindles, from which the common name derives13; the wood is also heat resistant and it was used in making tobacco-pipes13. Charcoal from its wood is used for drawing, and to make charcoal powder. The red pseudo-aril was also used in the past to make dyes4 . The bark, the leaves and the seeds were used as a purgative, but they are toxic, with similar cardio-stimulant




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Shrub form of spindle in late autumn in a rural area along the Upper Rhine valley (Hockenheim, South-West Germany).



[1] P. A. Thomas, M. El-Barghathi, A. Polwart, Journal of Ecology 99, 345 (2011). [2] T. G. Tutin, Flora Europea. Volume 2. Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), p. 242. [3] O. Polunin, Flowers of Europe: A Field Guide (Oxford University Press, 1969). [4] T. Săvulescu, ed., Flora Republicii Populare Române, vol 6 (Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1958). [5] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [6] S. Pignatti, Flora d’Italia (Edagricole, Bologna., 1982). [7] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [8] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [9] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [10] R. Nishida, Annual Review of Entomology 47, 57 (2002). [11] P. Vichova, L. Jahodar, Human & Experimental Toxicology 22, 467 (2003). [12] A. McIndoe, The Horticulture Gardener’s Guides - Shrubs (David & Charles, Devon, UK, 2005). [13] A. Nedelcheva, Y. Dogan, D. ObratovPetkovic, I. Padure, Human Ecology 39, 813 (2011).

[14] K. P. Bergh, et al., Planta 219, 221 (2004). [15] N. van der Weerden, M. Bleackley, M. Anderson 70, 3545 (2013). [16] A. J. De Lucca, T. E. Cleveland, D. E. Wedge, Canadian Journal of Microbiology 51, 1001 (2005). [17] M. J. Way, M. E. Cammell, Journal of Applied Ecology 19, 929 (1982). [18] M. E. Cammell, G. M. Tatchell, I. P. Woiwod, Journal of Applied Ecology 26, 463 (1989). [19] G. Powell, C. R. Tosh, J. Hardie, Annual Review of Entomology 51, 309 (2006). [20] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org [21] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [22] S. I. Sokolov, O. A. Svjaseva, V. A. Kubli, Distribution ranges of trees and shrubs in the USSR, vol 1-3 (Nauka, Leningrad, 1977-1986). (In Russian). [23] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2015). http://www.flora-on.pt [24] Bundesamtes für Naturschutz, ed., FloraWeb (2015). http://www.floraweb.de. [25] P. H. Davis, Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 2 (Edinburgh University Press, 1967).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01c0ac. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Popescu, I., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Euonymus europaeus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01c0ac+



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Spruce forests over the Grüner See (Green Lake) near Tragöß village (Styria, Austria). (Copyright scenerynut, pixabay.com: CC0)

Meadows and spruce stands in winter in the Dolomites (North-East Italy). (Copyright Umberto Salvagnin, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

East and north faces of the Matterhorn from the Domhütte (Valais, Switzerland). (Copyright Sven Scheuermeier, unsplash.com: CC0)

Meadows and spruce stands in summer in Badia Valley (Bolzano, North-East Italy). (Copyright Giuseppe Milo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Fagus sylvatica Fagus sylvatica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Fagus sylvatica L., or European beech, is one of the most important and widespread broadleaved trees in Europe. It is a large deciduous tree that can maintain its high growth rate until late maturity. Its natural range extends from southern Scandinavia to Sicily, from Spain in the west to northwest Turkey in the east. Though not demanding of soil type, beech requires a humid atmosphere with precipitation well distributed throughout the year and a well-drained soil. It tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. Owing to the capacity of its root system for assisting in the circulation of air throughout the soil, and the amount of potash in its leaves, Beech trees conserve the productive capacity of the soil better than many other species. Its wood is strong and wears well making it ideal for a wide range of uses, from furniture to musical instruments, as well as for pulp and firewood. The European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a large deciduous tree that commonly reaches 30-40 m and is capable of attaining heights up to 50 m in some locations1 . In contrast to many other tree species, it is able to maintain a high rate of growth until a relatively mature age. The tree is usually single-stemmed with silver-grey bark. The leaves are typically 10 × 7 cm, dark and shiny green. They have an oval to elliptic shape, with wavy margins and short teeth at the end of the parallel veins on each side2, 3 . Beech is monoecious: the male and female flowers are borne on the same branches. It has a typical life span of around 150-300 years, and reproduces very late (40-50 years old). Fruiting normally occurs every 5 to 8 years. Its seed production is characterised by irregular mast years (when a very heavy crop is produced), usually following hot summers of the previous year. The bitter edible nuts are sharply tri-angled and are borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks. The beech nuts are an important source of food for several animals and birds including squirrels, woodpigeons, woodpeckers and jays; they also play a major part in seed dispersal by hiding the seeds and failing to retrieve all of them1 .

Distribution Beech is widespread across Europe: it can be found from Sicily in the south to Bergen in southern Norway4-6 . An analysis of pollen records indicate that the species has spread across Europe from small scattered populations left after the last glaciation, and is currently probably at its maximum post-glacial spread7. It needs a growing season of at least 140 days, and for this reason cannot survive too far north in Scandinavia7. Longitudinally its range is from the Cantabrian Mountains in the west to the Carpathians and Balkan Mountains in the east, although there are some areas in Europe where it is not found as a native tree, such as the Po valley and the Hungarian plain. As the climate becomes more continental in the eastern parts of Europe it is replaced by oriental beech (Fagus


Large beech in a mountain pasture in Piani di Praglia (Genova, North Italy). (Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fagus sylvatica. Frequency of Fagus sylvatica occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. sylvatica is derived after Meusel and Jäger, and EUFORGEN27, 28 .

orientalis). At the southern part of its range (Spain, Sicily) it is only normally present at altitudes of more than 1 000 m, and can even be found at elevations of up to 2 000 m1, 8 . High summer temperatures, drought and moisture availability are limiting factors for the distribution of beech in Europe, but continentality is also associated with limiting its spread in north-western regions4 . Climate change may have impacts on its future distribution, particularly at the extremes of its range where it is likely to become less competitive in the south and east (primarily because of drought), but could expand its range into Scandinavia and the Baltic9.

Beech is a hardy species. It tolerates very shady situations (it is the most shade-tolerant broadleaved tree in its range10), so that natural regeneration is possible in silvicultural systems with continuous crown coverage as the seedlings are able to survive and grow below the canopy of established trees. The predominance of beech means a reduction of light level in the understorey vegetation level and in that case beech seeds survive better than those of other tree species. It is not particularly soilsensitive11 and grows on a wide variety of soils with a pH range from 3.5 to 8.5, although it cannot tolerate the most acidic conditions. Beech shows a moderate soil-acidifying ability12 . It prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic and is also sensitive to late frosts13; therefore it is found more often on the side of a hill than at the bottom of a clayey basin. It grows well on soft soils in which the root system can easily penetrate and its optimal growth is in humid soils situated on calcareous or volcanic parent rocks. On the contrary, it does not thrive on sites that are regularly flooded or which have stagnant water, since it needs good drainage and will not tolerate waterlogged or compacted soils1, 14 . Beech furthers soil conservation due to its production of a large quantity of litter (around 900 g/m2 per year). The root system tends to be shallow, making it susceptible to drought when compared to coniferous stands15 . However, there appears to be some genetic variability across different climatic zones, since trees in southern Europe are able to cope better with drought than those in the north1 .

Uncertain, no-data


Marginal/no presence < 5%

Beech is an important European forestry tree. Fine grained and knot-free, the wood is hard and has a pale cream colour and good workability16 . With around 250 known usages, it is one of the most diversely used tree species in Europe. Its wear-resistance, strength, and excellent bending capabilities make it ideal for boatbuilding, flooring, stairs, furniture, musical instruments (piano pinblocks), plywood, panels, veneering and cooking utensils such as bowls, platters and wooden spoons. It is also used for pulp and can be coppiced for fire wood and charcoal due to its relatively high energetic potential1, 8, 16 .

Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%



The root system architecture of beech may vary depending on local soil conditions17. While generally showing a noticeable resistance to rockfall and wind-throw17, 18 , under unfavourable local conditions a relatively shallow root system may make the tree vulnerable to wind-throw1 . The thin bark provides little protection from fire, and can also be damaged through stripping


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Shiny dark green leaves with red galls caused by the fly Mikiola fagi (Diptera Cecidomyiidae). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



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Fagus sylvatica

Fagus orientalis Fagus orientalis, or oriental beech, is closely related to Fagus sylvatica. Some authorities consider them to be sub-species; others consider them to be two separate species1 . In appearance they are generally very similar. The leaves are slightly longer, darker and less glossy than those of European beech, and tend to have more vein-pairs (9-14 as opposed to 5-9)3 . Oriental beech can be found in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Caucasus, northern Iran and Crimea18 . Its range overlaps with that of the European beech and there is frequently hybridisation between the two18 . Where both species are present, oriental beech tends to favour the valleys while European beech is found further up the slopes; this is because the European beech is more susceptible to late frosts12 .


Foliage and fruits of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis). (Copyright Drahkrub, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

and gnawing by squirrels and other mammals. The presence of deer is a limiting factor because they eat young stands. Spring frosts often damage young trees or flowers appearing at the same time as leaves. Young beech trees are susceptible to woolly aphid; mature trees can suffer internal rot by the fungus Ganoderma applanatum. Old trees (100-1 200 years) may suffer ’red heart’ which reduces stability and timber value8 . Beech is among the susceptible hosts to Phytophthora ramorum and large regions across Europe have climatic suitability to this pest,


which may become a more serious problem in the future5 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is harmful for beech and markedly coexists with part of its natural niche19-22 . Herbivory by short-snouted weevils (Strophosoma melanogrammum Forst. and Otiorhynchus scaber) is another threat to beech21, 22 .

References

Mature beech forest with autumn colour foliage in Delamere forest, Cheshire, UK. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)










[1] J . R. Packham, P. A. Thomas, M. D. Atkinson, T. Degen, Journal of Ecology 100, 1557 (2012). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] J. Fang, M. J. Lechowicz, Journal of Biogeography 33, 1804 (2006). [5] R. Baker, et al., EFSA Journal 9, 2186+ (2011). 108 pp. [6] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [7] D. Magri, Journal of Biogeography 35, 450 (2008). [8] T. Horgan, et al., A guide to forest tree species selection and silviculture in Ireland. (National Council for Forest Research and Development (COFORD), 2003). [9] K. Kramer, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 259, 2213 (2010). The ecology and silviculture of beech: from gene to landscape. [10] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [11] L. Walthert, E. Graf Pannatier, E. S. Meier, Forest Ecology and Management 297, 94 (2013). [12] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [13] L. Paule, Forest Genetics 2, 161 (1995). [14] A. Geßler, et al., Trees - Structure and Function 21, 1 (2007). [15] A. Granier, et al., Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 143, 123 (2007). [16] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995).

[17] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [18] L. K. A. Dorren, F. Berger, C. le Hir, E. Mermin, P. Tardif, Forest Ecology and Management 215, 183 (2005). [19] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [20] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [21] M. Löf, Forest Ecology and Management 134, 111 (2000). [22] M. Löf, G. Isacsson, D. Rydberg, T. N. Welander, Forest Ecology and Management 190, 281 (2004). [23] G. Kandemir, Z. Kaya, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) (Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 2009). [24] A. Oprea, C. Sîrbu, I. Goia, Contributii Botanice 46, 17 (2011). [25] M. Šijačić Nikolić, J. Milovanović, M. Nonić, R. Knežević, D. Stanković, Genetika 45, 369 (2013). [26] T. Denk, G. Grimm, K. Stögerer, M. Langer, V. Hemleben, Plant Systematics and Evolution 232, 213 (2002). [27] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989). [28] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of beech (Fagus sylvatica) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [29] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [30] K. Browicks, J. Zieliński, Chorology of trees and shrubs in south-west Asia and adjacent regions, vol. 1 (Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa, Poznań, 1982).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012b90. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Fagus sylvatica and other beeches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012b90+



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Frangula alnus Frangula alnus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats B. Zecchin, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.) is a shrub or small tree of 4-5 m, characterised by fleshy fruits. Its wide distribution covers most of the temperate forest zone of Europe up to the Urals and Caucasus, occurring even in the southern Boreal and cool Mediterranean forests. It is a light-demanding pioneer species, thriving on forest edges and fens in different habitats and vegetation communities. Its soft wood is used for gunpowder and its fruits are known for being a strong laxative and are used in dye making. Some varieties are used as ornamental shrubs and are planted outside its natural range. This species is classified as highly invasive in North America and is under prevention and control programmes. Alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill. syn. Rhamnus frangula L.) is a shrub commonly 4-5 m tall, which can develop with age into a small tree up to 7 m in height1, 2 . Branches are multi-stemmed, not very regular and arranged in alternate pairs. The bark on young shoots is green, becoming grey-brown. Buds are naked, consisting of miniature leaves heavily clothed in brown hairs. Leaves are obovate, with an entire but wavy margin, shiny upper surface and markedly parallel veins, turning a clear yellow and red in autumn3 . The flowers are hermaphrodite, white-greenish, 4 mm diameter4 with a five-part corolla, and are arranged in small groups in the leaf axils3 . Flowers produce nectar secretions which attract insects for pollination2, 4, 5 . The mature fleshy fruits are globose drupes with 3 (rarely 2) separate one-seeded stones4 . They are 6-10 mm across, changing from green to red, then to violet-black on ripening3 . Birds are the main dispersers of seeds, but other potential dispersal agents include small mammals, gravity and water2 . Flowering and fruit development seasons are variable, showing temporal differences between populations at the southern and northern parts of the distribution5 .


Threats and Diseases The alder buckthorn is generally free from any significant pests and disease8 . It can be a host in the life cycle of the crown rust fungus (Puccinia coronata), which affects oat and barley15, 16 . In southern Spain relict populations of Frangula alnus subsp. baetica, which occur at the limits of geographic range for this species, are in decline and threatened by increasing summer droughts17. On the contrary, in North America this species is ranked as “highly invasive”, due to its tendency to replace native plants, and several prevention and control programmes have been started where dominant alder buckthorn can negatively affect native species richness, simplify vegetation structure, disrupt food webs and delay succession2, 7.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Frangula alnus. Frequency of Frangula alnus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. alnus is derived after Meusel and Jäger6 .

Distribution Alder buckthorn has a wide distribution, occurring over most of the temperate area of Europe and western Asia, covering also northern parts of the Mediterranean region and southern Boreal areas, except the extreme north1 . Its elevational range is from sea level in southern Scandinavia to 2 000 m in Spain. Eastwards this species reaches the Ural Mountains and Caucasus. It is also present in North-West Africa, in Algeria and Morocco3, 6 . Several subspecies and varieties have been described through most of its natural range. Probably introduced before 1800 as an ornamental

and butchers’ skewers2, 12 . Bark, leaves and unripe berries can be used to obtain the sap-green dye and other dyes3, 12 . Different cultivars have been selected for ornamental purposes, such as ‘Asplenifolia’ with very fine leaves used for gardening, or ‘Tall hedge’ with a columnar habit and used for hedging. The alder buckthorn also has an ecological importance, providing winter food for birds, mice and other small mammals with its berries and seeds, improving species richness with its presence2 . The presence of the yellow brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx rhamni) is closely related to the range of alder buckthorn, which is a natural host plant providing food for its larvae13, 14 .

plant, it is widespread in North America and has been naturalised since the last century, with an increasing abundance generally over time2, 7. Linnaeus described this species as Rhamnus frangula, but it was renamed by the Scottish botanist Philip Miller in 1768 because its tiny green-white flowers are hermaphrodite with five petals, in contrast with those of Rhamnus species, which are dioecious with a four-part corolla 8 .

Habitat and Ecology Alder buckthorn is a light-demanding pioneer species which thrives in temperate forests principally on mildly acid moist soils although it can be found also in other soil types. It prefers humid and wet habitats, avoiding permanent waterlogging, but also can colonse rocky and dry soils. It can build up large populations on fens, clear-cut areas or forest edges, later becoming substituted by secondary species3 . In the southern areas it tends to colonise mainly cool riparian forests concentrated in mountain ranges9 . Thanks to its frugality and adaptation to several habitats, this species can be found in different forest communities in the shrub layer, such as the mixed coniferous lowland boreal forests in Scandinavia dominated by spruce (Picea abies) and birch (Betula spp.), in the temperate mixed broadleaved forests in Central Europe with oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) and beech (Fagus sylvatica), or in the Mediterranean cool alluvial forests with alder (Alnus glutinosa), poplars (Populus spp.) and willows (Salix spp.)10, 11 .


Young alder buckthorn in shrub form. This species rarely develops over 7 m in height. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)



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Since the Middle Ages, the alder buckthorn has been used in folk medicine for its extremely laxative effects of bark or black berry decoctions12 . The wood is soft, pale orange and can produce a very high quality and fast-burning charcoal, used for producing gunpowder. Today the Swiss black powder is still made with alder buckthorn and is used for fireworks, blast fuses and various military applications2, 3, 12 . Over the years the wood was also used for making walking sticks, umbrella handles, wooden pegs



Violet black mature fruits: these fleshy drupes are principally dispersed by birds. (Copyright Roberta Alberti, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References [1] T. G. Tutin, Flora Europaea, Volume 2: Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), p. 245. [2] C. Gucker, Frangula alnus. Fire Effects Information System (2008). http://www. feis-crs.org/feis [3] H. Godwin, Journal of Ecology 31, 77 (1943). [4] D. Medan, Plant Systematics and Evolution 193, 173 (1994). [5] K. Bolmgren, O. Eriksson, Oikos 124, 639 (2015). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [7] CABI, Frangula alnus (alder buckthorn) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [8] G. Hemery, S. Simblet, The New Sylva: A Discourse of Forest and Orchard Trees for the Twenty-First Century (A&C Black, 2014). [9] A. V. Pérez Latorre, B. Cabezudo, Flora de Andalucìa Occidental, G. Blanca, B. Cabezudo, M. Cueto, C. Morales Torres, C. Salazar, eds. (Universidades de Almerìa, Granada, Jaén y Málaga, Granada, 2011), pp. 902–908, second edn.

[10] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [11] European Environment Agency, EUNIS, the European Nature Information System (2015). http://eunis.eea.europa.eu [12] G. Hatfield, Hatfield’s Herbal: The Curious Stories of Britain’s Wild Plants (Penguin, UK, 2009). [13] A. Hoskins, Brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni) (2015). Learn About Butterflies. www.learnaboutbutterflies.com. [14] M. J. R. Cowley, et al., Journal of Applied Ecology 37, 60 (2000). [15] H. C. Murphy, Physiologic specialization in Puccinia coronata avenae, vol. 433 of Technical Bulletins (United States Department of Agriculture, 1935). [16] M. Liu, S. Hambleton, Mycological Progress 12, 63 (2013). [17] A. Hampe, Oecologia 143, 377 (2005).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e019ee2. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Zecchin, B., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Frangula alnus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e019ee2+



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Fraxinus angustifolia Fraxinus angustifolia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, T. Houston Durrant Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl, narrowed-leaved ash, is a medium-sized tree with a wide range, which covers central-southern Europe and northwest Africa, up to the Caucasus. The northern part of its distribution overlaps with that of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), with which it can naturally hybridise, developing plants with intermediate trait forms. It is a fastgrowing pioneer species, occurring in temperate forests. In Mediterranean regions it tends to grow in cooler areas at higher elevations or along rivers and wetlands. If can be found as dominant or secondary species in mixed broadleaved forests. The wood has a lower quality in comparison with the common ash and pure timber plantations are rare. In Turkey it is more used in fast-growing poplar-like plantations on swampy lowlands for the production of pulpwood and bonded wood. Similar to common ash, it is susceptible to dieback caused by the fungus Chalara fraxinea, which has caused serious damage in nurseries and in lowland forest stands of central Europe. On the other hand, in Australia it represents an invasive species forming dense monocultures in riparian areas and along drainage lines. The narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl) is a medium-sized deciduous tree, growing 40-45 m in height and up to 1.5 m in diameter. The crown is dense, irregular and dome shaped, with short and pendulous shoots. Its bark is grey and becomes finely and deeply reticulate-fissured. The leafs are compound, arranged in groups of 7-13, odd pinnate, and are slender, 3-8 cm long and 1-1.5 cm broad, shiny green and hairless. The species is monoecious with hermaphrodite inflorescences of 10-30 flowers; however some inflorescences with pure male flowers can appear (andromonoecious). Flowers are wind pollinated, developing in early spring or even in autumn, without petals, green with dark purple stigmas and anthers. The fruit is a samara 3-4 cm long, flattened, with a distal wing, ripening at the end of the summer1-4 .


tree in cities and along roads3 . Like manna ash (Fraxinus ornus), the phloem sap can be extracted by incising the bark, and dried in the air obtaining edible flakes called manna. Manna was appreciated for its bitter-sweet taste and for its mild osmotic laxative and diuretic properties, more recently used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Following a centuries old tradition, it is still harvested in a few rural areas in Sicily18, 19 .

Threats and Diseases As is the common ash, the narrow-leaved ash is also susceptible to dieback caused by the fungus Chalara fraxinea, the anamorphic stage of Hymenoscyphus albidus, which has caused serious damage in nurseries and in lowland forest stands of central Europe20-22 . This fungus is potentially subject to expansion in the European temperate oceanic ecological zones22 . Infected trees show wilt of leaves, necrosis and cankers on shoots, branches and stems, followed by gradual dieback of the crowns23, 24 . Like other tree species of floodplain and wetland forests, the narrow-leaved ash has seen reductions in its natural habitats and alterations of the forest dynamics due to the modifications of hydrologic regimes of the rivers25, 26 . In Australia Fraxinus angustifolia is called desert ash and represents an invasive species in the southern States, where it can form dense monocultures in riparian areas and along drainage lines, spreading via suckers and preventing the regeneration of native species27.

Distribution Its distribution covers the central-southern Europe and northwest Africa, up to the Caucasus5, 6 . Due to its large morphological variations, this ash species includes a complex of taxa and its taxonomic status is still not clear. However, prevailing opinion recognises three geographical subspecies on the basis of molecular and morphological data: the narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. angustifolia) in south-western Europe and north-western Africa, the Caucasian ash (Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. oxycarpa) in central Europe, Balkans and the Black Sea region, and the Syrian ash (Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. syriaca) in south-east Anatolia, Middle East to Iran7. The northern part of the distribution overlaps with that of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), with which it can naturally hybridise, developing plants with intermediate trait forms8, 9 . Exported as an ornamental tree, this ash is naturalised in southern Australia10 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fraxinus angustifolia. Frequency of Fraxinus angustifolia occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. angustifolia is derived after Meusel and Jäger5 .

large rivers, where it formed vast and continuous populations, now with more limited extent. In the Mediterranean regions its distribution is more patchy and reduced to smaller and more isolated populations along rivers or on wetland sites, but also on drier sites at higher altitudes. Rarely, it creates pure stands, found only in optimum conditions as a pioneer species. More often this ash is a dominant or a secondary species in mixed broadleaved forests with oak (Quercus spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), willow (Salix spp.), poplar (Populus spp.) and lime (Tilia spp.), forming stable and species-rich ecosystems3, 4, 13 .

Importance and Usage The wood of narrow-leaved ash has similar properties to the common ash, although the quality is inferior in terms of strength and elasticity3 . Timber plantations are not very common over Europe, as it is mainly planted in combination with other species14 . Higher wood quality, comparable to common ash, can be obtained on drier sites where tree growth is slower3 . In the north-west of Turkey, where narrow-leaved ash is more used in fast-growing plantations on swampy lowlands, the wood quality is more similar to the poplars and is suitable for pulpwood and bonded wood products, such as plywood, laminated veneer lumber and glued laminated timber15-17. Leaves are palatable to livestock and in southern Europe this ash was traditionally used as a fodder tree. It is also widely used as an ornamental

Shiny green composite leaves with 7-13 slender leaflets. (Copyright Javier Martin, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Habitat and Ecology The narrow-leaved ash is a fast-growing and light-demanding tree, occurring mostly in temperate mild climates, with an annual precipitation between 400 and 800 mm. It grows well on moist soils, in temporary flooded lowlands, but also on well-drained slopes, although there it suffers more competition from other tree species. It prefers aerated or only moderately compacted soils, with a pH range between 5 and 83 . It is particularly susceptible to frosts, which damage winter flowers and seeds in spring, limiting its northern distribution. However, it can survive in areas colder than its natural range when planted, although it is difficult to disperse seeds in these conditions11, 12 . In central Europe, the Pannonian Basin and Balkans, narrow-leaved ash occurs mainly in the lowlands, in riparian and floodplain forests along

Isolated tree in the Spanish countryside during winter. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Mature dry samaras at the end of summer. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References [1] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] D. Boshier, et al., Ash species in Europe: biological characteristics and practical guidelines for sustainable use (Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, 2005). 128 pp. [4] M. Bobinac, S. Andrašev, M. Šijačić Nikolić, Periodicum Biologorum 112, 341 (2010). [5] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [6] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [7] E. Wallander, Belgische Dendrologie Belge 2012, 38 (2013). [8] C. Raquin, S. Brachet, S. Jeandroz, F. Vedel, N. Frascaria-Lacoste, Forest Genetics 9, 111 (2002). [9] D. D. Hinsinger, M. Gaudeul, A. Couloux, J. Bousquet, N. Frascaria-Lacoste, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 77, 223 (2014). [10] A. M. Gray, Flora of Tasmania Online, M. F. Duretto, ed. (Tasmanian Herbarium, Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery, Hobart, 2009), p. 4. [11] P. R. Gérard, et al., Journal of Biogeography 40, 835 (2013). [12] M. Thomasset, J. F. Fernández-Manjarrés, G. C. Douglas, N. Frascaria-Lacoste, T. R. Hodkinson, Climate Change, Ecology and Systematics, T. R. Hodkinson, M. B. Jones, S. Waldren, J. A. N. Parnell, eds. (Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 320–344.

[13] H. G. Kutbay, M. Kilinç, A. Kandemir, Turkish Journal of Botany 22, 157 (1998). [14] J. Coello, et al., Ecology and silviculture of the main valuable broadleaved species in the Pyrenean area and neighbouring regions (Centre de la Propietat Forestal, Generalitat de Catalunya, Santa Perpètua de Mogoda (Spain), 2013). [15] E. Çiçek, M. Yilmaz, Proceeding of International IUFRO Meeting: Management of Fast Growing Plantations, 11-13 September 2002. Izmit, Turkey (2002), pp. 192–202. [16] U. Büyüksarı, T. Akbulut, C. Guler, N. As, BioResources 6, 4721 (2011). [17] G. M. Elmas, African Journal of Biotechnology 10, 9812 (2011). [18] R. Schicchi, L. Camarda, V. Spadaro, R. Pitonzo, Quaderni di Botanica ambientale e applicata 17, 151 (2006). [19] A. Galati, G. Migliore, C. Scaffidi Saggio, Colture artificiali di piante medicinali Produzione di metaboliti secondari nelle piante medicinali in coltura artificiale, F. Tognoni, A. Pardossi, A. Mensuali Sodi, eds. (Aracne editrice, Roma, 2007), pp. 287–297. [20] T. Kirisits, M. Matlakova, S. MottingerKroupa, E. Halmschlager, F. Lakatos, Plant Pathology 59, 411 (2010). [21] J. Schumacher, EPPO Bulletin 41, 7 (2011). [22] T. Kowalski, Forest Pathology 36, 264 (2006). [23] A. Turbé, et al., Disturbances of EU forests caused by biotic agents - final report, Tech. Rep. KH-32-13-151-EN-N (2011). Final Report prepared for European Commission (DG ENV). [24] M. Trémolières, J. M. Sánchez-Pérez, A. Schnitzler, D. Schmitt, Plant Ecology 135, 59 (1998). [25] T. M. Dugdale, T. D. Hunt, D. Clements, Proceedings of the 19th Australasian Weeds Conference (2014), pp. 190–193.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0101d2. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., 2016. Fraxinus angustifolia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0101d2+



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Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus excelsior in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats P. Beck, G. Caudullo, W. Tinner, D. de Rigo Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) is a medium-sized deciduous tree with large compound leaves that develop relatively late in spring. It flowers before leaf-buds burst and trees can carry male, female, or hermaphrodite flowers, or different combinations of the flower types. It grows throughout the European temperate zone, but is absent from the driest Mediterranean areas because it does not tolerate extended summer drought, and from the northern boreal regions, with its seedlings in particular being vulnerable to late spring frost. Soils exert a strong control on common ash distribution locally. The species grows best on fertile soils where soil pH exceeds 5.5. It rarely forms pure stands, more often it is found in small groups in mixed stands. Ash trees produce high quality timber that combines light weight, strength, and flexibility. Before the mass use of steel, it was used for a wide range of purposes, from agricultural implements to construction of boat and car frames. Today it is still popular for tool handles, flooring, and veneers, owing to its consistent grain and structural properties. Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) is a medium-sized deciduous tree, usually growing to 20-35 m and only occasionally reaching 45 m1 . The crown is domed and open with ascending branches. The trees develop a smooth, pale grey bark that thickens and develops fissures with age. Its leaves are compound, with 9-13 leaflets, odd pinnate, serrated, and stalkless. The individual leaflets measure 3-12 cm by 0.8-3 cm, composing leaves of 2035 cm. The flowers open before the leaves unfold, which occurs relatively late in spring compared with other trees. The flowers develop in bunches of 100 to 400, without petals, exposing the pale green styles and filaments and the dark purple stigmas and anthers. Distribution of sexuality is complex. This ash species is termed as polygamous, because plants can develop only male or female flowers, or unisexual inflorescences with only male and female flowers carried separately, or even hermaphrodite flowers. Recent studies indicate that it might be functionally dioecious. Common ash is wind pollinated. The seeds ripen individually in oval-shaped samaras, flattened, 2-5 cm long, that by the end of summer hang in bunches from the branches. Seeds usually lie dormant for two years, but sometimes up to six, before germinating. Once they are 20 to 30 years old, trees produce fruits annually, with more abundant production every 2 to 5 years2-8 .

Distribution Common ash is naturally found throughout the European temperate zone, from the Atlantic coast to the Volga River. It has a wider distribution than the two other native ash species, narrowleafed ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) and manna ash (Fraxinus ornus), coinciding with that of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), the characteristic species of the temperate deciduous forests. It


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fraxinus excelsior. Frequency of Fraxinus excelsior occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. excelsior is derived after EUFORGEN10 .

is absent from the centre and South of the Iberian Peninsula, south of Italian and Balkan peninsulas, northern Fennoscandia and Iceland5, 6, 9-11 . Its regional distribution limits appear to be set by the energy requirements to complete its annual life cycle in the north, minimum temperatures in the east, and moisture availability in the South and South-East5 . In the eastern part of its distribution (Romania, Turkey, Caucasus, and northern Iran) a variety is distinguished by pubescent shoots and leaves and

Common ash tree with a straight trunk. This species can reach 45 m in height. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

some authors treat it as subspecies (Fraxinus excelsior ssp. coriariifolia) or as a separate species7. In the southern part of its distribution it occurs with narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), which has a more Mediterranean distribution. They can naturally hybridise resulting in individuals with intermediate traits, and it can be difficult to distinguish between them12, 13 .

Habitat and Ecology Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%



In the northern and western parts of its range, common ash grows in lowland forests, while further South and West it increasingly grows in mountainous areas. In the Pyrenees and in the Alps, it grows up to 1600-1800 m. However, at the southern edge of the species distribution, in Iran, it can be found up to 2200 m6, 14 . This ash grows best on rich soils with high clay or silt fractions, adequate nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus content, and where soil pH exceeds 5.5. It does not thrive on acidic soils, presumably because of their high aluminium concentration. The species is mesophile and highly tolerant of seasonal water-logging, but not of prolonged flooding, and thus is often found in flood-plain forests with clay-loam soils, unless the soils are highly compacted. The species tolerates a relatively broad range of nutrient and water conditions, as it


Juvenile composite leaves with 9-13 leaflets; when mature they can reach over 30 cm long. (Copyright Roberto Verzo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

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Fraxinus excelsior

can also grow in ravines and often water-deficient stony slopes, where it might benefit from reduced competition and particular forestry practices5, 6, 15 . It is a strong light-demander in its mature stages, but its seedlings can be shade-tolerant for the first years. Young trees show a very rapid growth, although full overhead light is necessary for developing vigorous plants4, 16 . This tree has efficient dispersal and natural regeneration mechanisms, but it is only a strong competitor under certain habitat conditions. For example, in continental Europe, it can regenerate and grow vigorously when beech (Fagus sylvatica) seedlings and saplings are absent or unproductive. Combining characteristics of pioneer species and permanent forest components, the species is able to play a role in both primary and secondary succession. Often, it occurs as an intermediate in ecological succession or takes advantage of disturbance in extant forest stands14 . In mature forests, common ash trees are often found in groups within mixed stands, where it can be highly competitive and sometimes it forms near to pure stands. Otherwise it occurs as secondary species in mixed broad-leaved forests dominated by beech (Fagus sylvatica), pedunculate and sessile oaks (Quercus robur and Q. petraea), downy birch (Betula pubescens), sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), European alder (Alnus glutinosa), or grey alder (Alnus incana)5, 16, 17.



skin. In central Europe it has been widely used as an ornamental tree along roads and city streets. In many countries it has some ethnic, cultural, and mythological significance6 .

Threats and Diseases Dark purple anthers of ash flowers, which are without petals. (Copyright David Nicholls, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

Importance and Usage The elasticity, hardness, and pressure, shock and splintering resistance of common ash wood make it economically highly valuable, and commercially more important than that of the two other native ash species in Europe (Fraxinus angustifolia and Fraxinus ornus). The wood is much-used for tool handles and sports equipment, and also in earlier times, before the widespread use of steel, for weapon handles, agricultural implements, carriages and car and boat frames. Furthermore, its straight grain and consistency, with sapwood and hardwood differing little, make it very valuable for veneers, furniture, and flooring. Stem forking is undesirable and can be caused by frost injury, water stress, or animal browsing. Older trees can also develop so-called 'black heart’, a non-fungal staining of the wood, which reduces the wood value5, 16 . Traditionally the leaves have been used as animal fodder during winter, while the bark was used to tan calf








Since it was observed on a large scale in Poland in 1992, the ash dieback phenomenon has spread to other countries in eastern, northern, and central Europe. In many European countries it has since caused the death of over 90 % of all ash trees18, 19. The fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, also known as Chalara fraxinea, a name designating its asexual stage, is primarily responsible for this invasive disease, causing crown dieback, and this fungus is potentially subject to expansion in the European temperate oceanic ecological zones20, 21 . It is visible as a reddish discolouration of the bark in the lower portion of the stem, and eventually often kills the tree. In young trees, death can occur in the same growing season in which the symptoms first become visually noticeable. Even if older trees might resist longer, they will be greatly weakened and susceptible to other lethal diseases or pests22 . The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) is a beetle native to Asia and eastern Russia. While its adults graze on ash leaves, the emerald ash borer larvae feed on the phloem, which can kill the tree. It was observed in western Russia and Sweden in 2007, which has caused concern that the species will spread to other European countries and cause damage to ash trees. In North America, the emerald ash borer was first discovered in 2002, after probably entering from Asia in shipping material. Since then it has



rapidly spread across several US states, primarily through natural dispersal and the transport of firewood and other wood products containing ash bark. In infected areas, the pest has caused very high mortality of the North American ash species, particularly green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), and white ash (Fraxinus americana)5, 23, 24 . The bacterium Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi pv. fraxini and the fungus Nectria galligena can cause cankers on common ash trees, which adversely affect their economic value in managed stands. The most severe infections occur in extreme habitats8, 16, 20.

References [1] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [5] D. Dobrowolska, et al., Forestry 88, 552 (2011). [6] D. Boshier, et al., Ash species in Europe: biological characteristics and practical guidelines for sustainable use (Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, 2005). 128 pp. [7] E. Wallander, Plant Systematics and Evolution 273, 25 (2008). [8] P. Wardle, Journal of Ecology 49, 739 (1961). [9] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [10] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) (2009). www.euforgen.org. [11] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [12] C. Raquin, S. Brachet, S. Jeandroz, F. Vedel, N. Frascaria-Lacoste, Forest Genetics 9, 111 (2002).

[13] D. D. Hinsinger, M. Gaudeul, A. Couloux, J. Bousquet, N. Frascaria-Lacoste, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 77, 223 (2014). [14] A. Pliûra, M. Heuertz, EUFORGEN technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Tech. rep., Bioversity International (2003). [15] G. Marigo, J.-P. Peltier, J. Girel, G. Pautou, Trees 15, 1 (2000). [16] G. Kerr, Forestry 68, 63 (1995). [17] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [18] J. P. Skovsgaard, I. M. Thomsen, I. M. Skovgaard, T. Martinussen, Forest Pathology 40, 7 (2010). [19] R. Bakys, R. Vasaitis, P. Barklund, I. Thomsen, J. Stenlid, European Journal of Forest Research 128, 51 (2009). [20] J. D. Janse, Forest Pathology 11, 425 (1981). [21] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [22] T. Kowalski, Forest Pathology 36, 264 (2006). [23] N. A. Straw, D. T. Williams, O. Kulinich, Y. I. Gninenko, Forestry 86, 515 (2013). [24] Y. Baranchikov, E. Mozolevskaya, G. Yurchenko, M. Kenis, EPPO Bulletin 38, 233 (2008).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0181c0. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Beck, P., Caudullo, G., Tinner, W., de Rigo, D., 2016. Fraxinus excelsior in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0181c0+



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Fraxinus ornus Fraxinus ornus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Fraxinus ornus L., commonly known as manna ash, is a small-medium deciduous tree, producing abundant large and scented inflorescences which attract several pollinating insects. Its range covers southern-western Europe with isolated population in South Turkey, western Syria and Lebanon, occurring typically in Mediterranean temperate hill and mountain mixed forests. It is a frugal and fast-growing plant, able to colonise open habitats, especially if disturbed by animal browsing, wildfires, landslides and logging. Manna ash forests are managed as mixed coppices for firewood production. In few rural areas of Sicily this ash is still cultivated for the production of manna, the crystallised sap, which has a bittersweet taste and it is used as sweetener, laxative and digestive. This plant does not have serious threats. The manna ash (Fraxinus ornus L.) is a small to mediumsized deciduous tree, growing rarely up to 25 m tall and 1 metre in diameter. The bark is dark grey, usually very smooth even in old trees. The crown is often asymmetrical, hemispherical or flattened with a straight trunk, sinuous branches directed upwards and frequently forked, and abundant root suckers at the base. The buds are grey-brown densely covered by short grey hairs. The foliage is olive-green and changes to yellow and deep pink in autumn. The leaf is compound, 25-30 cm long, odd-pinnate, arranged in 5-9 leaflets, which are obovate, acuminate, serrated, grooved above and pubescent at the joints, 7-10 cm long. The flowers are abundant and grouped in large inflorescences 10-20 cm long, which appear in late spring at the same time as the leaves. Flowers are scented and attract a variety of pollinating insects (mainly bees and beetles), even though they do not produce nectar. Wind pollination can also occur. The single narrow flowers are creamy white with four linear petals, 6 mm long. The manna ash is androdioecious: trees can have hermaphrodite flowers or have flowers with only functional male organs, so behaving as male plants. The fruits are samaras, 15-25 mm long, slender, green in colour until leaf fall, then brown when ripening in autumn. Their dispersion is driven by the wind and by water along rivers1-7.

Distribution In comparison with the other two European ashes, common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), the manna ash has the smallest range, which covers southern-western Europe, from South-East France, through Italy, the Mediterranean isles, the Balkan peninsula, up to western Turkey. It is present from sea level up to 1500 m in altitude (South Tyrol). The northern limits of its natural distribution are the southern edge of the Alps and the Hungarian central Transylvanian mountains (Bihar Mountains), but it is also present in more northern countries as an ornamental tree. Outside its


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fraxinus ornus. Frequency of Fraxinus ornus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for F. ornus is derived after Meusel and Jäger8 .

natural range it has been widely planted and now is commonly present and naturalised in other European countries up to 50° in latitude. There are isolated populations in eastern Spain and in South Turkey to western Syria and Lebanon4, 6-9 . Like other ash species, manna ash shows great morphological variations inside its natural distribution and several subspecies and varieties have been described. Two subspecies are actually recognised and accepted: the manna ash (Fraxinus ornus subsp. ornus) and the Taurus flowering ash (Fraxinus ornus subsp. cilicica) an endemic species with a scattered population in the Taurus Mountains of Southern Turkey4, 10, 11 .



Habitat and Ecology The manna ash occurs typically in Mediterranean temperate colline-mountain forests. In the northern part of its range and in higher elevations it is found commonly on south-facing slopes, where it can find the warmth required to grow. In central and eastern Europe it grows principally on calcareous soils, while in southern areas it also grows on silicate substrates, and does best on soils with a pH around neutral. The mean annual precipitation needed is between 500 and 650 mm, although it has a good drought resistance, storing water in densely branched roots, and reducing transpiration. The root system is widely developed, requiring gravelly, well-aerated and drained soils. It thrives better on poor soil, suffering the competition of other broadleaved trees on richer ones4, 7, 12 . Thanks to its plasticity, fast germination and fast growth when young, this species easily colonises new habitats. The ability to resprout after cutting makes it also well adapted to grow in areas disturbed by animal browsing, wildfires, landslides and logging4 . This tree species is not longlived and rarely reaches 100 years7. This ash is found in several forest communities, typically in mixed broadleaved forests as a tree and also as a shrub in the understorey. It is associated with Mediterranean oaks (Quercus pubescens, Q. cerris, Q. frainetto, Q. coccifera, Q. infectoria), chestnut (Castanea sativa), hornbeams (Carpinus spp.), hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and maples (Acer spp.). In Greece and Turkey it can be found in maquis belts with other deciduous or evergreen broadleaved shrubs, and sometimes in mixed conifer forests with Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani), black pine (Pinus nigra) and occasionally with Mediterranean firs (Abies spp.)4, 7, 13 .



Adult flowering tree: this ash is a small tree rarely growing up to 25 m.


100

Inflorescences of narrow flowers with four linear petals. (Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



08/04/2016 11:15

Fraxinus ornus

Importance and Usage Compared to the other ashes, the timber quality is similar, although with a lower density. It is good quality, heavy, with narrow annual rings and a small difference between sapwood and heartwood. However, its timber wood is of low economic interest, as trees develop small and poorly-shaped trunks with many defects, so it is mainly used for small tool handles and household items4 . Managed manna ash forests usually are coppiced for producing firewood. In southern Mediterranean regions they are also managed by pollarding as a source of fodder for livestock (cattle, goats and sheep)4, 14 . Several ash varieties are used as ornamental trees in gardens and urban parks, appreciated for the abundance of white scented flowers and the autumnal foliage coloration. For this reason, this tree is also called flowering ash4, 7. Manna ash occurs principally on slopes, so it is an important component of protective forests and, thanks to its pioneer habit, it is also used for afforestation of degraded sites7, 15, 16 . Like the narrow-leaved ash, the damaged bark exudes a bitter-sweet tasting sap, which crystallises in the air into a yellow mass called manna. The main manna component is mannitol, a sugar alcohol, which has higher concentrations in trees planted in warmer regions. Manna was traditionally used in medicine as a laxative and digestive. During the last century manna was produced for extracting the mannitol, which is mainly used as a sweetener and for producing medicine. In southern Italy several ash plantations were established, until manna demand decreased as mannitol was first extracted by other sources (seaweeds, molasses) and then substituted by other synthesised products. Nowadays manna production is still active only in few rural areas of Sicily4, 17-19 .



caused by the fungus Diplodia spp.25, 26 . During the winter period deer can feed by peeling the bark and causing significant forest damage when the population densities are high. In mixed forests of manna and common ash, this latter is more palatable and is debarked more7, 28 .

References

Mature dry and brown samaras in autumn. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases No serious threats have been documented for manna ash. It is susceptible to the fungus Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus, also known as Chalara fraxinea, which causes massive diebacks of common ash and narrow-leaved ash in Europe20 . However, this ash does not seem to be a natural host of the pathogen, as its vulnerability was tested with artificial inoculations on seedlings21, 22 . Other generalist and manna ash pathogens have been observed, but in most cases they were in balance with the host, e.g. the cauliflower gall mite (Aceria fraxinivora)23, 24 , or in weakened plants for climatic reasons, e.g. the wood cankers









Compound leaves comprising 5-9 ovate leaflets 7-10 cm long showing red autumn colours.



[1] A . F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [2] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [3] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [4] D. Boshier, et al., Ash species in Europe: biological characteristics and practical guidelines for sustainable use (Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, 2005). 128 pp. [5] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 4 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1909). [6] C. Thébaud, M. Debussche, Journal of Biogeography 18, 7 (1991). [7] D. Bartha, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1996), vol. 3. [8] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [9] P. Csontos, J. Tamás, T. Kalapos, Acta Botanica Hungarica 43, 127 (2001). [10] P. H. Davis, Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 6 (Edinburgh University Press, 1984). [11] M. Yılmaz, H. Serin, H. Zengin, G. Zengin, Orman Mühendisliği 46, 24 (2009). [12] R. Popović, M. Kojić, B. Karadžić, Bocconea 5, 431 (1997). [13] C. Yücedağ, A. Gezer, H. Fakir, Scientific Research and Essays 6, 4788 (2011). [14] T. G. Papachristou, V. P. Papanastasis, Agroforestry Systems 27, 269 (1994). [15] H.-D. Vlasin, L. Holonec, Bulletin UASVM Horticulture 71, 330 (2014).

[16] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [17] G. Evans, Herb Tree 39, 24 (2014). [18] A. Galati, G. Migliore, C. Scaffidi Saggio, Colture artificiali di piante medicinali Produzione di metaboliti secondari nelle piante medicinali in coltura artificiale, F. Tognoni, A. Pardossi, A. Mensuali Sodi, eds. (Aracne editrice, Roma, 2007), pp. 287–297. [19] R. Schicchi, L. Camarda, V. Spadaro, R. Pitonzo, Quaderni di Botanica ambientale e applicata 17, 151 (2006). [20] R. Bakys, R. Vasaitis, P. Barklund, I. Thomsen, J. Stenlid, European Journal of Forest Research 128, 51 (2009). [21] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [22] T. Kirisits, M. Matlakova, S. MottingerKroupa, T. L. Cech, E. Halmschlager, Proceedings of the Conference of IUFRO Working Party 7.02.02, 11-16 May 2009, Eğirdir, Turkey, N. Gürlevik, ed. (2009), pp. 97–119. [23] K. Kräutler, T. Kirisits, Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development 4, 261 (2012). [24] M. Anthony, R. Sattler, C. Cooney-Sovetts, Canadian Journal of Botany 61, 1580 (1983). [25] J. Kollár, Acta entomologica serbica 16, 115 (2011). [26] A. Alves, B. T. Linaldeddu, A. Deidda, B. Scanu, A. J. L. Phillips, Fungal Diversity 67, 143 (2014). [27] A. Sidoti, G. Granata, Informatore Fitopatologico 2, 49 (2004). [28] T. Wallmann, R. Stingl, Neilreichia 6, 183 (2011).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01435d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Fraxinus ornus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01435d+



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Ilex aquifolium Ilex aquifolium in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats N. Guerrero Hue, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The European holly (Ilex aquifolium L.) is an evergreen small tree or shrub, with characteristic coriaceous dark green leaves with spines and red berry fruits. Holly grows in Western Europe, Western Balkans and North Turkey up to the Caucasus, preferring Atlantic climates. It adapts to different soil conditions, occurring mainly as understorey vegetation in oak and beech temperate forests. It is widely planted as an ornamental plant and hedge shrub, and is also well known for Christmas decorations. Various fungi of genus Phytophthora cause roots to rot in cultivated hollies. However there are no critical threats for the conservation of this species. The European holly (Ilex aquifolium L.) is a small evergreen tree or shrub 8-10 m in height, which rarely exceeds 20 m1, 2 . It has a dense pyramidal crown and a straight woody stem with grey bark. The leaves are up to 10 cm long, simple, alternate, coriaceous and glabrous. Their upper surface is dark-green and glossy and the lower surface is yellowish and matt. With an ovate, elliptic or oblong shape, the leaf margin may be undulate with spines, especially in the lower part of the tree. Flowers are small (6 mm in diameter), white and placed in axillary cymes. Holly is normally dioecious and flowers between May and August2, 3 . The fruit is a bright red drupe of 7-12 mm size2 . Its seeds ripen in late autumn and usually last throughout the winter, when birds, rodents and larger herbivores eat them2-5 .


Tree form of the holly; it usually does not exceed 10 m tall.

Distribution

(Copyright Sean MacEntee, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

This species occurs in Western Europe, from Spain to western Norway, North-West Africa in the Atlas Mountains, western Balkan Peninsula, North Turkey up to the Caucasus2, 6, 7. It grows in northern ranges at sea level, up to 2600 m in Morocco6 . It is widely planted outside its natural range as an ornamental shrub in Europe and in other continents. On the west coast of the United States it is considered an invasive plant8 . Its distribution range is now starting to move over Europe, as a consequence of increased winter temperatures in northern regions and drought in the south4, 9 , and in Scandinavia its range is spreading eastwards due to the hybridisation of native with ornamental genotypes10 .

Habitat and Ecology The holly grows in Atlantic and sub-Atlantic climates, also in a sub-Mediterranean climate at higher elevations, characterised by mild winter temperatures, relatively high summer precipitation and limited temperature ranges2 . This species is very plastic, growing in a wide variety of soil moistures and pH, but grows best in acid conditions2, 11 . Regarding light tolerance, holly is a semishade species while in Mediterranean climates it is an obligate shade plant9 . It is a slow-growing species with a lifespan of 300 years in optimal conditions1 . Reproduction takes place mostly by seed; however vegetative regeneration (suckers or adventitious roots) may be important within dense holly formations2, 9 . This species occurs within different plant communities, mainly as an understorey tree or in edges of temperate deciduous forests and woodlands dominated by oaks (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea, Quercus pubescent) or beech (Fagus sylvatica). In the Mediterranean region it can be found in evergreen oak forests (Quercus ilex) in the scrub communities2, 4, 9, 11 .

Threats and Diseases Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ilex aquifolium. Frequency of Ilex aquifolium occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for I. aquifolium is derived after Peterken and Lloyd2 .

sticks11, 15 . It is a cheap substitute for ebony if dyed black15 . Its leaves are browsed by mammals5 and in the past were used as cattle fodder2 . The mucilaginous bark of young shoots is used to produce birdlime2, 3, 15 . Its drupes are purgative and emetic with strong effects, so considered toxic to humans2, 3 .

Male flowers with 4 white petals and 4 stamens blossoming at the base of the leaves. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

References

Importance and Usage Holly is cultivated as an ornamental shrub, appreciated for the contrast between its dark green permanent foliage and the red fruits and traditionally used for Christmas decoration2, 12, 13 . Many varieties and hybrids have been developed for garden use; e.g. ‘Argentea Marginata’ with white-edged leaves, ‘Bacciflava’ almost spineless and with yellow fruits14 . Holly is also often used in hedges as it has spiny leaves, bears pruning well and it grows slowly15 . Since it is a dioecious species, commercial hollies usually have grafted female or male branches to produce fruit from a single plant16 . The wood of holly is greyish white, hard, heavy and uniform, and used for woodcraft, turnery, handles, sleeves,

The classic holly berries: bright red spherical drupes of 7-12 mm in size. (Copyright liz west, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



102






There are no critical diseases affecting the European holly in its natural habitat. Principally they are recorded for the ornamental plants in gardens and parks. Among the phytophagous insects, the most known is the holly leaf miner Phytomyza ilicis: a fly whose larvae burrow into leaves17, 18 . The fungus Phytophthora ilicis causes black leaf spots and then cankers and shoot dieback19-21 . The holly tree is host for other Phytophthora root rot and dieback fungi, such as Phytophthora cinnamomi22 and Phytophthora psychrophila19 .



[1] S. Pignatti, Flora d’Italia (Edagricole, Bologna., 1982). [2] G. F. Peterken, P. S. Lloyd, Journal of Ecology 55 (1967). [3] J. R. de la Torre, L. Ceballos, F. de Córdoba, Árboles y arbustos de la España peninsular (Mundi-Prensa, Madrid, 2001). [4] M. J. Bañuelos, J. Kollmann, P. Hartvig, M. Quevedo, Nordic Journal of Botany 23, 129 (2003). [5] J. R. Obeso, Plant Ecology 129, 149 (1997). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [7] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [8] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, USA, http://plants.usda.gov. [9] F. Valladares, et al., Tree Physiology 25, 1041 (2005). [10] A.-M. Skou, F. Toneatto, J. Kollmann, Plant Ecology 213, 1131 (2012). [11] J.-C. Rameau, D. Mansion, G. Dumé, Flore forestière française, Plaines et collines, vol. 1 (Institut pour le Développement Forestier, Paris, 1989).

[12] B. Herrero, C. Martìn-Lobera, Global Advanced Research Journal of Medicinal Plants 1, 1 (2012). [13] J. F. Bermejo Sánchez, F. Muñoz Alaminos, D. Garcìa González, M. Frìas Trampal, Revista Montes 52, 85 (1998). [14] J. Gardiner, The Timber Press Encyclopedia of Flowering Shrubs (Timber Press, UK, 2014). [15] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 7 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1913). [16] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [17] E. Cameron, Bulletin of Entomological Research 30, 173 (1939). [18] A. M. Brewer, K. J. Gaston, Journal of Animal Ecology 71, 99 (2002). [19] E. T. Cline, D. F. Farr, A. Y. Rossman, Plant Health Progress (2008). [20] C. Pintos, C. Rial, O. Aguìn, J. P. Mansilla, New Disease Reports 26, 16+ (2012). [21] B. Scanu, B. T. Linaldeddu, A. Peréz-Sierra, A. Deidda, A. Franceschini, Phytopathologia Mediterranea 53, 480 (2014). [22] L. B. Orlikowski, G. Szkuta, Acta Mycologica 39, 19 (2004).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e011fbc. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Guerrero Hue, N., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Ilex aquifolium in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e011fbc+



08/04/2016 11:15

Juglans regia Juglans regia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. de Rigo, C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, W. Tinner, G. Caudullo Juglans regia L., commonly known as common, English or Persian walnut, is an economically very important tree species, prized both for its nuts and for its attractive high-quality timber. It is the most widespread nut tree worldwide. The common walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a large, deciduous tree, reaching a height up to 25-35 m and exceptionally a maximum trunk diameter up to 2 m1 . It is long-lived: normally 100-200 years, but some specimens may reach 1 000 years old2 . It has a deep root system, with a substantial tap root starting from the juvenile stage1, 3 . The bark is silver-grey and smooth between deep, wide fissures4 . The leaves are 20-45 cm long, with 5 to 9 leaflets, the ones from the apex being larger compared with those from the base of the leaf4 . Crushed leaves have a scent like shoe-polish4 . The crown diameter of the common walnut is larger in relation to its stem diameter than any other broadleaf tree species used in Europe5 . The fruit ripens during hot summers and is a large rounded nut of 4-5 cm and weighing up to 18 g6 . It may be propagated both by seeds and also vegetatively. It can hybridise and it has been found that the hybrids between common walnut and black walnut (Juglans nigra) have good vigour and form3 .

increase the insulin level in diabetic patients21 . The wood of the walnut is highly prized, being strong, attractive and easy to work. Good quality logs are sold for veneer and can command high prices7. It is also used in agroforestry7, 12, 22 .

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Actual range

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Juglans regia. Frequency of Juglans regia occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the actual spatial range for J. regia is derived after Fornari et al. and the Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland12, 24 .

across the northern hemisphere, and can now be found in most of Europe apart from northerly regions. It is particularly important in Turkey, which is the third largest walnut producer in the world, after China and the United States6 . It is also grown in India and China, and has been introduced into many other temperate regions of the world, including the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and parts of Africa7, its distribution ranging nowadays between 10° and 50° northern latitude12 .

Habitat and Ecology Mature walnut tree with large spreading crown (Bavaria, Germany). (Copyright Rainer Lippert, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Distribution Because of its long history of cultivation, the natural distribution range of this species is not clear7, 8 . It is thought to be native to the Mediterranean (Southern Europe, Western Asia) and Central Asia9; in the latter area the mountains of the West Himalayan chain in the Kashmir, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are considered to be its centre of origin2 . Fossil evidence, however, shows that in some putative areas of origin in Central Asia such as Kyrgyzstan, the species was introduced for agricultural purposes only 1 000-2 000 years ago10 . Pollen records and nutshell finds show earliest cultivation in the Mediterranean area; e.g. in Italy around 6 000 years ago and in Anatolia, north-eastern Greece and Croatia around 4 000 years ago11 . It has been widely cultivated

The common walnut is a demanding species and requires special site conditions. Usually grown in pure stands or as individual trees, rather than within mixed woodland, it needs a warm and sheltered site and a long growing season3, 13 . It also prefers deep and rich soils, with pH values of between 6 and 7.51 . It is light-demanding, highly susceptible to competition and sensitive to winter and late spring frosts. Older trees are however able to withstand winter temperatures as low as -30 °C14 . Germination is improved in mild winters, indicating that a changing climate with warmer winters may prove beneficial to its establishment14, 15 .

Male catkins develop in the spring with new leaves. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Threats and Diseases The common walnut is sensitive to a number of fungal, bacterial, parasitic and viral diseases. The main fungal agents are Armillaria mellea, Phytophthora cinamomii and P. cambivora which affect the root system, and antracnosis (Gnomonia leptostyla) which causes summer leaf fall2 . Walnut blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. juglandis) is also a serious disease, sometimes causing mortality in young trees2, 14, 23 . A number of pests target the nuts, reducing the value of the crop; these include the walnut worm (Cydia pomonella) and navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella)7. Although widespread in its range, the size of local populations is quite limited. Threats to genetic variability could come from felling of the best trees for the high quality timber, and from hybridisation with black walnut (Juglans nigra)2 .

Importance and Usage Walnut is very appreciated for its nuts, which are a highly nutritious food source. They are rich in oil composed of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins, vitamins and minerals. The kernels contain a wide variety of flavonoids, phenolic acids and related polyphenols, which have good antioxidant, antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-mutagenic properties16 . A diet rich in walnuts is also thought to have a cardiovascular protective effect17, 18 . Bark or leaf extracts are used worldwide in traditional medicine to treat a variety of conditions19 including fungal infections such as Candida, to inhibit the growth of bacteria responsible for dental plaques and oral hygiene problems20 , or to

Fruits ripening on the tree.

The ripe walnut, emerging from the fruit.


(Copyright Jonson22, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

References [1] C. Mohni, F. Pelleri, G. E. Hemery, Die Bodenkulture 60, 21 (2009). [2] J. Fernandez-Lopez, N. Aleta, R. Alia, Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the Fourth Meeting, 4-6 September 1999, Gmunden, Austria and the Fifth Meeting, 17-19 May 2001, Blessington, Ireland, J. Turok, G. Eriksson, K. Russel, S. Borelli, eds. (Bioversity International, 2002), pp. 38–43. [3] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [4] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] G. E. Hemery, P. S. Savill, S. N. Pryor, Forest Ecology and Management 215, 285 (2005). [6] S. Ercisli, B. Sayinci, M. Kara, C. Yildiz, I. Ozturk, Scientia Horticulturae 133, 47 (2012). [7] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [8] A. M. Stanford, R. Harden, C. R. Parks, American Journal of Botany 87, 872 (2000). [9] P. Schütt, H. J. Schuck, B. Stimm, Lexikon der Baum- und Straucharten: Das Standardwerk der Forstbotanik (Nikol, Hamburg, 2002). [10] R. Beer, et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 621 (2008). [11] P. Kaltenrieder, G. Procacci, B. Vannière, W. Tinner, The Holocene 20, 679 (2010).

[12] B. Fornari, F. Cannata, M. Spadad, M. E. Malvolti, Forest Genetics 6, 115 (1999). [13] J. R. Clark, G. E. Hemery, P. S. Savill, Forestry 81, 631 (2008). [14] G. E. Hemery, et al., Forestry 83, 65 (2010). [15] K. Loacker, W. Kofler, K. Pagitz, W. Oberhuber, Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 202, 70 (2007). [16] M. L. Martìnez, D. O. Labuckas, A. L. Lamarque, D. M. Maestri, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 90, 1959 (2010). [17] S. D. Nash, M. Westpfal, The American Journal of Cardiology 95, 963 (2005). [18] Z. Papoutsi, et al., British Journal of Nutrition 99, 715 (2008). [19] J. S. Amaral, et al., Food Chemistry 88, 373 (2004). [20] E. Noumi, M. Snoussi, H. Hajlaoui, E. Valentin, A. Bakhrouf, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 29, 81 (2010). [21] L. C. Tapsell, et al., Diabetes Care 27, 2777 (2004). [22] B. Fady, et al., New Forests 25, 211 (2003). [23] A. Belisario, A. Zoina, L. Pezza, L. Luongo, European Journal of Forest Pathology 29, 75 (1999). [24] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01977c. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., Tinner, W., Caudullo, G., 2016. Juglans regia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01977c+



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Juniperus communis Juniperus communis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Juniperus communis L., known as juniper or common juniper, is the most widespread of the European conifers worldwide. It is one of the main species within the genus Juniperus, which comprises a large number of species. Common juniper is the only one of them that occurs in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Common juniper is a slow-growing evergreen conifer . Across its wide distribution range, it may take the form of a multistemmed shrub or it can develop a tree-like shape2, 3 . It is a very variable species (partly as a result of its enormous geographical range) and there is ongoing debate over how many distinct subspecies there are4-6 . It can be easily recognised by its needlelike leaves which are borne in whorls of three. The needles are sessile, 5-12(15) mm long, and they have one white band on the upperside2 . This species is usually dioecious7, 8 , but is occasionally monoecious2, 9 . The seed cones are fleshy berry-like (galbulus), purple to black in colour, up to 1 cm, globose or longer than broad. They ripen in the second or third year. The seeds are 4-5 mm long, ovoid, without wings, three-cornered, typically 1 to 3 per cone. They are usually dispersed by birds or other animals2 . 1, 2

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology

culinary purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic drinks, such as flavouring gin17, 18 .

Threats and Diseases Throughout Europe, common juniper is the primary host of the rusts Gymnosporangium clavariiforme and G. cornutum. Many fungi, such as the needle cast fungus (Lophodermium juniperinum), the juniper twig blight (Phomopsis juniperovora), and the root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi) can cause severe infections on junipers2 .

Native

Distribution Common juniper has the widest distribution range of all conifers6, 10 , and can be found throughout the Northern Hemisphere: in North America, Europe, and Asia. It is the most northerly of the juniper species and one of the most northerly conifers in the world10 . In Europe, it can be found from northern Scandinavia11 to parts of southern Spain, although at more southern latitudes it is usually confined to mountain areas. Juniper grows in low elevations in pasture lands and abandoned fields, as well as at high elevations, above the treeline in Eurosiberian mountains7.

Habitat and Ecology Common juniper is a typical shrub species of poor soils and harsh environments7. It is drought and cold tolerant but requires plenty of light2 . It can grow on acidic sandy or calcareous soils12 and favours free-draining soils and rocky outcrops. In many areas, juniper is considered to be a pioneer species, able to colonise bare terrain and a range of soil types12 . The subspecies Juniperus communis ssp. alpina occurs in a narrow band above or north of the treeline.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Juniperus communis. Frequency of Juniperus communis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for J. communis is derived after Meusel and Jäger19 .

Importance and Usage Juniper is amongst the most useful multi-purpose shrub species worldwide. Containing a large number of essential oils13 , extracts from its twigs, leaves, and berries (the blue-black seed cones) have been used as traditional remedies against urinary infections2 , dermatitis14 , or as a diuretic15 . The wood has even been shown suitable for artificial bone implants16 . The twigs, leaves, and especially the berries represent an important food source for several small and large animals, such as birds, deer, elk, cattle, horses and sheep2 , and humans use the berries for

Fleshy berry-like seed cones; they become purple-blue in colour when mature. (Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Needle-like leaves arranged in whorls of three in the branchlet with one white stomata band on the upper side. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Juniper in shrub form grown in a rocky habitat in the Ligurian Alps (Savona, North Italy). (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)



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[1] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [2] P. A. Thomas, M. El-Barghathi, A. Polwart, Journal of Ecology 95, 1404 (2007). [3] B. Beikircher, S. Mayr, Plant, Cell & Environment 31, 1545 (2008). [4] R. P. Adams, R. N. Pandey, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 31, 1271 (2003). [5] R. P. Adams, A. E. Schwarzbach, Phytologia 95(2), 179 (2013). [6] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [7] D. Garcia, R. Zamora, J. M. Gomez, P. Jordano, J. A. Hodar, Journal of Ecology 88, 435 (2000). [8] L. O. Pedro, A. Montserrat, T. Salvador, Annals of Botany 89, 205 (2002). [9] A. M. Ottley, Botanical Gazette 48(1), 31 (1909). [10] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009).

[11] T. H. DeLuca, O. Zackrisson, Plant and Soil 294, 147 (2007). [12] J. G. B. Oostermeijer, B. De Knegt, Plant Species Biology 19, 175 (2004). [13] R. P. Adams, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 26, 637 (1998). [14] C. Cavaleiro, E. Pinto, M. J. Goncalves, L. Salgueiro, Journal of Applied Microbiology 100, 1333 (2006). [15] R. A. Halberstein, Annals of Epidemiology 15, 686 (2005). [16] K. A. Gross, E. Ezerietis, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research 64A, 672 (2003). [17] S. Vichi, M. R. Aumatell, S. Buxaderas, E. López-Tamames, Analytica Chimica Acta 628, 222 (2008). [18] F. Cooper, R. E. Stone, P. McEvoy, T. Wilkins, N. Reid, The conservation status of juniper formations in Ireland, Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, Dublin, Ireland (2012). [19] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01d2de. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Juniperus communis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01d2de+



08/04/2016 11:15


References

Juniperus oxycedrus Juniperus oxycedrus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats L. Vilar, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus L.) is a thermophile shrub or small tree native across the Mediterranean region, around the Black Sea and Middle East. It grows in dry areas on the coasts and lowlands under Mediterranean climate conditions, but it is also found in higher elevations in wetter forests with a more continental environment. It is suitable as an ornamental shrub; essential oils can be extracted and used for medical purposes. This juniper is widespread and often abundant, their populations are stable. The prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus L.) is a shrub or small tree which grows up to 10-15 m in height. The crown shape is conic in young specimens and irregular in adults. The trunk has fibrous grey to brown-red bark peeling in longitudinal stripes. It has numerous branches, spreading or ascending. The leaves are needle-like and in alternating whorls of three. The needles are 1-2.5 cm long and 1-2.5 mm wide, with two waxy, white shallow stomata furrows above and a ridge below and a spiny tip. This species is dioecious. The male plants have solitary pollen cones in the leaf axils. They are yellow and egg-shaped, with three to seven pollen sacs below. Female plants have axillary berry-like seed cones known as galbulus. They are approximately spherical, brown-red in colour and 7-12 mm long, maturing in two years. They do not open and end in three small triangle-shaped protuberances. Inside are one to three brown triangular-ovoid seeds1-4 .


Berry-like orange seed cones; they are brown-red when mature. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Juniperus oxycedrus. Frequency of Juniperus oxycedrus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for J. oxycedrus is derived after Jalas and Suominen, and Klimko, et al.10, 11 .

Mediterranean coastal vegetation with pricky juniper shrubland.

sea. They are principally associated with coastal grass and shrub vegetation and in the clearings with Mediterranean pine woods: Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea) and maritime pine (Pinus pinaster). The inland subspecies are found at higher elevations in the maquis and garrigue shrubland or open sclerophyll woods dominated by holm oak (Quercus ilex), mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) and European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), as well as appearing in montane and wetter forests with cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), black pine (Pinus nigra) and other junipers (Juniperus foetidissima and Juniperus excelsa)5, 6 .

The prickly Juniper is suitable for cultivation as an ornamental shrub in southern Europe, where a number of cultivars, especially with more pendulous foliage, are commonly planted in gardens and parks6 . Its wood is resistant and hard, highly valued for making furniture and other carpentry items2 . Essential oils are extracted from the branches and leaves by destructive distillation, especially in France and Turkey6, 7. This ’oil of cade’ is used for medicinal purposes2 , such as to prepare empyreumatic oil8 . It has antiseptic and antiparasitic properties. Rectified cade oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes9 .

Threats and Diseases No important threats have been identified for the prickly juniper. The populations in the natural range are stable and in some areas this juniper is abundant. However, the coastal subpopulations are more scattered than the past, especially in Spain and around the Adriatic Sea, due to the impacts of urban and tourist developments2, 5, 6 .


Distribution This juniper is native to the Mediterranean region and widespread from Morocco and Portugal, to Lebanon and Syria, reaching Kurdistan in Iran, Iraq and the Caucasus mountains. There are four commonly accepted subspecies: Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus has the largest range set in the inlands as well as in the coasts of the species distribution range, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. macrocarpa commonly throughout the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. badia in the inlands of North Algeria and Iberian Peninsula, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. transtagana in lowlands and coasts of central Portugal and South-West Spain1, 3, 5 .

Habitat and Ecology The prickly juniper is largely restricted to regions with a Mediterranean climate, but in the inlands of the Balkans and the Iberian Peninsula it may occur in more continental conditions6 . The altitudinal range goes from sea level to 2200 m2 . It occurs on dry thin soils over all kinds of material rocks from calcareous to siliceous and serpentine, commonly also on sand dunes. It can also be found in pastures at higher altitudes, where it is usually a sign of overgrazing2 . The lowland subspecies are never far from the

Spiny needle-like leaves with the two characteristic white stomata furrows in the upper side. (Copyright Tomás Royo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References Pricky juniper scrub vegetation on mountain belt of the Sierra Arana near Deifontes (Granada, South Spain). (Copyright Javi MF, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)










[1] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [2] A. M. Romo, Arboles de la Peninsula Iberica y Baleares (Planeta, Barcelona, 1977). [3] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [4] J. do Amaral Franco, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula IbeÌrica e Islas Baleares, Volume 1: LycopodiaceaePapaveraceae, S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1998), pp. 181–188. [5] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [6] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42243/0+.

[7] R. P. Adams, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 26, 637 (1998). [8] K. Bouhlal, et al., Parfums, cosmétiques, arômes 83, 73 (1988). [9] A. Y. Leung, S. Foster, Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics (Wiley, 1996). [10] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [11] M. Klimko, et al., Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 202, 133 (2007).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e013abb. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Vilar, L., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Juniperus oxycedrus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e013abb+



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Juniperus phoenicea Juniperus phoenicea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Juniperus phoenicea L., commonly known as Phoenician juniper, is a shrub or small evergreen tree, characterised by scaled leaves and berry-like fleshy fruits red to brown in colour. It occurs in patchy and often isolated populations over the whole Mediterranean region, included Morocco and Portugal, Canary and Madeira Islands, Sinai Peninsula and Saudi Arabia along the Red Sea, and grows principally on coastal dunes and cliffs, but also in mountain populations up to 2400 m. With other sclerophyllous species, this juniper forms scrublands and open woodlands belonging to maquis and garigue vegetation. It is adapted to arid Mediterranean climates, rocky and sandy soils, exposed to sea winds and sprays. Its fruits have been used in traditional medicine and cosmetics, and there is now interest in its pharmaceutical properties. The dune habitats where this juniper grows has been shrinking and is still threatened principally by human settlements and but also by artificial plantations of pines or alien species used for dune stabilisation.

Distribution The distribution of Phoenician juniper covers the whole Mediterranean basin from Portugal on the Atlantic coasts and Atlas Mountains in the West, to Jordan, Sinai Peninsula and Saudi Arabia along the Red Sea in the East, occurring with small and scattered populations. It is also present on Madeira and Canary Islands1, 2, 4, 13 . It can grow from sea level, up to 2400 m in the Atlas Mountains (Morocco) and in the Asir Range (Saudi Arabia)1, 13, 14 . The subspecies ranges are still under debate. While some authors describe the phoenicea subspecies occurring throughout the whole range and the turbinata subspecies only in the western portion on littoral dune habitats4, 13, 15, 16 , differences in phytochemical concentrations suggest that the phoenicea subspecies is confined to the eastern Iberian Peninsula and South France and turbinata is widespread throughout the whole range12.

Habitat and Ecology The Phoenician juniper is a light-demanding pioneer species of meso- and thermo-Mediterranean climates17, growing in sandy or rocky sites2 prevalently on calcareous soils but also on silicate1, 7. It is a xerophile species, adapted to an arid climate with hot and dry summers2, 7, and can tolerate rainfall of just 200 mm year1 . This juniper typically belongs to the garrigue and maquis vegetation and open woodland, forming scrubs and thickets with other sclerophyllous species13 . Phoenician juniper grows principally on coastal zones, but it can also be found in inland cliffs and mountain areas. On coastal stable dunes it develops scrub formations sometimes with prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus spp. macrocarpa), and other sclerophyllous species, such as mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), myrtle (Myrtus communis), green olive tree (Phillyrea angustifolia), rockroses (Cistus spp.), etc., forming the vegetation communities belonging to the Pistacio lentisci-Rhamnetalia alaterni. It can be associated with coastal pines (Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster, Pinus brutia and Pinus halepensis) most often in plantations but also in natural habitats10, 18, 19 . On cliffs Phoenician juniper forms typical scrubland, thriving on dry, rocky and often limestone substrates, characterised by harsh conditions and called arborescent matorrals. On coastal cliffs, plants are exposed to the sea spray, sea winds, and severe winter storms followed by drought summers, developing as a short shrub and shaped by the wind. Instead, mountain populations can reach high elevations and are adapted to a more continental climate. Usually they grow on

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Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Juniperus phoenicea. Frequency of Juniperus phoenicea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for J. phoenicea is derived after several sources12, 30-33 .

south slopes with other chasmophytic species. The associated species of cliff vegetation are very variable, depending on the substratum, geomorphology and in many cases on anthropogenic impacts. Phoenician juniper formations can be the first succession stage of recolonisations (often post-fire), evolving towards the sclerophyllous oak woodlands (Quercus ilex, Quercus suber, Quercus rotundifolia, Quercus coccifera) in meso-Mediterranean climates, or towards the evergreen thermophilous forest (Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus) in thermoMediterranean climates17, 20, 21 .

Importance and Usage This juniper does not does not have significant economic interest14 . Its wood is rose-coloured, hard, solid and resinous with an aromatic fragrant, fine in grain, appreciated, as other juniper woods, for small manufactured objects and inlay works22 . In Algeria and Tunisia when the trunk grows straight it is used for joinery and carpentry. In Africa its wood is used mainly as fuel and for the production of charcoal1, 14 . The reddish fruit cones can be used in cooking and alcoholic beverages2 . The leaves and the berries have been used in form of infusion, decoctions, tinctures and extracts in various fields and in folk medicine against several diseases23, 24 . The essential oil was utilised centuries ago in cosmetics and now there is interest in its pharmaceutical properties25, 26 . Some varieties have been selected for horticultural purposes, planted in rocky gardens1, 2, 27.

Threats and Diseases There are no serious pathogens affecting this species1 . However, the habitats of Phoenician juniper are constantly

Reddish berry-like fruits (galbulus): these seed cones take 2 years to mature. (Copyright Wojciech Przybylski, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-0)

References [1] J. A. Pardos, M. Pardos, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2000), vol. 3. [2] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [3] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [4] J. Do Amaral Franco, Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 46–48, second edn. [5] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [6] P. Jordano, Botanical Gazette 152, 476 (1991). [7] J.-C. Rameau, D. Mansion, G. Dumé, C. Gauberville, Flore forestière française: Région méditerranéenne, vol. 3 (Institut pour le Développement Forestier, Paris, 2008). [8] M. Arista, P. L. Ortiz, S. Talavera, Plant Systematics and Evolution 208, 225 (1997). [9] A. Boratyński, A. Lewandowski, K. Boratyńska, J. Montserrat, A. Romo, Plant Systematics and Evolution 277, 163 (2009). [10] P. Lebreton, P. L. Pérez de Paz, Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Lyon 70, 73 (2001). [11] R. P. Adams, A. E. Schwarzbach, Phytologia 95, 179 (2013). [12] R. P. Adams, et al., Phytologia 95, 202 (2013). [13] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [14] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42244/0+. [15] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 16349692/0+. [16] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 16348983/0+. [17] P. Quézel, Recent Dynamics of the Mediterranean Vegetation and Landscape, S. Mazzoleni, G. D. Pasquale, M. Mulligan, P. D. Martino, F. Rego, eds. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2004), pp. 1-12.

[18] S. Picchi, Management of Natura 2000 habitats: 2250* Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp (European Commission, 2008). [19] E. Biondi, C. Blasi, Prodromo della vegetazione italiana (2015). http://www.prodromo-vegetazione-italia.org. [20] B. Calaciura, O. Spinelli, Management of Natura 2000 habitats: 5210 Arborescent matorral with Juniperus spp (European Commission, 2008). [21] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni meridionali e insulari d’Italia (Cleup, Padova, 2008). [22] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [23] J. Bellakhdar, La pharmacopée marocaine traditionnelle (Ibis Press, Paris, 1997). [24] M. Ennajar, et al., Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 90, 462 (2009). [25] K. Mazari, N. Bendimerad, C. Bekhechi, X. Fernandez, Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4, 959 (2010). [26] D. A. Cairnes, O. Ekundayo, D. G. I. Kingston, Journal of Natural Products 43, 495 (1980). [27] P. D. Ouden, B. K. Boom, Manual of Cultivated Conifers: Hardy in the Coldand Warm-Temperature Zone, vol. 4 of Forestry Sciences (Springer, Netherlands, 1982). [28] E. I. Badano, F. I. Pugnaire, Diversity and Distributions 10, 493 (2004). [29] A. Traveset, E. Moragues, F. Valladares, Applied Vegetation Science 11, 45 (2008). [30] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [31] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2015). http://www.flora-on.pt [32] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org [33] M. Mazur, et al., Dendrobiology 63, 21 (2010).

18, 20 of the chapter. The full version of This is an extended summary re-establishment .

Large Phoenician juniper on limestone xeric soil in Milos (Aegean Islands, Greece) (Copyright Pavel Buršík, www.biolib.cz: PD)

this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012f63. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Juniperus phoenicea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012f63+



08/04/2016 11:16


The Phoenician juniper (Juniperus phoenicea L.) is a shrub or small evergreen tree which can grow 5-8 m with a trunk up to 1-2 m in diameter1 . The shrub form develops several stems close to the ground, while its upright form is monopodial 2 . The crown is dense, first conical then broadening and irregular in age, with ascending and often curved branches2, 3 . The bark is dark greyish brown, peeling in narrow strips3 . On young plants the leaves are needle-like, about 1 mm wide and 5-14 mm long, with 2 stomatal bands above and beneath4 . On adults leaves are decussate scales, alternating in pairs or trios, that are ovate to rhombic, green to blue-green in colour and 1-2 mm long3, 5 . This juniper is principally monoecious, but dioecious plants can appear and in some populations be predominant2, 6 . Male and female cones are single at the tips of branchlets and pollination is driven by the wind. Pollen cones are ovoid, 4-6 mm, while seed cones are spherical to egg-shaped, 8-15 mm maturing after 2 years in a soft, flashy berry-like galbulus, about 1 cm across, dark brown to red in colour, which contains 3-9 seeds that are dispersed principally by birds2, 3, 5, 7. Two subspecies are recognised according to morphological and ecological differences: Juniperus phoenicea subsp. phoenicea, which has small obtuse leaves, bigger red-brown seed cones, and sheds pollen in spring; Juniperus phoenicea subsp. turbinata, which has more elongate leaves, ochre-brown seed cones and shed pollen in autumn2, 4, 8, 9 . However recent studies on polymeric tannin concentrations10 and DNA sequences11 show a significant difference between the subspecies, supporting the recognition of Juniperus turbinata as a new species12 .

threatened in coastal zones by the new human settlements and tourism pressure especially during summer periods. The habitat loss and fragmentation over the last years has led to an undoubted decline and isolation of local populations15, 18 . The cause is not only urban development, but also artificial plantations principally for coastal dune stabilisation, made with pines (Pinus pinea, Pinus halepensis, etc.), or exotic species such as black locust (Robinia pseudacacia), French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica), or desert false indigo (Amorpha fructicosa)18 . Furthermore, the spreading of recently introduced alien plant species, such as American agave (Agave americana), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) from China, and the succulent plants of genus Carpobrotus from South Africa, are interfering with native sand dune and cliff vegetation communities dominated by this juniper18, 28, 29 . Wild fires are another important threat for this species, since its adaptation and resistance to fire is very low, due to its high flammability caused by the presence of aromatic substances, and its poor post-fire

Juniperus thurifera Juniperus thurifera in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats A. Gastón González, J. I. García-Viñas, S. Saura, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The Spanish juniper (Juniperus thurifera L.) is a small coniferous evergreen tree that forms open woodlands on poor soils with Mediterranean continental climate. Its natural range is the western part of the Mediterranean basin, mainly Spain, where is currently colonising new areas due to abandonment of arable lands. The Spanish juniper woodlands are protected habitats by European legislation. The Spanish juniper (Juniperus thurifera L.) is an evergreen coniferous shrub or tree, which can grow up to 20 m1 , but usually has a height of 5-12 m. The crown is pyramidal in youth and then it becomes broad, rounded, and often irregular. The bark is thin, dark brown, grey-brown at maturity, scaly and exfoliating in strips. Leaves are light green, 2 mm long, acute scaly, appressed, covering completely the twigs. This tree species is dioecious. Flowers in male trees are clustered in 3-4 mm yellow spherical cones. Female trees have almost undetectable flowers that ripen into 7-8 mm berry-like dark-purple fleshy cones2 .


Berry-like dark-blue seed cones: they mature over a period of around 18 months.

Distribution

(Copyright Gaston Aitor: CC-BY)

The Spanish juniper is endemic to South-Western Europe and North Africa3 . European juniper woodlands are mainly in Spain, covering about 600 000 ha4 , but also occur in French Alps and Pyrenees, in Corsica and the Italian Alps, with a total of 1 500 ha5 , in Morocco in the High and Middle Atlas mountains, with an area of 20 000 ha, and in Algeria in limited areas of the Aures mountains6 . In Spain, this species is concentrated mainly in the Eastern part of the Northern Plateau and the Iberian Range, but it found also in the Betic Range, the Ebro River Valley and the Cantabrian Range7.

Habitat and Ecology Preferred environments are on low to moderate slopes in a semi-arid continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers, from 300 m to above 3 000 m of elevation. In Spain it primarily occurs on calcareous soils, but in Morocco it can grow on varied and very rocky soils4, 7, 8 . At the lowest altitudes, the Spanish juniper is generally associated with the evergreen oak (Quercus ilex), while in North Africa it is often associated with the Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica)7. Successful seedling recruitment has been observed in open areas with optimum climate and low grazing pressure, allowing the colonisation of abandoned arable lands in recent decades4, 9. However, in mature stands a decreased grazing intensity may favour competing, more palatable and shade-tolerant tree species that benefit from the established juniper cover, triggering succession that decreases local abundance of the Spanish juniper10.

viable seeds9 . Despite its tolerance to harsh climatic conditions, a large contraction of the Spanish juniper range is expected as a result of climate change15 . In Morocco heavy grazing and browsing pressures have caused damage and prevented regeneration5 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Juniperus thurifera. Frequency of Juniperus thurifera occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for J. thurifera is derived after several sources16-18 .

Importance and Usage The Spanish juniper has been traditionally used as fodder for donkeys and goats, still in use in North Africa, and as firewood. It also used for timber (construction, furniture) and distillation of essential oils9, 11 . Fleshy seed cones are consumed by a large number of mammal and bird species12 . The woodlands constitute a singular ecosystem in the western Mediterranean basin, consequently, are listed as protected habitat by European legislation13 .

Threats and Diseases Several fungal diseases may cause dieback of branches, but severe defoliations are usually caused by larvae of the small moth Gelechia senticetella14 . Other insects and the mite Trisetacus quadrisetus parasite the seeds and cause extremely low ratios of

Isolated Spanish juniper with divided trunk at early age. (Copyright Gaston Aitor: CC-BY)

References

Young Spanish juniper stand developing after agricultural use abandonment and decreasing grazing pressure. (Copyright Gaston Aitor: CC-BY)









[1] J. Ruiz de la Torre, Flora Mayor (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales & Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, 2006). [2] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [3] J. do Amaral Franco, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula IbeÌrica e Islas Baleares, Volume 1: LycopodiaceaePapaveraceae, S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1998), pp. 181–188. [4] R. Alonso Ponce, O. Sanchez Palomares, S. Roig Gomez, E. Lopez Senespleda, J. M. Gandullo Gutierrez, Las estaciones ecológicas actuales y potenciales de los sabinares albares españoles, Monografìas INIA. Serie Forestal n. 19 (Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnologìa Agraria y Alimentarìa, 2010). [5] T. Gauquelin, V. Bertaudiere, N. Montes, W. Badri, J.-f. Asmode, Biodiversity & Conservation 8, 1479 (1999). [6] N. Montes, V. Bertaudiere, Thuriferous juniper (Juniperus thurifera L.) in morocco: an endangered species (2005). Accessed on January 2015. [7] A. Gastón González, C. Soriano Martìn, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 15, 9+ (2006). [8] A. Gastón González, J. I. Garcìa Viñas, El Estudio del hábitat climático para la selección de especies la restauración de la vegetación (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, Madrid, 2013), vol. II, pp. 615–730.

[9] R. Alonso, J. M. Barrio, S. Roig, Selvicultura de Juniperus thurifera (Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnologìa Agraria y Alimentaria (España), 2008), pp. 229–258. [10] L. DeSoto, J. M. Olano, V. Rozas, M. De la Cruz, Applied Vegetation Science 13, 15 (2010). [11] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42255/0+. [12] G. Escribano-Avila, et al., PLoS ONE 7, e46993 (2012). [13] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 35, 7 (1992). [14] C. Muñoz, V. Pérez, P. Cobos, R. Hernández, G. Sánchez, Sanidad forestal: guìa en imagenes de plagas, enfermedades y otros agentes presentes en los bosques (MundiPrensa, Madrid, 2003). [15] M. Benito Garzón, R. Sánchez de Dios, H. Sainz Ollero, Applied Vegetation Science 11, 169 (2008). [16] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [17] O. de Bolòs, J. Vigo, Flora dels països catalans, vol I-IV (Barcino, Barcelona, 1984-2001). [18] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of The stand degradation implies serious ecological consequences, this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at 6 https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0195e6. The purpose . of this such as soil erosion and desertification


summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Gastón González, A., García-Viñas, J. I., Saura, S., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Juniperus thurifera in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0195e6+



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Larix decidua Larix decidua and other larches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats F. Da Ronch, G. Caudullo, W. Tinner, D. de Rigo The European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) is a pioneer, very long-lived, fast-growing coniferous tree, which occurs in the central and eastern mountains of Europe, forming open forests or pasture woods at the upper tree limits. Larch is the only deciduous conifer in Europe as an adaptation to continental alpine climates. In fact, it is able to tolerate very cold temperatures during winter and, by losing its needles, avoids foliage desiccation. It is a transitional species, colonising open terrain after natural disturbances. It forms pure stands but more often it is found with other alpine tree species, which tend to replace it if no other disturbances occur. Thanks to its adaptability and the durability of its wood, the European larch represents an important silvicultural tree species in the alpine regions, planted even outside its natural ranges. Its wood is largely used for carpentry, furniture and pulp for paper. In lower altitudes or with high precipitation rates, larch is more susceptible to fungal diseases. Outbreaks of insect defoliators, principally caused by the larch bud moth (Zeiraphera diniana), can limit tree development, with economic losses in plantations, but they rarely lead to the death of the trees. The European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) is a large deciduous coniferous tree that reaches 45 m, rarely over 50 m, and a lifespan of 600-800 years in optimal conditions1 . Like other tree species, larches in the highest elevations are more slow-growing and long-living, reaching even more than 1 000 years in age, so making this species suitable for dendrochronology studies2, 3 . The trunk is monopodial, straight or curved at base in slopes, with a diameter of 1-1.5 (2) m and fissured bark from reddish brown to light grey4 . Young plants are very flexible and are not damaged by avalanches1 . The needles are clustered in bunches of 20-40, flexible, 1.5-4 cm long and 1 mm wide. The colour is light green and turns yellow in autumn before falling2 . The larch is a monoecious unisexual species: the male cones (5-10 mm) are sulphur yellow, with a reddish margin, hanging on the longer branches; the female cones are pink-red or dark purple when immature and turn a light green with purple margins at maturity. The seed cones are about 2.5 cm long and persist in the plant up to 10 years; when old they turn to a grey colour and fall along with the small branches. The seeds are 4-5 mm long, greyish in colour5 .

Distribution European larch is discontinuously distributed in the mountains of southern, central and Eastern Europe, from southeastern France and south-western Italy to eastern Poland and central Romania6-8 . It has a broad vertical range, forming forests between 180 m (in Poland) to 2 500 m (central Alps, southwestern Alps), but reaching very high elevations where it can found in small groups or single trees in sheltered sites9-12 . The species is divided in different geographic varieties, sometimes given the status of subspecies, and their classification is still


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Larix decidua. Frequency of Larix decidua occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for L. decidua is derived after Wagner et al.41 .

under debate. Three main varieties are recognised: the Alpine larch (Larix decidua var. decidua), living in a compact area that includes the Alpine mountains continuing up to east Austria and northern Slovenia between 250 m (Austria) and 2 300 m (western Alps) of elevation; the Carpathian larch (Larix decidua var. carpatica) with three more patchy populations, in the Sudeten Mountains, the Tatra Mountains and in Southeast Carpathians,

between 650 and 1 900 m in elevation; the Poland larch (Larix decidua var. polonica) with patchy often isolated stands growing in central-south Poland between 180 and 650 m1, 4, 11 . The Carpathian and the Poland larches are often grouped together or divided in geographic subspecies by several authors2, 11 . In north-western Europe (Great Britain, Scandinavia) larches have been widely cultivated since 16th century and naturalised in some cases1, 12, 13 . More recently, these plantations have been largely superseded first by the Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) or Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) and then by larch hybrids (i.e. Larix x marschlinsii)2 . The European larch was also introduced in southern Canada and the north-eastern United States from the mid-19th century14, 15 , and in New Zealand, where it is classified as a naturalised and invasive species16 .

Habitat and Ecology The European larch is a light-demanding, pioneer species of the mountain and subalpine regions. This conifer has a large ecological amplitude. In the Alps and Tatra Mountains it grows in continental climates, with cold, dry and snowy winters. In Poland and in the Sudeten Mountains larch thrives at lower altitudes in sub-continental climates with a more temperate influence 1, 11 . It needs light in all stages of development, colonising disturbed soils (avalanches, landslide, livestock grazing, etc.) and forming open woodlands1 . In lower elevations it is a transitional tree, performing as coloniser better than other mountain tree species in poor to medium nutrient sites8, 17, while in the subalpine belt it forms more stable forests in pure or mixed stands10. It grows on well-drained soils, not tolerating waterlogging, with a pH range from neutral to acid12 . The larch is very cold and wind tolerant during winter (dormant period), and it has a cold hardiness limit of around -30 °C18 . Its deciduous habit confers a significant advantage by reducing desiccation damage on foliage during winter8 . In the Alps at higher elevations larch forms the upper tree limit, occurring in pure forests in the Italian, French and Southern Swiss Alps, while farther north this species is more often found in mixed stands with other alpine tree species, principally the Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra), but also green alder (Alnus viridis) and dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo). In the lower elevations it can be found with Norway spruce (Picea abies) and silver fir (Abies alba), while lower down with beech (Fagus sylvatica) on poor soils and in open and disturbed areas4, 9, 10, 15 . In the Carpathian Mountains larch occurs usually with Norway spruce and Swiss stone pine or Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and also with fir and beech. It only sporadically




Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for the whole genus Larix.

Large isolated larch; this tree can in some cases grow to over 50 m. (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

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Larix decidua

forms the timberline belt, typically in the High Tatra Mountains with Swiss stone pine, a vegetation similar to Alpine larch woods1, 19-21 . In Poland it occurs in lowlands growing in small groups or even as individual trees within pine-birch and oak-birch forests1, 21, 22 . These ecotypes are less light demanding and able to grow in the shade of other tree species11 .

Uncertain, no-data Tundra, cold desert Negligible survivability


Low survivability

The larch is an economically and traditionally important timber tree in Europe, thanks to its fast-growing nature, high adaptability and its durable wood8 . The heartwood ranges from yellow to a medium reddish brown. The narrow sapwood is nearly white or pale yellow and is clearly demarcated from the heartwood. The wood is hard, strongly fragrant and is valued for its durability, due to its concentration in tannins (up to 10 %) and resin content (about 2.6 %)1 . It is also durable under water. In fact it is largely used for carpentry and naval constructions8 . In the European mountain areas its wood has been traditionally used for building wooden houses23 , for producing furniture and fine floors and many weatherproof outdoor objects such as fences, gates, benches and tables, wooden roof shingles and water troughs for cattle11 . Moreover, larch is used for pulpwood and its good fibre characteristics (also for high-quality printing paper23), for extracting tannin from bark and resin from wood, and also as an ornamental tree, appreciated for airy foliage turning to bright yellow in autumn8 . The larch turpentine, also known as Venice turpentine, is obtained by distillation of larch resin and it has been used in traditional medicine as antitussive and expectorant action for colds, and more recently as industrial solvent, for paint and wax preparation, or as a source of organic compounds (e.g. camphor, rosin, etc.). The larch essential oil is still used in aromatherapy and as perfume1 . In some Alpine areas larch wood is still used to manufacture the Alphorn, a wooden horn, 3-4 m long, end-curved, played with its end resting on the ground, which is able to produce very low and strong notes with great effort from the musician. It was originally used in central European Alps for communications among village communities through the valleys; now it is a traditional Alpine instrument24,25 .

Mid-low survivability Medium survivability Mid-high survivability High survivability

Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability for the whole genus Larix.

Adult plant has thick and plated greyish bark with deep fissures. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Leaves turn to yellow in autumn before falling: the only deciduous European conifer. (Copyright Dave Durrant: CC-BY)


Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Larix decidua.





Maturing seed cones; they can persist on the tree up to 10 years. Annual average temperature (°C)






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Larix decidua

Other larches in Europe The Siberian or Russian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) has a wide range along Eurasia, from the coasts of White Sea in northern European Russia, through Siberia up to Baikal Lake, northern Mongolia and China6 . It is common tree of lowland taiga in western Siberia, but also occurring in mountain areas. It forms the northern tree limit and occurs in pure and, more often, mixed forests4 . It can be distinguished by the European larch for its green seed cones densely pubescent outside4, 39 . It is adapt to cold and dry continental or sub-arctic climates. In Russia this larch is an important timber tree, logged in natural strands and also in plantations outside its natural range. Its strong and durable wood was traditionally used for Siberian house construction and for rail sleepers of the TransSiberian Railroad. Actually it is used for construction, veneer and pulp industry, successfully planted in Scandinavia, Iceland, central and eastern Europe4 . It does not overlap and hybridise naturally with the European larch2 . In Europe the Japanese larch (Larix kempferi Lamb.) is another important timber tree for wood production. It is native of a small mountain region on the Hondo Island in Japan, which includes the Mount Fuji40 . It has been introduced in Scotland in mid of 19th century and later in many European countries, appreciated for its fast growth and great production in different types of soils4, 6 . Leaves shows two white stomatal bands beneath and seed cones are characterised by scales with apex recurved margins, curling back2, 39 . This larch is adapt to more oceanic climates with rainy summers11 . Its wood is similar to the European larch, and it has been used for construction, railway sleepers, pit props and pulp industry. Hybrids with the European larch naturally arose in the first years of 20th century in Scotland and Switzerland, and have been named Dunkeld larch (Larix x marschlinsii, syn. Larix x eurolepis)2, 11, 12 . They have showed superior vigour in growth to either parents, so foresters have been propagated and planted in many countries, principally in central Europe4 .

[Top Left] Siberian larches in Ural Mountains near Saranpaul (Tyumen region, Russia). [Bottom left] Seed cones and autumn foliage of the hybrid Dunkeld larch (Larix x marschlinsii). [Right] Japanese larches (Larix kempferi) by the Lake Ozenuma in Oze National Park (Fukushima, Japan). (Copyright [top left] Irina Kazanskaya, www.flickr.com, [bottom left] Carl Mueller, www.flickr.com, [Right] Tanaka Juuyoh, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

While the larch heart-root system may offer a good resistance to windthrow26 , the species appears less resistant to rockfall26, 27 even if the thick bark may offer a lower rockfall-mortality rate when compared with spruce26 . Larches are vulnerable to Ips typographus and to other species of the Ips genus, such as Ips cembrae. These bark beetles are also associated as vectors of important fungal pathogens28-32 . The larch canker, caused by Lachnellula wilkommii, is a fungal disease, which causes cankers distorting branches and stems. It is considered the most destructive disease of the larch in Europe, particularly at lower altitudes and on inadequate, badly drained sites8 . Other fungal diseases are the leaf cast fungus, Meria laricis, which may cause significant defoliation, the root rot Heterobasidion annosum12 and the velvet-top fungus Phaeolus schweinitzii causing butt rot. Defoliations, sometimes heavy, can be imposed by insects such as the larch case-bearer (Coleophora laricella) or the larch bud moth (Zeiraphera diniana). Tree deaths caused by the defoliators are rare events, but infested larch stands suffer, resulting in significant growth reductions and economic losses33, 34 . The European larch is vulnerable to Dothistroma septosporum30, 35 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe36, 37. Larch partly coexists with the natural niche of the large pine weevil36 . The Poland larch occurs in ancient small stands, even as solitary old trees, surrounded by different broadleaves in strong competition. Probably in the past the forest management promoted larch presence with more open woodlands where the larch regeneration was guaranteed. Today larches are mostly in forest reserves and are no longer logged, leading through succession to different forest types38 .

Needle-like leaves in spring: they are arranged in clusters of 20-40 in the branchlets. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Reddish female flower before pollination. (Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.org.uk: AP)


Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Larix kempferi.


110







[1] T. Geburek, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2002), vol. 3. A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [2] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [3] P. Schütt, H. J. Schuck, B. Stimm, Lexikon der Baum- und Straucharten: Das Standardwerk der Forstbotanik (Nikol, Hamburg, 2002). [4] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [5] J. Silba, Encyclopedia Coniferae, Phytologia Memoirs VIII (Harold N. Moldenke and Alma L. Moldenke, Corvallis, Oregon, 1986). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [7] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [8] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [9] P. Ozenda, Die Vegetation der Alpen im europäischen Gebirgsraum (Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, 1988). [10] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [11] L. E. Pâques, et al., Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 177–227. [12] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [13] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 2 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1907). [14] D. W. Gilmore, A. J. David, The Forestry Chronicle 78, 822 (2002). [15] J. Sullivan, Larix decidua. Fire Effects Information System (1994). http://www. feis-crs.org/feis [16] C. J. Webb, W. R. Sykes, P. J. GarnockJones, Flora of New Zealand Vol. 4. Naturalised Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons (D.S.I.R., Christchurch, 1988). [17] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni alpine italiane (Cleup, Padova, 2004). [18] P. Bannister, G. Neuner, Conifer Cold Hardiness, F. Bigras, S. Colombo, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2001), vol. 1 of Tree Physiology, pp. 3–21. [19] S. Farcas, I. Tantau, P. D. Turtureanu, Contribuţii Botanice 48, 39 (2013).

[20] T. Zielonka, J. Holeksa, P. Fleischer, P. Kapusta, Journal of Vegetation Science 21, 31 (2010). [21] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [22] M. Ferchmin, Memorabilia Zoologica 32, 149 (1979). [23] V. Chalupa, Trees III, Y. P. S. Bajaj, ed. (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1991), vol. 16 of Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, pp. 446-470. [24] B. Geiser, Das Alphorn in der Schweiz (Paul Haupt Publisher, Bern, 1976). [25] C. Vignau, Modernity, Complex Societies, and the Alphorn (Lexington Books, Maryland, 2013). [26] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [27] L. K. A. Dorren, F. Berger, C. le Hir, E. Mermin, P. Tardif, Forest Ecology and Management 215, 183 (2005). [28] M. Marin, et al., Mycological Research 109, 1137 (2005). [29] J. Holuša, et al., Journal of Applied Entomology 137, 181 (2013). [30] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [31] R. Kirschner, D. Begerow, F. Oberwinkler, Mycological Research 105, 1403 (2001). [32] L. Giordano, M. Garbelotto, G. Nicolotti, P. Gonthier, Mycological Progress 12, 127 (2013). [33] M. Habermann, Forest Ecology and Management 136, 11 (2000). [34] P. Nola, M. Morales, R. Motta, R. Villalba, Trees 20, 371 (2006). [35] R. Burgess, Risks of Exotic Forest Pests and Their Impact on Trade (The American Phytopathological Society, 2001). [36] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [37] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [38] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 34161/0+. [39] J. Do Amaral Franco, Flora Europea. Volume 1. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 40, second edn. [40] G. R. Stairs, 13th Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Conference Proceeding, Albany, New York, August 12-13, 1965 (1966), pp. 30–36. [41] S. Wagner, T. Litt, M.-F. Sánchez-Goñi, R. J. Petit, Quaternary Science Reviews 124, 224 (2015).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01e492. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Da Ronch, F., Caudullo, G., Tinner, W., de Rigo, D., 2016. Larix decidua and other larches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01e492+



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References


Olea europaea Olea europaea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats N. Guerrero Maldonado, M. J. López, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The olive (Olea europaea L.) is a small evergreen tree which grows slowly and is able to live over 1 000 years. It has been cultivated for millennia throughout the Mediterranean basin probably domesticating the oleaster, its wild form. This species is a typical tree of the Mediterranean vegetation, well adapted to drought and poor soils, and also resistant to salinity. It is principally distributed along the coasts, although its cultivations are nowadays to be found in all Mediterranean climate areas of the world. This species is one of the most important trees for the agricultural economy of the Mediterranean region with more than 70 % of world olive oil production. Like other cultivated trees, the olive is affected by many pests and diseases, which require direct human control. The olive tree (Olea europaea L.) is a small evergreen tree that grows between 8-15 m tall. It is a slow-growing and extremely long-lived species, with a life expectancy up to 1 000 years1, 2 . The short and large trunk develops multiple branches with cascading twigs3 . The silvery green leaves are thick, leathery and oppositely arranged, growing over a 2-3 year period before shedding. Flower bud inflorescences develop in the axil of each leaf with buds that may remain dormant for over a year. Each inflorescence contains 15-30 small, inconspicuous, fragrant flowers, yellow-white in colour. This species is monoecious with hermaphrodite flowers, formed by a short 4-segmented calyx and a short-tubed corolla containing 4 lobes3, 4 . The fruit is a drupe 2-2.5 cm long, black when ripe, possessing a central pit which encloses the seed surrounded by the edible flashy mesocarp2-4 . It is dispersed principally by birds5, 6 .


is concentrated in Spain, Italy and Greece24 . The leaves are used in medicine as a herbal tea, due to mainly their high phenolic compound content25. Occasionally it is cultivated in gardens as an ornamental tree26 . The oleaster is a source of rootstock for propagating new improved cultivated varieties27.

Threats and Diseases The olive tree is affected by many pests and diseases28 . One of the major constraints for olive cultivations is Verticillium wilt, a disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Verticillium dahliae 29 . Olive scab, caused by the mitosporic fungus Spilocaea oleagina, is the most important foliar disease of olive30 . Olive knot disease results in tubercules formed on branches and stems, produced by the bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi31 . Among pests, the most harmful are the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera olea), the olive moth (Prays oleae) and black scale (Saissetia oleae)32, 33 . In Australia and Pacific islands the oleaster is considered as an invasive species, introduced in the 19th century34 . Xylella fastidiosa is a pathogen of American origin. In recent years, its subsp. pauca has been associated with the olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS) in Southern Italy35-37.

Distribution In spite of the controversy generated on its origin, most authors agree that wild olives are native to Minor Asia7. From the eastern parts of the Mediterranean basin, olive trees spread west through Greece, Italy, France Spain and Portugal following the coasts8, 9. Nowadays olive cultivations and selection of cultivars are expanding in many areas outside its natural ranges, and even in other continents, such as Australia, South and North America (Argentina, Chile, United States), South Africa and even in exotic places like Hawaii8 . Of its six subspecies, only three are naturally distributed in Europe: subsp. europaea in the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Cyprus, Slovenia and Malta) and some Atlantic enclaves in South-West Europe; subsp. guanchica in the Canary Islands; and subsp. cerasiformis in the Madeira archipelago. Of the other three, subsp. maroccana occurs in Morocco, subsp. laperrinei in Algeria, Sudan and Niger, and subsp. cuspidata from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to South West China. The Mediterranean subspecies includes the oleaster (Olea europaea subsp. europaea var. sylvestris), the wild form, and cultivated olive (Olea europaea subsp. europaea var. europaea)4, 8, 10, 11 .

Habitat and Ecology This species is a typical component of the thermoMediterranean climate, characterised by warm, dry summers and rainy, cool winters, which corresponds generally to the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea up to 200 m in elevation12 . The olive tree is a thermophile species and is adapted to tolerate drought and salinity stress1, 8, 13 . It grows on a wide range of soils4 , but prefers sandy loam soils of moderate depth14 . The wild form frequently thrives as one of the common constituents of maquis and garrigue scrub formations on poor soils and slopes. It colonises secondary habitats, such as the edges of cultivation or abandoned orchards, spread by bird-dispersed seed, but also propagating vegetatively by root suckers3, 15, 16 . It can be found in the sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation, along with carob (Ceratonia siliqua) mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), myrtle (Myrtus communis), junipers (Juniperus spp.), etc.17.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Olea europaea. Frequency of Olea europaea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for O. europaea is derived after Meusel and Jäger38 . Maturing fruits: these fleshy drupes become black when ripening.

domestication of the oleaster seems to have occurred in the NearEast during the early Neolithic period, and then it was successively propagated to western areas of Mediterranean basin18 . Historically this species has always been appreciated first for its fruits and the wood, and then for the oil. The fruit is edible and all parts contain non-drying oil. Pickled, canned or otherwise prepared table olives are eaten as relish or used in bread, soups, salads, etc.19. The olive wood is heavy and very tough, used for high-end furniture, inlays, turned objects, and handcraft20. It is also appreciated as firewood because it burns even when wet21 . The olive oil has several uses, for eating and cooking, as well as for ointment, lighting (burning without smoke), and medical uses15, 20, 21 . Virgin olive oil is an important component of the Mediterranean diet, valued for its beneficial properties for human health thanks to the high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids22, 23. Mediterranean countries produce more than 70 % of the total world supply of olive oil. About 95 % of the European production

Importance and Usage The olive is one of the most emblematic and economically important crop trees of the Mediterranean regions15. The

Old cutivated olive tree for fruit production near Galatas (Peloponnese peninsula, Greece). (Copyright Miltos Gikas, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)










(Copyright Michael Wunderli, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] S. Rhizopoulou, American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Science 2, 382 (2007). [2] G. S. Sibbett, L. Ferguson, Olive Production Manual (Universityt of California, Agriculture & Natural Resources, Oakland, 2004), second edn. [3] G. C. Martin, The Woody Plant Seed Manual, F. T. Bonner, R. P. Karrfalt, eds., Agriculture Handbook 727 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 2008), pp. 753–756. [4] P. Vargas, S. Talavera, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares, Volume 11 Gentianaceae-Boraginaceae, S. Talavera, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 2012), pp. 136–139. [5] M. Agnoletti, ed., Italian Historical Rural Landscapes, vol. 1 (Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2013). [6] J. M. Alcantara, P. J. Rey, F. Valera, A. M. Sanchez-Lafuente, Ecology 81, 1937 (2000). [7] G. Bartolini, R. Petruccelli, H. D. Tindall, U. G. Menini, Classification, origin, diffusion and history of the olive (Food & Agriculture Organization, Rome, 2002). [8] A. Chiappetta, I. Muzzalupo, Olive Germplasm - The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy, I. Muzzalupo, ed. (InTech, 2012), chap. 2. [9] A. P. De Candolle, Origine des Plantes Cultivees (Germer Bailliére, Paris, 1883). [10] G. Besnard, R. R. de Casas, P.-A. Christin, P. Vargas, Annals of Botany 104, 143 (2009). [11] P. S. Green, Kew Bulletin 57, 91 (2002). [12] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Final Report (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Rome, Italy, 2001). [13] G. López González, Los árboles y arbustos de la Penìnsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares (Mundi-Prensa, Madrid, 2006), second edn. [14] D. H. R. Spennemann, L. R. Allen, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, 889 (2000). [15] D. Zohary, M. Hopf, E. Weiss, Domestication of Plants in the Old World (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000). [16] J. M. Caballero, C. del Rìo, El Cultivo del Olivo, D. Barranco, R. Fernández-Escobar, L. Rallo, eds. (Mundi-Prensa, Madrid, 2008), pp. 93–125, 6th edn. [17] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [18] E. Galili, M. Weinstein-Evron, D. Zohary, Mitekufat Haeven: Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 22, 95 (1989).

[19] P. Hanelt, ed., Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Springer, 2001). [20] B. K. Shishkin, et al., Flora of the USSR Volume XVIII: Metachlamydeae, vol. 18 of Flora of the USSR (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [21] C. Breton, et al., Comptes Rendus Biologies 332, 1059 (2009). [22] H. M. Roche, M. J. Gibney, A. Kafatos, A. Zampelas, C. M. Williams, Food Research International 33, 227 (2000). [23] H. M. Roche, et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 552 (1998). [24] European Commission, EU olive oil farms report Based on FADN data (DirectorateGeneral for Agriculture and Rural Development, Brussels, 2012). [25] C. M. Breton, P. Warnock, A. J. Bervillé, Olive Germplasm - The Olive Cultivation, Table Olive and Olive Oil Industry in Italy, I. Muzzalupo, ed. (InTech, 2012), chap. 1. [26] S. Rickard, The New Ornamental Garden (CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, 2011). [27] E. Rugini, C. De Pace, P. Gutiérrez-Pesce, R. Muleo, Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Temperate Fruits, C. Kole, ed. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2011), pp. 79–117. [28] V. Sergeeva, R. Spooner-Hart, N. G. Nair, Australasian Plant Disease Notes 3, 143 (2008). [29] J. Mercado-Blanco, F. J. López-Escudero, Plant and Soil 355, 17 (2012). [30] J. R. Viruega, J. Moral, L. F. Roca, N. Navarro, A. Trapero, Plant Disease 97, 1549 (2013). [31] G. Marchi, C. Viti, L. Giovannetti, G. Surico, European Journal of Plant Pathology 112, 101 (2005). [32] G. E. Haniotakis, IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 28, 1 (2005). [33] E. Rugini, M. Mencuccini, R. Biasi, M. Altamura, Protocol for Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, Jain, P. Gupta, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2005), vol. 77 of Forestry Sciences, pp. 345–360. [34] G. Besnard, P. Henry, L. Wille, D. Cooke, E. Chapuis, Heredity 99, 608 (2007). [35] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [36] R. Baker, et al., EFSA Journal 13, 3989+ (2015). [37] G. P. Martelli, D. Boscia, F. Porcelli, M. Saponari, European Journal of Plant Pathology pp. 1–9 (2015). [38] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01534b. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Guerrero Maldonado, N., López, M. J., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Olea europaea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01534b+



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Ostrya carpinifolia Ostrya carpinifolia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats S. Pasta, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Ostrya carpinifolia Scop., known as European hop-hornbeam, is a small to medium-sized broadleaved deciduous tree. The flowers are catkins which are produced in spring along with bud-burst; the fruit forms in pendulous clusters and the seed is a small nut. The native range of this species includes Middle Europe, Southern Europe and the Balkan area, Western Asia and Caucasian countries. In the northernmost part of its range it behaves as a light-demanding pioneer which prefers sunny and warm places, while in the southernmost countries it grows better in semi-shaded and more humid sites. The European hop hornbeam often grows in rocky areas and on shallow and poorly developed soils, forming the understorey of Pinus nigra forests and deciduous sub-Mediterranean forests, where it may represent one of the dominating species together with Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, and Quercus pubescens. Its wood is very heavy and hard and it is mainly used for providing fuel wood and charcoal. The fungi Botryosphaeria dothidea and Cryphonectria parasytica cause the most serious damage to the European hop hornbeam. European hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop.) is a small to medium-sized broadleaved deciduous tree that can reach up to 25 m. After coppicing it often loses its arboreal habit appearing in form of a tall shrub of just 3-6 m tall1 . Its conical or irregular crown bears alternate obovate-lanceolate, acuminate and dentate leaves 3-10 cm long, rounded and symmetric at the base, with 10-15 secondary veins per side1 . The flowers are produced in spring along with leaf-bud opening, with male catkins 5-10 cm long and female catkins 2-5 cm long. The fruit forms pendulous clusters 3-8 cm long with 6-20 seeds, which become golden-brown in autumn; each seed is a small nut 2-4 mm long, fully enclosed in a bladder-like involucre1 . The bark of young stems is dark grey and smooth, while it is scaly, rough, longitudinally fissured and dark-brown in mature trees2 .

More often, the communities which it dominates represent an early and unsteady step of progressive succession processes: under low-disturbance conditions they rapidly evolve towards mixed broadleaved forests dominated by deciduous oaks (mainly Quercus pubescens, but also Quercus cerris, Quercus congesta, Quercus petraea and Quercus frainetto), by conifers like Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica and subsp. nigra in the Balkan peninsula, Cedrus libani between 1500 and 1800 m in South Anatolia, Syria and Lebanon, Pinus brutia and Pinus nigra up to 1700 m in Anatolia, more rarely by Quercus coccifera/calliprinos in Eastern Mediterranean countries or by Fagus sylvatica along the northern border of its range, for example in central and northern Italy and in Bulgaria1, 2, 6, 11 .


Distribution The European hop-hornbeam is endemic to temperate West Eurasia: more in detail, its native range includes Middle Europe (South-East Switzerland and South Austria), Southern Europe (South-East France and Corsica, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily), the Balkan area (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, Greece, probably extinct in Hungary) European Turkey, Western Asia (Anatolia, Syria, Lebanon) and Caucasian countries (Georgia, Armenia, Cis- and Transcaucasian districts of the Russian Federation)3-6 . Palynological evidence suggests that it was able to spread northwards and colonise Europe only after the last glaciation; i.e. 7 000 years ago7.

Habitat and Ecology

important role in all the Balkan-Illyrian area up to 900 m in elevation, occasionally reaching 1 300-1 400 m. Here it takes part in species-rich shrubberies (the so-called ‘shibljak’): together with Cornus mas, C. sanguinea, Corylus avellana, Cotinus coggygria, Cotoneaster nebrodensis, Juniperus oxycedrus, Paliurus spinachristi, Syringa vulgaris and, in the warmest sites, also Coronilla emerus and Pistacia terebinthus, it usually colonises open places where it forms the understorey of Pinus nigra forests and deciduous sub-Mediterranean forests, where it may represent one of the dominating species together with Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, and Quercus pubescens13 . These plant communities may be ascribed to the alliance of Ostryo-Carpinion orientalis, and similar species-assemblages are rather widespread on the hillsides and mountains of central and northern Italy14-16 , former Yugoslavia17 and of the continental part of Greece18-20 , while those of Calabria, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily21-24 may better be referred to the alliance Pino laricionis-Quercion congestae and those of South-East France to Quercetalia pubescentis25 . European hop-hornbeam seems to have played an important role within the mature forest communities of the Near East26 .

Male catkins are produced in spring and are 5-10 cm long. (Copyright Gianluca Nicolella, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Importance and Usage The wood of the hop-hornbeam is very hard and heavy, difficult to work2, 27. It has been used in the past for different purposes, especially in rural areas, for making small items and charcoal28-30 . It tends to crack when dried, so it is not appreciated for industrial purposes, although it still represents an excellent firewood27, 31 . For this very purpose, in central Italy most hop-hornbeam woodlands are still intensely exploited as coppices16 . The ability to colonise dry areas and shallow lime- and magnesium-rich soils makes this tree species suitable for the reforestation of many degraded sites32 . It is also used to form hedges and as an ornamental tree along roadsides27. Hop hornbeam is one of the hosting trees of the white truffle (Tuber magnatum)33 .


This hop-hornbeam is a stenohydric plant8 , which means that it shows rather constant transpiration and osmotic pressure values also under moderate drought stress conditions9 . Thus, it is able to colonise windy and sunny slopes, but it is mostly found in rainy areas or under wet microclimatic conditions (e.g. deep and humid ravines and canyons) where air humidity is constantly available1 . This explains why in the northernmost part of its range this species behaves as a light-demanding pioneer that prefers sunny and warm places, while in the southernmost countries it grows better in semi-shaded and more humid sites2, 10 . The European hop hornbeam often grows in rocky areas and on shallow and poorly developed soils, mainly on limestone3 , but also on volcanic11 and gypsum rock outcrops12 . It plays an

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ostrya carpinifolia. Frequency of Ostrya carpinifolia occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for O. carpinifolia is derived after Meusel and Jäger4 .

Sub-Mediterranean forest in North East Italy where hop-hornbeam dominates. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

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Leaves in a seedling: leaves are ovate with toothed margin and symmetric at the base. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)



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Mature fruits covered by the dry and brown bladder-like involucre. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases The European hop-hornbeam is known to be resistant to various diseases, but unusual and extensive dieback caused by the ascomycete fungus Botryosphaeria dothidea34 has been observed in western Slovenia and northern Italy in recent years along with extreme drought and high temperature events. It is affected by several fungal diseases like twig blight and canker, caused by Cryphonectria parasytica (Murr.) Barr.35-37. The tree is also vulnerable to the European oak bark beetle (Scolytus intricatus) which is found on oaks (Quercus spp.), beeches (Fagus spp.) and chestnuts (Castanea spp.) whose distribution may partially overlap with that of the European hop-hornbeam38-40 .


References [1] S. Pignatti, I boschi d’Italia: sinecologia e biodiversità (UTET, Torino, 1998). [2] S. Korkut, B. Guller, Bioresource Technology 99, 4780 (2008). [3] K. Browicks, J. Zieliński, Chorology of trees and shrubs in south-west Asia and adjacent regions, vol. 1 (Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa, Poznań, 1982). [4] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989). [5] P. Uotila, Euro+Med Plantbase - the information resource for EuroMediterranean plant diversity (2009). http://www.emplantbase.org. [6] K. Shaw, S. Roy, B. Wilson, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 194280/0+. [7] K. J. Willis, Endeavour 20, 110 (1996). [8] R. Del Favero, O. Andrich, G. De Mas, C. Lasen, D. Poldini, La vegetazione forestale del Veneto - Prodromi di tipologia forestale (Regione del Veneto, Dipartimento per le Foreste e l’Economia Montana, Venezia, 1990). [9] V. De Micco, G. Aronne, P. Baas, Trees 22, 643 (2008). [10] G. Venturella, P. Mazzola, F. M. Raimondo, Quaderni di Botanica ambientale e applicata 1, 211 (1990). [11] P. Quézel, F. Médail, Ecologie et biogéographie des forêts du bassin méditerranéen (Elsevier, Paris, 2003). [12] P. Marino, V. Ilardi, Atti del 102° Congresso della Società Botanica Italiana, Palermo 26-29 settembre 2007, G. Venturella, F. M. Raimondo, eds. (2007).

[13] A. Čarni, et al., Plant Biosystems 143, 1 (2009). [14] A. Hofmann, Studia Geobotanica 2, 217 (1982). [15] D. Lausi, R. Gerdol, F. Piccoli, Studia Geobotanica 2, 41 (1982). [16] C. Blasi, G. Filibeck, L. Rosati, Fitosociologia 43, 3 (2006). [17] R. Lakušić, D. Pavlović, S. Redžić, Glasnik Republickog Zavoda za Zastitu Prirode i Prirodnjackog Muzeja Titogradu 15, 103 (1982). [18] D. Voliotis, Acta Botanica Hungarica 31, 339 (1985). [19] A. Boratyński, K. Browicz, J. Zieliński, Chorology of trees and shrubs in Greece (Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Dendrology, Kornik, Poland, 1992). [20] E. Milios, Silva Gandavensis 65, 128 (2000). [21] J. Gamisans, La végétation de la Corse (Edisud, Aix-en-Provence, 1999). [22] S. Brullo, F. Scelsi, G. Spampinato, La vegetazione dell’Aspromonte - studio fitosociologico (Laruffa, Reggio Calabria, 2001). [23] G. Bacchetta, G. Iiriti, L. Mossa, C. Pontecorvo, G. Serra, Fitosociologia 41, 67 (2004). [24] C. Brullo, et al., Annali di Botanica 2, 19 (2012). [25] G. Lapraz, Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Lettres Botaniques 130, 137 (1983).

[26] S. Bottema, W. Van Zeist, Préhistoire du Levant: chronologie et organisation de l’espace depuis les origines jusqu’au VI millénaire (Maison de l’Orient, Lyon 10-14 juin 1980), J. Cauvin, P. Sanlaville, eds., Colloques Internationaux du CNRS n° 598 (Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1981), pp. 111–132. [27] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [28] A. J. Panshin, C. de Zeeuw, Textbook of Wood Technology: Structure, Identification, Properties, and Uses of the Commercial Woods of the United States and Canada, vol. 1 of McGraw-Hill series in forest resources (Mcgraw-Hill College, 1980), fourth edn. [29] J. H. Flynn, A Guide to Useful Woods of the World (King Philip Publishing Co., Portland, Maine, 1994). [30] H. A. Alden, Hardwoods of North America, General Technical Report FPL; GTR-83 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, 1995).

[31] D. Bartha, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2001). [32] M. Guidi, P. Piussi, Revue de Géographie Alpine 81, 95 (1993). [33] L. Bertini, et al., Microbiological Research 161, 59 (2006). [34] B. Piškur, et al., European Journal of Forest Research 130, 235 (2011). [35] G. Goidànich, Manuale di patologia vegetale, vol. 2 (Edagricole, Bologna, 1964). [36] D. Ottonello, Il Naturalista siciliano 10, 107 (1987). [37] T. Turchetti, G. Maresi, A. Santagada, Monti e Boschi 42, 54 (1991). [38] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [39] M. Jurc, S. Bojović, B. Komjanc, J. Krč, Biologia 64, 130 (2009). [40] CABI, Scolytus intricatus (European oak bark beetle) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org

Isolated tree in winter. This species is a small tree rarely exceeding 25 m. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)









Smooth bark in a young plant. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01fd3d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Pasta, S., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Ostrya carpinifolia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01fd3d+



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Picea abies Picea abies in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, W. Tinner, D. de Rigo Among the coniferous species, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is one of the most important trees in Europe both for economic and ecological aspects, with a long tradition of cultivation. It can be a big tree, reaching 50-60 m in height with a straight and regular trunk, particularly used for timber constructions, pulpwood for paper and furniture. This widespread species dominates the Boreal forests in Northern Europe and the subalpine areas of the Alps and Carpathian Mountains. Thanks to its high performances in different site conditions, it can also be found outside its natural distribution on lower elevations in more temperate forests. Norway spruce has been massively planted up to its niche limits, where it is particularly susceptible to heat and drought, due to its shallow root system. For this reason it is expected to be severely affected under global warming conditions. Disturbed and weakened plants can be easily attacked by rot fungi such as Heterobasidion annosum and Armillaria, or by the bark beetles Ips typographus, one of the most destructive spruce forest pests. Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is a large coniferous tree, which can grow up to 50-60 m and with a trunk of up to 150 cm in diameter, normally reaching an age of 200-300 years1-3 . In the Swedish Scandes, fossil remains of dead Norway spruce underneath living individuals have been dated with radiocarbon to the early Holocene, about 9 500 years ago, suggesting vegetative survival (by re-sprouting from the roots) over millennia4 . The crown is regularly conic, columnar, with whorled, short and stout branches, the upper level ascending and the lower drooping. Buds are reddish brown, 5 mm long with an acute apex. Needles are 1-2.5 cm long, 4-angled in cross section, rigid, light to dark green with fine white speckled lines. The species is monoecious, with unisexual flowers usually appearing at an age of 20-30 years, but up to 40 years in dense stands. Male flowers are located principally at the base of the preceding year’s shoot, 1-2.5 cm long, globular, crimson then yellow when mature. Female flowers are located at the tip of the shoot, dark red, 5 cm long, erect before pollination, becoming pendent afterwards. Cones are cylindrical, 12-15 cm long, green before maturity, turning brown in autumn. When dry the cones open to disperse 4 mm winged seeds. The bark is orange brown and the wood is creamy white and easy to work1, 5-8 .

Distribution Norway spruce is the main species in the Boreal and subalpine conifer forests, from Central (in mountains) to Northern and Eastern Europe up to the Ural Mountains, where the species merges with Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), which is sometimes considered as a sub-species of Picea abies5, 9-13 . Its elevation range goes from sea level in Northern Europe up to above 2 400 m in the Alps, where it grows in a stunted form14, 15 . Due to its large


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Picea abies. Caption: Frequency of Picea abies occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. abies is derived after EUFORGEN39 .

distribution there are a great number of varieties and forms, which can be considered as normal patterns of variation within a widespread species. Historically cultivated since of the 18th century, Norway spruce plantations, even outside natural ranges (e.g. in the temperate lowland areas), have changed natural forests into artificial ones2, 14 . Now it is locally naturalised in many areas of Europe outside its native range, including Britain and the Pyrenees Mountains. It was also introduced in other countries outside Europe



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Majestic isolated spruce in a mountain field in Leskova Dolina (Snežnik, South Slovenia). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

(United States, Canada and Japan) and in the southern hemisphere (South Africa, Tasmania and New Zealand)6, 16 .

Habitat and Ecology Spruce forests dominates in the Boreal zone of N and N-E Europe; in central Europe spruce forests cover wide areas of the montane (mostly planted) and the sub-alpine zones, in lowlands it is more mixed with other species2 . The natural distribution shows continental tendencies but thanks to its climatic tolerance it grows even in extreme oceanic climates9, 17. Norway spruce is a secondary coloniser, but can be both a pioneer and a climax species. It shows good yield and quality performance under very different site conditions, and has been favoured over long periods by silviculture, especially in the lowlands, but also in mountain areas18 . Shade-tolerant, it can survive for decades under a closed canopy, fast growing after 5-10 years. It does not grow close to coasts when exposed to salt winds, nor does it like summer drought or waterlogged conditions2, 7. Although it can occur on most substrates, it is most common and widespread on acidic soils, preferring nutritious deep soils with enough fresh moisture8, 9 . Spruce shows a noticeable soil-acidifying ability19 . In the Boreal forests it grows with birch (Betula spp.) and European aspen (Populus tremula), with willow (Salix spp.) alongside streams and lakes. In the Alps, when it is not in pure stands, it occurs with European larch (Larix decidua) and Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra) on higher elevations (ca. 1 800-2 100 m), with European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and European silver fir (Abies alba) under fresh conditions at intermediate altitudes (800-1 800 m), and with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in drier conditions9, 15 . Stages and reproductive processes are regulated by climatic conditions, in particular by temperature, which become more important in higher

Droplets of resin are common over the bark of the trunk and branches. (Copyright Agnieszka Kwiecień, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)



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latitude regions. Seeds are dispersed mainly by wind, but also by birds and other animals. The symbiotic relationship between roots and mycorrhizal fungi (hundreds of species described) is important for spruce forest ecosystems, especially in non-optimal growing conditions such as in dry and marginal habitats2, 5 .

Mature Norway spruce plantation in Dalbeattie Forest (Dumfries and Galloway, South Scotland). (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

Importance and Usage Norway spruce is one of the most important coniferous species in Europe both from an economic and ecological point of view. It has a long history of cultivation, having expanded its range considerably9, 14 . Especially in northern European countries the main products of economic interest are the solid wood for timber constructions and pulpwood for paper9, 14 . The wood is also used for a wide range of commodities, such as joinery timber, furniture, veneer and as tone-wood (sound boards of pianos and the bodies of guitars and violins)2, 7, 14 . However, spruce wood is not durable, so not suitable when decay-resistance and toughness are required20 . Stradivari and other eminent Italian violinmakers of the 17th and early 18th centuries used Norway spruce wood from the forests of the southern parts of the Italian Alps for the tops of their violins, in particular from the “Forest of the Violins” in the Parco Naturale di Paneveggio (Trentino, N-E Italy), known among violinmakers for its trees of resonance21, 22 . This species is also the most popular Christmas tree, a tradition that actually started in Germany, with the extensive afforestation beginning in the 18th

Open and opening cylindrical brown cones in autumn. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

century9 . Spruce stands are also planted for protection forests and erosion control, and can provide considerable recreational value20 . Since the 1940s the importance of this species has led some European countries to develop long-term breeding programmes to create base material for seed procurement with the objective of improving wood quality14 . The Norway spruce genome was sequenced in 2013, the first available for any gymnosperm. Its genome contains approximately 20 billion base pairs (about six times the size of the human genome, despite a similar number of genes). The large genome size seems to result from the slow and steady accumulation of a diverse set of longterminal repeat transposable elements, possibly owing to the lack of an efficient elimination mechanism23 .

Top side of a violin made with spruce wood. (Copyright Takeshi Kuboki, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases The most important natural disturbance factors affecting Norway spruce are fires, drought, storms and pathogens such as bark beetles. The fire tolerance is very poor. Spruce has a shallow root system, so that storms easily blow them down, especially in pure and dense stands, and access to deep soil water is impossible during dry periods2, 7. The root system makes spruce less resistant to windthrow and rockfall24, 25 . Its rockfall mortality rate is higher than that of thicker-barked species such as larch24 . The bark beetles Ips typographus is one of the most destructive forest pests causing damage to spruce forest ecosystems in Europe26 . This bark beetle is often associated to damaging assemblages of fungal pathogens27-30 . It is a secondary agent, affecting trees

Dead spruces killed by the bark beetle Ips typographus near Boží Dar inside the protected area Krušnohorské plató (Ostrov, North-West Czech Republic). (Copyright Jiří Berkovec, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



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that are already weakened (by storms, drought or other causes). It is currently expanding its range with mass outbreaks mainly on spruce stands outside their natural range2, 31 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe32 . In northern and central Europe, Norway spruce coexists with the natural niche of the large pine weevil32, 33 . The fungus Heterobasidion annosum causes root and butt rot throughout the northern hemisphere, which leads to important economic losses both in growth and wood quality14, 17, 34 . Another important root rot disease is caused by the fungi of the genus Armillaria. Armillaria affects a wide range of tree and shrub species: larch, spruce and pine trees mainly, resulting in serious economic losses, reducing timber volumes and wood quality. As primary pathogens, both of these fungi can weaken plants, cause mortality and growth reduction in natural and planted forests over Europe, principally in the Boreal forest of Fennoscandia. Severe damage can be caused by deer and wild boar with bark peeling, which affects seedlings and young trees, allowing them to be more easily infected by fungi31, 35, 36 . Starting from the 1980s, spruce forests have shown symptoms of decline in mountainous areas of central Europe including yellowing, loss of needles, die-back of branches and reduced growth. Air pollution has often been used to explain this14 . Health problems in central European forests have reduced its popularity for reforestation, particularly outside its natural

Pale green new needles sprouting from reddish buds. (Copyright Michael Wunderli, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

range . Due to its preferences for cool and moist climatic conditions this economically very valuable species may become severely affected under global warming conditions37. European alternatives to Norway spruce are mostly fir species such as Abies alba (e.g. Mediterranean or dry inner Alpine provenances) which can tolerate significantly warmer and drier conditions)37, 38 . 2, 8

Old Tjikko, claimed to be the oldest tree in the world, a 9 550-year-old spruce possibly surviving by root re-sprouting in Fulufjället Mountain (Dalarna, Sweden). (Copyright Karl Brodowsky, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

References

Pure Norway spruce forest by Lake Carezza in the western Dolomites (Bolzano, North-East Italy). (Copyright Son of Groucho, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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[1] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [2] OECD, Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms (OECD Publishing, 2006), vol. 2 of OECD Consensus Documents. [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] L. Öberg, L. Kullman, Arctic 64, 183 (2011). [5] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [6] R. J. Taylor, Flora of North America North of Mexico, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, ed. (New York and Oxford, 1993), vol. 2. [7] T. Horgan, et al., A guide to forest tree species selection and silviculture in Ireland. (National Council for Forest Research and Development (COFORD), 2003). [8] T. Skrøppa, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Norway spruce (Picea abies) (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 2003). [9] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42318/0+. [10] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [11] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [12] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [13] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [14] G. Jansson, et al., Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 123–176. [15] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [16] J.-C. Svenning, F. Skov, Ecology Letters 7, 565 (2004). [17] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [18] W. Tinner, B. Ammann, Global Change and Mountain Regions, U. Huber, H. Bugmann, M. Reasoner, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2005), vol. 23 of Advances in Global Change Research, pp. 133–143.

[19] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [20] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [21] L. Burckle, H. D. Grissino-Mayer, Dendrochronologia 21, 41 (2003). [22] B. C. Stoel, T. M. Borman, PLoS ONE 3, e2554 (2008). [23] B. Nystedt, et al., Nature 497, 579 (2013). [24] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [25] L. K. A. Dorren, F. Berger, C. le Hir, E. Mermin, P. Tardif, Forest Ecology and Management 215, 183 (2005). [26] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [27] P. Krokene, H. Solheim, Phytopathology 88, 39 (1998). [28] R. Jankowiak, J. Hilszczański, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 74, 345 (2011). [29] R. Kirschner, D. Begerow, F. Oberwinkler, Mycological Research 105, 1403 (2001). [30] L. Giordano, M. Garbelotto, G. Nicolotti, P. Gonthier, Mycological Progress 12, 127 (2013). [31] A. Turbé, et al., Disturbances of EU forests caused by biotic agents - final report, Tech. Rep. KH-32-13-151-EN-N (2011). Final Report prepared for European Commission (DG ENV). [32] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [33] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [34] M. Bendz-Hellgren, J. Stenlid, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27, 1519 (1997). [35] S. Prospero, Ecology of Armillaria cepistipes: population structure, niches, pathogenicity and interactions with Armillaria ostoyae, Master’s thesis, ETH Zurich, Switzerland (2003). [36] D. Morrison, K. Mallett, Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 18, 194 (1996). [37] H. Bugmann, et al., Toward Quantitative Scenarios of Climate Change Impacts in Switzerland, C. Appenzeller, et al., eds. (OCCR, FOEN, MeteoSwiss, C2SM, Agroscope and ProClim, Bern, Switzerland, 2014), pp. 79–88. [38] W. Tinner, et al., Ecological Monographs 83, 419 (2013). [39] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of norway spruce (Picea abies) (2013). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012300. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., Tinner, W., de Rigo, D., 2016. Picea abies in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012300+



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Picea omorika Picea omorika in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. Ballian, C. Ravazzi, G. Caudullo


Picea omorika (Pančić) Purk., the Serbian spruce, is a living fossil tree restricted to a small area at the boundary of Serbia and Bosnia Herzegovina. It grows in cool temperate mixed forests on mountain slopes but also withstands poorly aerated soils. Poor regeneration, fire impact in the 19th century and forest tree competition together with climate warming in recent years has left the Serbian spruce with the status of endangered species. Its prominent columnar habit and silvery Frequency sheen, together with tolerance to pollution, make it a valuable tree for urban landscapes. < 25%

The current population decline is related to its inability to compete with other tree forest species12 . The small range of Serbian spruce, composed of isolated populations, and the occurrence of self-fertility affect the genetic structure which is specific for each of the populations, given genetic drift and depression10, 22, 23. However, other results show relatively high genetic variation, which is characteristic for conifers24 . The biggest issue for Serbian spruce is fires, which have reduced its spread during the last century7, 11, 25. Another problem is a small number of fertile trees and poor natural regeneration, which may be even worsened by climate change10. For this reason Serbian spruce now has the status of endangered species12 . Currently there are no reliable data about insects and diseases which attack Serbian spruce, but there is some information about some of the pests which are attacking introduced samples in North America. Some sources list aphids, mites, scale and budworm as potential insect problems; however so far there are no reports of these pests significantly affecting the trees in Pennsylvania. The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe26, 27, and Serbian spruce partly coexists with the natural niche of this pest26 . The Serbian spruce is susceptible to the bark beetles Ips typographus and Dendroctonus micans28-30. It is also vulnerable to Gremmeniella abietina 28, 31 and may be subject to attacks by Pristiphora abietina28, 30 . The white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi) also has the potential to seriously affect Serbian spruce if not controlled1 .

The Serbian spruce (Picea omorika (Pančić) Purk.) is a slender tree up to 50 m high and 1 m in diameter, featured by a distinctive narrow conical crown1 . Root systems are very shallow and branched. Second order branches are curved downward and adpressed to the main trunk. This strictly monopodial “spire-shape” is only typical in clean and mixed forests, cultivated individuals in open spaces becoming wide crowned. Like other spruces, young branchlets bear spirally-arranged swellings (pulvini) supporting the needles, but in Serbian spruce the first and second year branchlets are pubescent. Needles are 0.8-1.8 cm long and 1.1 to 1.8 mm wide2 , basally truncated and horizontally compressed in two sides. Their lower surface has two prominent, white stomatal bands (epistomatic setting) of 4-6 lines each, giving the tree a silvery sheen. Pollen bears two wings, smaller than in Norway spruce (Picea abies)3; pollen morphology and pollination mechanism are not yet fully pinpointed4 . Female cones are produced at the top of the crown5 . They are first erect, then develop a pendulous, resinous, dark bluish-violet ovoid-oblong cone, reaching up to 6.5 cm long once ripe, but often less than 3 cm, thus resembling its Canadian relative black spruce (Picea mariana) and even the conifers of genus Tsuga. A cone may contain up to 90, nearly spherical seed scales, each containing two wind-dispersed seeds. The old cones remain on the tree for up to 2 years6 .

Distribution Serbian spruce is restricted to a small area along the Drina River at the boundary of Serbia and Bosnia Herzegovina, with a total occurrence extent of only 4 km2 7-10 . The main stands that grow in National parks in the Tara Mountains and an isolated population in the Mileseva River canyon in Serbia are protected, while in Bosnia and Herzegovina they are on its protected habitats11 . Other isolated spots, each consisting of a few hundred individuals, occur between Višegrad, Rogatica and Srebrenica, and there are two isolated populations further south (Čajniće and Foča)10-12 . Palaeobotanical records show that this stenoendemic pattern results from an overall reduction from a wide range spanning most of Central Europe during cool and moist temperate interstadials at the onset of the Last Glaciation, 100 000 years ago13 . Serbian spruce survival in the Dinaric Alps during the Last Glacial Maximum is supported by its current genetic structure which retains ancient imprints6, 14 .

Habitat and Ecology The modern habitat of Serbian spruce is too limited for a straightforward evaluation of species tolerance limits. The main habitats occur on steep, east, north and west facing, often rocky slopes, mostly on limestone, but also on serpentine, at an altitude of between 800 and 1 500 m. It may form the dominant canopy in a closed forest together with Norway spruce (Picea abies) and black pine (Pinus nigra) at higher elevations, or with beech (Fagus sylvatica) at lower ones, but silver fir (Abies alba),

25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Native

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Picea omorika. Frequency of Picea omorika occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. omorika is derived after Farjon and Filer, and Stevanović et al.32, 33 .

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), alder (Alnus glutinosa) and other broad-leaved also occur. The mesoclimate is oceanic, with cold winter temperatures and heavy snow followed by hot dry summers15, 16 . The tree regenerates quite well after catastrophic fires, but suffers competition from broadleaves; thus only steep slopes and limestone cliffs are successfully re-colonised17. Serbian spruce also withstands poorly aerated soils in peat bogs, thanks to its ability to root in the upper layer, a common feature in spruces which are stress avoiders of anoxia18 . This behaviour also recalls its Early Pleistocene ancestors, growing in ancient peatlands and recorded by in situ macrofossils19 .

Importance and Usage Wood of Serbian spruce was valued as a technical wood because of its good quality. It was also used to make special kinds of pots for cheese1, 20 . As a building material, its timber was mostly used for roof constructions. Today only its aesthetic features and tolerance to city pollution and to insect pests are of value21 . This is why people use it more than other conifers in cities with high levels of pollution. Serbian spruce deserves a more prominent place in commercial and residential landscapes. It can be used in groups, as a single specimen, or even as an evergreen street tree. It has utility as a natural screen and selections with a narrow habit are suitable even for small urban landscapes. Serbian spruce represents a welcome alternative to the all-to-common Norway and Colorado spruce (Picea pungens). Today there are many cultivars of Serbian spruce produced in nursery gardens and grown in parks20 .

Serbian spruce in Bosnia Herzegovina where it codominates a mixed forest with several broadleaves. (Copyright Dalibor Ballian: CC-BY)

Dark bluish-violet female cones at the top of the crown. (Copyright Iifar, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

References [1] M. Vidakovic, Tree Physiology 12, 319 (1993). [2] B. Radovanović, J. Šinžar Sekulić, T. Rakić, I. Živković, D. Lakušić, Botanica Serbica 38, 237 (2014). [3] H.-J. Beug, Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung für Mitteleuropa und angrenzende Gebiete (Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 2004). [4] C. J. Runions, K. H. Rensing, T. Takaso, J. N. Owens, American journal of botany 86, 190 (1999). [5] J. Jevtić, Šumartsvo 13, 79 (1960). [6] J. M. Aleksic, Genetic structure of natural populations of serbian spruce [picea omorika (panč.) purk.], Ph.D. thesis, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna (2008). [7] P. Fukarek, Godišnjak Biološkog instituta Univerziteta u Sarajevu 3, 141 (1951). [8] P. Fukarek, Problems of Balkan flora and vegetation: proceedings of the first International Symposium on Balkan Flora and Vegetation, Varna, June 7-14, 1973, D. Jordanov, ed. (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, 1975), pp. 146–161. [9] P. Fukarek, Hrvatski Šumarski List 2, 25 (1941). [10] D. Ballian, et al., Plant Systematics and Evolution 260, 53 (2006). [11] M. Tošić, Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine 72, 267 (1983). [12] M. Mataruga, D. Isajev, M. Gardner, T. Christian, P. Thomas, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2011), pp. 30313/0+. [13] C. Ravazzi, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 120, 131 (2002). [14] J. Aleksić, T. Geburek, Plant Systematics and Evolution 285, 1 (2010). [15] V. Stefanović, V. Beus, v. Burlica, H. Dizdarević, I. Vukorep, Ekološkovegetacijska rejonizacija Bosne i Hercegovine, Posebna izdanja br. 17 (Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1983). [16] M. Janković, N. Pantić, V. Mišić, N. Diklić, M. Gajić, Vegetacija SR Srbije, vol. 1 (SANU Odeljenje prirodno-matematičkih nauka, Beograd, 1984).

[17] P. Burschel, Forstarchiv 36, 113 (1965). [18] R. M. M. Crawford, Studies in plant survival: ecological case histories of plant adaptation to adversity (Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1989). [19] v. Bůžek, Z. Kvaček, F. Holý, Late Pliocene palaeoenvironment and correlation of the Vildštejn floristic complex within Central Europe (Academia Nakladatelstvi Cesckoslovensk e Akademie Ved, Praha, 1985). [20] G. Krüssmann, Manual of Cultivated Conifers (Timber Press, Portland, 1985). [21] W. Dallimore, A. B. Jackson, A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae (Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 1961), third edn. [22] H. Kuittinen, O. Savolainen, Heredity 68, 183 (1992). [23] T. Geburek, Silvae genetica 35, 169 (1986). [24] H. Kuittinen, O. Muona, K. Kärkkäinen, v. Borzan, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21, 363 (1991). [25] D. B. Čolić, Zaštita prirode 33, 1 (1966). [26] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [27] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [28] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [29] R. Vujičić, S. Budimir, Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, S. M. Jain, P. K. Gupta, R. J. Newton, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 1995), vol. 44-46 of Forestry Sciences, pp. 81–97. [30] D. Doom, Nederlands bosbouw tijdschrift 46, 79 (1974). [31] I. M. Thomsen, Forest Pathology 39, 56 (2009). [32] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [33] V. Stevanović, et al., Botanica Serbica 38, 251 (2014).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0157f9. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Ballian, D., Ravazzi, C., Caudullo, G., 2016. Picea omorika in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0157f9+



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Picea sitchensis Picea sitchensis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, A. Mauri, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) is a large conifer native to North America and Canada, where it grows along the Pacific coast in areas favoured by maritime climate and high humidity. It is the largest of the spruces and can live up to 500 years, reaching heights of nearly 100 m. It is a fast growing tree that produces good quality timber, making it an important plantation tree in some European countries, notably Britain and Ireland. Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) is a large fastgrowing conifer with a straight buttressed base trunk and an open, conical crown of horizontal branches1 . Unusually for a conifer, it is able to develop epicormic branches along the stem2 . It is long-lived (up to 500 years)3 and is the largest of the spruce species4, 5 . It can attain heights approaching 100 m in its native habitat, although in Europe it rarely exceeds 50 m6, 7. The bark is thin and broken into large reddish to brown scales. The needles are rigid and sharp, 1.5-2.5 cm long and blue-green to light yellow-green in colour. It is wind-pollinated and starts to produce seed at 20-25 years of age8 . Pollen cones are red

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

is also planted in Iceland and Norway where it was introduced at the beginning of the twentieth century14 .

Habitat and Ecology The natural range of Sitka spruce is a maritime climate with high humidity5 . It normally requires a minimum of 1000 mm of rainfall per year and cannot tolerate a dry, Mediterranean climate3 . Unlike several other conifers it is tolerant of exposure and salt spray, making it particularly suitable for planting on wet coastal upland sites5; however it cannot tolerate atmospheric pollution2 . It is usually planted along the northern and western coasts of European countries, which provide a similar environment to that of its native range3 . It grows on a variety of soils but prefers deep, moist but not waterlogged soils 5 . Sitka spruce shows a noticeable soil-acidifying ability15 . It is a pioneer species that can quickly colonise disturbed sites (e.g. following landslides1, 16).

Map 1: Plot distribution map for Picea sitchensis. Caption: Frequency of Picea sitchensis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.

and between 2 and 4 cm long4 . Seed cones are from 5 to 10 cm long, composed of papery scales with wavy, irregularly toothed margins and producing seeds from 2 to 3 mm long with a wing of around 8 mm in length9 .

Distribution

Coastal temperate mixed forest dominated by Sitka spruce and western hemloc (Tsuga heterophylla) in Misty Fiords National Monument (Ketchikan, Alaska). (Copyright Kimberly Vardeman, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Sitka Spruce is native to the west coast of North America where it extends along the north Pacific coast from southern Alaska to northern California4, 5, 9 . It was introduced in Europe in the 1800s and it is now planted in more than 16 countries worldwide10 . The majority of the area planted is in the United Kingdom where it comprises over 25 % of the national forest area11 and is now the most widely planted conifer3, 12 , and Ireland (52 % of national forest area3) but it is also important in Denmark (comprising 16 % of the softwood timber harvest13). Sitka Spruce

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5%

Large specimen in the coastal forest of Vancouver Island (British Columbia, South West Canada). (Copyright Roland Tanglao, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%

Although relatively rare at European level it is commercially very important in some countries, particularly in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and to a lesser extent in France and Denmark3 . The timber is pale in colour and long fibred, making it suitable for paper production. It is light and easy to work with and its good strength to weight ratio makes it suitable for fencing, pallets and general construction7. Early aircraft frames, including the first Wright brothers’ aeroplane were made of Sitka spruce wood13 . Due to its long fibres, high strength-to-weight ratio and absence of knots its wood is also an excellent conductor of sound,





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Yellow-green needle-like leaves in a new shoot. Sharp needles make this species less suitable as a Christmas tree than the popular Norway spruce. (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Picea sitchensis

Sitka spruce plantation in Heiðmörk Reserve near Reykjavík (South-West Iceland). (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

therefore widely used for soundboards in musical instruments (e.g. guitar, piano, violin13, 17). Sitka spruce may be suitable for bioengineering applications due to its high tensile root strength18 .


Close-up of a growing seed cone. (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Sitka spruce is prone to windthrow on certain soil types, particularly in established plantations in the United Kingdom2 , while elsewhere in Europe it has been shown to be more wind-resistant on deep soils than other conifers such as Picea abies9 . Fortunately the white pine weevil, the most serious pest in North America, is not currently present in Europe3 . However, the green spruce aphid can cause significant damage8 , and the species is susceptible to fungal attack when injured5, 9 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe19 . Sitka spruce partly coexists with the natural niche of this weevil, to which it is highly susceptible19-21 .

Front detail of guitar model made with Sitka spruce wood. Copyright ISeneca, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

References

Ripening mature seed cones; they are usually 5 to 10 cm long. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)










[1] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [2] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [3] S. Lee, D. Thompson, J. K. Hansen, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 177–227. [4] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [5] A. S. Harris, Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.), Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 513–529. [6] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [7] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42337/0+. [8] OECD, Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms (OECD Publishing, 2006), vol. 2 of OECD Consensus Documents. [9] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [10] R. L. Deal, P. Hennon, R. O’Hanlon, D. D’Amore, Forestry 87, 193 (2014).

[11] Forestry Commission, Forestry Statistics 2014 (Economics and Statistics, Forestry Commission, 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh, 2014). [12] G. F. Peterken, Forest Ecology and Management 141, 31 (2001). [13] J. Moore, Wood properties and uses of Sitka spruce in Britain (Forestry Commission, 2011). [14] G. Halldórsson, T. Benedikz, O. Eggertsson, E. S. Oddsdóttir, H. Óskarsson, Forest Ecology and Management 181, 281 (2003). [15] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [16] C. P. Quine, D. C. Malcolm, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 1787 (2007). [17] A. Askenfelt, et al., The Science of String Instruments (Springer New York, New York, NY, 2010). [18] J. E. Norris, J. R. Greenwood, Proceedings of the 10th IAEG International Congress, IAEG2006 (2006), pp. 744+. [19] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [20] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [21] K. Wallertz, H. Nordenhem, G. Nordlander, Silva Fennica 48, 1188+ (2014).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0137a1. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Picea sitchensis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0137a1+



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Pinus cembra Pinus cembra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Arolla or Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) is a slow-growing, long lived conifer that grows at high altitudes (up to the treeline) with continental climate and is able to resist to very low winter temperature. It has large edible seeds which are dispersed principally by the European nutcracker. The timber is strong and of good quality but it is not a commercially important species because of its slow growth rate and frequent contorted shape. This pine is principally used to protect slopes and valleys against avalanches and soil erosion. In alpine habitats it is threatened principally by tourism development, even if the recent reduction of mountain pasture activities is allowing this pine to return in many areas. Pinus cembra L., known as Arolla pine or Swiss stone pine, is a slow growing, small to medium-sized evergreen conifer (1012 m height, occasionally 20-25 m), which can live up to 1000 years1-5 . The crown is densely conical when young, becoming cylindrical and finally very open6 . It grows commonly in a curved or contorted shape, but in protected areas can grow straight and to considerable sizes. Needles are in fascicles of five, 5-9 cm long1, 7. Arolla pine is a monoecious species and the pollination is driven by wind3 . Seed cones appear after 40-60 years, they are 4-8 cm long and mature in 2 years3, 6 . The wingless seeds are large and edible (7 x10 mm)1, 7. Genetically the Arolla pine is close to the Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica) and they can hybridise.


Seed cones are purplish in colour when maturing. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Outside its natural range, it is planted in parks and arboretums especially in northern Europe8 .

Habitat and Ecology

Plot distribution and chorology map for Pinus cembra. Caption: Frequency of Pinus cembra occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. cembra is derived after EUFORGEN28 .

Some authors consider them as subspecies8 . This Arolla pine is considered a glacial relict of the Siberian pine3, 6, 9, 10 .

Distribution

Large seed cone takes 2 years to mature. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Arolla pine grows in the Alps chain, from the Maritime Alps in France to the Julian Alps in North Slovenia, and it is more abundant in the eastern sector. It occurs also in isolated groups in the Tetra Massif, the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps1, 10-13 . It had a wider range in Europe during the last glaciation, then with rising temperatures it suffered a sharp fragmentation as a consequence of its natural competition with Norway spruce (Picea abies), which isolated the Arolla pine in the highest elevations14 .


This pine grows in the timberline of the alpine and subalpine zone with continental climate, from 1 100 m to 2 500 m and sometimes over 2 700 m in Italian Alps developing into a bush habit6, 8, 12, 15. It is one of the most cold-hardy trees known, resistant to frost thanks to its evergreen foliage in which the water content can be reduced to a minimum during winter. It can reach temperatures in winter down to -43 °C and in summer between -6 °C and -10 °C without damage (two to three year old needles)8. It is sensitive to ‘late frosts’ in spring and drought stress mainly in lower zones15, 16 . It grows better in fresh-humid, deep and well-drained soils. The substratum type is not particularly significant, growing both in calcareous or siliceous conditions1, 17. Arolla pine rarely is found in pure stands, probably because the optimal habitats have been transformed into pastures18. In fact, it is more frequently found with other tree species forming open conifer forests and woodlands up to the tree line2, 7. It is associated principally with larch (Larix decidua), with dwarf pine (Pinus mugo) where the soils is disturbed by landslides, with green alder (Alnus viridis) where avalanches are more frequent, or with Norway spruce (Picea abies) in lower elevations18. Seed dispersal is principally driven by the corvid Eurasian nutcracker (Nucifaga caryocatactes), which has a mutualistic relationship with the pine19. This bird, covering distances up to 15 km, can collect more than 25 000 seeds every year, storing them in many small deposits on the ground as a food winter reserve. Some of these reserves are abandoned and seeds can germinate1-3, 20. Other animal species contribute to seed dispersion, such as woodpeckers (Dryobates major, Picoides tridactylus), Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius), red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and dormouse (Glis glis)8.

Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%




Swiss stone pine mixed with larch (Larix decidua) in open subalpine woodland near Morgex (Valle d’Aosta, North-West Italy). (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

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Pinus cembra

Needles of this pine are in fascicles of five. (Copyright Michael Wunderli, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Grey-brown bark is fissured in mature pines with long plates. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

References Swiss stone pines at the limit of tree vegetation along the Aletsch Glacier (Valais, Switzerland). (Copyright Jo Simon, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage Arolla pine is not an important timber tree economically, as it grows slowly and with irregular shapes, so forestry practises tend to favour other species in alpine habitats, such as the larch2, 15 . This pine has as a more ecological and protection function for slopes and valleys against avalanches and soil erosion1-3 . The wood has yellowish sapwood and reddish heartwood with a strong aromatic odour and it is very high quality, light, easy to work and durable, as it is resistant to woodworm8 . It was overused for centuries in alpine areas as firewood, and for furniture and building construction. Now it is principally used for handicraft (turnery, carvings, toys, marquetry) and in a minor way it is still used in carpentry, traditional houses, and flooring. Pine nuts are tasty and rich in nutrients8 . They were used more in the past: now Arolla pine is rarely cultivated for its seeds, as it is difficult to harvest due to the soft, resinous and closed cone scales1, 2 . Cones can be used to flavour alcoholic distillates1 . From cones, needles, buds and branches an essential oil can be extracted and used in natural medicine and as essence. Some cultivars with different habits and needle colours have been selected for ornamental purposes, used principally in Northern and Eastern Europe, where late frosts are less frequent15 .

particular ski runs, ski lifts, roads and parking lots2 . Damage to young seedlings by grazing animals can create gaps in the age distribution3 . Deep snow layers lasting until late winter or spring causes browning needle diseases by the snow mold fungi Phacidium infestans, Gremmeniella abietina and Herpotrichia juniperi, which lead to mortality of young plants (seedlings)22-24 . In the Alps, the larch bud moth Zeiraphera diniana has a species form genetically differentiated and specialised for defoliating the Arolla pine25 . However, the sporadic outbreaks do not influence the presence of the pine or its dominance in mixed forest with European larch26, 27.

Threats and Diseases Since Neolithic times human activities (alpine farming, intensive grazing with cattle, timber exploitation) have brought the treeline in the Alps down and turned much of the ancient alpine forests into pasture woodland. The recent abandonment of high alpine pasture is allowing the Arolla pine to make a comeback in many areas2, 21 . Nowadays the habitat fragmentation of this pine is principally caused by tourism development: in Observed presences in Europe



[13] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [14] B. Huntley, Journal of Vegetation Science 1, 507 (1990). [15] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [16] S. Boden, P. Pyttel, C. S. Eastaugh, iForest Biogeosciences and Forestry 3, 82 (2010). [17] P. Vittoz, B. Rulence, T. Largey, F. Freléchoux, Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 40, 225 (2008). [18] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni alpine italiane (Cleup, Padova, 2004). [19] L. Masutti, Italian Journal of Forest and Mountain Environments 57, 437 (2002). [20] A. Rolando, L. Carisio, Journal für Ornithologie 144, 69 (2003). [21] A. A. Ali, C. Carcaillet, B. Talon, P. Roiron, J.-F. Terral, Journal of Biogeography 32, 1659 (2005). [22] M.-H. Li, J. Yang, Annals of Forest Science 61, 319 (2004). [23] M. Schneider, C. R. Grünig, O. Holdenrieder, T. N. Sieber, Mycological Research 113, 887 (2009). [24] J. Senn, Forest Pathology 29, 65 (1999). [25] I. Emelianov, J. Mallet, W. Baltensweiler, Heredity 75, 416 (1995). [26] P. Nola, M. Morales, R. Motta, R. Villalba, Trees 20, 371 (2006). [27] R. Motta, M. Morales, P. Nola, Annals of Forest Science 63, 739 (2006). [28] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra) (2010). www.euforgen.org.

A Eurasian nutcracker. This corvid is the principal contributor of Swiss stone pine’s seed dispersal. (Copyright Murray B. Henson, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)






[1] F. Bussotti, Pines of Silvicultural Importance, CABI, ed. (CABI, Wallingford, UK, 2002), pp. 50–52. [2] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42349/0+. [3] M. Ulber, F. Gugerli, G. Bozic, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Swiss stone pine (Pinus cembra) (Bioversity International, 2004). [4] F. H. Schweingruber, C. Wirth, Old trees and the meaning of ’old’ (Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2009), pp. 35–54. [5] L. Susmel, Monti e boschi 11/12 (1954). [6] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [7] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [8] P. Schütt, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1994), vol. 3. [9] G. G. Goncharenko, V. E. Padutov, A. E. Silin, Plant Systematics and Evolution 182, 121 (1992). [10] W. B. Critchfield, E. L. Little, Geographic distribution of the pines of the world, no. 991 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1966). [11] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [12] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

Close-up of a purplish seed cone. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01bd9b. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Pinus cembra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01bd9b+



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Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats A. Mauri, M. Di Leo, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Pinus halepensis Miller (Aleppo pine) and Pinus brutia Ten. (Turkish or Calabrian pine) are drought tolerant and fast growing coniferous species native of the Mediterranean region. P. halepensis widely covers the Mediterranean coasts concentrating in the western side of the basin, while P. brutia is located mainly on the eastern coasts. They are commonly found in coastal zones, and because of their drought tolerance, are well adapted to dry summer conditions. They are among the species most affected by wildfires in Europe, although they are fire resilient trees due to the high production of serotinous cones that favour a quick post-fire regeneration. These species have been widely planted between the thirties and seventies in Mediterranean areas for soil protection and wind breaks near the coasts. Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Miller) and Turkish pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) are two systematically close tree species, which can naturally hybridize where they co-occur. Although some authors consider them as subspecies, in this chapter they are described as two separate pines1 . P. halepensis and P. brutia reach heights up to 20 and 35 m respectively1, 2 . The diameter of the trunk ranges from 80 to 100 cm in P. halepensis, reaching up to 150 cm in P. brutia. In both species, the bark is greyish, initially smooth, turning to reddishbrown and finely fissured with ageing1 . Needles are light green in P. halepensis arranged in groups of two (occasionally three), between 6 and 12 cm long and less than 1 mm wide. In P. brutia the needles are instead dark green and between 10 and 18 cm long. In both species, stomata cover the whole surface of the leaves2 . Both have several branches forming a broadly conical to dome-shaped crown, flattening and opening up with age3. Both are obligate seeders characterised by a high production of conical cones (pedunculate in P. halepensis and sessile in P. brutia), moderately to highly serotinous, which remain closed on the tree for one or more years after seed maturation to open quickly as a result of fire related high temperatures4, 5. Their colour is grey to reddish-brown and between 5 and 12 cm in length3. P. halepensis is characterised by a deep root system with a woody tap root and vigorous laterals4 . The name of P. halepensis is derived from the city of Aleppo (Haleb) on the coast of Syria2 , while the name P. brutia is thought to derive from an ancient Roman district (Brutium). P. brutia is also called Calabrian pine after its first botanical description in Calabria (South Italy)1 .

Distribution The range of P. halepensis and P. pinaster is in the Mediterranean, Anatolian and Macaronesian regions6-8 . P. halepensis is the most widely distributed and abundant among the Mediterranean pines, covering nearly 6.8 million ha of this region1 , extending from the Western Mediterranean (Spain, Morocco), where it is most abundant, to Lebanon through Southern


Serotinous cone of Pinus halepensis that opens quickly when exposed to fire. (Copyright Tomás Royo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology

Map 1-A: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus halepensis. Frequency of Pinus halepensis within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. halepensis is derived after Critchfield and Little, and EUFORGEN24, 25 .

France, Italy, Greece and Turkey in South Europe and Algeria, Tunisia, Libya in North Africa. P. brutia is instead mainly located in Turkey, Crete, Cyprus, Syria and Lebanon with a few remains in Iraq and Iran2, 9 . Bioclimatic envelope models predict that the suitable climatic area of P. halepensis is in expansion10-12 . It can already be observed that in the mountainous regions close to the coast P. halepensis is shifting upwards, replacing species from lower elevations such as Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in Southern France13 . A decrease in summer rainfall will also probably favour P. halepensis at the expense of evergreen oaks14 .


Importance and Usage P. halepensis is not used in commercial forestry due to its size, shape and poor wood quality2 . However, being the main source of wood in many Mediterranean countries it is used for various purposes including firewood as well as raw material for the pulp and paper industry. In the past it was also used for mine props, railway sleepers and telephone poles1 . By being well adapted to drought, poor soil and recurrent fires, Aleppo pine



P. halepensis is mainly found at lower altitudes, occurring mostly in the thermo- and meso-Mediterranean zone, although it is also present at higher altitudes (more than 2 000 m in Morocco)15 . Its habitat ranges from the lower arid or semiarid to humid bioclimates favouring absolute minimum temperatures of between -2 and 10 °C and precipitation between 350 and 700 mm on marly limestones and marls9, 16 . It is a very drought resistant, thermophilous species that grows very well in the hotter parts of the Mediterranean where forest fires are frequent3 . P. halepensis can successfully colonise limiting dry conditions areas creating highly resilient forest stands3 , but more often it is found scattered in garrigue or maquis vegetation colonising abandoned lands and burnt areas. In the absence of fire for long periods it can be replaced by holm oak (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Quercus suber) as an intermediate step in the successional series to broadleaved trees16 . In the past, unplanned exploitation and intensive harvesting have considerably disturbed the original forest structure of Aleppo pine promoting monospecific stands where pine growth is maximized by decreasing interspecific competition with other trees16, 17. However, under-management can also be a problem, resulting in dense P. halepensis forests with almost null productivity rates and high fire vulnerability16 . P. brutia is a stricter species in terms of water requirements and it is not frequent in arid or semiarid climates16 . P. brutia is often found together with cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) and Greek juniper (Juniperus excelsa) to form mixed open-forests or with kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) and Palestine oak (Quercus calliprinos), mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) and other drought tolerant trees and shrub to form open-woodland1 .

Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for Pinus halepensis.

Male flowers of Pinus halepensis. Copyright Victor M. Vicente Selvas, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

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Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia


Uncertain, no-data Tundra, cold desert

Native

Negligible survivability Low survivability Mid-low survivability Medium survivability Mid-high survivability High survivability

Map 1-B: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus brutia. Caption: Frequency of Pinus brutia within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. brutia is derived after Critchfield and Little, and EUFORGEN24, 26 .

has been used in several afforestation programmes, especially between the thirties and seventies, aiming at soil protection and wind breaks near the coast9, 18 . It is often used for improving water infiltration on hilly slopes2 and to prevent soil erosion on dry slopes1 , although other studies suggest that plantations of Aleppo pine do not improve soil conditions17. Seeds are also used for making pastry in several areas, mainly in North Africa16 . The resin extracted from the plant is still presently used in Greece for wine production3 . In Greece and Turkey the honeydew released by the sap-sucking insect Marchalina hellenica is still used to produce honey19, 20 . There is some use for pallets and chipping for particleboards as well as for boat making at a local scale. The wood is frequently planted in rain-fed suburban parks and road lines3 . P. brutia wood has been used in the pulp industry, carpentry and to produce railway sleepers and telephone posts among others1 . It has also been widely planted in the Eastern Mediterranean and around the Black Sea, due to its ability to grow in Mediterranean climates1 . Since ancient Greek times the resin of both P. halepensis and P. brutia has been used to seal amphorae containing wine, and later on to flavour the Greek traditional white wines called “Retsina”21 .

Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability for Pinus halepensis.

Threats and Diseases The most widespread pests of P. halepensis include Thumetopoea pityocampa, Orthomicus erosus, Monochamus galloprovincialis, Matsucoccus josephi, Leucaspis pini, Leucaspis pusilla, Cenopalpus wainsteini and Hylurgus destruens. The bacteria Pissodes castaneus might also be the cause of the knot disease of P. halepensis. A threat recently identified in France is the canker Crumenulopsis sororia9 . In the Mediterranean

Needles of Pinus brutia are usually longer than those of Pinus halepensis.

Pinus brutia woodland in Argaka, Cyprus.

Copyright Leonid Mamchenkov, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

(Copyright S. Rae, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Pinus halepensis.







region Aleppo pine is characterised by large-scale dieback that starts from the desiccation of the lower branches and extends to the whole tree2 . Similarly to many pines, the Aleppo pine is vulnerable to the pitch canker (Gibberella circinata, syn. Fusarium circinatum), with an outbreak in Italy and with a virulence which might expand due to climate change22, 23 .

References [1] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] M. Chambel, J. Climent, C. Pichot, F. Ducci, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 229–265. [4] P. Ganatsas, I. Spanos, Plant and Soil 278, 75 (2005). [5] Vallejo, M. Arianoutsou, F. Moreira, PostFire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests, F. Moreira, M. Arianoutsou, P. Corona, J. De las Heras, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2012), vol. 24 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 93–119. [6] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 141, 93 (2007). [7] European Environment Agency, European forest types. Categories and types for sustainable forest management reporting and policy, Tech. rep. (2007). [8] G. Allard, et al., State of Mediterranean forests 2013 (FAO, 2013). 177 pp. [9] B. Fady, H. Semerci, G. G. Vendramin, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and Brutia pine (Pinus brutia) (Bioversity International, 2003). [10] M. Urli, et al., Journal of Vegetation Science 25, 147 (2014). [11] W. Thuiller, Global Change Biology 9, 1353 (2003). [12] C. Rathgeber, et al., Global and Planetary Change 26, 405 (2000). [13] M. Vennetier, et al., Sciences Eaux & Territoires, la revue d’Irstea 44, 49 (2005).

[14] M. A. Zavala, E. Zea, Plant Ecology 171, 197 (2004). [15] A. Boulli, M. Baaziz, O. M’Hirit, Euphytica 119, 309 (2001) [16] J. de las Heras, et al., Post-Fire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests, F. Moreira, M. Arianoutsou, P. Corona, J. De las Heras, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2012), vol. 24 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 121–150. [17] F. T. Maestre, J. Cortina, Forest Ecology and Management 198, 303 (2004). [18] L. E. Pâques, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe: Current State-of-the-Art and Perspectives, Managing Forest Ecosystems (Springer, 2013). [19] N. Bacandritsos, C. Saitanis, I. Papanastasiou, Annales de la Société entomologique de France (N.S.) 40, 169 (2004). [20] L. A. Santas, Apidologie 14, 93 (1983). [21] V. P. Papanastasis, K. Mantzanas, O. DiniPapanastasi, I. Ispikoudis, Agroforestry in Europe, A. Rigueiro-Rodróguez, J. McAdam, M. Mosquera-Losada, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2009), vol. 6 of Advances in Agroforestry, pp. 89–109. [22] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [23] A. Carlucci, L. Colatruglio, S. Frisullo, Plant Disease 91, 1683 (2007). [24] W. B. Critchfield, E. L. Little, Geographic distribution of the pines of the world, no. 991 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1966). [25] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [26] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of Brutia pine (Pinus brutia) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0166b8. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Mauri, A., Di Leo, M., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0166b8+



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Pinus mugo Pinus mugo in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. Ballian, C. Ravazzi, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Pinus mugo Turra, the dwarf mountain pine, is a small tree, or, more typically, a shrub with many spreading stems, and dense, two-needled shoots. Among European pines, it is the most tolerant to cold climates and to bedrock lithology, adapted to any rocky habitat in the high-altitude mountains of Central and Eastern Europe, while merging with the closely related species Pinus uncinata on its western range. It forms widespread, pure scrubland communities over the tree limit, but also occupies avalanche tracks and rocks in the middle altitudes. It plays a major role defending mountain soils from erosion. The dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) is a shrub, erect bush or small tree showing very large variability in morphological and anatomical characters and including many distinct subspecies and varieties1-3 . Pinus uncinata, the Pyrenean pine, is a big tree closely related to Pinus mugo, as shown by molecular markers which indicate the absence of species differentiation4, 5; nevertheless they will be treated here as independent species1, 6-8 . Intermediate forms between Pinus mugo and Pinus uncinata are Pinus mugo subsp. rotundata, Pinus mugo subsp. pumilio, and others, and they all grow together in Central European mountains1 . All of these pines are also able to hybridise with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) where they co-occur9 . Most often the dwarf pine is a shrub growing up to 5 m, sometimes with ascending (decumbent) branches which can spread up to 10 m from the tree1, 2 , but there is also an erect form which grows as small tree up to 20 m in height9, 10 . The needles are acuminate and pungent, 2 to 5 cm long, borne in fascicles of 2, and they persist on the tree up to 6 years. Physiologically the branches mature when they are 10 years old and start producing female cones in groups of 1-4, close to shoot tops. Unripe cones start diverging from the shoot, soon becoming horizontal or even reflexed; once ripe they are 2 to 5 cm long and 1.5 to 3 cm wide. The seed ripens during the second year after blossoming and is up to 5 mm long. At the outer end of cone scales a is shield (apophysis), which is of significant taxonomic value to distinguish subspecies as its size and shape are very variable6, 9, 11, 12 . In the typical form (Pinus mugo subsp. mugo) cone scales are ended by a flat apophysis and are born on ascending branches. Two other subspecies have relatively larger and asymmetrical reflexed cones with protruding apophysis, which are born on erect branches (Pinus mugo subsp. pumilio and subsp. rotundata)6, 9, 13, 14 .

Distribution The typical dwarf pine scrub (Pinus mugo subsp. mugo) occurs in the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe, from 200


Dwarf mount pine scrub vegetation in the karst limestone Snežnik mountain (South Slovenia). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus mugo. Frequency of Pinus mugo occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. mugo is derived after Critchfield and Little, and Jalas and Suominen31, 32 .

to 2 700 m, but is especially abundant in the subalpine belt of the Eastern Alps and the Carpathians between 1 600 to 2 200 m. Disjunct ranges occur in the lower mountains of the Jura and the Vosges, and at high altitude in the Mediterranean and Balkan mountains, such as the Apennines, the Albanian Alps, and the Rila-Pirin-Rhodopes in Bulgaria9, 12 . The southernmost reliefs in Southern Italy, Greece and Crete do not have a dwarf pine belt. Pinus uncinata occurs in the Pyrenees, Western Alps and there are also scattered populations in the North-East Spain, with an altitude range from 600 to 2 400 m14, 15 . The intermediate form Pinus mugo subsp. rotundata is present in the Alps and Central European mountains (Bavarian Forest Mountains,


Sudetes Mountains, North-West Carpathians)3, 16 from 180 m (Poland) up to 1 800 m10, 11 . The genetic diversity reveals a strong geographic differentiation that retains ancient imprints reflecting multiple survival areas during the last glaciation4 . According to palaeobotanical evidence, the dwarf pine experienced a successful expansion during the Last Glacial Maximum at the border of glaciated areas both south and north of the Alpine ice sheets17-19 .

Habitat and Ecology The dwarf mountain pine is a xerophyte fully adapted to petrophytic habitats, and requires a lot of light2, 10 . It spreads over poor substrata, which lack nitrogen and are free-drained. Its main habitat is in massive fissured bedrock and blockfields, and even alluvial fans and sand dunes. It tolerates many types of bedrock, such as limestone, dolomites, sandstone, gneiss and granite, hence these communities spread irrespective of lithological composition10, 20 . It may also withstand anoxic peatlands due to its adaptation to low nutrients and light availability in raised bog habitats21 . It can endure low temperatures, with mean annual values down to 5 °C and 200 to 3 000 mm of precipitation22, 23 . Given its cold-tolerance, it is most successful in a subalpine belt over the treeline, developing extensive scrublands with hairy alpenrose (Rhododendron hirsutum) forming the association Mugo-Rhododendretum hirsuti. On high altitude limestone sites it can be found with spring heath (Erica carnea) in the EricoPinetum mugi communities mainly on warmer slopes10, 23 . The competition with other woody species may be lower at high elevations, but, most frequently soil acidification, due to needle littering triggers, leads to a long-term succession towards conifer forests of the Vaccinio-Piceetalia communities.



Pinus mugo, in contrast to other pines, has an extensive root system with many branches consolidating loose soils. It also bears long stems lying on the ground. Thanks to these properties,


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Cluster of male pollen cones at the top of the shoot. (Copyright Crusier, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)



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Pinus mugo

Open forest of Pyrenean pine (Pinus uncinata) in the karst Larra-Belagua massif (Navarra, North Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

this plant has a great role in preventing torrents and avalanche erosions on high mountains. The wood is elastic but hard, suitable for manufacturing small items and valuable as fuel. There is a large number of cultivars used in horticulture and it is grown in gardens for decorative planting2, 6, 9, 24 . Pine needles are filled with vitamin C and carotene. Beverages made out of them are recommended to reinforce the immune system, if one has a cold, and to cure scurvy. Needles should be used fresh, if possible moments after collecting, because they can completely lose their healing properties after a year2, 12 . Syrups and liquors are commonly obtained with cones and buds. Essential oil distilled from the leaves exhibits good antioxidative activity in lipophilic media25 .

Threats and Diseases Even though it grows at high altitudes, the dwarf mountain pine is threatened by some pathogenic fungi associated with root-rot, but significantly affecting the living trees in adjacent forests26 . Other fungi colonise the needles, the bark and needles27. Insect pests are not dangerous. But actually the biggest threat for Pinus mugo is humans. Pine scrublands were cut and burnt in order to enlarge pastures, especially since the Middle Ages expansion of mountain animal husbandry. Given its low stature and scrubland density, dwarf pine habitus may favour the spread of fires; hence, frequent human-caused fires may eliminate them28 . This is why the dwarf pine has become extinct on several mountains in Central Europe and the Balkan Peninsula, although in recent decades land use changes have allowed the reversed process of invasion by dwarf pine in abandoned grasslands29, 30 .

Terminal shoots with 2 maturing seed cones. (Copyright Cesare Ravazzi: CC-BY)

References

Scrubland of dwarf mountain pines in the karstic Valley of Five Polish Lakes (Dolina Pięciu Stawów Polskich) in Tatra National Park (Gmina Bukowina Tatrzańska, South Poland). (Copyright Nova, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)










[1] H. Gaussen, V. H. Heywood, A. O. Chater, Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 40–44, second edn. [2] M. Vidakovic, Tree Physiology 12, 319 (1993). [3] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, Leiden, 2010). [4] M. Heuertz, et al., Journal of Biogeography 37, 541 (2010). [5] I. Monteleone, D. Ferrazzini, P. Belletti, Silva Fennica 40, 391 (2006). [6] G. Krüssmann, Manual of Cultivated Conifers (Timber Press, Portland, 1985). [7] W. Prus-Głowacki, E. Bajus, H. Ratyńska, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 63, 269 (1998). [8] F. Bogunić, S. Siljak-Yakovlev, E. Muratović, F. Pustahija, S. Medjedović, Annals of Forest Science 68, 179 (2011). [9] J. Hamernìk, I. Musil, Journal of Forest Science 53, 253 (2007). [10] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [11] G. Hegi, ed., Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, vol. 1 (Lehmann, München, 1906). [12] B. Jovanović, Dendrologija (Univerzitetska štampa, Beograd, 2000). [13] K. Christensen, Nordic Journal of Botany 7, 383 (1987). [14] Z. Debreczy, I. Racz, Conifers Around the World: Conifers of the Temperate Zones and Adjacent Regions, vol. 1 (Dendropress, Budapest, 2011). [15] C. Carcaillet, A. A. Ali, N. Fauvart, P. Roiron, J.-F. Terral, Travaux scientifiques du Parc national de la Vanoise 24, 57 (2009). [16] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 18153856/0+. [17] C. Spötl, P. J. Reimer, R. Starnberger, R. W. Reimer, Journal of Quaternary Science 28, 552 (2013). [18] G. Monegato, et al., Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 436, 23 (2015).

[19] R. Avigliano, G. D. Anastasio, S. Improta, M. Peresani, C. Ravazzi, Journal of Quaternary Science 15, 789 (2000). [20] H. Walter, S.-W. Breckle, Ecological Systems of the Geobiosphere (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989), pp. 1–140. [21] J. Šibìk, D. Dìtě, I. Šibìková, D. Pukajová, Phytocoenologia 38, 221 (2008). [22] A. Dinić, M. Janković, Vegetacija Srbije, D. Škorić, ed. (Srpska Akademija Nauka i Umetnosti, Beograd, 2006), vol. 2, pp. 201–211. [23] V. Stefanović, Fitocenologija: sa pregledom šumskih fitocenoza Jugoslavije (Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1986). [24] W. Dallimore, A. B. Jackson, A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae (Edward Arnold Ltd, London, 1961), third edn. [25] J. Grassmann, S. Hippeli, R. Vollmann, E. F. Elstner, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51, 7576 (2003). [26] M. Bendel, F. Kienast, D. Rigling, H. Bugmann, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36, 2666 (2006). [27] M. Uščuplić, Patologija: šumskog i ukrasnog drveća (Šumarski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, 1996). [28] B. Leys, et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 90, 60 (2014). [29] S. Dullinger, T. Dirnböck, G. Grabherr, Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 35, 434 (2003). [30] I. Horvat, V. Glavač, H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Südosteuropas, vol. 4 of Geobotanica selecta (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1974). [31] W. B. Critchfield, E. L. Little, Geographic distribution of the pines of the world, no. 991 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1966). [32] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012d81. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Ballian, D., Ravazzi, C., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Pinus mugo in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012d81+



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Pinus nigra Pinus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo, A. Mauri, T. Houston Durrant Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold, known as European black pine or black pine, is a fast-growing conifer with a wide but fragmented distribution across Europe and Asia Minor, predominantly in mountain areas. It has also become naturalised in some areas in North America. It is subdivided into several distinct subspecies and its taxonomic status is still a subject of debate among specialists. Black pine regenerates with difficulties after a fire event, particularly during periods with extreme droughts when the development of seedlings can become challenging. This is thought to trigger a reduction of its habitat in southern Europe; on the contrary in Central Europe the climate amelioration might generate an expansion. Black pine (Pinus nigra J.F. Arnold) is a large evergreen conifer commonly reaching 30 m, but exceptionally it is capable of attaining heights up to 40 m1, 2 . Its bark is usually a dark greyish brown to black (giving rise to its Latin name “nigra”) and becomes deeply furrowed longitudinally on older trees3 . On young individuals, the crown is conical, becoming umbrellashaped on older trees4 . Needles are in pairs 8-15(19) cm long, 1-2 mm in diameter, straight or curved, and finely serrated1, 2 . They normally persist on the tree for 3-4 years (exceptionally up to 8)5 . Black pine is monoecious. Male catkins are yellow, while female inflorescences are reddish. Cones are sessile, 4-8(9) cm long, 2-4 cm wide and yellow-brown in colour1, 2. They ripen in the autumn of the second year, and open in the third year. Cones contain 30-40 seeds. The seeds are grey, 5-7 mm long, with a wing 19-26 mm long4 . It is a long-lived species, with a life span of over 400 years6 . One specimen in Germany (the “Vier-BrüderBaum” from its four main stems) is reported to be over 1 000 years old and with a girth over 7 m7.

Distribution The past distribution of black pine in Europe is difficult to reconstruct. This because past occurrences based on both pollen and charcoal (widely used to reconstruct past species distribution) cannot be easily recognised at the species level8 . However, more localized studies mainly based on macrofossils suggest that large populations of black pine were already present during the late Pleistocene and the Holocene in the north-western Mediterranean basin (see 9 for a review). These populations are thought to have followed a substantial decrease during the Holocene as a consequence of climate warming at the onset of the Holocene as well as increased human activities during the last millennia9 . This led to the current fragmented distribution of black pine extending from North-Western Africa through southern Europe to Asia Minor10, 11 . Black pine presently covers more than 3.5 million hectares4 , making it one of the most wide-

are recognised: Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (Corsican pine), occurring in the east of the range from Morocco and Spain to South France and Corsica, and Pinus nigra subsp. nigra (Austrian pine), occurring in the west of the range from Austria and NorthEast and Central Italy through Balkans up to Turkey and Crimea Peninsula. However, more than 100 Latin specific, varietal, and formal names have been recorded by different authorities and there is no general consensus4, 20-22 .


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus nigra. Frequency of Pinus nigra occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. nigra is derived after EUFORGEN48 .

spread conifer species in the Balkans and Asia Minor. Its widest distribution worldwide is in Turkey, with more than 2.5 million hectares12 . Outside Europe, it was also introduced in the United States (where it is known as Austrian pine) in 175913 , and has now become naturalised in parts of New England and the Great Lake States14 . As a result of climate warming the future distribution of black pine is thought to change considerably but the response is likely to be different depending on the geographic region15 . In the Mediterranean regions climate warming increases water stress and thus has a negative influence on the growth of this species16, 17 , whereas in central Europe climate amelioration is thought to lead to an expansion18, 19 . Two main subspecies of black pine


Black pine grown on vulcanic rocky soils in Etna Vulcane (Sicily, South Italy). (Copyright Alfie Ianni, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology Black pine stands exist at altitudes ranging from 350 m in Italy to 2 200 m in the Taurus Mountains, the optimal altitudinal range being between 800 to 1 500 m5 . It can grow on a variety of soils, from podzolic sands to limestone, often dependent on region and climate21 . The Austrian pine subspecies is more able to tolerate exposed chalk and limestone than Corsican pine23 . However Corsican Pine is more often found in coastal areas as it is more resistant to salt wind than most other pine species21 . Black pine can grow in both extremely dry and humid habitats with considerable tolerance of temperature fluctuations11 . It is a light-demanding species, but it shows higher shade tolerance than Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)24 . It is resistant to drought and wind4 . It grows in pure stands or in association with other broadleaved or conifer species, in particular Pinus sylvestris. It is also commonly found in association with other pines such as dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea) and Heldreich pine (Pinus heldreichii)4, 21, 22 .




126

Yellow male flowers clustered at the top of the shoot. (Copyright Wouter Hagens, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



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Yellow-brown maturing cone: they ripen in autumn of the second year. (Copyright Dezidor, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage The stems of black pine have been widely used in the past for naval construction17. As a result of its ecological flexibility, it is one of the most widely used tree species for reforestation worldwide4, 25, 26 , and it is considered a potential substitute for indigenous coniferous species in Central Europe under future climate scenarios19 . Despite its relatively narrow native range, the broad European distribution range of black pine covers several areas with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems27. It is very efficient for degraded soil colonisation and its adventitious roots are suitable to be exploited for deep reinforcement and soil strength enhancement28, 29 . Along with more late succession species (e.g. in some degraded areas of the Southwestern Alps, Quercus pubescens, Acer opalus, Sorbus aria), this pioneer tree has proven effective for controlling soil erosion and landslides and for land rehabilitation4, 29, 30 . The salt-tolerant subspecies Corsican pine has been exploited for stabilising coastal dunes along the North Sea21 . Its wood is durable, rich in resin and easy to process. It is highly suitable for indoor flooring (the Vienna State Opera House stage is made from black pine wood31). In the Mediterranean area, it is used not only for general construction (doors, panelling, staircases, etc.) and furniture, but also as fuelwood, while the pulp is exploited for paper21 . Black pine is also widely planted in parks or in urban and industrial areas thanks to its tolerance to pollution and striking visual form31 .

Corsican subspecies of black pine (Pinus nigra subsp. salzmanii) on flank of Paglia Orba Mountain (Albertacce, Corsica Island).

pine stands, altering the plant community composition in favour of typical post-fire communities with perennial grass species as well as other tree species such as maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), holm oak (Quercus ilex) and/or kermes oak (Quercus coccifera)9, which are more fire resistant in some of the climatic conditions where black pine lives46 . This is also because relatively few black pine seedlings develop after a fire event47.

Threats and Diseases The fungi Dothistroma pini32, 33 , Lophodermella spp.34 and Sphaeropsis sapinea (Diplodia pinea)35-37 can cause severe damage to the needles. Black pine is highly vulnerable to the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa)38, 39 . It may also be severely attacked by the Red band needle blight (Mycosphaerella pini, syn. Dothistroma septosporum)38, 40, 41 . This blight has been reported to cause significant damage to Corsican pine plantations in the United Kingdom, to the extent that it is no recommended for longer planting there23 . As many other pines, black pine is highly susceptible to the pine lappet moth (Dendrolimus pini) and vulnerable to the pitch canker (Gibberella circinata)38 . The fungus Brunchorstia pinea can cause shoot dieback and cankers42 . Pine trees can also be infected by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, commonly known as pine wood nematode, which causes pine wilt disease43, 44 . Black pine is among the hosts to the bark beetle Ips pini45 . Fires may damage black Observed presences in Europe


(Copyright Roberto Verzo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)






Black pine with the old signs of resin tapping activities in a plantation near Bad Vöslau (Lower Austria).



(Copyright Jean-Baptiste Bellet, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] E. Banfi, F. Consolino, Guide Compact Alberi. Conoscere e riconoscere tutte le specie piu diffuse di Alberi spontane e ornamentali (2011). [2] B. P. Kremer, Bäume & Sträucher (Ulmer, 2010). [3] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [4] V. Isajev, B. Fady, H. Semerci, V. Andonovski, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and usefor European black pine (Pinus nigra) (2004). [5] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [6] P. Grossoni, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2000). [7] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees (2015). [8] K. J. Willis, K. D. Bennett, H. J. B. Birks, The late Quaternary dynamics of pines in Europe (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998), pp. 107–121. [9] P. Roiron, L. Chabal, I. Figueiral, J.-F. Terral, A. A. Ali, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 194, 1 (2013). [10] Z. Kaya, A. Temerit, Silvae Genetica 43, 272 (1994). [11] D. Nikolić, N. Tucić, Silvae Genetica 32, 80 (1983). [12] O. Sevgi, U. Akkemik, Journal of Environmental Biology 28, 73 (2007). [13] A. Rehder, Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America : exclusive of the subtropical and warmer temperate regions (Dioscorides Press, 1986). [14] R. M. Burns, B. H. Honkala, Silvics of North America, vol. 2. [15] D. Martín-Benito, M. del Río, I. Cañellas, Annals of Forest Science 67, 401 (2010). [16] M. Barbet-Massin, F. Jiguet, PLoS ONE 6, e18228 (2011). [17] P. A. Tìscar, J. C. Linares, Forests 2, 1013 (2011). [18] N. E. Zimmermann, et al., Environmental portfolio of central european tree species (appendix s1), Tech. rep., Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL (2014). [19] D. Thiel, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 270, 200 (2012). [20] A. Scaltsoyiannes, R. Rohr, K. P. Panetsos, M. Tsaktsira, Silvae Genetica 43, 20 (1994). [21] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42386/0+. [22] D. F. Van Haverbeke, European Black Pine Pinus nigra Arnold, Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 797–818. [23] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013).

[24] A. Trasobares, T. Pukkala, J. Miina, Annals of Forest Science 61, 9 (2004). [25] E. Cenni, F. Bussotti, L. Galeotti, Annals of Forest Science 55, 567 (1998). [26] D. I. Matziris, Silvae Genetica 38, 77 (1989). [27] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [28] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [29] M. Burylo, F. Rey, C. Roumet, E. Buisson, T. Dutoit, Plant and Soil 324, 31 (2009). [30] D. R. Vallauri, J. Aronson, M. Barbero, Restoration Ecology 10, 16 (2002). [31] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [32] T. H. Nicholls, G. W. Hudler, Plant Disease Reporter 55, 1040 (1971). [33] G. W. Peterson, J. A. Walla, Phytopathology 63, 1060 (1973). [34] C. S. Millar, Role of Lophodermella species in premature death of Pine needles in Scotland (The Commission, 1970). [35] J. T. Blodgett, A. Eyles, P. Bonello, Tree Physiology 27, 511 (2007). [36] P. R. Bachi, J. L. Peterson, Plant Disease 69, 798 (1985). [37] M. Hanso, R. Drenkhan, Plant Pathology 58, 797 (2009). [38] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [39] S. Netherer, A. Schopf, Forest Ecology and Management 259, 831 (2010). [40] T. Kowalski, R. Jankowiak, Phytopathologia Polonica 16, 15 (1998). [41] M. Hanso, R. Drenkhan, Plant Pathology 57, 1177 (2008). [42] D. J. Read, Forestry 41, 72 (1968). [43] M. J. Wingfield, Plant Disease 67, 35 (1983). [44] V. H. Dropkin, et al., Plant Disease 65, 1022 (1981). [45] A. Boutheina, M. H. El Aouni, P. Balandier, Influence of stand and tree attributes and silviculture on cone and seed productions in forests of Pinus pinea L. in northern Tunisia, Options Méditerranéennes, Series A: Mediterranean Seminars, No. 105 (CIHEAM, FAO, INIA, IRTA, CESEFOR, CTFC, Zaragoza, 2013), pp. 9–14. [46] S. S. Radanova, Ecologia Balkanica 5, 55 (2014). [47] A. Rodrigo, J. Retana, F. X. Picó, Ecology 85, 716 (2004). [48] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of black pine (Pinus nigra) (2011). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015138. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Mauri, A., Houston Durrant, T., 2016. Pinus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015138+



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Pinus pinaster Pinus pinaster in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats R. Abad Viñas, G. Caudullo, S. Oliveira, D. de Rigo The maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is a widespread medium-size tree native to the western Mediterranean basin. Its genetic variations, associated with a natural and artificial wide range of geographical locations, result in several subspecies that show a versatile adaptation to ecological factors. This pine dwells well in temperate-warm locations, from coasts to high mountains. It does not tolerate shade and shows preference for siliceous and sandy soils. Due to its undemanding behaviour, salt spray tolerance and fast growth, it has been used for soils protection, reforestation of degraded areas and dunes stabilisation, as shelterbelts and also in intensive plantations. Its wood is appreciated for producing construction wood, poles and furniture. The maritime pine has been also traditionally utilized for the extraction of resin obtaining turpentine and rosin. In the southern hemisphere, where maritime pine has been introduced for environmental and economical purposes, it has been considered as a highly invasive species. The maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is a medium-sized pine 20-30 m tall, exceptionally reaching 40 m. The bark is bright reddish-brown, thick, deeply fissured1 . The crown is regular, ovoid or conic in young pines and irregular and open in adult pines, with branches densely clothed at the ends. Needles, occurring mostly in pairs but occasionally in groups of 32 , are 10-25 cm long, with shiny green and well-marked lines of stomata on both faces. They endure 2 to 3 years. Light brown cones, often collected as ornaments, are persistent and grouped in clusters. They are slightly asymmetrical, with ovoid-conic shape and around 15 cm long (in a range of 8-22 cm). Their ripening occurs two years after pollination and they open the same summer or up to 10 years later. In those locations with high intensity and frequency of fires, usually serotinous cones are present3 . The scale presents broad ridge and up-curved prickle4 . Seeds are shiny black-brown above and matt grey below with a wing which is easily removed5 . Its root system consists in a deep taproot with well-developed secondary roots.

Distribution Maritime pine is a thermophilous widespread conifer original from the western Mediterranean Basin. It occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, South France, West Italy, western Mediterranean isles, North Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. It has increased its presence, due to artificial plantations and its naturalisation, such as in the coast of southwestern France, Greece and Adriatic countries, but also in north Europe, such as United Kingdom and Belgium6-9 . As with other European pines, encroachment of former agricultural fields and plantation programmes, motivated by soil protection and reforestation of degraded areas, has resulted in its expansion during the 19th and 20th centuries10 . Moreover, intensive plantations were also established in the southern


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map. Frequency of Pinus pinaster occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. pinaster is derived after Critchfield and Little8 .

hemisphere with both economic and environmental objectives, in southwestern Australia, New Zealand, South America, United States and South Africa, where it has been considered an aggressive coloniser9, 11, 12 .

Habitat and Ecology Maritime pine is a light demanding and fast-growing species that occupies a broad range of elevations, climates and soils, presenting remarkable genetic variation as a result13, 14 . There

Yellow male flowers arranged in ovoid clusters at the top of the shoots. (Copyright MarioM, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

is debate about the number of subspecies, with some authors recognising as many as five different subspecies corresponding to several geographical locations, while others consider up to 18 subspecies that could be grouped in 3 main groups: Atlantic, Circum-Mediterranean and Maghrebian15-17. Maritime pine is ecologically versatile, showing a wide range of expressive traits regarding growth characteristics, frost resistance and adaptation to summer drought and limestone substrates. Naturally, it grows in warm temperate regions with an oceanic influence on climate, mainly in humid and sub-humid areas, where annual rainfall is greater than 600 mm. In spite of that, it is possible for trees to survive in areas with only 400 mm annual precipitation, providing there is sufficient atmospheric moisture. Maritime pine cannot tolerate shade and exhibits preference for siliceous soils with a coarse texture, especially sandy soils, dunes and other poor substrates. However, some subspecies can be found also inhabiting calcareous soils9 . It inhabits from sea level in coastal lowlands to moderate elevations in the Iberian Peninsula (1 600 m) and inland Corsica, up to around 2 000 m in Morocco15, 18 . Easily found establishing pure and open stands or mixed with other species, such as Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and stone pine (Pinus pinea) on sandy coasts or sometimes in higher rocky hills. In Morocco it is a constituent of mixed coniferous forests with black pine (Pinus nigra), Moroccan fir (Abies pinsapo var. marocana), Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) and European yew (Taxus baccata)6 .

Importance and Usage Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%



The maritime pine has been widely used for dunes stabilisation18 , to enable the agricultural use of large areas along the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, and as shelterbelts protecting agricultural crops against salt spray9 . In southwestern France it has also been used for sanitation plantations and economic development in the Landes18 , the largest continuous plantation forest in Europe where Maritime pine is the main species19 . Further, due to its fast growth characteristics and tolerance to poor soils, other uses include soil conservation, and protection of slopes against erosion, as well as shade tree in picnic areas, camp sites and recreational parks. The wood is the major product that is obtained from maritime pine, which


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Reddish-brown plates of the bark divided by deep fissures. (Copyright Jean-Pol Grandmont, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)



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Pinus pinaster

Asymmetrical cones of the maritime pine: they can grow up to 15 cm long maturing in two years. (Copyright S. Rae, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

has a broad range of final products such as construction wood, furniture, poles and posts14 . Resin is the most important of the non-wood products and is used, directly or indirectly after distillation, to make turpentine and rosin, both used in a wide range of products: oils, varnishes, adhesives, waxes, soaps and medicines18 . Its bark is also distilled to produce tar, or chipped and composted to produce a low-weight substrate for nursery containers14, 18 . Finally, its stands are also an ideal ecosystem for the development of edible fungi, such as mushrooms of genus Boletus (porcini) and Lactarius (milk-caps)9 .

Majestic stright maritime pines in Landes Forest (Aquitaine, South-West France). (Copyright miluz, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)


Threats and Diseases This pine is a pyrophyte species, so that the fire is often vital to maintain the Maritime pine status in its ecosystems, but it is also a major hazard in plantations and its most significant threat in the Mediterranean Basin20, 21 . The closed canopy and high tree stocking that characterise silvicultural practices for maximizing biomass production, generate accumulations of fuel with the potential for extreme fire behaviour22 , besides that abundant understorey in pure stands is a key factor in determining stand flammability. Regarding biotic threats, serious injuries are attributed to the exotic pine wood nematode (Bursaphelencus xylophilus), which is responsible for the pine wilt disease. This nematode is considered one of the most serious biological invasions and damaging diseases that has affected conifer forests worldwide23 . Further, other damage that can weaken the trees, causing the loss of plant growth and reducing wood quality in the plantations, with important economic impact, is caused by numerous pests. Cones and seeds are affected by the pine cone weevil (Pissodes validirostris) and worm (Dioryctria mendacella). Buds, shoots and twigs are fed by the pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). The main needle pests are the leaf-feeding larvae of the pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) and the pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer), while the maritime pine bast scale (Matsucoccus feytaudi) is a needle sap sucking pest. Finally the fungi Lophodermium spp. and Cyclaneusma niveum cause the needle cast. Bark can be infested by beetles of family Scolytidae, such as Ips sexdentatus, Tomicus spp. Orthtomicus erosus, Pityogenes bidentatus and Hylaster spp. Roots are attacked by the root rot fungi Armillaria and Heterobasidion9, 14 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe24, 25, and the maritime fir partly coexists with the natural








Maritime pine forest on limestone soils in the Trevenque Mountain of Sierra Nevada (Granada, Spain).



niche of this weevil24 . Outside Europe the maritime pine has been rated as one of the five most invasive pines26 , particularly in South Africa, with impacts on species richness, accelerating soil erosion and altering the water levels11, 18, 27, 28 .

References [1] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [2] A. V. Correia, A. C. Oliveira, A. Fabião, Pinhais e eucaliptais: a floresta cultivada, J. S. Silva, ed. (Edições Público, Lisboa, 2007), vol. 4 of Árvores e florestas de Portugal, pp. 17–34. [3] J. de las Heras, et al., Post-Fire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests, F. Moreira, M. Arianoutsou, P. Corona, J. De las Heras, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2012), vol. 24 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 121–150. [4] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [6] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [7] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [8] W. B. Critchfield, E. L. Little, Geographic distribution of the pines of the world, no. 991 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1966). [9] J. S. Pereira, Pines of Silvicultural Importance, CABI, ed. (CABI, Wallingford, UK, 2002), pp. 316–328. [10] D. C. Le Maitre, Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus, D. M. Richardson, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 407–431. [11] S. I. Higgins, D. M. Richardson, Plant Ecology 135, 79 (1998). [12] P. Ritson, S. Sochacki, Forest Ecology and Management 175, 103 (2003). [13] R. Alìa, et al., Regiones de procedencia Pinus pinaster Aiton (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Madrid, 1996).

[14] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [15] N. Wahid, S. C. González-Martìnez, I. El Hadrami, A. Boulli, Annals of Forest Science 63, 83 (2006). [16] S. C. Gonzalez-Martinez, R. Alia, L. Gil, Heredity 89, 199 (2002). [17] L. Salvador, R. Alía, D. Agúndez, L. Gil, Theoretical and Applied Genetics 100, 89 (2000). [18] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [19] E. Brockerhoff, H. Jactel, J. Parrotta, C. Quine, J. Sayer, Biodiversity and Conservation 17, 925 (2008). [20] M. Barbéro, R. Loisel, P. Quézel, D. M. Richardson, F. Romane, Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus, D. M. Richardson, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 153–170. [21] P. M. Fernandes, E. Rigolot, Forest Ecology and Management 241, 1 (2007). [22] M. E. Alexander, Crown fire thresholds in exotic pine plantations of australasia, Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University, Canberra (1998). [23] B. Ribeiro, et al., Forest Pathology 42, 521 (2012). [24] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [25] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [26] M. Rejmánek, Plant invasions: general aspects and special problems, P. Pyšek, K. Prach, M. Rejmánek, M. Wade, eds., Workshop held at Kostelec nad Černými lesy, Czech Republic, 16-19 September 1993 (SPB Academic, 1995), pp. 3–13. [27] Q. C. B. Cronk, J. L. Fuller, Plant invaders: the threat to natural ecosystems (Springer, London, 1995). [28] CABI, Pinus pinaster (maritime pine) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012d59. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Abad Viñas, R., Caudullo, G., Oliveira, S., de Rigo, D., 2016. Pinus pinaster in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012d59+



129 08/04/2016 11:18

Pinus pinea Pinus pinea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats R. Abad Viñas, G. Caudullo, S. Oliveira, D. de Rigo The stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) is a medium-sized tree with an umbrella-shaped, large and flat crown, scattered around the Mediterranean basin, mainly in coastal areas, and particularly abundant in south Western Europe. It occupies a broad range of climate and soil conditions, although it shows a low genetic variation. It thrives in dry weather, strong direct sunlight and high temperatures, tolerating light-shaded conditions at the early stages of its growth. It prefers acidic, siliceous soils but also tolerates calcareous ones. The most important economic products obtained from these pines are the edible seeds (pine nuts), although they are also used for consolidation of sand dunes in coastal areas, for timber, hunting and grazing activities. This pine species is rarely attacked by pests and diseases, despite some fungi diseases that can cause damages to seedlings and young plantations. In the Mediterranean basin, forest fires constitute the major threat to the stone pine, even though its thick bark and high crown make it less sensitive to fire than other pine species. The stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) is a medium sized evergreen coniferous tree, which grows up to 25-30 m with trunks exceeding 2 m in diameter. The crown is globose and shrubby in youth, umbrella-shaped in mid-age and flat and broad in maturity. The trunk is often short and with numerous upward angled branches with foliage near to the ends. The bark is reddish brown, deeply fissured, with broad, flat-topped, orange-purple plates. The needles last 2-4 years and are bluish-green, in fascicles of two, on average 8-15 cm long, and with an oniony scent. The plant is monoecious unisexual. The pollen cones are numerous, and crowded all around the base of new shoots, each 10-20 mm long, pale orange-brown. The seed cones are ovoid-globose, 8-12 cm long, green when young and reddish brown when mature, ripening in the third year. The seeds are pale brown, covered with a black power, 15-20 mm long, heavy, with easily detachable wings and ineffective for wind dispersal. Stone pine presents mast seeding with a significant variation in seeds production across the years1-4 .


Large green maturing cone: it takes 3 years to reach the maturity. (Copyright S. Rae, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Distribution The natural range of stone pine is uncertain and difficult to establish due to a long history of planting. This species was largely distributed in Europe during the last thousand years, as it was introduced throughout the Mediterranean region for its edible seeds1, 5. The earliest evidence of the human use of this species were recently found in Gibraltar and dated to 49 200 years before present6. Currently, the stone pine has a scattered distribution around the Mediterranean basin, from Portugal to Syria, and it is more abundant in south-western Europe (Iberian Peninsula, South France, Italy), where its regeneration is natural. It is also present along the shores of the Black Sea5, 8-1. This pine occurs mainly on coastal areas, except in Spain and Portugal where it grows naturally at some distance from the sea.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus pinea. Frequency of Pinus pinea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. pinea is derived after EUFORGEN25 .

Habitat and Ecology The stone pine, one of the most characteristic trees of the Mediterranean flora, occupies a broad range of climate and soil conditions along the Mediterranean basin. Despite this, it has been identified as having very low genetic variation and no

hybridisation with other pines is known10, 14, 15 . It is considered a heliophilous, xerophilous and thermophilous pine16 , that can withstand slight shade during its first stages but which requires abundant light for fructification in maturity17. Concerning annual average precipitation, the minimum requirement is for around 250 mm but the optimum is considered to be 600 mm17. Stone pine is well adapted to coastal thermo-Mediterranean areas where frost damage is not a relevant issue; however it also thrives well in sandy continental areas of central Spain with wide yearly and daily thermal oscillations and where night frosts are frequent for several months of the year17, 18 . Concerning the soil there are no special requirements; it tolerates calcareous soils4 , but it prefers siliceous and sandy soils with acid or sub-acid reaction. It also presents limitations in clay soils due to its inability to develop a proper root system in these conditions. The soil pH in its locations can range from 4 to 917, 19 .


Reddish brown bark with deeply fissured orange plates. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


130

This pine is a multipurpose species, cultivated for the production of timber, pine nuts, resin, bark, protection against soil erosion or for environmental and aesthetic purposes19, 20 . Concerning timber production, although the wood is of good quality and it has been widely used in the past17, its relatively slow growth, as compared with another species of overlapping distribution area, ensure that stone pine is only a minor species in commercial timber plantations1 . By contrast, due to its frugal behaviour and high tolerance to poor sandy soils, it has been successfully used for the consolidation of sand dunes in Mediterranean coastal areas17, 19, 21 . However, undoubtedly, the most economically important product is its edible seed, from where the specific Latin name “pinea” is taken10 . The seeds of the stone pine have been used and traded since ancient times1, 14 and their demand is increasing. The main producers of this product are Spain, Portugal, Italy, Tunisia and Turkey10 . Furthermore, in those habitats, where the poor and sandy soils throughout the Mediterranean area represent a limitation for other species, stone pine has great potential as an alternative crop, thanks to



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Pinus pinea

the minimal attention required by forest stands or plantations, the increasing demand for pine nuts, and finally the compatibility of the nut production with other timber and non-timber products, such as fuel wood, mushrooms, hunting or grazing20 .

Threats and Diseases The stone pine is not considered a threatened species and, despite its low genetic diversity, it is rarely attacked by pests and diseases. Nevertheless, as is the case with other Mediterranean pines, forest fires constitute the major threat, even though this pine is considerably less fire-sensitive thanks to its thick bark and high crown devoid of low branches10, 16 . Regarding biotic threats, fungi diseases such as blister rust (Cronartium flaccidum), twisting rust (Melampsora populnea f.sp. pinitorqua) and needle rust (Coleosporium tussilaginis) can sometimes cause serious damage to seedlings and young plantations. The Sphaeropsis blight, caused by the fungus Sphaeropsis sapinea (syn. Diplodia pinea), is generally considered a pathogen of weak trees and it can be responsible for severe attacks after water stress. The fungi of genus Heterobasidion can produce sometimes extensive losses through decay and root rot10, 19. Economic impacts to the nut production through damage to cones can be caused by boring beetles of genus Ernobius, the cone-worms of snout moths (Dioryctria spp.), and by the western conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus occidentalis) introduced from North America, which withers or misdevelops the cones with its sap-sucking activity22, 23 24 . Stone pine forest on coastal sand dunes near Trafalgar Cape (Cádiz, Andalusia, South-West Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

References [1] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [2] C. J. Earle, The gymnosperm database (2015). http://www.conifers.org [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] G. Montero, R. Calama, R. Ruiz-Peinado, Selvicultura de Pinus pinea (Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnologìa Agraria y Alimentaria (España), 2008), pp. 431–470. [5] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [6] C. Finlayson, et al., Nature 443, 850 (2006). [7] M. Barbéro, R. Loisel, P. Quézel, D. M. Richardson, F. Romane, Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus, D. M. Richardson, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 153–170. [8] A. Farjon, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42391/0+. [9] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973). [10] B. Fady, S. Fineschi, G. G. Vendramin, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea) (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 2008). [11] W. B. Critchfield, E. L. Little, Geographic distribution of the pines of the world, no. 991 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1966). [12] G. L. Shaughnessy, Historical ecology of alien woody plants in the vicinity of cape town, south africa, Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town (1980). [13] N. T. Mirov, P. M. Iloff, Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 44, 186 (2006).

[14] D. M. Richardson, P. W. Rundel, Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus, D. M. Richardson, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1998). [15] G. G. Vendramin, et al., Evolution 62, 680 (2008). [16] J. Retana, et al., Post-Fire Management and Restoration of Southern European Forests, F. Moreira, M. Arianoutsou, P. Corona, J. De las Heras, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2012), vol. 24 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 151–170. [17] G. Borrero Fernández, El pino piñonero (Pinus pinea L.) en Andalucìa: Ecologìa, distribución y selvicultura (Consejerìa de Medio Ambiente. Dirección General de Gestión del Medio Natural, Sevilla, 2004). [18] M. Pardos, J. Climent, H. Almeida, R. Calama, Annals of Forest Science 71, 551 (2014) [19] A. Cutini, Pines of Silvicultural Importance, CABI, ed. (CABI, Wallingford, UK, 2002), pp. 329–343. [20] R. Calama, G. Madrigal, J. A. Candela, G. Montero, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 16, 241 (2007). [21] A. Boutheina, M. H. El Aouni, P. Balandier, Influence of stand and tree attributes and silviculture on cone and seed productions in forests of Pinus pinea L. in northern Tunisia, Options Méditerranéennes , Series A: Mediterranean Seminars, No. 105 (CIHEAM, FAO, INIA, IRTA, CESEFOR, CTFC, Zaragoza, 2013), pp. 9–14. [22] M. Bracalini, et al., Journal of Economic Entomology 106, 229 (2013). [23] I. M. Özçankaya, S. N. Balay, C. Bucak, Effects of pests and diseases on stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) conelet losses in Kozak catchment area, Options Méditerranéennes, Series A: Mediterranean Seminars, No. 105 (CIHEAM, FAO, INIA, IRTA, CESEFOR, CTFC, Zaragoza, 2013), pp. 29–33. [24] EPPO, EPPO Global Database (2015). https://gd.eppo.int [25] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of italian stone pine (Pinus pinea) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

Ornamental stone pine in urban area (Recco, North-West Italy). (Copyright Alessio Sbarbaro, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)









Pine nuts fresh from the cone are covered with a black powder. (Copyright Eran Finkle, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01b4fc. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Abad Viñas, R., Caudullo, G., Oliveira, S., de Rigo, D., 2016. Pinus pinea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01b4fc+



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Pinus sylvestris Pinus sylvestris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology

The most widely distributed pine species in the world, the conifer Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) can be found all the way across Eurasia. The huge pine forests of Siberia are the largest stands of an individual tree species in the world. Even the name “sylvestris” comes from the Latin “of forests”. Having such a large range means that it is genetically very variable and a number of sub-species and varieties exist. However, it can often be easily recognised because of its distinctive orange-red coloured bark. Scots pine is a pioneer species, frost and drought tolerant and able to grow on very poor soils, so it can be found in many ecologically diverse habitats. Its timber is valued for its good strength to weight ratio and it is both commercially and culturally a very important species in a number of European countries, particularly in the more northerly regions. Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) is a medium-sized conifer. It reaches 23-27 m in height on average but can attain over 40 m1 and live for 400 years or more: one tree in Lapland is reported to be over 750 years old2 . The bark on the upper part of the stem develops a distinct reddish-orange colour while the lower part is furrowed brown to grey-brown and becomes deeply fissured. Its blue-green or grey-green needles are in pairs, generally slightly twisted and are around 5-7 cm long3 . They stay on the tree for at least 2, and in some cases up to 6 years1 .The needles are adapted to deal with cold and drought, having imbedded stomata and a waxy layer on the thick-walled epidermis to protect the needle from water loss4 . It is a wind-pollinated species and is normally monoecious but mature trees may very occasionally bear only male or only female flowers5 . The male flowers cluster at the base of new shoots and are yellow or pink; the female flowers occur at the tips of new, strong shoots and develop a rose-purple shade. The cones develop the year following pollination and are conic-oblong 5-8 cm in size3, 6 . They require alternating periods of dry and wet weather to open and shed the winged seeds, which can be dispersed some way from the parent tree7.

Native

comprising over 20 % of the productive forest area9 . The tree varies widely in form throughout its range and there is debate over how many separate subspecies should be recognised8 . Its modern genetic diversity is probably caused by its isolation in a number of glacial refugia during the last ice age10 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pinus sylvestris. Frequency of Pinus sylvestris occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. sylvestris is derived after EUFORGEN32 .

Distribution Scots pine is the most widespread species of the Pinus genus in the world, and the second most widespread conifer after common juniper (Juniperus communis)8 . It occupies a range from Spain in the west to the far east of Russia. In terms of latitude it can be found from northern Scandinavia (70° N) to the mountains of Sierra Nevada in southern Spain (37° N). It grows at a wide range of elevations, from sea level in the northern parts of its range to over 2 600 m in the Caucasus. It has also been widely planted in the United States (where it is referred to as Scotch pine), especially in the Northeast, Lake States, Central States and the Pacific Northwest7. In Europe, Scots pine forests now exceed 28 million hectares,

Maturing male flowers clastered at the base of a new shoot. (Copyright Stuart Caie, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology

The upper part of the trunk is a distinctive reddish-orange colour. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)




It is a light-demanding pioneer species and can colonise recently disturbed sites if competition and grazing pressure are low11 . It grows mainly on sunny to partially shaded, usually nutrient-poor sites12 . With a pronounced drought tolerance and also good frost resistance, it is very undemanding as to site and water supply and can grow on the poorest sandy soils, even colonising acid highland moors13 . However, it cannot cope with atmospheric pollution or salty sea winds14 and on fertile sites it is often outcompeted by other species (usually spruce or broadleaved species)11, 15 . It requires a period of winter chilling to break autumn dormancy, and starts to grow in the spring when temperatures reach about 5 °C4, 5 . Under conditions of a warming climate it is likely to increase its presence in the north, but decline in the southern parts of its range16-19 . It frequently grows in large single-species stands, but across its huge range it may also be found with most of the boreal species of Europe and Asia20 . In Europe it can be found growing with broadleaved trees such as oaks (Quercus petraea, Quercus robur), beech (Fagus sylvatica) and birch (Betula pendula), and other conifers including spruce (Picea abies), larch (Larix decidua), fir (Abies alba) and other pines (Pinus nigra, Pinus uncinata)9 , but no single species or species group is associated with it over its entire range15 .


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Native Scots pine woodlands in Glen Affric, Scotland. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)



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Pinus sylvestris


Cones develop in one year and are 5-8 cm long. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage Scots pine is one of the most commercially important species1 , particularly in the Nordic countries9 . The wood is easily workable and is one of the strongest of the softwoods, with a good strength to weight ratio. It is used in particular as building and construction timber, and also for furniture, pulp and paper. It lasts well in wet conditions and was formerly used for mining props12 , waterwheels and piles21 . It is frequently used for land reclamation purposes and for binding loose sands because of its tolerance to poor soils1 . In Eastern Europe and the former USSR, Scots pine was widely tapped for resin1, 13 . In America it is widely used as a Christmas tree7. Scots pine is frequently used in dendrochronology, because it is relatively long lived and often grows in marginal conditions, where small fluctuations in temperature and/or moisture can have a noticeable effect on its growth8, 22 .

Threats and Diseases Pests can be a problem in large plantations, where they can spread through a wide area. In particular, the fungi Fusarium and Alternaria can cause high mortality of seedlings. Butt rot of mature trees may be caused by species of Armillaria and Fomes1 . The saw fly species Diprion pini and Neodiprion sertifer can cause severe defoliation, rendering the tree susceptible to attack by other pests23, 24 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe25, 26 . Scots pine is vulnerable to Ips typographus


which may also be a vector of different fungal pathogens27-30 . The pine woolly aphid (Pineus pini) feeds on the foliage and young shoots. Crown defoliation may be caused by the larvae of some

Lepidoptera: the most damaging include Bupalus piniarius, Panolis flammea and Lymantria monacha. It may also be attacked by the red band needle blight (Mycosphaerella pini, syn. Dothistroma septosporum)29, 31 . The leaves, shoots and bark are all grazed by a variety of animals including sheep, deer, rabbits and squirrels5 .

References

Ancient large tree in Sierra de Guadarrama, Spain. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)










[1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] T. H. Wallenius, H. Kauhanen, H. Herva, J. Pennanen, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 40, 2027 (2010). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] U. K. Krakau, M. Liesebach, T. Aronen, M. A. Lelu-Walter, V. Schneck, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, chap. 6, pp. 267–323. [5] A. Carlisle, A. H. F. Brown, Journal of Ecology 56, 269 (1968). [6] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [7] D. D. Skilling, Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine), Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 1000–1017. [8] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [9] W. L. Mason, R. Alìa, Investigación agraria. Sistemas y recursos forestales 9, 317 (2000). [10] R. Cheddadi, et al., Global Ecology and Biogeography 15, 271 (2006). [11] C. Mátyás, Ackzell, C. J. A. Samuel, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) (2003). [12] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [13] M. Gardner, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2013), pp. 42418/0+. [14] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [15] D. Kelly, A. Connolly, Forest Systems 9, 15 (2000). [16] P. B. Reich, J. Oleksyn, Ecology Letters 11, 588 (2008).

[17] M. Benito Garzón, R. Sánchez de Dios, H. Sainz Ollero, Applied Vegetation Science 11, 169 (2008). [18] L. Matìas, A. S. Jump, Forest Ecology and Management 282, 10 (2012). [19] G. E. Rehfeldt, et al., Global Change Biology 8, 912 (2002). [20] D. M. Richardson, Ecology and biogeography of Pinus (Cambridge University Press, 1998). [21] J. E. Milner, The tree book : the indispensable guide to tree facts, crafts and lore (Collins & Brown, 1992). [22] M. Lindholm, et al., Silva Fennica 34, 317 (2000). [23] B. Langström, E. Annila, C. Hellqvist, M. Varama, P. Niemelä, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 16, 342 (2001). [24] T. Virtanen, S. Neuvonen, A. Nikula, M. Varama, P. Niemelä, Silva Fennica 30, 169 (1996). [25] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [26] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [27] R. Kirschner, D. Begerow, F. Oberwinkler, Mycological Research 105, 1403 (2001). [28] R. Jankowiak, J. Hilszczański, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 74, 345 (2011). [29] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [30] L. Giordano, M. Garbelotto, G. Nicolotti, P. Gonthier, Mycological Progress 12, 127 (2013). [31] R. Drenkhan, J. Hantula, M. Vuorinen, L. Jankovský, M. M. Müller, European Journal of Plant Pathology 136, 71 (2013). [32] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e016b94. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Pinus sylvestris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e016b94+



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Populus alba Populus alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The white poplar (Populus alba L.) is a medium-sized tree commonly occurring in coastal and riparian forests of central and southern Europe. Its wide range covers from the Mediterranean region to Central Asia. It is a fast-growing pioneer tree, which thrives in borders and sunny habitats in sandy alluvial soils and dunes. Its reproduction is primarily by root suckers arising from lateral roots from which it forms dense and large colonies. It is used as an ornamental tree appreciated for its attractive double-coloured foliage, as a windbreak and for dune stabilisation thanks to its tolerance of salt winds. The white poplar is free from threatening diseases, while it is considered an aggressive invasive species in North America, New Zealand and South Africa. This poplar covers an important ecological role as a component of floodplain mixed forests, which are ecosystems with very high biodiversity and that are strongly threatened by human activities. The white poplar (Populus alba L.) is a medium-sized tree, reaching at maturity 30 m in height and 1 m in diameter, rarely up to 40 m1 , and living to 300-400 years2, 3 . The trunk is never straight, usually leaning to one side4, 5 . The crown is normally broad and rounded with large branches inserted irregularly, often bifurcated2 . Above or in young trees the bark is creamy white pitted with small black diamonds; it is black and coarsely cracked at the base of older trees4 . The leaves are alternate, morphologically variable, with 3-5 lobes coarsely toothed, 6-12 cm long and longer than they are wide1-3, 6 . The colour is shiny dark-green on the upper side and white with dense hair on the lower side2, 5 . Like other poplars, it is a dioecious species1 . Flowers are out before the leaves in early spring4 . The male catkins are grey with red stamens, 5-8 cm long; the female catkins are greyish-green, 1015 cm long, forming fluffy seeds in early summer2, 4 .


are established for wood industries, where other poplars do not perform well, for example where the water table is inaccessible or the soil is poor or saline. In such cases, the wood can be used for biomass energy, as pulpwood for paper, for packaging (crates and boxes), pellets and partially as saw-logs. Plant density on pure plantations can be higher than other poplars and the rotation reaches 18-25 years2, 6, 15 . It is widely planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens, for its attractive double-coloured foliage2, 6 . Poplar leaves could be used as cattle feed and as bio-monitors for soil pollution15, 28 . White poplar is among the group of plants with an important emission of isoprene, which is one of the biogenic volatile organic compounds affecting a complex chain of feedbacks between the terrestrial biosphere and climate, with relevant although not yet completely understood implications under the ongoing climate warming29-31 . This poplar covers an important ecological role as a component of floodplain forests. These forest ecosystems host a very high diversity of plants and animals, providing corridors through the landscape, sites for water storage and groundwater recharge during floods, opportunities for timber extraction, and diffuse pollution control by recycling nutrients in farmland runoff32, 33 .

Distribution This tree is native in riparian steppe and coastal forest communities of central and southern Europe. It occurs over a wide range, from North Africa to Poland and from the Iberian Peninsula to western Siberia and Central Asia2, 6-9 . It was introduced in the United States in the 18th century as a shade and ornamental tree and more recently in all other continents, becoming naturalised in many areas and invasive in some countries10-14 .

Habitat and Ecology The white poplar occurs spontaneously along river valleys in warm temperate and Mediterranean zones where soil-water is available15, 16 . It is a fast-growing and light demanding tree, colonising woodland edges and open sunny habitats, including meadows, wetlands and riparian zones. It grows in most sites, tolerating from waterlogged to drought habitats and from acid to strong alkaline soils, but developing in shrub form in extreme conditions17. It performs with high growing rates on optimal sites, characterised by good water availability and welltextured soils that have neutral-alkaline pH and which are rich in nutrients3, 15, 17, 18 . Reproduction is primarily by vegetative means, through root suckers. They arise from adventitious buds on the lateral root system, which can grow as far as 30-50 m from the plant. New plants may also establish through tree fragments, which can easily root in suitable environments. Suckers from a single tree can quickly develop a dense and large colony, shading out competitive vegetation10, 11, 18 . Mature trees also produce abundant wind-dispersed seeds that may be carried long distances11 . The white poplar hybridises naturally with Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula). The resulting hybrids are known as grey poplars (Populus x canescens), which is a morphologically intermediate species, but which exhibits more vigour than either parent2, 4, 5 . This poplar is a common species of floodplain forests in early- to mid-seral vegetation communities10 . In central and southern Europe it dominates and co-dominates in riparian woodland of the central-western Mediterranean zone with willows (Salix alba, Salix fragilis), black poplar (Populus nigra), and alder (Alnus glutinosa). In the wooded steppe zone it is dominant on sandy soils having originated from alluvial deposits and on sand dunes bordering riverine gallery forests9 . It occurs also as a secondary species in hygrophilous floodplain forests of the temperate zone dominated by pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), ashes (Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus angustifolia), elms (Ulmus spp.) and alder (Alnus glutinosa), and in eastern Mediterranean riparian forests dominated by oriental plane (Platanus orientalis)19, 20 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Populus alba. Frequency of Populus alba occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. alba is derived after Isebrands and Richardson16 .

the European mountain systems22 . In these critical areas, white poplar complements key forest ecosystem services such as soil stabilisation and watershed protection23 . More generally, white poplar is used for erosion control along river banks and roadsides, windbreaks and land reclamation. Silvoarable agroforestry with this species24 may be exploited in Mediterranean areas with high potential soil erosion, also considering the effectiveness of its cover-management on erosion rates25, 26 . Thanks to its salt and sandy soil tolerance, it is also used near coasts in windbreaks against salty winds and for dune stabilisation2, 15 . It is further exploited for phytoremediation with the hybrids Populus alba x tremula and Populus tremula x alba 27. The wood is not of high quality, especially from natural stands, being woolly in texture, of low flammability, not durable, very light and soft, so it is suitable only for local and artisan use. However, specialised plantations

Creamy white bark with small black diamonds. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases Like other poplars, it hosts a large number of insects, but only a few of those need to be controlled especially in plantations. Among the leaf defoliators, the main ones are the moth Hyphantria cunea and the large poplar-leaf beetle Chrysomela populi. Wood diseases can occasionally be caused by the goat moth Cossus cossus and the longhorn beetles of genus Saperda, even if their xylophagous caterpillars are found mainly in other poplar species. The soil

Importance and Usage White poplar is not an important species commercially. It is widely used in interspecific breeding programmes to introduce valuable traits into poplars of more economic importance. As other fast growing Salicaceae, this poplar may have a multifunctional role for pollution mitigation, microclimate regulation and improved structural and biological diversity in open agricultural landscapes21 . Its broad geographical distribution overlaps with many areas in Europe affected by high erosion rates, including moist slopes with high drainage-area within

134

Free-standing trees develop a broad and rounded crown. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



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Populus alba

Small branchlet with male catkins floating in the water. (Copyright Rob Hille, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens can cause serious damage with canker infections. The main fungi affecting leaves and rusts causing premature defoliations are Melampsora spp., Marssonina castagnei, and Venturia spp. on young plantations2, 15, 34 . The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) may attack the white poplar which, however, shows a remarkable resistance and may thus potentially act as overwintering reservoir of the beetle35, 36 . Leucoma salicis may infestate this tree, although outbreaks in central Europe may be mitigated by numerous natural enemies36 . Chrysomela tremulae, a leaf-feeding beetle, can damage young plantations of the hybrid P. tremula x alba as well as of the white poplar36 . This species forms with other hygrophilous broadleaves the floodplain mixed forests, one of the most threatened natural ecosystems in Europe, which has seen during the last centuries a 90 % of the original area for settlement development, agricultural land use, flood defence, etc., remaining in fragments and often in critical conditions32, 33 . For this reason several riparian habitats are now protected by European legislation37, 38 . On the other hand, the white poplar can be an aggressive exotic tree species, so that in many countries like the United States and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa it is considered an invasive plant (noxious weed). In some cases a control programme has been activated using herbicides for limiting its invasiveness, especially in natural communities2, 10-14 .

Lobed leaves are shiny dark-green on the upper side and white with dense hairs on the lower one. (Copyright Free Photos, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References

White poplars growing near a lagoon in the Doñana National Park (Andalusia, Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Female catkins maturing after pollination.

Carpet of fluffy seeds on the grass under white poplars.



[1] J. Do Amaral Franco, Flora Europea. Volume 1. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 64–67, second edn. [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] J.-C. Rameau, D. Mansion, G. Dumé, Flore forestière française, Plaines et collines, vol. 1 (Institut pour le Développement Forestier, Paris, 1989). [4] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [5] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [6] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [7] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [8] M. Arbez, J.-F. Lacaze, Les ressources genetiques forestieres en France, Tome 2: les feuillus (Editions Quae, 1999). [9] E. Jakucs, Phyton; annales rei botanicae 42, 199 (2002). [10] Gucker, C. L. Populus alba and hybrids. Fire Effects Information (2010). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [11] T. Remaley, J. M. Swearingen, Fact sheet - white poplar (Populus alba), Plant Conservation Alliance, Alien Plant Working Group (2005). Accessed on November 2014. [12] L. Henderson, Bothalia 37, 215 (2007). [13] C. Alberio, V. Comparatore, Acta Oecologica 54, 65 (2014). [14] M. L. Baker, Flora of Tasmania Online, M. F. Duretto, ed. (Tasmanian Herbarium, Tasmanian Museum & Art Gallery, Hobart, 2009), p. 8. [15] CABI, Populus alba (silver-leaf poplar) (2014). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [16] J. G. Isebrands, J. Richardson, Poplars and willows: trees for society and the environment (CABI ; FAO, 2014). [17] L. Dimitri, L. Halupa, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2001). [18] W. Glass, B. Edgin, White poplar (Populus alba L.), Vegetation Management Guideline, vol. 1, n. 25 (Rev.) (2004). Accessed on November 2014. [19] European Environment Agency, EUNIS, the European Nature Information System (2015). http://eunis.eea.europa.eu [20] S. Brullo, G. Spampinato, Annali di Botanica 57, 133 (1999). [21] R. Tognetti, C. Cocozza, M. Marchetti, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 6, 37 (2013).

[22] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [23] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [24] Y. Reisner, R. de Filippi, F. Herzog, J. Palma, Ecological Engineering 29, 401 (2007). [25] D. de Rigo, C. Bosco, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 359, 310 (2011). [26] M. López-Vicente, A. Navas, Soil Science 174, 272 (2009). [27] M. E. Dix, N. B. Klopfenstein, J. W. Zhang, S. W. Workman, M. S. Kim, Micropropagation, genetic engineering, and molecular biology of Populus, N. B. Klopfenstein, et al., eds. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1997), vol. RM-GTR-297 of Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Exp. Station: General Technical Reports (RM-GTR), pp. 206–211. [28] P. Madejón, T. Marañón, J. M. Murillo, B. Robinson, Environmental Pollution 132, 145 (2004). [29] J. Laothawornkitkul, J. E. Taylor, N. D. Paul, C. N. Hewitt, New Phytologist 183, 27 (2009). [30] F. Pacifico, S. P. Harrison, C. D. Jones, S. Sitch, Atmospheric Environment 43, 6121 (2009). [31] J. Peñuelas, J. Llusià, Trends in Plant Science 8, 105 (2015). [32] F. M. R. Hughes, ed., The Flooded Forest: Guidance for policy makers and river managers in Europe on the restoration of floodplain forests (FLOBAR2, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, UK, 2003). [33] T. Moss, J. Monstadt, Restoring Floodplains in Europe: Policy Contexts and Project Experiences (IWA Publishing, London, UK, 2008). [34] G. Newcombe, The specificity of fungal pathogens of Populus (NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1996), pp. 223–246. [35] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [36] V. de Tillesse, L. Nef, J. Charles, A. Hopkin, S. Augustin, Damaging poplar Insects - Internationally important species (International Poplar Commission, FAO, Rome, 2007). [37] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 35, 7 (1992). [38] European Commission, Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats - EUR28 version, Directorate-General Environment, Brussels (2013).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e010368. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Populus alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e010368+



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Populus nigra Populus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. de Rigo, C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant,G. Caudullo Black poplar (Populus nigra L.) is a pioneer deciduous wind-pollinated tree species, widely distributed across Europe, Asia and northern Africa. In Europe it is considered as an important species of floodplain forests, but it is currently close to extinction in several parts of its range. Black poplar is a large, fast growing deciduous tree, reaching heights of up to 40 m tall and trunk diameters of up to 200 cm1 . The bark is dark brown or black, with numerous fissures. The leaves are variable in size and shape, longer than wider, but they usually have a cuneate base and serrated margins2 . The flowers appear before the foliage develops3 , from specialised buds containing preformed inflorescences4 . The fruits consist of capsules grouped in catkins3 . It can be propagated both in generative (by wind- and water-dispersed seeds) and vegetative ways (by cuttings)1, 5 . There are a large number of clones, varieties and hybrids, making classification difficult6-8 . Mature trees can live for 100, occasionally 300-400 years8 .


effectiveness of its cover-management on erosion rates18 . It is often used as an ornamental tree, especially the narrow variety Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra cv. Italica)1, 7. The wood has many desirable qualities; although not particularly strong, it is relatively fire-resistant and shockproof, and it has a soft, fine texture. Traditionally it was used for clogs, carts, furniture and also flooring near to open fireplaces19 . It is now used for pulp and paper production, and its fast growth rate makes it a suitable bioenergy crop8, 13, 20 . Extracts from the tree have been shown to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects8, 21 . Black poplar belongs to the group of plants that remarkably emit isoprene, which is one of the biogenic volatile organic compounds affecting a complex chain of feedbacks between the terrestrial biosphere and climate, with relevant although not yet completely understood implications under the ongoing climate warming22-24 .

Distribution Black poplar has a wide natural distribution. In Europe, it can be found as far north as the British Isles and down to the Mediterranean coast. At the southern extreme of its range it can be found in parts of northern Africa and the Middle East. To the east its range extends as far as Kazakstan and China1, 7, 9 . It is also cultivated in India between 26 and 29° N latitude and is naturalised in both North and South America1 .

Habitat and Ecology The black poplar is a tree species of floodplain forests5 , growing in riparian mixed forests together with white poplar (Populus alba L.), willow (Salix spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.), and sometimes oak (Quercus spp.)7. It is a pioneer tree species6, 10 , and does not tolerate drought or shade1 . It is an opportunistic species able to colonise new sites after disturbances, and has a good tolerance to high water levels and high temperatures during summer8 . It can be managed easily by coppicing1 .

Importance and Usage Both tree breeders and conservationists are aware of the importance of black poplar8 . It is a highly valuable tree species from an economic point of view: it is used as a parent pool for

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Populus nigra. Frequency of Populus nigra occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. nigra is derived after EUFORGEN32 .

several breeding programmes across Europe, especially for obtaining the hybrid Populus x euramericana (P. deltoides x P. nigra) 7, 10-12 . As other fast growing Salicaceae, this species may have a multifunctional role for pollution mitigation , microclimate regulation and improved structural and biological diversity in open agricultural landscapes13 . The wide spatial distribution of black poplar overlaps with many areas in Europe subject to high erosion rates, including moist slopes with high drainage-area within the European mountain systems14 . Here, this tree contributes to relevant forest ecosystem services such as soil stabilisation and watershed protection15 . It has also high ecological value in riparian floodplain ecosystems, frequently used as a windbreak or to control erosion along riverbanks1 . In Mediterranean areas with high potential soil erosion16 , silvoarable agroforestry with this species17 may be exploited even considering the


Columnar form of black poplar in a garden park of Békés (East Hungary).


(Copyright László Szalai, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)


136

Male catkins with reddish anthers during pollination. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)



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Populus nigra

Deep fissured bark of a mature tree. (Copyright Botaurus stellaris, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Isolated poplars with autumn foliage in the rural area near Torrestío (León, North-West Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Female greenish flowers before pollination. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Triangular-shaped leaves with cuneate base and accuminate apex.

Fluffy seeds ripening from the capsules dispersed by the wind.


(Copyright Franco Giordana, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases Black poplar is now one of the most threatened tree species in Europe5 and is close to extinction in a large part of western Europe7 because of several factors including habitat degradation, demographic pressure and lack of genetic diversity1, 6, 25 . Gene flow from cultivated poplar plantations into the wild populations is also a significant problem26, 27. Black poplar is susceptible to the rust disease Melampsora larici-populina28, 29 which, while causing only moderate levels of mortality, results in significant reduction in growth volume. This tree is susceptible to attacks from the Asian longhorn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) and since it shows a remarkable resistance, it may potentially act as overwintering reservoir of the beetle30, 31 . Porthetria obfuscate and the larvae of Trichiocampus viminalis are damaging defoliators; Phyllonorycter populifoliella mines the leaves of black poplar while insects of the Phyllocnistis genus can skeletonise its leaves and those of the hybrid P. deltoides x nigra, on trees of all ages31 . This poplar can be infestated by Leucoma salicis, although in central Europe numerous natural enemies may mitigate outbreaks31 .

Maturing fruits on catkins during leaf development. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)










References [1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] A. Vanden Broeck, K. Cox, P. Quataert, E. Van Bockstaele, J. Van Slycken, Silvae Genetica 52(5-6), 280 (2003). [4] R. F. Stettler, H. D. Bradshaw, P. E. Heilman, T. M. Hinckley, Biology of Populus and its implications for management and conservation (NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1996). [5] A. Vanden Broek, Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use of European Black Poplar (Populus nigra) (2003). [6] OECD, Safety Assessment of Transgenic Organisms (OECD Publishing, 2006), vol. 2 of OECD Consensus Documents. [7] L. Cagelli, F. Lefèvre, Forest Genetics pp. 135–144 (1995). [8] B. Šiler, et al., Variability of european black poplar (populus nigra l.) in the danube basin, Tech. rep. (2014). [9] E. Imbert, F. Lefèvre, Journal of Ecology 91, 447 (2003). [10] F. Lefèvre, A. Légionnet, S. deVries, J. Turok, Genetics Selection Evolution 30, S181+ (1998). [11] R. Monclus, et al., New Phytologist 169, 765 (2006). [12] M.-T. Cervera, et al., Genetics 158, 787 (2001). [13] R. Tognetti, C. Cocozza, M. Marchetti, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 6, 37 (2013). [14] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [15] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210.

[16] D. de Rigo, C. Bosco, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 359, 310 (2011). [17] Y. Reisner, R. de Filippi, F. Herzog, J. Palma, Ecological Engineering 29, 401 (2007). [18] M. López-Vicente, A. Navas, Soil Science 174, 272 (2009). [19] J. Cottrell, Conservation of Black poplar (Populus nigra L.) (Forestry Commission, 2004). [20] F. P. Guerra, et al., New Phytologist 197, 162 (2013). [21] I. Jerković, J. Mastelić, Phytochemistry 63, 109 (2003). [22] J. Laothawornkitkul, J. E. Taylor, N. D. Paul, C. N. Hewitt, New Phytologist 183, 27 (2009). [23] F. Pacifico, S. P. Harrison, C. D. Jones, S. Sitch, Atmospheric Environment 43, 6121 (2009). [24] J. Peñuelas, J. Llusià, Trends in Plant Science 8, 105 (2015). [25] V. Storme, et al., TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108, 969 (2004). [26] A. Vanden Broeck, M. Villar, E. Van Bockstaele, J. VanSlycken, Annals of Forest Science 62, 601 (2005). [27] A. V. Broeck, et al., Annals of Forest Science 63, 783 (2006). [28] A. Legionnet, H. Muranty, F. Lefèvre, Heredity 82, 318 (1999). [29] J. Pinon, Silvae Genetica 41, 25 (1992) [30] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [31] V. de Tillesse, L. Nef, J. Charles, A. Hopkin, S. Augustin, Damaging poplar Insects - Internationally important species (International Poplar Commission, FAO, Rome, 2007). [32] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of black poplar (Populus nigra) (2015). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0182a4. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T.,Caudullo, G., 2016. Populus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: SanMiguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0182a4+



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Populus tremula Populus tremula in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula L.) is a fast-growing broadleaf tree that is native to the cooler temperate and boreal regions of Europe and Asia. It has an extremely wide range, as a result of which there are numerous forms and subspecies. It can tolerate a wide range of habitat conditions and typically colonises disturbed areas (for example after fire, wind-throw, etc.). It is considered to be a keystone species because of its ecological importance for other species: it has more host-specific species than any other boreal tree. The wood is mainly used for veneer and pulp for paper production as it is light and not particularly strong, although it also has use as a biomass crop because of its fast growth. A number of hybrids have been developed to maximise its vigour and growth rate. Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula L.) is a medium-size, fast-growing tree, exceptionally reaching a height of 30 m1 . The trunk is long and slender, rarely up to 1 m in diameter. The light branches are rather perpendicular, giving to the crown a conicpyramidal shape. The leaves are 5-7 cm long, simple, roundovate, with big wave-shaped teeth2, 3 . They flutter in the slightest breeze, constantly moving and rustling, so that trees can often be heard but not seen. In spring the young leaves are coppery-brown and turn to golden yellow in autumn, making it attractive in all vegetative seasons1, 2 . The aspen is a dioecious tree. Flowers are produced in February-March before the leaves appear2, 3 . Male catkins are 5-10 cm long, grey-brown, yellowish in midMarch when shedding pollen. Female catkins are green, 5-6 cm at pollination, extending 10-12 cm long at maturity in early summer to bear 50-80 capsules each containing numerous tiny seeds embedded in downy fluff and dispersed by wind4 . The bark is greenish-grey, smooth, wrinkled with diamond lenticels1, 2 .


Young trees in Lapland, Finland.. (Copyright Mattivirtala, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Distribution This species is native to cool temperate and boreal regions of Europe and Asia. It is the second most widely distributed tree in the world, after Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Aspen’s range extends from Iceland and Ireland to Kamchatka, and from north of the Arctic Circle in Fennoscandia and Russia (growing at sea level), to Spain, Turkey, North Korea and northern Japan (growing up to 1900 m in the Pyrenees)5-9 . There are also isolated glacialrelict populations on the highest elevations of the Atlas Mountains in Algeria10 . Due to its wide distribution, many geographical races have been differentiated morphologically, and some of these forms are considered as sub-species8 .

Habitat and Ecology Eurasian aspen is a light-demanding, rapidly growing broad-leaved tree. Its fast-growing habit continues until the

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Populus tremula. Frequency of Populus tremula occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. tremula is derived after several sources5, 30, 31 .

age of about 20 years when crown competition increases. After that, its growth increment is slower and culminates at about 30 years of age, and the average lifespan is 50-100 years8, 9, 11 . The enormous wide natural range demonstrates its tolerance of a high variety of climatic and habitat conditions, such as frost, shade, waterlogging, wind and weed competition. It also grows on a wide range of soils, from slightly dry to wet soils of poor to rich nutrient status, although it favours moist soils with a high organic matter content and wet conditions8, 11, 12 . Light is more important than soil conditions, even if, unlike many other poplars, it is sufficiently shade-tolerant to be a stable part of a mixed stand


Importance and Usage Although its commercial importance is limited compared with other tree species, aspen is often found to be a keystone species due to its fundamental ecological importance for other species; e.g. herbivorous, saprophytic invertebrates, fungi and lichens, birds, etc. It has more host-specific species than any other boreal tree and is one of the most significant contributors to total epiphyte diversity in the boreal forest9, 11, 16 . It is an attractive species for ornamental purposes thanks to the colouration of foliage8, 11 . The wood is not dense, like other poplars, and it is mainly used for veneer and pulp for paper production, also for good quality charcoal and chip-wood8, 11 . It is used as a biomass crop for energy production because of its rapid growth. As a pioneer species Eurasian aspen is often used for afforestation of barren or degraded lands, and it is also planted as a shelterbelt species thanks to its wind resistance8 . As other fast growing



woodland, especially with species casting a relatively light shade, such as Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and birches (Betula spp.)11 . Eurasian aspen trees typically occur as scattered patches in the midst of the conifer-dominated landscape. It is a disturbanceadapted species and is a coloniser of clear disturbed areas such as after fire, clear-cutting, wind-throw or defoliation. In such cases it may form large and more continuous stands9, 13 . Though Eurasian aspen may produce enormous numbers of viable seeds, seedlings find it difficult to establish apart from under suitable environmental conditions or after a forest fire14 . Aspen maintains its existing populations mainly through vegetative replacement and expansion. The vegetative reproduction is guaranteed by root suckers, which are abundantly produced on the shallow lateral roots after an individual has been damaged or destroyed, e.g. by cutting, fire or diseases, leaving an open space exposed to sunlight. The trees growing from the suckers form clones and mature stands reproduce vigorously by this vegetative means. Clones may live thousands of years if new suckers continuously arise from the original rootstock4, 9 . Eurasian aspen hybridises naturally with white poplar (Populus alba) forming the grey poplar (Populus x canescens), which is intermediate morphologically, but more vigorous than its parents8 . Artificial hybrids have been produced with a number of other poplars. In particular Populus tremula x tremuloides, the hybrid with the North American quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), is widely used for large-scale plantations thanks to its stronger vigour and higher growth rates4, 15 .

The foliage flutters in the breeze so the trees are often heard even when not seen. Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence.

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Salicaceae, this aspen is multi-functionally suited for pollution mitigation , microclimate regulation and to enhance the structural and biological diversity in open agricultural landscapes17. Its very broad spatial distribution overlaps with many areas in Europe affected by high erosion rates, including European boreal areas and moist slopes with high drainage-area within the European mountain systems18 . In many erosion-prone areas, Eurasian aspen contributes to provide important ecosystem services such as watershed protection and soil stabilisation19 . It is also exploited for phytoremediation with the hybrid aspens Populus tremula x alba and Populus alba x tremula20 . In the Nordic and Baltic countries the hybrid Populus tremula x tremuloides is planted for pulp fibre production. On the best sites it can produce almost twice as much wood as native aspen9 . Eurasian aspen is among the group of plants that significantly emit isoprene, which is one of the biogenic volatile organic compounds affecting a complex chain of feedbacks between the terrestrial biosphere and climate, with relevant although not yet completely understood implications under the ongoing climate warming21-23 .



Wooly male catkins with purplish anthers. (Copyright Sergey Urzhumskov, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases A large number of herbivores graze aspen leaves for foraging. Despite its fast growth, repeated browsing activity can limit the successful establishment, especially of young trees. In boreal, temperate, and mountain forests, aspen can be heavily defoliated by moose and deer (Cervidae), livestock, rabbits (Leporidae), or killed by bark stripping or fraying activities9, 14, 24 . In regions of intensive agricultural and silvicultural land-use aspen has been removed over centuries and restricted to marginal or abandoned sites. In such regions it is now considered to be a threatened species and the genetic variation is also reduced by the improving use of hybrids, which pose a potential threat to the genetic integrity of the native populations4 . Aspen is also affected by numerous fungi and diseases, most of them part of the forest ecosystem and not threating the host9 . Economic damage is caused principally on stands for wood production. The fungi Neofabraea populi and Entoleuca mammata, which have been imported into Europe and Scandinavia from North America, can potentially cause severe infections25, 26 . Like other poplars aspen can be attacked by several species of leaf rusts of genus Melampsora. This fungus causes decay spots on the leaves and kills the growing tips of new shoots. Heavy infestation can result in defoliation11, 27. The species Melampsora pinitorqua, which causes serious diseases on young



Bark detail showing diamond pattern. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)






Scots pine stands, has the aspen trees as an intermediate host, so that aspen has been eliminated from most managed forests containing pine in Finland. The main agent responsible for the death of old and large tree is the stem white rot fungus Phellinus tremulae. On plantations this disease can reduce considerably the economic value of the wood14, 16 . The Eurasian aspen is a susceptible host for the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), despite showing noticeable resistance and thus potentially acting as overwintering reservoir of the beetle28, 29 . The larvae of Trichiocampus viminalis may defoliate the Eurasian aspen29 . The lepidopteran Clostera anastomosis especially feeds of this tree29 . The leaf-feeding beetles of Chrysomela tremulae can damage young plantations of the hybrids Populus tremula x tremuloides and P. tremula x alba29 .



References [1] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [4] G. von Wühlisch, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) (Bioversity International, 2009). [5] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [6] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [7] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [8] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [9] N. A. MacKenzie, Ecology, conservation and management of Aspen A Literature Review (Scottish Native Woods, Aberfeldy, UK, 2010). [10] P. Quézel, Anales del Jardìn Botánico de Madrid 37, 352 (1980). [11] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [12] P. Quelch, The biodiversity and management of aspen woodlands, P. Cosgrove, A. Amphlett, eds., Proceedings of a one-day conference held in Kingussie, Scotland, on 25th May 2001 (The Cairngorms Local Biodiversity Action Plan 2002, Grantown-on-Spey, 2002). [13] J. Kouki, Aspen in Scotland: biodiversity and management, J. Parrott, N. MacKenzie, eds. (Highland Aspen Group, 2009), pp. 1–6. [14] T. Latva-Karjanmaa, R. Penttilä, J. Siitonen, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37, 1070 (2007). [15] Q. Yu, P. Tigerstedt, M. Haapanen, Silva Fennica 35 (2001). [16] J. Kouki, K. Arnold, P. Martikainen, Journal for Nature Conservation 12, 41 (2004). [17] R. Tognetti, C. Cocozza, M. Marchetti, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 6, 37 (2013).

[18] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [19] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [20] M. E. Dix, N. B. Klopfenstein, J. W. Zhang, S. W. Workman, M. S. Kim, Micropropagation, genetic engineering, and molecular biology of Populus, N. B. Klopfenstein, et al., eds. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1997), vol. RM-GTR-297 of Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Exp. Station: General Technical Reports (RM-GTR), pp. 206–211. [21] J. Laothawornkitkul, J. E. Taylor, N. D. Paul, C. N. Hewitt, New Phytologist 183, 27 (2009). [22] F. Pacifico, S. P. Harrison, C. D. Jones, S. Sitch, Atmospheric Environment 43, 6121 (2009). [23] J. Peñuelas, J. Llusià, Trends in Plant Science 8, 105 (2015). [24] A. Turbé, et al., Disturbances of EU forests caused by biotic agents - final report, Tech. Rep. KH-32-13-151-EN-N (2011). Final Report prepared for European Commission (DG ENV). [25] R. Kasanen, J. Hantula, T. Kurkela, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 17, 391 (2002). [26] M. E. Ostry, N. A. Anderson, Forest Ecology and Management 257, 390 (2009). [27] E. Emmett, V. Emmett, The biodiversity and management of aspen woodlands, P. Cosgrove, A. Amphlett, eds., Proceedings of a one-day conference held in Kingussie, Scotland, on 25th May 2001 (The Cairngorms Local Biodiversity Action Plan 2002, Grantown-on-Spey, 2002), pp. 12–15. [28] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [29] V. de Tillesse, L. Nef, J. Charles, A. Hopkin, S. Augustin, Damaging poplar Insects Internationally important species (International Poplar Commission, FAO, Rome, 2007). [30] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of aspen (Populus tremula) (2009). www.euforgen.org. [31] A. N. Afonin, S. L. Greene, N. I. Dzyubenko, A. N. Frolov, eds., Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries: Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds [Online] (2008). http://www.agroatlas.ru.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01f148. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Populus tremula in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01f148+



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Prunus avium Prunus avium in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats E. Welk, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Prunus avium (L.) L., known as wild cherry, is a medium sized, fast growing and rather short-lived deciduous tree. The wild populations, described here, belong to the typical subspecies avium, whereas the cultivated forms are distinguished as subsp. duracina and subsp. juliana. The early large white flowers are clustered on spur shoots and give rise to edible purplish small drupes with a bitter-sweet taste. The main stem trunk is usually very straight with a characteristic greyreddish-brown “cherry-bark” that is shiny with large horizontal lenticels and horizontally peeling pattern. Wild cherry occurs as a minor component in many types of temperate broadleaved and mixed forests. The wild form is a mainly European species and served as the origin of all cultivated forms. It is a very popular ornamental fruit tree, and the hard, reddish-brown timber is one of the most valuable in Europe. Wild cherry (Prunus avium (L.) L.) is a fast-growing but short-lived (100-150 years), medium sized deciduous tree, which grows to 15-32 m height and with a stem diameter of up to 90120 cm1 . The species mostly develops single, straight trunks with a thin, smooth purplish-grey bark that becomes grey-brown with horizontal fissuring and peeling when old. Young trees grow with a strong apical control developing a straight trunk and an erect-pyramidal “coniferous” crown shape, becoming broader and rounded on single old trees or conical in individuals in forest stands2, 3 . Young shoots are shiny, pale grey to purplish-brown, and have large, reddish brown and protruding ovoid-ellipsoid, glabrous winterbuds at the branch ends arranged in whorllike form. Stem wounds produce a resin-like, amber coloured odourless gum4, 5 . The leaves change colour from light green in spring over dark green in summer, and to yellow, orange-red, scarlet or pink in autumn. They are alternate, pendulous, simple and elliptic-ovate to obovate acute in shape. The leaf margins are mildly serrated with slightly rounded teeth. There are conspicuous pairs of dark-red glands at the 2-3.5 cm long petiole below the lamina. Leaf size is approximately 5-15x3-8 cm. They are usually dull, glabrous-rugose above and sometimes weakly downy at the 8-15 pairs of secondary vein ribs beneath1, 2, 5 . Wild cherry flowers are allogamous, actinomorphic, about 2-2.5 cm in diameter, white, hermaphroditic, insect pollinated, and are arranged in racemose clusters of 2-5 flowers on short spurs (brachyblasts) with multiple apical (inserted at tips) buds; of which the distal (uppermost) bud is vegetative and continues growth, while the others bear new inflorescences3 . Flowers are pollinated mainly by honeybees, wild bees and bumblebees and the trees are generally not self-fertile1, 2, 5 . Individual trees have a relatively short life span of 100-120 years at maximum, and can start fruiting when 10-15 years old 6. In Central Europe, flowering starts earliest in late March and occurs until May, while


Cutivated cherry tree in orchard. (Copyright Tara2, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Distribution Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Prunus avium. Frequency of Prunus avium occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. aviumis derived after EUFORGEN19 .

individual trees are in flower for about one week1, 2, 5 . Fruits are purplish black drupes, sub-globose to ovoid, 1-2 cm in diameter with a smooth, fleshy, and bitter-sweet edible endocarp1, 2, 5 . Ripe fruits occur from late spring until summer and are consumed and dispersed mostly by birds such as pigeons, starlings, thrushes and jays, but also by larger vertebrates like foxes, badgers or wild boar2, 6 .

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30%

Prunus avium occurs naturally throughout the temperate forest regions of Europe, Anatolia, and adjacent regions of the North African Maghreb, and western Asia1, 2, 5 . The distribution area extends northwards to the British Islands and to southern Scandinavia, where it is difficult to tell apart native from naturalised populations. The northern natural range limit is reached at about 55° north parallel1 . In the south the range extends to North Africa, South Spain, central Italy, and the Balkans. In these regions it is strictly confined to increasingly scattered high altitude populations in humid situations1, 2 . The easternmost parts of the natural range include the Caucasus and the Elburs mountains of North Iran, where the species is reported to occur up to elevations of 2 000 m. In the Alps it occurs up to 1 700 m and reaches 1 900 m in South-East France7. The general altitudinal distribution stretches from the planar to submontane altitudinal zone. In the highest, montane locations wild cherry often grows only as a shrub7. Limiting factors for wild cherry distribution are mainly related to rainfall in the summer period in the south and colder conditions in north and east Europe8 . Beside the circumscribed native distribution, this Prunus is widely planted and naturalises successfully in deciduous forest habitats and shrub land, especially in temperate regions of Northern Asia and North America1, 2 .

Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90%

Reddish-brown bark with large horizontal lenticels in stripes. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)


140

Wild cherry is a mesophytic, comparatively shallow-rooting, light demanding species, which can grow in quite different soil types. However, it favours deep fertile soils with a good water supply. The tree does not tolerate heavy clays, waterlogged or poorly drained sites and can be sensitive to drought1, 2, 5 . Main habitat type is semi-shade, open deciduous woodland or scrubland especially at edges, glades and clearings, where this tree essentially occurs as a rare and scattered pioneer species1, 2 . The pioneer colonisation strategy is realized as a first generation establishment via seedling recruitment, potentially followed by sometimes extensive vegetative growth via root suckering. With its ability for coppice



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Habitat and Ecology

Prunus avium

shooting and sucker formation as well as its rapid juvenile growth, wild cherry possesses competitive advantages in early succession stages. In natural forest stands the species is usually replaced by climax tree species during ongoing succession9, 10 . In its European main distribution range it is a frequent element of several mixed deciduous forests type alliances of the class Querco-Fagetea, such as ravine forests (Tilio-Acerion), oak-Hornbeam forests (Carpinion betuli), lowland beech forests (Fagion), and riverine floodplain forests (Alno-Ulmion)11 .


Flowers are arranged in clusters inserted at tips of buds. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Importance and Usage Wild cherry fruits have been a source of food for humans for several thousands of years1, 5 . Today it is cultivated as a fruit tree in temperate regions all over the world. Beside human fruit consumption in the cultivated subspecies, wild cherry is also one of the most important European hardwood trees, with a valuable solid and dense wood that is highly sought after for panelling and cabinet-making, and also suitable for producing parquet floors and musical instruments. Today, veneer production is the main use of wild cherry timber6 . Beside its usage as an ornamental landscape tree, this tree is also an important food source for many species of songbirds and insects2, 5 . The distribution range of wild cherry, and even its suitable potential range for silvoarable agroforestry12 , overlaps with many areas in Europe with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems13 . Its adventitious roots are suitable to be exploited for deep reinforcement and soil strength enhancement14 as well as for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion15 .


References [1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] T. Schmid, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2006). [3] D. Barthélémy, Y. Caraglio, S. Sabatier, Valuable Broadleaved Forests in Europe, H. Spiecker, S. Hein, K. Makkonen-Spiecker, M. Thies, eds. (Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, 2009), pp. 87-101 [4] A. Kurtto, Euro+Med Plantbase - the information resource for EuroMediterranean plant diversity (2009). http://www.emplantbase.org. [5] H. Scholz, I. Scholz, Gustav Hegi Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, Band 4, Teil 2B: Rosaceae, H. Scholz, ed. (Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin, 1995), pp. 446–510, second edn. [6] F. Ducci, B. De Cuyper, A. De Rogatis, J. Dufour, F. Santi, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 463–511. [7] P. Schwab, Kirschbaum - Projekt Förderung seltener Baumarten (Professur Waldbau ETHZ, 2001). [8] K. Russell, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for wild cherry (Prunus avium) (Bioversity International, 2003).

Threats and Diseases Prunus avium develops a rather shallow heart-shaped root system with far reaching lateral roots in top soil horizons, rendering it quite vulnerable to wind-throw. Additionally it is relatively sensitive to environmental stresses and in unfavourable conditions, so that it can easily be attacked by a variety of pests and diseases1, 2, 5 . Roots may be attacked by mice and voles, and leaves by caterpillars of e.g. winter moth (Operophtera brumata), while the larvae of European cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi) and the bird-cherry weevil (Anthonomus rectirostris) feed on the fruits2, 5 . As most species of the genus Prunus, wild cherry is vulnerable to the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)16, 17. Infectious diseases may be cherry leaf roll virus (CLRV), bacterial cankers like Pseudomonas syringae or fireblight (Erwinia amylovora)18 . Common foliar fungal pathogens are leaf scorch (Apiognomonia erythrostoma) and leaf spot (Blumeriella jaapi)1 . Young wild cherry trees are especially susceptible to browsing by ungulate herbivores2, 5 . Observed presences in Europe


White flowers are insect pollinated. (Copyright mornarsamotarsky, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)







[9] S. P. Vaughan, J. E. Cottrell, D. J. Moodley, T. Connolly, K. Russell, Forest Ecology and Management 242, 419 (2007). [10] A. M. Höltken, H.-R. Gregorius, BMC Ecology 6, 1 (2006). [11] W. Willner, Phytocoenologia 3, 337 (2002). [12] Y. Reisner, R. de Filippi, F. Herzog, J. Palma, Ecological Engineering 29, 401 (2007). [13] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [14] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [15] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837. [16] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [17] H. Kutinkova, R. Andreev, Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research 12, 41 (2004). [18] F. Nienhaus, J. D. Castello, Annual Review of Phytopathology 27, 165 (1989). [19] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of wild cherry (Prunus avium) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

Cherres are ripe from late spring until summer and are dispersed principally by birds. (Copyright Steven Gill, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01491d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Welk, E., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Prunus avium in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01491d+



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Prunus cerasifera Prunus cerasifera in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats I. Popescu, G. Caudullo Prunus cerasifera Ehrh., known as cherry plum, is a small shrubby tree with intricate and occasionally spiny branches, which produces plum-like edible fruits. This plant is native to Balkans extending its range to Black Sea and Asia Minor. It is a frugal species, easily adaptable to a large variety of sites. It grows in the forest edges, open woodlands and disturbed sites. It is principally cultivated as an ornamental plant with several different varieties in foliage and bud colour, and secondly for fruit production. This species is resistant to several plum diseases and some varieties are used as rootstock in grafting other fruit species and cultivars of genus Prunus. For the same reason it can become a potential reservoir of diseases, such as Sharka or plum pox virus, affecting the production of stone fruits of more economic importance (apricots, plums, peaches). The cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera) is a deciduous shrub or small tree reaching 8-10 m tall. It has an erect and bushy habit, with numerous intricate, fine, and occasionally spiny branches. Young twigs are hairless and glossy. The bark is purple brown, with thin scales, with horizontal orange lenticels, fissured with age. The leaves are alternate, elliptical, ovate or obovate, 3-7 × 2-3.5 cm, with crenate saw-toothed margins, hairless and glossy above, hairy on the veins beneath. The flowers are hermaphrodite and appear in March-May slightly before the leaves, usually solitary, 2-2.5 cm wide, on about 1.5 cm long pedicels. The sepals are 2.55 mm long with finely glandular saw-toothed margins. The petals are white, occasionally slightly reddish. The fruits are 2-3 cm wide, plum-like drupes, globose, ripening to red or yellow with a smooth endocarp1-4 .

Distribution This plum tree is native to south-eastern Europe (Balkan Peninsula, Crimea), western and middle Asia (Caucasus, Iran, Iraq). It has been widely cultivated for its fruits in Asia Minor and the Caucasus for millennia, spreading in the Mediterranean area and Balkans since 200 BC and later in the rest of Europe. More recently, it is present on all continents, naturalised widely outside its native range throughout temperate areas1-7. In Australia and in New Zealand it is considered a weed species8-10 . Due to its high variability and easy hybridisation with other Prunus species, different geographical subspecies have been described and its taxonomic subdivision is rather confusing and still under revision7, 11 .

Habitat and Ecology This species has a broad area inside the temperate zone. Natural populations are characterised by high variability in respect of vigour, temperature tolerance, ripening time and disease resistance, which makes it easily adaptable to a variety of sites12 . The cherry plum is very hardy, with modest demands, except for light. It can be found in open areas, such as forest margins, open woodlands, riversides and disturbed sites1-3, 6 . This tough plant is also frost and drought tolerant, and wind resistant. It thrives on a wide range of soil types, including those that are gravelly and sandy or poor in nutrients, but not compacted soils7, 13 .

Reddish fleshy cherries can be used for a variety of culinary purposes. (Copyright Phil Sellens, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage It is considered, probably together with the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), to be one of the ancestral lineages leading to the cultivated European plum (Prunus domestica)5, 14 . Unripe fruits are used in sour soups, ripe fruits are eaten fresh or used to make non-alcoholic or fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages3 . Anthocyanin composition, phenolic content and antioxidant activities of wild red and purple varieties of the cherry plum were tested and show potential for being developed into a source of healthy fruit drinks due to their high antioxidant activity. The fruit peel could be used as a resource to extract natural pigments15 . This species is of great genetic importance for horticultural breeding7. Genetic studies identified cherry plum genotypes that are highly resistant to all root-knot nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne16 . Furthermore, these genotypes are resistant to the expression of root crown gall consecutive infection

White flowers blossoming in spring. (Copyright Jevgēnijs Šlihto, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

by Agrobacterium tumefaciens . For this reason, some varieties are used as rootstock in grafting other fruit species and cultivars of genus Prunus, such as plums, apricots and peaches3, 5, 6 . It is commonly cultivated as an ornamental tree for its colourful leaves and numerous and delicate flowers. There are several hybrids or varieties mainly with purple foliage: e.g. 'Pissardii’ with pink flower buds, white flowers and purple leaves, 'Nigra’ smaller plants with pink flowers and deep red-purple leaves18 . 17

Threats and Diseases Together with other Prunus species, Cherry plum is an overwintering host species for the damson hop aphid Phoradon humuli, an important pest of hops Humulus lupulus19 . This plum tree is also a natural host of plum pox virus, the causal agent of Sharka disease, a serious economic threat for the production of temperate stone fruits, such as apricots, plums and peaches. Planted as an ornamental tree, it becomes a potential reservoir of this virus20, 21 .

References [1] D. A. Webb, Flora Europea. Volume 2. Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 77–80. [2] O. Polunin, Flowers of Europe: A Field Guide (Oxford University Press, 1969). [3] T. Săvulescu, ed., Flora Republicii Populare RomiÌ‚ne, vol 4 (Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1956). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] A. Horvath, H. Christmann, F. Laigret, Botany 86, 1311 (2008). [6] B. G. Sutherland, R. Cerovič, T. P. Robbins, K. R. Tobutt, Euphytica 166, 385 (2009). [7] P. Hanelt, ed., Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Springer, 2001). [8] C. J. Webb, W. R. Sykes, P. J. GarnockJones, Flora of New Zealand Vol. 4. Naturalised Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons (D.S.I.R., Christchurch, 1988). [9] J. M. B. Smith, Telopea 3, 145 (1988). [10] D. R. Given, New Zealand Journal of Botany 20, 221 (1982).

Cherry plum in the countryside near Rhine river (Hockenheim, Germany). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

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[11] A. Horvath, H. Christmann, F. Laigret, Botany 86, 1311 (2008). [12] D. Nikolic, V. Rakonjac, Genetika 39, 333 (2007). [13] P. Duchovskis, V. Stanys, A. Sasnauskas, C. Bobinas, Acta Horticulturae 734, 299 (2007). [14] B.-E. van Wyk, Food Plants of the World: An Illustrated Guide (Timber Press, 2005). [15] Y. Wang, X. Chen, Y. Zhang, X. Chen, Journal of Food Science 77, C388 (2012). [16] A. C. Lecouls, et al., Theoretical and Applied Genetics 99, 328 (1999). [17] M.-J. Rubio-Cabetas, J.-C. Minot, R. Voisin, D. Esmenjaud, European Journal of Plant Pathology 107, 433 (2001). [18] G. Szekely, D. Vişoiu, Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology 15, 169 (2011). [19] S. P. Worner, G. M. Tatchell, I. P. Woiwod, Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 17 (1995). [20] Elibuyuk, Phytoparasitica 34, 347 (2006). [21] J. Sochor, P. Babula, V. Adam, B. Krska, R. Kizek, Viruses 4, 2853 (2012).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01dfbb. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Popescu, I., Caudullo, G., 2016. Prunus cerasifera in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01dfbb+



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Prunus mahaleb Prunus mahaleb in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats I. Popescu, G. Caudullo Prunus mahaleb L., commonly known as mahaleb cherry, is a shrub or small tree with white flowers, producing dark red edible plums. It is native to Central-South Europe and North Africa, extending its range up to Central Asia. It is a pioneer thermophilous plant, growing in open woodlands, forest margins and riverbanks. Mahaleb cherry has been used for centuries for its fruits and its almond-tasting seeds inside the stone, especially in East Europe and the Middle East. More recently this plant has been used in horticulture as a frost-resistant rootstock for cherry plants. The mahaleb cherry, or St. Lucie’s cherry, (Prunus mahaleb L.) is a deciduous shrub or small tree, reaching 10 m tall. The bark is dark brown, smooth and glossy1-4 . The young twigs are glandular with yellowish-grey hairs, becoming later brownish and hairless1, 3 . The leaves are alternate, 4-7 cm long, broadly ovate, pointed, base rounded to almost cordate, margins finely sawtoothed, with marginal glands, glossy above and slightly hairy along the midrib beneath. The leaf petioles are 1-2 cm long, and have 1-2 nectaries. The small stipules fall off early5 . The flowers are 1-1.5 cm wide, fragrant, white, on about 1 cm long pedicels, arranged in upright corymb-like raceme inflorescences of 3-12 flowers, at the tips of short, lateral, leafy shoots1, 3 . The mahaleb cherry is a gynodioecious tree with individuals with functional hermaphrodite flowers and others with functional female flowers (androsterile). Pollination is driven by bees and flies6, 7. The fruits are round ovate drupes, about 0.8 cm wide, dark red, more or less bitter but pleasantly tasty. The woody stone containing the seed is smooth. This species flowers in March-June and the fruits ripen in June-September3, 6, 8-10 .

Distribution The natural range of the mahaleb cherry covers Central and Southern Europe, extending to Spain, and through Gibraltar to the tip of Northwest Africa, from the Balkans eastwards to Ukraine, Western and Central Asia1, 2, 11 . It can be found from the lowlands to above 1 000 m elevations in the South Carpathians, Caucasus, and Tien Shan Mountains (Central Asia)5 . It has been introduced and is considered potentially invasive in South America12 , introduced, naturalised, and invasive in North America12-14 , as well as Australia15 , and New Zealand16, 17.

Habitat and Ecology The mahaleb cherry is a thermophile and pioneer species, growing on warm, sunlit and dry slopes at middle elevations. It tolerates Mediterranean and temperate dry climates with an annual precipitation of 500-600 mm. It is not sensitive to frost. It grows better on calcareous soils with pH 5.5, in stony and rocky sites1, 3, 5, 18 . It is slightly shade tolerant only at young stages; when mature it is a high light-demanding species5 . The fruit production is controlled and proximal flowers (first to open) have advantages in maternal resource capture; the first fruits to develop have an advantage over the later developing fruits9, 10 . This species thrives in open woods, at the margins of temperate oak forests, and also in bluffs and riverbanks. In the

Flowering shrub in spring in a hedgerow near San Lorenzo (Trieste, North-West Italy). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

forest edge it creates a scrub vegetation community together with other shrubby species of the genera Rosa, Rubus, Prunus and Cornus, and other thermophile shrubs such as spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), wild privet (Ligustrum vulgare), etc.5, 19, 20 .


Ovate simple leaves with pointed tips and finely toothed margins. (Copyright Andrey Zharkikh, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases The mahaleb cherry is susceptible to fungi such as bracket fungus (Laetiporus sulphureus) and witches’ broom (Taphrina cerasi) on its trunk and branches. The rust fungus Tranzschelia discolor a relatively common parasite on its leaves, or Taphrina minor which causes shrinkage and reddish-brown discoloration of affected leaves, and Phloeosporella padi causing leaf spots on infected leaves5.

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Prunus mahaleb. Frequency of Prunus mahaleb occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. mahaleb is derived after several sources29-33 .

Importance and Usage Known for its strong roots, it is used in horticulture as a frost resistant rootstock for sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and sour cherry (Prunus cerasus)11, 12, 21-23 . The wood is hard, heavy, with a pleasant odour, used for carving small objects; e.g. tobacco pipes, canes, cigarette holders3, 5, 11 . Its fruits are small, slightly bitter and edible23 , from which a purple dye is obtained11 . The seeds are used more. An aromatic spice is produced, having a taste similar to almond seeds. This spice was used for centuries in the Middle East and North Africa to flavour bread, cakes, cheese, cookies, etc.5 . New studies show potential in using Prunus mahaleb seeds as a new edible oil source24, 25 , since its seed oil contains a high level of poly-unsaturated fatty acids, especially the α-eleostearic acid, a conjugated fatty acid rarely found in vegetable oils, with beneficial effects on human health24 . The bark, wood, and seeds contain coumarin, making these plant parts important for their potentially anti-inflammatory, sedative and vasodilation pharmaceutical properties11, 26 . As a pioneer species and due to its extensive root system the mahaleb cherry can prevent erosion and is suitable for wasteland reclamation and afforestation. It can also be used for hedging, as it tolerates cutting well5 . This species has an important ecological role: birds and mammals (foxes, badgers, etc.) are frequent consumers of its fruits, promoting seed dispersion even over long distances6, 8, 12, 18, 22, 27, 28 .

Bark is smooth grey-brown with horizontal strips that pull away. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Hermaphrodite flowers arranged in corymbs with 5 white petals and 20 stamens. (Copyright Roberto Verzo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] D. A. Webb, Flora Europea. Volume 2. Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 77–80. [2] O. Polunin, Flowers of Europe: A Field Guide (Oxford University Press, 1969). [3] T. Săvulescu, ed., Flora Republicii Populare Române, vol 4 (Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1956). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] D. Bartha, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schutt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1996), vol. 3. [6] C. Garcia, P. Jordano, J. A. Godoy, Molecular Ecology 16, 1947 (2007). [7] C. Garcia, J. M. Arroy, J. A. Godoy, P. Jordano, Molecular Ecology 14, 1821 (2005). [8] P. Jordano, Ecology 76, 2627 (1995). [9] J. Guitian, American Journal of Botany 81, 1555 (1994). [10] J. Guitian, American Journal of Botany 80, 1305 (1993). [11] V. L. Komarov, et al., Flora of the USSR - Volume X: Rosaceae - Rosoideae, Prunoideae, vol. 10 of Flora of the USSR (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [12] M. Amodeo, S. Zalba, Plant Ecology 214, 1299 (2013). [13] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, USA, http://plants.usda.gov. [14] R. Spellenberg, C. J. Earle, G. Nelson, Trees of Western North America (Princeton University Press, 2014). [15] D. Bass, N. Crossman, S. Lawrie, M. Lethbridge, Euphytica 148, 97 (2006). [16] C. J. Webb, W. R. Sykes, P. J. GarnockJones, Flora of New Zealand Vol. 4. Naturalised Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons (D.S.I.R., Christchurch, 1988). [17] D. R. Given, New Zealand Journal of Botany 20, 221 (1982).

[18] C. M. Herrera, P. Jordano, Ecological Monographs 51, 203 (1981). [19] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [20] M. Chytrý, ed., Vegetace České republiky 4: Lesnì a křovinná vegetace - Vegetation of the Czech Republic 4: Forest and scrub vegetation (Academia, Praha, 2013). [21] M. Abedian, M. Talebi, B.-E. SayedTabatabei, C. Ghobadi, Journal of Agricultural Science 4, 191 (2012). [22] P. Jordano, J. A. Godoy, Molecular Ecology 9, 1293 (2000). [23] P. Hanelt, ed., Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Springer, 2001). [24] H. M. Sbihi, I. A. Nehdi, S. I. Al-Resayes, Journal of Food Science 79, C795 (2014). [25] S. Özgül Yücel, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 82, 893 (2005). [26] M. El-Dakhakhny, Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 59, 551 (1970). [27] P. Jordano, E. W. Schupp, Ecological Monographs 70, 591 (2000). [28] M. Fuentes, et al., Plant Ecology 157, 69 (2001). [29] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [30] P. H. Davis, Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 4 (Edinburgh University Press, 1972). [31] Bundesamtes für Naturschutz, ed., FloraWeb (2015). http://www.floraweb.de. [32] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [33] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e016531. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Popescu, I., Caudullo, G., 2016. Prunus mahaleb in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e016531+



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Prunus padus Prunus padus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo Prunus padus L., commonly known as bird cherry or hackberry, is the most widely distributed of the Prunus species and can be found across northern Europe and Asia. It is a small deciduous tree or shrub with decorative white flowers and bitter edible berries that are sometimes used to flavour alcoholic drinks. As its name suggests, the berries are an important food for some bird species. Prunus padus L., or bird cherry, is a deciduous tree or large shrub native to Europe and Asia. It is small (normally up to 14 m in height) and conic in shape, becoming rounded with age. It is short-lived, rarely reaching more than 60 years of age1 . The bark is smooth and a dull grey-brown with an acrid odour, and the leaves are obovate with fine serrations2, 3 . The white flowers appear in late spring and are carried on long stalks at the ends of shoots. A number of cultivars with different coloured flowers have been bred4 . The blossoms are strongly scented and are visited by a number of pollinating insects, particularly bees and flies5 . The fruits are around 8 mm in size, shiny black when ripe and bitter to taste. Most other parts of the plant, particularly the bark and seeds, are toxic1, 6 .


Distribution The bird cherry is the most widely distributed species of the genus Prunus and can be found throughout northern Europe, central Asia and as far east as Siberia, Northern China and Japan1 . Its northern limit coincides broadly with the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and in the south it has been recorded in Morocco5 .

Habitat and Ecology The bird cherry is a hardy species (the most northerly distributed of its genus) and in the southern part of its range it tends to be found in the mountains. In the Alps it grows at a higher altitude than any other deciduous tree and can be found at 2 000 m. However, it can also survive hot summers5. It tolerates a wide variety of soil types4 . It often regenerates from branches bent to the ground, and also by means of basal shoots, resulting in dense thickets that may form as far as 20 m from the mother tree1, 7. These properties mean that it can become invasive in some regions8 . Seed dispersal is also aided by birds who feed on the fruits.

Importance and Usage The timber of the bird cherry has little economic importance, although it is sometimes used by cabinet-makers4 . Given its rapid growth and tendency to form thickets, it makes an effective wind-break and sound-break7. The fruit is too bitter for human taste but can be used to make jams or to flavour alcoholic drinks such as brandy and wine. The fruits also form an important food for some bird species. This species has been widely used as a traditional medicine and methanolic extracts of the stem have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties9 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Prunus padus. Frequency of Prunus padus occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. padus is derived after several sources16-22 .

The white flowers arranged in pendulous racemes are insect pollinated. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

The distribution range of the bird cherry includes several areas with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems10 . Its adventitious roots are very suitable to be exploited for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion11 . It is also useful for deep reinforcement and soil strength enhancement12 .

Threats and Diseases Bird cherry does not suffer as much from insect pests as some other species13 . It is the primary host of the bird cherryoat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) and the bird cherry ermine moth (Yponomeuta evonymella), both of which can cause widespread damage to the tree5 . In common with most species of the genus Prunus, bird cherry is vulnerable to the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)14, 15 . Shiny black fruits: these fleshy drupes have a bitter taste. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

References [1] P. Schütt, U. M. Lang, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1998), vol. 3. [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [4] W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles Volume 3: N-Rh (John Murray, 1987), 8th edn. [5] S. R. Leather, Journal of Ecology 84, 125 (1996). [6] N. D. Sargison, D. S. Williamson, J. R. Duncan, R. W. McCance, Veterinary record 138 (1996). [7] M. Uusitalo, European bird cherry (Prunus padus Linneaus) - a biodiverse wild plant for horticulture (MTT Agrifood Research Finland, 2004). [8] D. A. Roon, M. S. Wipfli, T. L. Wurtz, Hydrobiologia 736, 17 (2014). [9] J. H. Choi, D. S. Cha, H. Jeon, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 144, 379 (2012). [10] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [11] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837. [12] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210.

Bird cherry in the countryside near Rhine river (Hockenheim, Germany). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

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[13] S. R. Leather, Ecological Entomology 10, 43 (1985). [14] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [15] A. M. Liebhold, et al., Suitability of north american tree species to gypsy moth: a summary of field and laboratory tests, Tech. Rep. NE-211, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station (1995). [16] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [17] O. de Bolòs, J. Vigo, Flora dels països catalans, vol I-IV (Barcino, Barcelona, 1984-2001). [18] S. M. Hennekens, Dutch Vegetation Database (LVD) (Alterra, Wageningen, NL, 2014). [19] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk. [20] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [21] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org [22] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e011e89. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Prunus padus in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e011e89+



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Prunus spinosa Prunus spinosa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats I. Popescu, G. Caudullo The blackthorn (Prunus spinosa L.) is a spiny, deciduous shrub which produces small, purple, edible plums. This species occurs mostly from south-central Europe up to southern Scandinavia, and eastwards to Asia Minor, growing in forest margins and open woodlands as part of Mediterranean thermophilous plant communities. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant and for fruit production, used to make jams, wine, vinegar and distillates. The blackthorn has no important threats, but it can be a natural host and potential reservoir of diseases affecting production of economically important fruits, such as apricots, plums, peaches and apples. The blackthorn, or sloe, (Prunus spinosa L.) is a spiny, deciduous shrub, growing 1-5 m tall. It forms a dense canopy with intricate branches and numerous suckers1-4 . Secondary twigs often transformed into a spine, initially velvety soft, reddishbrown. The buds are globular oval, reddish-brown, more or less hairy. The bark is dark grey to blackish, slightly grooved. The leaves are alternate, 2-5 × 1-2 cm long, obovate to oblanceolate, or elliptical, with margins finely toothed, dull green in colour and hairless above, usually hairy on the veins underneath1, 3 . The petioles are 0.2-1 cm long, often hairy. The stipules are elongate, glandular, toothed, and usually longer than petioles3 . The flowers are white, 1-1.7 cm wide, usually solitary, appearing before leaves, numerous, on about 0.5 cm long pedicels1-3 . The sepals are triangular-ovate, often glandular toothed. Petals have a short claw (a thinner part at the base of the petal). The stamens are usually 20, about 0.5 cm long. The anthers are yellow or red3 . The fruit is 1-1.5 cm drupe, globose, purple covered with a frostlike bloom, ripening bluish-black, pulp greenish, sour and astringent, not easily detaching from the endocarp. This species flowers in March-May. The fruits ripen in late summer and autumn, and are sometimes persistent on the plant through winter1-3, 5 .

Distribution This species occurs in most of South-Central Europe, except the lower half of the Iberian Peninsula, extending northwards to the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Eastwards it reaches Asia Minor, Caucasus and the Caspian Sea. There are also isolated populations in Tunisia and Algeria1, 6 . It has been introduced and locally naturalised in North America7 and New Zealand8 . It grows from lowlands to 1 600 m on Southern Alps (Switzerland)6, 9 .


Purple globose drupes covered with a frostlike bloom. (Copyright Phil Sellens, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Prunus spinosa. Frequency of Prunus spinosa occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for P. spinosa is derived after several sources6, 27-31 .

Habitat and Ecology The blackthorn occurs in forest margins and openings, on sunny, rocky slopes, ravines, river valleys, in meadows and pastures from low elevations to the mountains1, 2, 10 . It is one of the main species of scrub, a belt of shrubs adjacent to the forest, in the ecotone between woodland and grassland communities11, 12 . These Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean thermophilous communities (class Rhamno-Prunetea) are dominated by thorny and spiny, scrambling shrubs, developing in mesic to dry soils at the edges of oak and beech forests or on river banks with willows and poplars. Rarely are scrubs natural and permanent, more commonly they are secondary vegetation developing on disturbed sites or stages of secondary succession in abandoned meadows or pastures at the borders of the agricultural landscape. The blackthorn is commonly found with other shrub species of the genera Rosa, Rubus, Prunus and Cornus, as well as with spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), wild privet (Ligustrum vulgare), etc.10, 13-16 .

Importance and Usage As with most Prunus species, the blackthorn has a high level of hybridisation and crossed with European plum (Prunus domestica) it forms the hybrid Prunus x fruticans. This species is considered one of the progenitors of the cultigen European plum together with cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera)17. Fully ripe fruits even though astringent are edible, and mainly used to make jams, jellies, preserves, wine, vinegar, and distilled alcoholic beverages, or as ingredients of various pastries. Flowers and petals in particular are used medicinally as tea, syrup, fresh juice or tincture to fight diarrhoea, anaemia, and other ailments3, 5 . Due to their vitamin C and the phenolic acids content, the fruits can be a valuable source of natural antioxidants18 . The blackthorn is used as an ornamental tree, often as hedges3, 9, 10, 13 . It is also an important plant for wildlife, its early spring flowers provide nectar for early pollinators, its branches create a spiny thicket, providing secure nesting for birds and protection and food for small mammals13, 19, 20 . In temperate oak forests, its dense and thorny canopy is difficult to penetrate by large herbivores. Together with other scrub species, thorny shrubs can protect young palatable seedlings, such as oak seedlings, against browsing along the forest edges and clearings21, 22 .


Spiny branches with fruits in autumn. (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

Despite being a member of the Prunus genus, the blackthorn has no important threats. It can be a natural host and potential reservoir of diseases affecting production of economically important fruits, such as apricots, plums, peaches and apples, and tests have revealed that the presence of wild blackthorns nearby could be the cause of increased presence of fruit viruses (e.g. Sharka, dwarf virus, necrotic ring spot virus, chlorotic leaf spot virus) and fungi (e.g. Taphrina pruni)23-26 .

Hermaphrodite flowers appear in spring and have 5 white petals with 20 stamens. (Copyright Maja Dumat, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] D. A. Webb, Flora Europea. Volume 2. Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 77–80. [2] O. Polunin, Flowers of Europe: A Field Guide (Oxford University Press, 1969). [3] T. Săvulescu, ed., Flora Republicii Populare RomiÌ‚ne, vol 4 (Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, 1956). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] B.-E. van Wyk, Food Plants of the World: An Illustrated Guide (Timber Press, 2005). [6] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [7] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, USA, http://plants.usda.gov. [8] P. B. Heenan, et al., New Zealand Journal of Botany 37, 629 (1999). [9] V. L. Komarov, et al., Flora of the USSR - Volume X: Rosaceae - Rosoideae, Prunoideae, vol. 10 of Flora of the USSR (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [10] H. Ružičková, L. Halada, L. Jedlička, E. Kalivodová, Biotopy Slovenksa (Ústav krajinnej ekológie SAV, Bratislava, 1996). [11] J. G. Kelcey, N. Müller, eds., Plants and Habitats of European Cities (SpringerVerlag, New York, 2011). [12] S. R. Mortimer, et al., The nature conservation value of scrub in Britain, Tech. rep., Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2000). N. 308. [13] I. Žgančìková, T. Vereš, T. Baranec, Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences 44, 233 (2012). [14] J. C. Costa, et al., Global Geobotany 2, 1 (2012). [15] M. Chytrý, ed., Vegetace České republiky 4: Lesnì a křovinná vegetace - Vegetation of the Czech Republic 4: Forest and scrub vegetation (Academia, Praha, 2013).

[16] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [17] M. B. Crane, W. J. Lawrence, The Genetics of Garden Plants (MacMillan & Company, London, 1952), fourth edn. [18] B. Marìa Ruiz-Rodrìguez, et al., Fruits 69, 61 (2014). [19] P. Freschi, et al., European Journal of Wildlife Research 60, 423 (2014). [20] P. Freschi, et al., Mammalia 79, 51 (2015). [21] F. W. M. Vera, Grazing Ecology and Forest History (CABI, 2000). [22] E. S. Bakker, et al., Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 571 (2004). [23] P. Salamon, L. Palkovics, European Journal of Plant Pathology 108, 903 (2002). [24] M. G. Rodrigues, A. Fonseca, International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 53, 607 (2003). [25] H. İlbağı, A. Çıtır, H. Bostan, Acta Horticulturae 781, 33 (2008). [26] M. Rankovic, I. Dulic-Markovic, Acta Horticulturae 309, 151 (1992). [27] A. A. Dönmez, c. Yildirimli, Turkish Journal of Botany 24, 187 (2000). [28] A. N. Afonin, S. L. Greene, N. I. Dzyubenko, A. N. Frolov, eds., Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries: Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds [Online] (2008). http://www.agroatlas.ru. [29] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [30] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [31] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e018f4e. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Popescu, I., Caudullo, G., 2016. Prunus spinosa in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e018f4e+



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Pseudotsuga menziesii Pseudotsuga menziesii in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats F. Da Ronch, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) is a large conifer from North America that was brought to Europe by David Douglas in the nineteenth century. Although it was initially planted as an ornamental tree it became a major economic species because of its fast growth rate and good quality timber, and is now the most abundant non-native tree species cultivated in Central European forests. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) is a large evergreen coniferous tree up to 60-80 m tall and with a trunk of up to 2 m in diameter1 . Currently the second-tallest in the world after the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and in its natural and optimal habitat in North western America can grow exceptionally over 100 m in height and with a trunk up to 4 m in diameter, living more than 1 300 years1-3 . The bark is coloured from reddish brown to greyish brown or even blackish, thick, breaking up with age into scaly, broad, interlacing ridges separated by deep furrows4 . The trunk is cylindrical, with short, flat-topped crown, giving it a columnar shape1 . The leaves are needle-like, 2-3.5 cm long, dark-bluish green above and with two white-green stomatal bands below, spirally arranged around the twigs, twisted to face the upper side5 . Douglas fir is a monoecious unisexual species, commonly starting to produce cones at 12 to 15 years of age6 . Pollen cones are 10-20 mm long, yellowish brown, and seeds cones are 4-9 cm long, green and erect before maturity, yellowish brown to purplish brown and pendent when ripening. The seed scales are flexible with a bract longer than scales, pointed forward or sticking out. The seeds are 5-7 mm with a 10-12 mm wing4 .

Distribution Douglas fir is a native from North America with two subspecies: the coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) occurs from British Columbia southward along the Pacific Coast to central California; and the Rocky Mountain Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) occurs from central British Columbia along the Rocky Mountains into the mountains of central Mexico4, 6 . The first seeds were introduced in Europe by David Douglas in 1827 and then planted at Dropmore Park (Buckinghamshire, UK), where there is a tree which is usually considered the oldest Douglas fir of Europe7. Initially planted as ornamental, Douglas fir started to be used as a forest species by the end of the nineteenth century. This fir became a major reforestation species in Western Europe after the Second World War, mainly with the support of national or regional forest grants.

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Pseudotsuga menziesii. Frequency of Pseudotsuga menziesii occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.

In Europe, 80 % of the total Douglas fir area is to be found in three countries: France (half of the European area), Germany and United Kingdom. Outside Europe, Douglas fir has also been introduced in several countries of the southern hemisphere (South Africa, South America, New Zealand and Australia)8 .

Habitat and Ecology Douglas fir in its native habitat occurs from 0 to 3 200 m, altitudinal distribution increases from north to south, reflecting the effect of climate on distribution of the species. It grows under a wide variety of climatic conditions. The coastal region of the Pacific Northwest has a maritime climate characterised by wet winters and cool, relatively dry summers, while in the central Rocky Mountains, the climate is continental, with long and severe winters and hot and dry summers6 . This fir competes well on

Straight columnar trunk of a Douglas fir reaching over 63 m in height in Freiburg: the tallest tree in Germany. (Copyright Manfred Gut, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

most parent materials, aspects and slopes9 . It also thrives on a wide variety of soil textures, but best on well-aerated, deep soils with a pH between 5 and 66 . In its natural range Douglas fir grows in pure or mixed-species stands. It is a fast-growing, pioneering tree species following fire, but also shade-tolerant in secondary successions, so that it may be present in early, mid and late forest stages as a major or minor component1 . In Europe, Douglas fir is one of the fastest growing trees, thriving on a wide range of soils, best when deep, moist, well-drained, at mid-elevations and with an annual rainfall over 800 mm8 . It shows a noticeable soil-acidifying ability10 .


Cone with trifurcate seed bract longer than the scale. (Copyright benet2006, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Dougal fir is the most abundant non-native tree species cultivated in Central European forests11 . High growth rates, high reproduction capacity, great adaptation, good wood properties and a low number of pests and diseases are factors that have contributed to its success and spread in Europe, performing much better than Norway spruce (Picea abies) on similar sites12 . The wood is moderately heavy, hard and exceptionally strong, with a marked contrast between sapwood (yellowish-white) and heartwood (reddish-brown)1 . Heartwood is generally not sensitive to insect damage. Douglas fir wood is suitable for many uses. Its excellent mechanical properties make it very suitable for wooden structures. It is increasingly used outside for wood covering (heartwood only) and in joinery. It is also used for veneer, fibres or particle panels and by the pulpwood industry8 . Recently there has been growing economic interest in Douglas fir, which is less vulnerable to drought than Norway spruce, becoming a valid alternative on plantations at lower altitudes or in response to climate change13-15 . Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence.

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Spring shoot with new growth of needles. (Copyright Tom Brandt, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases Douglas fir hosts hundreds of fungi, but relatively few of these cause serious problems. This fir is less susceptible to the attacks of annosum root rot (Heterobasidium annosum) than many other conifers. The woolly aphid Adelges cooleyi causes yellowing and deformity of the needles and can severely check growth when the trees are young16 . The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is among the most serious pests affecting young coniferous forests in Europe17. Douglas fir coexists with the natural niche of the large pine weevil, to which it is highly susceptible17-19 . From an ecological point of view, cultivation of Douglas fir in Europe is likely to have significant impacts on forest ecosystems, particularly in case of high density plantations over large areas. However, ecological impacts are generally not as severe as those of other exotic tree species: e.g. ailanthus (Ailanthus altissima), wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)12, 20-22 . Further introduction of exotic organisms associated with Douglas fir in its native range may be more

Pendent mature cones ripening. (Copyright Andrey Zharkikh, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

problematic than the introduction of Douglas fir itself, in case of host jump affecting other native tree species12 . Douglas fir is reported as an invasive species in New Zealand, in Argentina and Chile in areas close to plantations. In Europe it also has the potential to become invasive in Germany, Austria, Bulgaria and Great Britain, given the right circumstances23 . For this reason silver fir (Abies alba) has been suggested as a sustainable European alternative to Douglas fir to substitute drought sensitive Norway spruce under global warming conditions24 .

References [1] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [2] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees (2015). [3] R. Stoltmann, Guide to the Record Trees of British Columbia (Western Canada Wilderness Committee, 1993). [4] A. Farjon, A handbook of the world’s conifers (Brill, 2010). [5] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [6] R. K. Hermann, D. P. Lavender, DouglasFir, Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 527–540. [7] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 4 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1909). [8] J.-C. Bastien, L. Sanchez, D. Michaud, Forest Tree Breeding in Europe, L. E. Pâques, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2013), vol. 25 of Managing Forest Ecosystems, pp. 325–369. [9] R. J. Uchytil, Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii. Fire Effects Information System (1991). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [10] L. Augusto, J. Ranger, D. Binkley, A. Rothe, Annals of Forest Science 59, 233 (2002). [11] F. Essl, Phyton - Annales Rei Botanicae 45, 117 (2005).

[12] M. Schmid, M. Pautasso, O. Holdenrieder, European Journal of Forest Research 133, 13 (2014). [13] M. Hanewinkel, D. A. Cullmann, M.J. Schelhaas, G.-J. Nabuurs, N. E. Zimmermann, Nature Climate Change 3, 203 (2012). [14] S. Hein, A. Weiskittel, U. Kohnle, European Journal of Forest Research 127, 481 (2008). [15] N. Nadezhdina, J. Urban, J. Čermák, V. Nadezhdin, P. Kantor, Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 62, 1 (2014). [16] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [17] J. I. Barredo, et al., EPPO Bulletin 45, 273 (2015). [18] CABI, Hylobius abietis (large pine weevil) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [19] K. Wallertz, H. Nordenhem, G. Nordlander, Silva Fennica 48, 1188+ (2014). [20] G. F. Peterken, Forest Ecology and Management 141, 31 (2001). [21] A. Carrillo-Gavilán, J. Espelta, M. Vilà, Biological Invasions 14, 1279 (2012). [22] A. Felton, J. Boberg, C. Björkman, O. Widenfalk, Forest Ecology and Management 307, 165 (2013). [23] D. M. Richardson, M. Rejmánek, Diversity and Distributions 17, 788 (2011). [24] W. Tinner, et al., Ecological Monographs 83, 419 (2013).

Coastal Dougal fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) forest in Mount Tamalpais State Park (Marin County, California). (Copyright Miguel Vieira, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)









Greyish-brown bark in a young tree. (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01a4f5. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Da Ronch, F., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Pseudotsuga menziesii in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01a4f5+



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Quercus cerris Quercus cerris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. de Rigo, C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) is a deciduous tree native to southern Europe and Asia Minor, and a dominant species in the mixed forests of the Mediterranean basin. Turkey oak is a representative of section Cerris, a particular section within the genus Quercus which includes species for which the maturation of acorns occurs in the second year. Quercus cerris L., commonly known as Turkey oak, is a large fast-growing deciduous tree species growing to 40 m tall with a trunk up to 1.5-2 m diameter1 , with a well-developed root system2 . It can live for around 120-150 years3 . The bark is mauve-grey and deeply furrowed with reddish-brown or orange bark fissures4, 5 . Compared with other common oak species, e.g. sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), the wood is inferior, and only useful for rough work such as shuttering or fuelwood1 . The leaves are dark green above and grey-felted underneath6 ; they are variable in size and shape but are normally 9-12 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, with 7-9 pairs of triangular lobes6 . The leaves turn yellow to gold in late autumn and drop off or persist in the crown until the next spring, especially on young trees3 . The twigs are long and pubescent, grey or olive-green, with lenticels. The buds, which are concentrated on the tip of the twigs, are egg-shaped and hairy and, typically, they are surrounded by long twisted whiskers6 . The flowers are monoecious and wind-pollinated, appearing in April-May. The fruit is a large acorn stalkless, 2-3.5(5) cm long and 2 cm broad. The acorn cup is densely covered with bristles5 . Turkey oak acorns mature over a two year period, but the acorn crop is abundant and it germinates readily and can be easily propagated1, 3, 7.

Distribution The range of this species extends from southern Europe to Asia Minor3 . Across its distribution range, it is particularly present in the Balkan and Italian Peninsulas3 . The western limit of its natural range is France and its northern limit is in Germany, continuing eastward through Austria, Switzerland, eastern Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary3 . It is one of 12 native oak species in Albania. In Bulgaria it occupies drier and moderately rich habitats in the plain and hilly regions8 , where it forms large forests with other oak species (e.g. Quercus frainetto, Quercus pubescens) and other mixed broadleaves including field maple (Acer campestre), elm (Ulmus minor) Oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) and manna ash (Fraxinus ornus)9 . It is also important in Hungary, where it forms over 11 % of the forested area in the country10 . In Italy, it grows from sea level up to the


Large shade tree in agricultural area near Altamura (Bari, South Italy). (Copyright Vito Buono, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus cerris. Frequency of Quercus cerris occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. cerris is derived after Meusel and Jager; and Jalas and Suominen25, 26 .

Apennines and covers around 280 000 ha over the peninsula, frequently occurring together with Hungarian oak (Q. frainetto)9 . It is also widely distributed in Slovenia, most frequently in the sub-mediterranean regions of Kras, Brkini and Tolminsko, but it also grows on warm and dry steep slopes in the continental parts of the country9 . In the case of a warming climate, the species is expected to show a range shift North11 . Turkey oak has been introduced in some other European countries including the UK and France3 , and it is also planted in North America4 , Ukraine, Argentina and New Zealand3 .

can grow in a wide range of soil types including weakly acid14 , pseudogley12 , or even shallow calcareous soils, as long as they are not too dry1 . When established it devlops a taproot and deep lateral root branches, helping it to remain windfirm3 . It is lightdemanding but can grow under a light woodland canopy1 . It has many pioneer characteristics, including good germination rates of seeds and fast early growth. It also has a high resprouting capacity, making it particularly suitable for coppicing and pollarding3 .

Habitat and Ecology Turkey oak has a good adaptability to a variety of different site conditions. It is relatively tolerant to drought (more than the other oak species of the same region)3, 12 , air pollution9, 13 and


Forest dominated by Turkey oak in the Košutnjak Forest Park near Belgrade (Slovenia).

Mid-low presence 10% - 30%

(Copyright Stefanst, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%

The wood of Turkey oak has relatively few uses due to its tendency to crack and its lower technological quality1 . It is frequently used as firewood, having almost the same calorific value as hornbeam or beech12, 15 . In past years the wood was used for railway sleepers9, and it is still used for timber production





Dark-green leaves with 7-9 pairs of lobes. (Copyright Enrico Romani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

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in the eastern part of its range, where the wood quality is at its best3 . It has a useful role in soil conservation, erosion control and reforestation of bare soils because of its ability to establish and grow quickly in a range of soil types3 . Turkey oak is also often planted in urban areas as an ornamental tree as it is an attractive and well-formed tree1, 3 . The acorns and young coppice shoots represent an important source of food for animals in Mediterranean agro-silvopastoral systems3 . It is used in traditional Mediterranean medicine for numerous purposes, including antiinfective treatments, and there is some evidence that it could be used against the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus16 .


Red female flower with fleshy stigmas blossoming with new leaves in spring. (Copyright Graziano Propetto, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases The fungi Discula quercina, Hipparion mediterraneum and Biscogniauxia mediterranea have been reported to cause potentially severe infections to Turkey oak trees17-20 . Hypoxylon mediterraneum can contribute to oak decline in drought-stressed trees21 . The gypsy moth Lymantria dispar is one of the most important leaf-chewing insects, attacking summer foliage3 . Turkey oak is one of the alternate hosts of the knopper gall wasp Andricus quercuscalicis, which then goes on to infect pedunculate oaks in the next part of its life cycle1, 22 . The gall aphid Phylloxera quercus is also damaging in many European countries3 . Turkey oak is vulnerable to root pathogens of the genus Phytophthora


(P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum)23 . Furthermore, it is moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria parasitica23 . In urban areas the oak processionary moth Traumatocampa processionea may affect trees planted in green spaces24 . A number of bark beetle species can cause economic damage by creating galleries in the timber3 .

Grey bark with long fissures showing pinkish-orange colours in the cracks. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

References

Leaf gall caused by the wasp (Andricus quercuscalicis) on pedunculate oak (Quercus robur): Turkey oak is the alternate host completing the life cycle of this wasp.

Stalkless acorns with cup covered by bristles. (Copyright Graziano Propetto, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

(Copyright Somepics, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)










[1] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [2] A. Di Iorio, B. Lasserre, G. S. Scippa, D. Chiatante, Tree Physiology 27, 407 (2007). [3] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [4] E. F. Gilman, D. G. Watson, Fact sheet ST544: Quercus cerris - turkey oak (1994). [5] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [6] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [7] E. W. Jones, Journal of Ecology 47, 169 (1959). [8] S. Yurukov, P. Zhelev, Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 152, 52 (2001). [9] M. Bozzano, J. Turok, Mediterranean Oaks Network : report of the second meeting, 2-4 May 2002 - Gozo, Malta (IPGRI, Rome, Italy, 2003). [10] R. Solymos, Annales des Sciences Forestières 50, 607 (1993). [11] T. Hlásny, J. Holuša, P. Štěpánek, M. Turčáni, N. Polčák, Journal of Forest Science 57, 422 (2011). [12] A. Majer, Folia Dendrologica 11, 331 (1984). [13] N. Tzvetkova, D. Kolarov, Bulgarian Journal of Plant Physiology 22, 53 (1996). [14] R. Popović, M. Kojić, B. Karadžić, Bocconea 5, 431 (1997).

[15] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [16] G. H. Hobby, et al., Journal of Ethnopharmacology 144, 812 (2012). [17] E. Amorini, M. Biocca, M. C. Manetti, E. Motta, Annals of Forest Science 53, 731 (1996). [18] D. Jurc, N. Ogris, Plant Pathology 55, 299 (2006). [19] S. Moricca, A. Ragazzi, Phytopathology 98, 380 (2008). [20] A. Ragazzi, et al., Phytopathologia Mediterranea 40, 165 (2001). [21] A. Vannini, R. Valentini, Tree Physiology 14, 129 (1994). [22] K. Schönrogge, et al., Galling Arthropods and Their Associates, K. Ozaki, J. Yukawa, T. Ohgushi, P. Price, eds. (Springer Japan, 2006), pp. 91–101. [23] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [24] K. V. Tubby, J. F. Webber, Forestry 83, 451 (2010). [25] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [26] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01b479. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Quercus cerris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01b479+



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Quercus frainetto Quercus frainetto in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats A. Mauri, C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Quercus frainetto is a species native to Balkan Peninsula, and also present in South Italy and North-West Turkey. Despite being also known as Hungarian oak, its presence in Hungary is sporadic and mainly resulting from previous introduction. This oak is an element of the sub-Mediterranean flora, and is usually associated in mixed groups (as well as hybrids) with other oak species across its distribution range. It has been traditionally managed in coppiced forests for firewood and timber production in combination with livestock grazing. As other oaks, it is suffering a period of decline, due to climate change and human pressure although its future distribution is predicted to expand in response to expected warming. Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) is a large deciduous tree, reaching heights of more than 30 m tall and very rarely living more than 200 years1 . The trunk is slender, similar to sessile oak. The twigs are covered with hairs. The leaves are large and distinctive: up to 25 cm long, widest close to the apex, with many deep-cut lobes (more than any other oaks2). The base of the leaf is usually ear-like and in some cases overlaps the petiole. On the lower surface, the leaves are covered with dense hairs. The buds are large, brown in colour and hairy. The flowers are monoecious


Leaves are the most deeply lobed of the oak species: here just starting to show autumn colours. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus frainetto. Frequency of Quercus frainetto occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. frainetto is derived after Meusel and Jäger10 .

(individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are wind-pollinated. The acorns are up to 25 mm long and egg shaped. In common with other oak species it has high fructification rates that occur around every 5-8 years3, 4 . The acorn cup is sessile and covered with long overlapping scales and hairs5, 6 .

Distribution Dark grey bark formed by small plates. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Paleoecological evidence suggests that Hungarian oak was already present in the Peloponnese more than 6 000 years ago7. It is indeed considered native to south-eastern Europe8 as an element of the sub-Mediterranean flora9, with its widest distribution in

the Balkan Peninsula. Despite its name, this oak is not native to Hungary, although it is present sporadically as an introduced species8 . It is also present in north-west Turkey and southern Italy10 in form of scattered patches along the pre-Apennine ridges11, 12 . As a response to future expected warming its future distribution is predicted to expand in Spain, France and Northern Italy13 .

Habitat and Ecology Hungarian oak is a meso-xerophilous species, meaning that it occupies a climate that is a transition between the typical Mediterranean climate and a continental climate with hot summers and harsh winters14 . It is light demanding and cannot tolerate shading14 . It can grow in heavy acidic soils and tolerates some water-logging15 . This species can form pure stands or more frequently it occurs mixed with hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), South European flowering ash (Fraxinus ornus) and Turkey oak (Quercus cerris)8 . This tree has a narrower ecological amplitude than that of Turkey oak in most respects16 . It is more drought-tolerant than the Turkey oak but less so than some other more Mediterranean oak species, such as holm oak (Quercus ilex)17.


Dark green leaves are shiny and smooth on upper side, while the lower one has dense hair.



150

In Greece, it is an important timber tree and frequently managed as coppice forest for both firewood and timber in combination with grazing14, 18 . In the other countries in which it grows, it is most often used for firewood, although the quality of the wood is similar to sessile oak (Quercus petraea)12 . Because of the rather high durability of its wood, Quercus frainetto sometimes has been used as construction material in civil engineering and mining8 . It was less suited for the manufacture of barrels and furniture8 .



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(Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Quercus frainetto

Mature acorn in scaled cup, which is hairy and sessile (stalkless) on twigs. (Copyright Franco Caldararo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Trunk and crown near the top of the tree. (Copyright Somepics, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases In common with several other oak species across Europe, the Hungarian oak has suffered periods of decline, attributed to a variety of interacting biotic and abiotic causes19 . It is vulnerable to Lymantria dispar and to root pathogens of the genus Phytophthora (P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum)20 . In particular, Phytophthora cinnamomi is a significant factor in some areas21 . Wood-boring beetles22 , aphids (e.g. Thelaxes suberi23), gall wasps and fungi (e.g. Apiognomonia quercina24) can all cause damage. Furthermore, the Hungarian oak is moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria parasitica20 . Changes in rainfall distribution and incidence of stress-induced pathogens, such as Hypoxylon mediterraneum, are blamed for decline in old oak coppices in central and southern Italy19 . In many parts of its natural range the presence of Hungarian oak has reduced as a result human pressure and the transformation of land (particularly the more fertile sites) into agricultural use12 . Barrels made from Hungarian oak wood for conserving and flavouring wine. (Copyright Elin, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References

Forest dominated by Hungarian oak in protected area forest near Foloi in western Peloponnese peninsula (Elis, South Greece).

Polyphagous caterpillar of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). (Copyright echoe69, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

(Copyright Huskarl, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)










[1] K. G. Kostadinov, Gorskostopanska Nauka pp. 41–55 (1984). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] V. L. Sork, Plant Ecology 107-108, 133 (1993). [4] I. Jerković, Z. Marijanović, Molecules 15, 3744 (2010). [5] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [6] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [7] S. Jahns 2, 187 (1993). [8] D. Bartha, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1998). [9] L. Corcuera, J. J. Camarero, E. Gil-Pelegrìn, Trees 16, 465 (2002). [10] H. Meusel, E. J. Jäger, Plant Systematics and Evolution 162, 315 (1989). [11] G. Abbate, C. Blasi, B. Paura, A. Scoppola, F. Spada, Vegetatio 90, 35 (1990). [12] M. Bozzano, J. Turok, Mediterranean Oaks Network : report of the second meeting, 2-4 May 2002 - Gozo, Malta (IPGRI, Rome, Italy, 2003).

[13] A. Baselga, M. B. Araújo, Ecography 32, 55 (2009). [14] G. Chatziphilippidis, G. Spyroglou, Sustainable Forest Management, H. Hasenauer, ed. (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006), pp. 373–395. [15] T. G. M. Sanders, R. Pitman, M. S. J. Broadmeadow, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 7, 61 (2014). [16] R. Popović, M. Kojić, B. Karadžić, Bocconea 5, 431 (1997). [17] M. N. Fotelli, K. M. Radoglou, Constantinidou, Tree Physiology 20, 1065 (2000). [18] K. Kitikidou, E. Milios, E. Tsirekis, E. Pipinis, A. Stampoulidis, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 8, 53 (2015). [19] A. Vannini, R. Valentini, N. Luisi, Annales des Sciences Forestières 53, 753 (1996). [20] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [21] C. M. Brasier, Annales des Sciences Forestières 53, 347 (1996). [22] A. Sallé, L. M. Nageleisen, F. Lieutier, Forest Ecology and Management 328, 79 (2014). [23] Host Plant Catalog of Aphids (Springer Netherlands, 2009), pp. 7–651. [24] S. Moricca, A. Ragazzi, Phytopathology 98, 380 (2008).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01de78. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Mauri, A., Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Quercus frainetto in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01de78+



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Quercus ilex Quercus ilex in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Quercus ilex L., known as holm oak or evergreen oak, is a broadleaved tree or shrub, which can grow up to 25 m. It is characterised by coriaceous dark green leaves with a woolly lower side, and small acorns. It is native to the centralwestern Mediterranean basin, where it represents the dominating species in woodlands and maquis vegetation. It is a shade-tolerant species regenerating under the canopy cover, but it is also a vigorous root re-sprouting species. In Europe it thrives in meso-Mediterranean bioclimates, where it is not too dry, forming well-structured forests rich in species. Managed principally as coppice forests, its hard wood has been used for the production of charcoal, firewood, railway sleepers and small tools. In the Iberian Peninsula the holm oak woodlands are historically managed as pastures with large isolated trees where livestock feeding on the grass and acorns. Fungal pathogens can create severe damage especially to drought suffering trees. As other oaks it is also damaged by several defoliating lepidopterans. For millennia Mediterranean holm oak forests have suffered for human activities, which have exploited, modified the species mixture and in many cases replaced woodlands with agriculture and urban areas. The holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) is an broadleaved evergreen tree or shrub, which can grow up to 25 m and exceptionally 30 m with over 2 m of trunk diameter1, 2 . Its lifespan may reach more than 1 000 years2-4 . The crown is broad, domed, with ascending branches and often with low stems. The bark is brownish-black and shallowly cracked into small, square, thin plates5 . The twigs and the buds are grey-tomentose1 . Very variable in the shape, the leaf is generally lanceolate to oval, 3-7 cm long, thick but not rigid, cuneate or rounded at the base, with 1-2 cm woolly petioles. The margins are waved or sinuate, but they can be dentate or in some case spinose on young trees or sprouts1, 5 . They unfold in spring silvery-white then pale yellow, covered with dense hairs. Soon leaves become rough and shiny blackish-green on the upper side, grey and densely pubescent on the lower5 . Leaf lifespan ranges from less than 1 year to 4 years, with turnover rates changing according to leaf position and environmental factors6 . This is species is monoecious, blossoming in MayJune with new leaf growth6 . After dry summers new leaves in autumn can appear2 . The male flowers are in dense pendulous catkins 4-7 cm long, pale green, then opening in a mass of yellow stamens very visible the against silvery-grey leaves. The female flowers are minute, 2-3 on short and erect peduncles at the axil on one leaf, green-grey and pubescent 2, 5 . The fruit is an acorn ripening in the first year, brown in colour, 1.5-2 cm long, one third to half enclosed in a light green cupule with appressed scales, and hanged on short peduncles2, 5 . Mature acorns fall in NovemberJanuary with high productions every 4-6 years6 .

Sea7, 8 . The altitudinal range is variable, growing from coastal zones up to 1800 m in Southern Spain and 2900 m in Morocco in the western part of the High Atlas7, 8 . Along its range two subspecies are recognised principally by differences in leaf shape: Quercus ilex subsp. rotundifolia (sometime referred as Quercus ilex subsp. ballota or as separate species Quercus rotundifolia) having more lanceolate leaves with 6-8 veins and occurring in Portugal, South and South-East Spain and Morocco; Quercus ilex subsp. ilex having more ovate leaves with 8-9 veins and occurring throughout the remaining areas1, 2 . Under the same climate conditions on the eastern side of the Mediterranean basin, holm oak is substituted by the Palestine oak (Quercus calliprinos)9 .


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus ilex. Frequency of Quercus ilex occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. ilex is derived after Meusel and Jager7.

Distribution The natural distribution of holm oak occurs principally in the central-western part of the Mediterranean basin, covering from Portugal and Morocco, to the Aegean Islands and western Turkey, expanding also northward up to northern Italy and France. It also occurs in a few localities in Anatolia on the coast of the Black

Male catkins with yellow stamens producing pollen. (Copyright Franco Giordana, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Habitat and Ecology Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%



The holm oak is a tree able to grow well on a wide variety of soils under different Mediterranean climates, which range from semi-arid to very humid for precipitation and from warm to very cold at high altitudes (only if associated with low precipitations) for temperature8 . Its leaves are small and coriaceous and the lower side is covered by white hairs. These characteristics are typical of sclerophyllous species, making it possible to reduce transpiration and to improve their resistance to drought. However, holm oak is less adapted to extreme drought in comparison with other evergreen Mediterranean tree species, carob (Ceratonia siliqua), wild olive (Olea oleaster) and cork oak (Quercus suber)6 . This oak is also able to suspend the vegetative activities during drought periods and reactivate them when the water is again available10 . On the other hand, unlike other sclerophyllous


Acorns half covered by the light green cupule. (Copyright Giancarlo Pasquali, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

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Quercus ilex

events between droughts; and due to the vulnerability of typical Mediterranean soils, often very thin19-22 . Silvoarable agroforestry with this species23 may be exploited in Mediterranean areas with high potential soil erosion, also considering the effectiveness of its cover-management on erosion rates20, 24 . In the past the sweet acorns were used also for human use, so holm oak in dehesas can be considered as a semi-domesticated fruit tree6 . Holm oak is also used as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks, where it can reach large sizes2 .


Flowering dehesas pasture in Spain with isolated holm oaks. (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

species, this oak resists quite low temperatures, surviving up to -24 °C in winter for short periods 11 . One of the primary limitations to its distribution is the intense competition of other broadleaved trees, principally due to water availability. In fact, in the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, where forests are simpler (counting fewer species), its ecological amplitude is more evident, forming thick forest from 900 to 2 500 m, while elsewhere from North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula this oak is able to develop only in more limited elevation ranges8 . Holm oak is a slow-growing shade-tolerant tree and is able to dominate in late successional stages6 . Its regeneration develops under the canopy, while in case of disturbances most of the regeneration comes vigorously from root re-sprouts6, 12 . It can form pure or mixed stands in less optimal sites, often concentrating in the more favourable areas. The vegetation communities where Quercus ilex is found are generally three. One is matorral vegetation, where holm oak develops in cold and semi-arid climates at high altitudes (North Africa, Spain) and is associated with Spanish juniper (Juniperus thurifera), belonging to the alliance Junipero thuriferae-Quercion. Another is matorral or arboreal pre-forest where holm oak is present and isolated or in clumps and it is often associated with conifers, typically Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), belonging to the alliance Rhamno-Quercion cocciferae. The first two vegetation communities are mostly transitional structures in a dynamic evolution towards more covered and structured formations. Finally, there are sclerophyllous woods and maquis vegetation where holm oak dominates, belonging to the order Quercetalia ilicis8 . This community represents the most widespread evergreen woodland in the Mediterranean Region, even if few examples of fully developed forests remain, as most of them are managed as coppice often degraded by pasture activities or fires13 . These forests occur in the thermo-Mediterranean bioclimate, typically found in the Iberian Peninsula, and are principally associated with olive (Olea europea ssp. sylvestris), carob (Ceratonia siliqua), cork oak (Quercus suber), and in the undergrowth with strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), mock privet (Phillyrea angustifolia), Mediterranean buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus) and terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus)8, 14, 15 . Holm oak forests are also common in the meso-Mediterranean bioclimates, growing in more humid

Importance and Usage The wood of holm oak is dense, very hard and difficult to dry and carve. It can be used for making only small tools which undergo heavy usage, for example carpentry tools, handles, gear teeth, etc. and in the past it has been used for the production of charcoal, railway sleepers and stakes, and the bark of young shoots for the extraction of tannins2, 6 . The capability of suspending vegetative activities during drought periods creates an irregular wood growth and more than one ring can be produced in a year17. Actually holm oak woods are managed as coppices principally for the production of firewood6 , while the more structured high forests have more protective and recreational functions2 . In the Iberian Peninsula the holm oak woodlands are historically managed as savannah-like ecosystems, with large, isolated trees emerging from a grassland18 . These formations, known as dehesas in Spain and montados in Portugal, provide trees for shading livestock, firewood from pruning and refuge and breeding sites for a large number of vertebrates, whereas the grassland is used by cows and sheep for milk and meat production, and acorns for feeding pigs. The sustainable and ecological ecosystems are managed by preventing woody plants from invading grasslands through grazing, disking and hand weeding, with a high labour effort. Its Mediterranean geographical distribution includes areas with worrying current and potential erosion. This is due to precipitation regimes characterised by intense rainstorm








areas of the north Mediterranean region ranging from Spain to Greece. These forests are rich in species with a presence of other evergreen trees such as laurel (Laurus nobilis), Mediterranean buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), tree heath (Erica arborea) and privet (Phillyrea spp.)14-16 . Finally holm oak can also be found on the supra-Mediterranean bioclimates (France, Corsica, Sardinia and South Italy) with the presence (and the competition) of deciduous trees, such as manna ash (Fraxinus ornus), hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), Montpellier maple (Acer monspessulanum), bordering other deciduous broadleaved forests dominated by downy oak (Quercus pubescens), Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) and even beech (Fagus sylvatica)10, 15 .



The holm oak under water stress conditions is highly vulnerable to the fungal pathogens Phytophthora quercina and other Phytophthora species, such as Phytophthora cinnamomi, Phytophthora ramorum, and cankers caused by Cryphonectria parasitica2, 25 . Phytophthora cinnamomi is a biotic factor associated with holm oak decline26 , which may affect holm oak as a synergistic negative combination with abiotic factors27. In particular, severe periods of drought with increasing occurrence of dry years and the co-occurrence of pathogens (either fungi or insects) may induce the decline27. Air pollution and soil contamination27, in particular nitrogen excess26 , have been reported as possible negative co-factors in combination with drought stress. Therefore, in drier conditions predicted in the Mediterranean area in the frame of climate change, a reduction of more mesic holm oak substituted by more drought-tolerant species is expected28, 29 . Among defoliating pests, damage has been reported caused by polyphagous lepidopterans such as the nun moth Lymantria monacha, gypsy moth Lymantria dispar, green oak moth Tortrix viridana and lackey moth Malacosoma neustria2, 25 . Mediterranean forests dominated by the holm oak have been strongly influenced by human activities during the last millennia by means of wood exploitation, species mixture modifications or substitution (e.g. Aleppo pine), livestock grazing and fires. All these disturbances have led to a degradation, and in many cases holm oak forests have been completely replaced by agriculture and urban settlements6, 30 .

References [1] O. Schwarz, Flora Europaea, Volume 1 - Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 72–76, second edn. [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] G. Gea-Izquierdo, P. Cherubini, I. Cañellas, Forest Ecology and Management 262, 1807 (2011). [4] E. Tendero, et al., Árboles Monumentales de España - Comunidades Autónomas (Compañìa Logìstica de Hidrocarburos CLH, Madrid, Spain, 2005). [5] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [6] J. Terradas, Ecology of Mediterranean Evergreen Oak Forests, F. Rodà, J. Retana, C. Gracia, J. Bellot, eds. (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1999), vol. 137 of Ecological Studies, pp. 3–14. [7] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [8] M. Barbero, R. Loisel, P. Quézel, Quercus ilex L. ecosystems: function, dynamics and management, F. Romane, J. Terradas, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 1992), vol. 13 of Advances in vegetation science, pp. 19–34. [9] J. Blondel, J. Aronson, Biology and Wildlife of the Mediterranean Region (Oxford University Press, 1999). [10] R. Del Favero, I boschi delle regioni meridionali e insulari d’Italia (Cleup, Padova, 2008). [11] H. E. Knopf, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2002). [12] J. M. Espelta, J. Retana, A. Habrouk, Forest Ecology and Management 179, 401 (2003). [13] A. Barbati, P. Corona, M. Marchetti, European forest types: Categories and types for sustainable forest management reporting and policy (European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 2007), second edn.

[14] C. E. Davies, D. Moss, M. O. Hill, EUNIS habitat classification - revised, Tech. rep., European Environment Agency, European Topic Centre on Nature Protection and Biodiversity, Paris (2004). [15] European Commission, CORINE Biotopes manual - Habitat of the European Community: Data Specifications - Part 2 (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities: EUR 12587/3 EN, Brussels, 1991). [16] E. Biondi, et al., Manuale italiano di interpretazione degli habitat (Direttiva 92/43/CEE) (Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Direzione per la Protezione della Natura, Roma, 2010). [17] C. Gené, J. M. Espelta, M. Gràcia, J. Retana, Orsis 8, 127 (1993). [18] A. M. Vicente, R. F. Alés, Agroforestry Systems 67, 19 (2006). [19] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [20] D. de Rigo, C. Bosco, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology 359, 310 (2011). [21] O. Cerdan, et al., Geomorphology 122, 167 (2010). [22] A. Ceballos, A. Cerdà, S. Schnabel, Geographical Review 92, 333 (2002). [23] Y. Reisner, R. de Filippi, F. Herzog, J. Palma, Ecological Engineering 29, 401 (2007). [24] M. López-Vicente, A. Navas, Soil Science 174, 272 (2009). [25] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [26] F. M. Thomas, R. Blank, G. Hartmann, Forest Pathology 32, 277 (2002). [27] R. Siwkcki, K. Ufnalski, Forest Pathology 28, 99 (1998). [28] R. Ogaya, J. Peñuelas, Environmental and Experimental Botany 50, 137 (2003). [29] M. Lindner, et al., Impacts of climate change on European forests and options for adaptation, European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development, Brussels (2008). [30] J. Ortego, R. Bonal, A. Muñoz, Journal of Heredity 101, 717 (2010).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e014bcd. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Quercus ilex in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e014bcd+



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Quercus palustris Quercus palustris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant Quercus palustris Muenchh. is commonly known as pin oak, Spanish oak or swamp oak. The epithet palustris means “swampy”, as pin oak is primarily found on wet sites. It is native to the eastern United States, but has also been introduced into Europe in the last centuries. Pin oak is a fast-growing deciduous tree reaching 25 (40) m tall, usually with a straight and undivided trunk1, 2 . Unlike many oaks, it develops a shallow, fibrous root system3 . The bark is greyish-brown with fissures on surface higher up the trunk2 . The trunk usually has many small drooping branches that persist for a long time after dying and form small “pin” knots in the wood4 . The twigs are reddish-brown and smooth1 and the buds are small (3 mm), dull brown and almost hairless5 . The leaves are alternate, ranging from 8 to 15 cm long, with five or seven lobes, and deep sinuses between the lobes. They are bright green above and shiny pale green below, with characteristic brown tufts of hair in the vein-axils2 . In the autumn they turn a rich scarlet-brown5 and often stay on the tree into the winter3 . Flowering occurs in April or May. The dark-brown acorns are about 1 cm long with a very shallow cup on a short stalk2, 5 . It is not particularly long-lived and reaches physiological maturity at 80 to 100 years4 .

Deep-lobed leaves turning to scarlet in autumn. (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)

Distribution The natural distribution of pin oak is the north-central and eastern United States4 . It was introduced in Europe at the end of the seventeenth century, primarily as an ornamental, but it has some potential as a forestry species6 .

Habitat and Ecology Pin oak occurs primarily along major rivers, in wet soils along swamps and streams4 . It is tolerant of moist soil conditions and can grow on poorly drained and seasonally (winter) flooded sites6 . It prefers moist, rich, acidic, well-drained soils7. It is intolerant of


Dark brown maturing acorn with shallow cup on short stalk. (Photographer Emily Mason; Copyright Bruce Kirchoff, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

shade7 and it is unable to perform properly in soils with high pH, when it develops significant iron chlorosis problems4, 8 . It grows well in full sun3 but it prefers a humid climate4 and is sensitive to summer drought6 .

The wood of pin oak has an inferior quality in comparison with other red oak species especially due to its many small knots4 . Its wood is hard and heavy, and is generally used for fuel wood, wood pulp, and railway sleepers4 . Thanks to its crown architecture, fast growing rate, tolerance for urban stresses8 and its autumn foliar display, it is frequently used in urban landscapes and streets4 . The acorns provide food for migrating mallards and wood ducks8 , and are an important food source for a number of other animals including deer, squirrels, turkeys, woodpeckers, and blue jays4 .

Threats and Diseases Pin oak has thin bark and is particularly susceptible to fire8 and to decay associated with fire damage7. It is susceptible to most of the diseases of oak including the pathogen Phytophthora ramorum9, 10 as well as oak wilt (Ceratocystis fagacearum)8 and several insect species including the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)4 .

Greyish-brown bark of the pin oak. (Copyright Bri Weldon, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References [1] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [2] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] E. F. Gilman, D. G. Watson, Fact sheet ST555: Quercus palustris - pin oak (1994). [4] R. A. McQuilkin, Quercus palustris Muenchh. Pin Oak, Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990), pp. 1366–1377. [5] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [6] T. G. M. Sanders, R. Pitman, M. S. J. Broadmeadow, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 7, 61 (2014).

Pin oak in Marburg Botanic Garden (Hessen, Germany). (Copyright Willow, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

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[7] L. S. Minckler, Silvical Characteristics of Pin Oak, USDA Forest Service (1957). [8] J. H. Carey, Quercus palustris. Fire Effects Information System (1992). http://www. feis-crs.org/feis [9] D. M. Rizzo, M. Garbelotto, J. M. Davidson, G. W. Slaughter, S. T. Koike, Phytophthora ramorum and sudden oak death in california: I. host relationships, Tech. rep. (2002). [10] C. Brasier, J. Rose, S. Kirk, S. Denman, J. Webber, Comparative host range and aggressiveness of phytophthora ramorum and phytophthora kernoviae sp. nov. on north american and european trees, Tech. rep. (2005).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01ec81. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., 2016. Quercus palustris in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01ec81+



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Bumblebee on the white flowers of the Briançon apricot (Prunus brigantina). (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Low valley crops in the mountain region near Graz (Styria, Austria). (Copyright Christinamari, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Spring bluebell understorey in a mixed broadleaved wood of the Forest of Dean (Gloucestershire, England). (Copyright Stewart Black, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Rapeseed (Brassica napus) crop near a broadleaved mixed forest in Neu-Ulm (Bavaria, southern Germany). (Copyright scenerynut, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Quercus pubescens Quercus pubescens in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats S. Pasta, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Quercus pubescens Willd., the downy or pubescent oak, is a middle-sized deciduous or semi-deciduous tree. Frequent hybridisation with other oaks, the complex sequence of survival and migration events during Pleistocene glaciations and the fragmentation of its populations due to long-lasting human impact are responsible for the remarkable variability of downy oaks. They have a wide distribution range, occupying almost all of central and southern Europe from western Spain to Ukraine and Anatolia with some isolated populations in the Caucasian area. Downy oaks are able to stand both moderate summer drought stress and low winter temperatures. On the other hand, they are poor re-sprouters and fare badly after intense anthropogenic disturbance. Forests dominated by this oak are quite common in southern Europe, while they are confined to warm microclimatic conditions in central Europe. Its wood is mainly used as firewood. Downy oaks are among the most frequent hosts of all the economically important truffles. Quercus pubescens Willd., known as downy or pubescent oak, is a middle-sized (15-20 m, rarely 25 m tall) deciduous or semideciduous tree. Its alternate leaves are mostly ovate-oblongate, (3)5-10 cm long, bear a short petiole (5 to 20 mm), with 5-6 more or less deep lobes1 . Leaves are densely pubescent (the reason for its common names) and green-greyish when they start developing; soon after all the hairs of their upper side fall down and leaves become leathery and dark green2 . Male flowers have 6-10 stamens and are grouped to form pubescent catkins which grow up along with new leaves at the base of new shoots. The short stalked female flowers have greenish stigmata and develop on the axil of distal leaves. The fruits - often grouped in clusters of 3-4 acorns have a short hairy petiole, are mostly elliptic (2-3.5 cm long) and enclosed for ¼ to ½ of their total length by cupules which are covered by imbricate triangular hairy scales. Flowering season (from March to May) varies along with altitude. The huge acorns ripen from September to November and are able to germinate immediately and to develop vigorous roots in very short time3 . The bark of downy oaks is characterised by deep furrows and rough and thick plates which represent an effective protection against grazing fires.

Distribution Species concept is particularly hard to be applied to downy oak, primarily because of frequent hybridisation with other sympatric deciduous oaks such as Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) and Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea)4, 5, sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto)6-8; secondly the complex history of its climate-driven survival and migration during Pleistocene glaciations9-13; and finally the fragmentation and isolation of its populations due to millennia of deforestation. These counteracting mechanisms (hybridisation vs. inbreeding


in the Caucasian area (Daghestan, Georgia and Azerbaijan17, 18), Quercus congesta (incl. Quercus leptobalanos) for Sardinia, Sicily and South Italy14 , Quercus dalechampii for South Italy19, and Quercus ichnusae for Sardinia20 . Only rigorous statistical methods applied to morphological traits make it possible to distinguish some of these taxa21, 22 , while genetic analyses still fail to point out any clear differences among them23, 24 . Supported also by the most authoritative key to European oaks25, all the above mentioned species and sub-species are clumped within a single species. In this way Quercus pubescens sensu lato has a wide range occupying almost all central and southern Europe from Western Spain26, 27 to the Balkan area, Black Sea and Caucasus. Considering its wide ecological niche it is possible that downy oak woods covered very extensive surfaces all over Europe before being destroyed to make room for cereal fields, vineyards and olive groves.

Native

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus pubescens. Frequency of Quercus pubescens occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. pubescens is derived after Wellstein and Spada58 .

and genetic drift due to habitat fragmentation) explain most of the high morphological variability of its populations. Hence, many eco-morphotypes living in South European peninsulas and/or in the main Mediterranean islands are treated as narrow endemics, like Quercus virgiliana (incl. Quercus amplifolia) reported for the Balkan-Pontian area, Sicily and South Italy14-16 , Quercus brachyphylla for South Greece, Crete and South-western Anatolia, Quercus pubescens subsp. crispata (syn. subsp. anatolica) for central and Western Anatolia and with a few isolated populations



Habitat and Ecology Downy oaks show a very wide altitudinal range, especially in the southern countries. Although they are more common on hillsides between 200 and 800 m, they grow from coastal plains up to 1 200-1 300 m. Indifferent to pH, they prefer lime-rich and well drained soils in the northern part of their range, while they may also be common on acidic soils in the warmer countries (e.g. Sicily and Crete). It behaves as a heliophilous and thermophilous species and is perfectly adapted to stand both moderate summer drought stress and low winter temperatures, although avoiding continental locations subject to most frequent frost and/or drought events28 . As this oak is a very poor re-sprouter29, it may be outcompeted by more resilient tree species under intense and frequent anthropogenic disturbance regimes (e.g. cutting, wildfires, overgrazing, etc.). On the other hand, it may perform rapid colonisation through seed dispersal after disturbance removal30, 31 . Quercus pubescens-dominated forests are quite common in South Europe, while they are confined to warm microclimatic conditions in central Europe. Vegetation surveys concerning these communities are available for Germany32 , Bulgaria33, Czech Republic34, Italy35, Austria36 , Slovakia37, Hungary38, Greece39 and former Yugoslavia40. Downy oaks often co-occur with other deciduous trees of South-Eastern Europe and South-Western Asia, such as Oriental hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), nettle trees (Celtis spp.), manna ash (Fraxinus ornus) and hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia). A West-East gradient in the composition of speciesassemblages has been recorded in the Balkan Peninsula40, while evergreen species cover and diversity values increase significantly along a North-South gradient in the Italian Peninsula41 . Several authors classify downy oak forests in the vegetation communities at the level of order (Quercetalia pubescentis) within the class



Acorns are covered up to half of their length by the hairy scaled cupule.


Leaves can persist on the tree during winter. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

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Quercus pubescens

Querco-Fagetea (European temperate summer-green deciduous forests)42-44, while others45, 46 prefer to treat them as a separate class (Quercetea pubescentis) and provide a list of species which actually put downy oak woods in sub-Mediterranean contexts. On Mediterranean islands the downy oak often co-occurs with holm oak (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Quercus suber) (Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily) or even with kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) (Crete). As the undergrowth of insular downy oak woods is also poorly differentiated from that of evergreen forest communities, most of them have been included within the class Quercetalia ilicis47-49. On the other hand, ongoing monitoring activities on forest dynamics suggest that the ceasing or reduction of disturbance may allow downy oaks to become the dominant species of ‘final’ Northern Mediterranean forest communities, outcompeting Quercus ilex, which will be confined to more disturbed places on shallow and poor soils50.


Importance and Usage Almost pure downy oak forests cover 8 760 and 8 500 km2 in France and Italy, respectively51, 52 . Notwithstanding the lack of quantitative data, pure and mixed stands are also very common in Balkan countries. Due to its irregular fibre distribution and the crookedness of the trunks, the wood of downy oak is scarcely considered as industrial lumber, and it is mainly used as firewood. In the past, it was largely employed for railway sleepers, while nowadays it is occasionally used for carpentry, boat-building, or packaging53 . Downy oaks are among the most frequent hosts of all the economically important truffles (Tuber aestivum, T. macrosporum, T. magnatum, T. melanosporum, T. uncinatum). Considering the remarkable increase of tree ring size experienced by the downy oak in response to the augmentation of atmospheric CO2 during the last century54 , its increased use in Southern European afforestations could be a very effective tool in order to combat the greenhouse effect.

Threats and Diseases Several species of Oomycetes belonging to the genus Phytophthora are responsible for the so-called ‘oak decline’ which affects downy oak forests more and more frequently, especially those of the Mediterranean countries which are subject to more severe climatic stress and increasing frequency of climatic anomalies such as extreme drought events or strong shifts in seasonal rainfall distribution55, 56 . In particular, downy oak is susceptlible to Phytophthora cinnamomi, Phytophthora ramorum and highly vulnerable to Phytophthora quercina57. This tree may also be attacked by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) which has the potential to expand its virulence, due to climate change, in the European temperate oceanic ecological zone57.


References [1] G. Krüssmann, Handbuch der Laubgehölze, vol. 3 (Paul Parey, Berlin, 1978), second edn. [2] F. Bussotti, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 1998). [3] M. Tonioli, J. Escarré, J. Lepart, M. Speranza, Ecoscience 8, 380 (2001). [4] H. Himrane, J. J. Camarero, E. Gil-Pelegrìn, Trees 18, 566 (2004). [5] M. Valbuena-Carabana, et al., Heredity 95, 457 (2005). [6] D. Salvini, et al., Plant Biology 11, 758 (2009). [7] G. Antonecchia, et al., Annals of Forest Research 57, 1+ (2015). [8] P. Fortini, P. Di Marzio, R. Di Pietro, Plant Systematics and Evolution 301, 375 (2015). [9] S. Dumolin-Lapègue, B. Demesure, S. Fineschi, V. Le Corre, R. J. Petit, Genetics 146, 1475 (1997). [10] R. J. Petit, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 156, 5 (2002). [11] S. Brewer, R. Cheddadi, J. L. de Beaulieu, M. Reille, Forest Ecology and Management 156, 27 (2002). [12] M. Olalde, A. Herrán, S. Espinel, P. G. Goicoechea, Forest Ecology and Management 156, 89 (2002). [13] S. Bordács, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 156, 197 (2002). [14] S. Brullo, R. Guarino, G. Siracusa, Webbia 54, 1 (1999).

Leaves are 5-10 cm long and densely pubescent when they start developing.

[15] D. Bartha, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2001). [16] I. Trinajstić, Hrvatski Šumarski List 131, 57 (2007). [17] V . L. Komarov, et al. , Flora of the USSR Volume V (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [18] K. Browicks, J. Zieliński, Chorology of trees and shrubs in south-west Asia and adjacent regions, vol. 1 (Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa, Poznań, 1982). [19] R. Di Pietro, V. Viscosi, L. Peruzzi, P. Fortini, Taxon 61, 1311 (2012). [20] L. Mossa, G. Bacchetta, S. Brullo, Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 47, 199 (1999). [21] P. Fortini, V. Viscosi, L. Maiuro, S. Fineschi, G. G. Vendramin, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 143, 543 (2009). [22] V. Viscosi, P. Fortini, M. D’Imperio, Acta Botanica Gallica 158, 175 (2011). [23] J. Franjić, et al., Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 75, 123 (2006). [24] C. M. Enescu, A. L. Curtu, N. Şofletea, Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 37, 632 (2013). [25] O. Schwarz, Flora Europaea, Volume 1 Psilotaceae to Platanaceae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 72–76, second edn. [26] J. do Amaral Franco, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares, Volume 2: Platanaceae Plumbaginaceae (partim), S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1991), pp. 15–36.











[27] S. Rivas-Martìnez, C. Sáenz-Laìn, Rivasgodaya 6, 101 (1991). [28] G. López-González, Los árboles y arbustos de la Penìnsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares (especies silvestres y las principales cultivadas), vol. 1 (Mundi-Prensa, MadridBarcelona-Mexico, 2001). [29] M. Costa, C. Morla, H. Sainz, eds., Los bosques ibéricos: una interpretación geobotánica (Ed. Planeta, Barcelona, 1997). [30] D. Bran, O. Lobréaux, M. Maistre, P. Perret, F. Romane, Vegetatio 87, 45 (1990). [31] G. Di Pasquale, G. Garfí, Ecologia Mediterranea 24, 15 (1998). [32] E. Oberdorfer, Süddeutsche Pflanzengesellschaften, Band 4: Wälder und Gebüsche (Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1992). [33] V. Rousakova, R. Tzonev, Fitosociologia 40, 23 (2003). [34] I. Knollová, M. Chytrý, Preslia 76, 291 (2004). [35] C. Blasi, R. Di Pietro, L. Filesi, Fitosociologia 41, 87 (2004). [36] W. Willner, G. Grabherr, Die Wälder und Gebüsche Österreichs (Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2007). [37] J. Roleček, Preslia 77, 241 (2005). [38] B. Kevey, A. Borhidi, Acta Botanica Hungarica 47, 273 (2005). [39] E. Bergmeier, P. Dimopoulos, Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology 142, 228 (2008). [40] A. Čarni, et al., Plant Biosystems 143, 1 (2009). [41] R. Guarino, G. Bazan, B. Paura, Warmtemperate Deciduous Forests around the Northern Hemisphere, E. O. Box, K. Fujiwara, eds., Geobotany Studies (Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 2015), pp. 139–151. [42] I. Horvat, V. Glavač, H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Südosteuropas, vol. 4 of Geobotanica selecta (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1974). [43] S. Rivas-Martìnez, et al., Itinera Geobotanica 15, 5 (2002).

[44] S. Rivas-Martìnez, F. Fernández-Gonzáles, J. Loidi, M. Lousã, A. Penas, Itinera Geobotanica 14, 5 (2001). [45] L. Mucina, Folia Geobotanica 32, 117 (1997). [46] J. S. Rodwell, et al., The Diversity of European Vegetation: an overview of phytosociological alliances and their relationships to EUNIS habitats (National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature and Fisheries, Wageningen, 2002). [47] G. Bacchetta, E. Biondi, E. Farris, R. Filigheddu, L. Mossa, Fitosociologia 41, 53 (2004). [48] S. Brullo, L. Gianguzzi, A. La Mantia, G. Siracusa, Bollettino dell’Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali 41, 1 (2009). [49] E.-M. Bauer, E. Bergmeier, Phytocoenologia 41, 73 (2011). [50] P. Quézel, F. Médail, Ecologie et biogéographie des forêts du bassin méditerranéen (Elsevier, Paris, 2003). [51] I.G.N., Résultats d’inventaire forestier résultats standards (campagnes 2008 à 2012): Tome national version régions administratives (Service de l’inventaire forestier et statistique, Institut National de l’Information Géographique et Forestière, Sante Mandé, Paris, France, 2013). [52] G. Tabacchi, et al., Inventario Nazionale delle Foreste e dei Serbatoi Forestali di Carbonio: Le stime di superficie 2005 - Prima parte (MiPAF, Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Ispettorato Generale; CRA, Istituto Sperimentale per l’Assestamento Forestale e per l’Alpicoltura, Trento, 2005). [53] L. Todaro, et al., iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry pp. e1–e8 (2015). [54] C. Rathgeber, J. Guiot, P. Roche, L. Tessier, Annals of Forest Science 56, 211 (1999). [55] C. M. Brasier, F. Robredo, J. F. P. Ferraz, Plant Pathology 42, 140 (1993). [56] G. Sicoli, T. de Gioia, N. Luisi, P. Lerario, Phytopathologia Mediterranea 37, 1 (1998). [57] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [58] C. Wellstein, F. Spada, Warm-Temperate Deciduous Forests around the Northern Hemisphere, E. O. Box, K. Fujiwara, eds., Geobotany Studies (Springer International Publishing, 2015), pp. 153–163.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e019e5c. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Pasta, S., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Quercus pubescens in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e019e5c+



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Quercus pyrenaica Quercus pyrenaica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats P. Nieto Quintano, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.) is a medium-sized oak with an irregular crown, growing up to 20-25 m. It is a deciduous species but the hairy leaves are shed only in spring, an adaptation to hot climates. It is distributed throughout the western Atlantic-Mediterranean regions (West France, Portugal, Spain and North Morocco) through a wide range of altitudes, from sea level to over 2 000 m. This oak is an intermediate tree between temperate and Mediterranean species, growing prevalently in mid mountain areas on siliceous soils. It is a dominant and key species of the forest formations it occupies, with stands that tend to be closed. It is a major tree in Iberian Peninsula silviculture, but these forests have now seriously deteriorated, principally due to historical human actions and wild fires. Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd., syn. Quercus toza Bosc) is a medium-sized oak up to 20 m, rarely exceeding 25 m. It has a straight and slender trunk with a thick and cracked greybrown bark. The crown is wide, lobed and irregular, with many ramifications. The main branches are flexuose and develop quite high1, 2 . The root system is strong, equipped with numerous shallow, spreading, stoloniferous secondary roots, and reaches a depth of 50 cm2, 3 . It has also a deep tap root, which allows the trees to reach deep soil water content4 . This oak is a deciduous and mercescent tree5 . The leaves are simple and alternate, with deeply, pronounced, irregular lobes (4 to 8 pairs) and are velvety downy with stellate hairs on sides, conferring an ashen colour and aiding in resistance to periodic drought1, 2, 6, 7. They are very variable in size, measuring 7-20 cm in length and 4 to 10 cm in width. The colour is shiny green on the top side and paler underneath2, 8, 9 . Commonly galls developed by parasite insects are present over the leaves. The stalk is green or cream green, densely pubescent and up to 22 mm in length. The buds are ovoid-conic 4 to 9 mm in length and are tilted and clustered at the ends of the small branches2 . This tree species is monoecious. The female flowers are arranged agglomerated or grouped in small clusters, blooming in spring2, 5 . The golden pendent male catkins appear early summer and are wind pollinated5, 8 . Acorns are about 4 cm in length and 1 to 2.5 cm wide, oblong, ripened in autumn and dispersed principally by birds and micro-mammals2, 5 . It has an average longevity of 300 years2 .

Distribution Pyrenean oak is characterised by an Atlantic-Mediterranean distribution: from western and south-western France, to the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and northern Morocco7. Spain and Portugal represent about 95 % of its natural distribution area, so the species can almost be considered as endemic to the Iberian Peninsula10 . This oak is found at a wide range of altitudes, from sea


Crimson foliage in winter: leaves shed in spring when new leaves emerge. (Copyright Miquel Llop, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus pyrenaica. Frequency of Quercus pyrenaica occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. pyrenaica is derived after several sources26-29 .

level to 2 100 m in Sierra Nevada1 . Both the scientific and common name of this oak refer to the Pyrenees although it is almost nonexistent in those mountains. The German botanist Karl Ludwig von Willdenow named it on the basis of dry samples received with a wrong sticker that described its origin in the Pyrenees6 .

Habitat and Ecology This oak is a typical sub-Mediterranean mountainous species, occupying transitional areas between sub-humid temperate and Mediterranean semi-arid conditions3, 7. It is less commonly found towards the southern limit of its distribution area, taking


refuge in moist and cool montane areas11, 12 . It has a short growing season, which may determine its distribution3 . It grows with a minimum summer precipitation of 100 mm and average annual rainfall around 600 mm. Summer drought is one of its limiting factors, and it avoids the driest areas13 . Its water and soil requirements are intermediate between those of pure Atlantic and pure Mediterranean oaks14 . This oak withstands cold and heat, but requires a certain amount of moisture2 . It prefers the shade, to moderate its transpiration2 . It appears mainly on the mountainside and foot of siliceous mountains, rarely in limestone and dolomites, and prefers loose soils and a sandy texture6 . Like most oaks, it does not form a persistent seed bank in the soil5 . Owing to the wide distribution of Pyrenean oak, there is great variability among stands of this species in Spain in terms of silvicultural and ecological conditions5 . Throughout its natural range, it is usually the key species of the forest formations it occupies, although towards the limit of its northern distribution it is mixed with species of more Atlantic habits, such as pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea)15, and towards the south with sclerophyllous Mediterranean species, such as evergreen oak (Quercus ilex) or even cork oak (Quercus suber)4 . Their formations tend to be closed, although depending on the level of management their overall appearance can range from extremely closed forest to different degrees of openness, including dehesa, the traditional agro-silvo-pastoral open wood for livestock raising13 . The current characteristics of these ecosystems are associated with their historic use for humans or with disturbances linked to these uses, such as fire, which forms part of the traditional management of these areas10, 16 .

Mid-low presence 10% - 30%


Medium presence 30% - 50%

Thanks its high resprouting capability, the Pyrenean oak forests have been widely managed as coppice with silvo-pastoral uses, such as firewood, livestock grazing and charcoal production. Currently, in many of these oak coppices the extraction of fuel

Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90%




Isolated tree with new leaves in spring in Montesinho Natural Park (Bragança, northeastern Portugal). (Copyright Miguel Vieira, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

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Deeply lobed leaf with velvety stallate hairs on both sides giving an ashy-green colour. (Copyright Juan Ignacio García Viñas: CC-BY)

wood is neglected and grazing is the prevalent use17. Its wood is of worse quality than the pedunculate and sessile oak and is less usable because its trunk is not very thick and is more irregular. It is used mainly for poles and railway sleepers. The bark is rich in tannins, so it has been used in leather industries6 . Its wood presents structural characteristics (grain, porosity, permeability) ideal for barrel manufacturing18 . This oak is also cultivated as an ornamental tree, often described as ‘Pendula’ form for its weeping outer shoots even if there no distinctive cultivars6, 9 . The Pyrenean oak forests have a great landscape importance in Iberian Peninsula, forming forest ecosystems rich in species. For these reasons they are actually protected by European legislation13 .

Grazed forest dominated by Pyrenean oak near Canencia (Madrid, Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)

Threats and Diseases The Pyrenean oak forests have seriously deteriorated as a result of historical human actions, ceding a great part of their cover to agriculture, pastures, intense charcoal felling and the favouring of other tree species of major silvicultural interest such as pines16, 19, 20 . Habitat fragmentation has gradually reduced the quality and extent of these scattered forests, due also to recurrent fires, which have seen an enormous increase in frequency over the recent decades and now representing the main disturbance10, 16 . After perturbations, degraded Pyrenean oak forest may be replaced by sclerophyllous oaks, such as the evergreen oak and the cork oak, which are better adapted to the poorer soils and the drier conditions19 . While root and stem resprouting is vigorous, its natural regeneration, particularly at southern locations, is poor due to low and scattered acorn production, high rates of acorn predation by several animals and frequent seedling damage by diverse herbivores. Plantations of Pyrenean oak often suffer heavy losses, primarily from summer drought19, 21 . Pest outbreaks are recorded principally for insect defoliators. Pyrenean oaks, like other oaks, can be seriously damaged by the green oak leaf roller moth (Tortrix viridana) and the gypsy moth (Limantria dispar), this latter able to feed several on tree species but preferring oaks. Forest defoliations can also be caused by the brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoe), an invasive and generalist tree pest20 . As for the other oaks, Pyrenean oak is vulnerable to root pathogens of the genus Phytophthora (P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum)22 . Furthermore, it is moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria parasitica22 . The powdery mildew (Erysiphe quercicola) is a fungus which may have significant impacts on regeneration or on mature oaks in decline23 . The bacteria Brenneria quercina has been identified in central Spain, which is the causal agent of bark cankers and associated, among other factors, with the oak decline syndrome affecting Spanish oak forests24, 25 .

(Copyright Miquel Llop, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References

Grey-brown bark with longitudinal cracks and covered by lichens. (Copyright Xemenendura, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Oblong green acorns covered by scaled cups from ⅓ to ½ of their length. (Copyright Nuno Lavrador: CC-BY)








Apple-shaped gall formed by a the oak gall wasp Andricus quercustozae where its larvae feed and develop.



[1] J. do Amaral Franco, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares, Volume 2: Platanaceae Plumbaginaceae (partim), S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1991), pp. 15–36. [2] A. López Lillo, A. López Santalla, Árboles madrileños: guìa para reconocimiento de árboles y arbustos arboriformes de la ciudad de Madrid (Obra Social Caja Madrid, 2007). [3] V. Hernández-Santana, J. Martìnez-Fernández, C. Morán, A. Cano, European Journal of Forest Research 127, 369 (2008). [4] M. Costa, C. Morla, H. Sainz, eds., Los bosques ibéricos: una interpretación geobotánica (Ed. Planeta, Barcelona, 1997). [5] J. M. Gómez, D. Garcia, R. Zamora, Forest Ecology and Management 180, 125 (2003). [6] G. A. López González, Guìa de los árboles y arbustos de la Penìnsula Ibérica y Baleares (Mundi-Prensa, 2007), third edn. [7] J. Lorite, C. Salazar, J. Peñast, F. Valle, Acta Botanica Gallica 155, 219 (2008). [8] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [9] W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles Volume 3: N-Rh (John Murray, 1987), 8th edn. [10] E. Luis Calabuig, R. Tarrega, L. Calvo, E. Marcos, L. Valbuena, Life and Environment in the Mediterranean, L. Trabaud, ed. (WIT Press, Southampton, 2000), vol. 3 of Advances in Ecological Sciences, pp. 43–86. [11] R. Gavilán, F. Fernández-González, Journal of Vegetation Science 8, 377 (1997). [12] R. Gavilán, F. Fernández-González, C. Blasi, Plant Ecology 139, 1 (1998). [13] P. Velasco Aguirre, Comprehensive study of Quercus pyrenaica Willd. forests at Iberian Peninsula: indicator species, bioclimatic, and syntaxonomical characteristics, Ph.D. thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain (2014). [14] J. Castaño Santamarìa, M. Barrio-Anta, P. Álvarez Álvarez, iForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry 6, 113 (2013). [15] J. Timbal, Phytosociologie et forêsterie, Actes du colloque de Nancy 1985, J. C. Rameau,

J.-M. Géhu, eds. (Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd, Berlin, 1988), vol. 14 of Colloques Phytosociologiques, pp. 133–166. [16] L. Calvo, R. Tárrega, E. de Luis, Annals of Forest Science 56, 441 (1999). [17] V. Núñez, A. Hernando, J. Velázquez, R. Tejera, Journal for Nature Conservation 20, 1 (2012). [18] E. Cadahìa, B. Fernández de Simón, P. Poveda, M. Sanz, Utilización de Quercus pyrenaica Willd. de Castilla y León en el envejecimiento de vinos. Comparación con roble francés y americano, vol. 18 of INIA Monographs: Forestry (Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnologìa Agraria y Alimentaria, Madrid, 2008). [19] J. Castro, R. Zamora, J. A. Hódar, Applied Vegetation Science 9, 137 (2009). [20] S. Soria Carreras, Lepidopteros defoliadores de Quercus pyrenaica, Willdenow, 1805, vol. 7 of Boletin de sanidad vegetal FS (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentacion, 1987). [21] E. Baraza, J. M. Gómez, J. A. Hódar, R. Zamora, Canadian Journal of Botany 82, 357 (2004). [22] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [23] B. Marçais, M.-L. Desprez-Loustau, Annals of Forest Science 71, 633 (2014). [24] E. G. Biosca, et al., Phytopathology 93, 485 (2003). [25] C. Poza-Carrión, et al., Plant Pathology 57, 308 (2008). [26] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [27] R. Alìa Miranda, et al., Regiones de procedencia de especies forestales en España (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Madrid, 2009). [28] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [29] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01f807. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Nieto Quintano, P., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Quercus pyrenaica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01f807+



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Quercus robur and Quercus petraea Quercus robur and Quercus petraea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats E. Eaton, G. Caudullo, S. Oliveira, D. de Rigo Quercus robur L., (pedunculate oak) and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., (sessile oak) are common broadleaved tree species in Europe, found from Scandinavia to the Iberian Peninsula. The two species are quite similar in appearance and have a broadly overlapping range. Oak trees have cultural significance for people throughout Europe and the trees or leaves are frequently used in national or regional symbols. Oak trees can live for more than 1 000 years and grow to be 30 to 40 m in height. The wood from oaks is hard and durable and has been valued for centuries. It is favoured for construction and for wine and spirit barrels; historically it was a major source of ship timbers. Recently, concerns have arisen about the fate of oaks in the face of Acute Oak Decline, a little understood syndrome. Quercus robur L., known as pedunculate or English oak, and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., known as sessile oak, are large, rugged, deciduous broadleaved trees, native to most of Europe. Individuals can be very long-lived (over 1 000 years in some cases) and become large (over 40 m tall), attaining diameters of three to four metres1-3 . More usually, these oaks achieve a height of 30 m and diameters of up to 1 m4 . These two tree species, as well as other oaks, are very variable morphologically, and can naturally hybridise, generating individuals showing intermediate traits or the prevalence of one, so that it can be difficult to characterise them unequivocally by observations alone5, 6 . The main trunk of Q. robur tends to disappear in the crown, developing irregular boughs with twisting branches, while Q. petraea usually develops a main stem with boughs gradually deceasing in size7. The barks are grey, fissured, forming rectangular elongate blocks, which are thicker in Q. robur, while those of Q. petraea often tend to exfoliate7. The leaves are simple, obovate-oblong and deeply and irregularly lobed, with a short stalk (2-7 mm) in Q. robur and a long stalk (13-25 mm) in Q. petraea. These oaks are monoecious and wind-pollinated, with drooping male flowers in yellow catkins about 5 cm long and inconspicuous globular female flowers of 1 mm at terminal shots, which appear just after the first leaves have flushed8 . The fruits are the acorns, which are often in pairs and sit in scaly cups on the ends of long stalks in Q. robur and on short or absent stalks in Q. petraea, giving rise to its common name “sessile”, meaning “stalkless”. The acorns are very variable in size and shape, but those of Q. robur are usually smaller and rounded with olive-green longitudinal stripes visible when fresh7. Mammals and birds are important for the seed dispersal, especially the Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius) which can be considered the primary propagator9, 10 .


Map 1-A: Plot distribution map (Q. robur). Frequency of Quercus robur occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. robur is derived after EUFORGEN45 .

Distribution Both oaks occur widely across most of Europe, reaching northwards to southern Norway and Sweden, and southwards to the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, South Italy, the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey. They are sympatric in many parts of their range. Q. robur has a more extended distribution, reaching more northerly ranges on the Norwegian coast and in northern Scotland; in Mediterranean areas it is also present in Portugal, Greece and South Turkey, and eastwards into continental central Russia, up to the Urals7, 11 . The southerly range limits are difficult to define, as

these oaks can mix, compete and naturally hybridise with other Mediterranean oaks, such as Quercus pubescens and Quercus frainetto, even if at relatively low rates12 . Both oaks occur at higher elevations in southern regions: Q. robur is recorded to grow up to 1 300 m in the Alps13, while Q. petraea is more montane and in southern Turkey can reach over 2 000 m4, 14, 15 . Due to the substantial human interest and usage of the species over many centuries, there is widespread disturbance in their distribution, and the structure of their original forests is highly uncertain16 . Q. robur has been introduced into the United States for timber production and in some areas it has naturalised; more recently they have been exported into other continents as ornamental trees17, 18 .

Habitat and Ecology Q. robur and Q. petraea co-occur at many sites as a main component of temperate deciduous mixed forests, and they share several common characteristics. These oaks are vigorous trees with a large ecological amplitude, although they prefer fertile and moist soils, and are able to dominate forests in number and size at low-mid elevations19 . Both are able to behave as pioneer trees, the acorns possessing large reserves and able to survive amongst grasses whilst developing sufficiently deep roots to allow rapid shoot growth2, 10 . As these trees do not come into leaf until relatively late in the year (late April to early May), late frost damage is rarely a problem, unless the temperatures reach -3 °C killing new foliage2, 10 . Sustained temperatures below -6 °C in winter can kill acorns, despite the epicotyl requiring some chilling to break its dormancy10 . Both oaks have a good re-sprouting aptitude, so they coppice and pollard easily2, 7. Their deep and penetrating taproots (more developed in Q. petraea) give them structural stability against windthrow and allow them to withstand moderate droughts by accessing deeper water2, 10 . However, in conditions far from their optimum, they show ecological differences. The tendency is for Q. robur to grow on heavier soils in more continental climates, in wet lowlands and damp areas by streams and rivers, tolerating periodic flooding. The more drought tolerant Q. petraea prefers to grow in more Atlantic climates on light and well-drained, often rocky, soils (hence the specific Latin name petraea = of rocky places), generally occurring on slopes and hill tops, and preferring a more acid soil pH2, 7, 10, 15, 20 . They are both light-demanding trees (Q. robur more so than Q. petraea)2, 10 , and their canopies permit a good deal of light to pass through to the undergrowth, promoting the regeneration of many tree species and enriching


Stalkless acorns of sessile oak (Quercus petraea).



Map 2-A: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for Quercus robur.

Acorn of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) with long stalk. (Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

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forest diversity19 . These oaks rarely form pure forests under natural conditions. Their substantial competitor is represented by beech (Fagus sylvatica) and in a minor way other shade or half-shade trees, in the presence of which the oaks are unable to predominate as they are at a disadvantage. Typically, oaks dominate in damp to wet and nutrient-rich soils, where they occur principally with hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and other deciduous tree species such as ash (Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus angustifolia), maple (Acer campestre, Acer platanoides) and small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata). In these oak-hornbeam forest communities, assigned to the Carpinion betuli alliance, beech is out of its range, or replaced as the soils are relatively dry and warm or too wet. On warmer dry sites in sub-Mediterranean regions, Q. petraea tends to mix with Q. pubescens and with other drought-tolerant tree species, forming communities belonging to the order of Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae. In poor and acid soils, where beech is unable to regenerate, oaks form mixed forests belonging to Quercetea robori-petraea communities, which are relatively small and scattered inside the beech range. Oaks are also present in many other forest types as secondary species, principally in beech forests at low elevations, where soils and climate conditions are still favourable to oaks19, 21, 22 .


Importance and Usage Since the earliest times, these oaks have held an important role in human culture in Europe, providing wood for fuel, acorns for livestock, bark for tanning, and timber for construction. From the Greeks to the Germans, Slavs and Celts, the oak was a sacred tree15 and this is why oak is frequently a national or regional symbol, e.g. it has appeared on German, Croatian and British coins, and in the coat of arms of Bulgaria. The increasing demand for oak wood products and the reduction of natural forests have influenced the development of modern silviculture23 . Due to their capacity to produce large volumes of valuable timber, oak stands

Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability for Quercus robur.

Large pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in Dunkeld Hilton park (Scotland).

are frequently managed either as high forest or as coppice with standards23-27. Pedunculate and sessile oaks are amongst the most economically important deciduous forest trees in Europe, providing high quality hardwood for construction and furniture manufacture2 . Q. petraea wood is largely indistinguishable from that of Q. robur and is particularly appreciated for its straight grain, its durability thanks to its hardness, and its high tannin content, which makes it resistant to insect and fungal attacks28, 29 . Oaks have traditionally been used in timber-framed buildings, as well as for fencing, gates and mining timber, and in the past it was the most important wood used in the manufacture of wooden sailing vessels7. Furniture, floor-boards, panelling, joinery and veneer are also important uses of the wood10 . As the wood is resistant to liquids, it has been used for barrels for wines and spirits, where the flavour imparted by the wood is often much desired13, 30 . The most valuable oak wood has narrow rings and is produced in high mixed forests on fertile sites with long economic rotations (about 160 years of age for Q. petraea, about 130 years for Q. robur)2 . Successful oak silviculture requires particular attention, selecting the proper deciduous tree species mixture, proportion and density, which strongly influence the wood quality with regard to tree diameters, ring widths and the presence of wood knots formed by lateral epicormic shoots. Choice of site and management is also important to minimise the number of trees with ‘shake’ (the development of circular or radial cracks through the timber, which substantially reduces its value and which is influenced by a number of factors including soil type and

mechanical stresses)10, 31, 32 . Furthermore promoting an abundant and uniform natural regeneration is also crucial10, 15, 20, 33, 34 . In coppices, oaks provide a valuable source of firewood and charcoal, and in the past the bark has been much used in the tanning of leather10 . Several cultivars have been selected for ornamental purposes, especially from Q. robur, and exported all over the world. Oaks are particularly appreciated as park or roadside trees for their size and shade. Quercus robur ‘Fastigiata’ is one of the most common cultivars, large in size and with a columnar cypress-like habit; Quercus petraea ‘Laciniata’ has long narrow and deeply incised leaves4 . These tree species also have an important ecological role, as they support many species of insects such as moths, wood-boring beetles and gall-forming hymenoptera, and the acorns provide a valuable food source for many birds and mammals, such as jays, mice, squirrels and pigs10 .




Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Quercus robur.






Bud of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in late winter. (Copyright Sten Porse, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)



Defoliation of the first flush of leaves is common by several caterpillars, e.g. Tortrix viridana, Lymantria dispar, Operophtera brumata2 . A second leaf crop (known as ’St John’s’ or ’Lammas’ growth, depending on its timing) is usual. As a result of particularly heavy infestations, especially when combined with oak mildew (Erysiphe alphitoides syn. Microsphaera alphitoides), an oak’s productivity can be seriously limited, as the mildew covers the remaining leaf surfaces, preventing light



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oaks, and this has become a more widely recognised problem in recent years. It is characterised by a decrease in the density of the crown, the appearance of dark oozing wounds (’bleeds’) on the trunk, and in most cases the presence of the jewel beetle Agrilus biguttatus. This syndrome can kill trees over the course of a number of years39 . Whilst not yet fully understood, it may be the consequence of an assemblage of contributing human, environmental and biotic factors, such as lowering ground water table or absence of flooding, air and water pollution, non-adapted silvicultural practices, and climate change (e.g. 40-44).

300 year old sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Rigney (eastern France). (Copyright Arnaud 25, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

reaching them7, 10 . In recent years, oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea) has spread from its native habitat in southern Europe further north35 . This caterpillar defoliates oaks and sheds micro hairs that are a serious irritant to the human respiratory system, eyes and skin. Knopper gall wasps (Andricus quercuscalicis) cause some damage to acorn crops36 . Young oak trees often have their bark stripped by grey

squirrels10 . Pedunculate and sessile oaks are vulnerable to Lymantria dispar and moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria parasitica37. They both suffer because of root pathogens of the oomycete genus Phytophthora (P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum, P. quercina)37. Phytophthora ramorum has been known to cause extensive damage and mortality in North America, known as Sudden Oak Death. Although this pathogen has been detected in Europe, it has not yet had a substantial effect on native European oaks and it is under observation38 . Acute Oak Decline is a new syndrome affecting principally pedunculate and sessile

Bark of a sessile oak (Quercus petraea). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Uncertain, no-data Marginal/no presence < 5% Low presence 5% - 10% Mid-low presence 10% - 30% Medium presence 30% - 50% Mid-high presence 50% - 70% High presence 70% - 90% Very-high presence > 90% Maturing catkins of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in spring. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



Native

Map 1-B: Plot distribution map (Quercus petraea). Frequency of Quercus petraea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. petraea is derived after EUFORGEN46 .

162

Map 2-B: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence for Quercus petraea.



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Leaves of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in autumn. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

References

Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) in winter near Havré village (Mons, Belgium). (Copyright Jean-Pol Grandmont, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Forest dominated by sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in Sierra Ancares (North Western Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)



Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Quercus petraea.







[1] MonumentalTrees.com, Monumental trees (2015). [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] I. Colin Prentice, H. Helmisaari, Forest Ecology and Management 42, 79 (1991). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] G. Aas, Annales des sciences forestières 50, 107s (1993). [6] J. Jensen, A. Larsen, L. R. Nielsen, J. Cottrell, Annals of Forest Science 66, 706 (2009). [7] E. W. Jones, Journal of Ecology 47 (1959). [8] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [9] I. Bossema, Behaviour 70, 1 (1979). [10] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [11] A. Ducousso, S. Bordacs, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for pedunculate and sessile oaks (Quercus robur/Quercus petraea) (Bioversity International, 2003). [12] A. L. Curtu, O. Gailing, R. Finkeldey, BMC Evolutionary Biology 7, 218+ (2007). [13] A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, Bäume Mitteleuropas: Von Aspe bis Zirbelkiefer. Mit den Porträts aller Bäume des Jahres von 1989 bis 2010. (Wiley-VCH, 2010). [14] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [15] G. Aas, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2000), vol. 3. [16] R. Bunce, Trees and Their Habitats: An Ecological Guide to Some European Trees Grown at Westonbirt Arboretum (Forestry Commission Research and Development Division, Edinburgh, 1982). [17] USDA NRCS, The PLANTS database (2015). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, USA, http://plants.usda.gov. [18] K. C. Nixon, C. H. Muller, Flora of North America North of Mexico, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, ed. (New York and Oxford, 1997), vol. 3. [19] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [20] G. Aas, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2012), vol. 3. [21] European Environment Agency, European forest types. categories and types for sustainable forest management reporting and policy, Tech. rep. (2007). [22] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000).

[23] P. S. Johnson, S. R. Shifley, R. Rogers, eds., The ecology and silviculture of oaks (CABI, Wallingford, 2002). [24] E. Hochbichler, Annales des Sciences Forestières 50, 583 (1993). [25] G. K. Kenk, Annales des Sciences Forestières 50, 563 (1993). [26] R. Solymos, Annales des Sciences Forestières 50, 607 (1993). [27] G. Decocq, Biodiversity & Conservation 9, 1467 (2000). [28] EN 350-2, Durability of wood and woodbased products. Natural durability of solid wood. Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe (European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 1994). [29] L. Meyer, et al., International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 86, 79 (2014). [30] T. Garde-Cerdán, C. Ancìn-Azpilicueta, Trends in Food Science & Technology 17, 438 (2006). [31] A. J. E. Price, Shake in oak: an evidence review (Forestry Commission, 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh, 2015). [32] R. A. Mather, P. S. Savill, Forestry 67, 119 (1994). [33] E. Guilley, J.-C. Hervé, G. Nepveu, Forest Ecology and Management 189, 111 (2004). [34] G. Kerr, R. Harmer, Forestry 74, 467 (2001). [35] E. Wagenhoff, R. Blum, K. Engel, H. Veit, H. Delb, Journal of Pest Science 86, 193 (2013). [36] M. J. Crawley, C. R. Long, Journal of Ecology 83, 686 (1995). [37] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [38] N. J. Grünwald, M. Garbelotto, E. M. Goss, K. Heungens, S. Prospero, Trends in Microbiology 20, 131 (2012). [39] S. Denman, N. Brown, S. Kirk, M. Jeger, J. Webber, Forestry 87, 535 (2014). [40] J. N. Gibbs, B. J. W. Greig, Forestry 70, 399 (1997). [41] K. Sohar, S. Helama, A. Läänelaid, J. Raisio, H. Tuomenvirta, Geochronometria 41 (2014). [42] C. de Sampaio e Paiva Camilo-Alves, M. I. da Clara, N. M. de Almeida Ribeiro, European Journal of Forest Research 132, 411 (2013). [43] D. B. Stojanović, T. Levanič, B. Matović, S. Orlović, European Journal of Forest Research 134, 555 (2015). [44] R. Siwkcki, K. Ufnalski, Forest Pathology 28, 99 (1998). [45] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [46] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) (2008). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01c6df. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Eaton, E., Caudullo, G., Oliveira, S., de Rigo, D., 2016. Quercus robur and Quercus petraea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01c6df+



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Quercus suber Quercus suber in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Quercus suber L., known as cork oak, is an evergreen broadleaved tree native to the Mediterranean region. It is most noted for its thick bark which can be harvested every 9-12 years to be used for wine stoppers and a wide variety of other products. The bark is an adaptation to living in hot dry regions, as it can protect the tree and enable it to survive forest fires. Cork oak savannas are biologically very diverse landscapes with a high conservation and aesthetic value. Quercus suber L. or cork oak is a medium-sized broadleaved tree. It is slow-growing and long-lived (about 200 years or more) and usually grows to 20 m in height, but can reach 25 m and a diameter of 1.5 m in good conditions1, 2 . It has a tendency to form branches at low levels (cultivated trees are frequently pruned to prevent this and to maximise cork production2). Cork oak is a monoecious wind-pollinated species. The flowers appear from April onwards throughout the summer, and can give rise to both annual and biennial acorns. The number of acorns varies widely from year to year, with occasional very highly productive years followed by others with little or no production3 . Acorns are 2-3 cm in length in a fairly deep cup with elongated scales. The leaves are sclerophyllous, evergreen and oval in shape, 4-7 cm in length, dark green above and pale greyish colour below. The bark is thick and fissured; if it is stripped to use the cork the underlying trunk is a rich red colour.


Maturing acorns covered up to ½ of the length by cups with elongated scales. (Copyright Xemenendura, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

regions, fire is an ever-present hazard. Cork oak is well adapted to cope with fire, as its thick bark protects the tree enabling it to re-sprout from the stem after fire damage - the only European tree species with this capability7.

Distribution Worldwide, cork oak forests cover about 2.2 million hectares, almost all of which is in the Mediterranean countries of Algeria, France, Italy, Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia4 . The most extensive forests are on the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula1 . Quercus suber forests cover almost 1.5 million ha in Europe and 700 000 ha in North Africa. Its distribution is fragmented, suggesting that it is mainly relictual5 . The species has also been introduced to other countries outside the Mediterranean region in the twentieth century, either in order to produce cork or simply as an ornamental tree, and limited numbers can be found in Bulgaria, California, Chile, New Zealand, southern Australia and Turkey4 .

Habitat and Ecology Cork oak is normally found in forests or open woodlands as the main tree species, or together with other Mediterranean trees such as maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and other deciduous oak species5 . Coverage is usually sparse - around 30-60 trees per hectare6 . It frequently occurs in managed open woodland systems known variously as dehesas in Spain and montados

Importance and Usage Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Quercus suber. Frequency of Quercus suber occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for Q. suber is derived after EUFORGEN18 .

in Portugal, in which scattered mature trees coexist with an understorey composed of grassland for livestock, cereal crops and shrubland3 . It needs an average temperature of around 15 °C to thrive and cannot tolerate very low temperatures (below -10 °C), which limits its northern and altitudinal range (most cork oak forests are found below 800 m in elevation3). Apart from this it can survive in a variety of conditions and soil types, although it prefers sandy and lightly structured soils. It has a number of adaptations for growing in a warm and dry climate: it has an extensive and deep root system allowing it to cope well with drought, and it can also close the stomata on its leaves to restrict water loss3 . However, it can also grow in areas of high rainfall (for example in some north-west areas of Portugal which have an average annual rainfall of 2400 mm)1 . In Mediterranean

This species is best known for its thick corky bark, which can be harvested in late spring or early summer every 9-12 years without killing the tree. Cork is a remarkable material. light, waterproof, rot-proof, flexible, chemically stable and a natural fire-retardant. It has been used by Man for at least 2 000 years8 and is the sixth-most important non-wood forest product globally4 . It has many uses, including flooring, insulation and industrial products, although nearly 80 % of the total value of the cork crop is for wine stoppers. Cork based agglomerates are an ideal core material for components of lightweight structures, and have even been used in aerospace applications9 . Cork also has a place in scientific history: the seventeenth-century scientist Robert Hooke first described and coined the term “cell” after looking at cork cells through a microscope10 . The open structure of cork oak forest landscapes are biologically very diverse and have high conservation value6 , providing a broad range of goods and services apart from the cork harvest; these include woodfuel, pasture, herbs, mushrooms, beekeeping and leisure activities4 . Many cork oak savannas are protected ecosystems in Europe11 .


The exterior of Apollo’s Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter was covered by a thin layer of cork painted white to minimize thermal stresses during launch and ascent.


(Copyright NASA, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)


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Detail of the thick cork bark as extracted from the oak. (Copyright Sallyofmayflower, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)



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Quercus suber

Debarking operations for cork production in a plantation near Jimena de la Frontera (Andalucia, Spain).

Dehesa with oaks managed for cork production in Navalcán (Toledo, Central Spain). (Copyright Alfonso San Miguel: CC-BY)


Threats and Diseases In the past, cork oak was not particularly seriously affected by pests or diseases, apart from occasional attacks by defoliator insects. However in recent decades there has been a rise in its vulnerability across the Mediterranean and there is now concern about its decline12 . A 4-year European Commission-funded research programme “CREOAK” was set up in 2002 to address these concerns and to try to understand the scientific and management obstacles impeding the restoration and management of cork oak woodlands3 . Its main threats come from changing use of the land and decline in management or abandonment of traditional practices in Europe, with the rising use of plastic stoppers for wine contributing to this decline. Wildfires and droughts contribute to conversion of cork forests to shrubland13 . Once this has happened, it is difficult for new seedlings to re-establish the forest cover as the acorns are eaten by a variety of animals14 . In contrast, in parts of North Africa the main problem is overexploitation4, 6 . Cork oak is vulnerable to root pathogens of the genus Phytophthora (P. cinnamomi, P. ramorum) and to Lymantria dispar15 . P. cinnamomi is a biotic factor associated with cork oak decline16, 17. Furthermore, it is moderately susceptible to Cryphonectria parasitica15 .

References

Grazing bulls in a dehesa with cork oaks near Casas Alcobaza (Extremadura, West Spain). (Copyright Pablo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)










[1] L. Gil, M. C. Varela, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for cork oak (Quercus suber) (Bioversity International, 2008). [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] J. Aronson, J. S. Pereira, J. G. Pausas, Cork Oak Woodlands on the Edge: Ecology, Adaptive Management, and Restoration, The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration Series (Island Press, 2012). [4] G. Allard, et al., State of Mediterranean forests 2013 (FAO, 2013). 177 pp. [5] D. Magri, et al., Molecular Ecology 16, 5259 (2007). [6] M. N. Bugalho, M. C. Caldeira, J. a. S. Pereira, J. Aronson, J. G. Pausas, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9, 278 (2011). [7] J. G. Pausas, Journal of Vegetation Science 8, 703 (1997). [8] L. J. Gibson, K. E. Easterling, M. F. Ashby, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 377, 99 (1981).

[9] L. Gil, Materials 2, 776 (2009). [10] A. Chapman, England’s Leonardo: Robert Hooke and the Seventeenth-Century Scientific Revolution (CRC Press, 2004). [11] Council of the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union 35, 7 (1992). [12] A. Costa, H. Pereira, M. Madeira, Annals of Forest Science 67, 204 (2010). [13] V. Acácio, M. Holmgren, F. Rego, F. Moreira, G. M. J. Mohren, Agroforestry Systems 76, 389 (2009). [14] J. Herrera, Forest Ecology and Management 76, 197 (1995). [15] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [16] C. M. Brasier, Annales des Sciences Forestières 53, 347 (1996). [17] F. M. Thomas, R. Blank, G. Hartmann, Forest Pathology 32, 277 (2002). [18] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of cork oak (Quercus suber) (2009). www.euforgen.org

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01ff11. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Quercus suber in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01ff11+



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Robinia pseudoacacia Robinia pseudoacacia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Sitzia, A. Cierjacks, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Robinia pseudoacacia L., commonly known as black locust, is a tree native to North America and is one of the most important and widespread broadleaved alien trees in Europe. It is a medium-sized, deciduous, fast-growing thorny tree with high suckering capacity. It has been extensively planted in Europe and now it is naturalised in practically the whole continent. Growing on a wide range of soil types, this tree species only avoids wet or compacted conditions. It is mainly distributed in sub-Mediterranean to warm continental climates and requires a rather high heat-sum. As a light-demanding pioneer species, it rapidly colonises grasslands, semi-natural woodlands and urban habitats, where it can persist for a long time. Owing to the capacity of fixing di-nitrogen through symbiotic rhizobia in root nodules, black locust can add high rates of nitrogen to soil which becomes available to other plants. The wood of black locust is durable and rot-resistant, making it adequate for multiple purposes such as fire and pulp wood, for fences, construction and furniture. In several parts of Europe, black locust is considered an invasive alien plant, because of shading and its ability to change soil conditions. The black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) is a medium-sized deciduous tree that commonly reaches 20 m as a single tree and 30 m within stands1, 2 , but capable of attaining heights up to 35 m in some locations3 . It has a typical life span of about 60-100 years4 , although the current longevity record in Europe is for more than 300 years5 . The tree is usually bent-stemmed with greyishbrown to dark brown bark, becoming longitudinally fissured with age. The leaves are composed, pinnate, 10-30 cm long, usually with a pair of spines at the base which persist on young shoots. The leaflets are commonly in 2-12 pairs, usually opposite, with an additional one at the end of the rachis. Leaf blades are oblong, elliptic or ovate, 2-5 × 1.5-2.5 cm, with entire margin. Black locust is a monoecious species: the hermaphrodite scented flowers have a white to cream corolla with yellow spots inside, up to 2 cm long and grouped in pendent, many-flowered, axillary racemes 10-20 cm long6 . Black locust is a monoecious species: the hermaphrodite, white and fragrant flowers are arranged in pendulous racemes 1020 cm long6 . The fruit is a legume, 5-10 cm long dark brown pods hanging in winter and containing 4-10 seeds, mainly dispersed by gravity and wind7. Fruiting takes place once or twice per year at a tree age from 6 to 30-40 years8 .

Distribution Black locust is widespread across Europe, occurring from Sicily in Italy to South Norway and longitudinally from the Portugal littoral regions up to the Caucasus9-11 . Core areas in the alien range of this species are in sub-Mediterranean to warm continental climates, where a rather high heat-sum is available7 and prolonged drought is rare12 . It can be found from sea level up to 1 640 m in the Southern Alps (Prosser F., pers. comm., July 1, 2015). The species was introduced in Europe in the early 17th century. Linnaeus dedicated the genus

Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75%

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Robinia pseudoacacia. Frequency of Robinia pseudoacacia occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories.

name to Jean Robin, who, with his son Vespasien, was among the first arborists to introduce and cultivate this tree in Europe5. In the late 18th and early 19th century extensive planting of black locust trees started in Central Europe. Currently it occurs in 42 European countries and is naturalised in 3213, covering with pure and mixed stands, for example, 400 000 ha in Hungary14, 200 000 ha in France15, 250 000 ha in Romania16 and 230 000 ha in Italy17. Although accounted among the 100 most invasive alien species in Europe11, only a few countries have policies and initiatives to tackle it18.


Black locust invasion has been proven to have an impact on biodiversity when compared with the native habitats. This applies to both plant34-36 , bird37 and lichen38 communities. These effects depend on the stand age and the landscape type. For example, the presence of black locust in recent secondary stands in rural landscapes does not seem to play a major role in shaping the diversity of the understorey plant groups compared to native stands39 . In urban areas, it seems to have the ability to homogenize processes at the plant community level36 . Further research is needed to elucidate the effect of different management techniques on the ability of black locust to invade adjacent forest and semi-natural habitats30 .

Habitat and Ecology Black locust is a light-demanding pioneer species and grows either as an upright, single- or multi-stemmed tree or, in harsh environments, as a multi-stemmed shrub. It tolerates a remarkably diverse range of soil conditions, being only limited by low soil aeration and waterlogging. On steep slopes, black locust is usually less vigorous19. The tree is easily damaged by extreme frosts in winter and presents low adaptability to arid conditions6, 20. Climate warming is expected to favour its further expansion21 . Its reproduction is primary asexual through horizontal root elongation22 . It is able to produces a high number of root suckers and therefore exhibits the capacity for clonal growth, up to an area of 100 square metres23. Disturbance favours clonal growth and causes an increase in the number of suckers19. The invasion of black locust is well documented in early succession habitats, like abandoned gravelsand pits and landfills, brownfields, secondary forests, coppiced forests, lowland pastures, roadsides, and burned sites6 . As with other species of the Fabaceae (syn. Leguminosae) family, the roots of black locust host rhizobia bacteria in symbiotic relationship within structures called root nodules. These bacteria have the capacity to take di-nitrogen gas (N2) out of the air and convert it to a form usable to the host plant (nitrogen fixation). This process makes nitrogen available to other plants, mainly through mineralization of leaf litter, and improves the quality of the soils. Black locust can add between 23 and 300 kg of nitrogen in a hectare every year6 . So stands of black locust may generate substantial soil alterations, increasing the total soil nitrogen, the litter and the organic carbon, also changing soil pH and decreasing the total phosphorus6 . Its adaptability and the capacity of transforming ecosystem processes are the reason for its adverse effects on biodiversity. However, inferior competitive ability in later successional stages is reported where stands have been left unmanaged for a sufficient time24 . Black locust commonly contributes to the composition of deciduous woodlands, mainly oak and riparian woods, which are the most frequently invaded12 . Stands dominated by black locust are cultural forest communities, which can totally differ from native forest vegetation25. As such, they have been either classified within the phytosociological separate class Robinietea or included in other units, as a derivative community26 . Several associations have been described in Central Europe, among which Balloto-Robinietum (diagnostic species include Ballota nigra, Bromus sterilis, Dactylis glomerata) on poor aeolian sandy soils, Solidagino-Robinietum (diagnostic species include Solidago



Biodiversity concerns


166

Black locust in Berlin, Germany. (Copyright Giovanni Trentanovi: CC-BY)



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Robinia pseudoacacia

gigantea) on river valley soils, Chelidonio-Robinietum on slightly humid soils rich in humus, characterised by an understorey with the greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) and other species (Sambucus nigra, Galium aparine, Urtica dioica, Geranium robertianum), and Poo nemoralis-Robinietum, with herb layer dominated by Poa nemoralis, on slopes with acid bedrock26 .


Fragrant white flowers clustered in a long raceme. (Mezzana, Northern Italy). (Copyright Giulia Corradini: CC-BY: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage Black locust has been strongly encouraged as a forestry tree in Europe. The yellow and greenish wood is durable, resistant to stem rot and insect damage, with a marked contrasted colour between young and mature wood. Black locust is appreciated as firewood because of its high calorific potential and the high suckering capacity which makes coppicing the most costeffective management system. The mechanical properties of the wood is moderate to high, but shrinkage has been observed6, 27. The potential uses include fence posts, boatbuilding, flooring, furniture, mine timbers, railway sleepers, turned objects, and veneer. Moreover, it is a promising fast-growing tree species for biomass production28 . Finally, black locust produces a fruity and fragrant honey29 , and its blossoms are used for cooking. However, all these uses should consider the risk of further expansion of black locust in adjacent threatened habitats30 .


Threats and Diseases Large herbivores cause only minor damage to black locust trees in Europe. Until now, exclusively one gall midge (Obolodiplosis robiniae) and two moths (Phyllonorycter robiniella and Parectopa robiniella) are known to cause some damage31, 32 . Many lignicolous fungal species have been detected in the alien range, of which more than 40 are parasitic. Moreover, 11 mildews and leaf-spot diseases have been recorded in Germany6 . Finally, some viruses, potentially pathogenic to crops, are known from the alien range33 . In general, threats for black locust in Europe are much fewer and of lower intensity than those in its native range6 .

References

Long legume which can contain 4-10 seeds. (Copyright Marinella Zepigi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)



[9] L. Gederaas, T. L. Moen, S. Skjelseth, L.-K. Larsen, eds., Alien species in Norway - with the Norwegian Black List 2012 (The Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre, Norway, 2012). [10] A. A. Fedorov, Flora of Russia: The European Part and Bordering Regions Volume 6 (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 2001). [11] M. Vilà, et al., Handbook of Alien Species in Europe, DAISIE, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2009), vol. 3 of Invading Nature - Springer Series in Invasion Ecology, pp. 269–374. [12] D. Ubaldi, Le vegetazioni erbacee e gli arbusteti italiani - Tipologie fitosociologiche ed ecologia (Aracne, Roma, 2013). [13] P. Pyšek, et al., Handbook of Alien Species in Europe, DAISIE, ed. (Springer Netherlands, 2009), vol. 3 of Invading Nature - Springer Series in Invasion Ecology, pp. 43–61.


[26] M. Vítková, J. Kolbek, Phytocoenologia 40, 205 (2010). [27] C. Pollet, C. Verheyen, J. Hébert, B. Jourez, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, 831 (2012). [28] H. Grünewald, et al., BioEnergy Research 2, 123 (2009). [29] D. Kenjeric, M. Mandic, L. Primorac, D. Bubalo, A. Perl, Food Chemistry 102, 683 (2007). [30] T. Sitzia, The Forestry Chronicle 90, 486 (2014). [31] C. Duso, M. Skuhravá, Frustula Entomologica 25, 117 (2004). [32] E. Fodor, O. Hâruţa, Research Journal of Agricultural Science 41, 261 (2009). [33] N. Borodynko, B. Hasiów, M. Figlerowicz, H. Pospieszny, Journal of Phytopathology 155, 738 (2007). [34] G. Matus, B. Tóthmérész, M. Papp, Applied Vegetation Science 6, 169 (2003). [35] R. Benesperi, et al., Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 3555 (2012). [36] G. Trentanovi, et al., Diversity and Distributions 19, 738 (2013). [37] P. Laiolo, E. Caprio, A. Rolando, Forest Ecology and Management 179, 441 (2003). [38] J. Nascimbene, L. Marini, Science of The Total Environment 408, 5506 (2010). [39] T. Sitzia, T. Campagnaro, M. Dainese, A. Cierjacks, Forest Ecology and Management 285, 85 (2012).






[1] H. Gams, Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, Band 4, Teil 3, G. Hegi, ed. (Lehmanns, München, 1924), pp. 1390–1402. [2] J. C. Huntley, Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), Agriculture Handbook 654 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC., 1990). [3] B. Keresztesi, Forest Ecology and Management 6, 217 (1983). [4] C. Loehle, Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18, 209 (1988). [5] F. J. Peabody, Castanea 47, 99 (1982).A. Cierjacks, et al., Journal of Ecology 101, 1623 (2013). [6] A. Cierjacks, et al., Journal of Ecology 101, 1623 (2013). [7] I. Kowarik, Biologische Invasionen: Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa (Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany, 2010), second edn. [8] K. Masaka, et al., Forest Ecology and Management 260, 780 (2010).

[14] K. Rédei, I. Csiha, Z. Keserü, A. K. Végh, J. Győri, South-East European Forestry 2, 101 (2011). [15] Service de l’Inventaire Forestier et Statistique, Inventaire forestiere: tableaux personnalises, Tech. rep. (2012). Institut National de l’Information Géographique et Forestière. [16] C. M. Enescu, A. D. Ănescu, Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov Series II: Forestry, Wood Industry, Agricultural Food Engineering 6, 23 (2013). [17] G. Tabacchi, et al., Inventario Nazionale delle Foreste e dei Serbatoi Forestali di Carbonio: Le stime di superficie 2005 - Prima parte (MiPAF, Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Ispettorato Generale; CRA, Istituto Sperimentale per l’Assestamento Forestale e per l’Alpicoltura, Trento, 2005). [18] European Commission, Commission Staff Working Document 2013, 7pp (2013). [19] M. Vìtková, J. Tonika, J. Müllerová, Science of The Total Environment 505, 315 (2015). [20] T. Jin, G. Liu, B. Fu, X. Ding, L. Yang, Chinese Geographical Science 21, 290 (2011). [21] I. Kleinbauer, S. Dullinger, J. Peterseil, F. Essl, Biological Conservation 143, 382 (2010). [22] I. Kowarik, Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie 26, 173 (1996). [23] C.-S. Chang, B. Bongarten, J. Hamrick, Journal of Plant Research 111, 17 (1998). [24] R. Motta, P. Nola, R. Berretti, Annals of Forest Science 66, 410 (2009). [25] E. Hadač, J. Sofron, Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 15, 245 (1980).

A stand with a dense carpet of celandines (Chelidonium majus) (Berlin, Germany). (Copyright Giovanni Trentanovi: CC-BY)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e014e79. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Sitzia, T., Cierjacks, A., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Robinia pseudoacacia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e014e79+



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Salix alba Salix alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Salix alba L., known as white willow, is one of the largest and most well-known willows. Its common name comes from its distinctive pale silvery leaves. It is one of the species of willows cultivated as osiers, characterised by having pliable branches and narrow-leaves. It has a wide distribution, ranging from Europe through central Russia up to the Chinese borders. This fast-growing willow occurs in temperate climates, and tolerates a wide variety of soils, provided roots have access to water. Salix alba L. (white willow) is a fast-growing dioecious broadleaved tree. It is one of the largest of the willow species and can reach heights of up to 30 m and a diameter of 1 m or more1 . It is not long lived: usually surviving only 20-30 years2 . The deeply fissured bark is dark grey with corky ridges. The leaves are long and narrow (lanceolate), silver-grey on the top side and with dense silky white hairs on the underside, giving the tree a distinctive pale appearance3, 4 . The yellow male catkins are up to 5 cm long; the female ones are shorter and greenish-yellow, becoming fluffy white, and attract pollinating insects3, 3 .


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Salix alba. Frequency of Salix alba occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. alba is derived after Meusel and Jäger, and Skvortsov20, 21 .

White willow in a riparian forest near Bingen (Rhineland-Palatinate, West Germany). (Copyright Willow, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology

Silver-grey lanceolate leaves with hairy upper side. (Copyright Rosendahl, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Distribution The white willow is widely distributed throughout Europe except in the northern regions, though Asia Minor and central Russia to Chinese borders. In the west at its southernmost extent it can be found around the Mediterranean basin, including North Africa (Morocco and Algeria). In the north its range includes the British Isles, the Netherlands and the eastern Baltic coast (Latvia and Lithuania). Its natural range is difficult to determine as it has been extensively cultivated1, 2 .

The white willow is a riparian species of temperate climates, with mild winters, warm summers with short drought periods1 . It typically grows near water on the banks of rivers and lakes or by ponds, streams, wet hollows and ditches5 . It occurs from sea level to 2 400 m in the most southerly parts of its range1 . It tolerates a wide variety of soil types, preferring sandy, silty or calcareous soils, but the roots need access to water. It is strongly light-demanding and does not tolerate shade. It can be pollarded or coppiced and can readily reproduce from suckers or from adventitious roots6 . Adults of white willow are noticeably tolerant to inundation, performing better even in comparison with flood-tolerant taxa such as Ulmus laevis, Ulmus minor and Quercus robur7.

Importance and Usage The timber of white willow has a number of commercial uses. These include wooden kitchen utensils, archery bows, hoops, wicker baskets, canoes, and some construction use (e.g. log cabins)1 . The variety Salix alba var. caerulea is known as cricket bat willow, as its timber is particularly suited for this purpose8 . There are a number of non-wood products, including tannin from the bark and salycin (from which aspirin was produced), but these generally have little commercial importance now2 . A number of cultivars with attractive stem colours have been bred for ornamental purposes. The white willow distribution range overlaps with many

Male catkins with yellow stamens in spring. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

168

areas in Europe with high erosion rates, in particular in moist slopes with high drainage-area within the European mountain systems9 . In these critical areas, the white willow contributes to mitigate erosion, and more generally it is also useful for erosion control and stabilising the banks of waterways, as well as for ecosystem restoration and phytoremediation10-12 .

Threats and Diseases This species is particularly susceptible to watermark disease, caused by the bacterium Erwinia salicis13, 14 . Diseased trees suffer from wilting, withering, and browning of leaves and tips of new shoots, followed by die-back of affected branches and eventually the death of the tree. Wood from affected trees becomes brittle and unsuitable for use. The white willow is also attacked by the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), despite showing noticeable resistance and thus potentially acting as overwintering reservoir of the beetle15-17. It suffers from occasional but severe outbreaks of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)15, 18, 19 . Furthermore, it is susceptible to Phytobia barnesi, which impairs the wood quality, and to the defoliators Porthetria obfuscate and Yponomeuta rorella17.

References [1] J. G. Isebrands, J. Richardson, Poplars and willows: trees for society and the environment (CABI ; FAO, 2014). [2] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [3] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] R. V. Lansdown, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2014), pp. 203465/0+. [6] H. Koop, Vegetatio 72, 103 (1987). [7] A. Schnitzler, The Botanical Review 63, 40 (1997). [8] J. Wilkinson, Annals of Botany 5 (1941). [9] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [10] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [11] Y. Kuzovkina, M. Quigley, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 162, 183 (2005). [12] J. Ball, J. Carle, A. Del Lungo, Unasylva 56, 3 (2005). [13] W. R. Day, The watermark disease of the cricket bat Willow (Salix caerulea), Oxford Forestry Memoirs n. 3 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1924).

[14] J. G. Turner, J. M. L. Davis, K. Guven, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Section B. Biological Sciences 98, 105 (1992). [15] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [16] M. Faccoli, R. Favaro, M. T. Smith, J. Wu, Agricultural and Forest Entomology 17, 188 (2015). [17] V. de Tillesse, L. Nef, J. Charles, A. Hopkin, S. Augustin, Damaging poplar Insects - Internationally important species (International Poplar Commission, FAO, Rome, 2007). [18] G. Camerini, Bulletin of Insectology 62, 21 (2009). [19] M. J. Lechowicz, Y. Mauffette, Revue d’Entomologie du Quebec 31, 43 (1986). [20] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [21] A. K. Skvortsov, Willows of Russia and Adjacent Countries: Taxonomical and Geographical Revision (English translation of 1968 Russian edition) (University of Joensuu, Finland, 1999).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01153e. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Salix alba in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01153e+



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Mediterranean vegetation on the coasts of the Fethiye Gulf (Muğla, Turkey). (Copyright Jorge Franganillo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Sclerophyllous evergreen forest of the Gutturu Mannu mountain area in the Sulcis Regional Park (south Sardinia, Italy). (Copyright Niki.L, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Limestone cliffs of the Praia da Marinha near Lagoa (Algarve, South Portugal). (Copyright Miguel Vieira, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)



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Salix caprea Salix caprea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Salix caprea L., commonly known as goat willow, is a pioneer and a fast-growing plant, which has a wide distributional area across Europe and Asia in the boreal and temperate zones. The scientific name caprea means goat, which probably derives from the fact that its leaves were used as goat fodder. Due to its wide distribution range and its high ecological amplitude, goat willow represents a very valuable multi-purpose species, used principally for biomass plantation and for gardening and hedges. The goat willow (Salix caprea L.) is a deciduous small to medium-size tree or shrub with heights up to 10 m1, 2 , reaching only exceptionally 15 m3. It has a far-reaching and especially well-developed fibrous root system1 . The trunks are small, occasionally reaching a diameter of 40 cm4 . The bark is smooth at the beginning, forming a thin rhytidome, irregularly cracked2 . The twigs are greenish, thick and with grey hairs. The leaves are alternate, broadly elliptic and up to 5-12 cm long. The upper side of the leaf is green and glossy, while the underside is covered by densely and softy white-downy hairs1, 5 . The goat willow is a dioecious species and catkins appear in early spring (usually in March or April, depending on the site conditions). Male catkins have spreading yellow stamens, while female catkins are greenish and insect-pollinated. The catkins are erect, with approximately 100200 flowers in each female catkin and 200-300 flowers in each male catkin, respectively. Catkins are produced abundantly and they appear before the leaves3 . This willow naturally hybridises with a number of other Salix species, producing fertile descendants with intermediate characteristics. Hence, this makes it difficult to determinate taxonomical limits and to assign individuals to a particular species within the Salix genus6, 7.

Distribution This species is native to cool temperate and boreal regions of Europe and Asia, occurring in a large range of habitats across Europe and Asia8 . Its wide distribution spreads from Spain to China, from Turkey and northern Iran to Fennoscandia and Siberia reaching up to 70° north latitude1, 9-11 . It has been also introduced in eastern North America and is now naturalised12 .

Habitat and Ecology The goat willow is a pioneer13 and a fast-growing plant14 , tolerating a wide variety of edaphic and climatic conditions1 . It shows a high adaptability to different habitat conditions15 , such as dry or wet sites16 , usually growing in mesic to moist stands4 . It prefers the calcareous sites, but it grows on almost all soil

sylvatica) and Norway spruce, it is present with other understorey species such as hazel (Corylus avellana), elder (Sambucus nigra) and bramble shrubs of the genus Rubus, occurring principally in forest clearings and open areas24-26 .


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Salix caprea. Frequency of Salix caprea occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. caprea is derived after several sources9, 52-56 .

types17. Compared with other willow species, the goat willow is more sensitive to continuous flooding18 , avoiding the saturated soils of wetlands19 . Regarding its demand for light, it is a very shade intolerant species, occurring in open areas with full sun1 , but it is one of the few willow species able to grow in forest understories8 . Unlike almost all other willows, the goat willow can only occasionally be propagated vegetatively by cuttings8, 20 . In boreal forests, it is found in the dominant Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and birch (Betula spp.) forests, in admixture with other deciduous species such as aspen (Populus tremula) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)21, 22 , favoured by disturbances which create open areas23 . In temperate forests dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.), European beech (Fagus


(Copyright Willow, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage This species has a wide variety of uses. The scientific name caprea actually means goat, which probably derives from the fact that its leaves are used as fodder27. In northern Europe, it is a common species in the agricultural landscape, used as a windbreak and hedge28 , and its foliage is used as fodder for cattle and goats29, 30 . In traditional medicine, goat willow extracts are used as a painkiller, astringent, antiseptic, eye tonic28 , or even to treat malaria, gout, neuralgia and intestinal diseases31 . As is also the case with other willows, a good charcoal can be obtained from its burnt wood, which in the past was used for gunpowder and for drawing pencils32, 33 . The goat willow is particularly valuable for its high biomass production in short rotation plantations and its role in landscape restoration34, as it is able to tolerate even polluted land35. Worldwide, this willow is also used for its ability to extract heavy metals, such as Cd and Zn, (i.e. phyto-extraction strategy) from polluted sites34-36 . During spring holidays, in several places across Europe, its flowering branches are in high demand37. It is also appreciated as a melliferous plant species38, 39 , supplying a honey production of 150-200 kg/ha40 . The goat willow distribution range overlaps with many areas in Europe with high erosion rates, including European boreal areas and moist slopes with high drainage-area within the European mountain systems41 . In these critically erosion-prone areas, it contributes to key ecosystem services such as watershed protection and soil stabilisation42 . As for other willows and poplars, it is also useful for ecosystem restoration and phytoremediation 43,44 . Finally, the goat willow plays an important role in maintaining species diversity, by being the host of several lichen species4, 37.



Goat Willow in Hesse, Germany.


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Male catkins turn yellow when the pollen is ready for release. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



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Salix caprea

This willow is among the first flowering plants in the spring, the catkins providing a high quantity of pollen and nectar as a food source, to bees, insects or birds, such as Eurasian blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus)3 .


Female catkins are insect pollinated. (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

Threats and Diseases The goat willow is a short-living plant and has no severe threatening diseases in its natural habitats. Pests are reported to result in economic loss only in biomass coppice plantations. The fungus Rhytisma salicinum, the leaf-galler sawfly Pontania pedunculi and the leaf-folder sawfly of genus Phyllocolpa may cause damage to individuals, by affecting the leaves45 . The rust fungus Melampsora capaearum may infect the goat willow and its hybrids, raising dusty orange spots or pustules on the leaves, resulting in lower photosynthetic performance and eventually defoliating the trees. Breeding programmes have been promoted for selecting rust resistant willows in biomass plantations and


gardening plants46, 47. The goat willow is susceptible to attacks from the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), despite showing noticeable resistance and thus potentially acting as overwintering reservoir of the beetle48, 49 . It is also vulnerable to the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)48, 50, 51 . Nematus miliaris can completely defoliate the goat willow, which in Poland has been reported to be preferentially attacked (along with Salix

References

The leaves are broader than those of many other willow species.

[1] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005). [2] I. D. Trava, G. F. Borlea, W. Hollerbach, Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology 18, 209 (2014). [3] Q. O. N. Kay, Bird Study 32, 40 (1985). [4] M. Kuusinen, Mitt. Eidgenoss. Forsch. anst. Wald. Schnee. Landsch. 70, 125 (1995). [5] B. Eversham, A key to lowland willows, sallows and osiers (2006). V. 1.6. [6] M. Aránzazu Prada, D. Arizpe, Riparian Tree and Shrub Propagation Handbook: An Aid to Riverine Restoration in the Mediterranean Region (Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, 2008). [7] A. E. Palme, V. Semerikov, M. Lascoux, Heredity 91, 465 (2003). [8] H. Neuner, R. Beiderbeck, Silvae Genetica 42, 308 (1993). [9] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [10] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986).









[11] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [12] G. W. Argus, Flora of North America North of Mexico, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, ed. (New York and Oxford, 2010), vol. 7. [13] A. Bobiec, Polish Journal of Ecology 55, 441 (2007). [14] J. B. Faliński, Journal of Vegetation Science 9, 57 (1998). [15] J. Dušek, J. Květ, Biologia 61, 441 (2006). [16] T. F. Marshall, Section 5: Salicaceae (willows & poplars) (Prestwood Nature, 2014). [17] S. Lowe, N. Repper, L. Miles, S. G. Wallace, Notes on tree planting and the use of native species in North East England (Wildlife Trusts, Northumberland, UK, 2012). [18] R. J. Talbot, J. R. Etherington, J. A. Bryant, New Phytologist 105, 563 (1987). [19] J. G. Isebrands, J. Richardson, Poplars and willows: trees for society and the environment (CABI ; FAO, 2014).


[20] M. Liesebach, G. Naujoks, Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 79, 239 (2004). [21] E. Lähde, T. Eskelinen, A. Väänänen, Forestry 75, 395 (2002). [22] T. Kuuluvainen, Silva Fennica 36 (2002). [23] O. Engelmark, Boreal forest disturbances (Elsevir, 1999), chap. 6, pp. 161–186. [24] M. Budzáková, D. Galvánek, P. Littera, J. Šibìk, Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 82, 13 (2013). [25] R. Van Couwenberghe, C. Collet, E. Lacombe, J.-C. Pierrat, J.-C. Gégout, Forest Ecology and Management 260, 146 (2010). [26] T. Degen, F. Devillez, A.-L. Jacquemart, Annals of Forest Science 62, 429 (2005). [27] J. E. Smith, The English Flora Vol. 4 (Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, London, 1830), second edn. [28] A. Ahmed, W. A. Shah, S. Akbar, M. Younis, D. Kumar, International Journal of Research in Phytochemistry & Pharmacology 1, 17 (2011). [29] A. Popp, K.-M. Scheibe, Agriculture 3, 147 (2013). [30] J. Smith, The History of Temperate Agroforestry (The Organic Research Centre, Elm Farm, Newbury, Berkshire, UK, 2010). [31] A. Ahmed, et al., Journal of Pharmacy Research 4, 1067 (2011). [32] F. P. Porcher, Resources of the southern fields and forests, medical, economical, and agricultural (Walker, Evans & Cogswell, Charleston, South Carolina, U.S., 1869). [33] W. Withering, A botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in Great Britain, vol. 2 (Cadel and Elmsley, London, 1776). [34] M. Vaculìk, et al., Environmental Pollution 163, 117 (2012). [35] C. Varga, M. Marian, L. Mihaly-Cozmuta, A. Mihaly-Cozmuta, L. Mihalescu, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula Biologie 16, 141 (2009). [36] M. Kuffner, et al., Journal of Applied Microbiology 108, 1471 (2010). [37] W.-D. Gu, M. Kuusinen, T. Konttinen, I. Hanski, Ecography 24, 139 (2001). [38] N. Ion, International Scientific Symposium (University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iaşi, Romania, 2008).

[39] A. C. Băloi, I. Csosz, S. C. Martin, A. Bogluţ, Lucrări Ştiinţifice. Management Agricol 15, 241 (2013). [40] D. C. Popovici, E. Crăiniceanu, D. S. Bistrean, O. Colibar, Lucrări Ştiinţifice Medicină Veterinară 40, 46 (2007). [41] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [42] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [43] Y. Kuzovkina, M. Quigley, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 162, 183 (2005). [44] J. Ball, J. Carle, A. Del Lungo, Unasylva 56, 3 (2005). [45] J. Hjältén, L. Ericson, H. Roininen, Ecoscience 7, 51 (2000). [46] B. Bubner, et al., Fungal Biology 118, 910 (2014). [47] M. H. Pei, T. Hunter, D. J. Royle, New Phytologist 141, 155 (1999). [48] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [49] V. de Tillesse, L. Nef, J. Charles, A. Hopkin, S. Augustin, Damaging poplar Insects - Internationally important species (International Poplar Commission, FAO, Rome, 2007). [50] M. J. Lechowicz, Y. Mauffette, Revue d’Entomologie du Quebec 31, 43 (1986). [51] E. M. Andreeva, Russian Journal of Ecology 33, 342 (2002). [52] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI big database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk [53] B. Jonsell, ed., Flora Nordica, Vol 1: Lycopodiaceae - polygonaceae (The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, 2000). [54] A. K. Skvortsov, Willows of Russia and Adjacent Countries: Taxonomical and Geographical Revision (English translation of 1968 Russian edition) (University of Joensuu, Finland, 1999). [55] Anthos, Information System of the plants of Spain (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC Fundación Biodiversidad, 2015). http://www.anthos.es. [56] Tela Botanica, eFlore (2015). http://www.tela-botanica.org

elegantissima), compared with other willows49 . This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of


this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01322d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Salix caprea in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01322d+



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Sambucus nigra Sambucus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo The elder (Sambucus nigra L.) is a deciduous shrub characterized by large white and scented inflorescences and glossy dark purple-black berries. It is common in Europe from Mediterranean regions to South Scandinavia. It is able to grow in a wide range of site conditions, generally on forest edges and open woodlands often associated to disturbed and eutrophic areas, but avoiding drought and salty soils. It is cultivated worldwide for its berries, which are used for both culinary and medical purposes. Sambucus nigra L., also known as black elderberry, common elder or European elder, is usually a 4-5 m tall shrub or rarely a small tree, up to 10 m in height, with vigorous erect shoots, arching branches and brownish-grey and deeply furrowed bark1, 2 . It is short-lived, rarely surviving more than 35 years3 . Twigs are greyish, with porous-white pith and prominent lenticels1 . Leaves are in opposite pairs with 3-(5-7)-9 leaflets, which are usually ovate, acuminate and with serrate margins1, 2 . The leaves are mildly poisonous1 . Flowers appear in late spring to mid-summer after leafing, usually in the third or fourth year, occasionally in the second producing flat clusters of strongly scented white or cream flowers of up to 10-20 cm in diameter1, 4 . The fruit is a glossy dark purple-black berry, 3-5 mm in diameter, which ripens during August and September1, 4 . Fruit and viable seed production is high every year, and the species may be propagated from seeds or cuttings. It also re-sprouts readily from stumps1, 3, 5 .


Distribution The elder is common in western and central Europe. Its northern limit is Scotland and southern Scandinavia, and it can be found as far south as Sicily and mainland Greece. It can also be found in Asia and North Africa (probably through cultivation), and has become naturalised in North America1 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Sambucus nigra. Frequency of Sambucus nigra occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. nigra is derived after Meusel and Jäger11 .

Pedunculate inflorescence with white flowers arranged in umbel. (Copyright Tracy Houston Durrant: CC-BY)

Habitat and Ecology Elder is capable of growing in a broad variety of site conditions, including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations and generally in the open or on woodland edges1-3 . It is not drought tolerant, but it can cope with shade and it can also grow in relatively poor soil conditions, except in salty soils3, 6 . It is associated with disturbed and eutrophic soils and can be found in floodplains, coastal scrub, on forest margins and in forest gaps, abandoned fields, in urban areas or in the underbrush layer in forests2, 6 .

Importance and Usage The wood of the elder is white, close grained and easily worked, and is suitable for making small objects such as skewers, combs and mathematical instruments. In past years it was valued by watchmakers who would use small sticks (“pegwood”) as well as the pith to manipulate the delicate working parts2, 5 . Leaves, flowers and berries can all be used to produce dyes3 . Elder is also a well-recognised medicinally important species2, 3, 7. Its flowers and berries are used in treating several diseases such as diabetes, colic, diarrhoea, fever, coughs, colds, congestion, bronchitis, influenza, allergies, rheumatism, swollen limbs, burns, inflamed mucous membranes2, 3, 8 . The ripe berries can be used for making juice, jellies or wine and the flowers are used to flavour drinks2, 3, 9 . The fruit is also an important food source for birds and other animals3, 7. This species is sometimes planted to control soil erosion2 or as an ornamental shrub10,7.

Threats and Diseases Around 19 species of phytophagous insects are associated with elder: a relatively small number. The larvae of a number of moths including Euproctis chrysorrhoea, Choristoneura hebenstreitella and Phlyctaenia coronata feed in spun or rolled leaves and may defoliate the plant. Leaf spots are produced by the fungus Cercospora depazeoides. A number of viruses cause leaf roll or chlorotic patches1, 3 .

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Black elder in the Burgwald Mountains near Wetter-Unterrosphe (Hesse, Germany). (Copyright Willow, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

References [1] M. D. Atkinson, E. Atkinson, Journal of Ecology 90, 895 (2002). [2] T. K. Lim, Edible Medicinal and NonMedicinal Plants (Springer Netherlands, 2012), pp. 30–44. [3] D. Charlebois, P. L. Byers, C. E. Finn, A. L. Thomas, Horticultural Reviews, J. Janick, ed., no. 37 in Horticultural Reviews (Wiley, 2010). [4] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [5] C. R. Metcalfe, Kew Bulletin 3, 163 (1948). [6] F. Clinovschi, Dendrologie (Editura Universitatii Suceava, 2005).

Scented flowers have 5 white petals and 5 yellow stamens.

Mature glossy dark-blue berries ripen at the end of September.

(Copyright Marinella Zepigi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

(Copyright Gary Houston, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)

[7] C. Cumo, Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From Acacia to Zinnia (ABC-CLIO, 2013). [8] A. M. Gray, Y. H. A. Abdel-Wahab, P. R. Flatt, The Journal of Nutrition 130, 15 (2000). [9] V. Schmitzer, R. Veberic, A. Slatnar, F. Stampar, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, 10143 (2010). PMID: 20735034. [10] C. E. Finn, A. L. Thomas, P. L. Byers, S. Serçe, HortScience 43, 1385 (2008). [11] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e013c0f. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Sambucus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e013c0f+



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Mixed spruce/beech stands in Cansiglio Forest (North-East Italy). (Copyright Umberto Salvagnin, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Coloured beech leaves in autumn. (Copyright claude05alleva, pixabay.com: CC0)

Beech forest with autumnal foliage in Romania. (Copyright valiunic, pixabay.com: CC0)

Vinyards along Danube River near Dürnstein (Krems-Land, Austria). (Copyright Chris De Wit, unsplash.com: CC0)



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Sorbus aria Sorbus aria in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats E. Welk, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo Sorbus aria (L.) Crantz or common whitebeam (syn. Aria nivea) is a medium sized deciduous tree or shrub, characterised by white small flowers arranged in inflorescences, which develop lenticel-speckled reddish pomes. It is a mountain species of southern, western and central Europe, occurring mainly in openings and at the edges of European limestone beech forests. It is part of a larger and relatively recent evolving species complex arising from crossing-events between taxa and populations of the Sorbus species, which covers a wider distribution reaching Central Asia. It is quite a popular ornamental tree, although its practical use is comparatively low. Sorbus aria (L.) Crantz (syn. Aria nivea) or common whitebeam is a slow-growing, small to medium sized deciduous tree or shrub that grows up to 5-15 m tall, rarely up to 20 m and 40 cm in diameter1 . The species often develops multiple, slender trunks with a smooth to shallowly fissured, yellowish-grey bark that becomes grey-black with vertical cracks when old. Younger shoots are shiny olive or yellowish- to reddish-brown, usually densely tomentose and have large, conspicuously hairy terminal buds1, 2 . The leaves change colour from light green in spring to dark green in summer, and then to yellow in autumn. They are alternate, simple and variable in shape, from ovate, elliptical to circular, with double-serrate toothed margins, sometimes indented into shallow lobes. Their size is approximately 6-12 cm long and 4-8 cm wide. They are usually densely white haired beneath with around 10-15 pairs of veins2 . Whitebeam is a monoceous hermaphrodite species with flowers of about 1.5 cm in diameter and white in colour that are arranged in corymbs of 5-10 cm in diameter. Flowers are insect pollinated and self-incompatible in the diploid sexual species3 . The trees have a typical lifespan of around 100-200 years, and start fruiting when 10-20 years old. Flowering lasts from May to June and single flowers are open for about a week1 . Fruits are orange to scarlet globose pomes 8-15 mm in diameter with many lenticels on the skin. They are eaten and dispersed mostly by birds2 . They ripen from September to October and often stay on the twigs during winter1 .

Distribution The taxonomy of the genus Sorbus is very complex, as like most species of this genus, they can not only hybridise, but also duplicate their genome from diploid, i.e. the species sensu stricto (s.str.), to polyploid forms, which display different morpho-ecological characters and are described as different species. Sorbus is classified into five subgenera, grouping morphologically similar forms and hybrids arising from crossingevents between taxa and populations. Within the subgenus Aria, the section Aria, i.e. the Sorbus aria sensu lato (s.l.), includes primary diploid species, its subspecies, their apomictic triploid and tetraploid forms and their hybrids3, 4 . This species complex occurs in a wide range across western, central and southern Europe, in North-western Africa in mountains of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, eastwards to Turkey, Lebanon, Caucasus and the

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to basic (alkaline) fertile, lime-rich soils. Its deep root system makes it also resistant to drought1 . It is a light-demanding tree, which normally occurs in semi-shade habitats, open deciduous woodlands or scrublands, where this species is often recorded on the edges and only rarely occurs in deep shade1 . The diploid species is generally distributed as a sub-Mediterranean floral element in the mountain zones throughout almost all of Southern Europe. It is a stable element of xero-thermophile beech forest types (alliance Cephalanthero-Fagion), often on shallow calcareous soils on steep slopes and relatively dry and warm sites, dominated by beech (Fagus sylvatica) commonly with limes (Tilia spp.), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea), in the shrub layer with common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), barberry (Berberis vulgaris) and cornelian cherry (Cornus mas)7-9 .

Native

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Sorbus aria. Frequency of Sorbus aria occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. aria is derived after Meusel and Jager15 .

Middle East, while the diploid Sorbus aria s.str. has a restricted range, which covers almost all mountainous and hilly regions of southern Europe from the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Italy eastwards to the Balkans and Carpathian Mountains1, 2 . In the Alps it is found mainly up to 1600 m, but reaches 2 155 m in the Wallis region of Switzerland1 . Occurrences in West Ireland and South England are isolated, since the species is virtually absent from the coastal provinces of West France3 , from where it reaches to South Germany, South Poland and East Hungary. Beside the typical subspecies, an accepted local subspecies is described as Sorbus aria subsp. lanifera (A.Kern.) Jáv.5 , which is reported to occur as a local endemic in lower montane fir-beech forests in Croatia6 .

Habitat and Ecology Whitebeam is a mesophile species that can grow in different soil types. However, it occurs relatively rarely in very acid and very alkaline soils or in habitats with light and sandy soils, as well as in heavy clay soils. Usually it prefers moist but well-drained, neutral

Pale underside of young whitebeam leaves. (Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

Importance and Usage Whitebeam is quite a popular ornamental tree but its practical use is comparatively low. There are many garden forms and the wood was used for furniture and various items of household equipment in history. The frozen or cooked fruits are edible but not tasty. In former times the fruits, leaves and twigs were used as livestock-fodder and the mealy fruit substance was processed into a type of meal or flour, which was used to extend regular bread flour (German name “Mehlbeere = Flour Berry”)1 . Planting material can be propagated by seed and inoculation.

Whitebeam is a slow-growing species that may have a shrub form.

Bark is smooth in young plants.


(Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)



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Sorbus aria


Fruits are orange to scarlet and are eaten and dispersed mostly by birds. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)


References

Leaves are elliptical-ovate with toothed margins. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

[1] H. Kutzelnigg, Gustav Hegi - Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, Band 4, Teil 2B: Rosaceae, H. Scholz, ed. (Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin, 1995), pp. 328–385. [2] J. J. Aldasoro, C. Aedo, F. M. Garmendia, C. Navarro, Revision of Sorbus subgenera aria and torminaria (Rosaceae-Maloideae), vol. 69 of Systematic Botany Monographs (American Society of Plant Taxonomists, 2004). [3] S. Ludwig, et al., Annals of Botany 111, 563 (2013). [4] E. Nelson-Jones, D. Briggs, A. Smith, Theoretical and Applied Genetics 105, 953 (2002). [5] A. Kurtto, Euro+Med Plantbase - the information resource for EuroMediterranean plant diversity (2009). http://www.emplantbase.org. [6] T. Nikolic, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (1998), pp. 34729/0+. [7] W. Willner, Phytocoenologia 32, 337 (2002).

Threats and Diseases Older whitebeam trees can reach root-depth of 1–2 m, rendering them quite resistant to wind-throw, but sensitive to industrial smoke emissions1 . Roots may be attacked by aphids (Aphis sorbi) and leaves by caterpillars of e.g. Argyresthia conjugella, while the larvae of the wasp Megastigmus brevicaudus feed on seeds1, 10 . Infectious diseases may be apple canker (Neonectria ditissima), and fireblight (Erwinia amylovora). In common with several other woody plants, the whitebeam is vulnerable to attack by Heterobasidion annosum, which is potentially subject to expansion in the European boreal and temperate continental ecological zones11, 12 . A common fungal pathogen is the rust Ochropsora ariae13, 14 . Young whitebeam trees are especially susceptible to browsing and many generalist herbivore arthropods are known to feed on the species1 .

White flowers are arranged in large 5-10 cm clusters. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

[8] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [9] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [10] A. Roques, M. Skrzypczyńska, Journal of Natural History 37, 127 (2003). [11] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [12] CABI, Heterobasidion annosum (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [13] Y. Ono, Mycoscience 47, 145 (2006). [14] H. Y. Yun, Anemone-Rosaceae rust Ochropsora ariae (2010). Invasive and Emerging Fungal Pathogens - Diagnostic Fact Sheets. Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture. http://nt.ars-grin.gov/sbmlweb/ fungi/index.cfm Accessed 2015-05. [15] H. Meusel, E. Jager, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

Buds are hairy on the tips of younger shoots. (Copyright Silvano Radivo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Fruits can persist on the plant during the winter becoming important food for many birds. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01e816. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Welk, E., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Sorbus aria in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01e816+



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Sorbus aucuparia Sorbus aucuparia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats M. Räty, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo The rowan or mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia L.) is a widely spread deciduous tree species, which is only missing from the southernmost parts of Europe and large islands. It can survive in various growing conditions, but in poorer conditions it remains as a bush. A rowan can reach a height of 15-20 metres. It is known for its red fruit which is an important food source for birds particularly during the winter. Rowan and its varieties are popular planted trees in gardens and cities. A changing climate has already enhanced its spread to higher altitudes and further to the north, but in future it is expected to lose its presence in south, central and eastern Europe. The rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) is a slender deciduous tree that can reach a height of 15-20 metres on good growing sites, but may remain a bush on poorer sites1-3 . The bark is greyish and the crown narrow. The roots are tough and fibrous1 and form an anchoring root system, with a morphogenesis limited by groundwater table, prevailing direction of wind and slope4 . The leaves are odd pinnate, 10-25 cm, consisting of 9-19 (usually 15) pairs of 2-6 cm leaflets, which are oblong, sessile, with acute apex, serrate margins, dark green in colour becoming orange in autumn5, 6 . This species is monoecious with numerous hermaphrodite white flowers arranged in dense and woolly inflorescences1, 2 , flowering from May to June3 , or as late as July in northern Europe2 . It is insect pollinated3 and starts to produce seed at an age of 15 years1 . The fruits are scarlet round pomes of about 1 cm6, 7, and its yield is usually good with alternating better and poorer years1 . The fruits stay attached to the tree during the winter and therefore offer food for birds7, which disperse the seeds1, 3 . The tree is usually not expected to reach an age of 100 years7.

Distribution The genus Sorbus has a complex taxonomy, as their species can create not only hybrids, but also duplicate their genome resulting in different morpho-ecological characters that are classified as different species. The diploid form of Sorbus aucuparia belongs to subgenus Sorbus; furthermore apomictic triploid and tetraploid species, as a result of hybridisation with the members of subgenus Aria, are grouped in the subgenus Soraria8-10 . This tree is widespread across Europe, from extreme northern regions (Iceland, Fennoscandia, Russia) to southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Balkans), where it is found only at higher elevations, and eastwards the species extends into Asia Minor (Caucasus) and Northern Asia (Siberia, North China). It can be found from sea-level in northern latitudes, up to 2 400 m in


Scarlet fruits of 1 cm in diameter; these pomes stay attached to the tree during the winter. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Sorbus aucuparia. Frequency of Sorbus aucuparia occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. aucuparia is derived after Meusel and Jager11 .

Tyrol1, 11, 12 . It has also been introduced in the United States and Canada as an ornamental tree and has become naturalised in some northern regions13 .

Habitat and Ecology Rowan is a tree species adapted for a short growing season and it can tolerate high summer temperatures, if the temperature is not accompanied by high water stress. In other words, its spread is limited rather by a combination of poor drought tolerance, adaption to a short growing season and a cold requirement for bud burst than by high temperature1 . It is a stress-tolerant competitor14 , cold

hardy and frost tolerant1, 3 . It is absent from wetlands, bare soil sites, clays and soft limestones1, 3 . Otherwise, it is one of the least site-demanding trees3 . Rowan and birch (Betula spp.) have quite similar site requirements for growth with respect to acidity (up to pH 7.0) and non-waterlogged conditions, but rowan is more shade tolerant and can persist at higher elevations14, 15 . It is widespread as a minor component of several vegetation communities, occurring from the lowlands to rocky mountain slopes and cliffs. Typical sites for rowan are forest edges, glades, rocky and stony sites, riverbank bluffs and undergrowth with several forest types and tree species1, 2 . Often it occurs as a pioneer tree in open habitants and also in forests, as it is able to geminate and establish successfully on thick layers of raw humus in dense forest stands of spruce (Picea abies) particularly, and tolerates competition from herbs16 . Dominant well developed trees regenerate principally by seeds, while pioneer trees spread laterally, developing clones by roots1, 14-16 . It has been shown that the genetic variation has remained relatively high even in quite fragmented populations, and there are no clear indications of inbreeding, which is a good sign for forest restoration17.


Hermaphrodite white flowers arranged in corymbs formed of numerous individuals. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)


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Rowan is among the most widely distributed species in Europe, including several areas with high erosion rates such as the European mountain systems18 . Its adventitious roots are very suitable to be exploited for soil bioengineering to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate erosion19 . It is also useful for deep reinforcement and soil strength enhancement20 . The wood is strong, hard and tough, but not durable outdoors3 . It has been used for tool handles, turnery, furniture and craftwork1-3 . The fruits are rich in vitamins (especially vitamin C) and antioxidants21, 22 and have been used as a medicine, for example for scurvy and kidney stones7. Fruits have been also used to flavour vodka and to make juice and jams1, 7. Rowan is known for its ornamental value and therefore it is cultivated in gardens and cities2, 3, 7. It was believed to have magical powers like mistletoe, and a branch could be used as a divining rod to find treasures7. The Celts called it ‘wizard's tree’ and in Ireland it plays an important role in popular magic; e.g. protection against the spirits, especially the dead23 . Fruits are particularly important for bird nutrition, especially in northern Europe where the size of rowan crop can affect the overwintering survival or the amount of migrating population1 .



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Sorbus aucuparia

Threats and Diseases The rowan supports a relatively species-poor insect fauna24 . The apple fruit miner Argyresthia conjugella uses the rowan as a host and its caterpillars eat the fruit25 . The periodic masting of rowan could be a defence to reduce the numbers of this insect25, 26 . Ringspots and variegation are very common on the leaves27, 28 . Deer and moose are reported to browse the seedlings intensively, causing in same cases multi-stemmed trees or the complete absence of rowan from the tree layer1, 3 . Ever since the 1950s rowan has advanced in the Swedish Scandes, due to a warming climate29 . On the other hand, for the same reasons, rowan distribution has been estimated to lose its presence first in southern Europe and later in central and Eastern Europe30 . As several woody plants, the rowan is susceptible to be attacked by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and by the nun moth (Lymantria monacha)31-33 . Both moths have the potential to expand their virulence, due to climate change, in the European boreal and temperate oceanic ecological zones31 . Heterobasidion annosum is also able to affect the rowan along with a variety of woody plants, and this pest is potentially subject to expansion in the European boreal and temperate continental ecological zones1, 31, 34 .


Smooth grey-brown bark in a young tree. (Copyright Aldo De Bastiani, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


References

Rowan tree grown in a dwarf mountain pine thicket (Pinus mugo) in the Adamello-Brenta Natural Park (Trentio-Alto-Adige, North Italy). (Copyright Giallopolenta, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)










[1] O. Raspé, C. Findlay, A.-L. Jacquemart, Journal of Ecology 88, 910 (2000). [2] V. L. Komarov, et al., Flora of the USSR - Volume IX: Rosales and Sarraceniales, vol. 9 of Flora of the USSR (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [3] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [4] O. Mauer, E. Palátová, Journal of Forest Science 48, 342 (2002). [5] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [6] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [7] A. Anderberg, A. L. Anderberg, Den virtuella floran (Elektronisk publikation, Naturhistoriska riksmuseet, Stockholm, 1996). Http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora. [8] E. Nelson-Jones, D. Briggs, A. Smith, Theoretical and Applied Genetics 105, 953 (2002). [9] A. Robertson, et al., Molecular Ecology 19, 1675 (2010). [10] J. J. Aldasoro, C. Aedo, C. Navarro, F. M. Garmendia, Systematic Botany 23, 189 (1998). [11] H. Meusel, E. Jager, S. Rauschert, E. Weinert, Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora (Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1978). [12] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [13] C. S. Sargent, Manual of the Trees of North America (exclusive of Mexico), vol. 2 (Dover Publications, New York, 1961), second edn. [14] J. P. Grime, J. G. Hodgson, R. Hunt, Comparative Plant Ecology: A Functional Approach to common British Species (Castlepoint Press, 2007). [15] D. N. MacVean, D. A. Ratcliffe, Plant communities of the Scottish Highlands. A study of Scottish mountain, moorland and forest vegetation (Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1962). [16] S. Zebre, Polish botanical journal 46, 229 (2001).

[17] C. F. E. Bacles, A. J. Lowe, R. A. Ennos, Molecular Ecology 13, 573 (2004). [18] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [19] F. Florineth, H. P. Rauch, H. Staffler, Proceedings of the International Congress INTERPRAEVENT 2002 in the Pacific Rim (2002), vol. 2, pp. 827–837. [20] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [21] A. Gil-Izquierdo, A. Mellenthin, European Food Research and Technology 213, 12 (2001). [22] K. Haffner, S. F. Remberg, Chronica Horticulturae 46, 19 (2006). [23] J. E. Milner, The tree book : the indispensable guide to tree facts, crafts and lore (Collins & Brown, 1992). [24] S. D. Wratten, P. Goddard, P. J. Edwards, The American Naturalist 118, 916 (1981). [25] G. Jaastad, et al., Agricultural and Forest Entomology 4, 233 (2002). [26] S. Kobro, et al., Population Ecology 45, 25 (2003). [27] Z. Polak, J. Zieglerova, Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 103, 432 (1996). [28] N. Mielke, H.-P. Muehlbach, Journal of General Virology 88, 1337 (2007). [29] J. Grace, F. Berninger, L. Nagy, Annals of Botany 90, 537 (2002). [30] P. A. Harrison, P. M. Berry, N. Butt, M. New, Environmental Science & Policy 9, 116 (2006). [31] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [32] CABI, Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [33] CABI, Lymantria monacha (nun moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [34] CABI, Heterobasidion annosum (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e0179de. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Räty, M., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Sorbus aucuparia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e0179de+



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Sorbus domestica Sorbus domestica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats C. M. Enescu, D. de Rigo, T. Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo Sorbus domestica L. (service tree) is a wild fruit tree. Its apple-like fruit are used for a range of culinary and medicinal purposes. Although it can tolerate a fairly wide range of climatic and soil conditions, it is unable to stand competition and is usually found as isolated trees. Originally cultivated by the Romans, it is now rare throughout its natural range and is subject to several conservation and breeding programs. Service tree (Sorbus domestica L.) is a deciduous tree, usually reaching around 20 m in height, although it can grow much larger in favourable sites1 . Leaves are imparipinnate with 13-21 leaflets. The bark is dark in colour with fine rectangular fissures2 . Small white flowers appear from late April to mid-May. The edible fruits are apple or pear-shaped, 2-3 cm in diameter3 . Fruit usually contains 2-5 (up to 10) seeds3 . Although the seeds are well dispersed by birds and mammals, the regeneration rate from seeds is low, and the tree also frequently regenerates by root suckers1 . It is long-lived and often reaches 200 years of age, occasionally up to 400 or more3 .


Hermaphrodite white flowers with 5 petals, 5 styles and numorous stamens. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Distribution Service tree is distributed through central and southern Europe in particular in the Balkan peninsula, Italy and southern France, and rarely in parts of North Africa and western Asia1 . At its northern limit there are a few scattered individuals in Wales and central England, although it is thought that these are probably descended from cultivated trees4 . Nowadays, it is unclear how much of its distribution range is natural, since this species has been spread through cultivation since Roman times1 . However, it is rare throughout its range5 and endangered in many parts3 .

Habitat and Ecology Service tree prefers warm and mild climates, although it is also resistant to cold down to -25 °C to -30 °C and can withstand late frosts6, 7. It is able to grow on dry sites and cope with drought during the vegetation period6, 8 , requiring a minimum rainfall of 500 mm per year7. It can be found up to 650 m on south-facing slopes in central Europe, but can grow at higher elevations further south7. It is tolerant to a variety of soil conditions, but prefers moderately acid or neutral soils6 . It can also be found in coppice and former coppice forests as a result of historic cultivation6 . It is a very light demanding species that can tolerate shade only in its first few years. This makes it a weak competitor, unable to dominate when crown closure occurs6 . Under conditions of a warming climate it may become more favoured in some sites as a result of its drought tolerance, but its scarcity is likely to limit any range movement8 .

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Sorbus domestica. Frequency of Sorbus domestica occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. domestica is derived after EUFORGEN12 .

Importance and Usage Service tree can be used for ornamental purposes, wood and fruit production3 . The fruits can be eaten when bletted (over-ripe), or are used to produce marmalades, jams, jellies, juices, fruit wine or other alcoholic drinks1, 3, 9 . It is also used in traditional medicine against intestinal problems, dysentery, diabetes and for memory improvement1, 3, 10 . The hard and heavy wood is of good quality and can command a high price; it is often used for making small objects such as screws, gear teeth, bearings and rifle butts1, 3 .

The small white flowers appear in the spring and are insect pollinated. (Copyright Franco Rossi, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

Threats and Diseases Diseases of apple, such as European canker of apple (Nectria galligen) and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) can affect the service tree and cause premature leaf fall8 . Across Europe, the species is very rare and its genetic diversity is threatened mainly due to the reduction in number of individuals and disturbance of the natural populations by human activities6, 11 .

The fruits are used for a wide variety of culinary purposes. (Copyright Mihai Enescu: CC-BY)

References [1] P. Rotach, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Service tree Sorbus domestica (2003). [2] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [3] C. Bignami, Conservation, evaluation, exploitation and collection of minor fruit tree species: EC Project GENRES 29, E. Bellini, E. Giordani, eds. (Horticulture Department, University of Florence, 1999). [4] M. Hampton, Watsonia 20, 379 (1995). [5] B. Demesure, Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the Second Meeting, 22-25 March 1997, Lourizan, Spain, J. Turok, et al., eds. (Rome, Italy, 1997), pp. 48–50.

Traditional fruit press used in Germany. The juice of apples is often mixed with service tree fruits and fermented obtaining the Apfelwein, the wine of apple. (Copyright Shankar S., www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

178

Dark brown bark with rectagular fissures. (Copyright Michael Kranewitter, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

[6] V. Paganová, Journal of Forest Science 54, 216 (2008). [7] P. Gonin, et al., Autoecology of broadleaved species (2013). [8] G. E. Hemery, et al., Forestry 83, 65 (2010). [9] O. Vyviurska, S. Pysarevska, N. Jánošková, I. Špánik, Open Chemistry 13 (2015). [10] A. Termentzi, P. Alexiou, V. J. Demopoulos, E. Kokkalou, Pharmazie 63, 693 (2008). [11] J. Müllerová, R. Hédl, P. Szabó, Forest Ecology and Management 343, 88 (2015). [12] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of service tree (Sorbus domestica) (2014). www.euforgen.org.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e019db5. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Enescu, C. M., de Rigo, D., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., 2016. Sorbus domestica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e019db5+



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Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius). (Copyright TomaszProszek, pixabay.com: CC0)

Frozen spruce forest on Vitosha Mountain (Sofia, Bulgaria). (Copyright no-author, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)

Coniferous forest in Heiðmörk Reserve near Reykjavík (South-West Iceland). (Copyright Axel Kristinsson, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Snow covered spruce forest (Bavaria, Germany). (Copyright Hans, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Sorbus torminalis Sorbus torminalis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats E. Welk, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo The wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz) is a fast-growing, light-demanding, clonally resprouting forest tree of disturbed forest patches and forest edges. It is widely distributed in southern, western and central Europe, but is a weak competitor that rarely dominates forests and never occurs in pure stands. The wild service tree is able to tolerate low winter temperatures, spring frosts, and summer droughts of up to two months. The species often grows in dry-warm and sparse forest habitats of low productivity and on steep slopes. It produces a hard and heavy, durable wood of high economic value. The wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz) is a medium-sized, fast-growing deciduous tree that usually grows up to 15-25 m with average diameters of 0.6-0.9 m, exceptionally to 1.4 m1-3 . The mature tree is usually single-stemmed with a distinctive ash-grey and scaly bark that often peels away in rectangular strips. The shiny dark green leaves are typically 10x7 cm and have five to nine spreading, acute lobes. This species is monoecious hermaphrodite, flowers are white, insect pollinated, and arranged in corymbs of 20-30 flowers. The tree has an average life span of around 100-200 years; the maximum is given as 300-400 years1-3 . Individuals start fruiting typically at 15-20 years of age, abundantly and frequently, with seed years every 2-3 years4 . The fruits are small pomes, 10-15 mm in diameter, spotted with green to russet or brown colour, and are dispersed by birds or frugivorous mammals1-3 . Seeds are light brown, of ovate shape with an approximate size of 2-6 mm1, 5, 6 .


Yellow and red-brown leaves in autumn. (Copyright Ashley Basil, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

Distribution The wild service tree is a sub-Mediterranean species and occurs across western, central and southern Europe, but also in mountains of north-western Africa and south-western Asia. Current abundance centres seem to be located in France and in the Balkan region2 . Upper limits are located at 500 m in Germany and 700 m in the Swiss Mittelland3 . On south-facing slopes of the Jura Mountains and in valleys in the Alp the species occurs up to 900 m. In the Atlas Mountains it has its centre of distribution between 1 300-1 800 m. The highest occurrence in elevation is reported from Anatolia (Lake Van) at 2 200 m1 .

Habitat and Ecology This species tolerates harsh winter conditions and is quite insensitive to late frosts: it withstands temperatures down to -5 °C in April7. In increasingly drier regions like in southern Europe, the wild service tree is a mountain forest species. A certain amount of warmth is necessary during the growing season; therefore the

Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Sorbus torminalis. Frequency of Sorbus torminalis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for S. torminalis is derived after EUFORGEN13 .

Due to efficient seed dispersal by birds and small mammals, and the ability to spread vegetatively by root suckers, the species can easily colonise appropriate sites, such as larger gaps, clearings, low-density forests and abandoned agricultural land surrounded by forests, thus remaining permanently present in the landscape8 . Regarding soil characteristics it is a very tolerant species that can grow on both acid and basic soils (from clay to limestone), with a pH ranging from 3.5 to 8 and humus types from dismoder to carbonate mull2 . It avoids both dry sandy soils and wet or marshy soils and reaches its best growth on warm-dry limestone soils1. 2 .

species is getting increasingly scarce in mountain areas towards the north of the distribution range, and is rather uncommon in cool habitats like north-facing slopes or cold valley bottoms7. The same lack of summer warmth limits the general vertical distribution. The optimum mean annual temperature is between 10 ° and 17 °C; minimum annual rainfall is about 500 mm, while the optimum lies between 700 and 1 500 mm3 . The wild service tree is a shade intolerant, post-pioneer (nomadic) species, requiring free-growth for optimal crown development. It is a minor component of woodlands-types dominated by various oaks and less frequently pine or beech, where it is found as single trees or in small groups, and population densities are generally very low2 .

Grey-brown bark of young tree with lenticels, it becomes fissured into scaly plates when mature. (Copyright Kenraiz, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

180

Flowers are arranged in corymbs of 20-30 individual blossoms.

Scented white hermaphrodite flowers: they are insect pollinated.

(Copyright Emma Silviana Mauri: CC-BY)

(Copyright Sergio Piccolo, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)



08/04/2016 11:22

Sorbus torminalis

Importance and Usage The wild service tree is one of the most valuable hardwoods in Europe. The wood is fine-grained, very dense and has good bending strength. In earlier times it was used to make screws for winepresses, billiard queue sticks, musical instruments and turnery. Today, it is mainly used for decorative veneers. Quantitatively, the wild service tree wood is of low importance for the European wood market since only several thousands of cubic metres are harvested yearly2 .


Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability. Apples affected by the disease Venturia inaequalis; this Ascomycete fungus can affect also wild service tree. (Copyright Jan Homann, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Threats and Diseases Older trees of the wild service tree can reach a root-depth of 1-2 m, rendering it quite resistant to wind-throw9 . Young trees are especially susceptible to browsing by deer and other

ungulates. Among invertebrate consumers, only generalist herbivore arthropods are known. On the leaves of the wild service tree three damaging factors are frequently recorded: leaf scab (Venturia inaequalis), leaf aphids and gall mites (Eriophyes spp.)3 . The tree is a wild host for the apple aphid (Aphis pomi)10, 11 . A serious threat to older stems is the honey fungus (Armillaria spp.), whose parasitic infestation can lead to lethal damage12 .

References [1] U. Pietzarka, M. Lehmann, A. Roloff, Enzyklopädie der Holzgewächse: Handbuch und Atlas der Dendrologie, A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, P. Schütt, eds. (Wiley-Vch Verlag, Weinheim, 2008), vol. 3. [2] V. N. Nicolescu, E. Hochbichler, J. Coello Gomez, S. Ravagni, V. Giulietti, Die Bodenkultur 60, 35 (2009). [3] H. Kutzelnigg, Gustav Hegi - Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, Band 4, Teil 2B: Rosaceae, H. Scholz, ed. (Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin, 1995), pp. 328–385. [4] E. Favre d’anne, L’Alisier torminal (Sorbus torminalis Crantz.): synthèse bibliographique, recherche sur la densité du bois (Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural, des Eaux et des Forêts (ENGREF), Nancy, France, 1990). [5] M. Oršanić, D. Drvodelić, T. Jemrić, I. Anić, S. Mikac, Periodicum biologorum 111, 495 (2009).

[6] L. Bednorz, Dendrobiology 57, 3 (2007). [7] P. Gonin, et al., Autecology of broadleaved species (Institut pour le Développement Forestier, Paris, 2013). [8] V. Kučerová, M. Honec, L. Paule, P. Zhelev, D. Gömöry, Biologia 65, 817 (2010). [9] L. Kutschera, E. Lichtenegger, Wurzelatlas mitteleuropäischer Waldbäume und Sträucher (L. Stocker Verlag, Graz, 2002). [10] CABI, Aphis pomi (apple aphid) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [11] T. Gotlin Čuljak, D. Grubišić, A. Mešić, I. Juran, Natura Croatica 21, 191 (2012). [12] G. Hartmann, Corminaria 17, 24 (2002). [13] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis) (2014). www.euforgen.org.

Fruits start to develop in summer. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

Maturing reddish fruits: these small pomes are edible and very astringent until over-ripe (bletted). (Copyright Emma Silviana Mauri: CC-BY)

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01090d. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Welk, E., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Sorbus torminalis in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-MiguelAyanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01090d+



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Tamarix Tamarix - tamarisks in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats N. Guerrero Maldonado, M. J. López, G. Caudullo Tamarisks, or salt cedars, belong to a large group of shrubby and flowering species of the genus Tamarix. Fourteen species are counted in Europe, concentrated principally in the Mediterranean region and Eastern Europe. They typically are adapted to arid climates thanks to an efficient and deep root system. These species thrive in a wide range of habitats from flooded to drought, but grow best on sandy or gravelly soils, also tolerating saline waters. They are commonly used as ornamental flowering shrubs, but are also planted as marine windbreaks or for the sand dune stabilisation. Some species are considered as invasive plants in many countries for their rapid colonisation and aptitude for expansion. Tamarisks (Tamarix spp.) are shrubs or small deciduous trees, reaching from 4 to 15 m in height. They have a broad and bushy shape with numerous large basal branches and a deep and extensive root system. The leaves are scale-like, 1.5 to 3.5 mm long, with salt-secreting glands1-3 . Flowering branches are mostly primary or secondary carrying the inflorescence arranged in panicles of several small flowers, subtended by a small bracts. The hermaphrodite flowers are pink or white in colour, with petals that may be persistent or fall soon after blossoming. Tamarisk fruit is a capsule, bearing many tiny seeds less than 0.5 mm in size3-5 .


Reddish-orange inflorescences of the African tamarisk (Tamarix africana).

Distribution

(Copyright Santos Cirujano Bracamonte: CC-BY)

The genus Tamarix occurs naturally from Western Europe and the Mediterranean to North Africa, northeastern China, Mongolia, India and Japan1, 6 . In Europe, 14 species are reported. African tamarisk (Tamarix africana), Bové’s tamarisk (Tamarix boveana), Canary Islands tamarisk (Tamarix canariensis), Dalmatian tamarisk (Tamarix dalmatica), French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica), Hampe’s tamarisk (Tamarix hampeana), small-flower tamarisk (Tamarix parviflora), Smyrna tamarisk (Tamarix smyrnensis) and four-stamen tamarisk (Tamarix tetranda) are native to the Mediterranean area, mainly France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece and Turkey7, 8 . The species Tamarix ramosissima, Tamarix laxa, Tamarix hispida, Tamarix gracilis and Tamarix meyeri are native to Eastern Europe, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine7. Some species have become naturalised in other countries, especially America, where they were introduced as landscape ornamentals and have escaped cultivation.


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Tamarix spp. Chorology of the native spatial range for Tamarix spp., derived after Meusel and Jäger22 .

waterways and on sandy floodplains, especially where their roots can access underground water9 . They grow best in alkaline soils, but also tolerate acidity12 . These plants are found on non-rocky silt loams and clay loams of high organic matter along streams, bottomlands, pond margins, banks of drainages and washes and other wet environments in arid and semiarid regions13, 14 . Tamarisks are not shade-tolerant14 .

Three species of fungi, Botryosphaeria tamaricis, Diplodia tamarascina and Leptosphaeria tamaricis, can form cankers and cause branch dieback on tamarisks. The latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) and oystershell scales (Lepidosaphes ulmi) are two insects which frequently infest these species20 . Some species, principally salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima) Chinese tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis), small-flower tamarisk, French tamarisk and their hybrids, are considered as invasive weeds in the United States, and have been the target of many control programmes since the 1960s21 .

Habitat and Ecology Tamarisks can tolerate an extreme range of environmental conditions, from drought to flooding, and highly saline soils. Climatically, tamarisks are best suited to arid and semi-arid zones9 . These species have specialised roots that can draw water from deep underground, but are also capable of extracting water from unsaturated soil layers (a facultative phreatophyte). They tolerate saline water and exude large quantities of salt through their specialised leaves, and can survive prolonged periods of inundation2, 10, 11 . These species tolerate a wide range of habitat types, but are best adapted to the sandy or gravelly banks of

Fluvial vegetation with Canary Islands tamarisk (Tamarix canariensis). (Copyright Santos Cirujano Bracamonte: CC-BY)

References

(Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

Importance and Usage Tamarisks are used worldwide as ornamental plants. They are frequently planted as windbreaks or grown for the stabilisation and afforestation of sand dunes15, 16 . They also have other important properties, being classified as medicinal plants. The galls and bark are used as astringent. Many species, such as the French tamarisk, also have tonic, diuretic, stimulant and stomachic action17. They are also used for tanning and dyeing purposes5, 18, 19 . Some tamarisks are melliferous and are used as a sugar substitute5 . Trunk of old tamarisk hybrid (Tamarix gallica x canariensis). (Copyright Santos Cirujano Bracamonte: CC-BY)

182

[12] J. M. DiTomaso, et al., Weed Control in Natural Areas in the Western United States (Weed Research and Information Center, University of California, 2013). [13] D. K. Warren, R. M. Turner, Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science 10, 135 (1975). [14] K. Zouhar, Tamarix spp. Fire Effects Information System (2003). http://www.feis-crs.org/feis [15] J. H. Stevens, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 29, 129 (1974). [16] H. Arazi, M. H. Emtahani, M. R. Ekhtesasi, H. Sodaizadeh, Watershed Management Research 26, 53 (2002). [17] IUCN, A guide to medicinal plants in North Africa (IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Malaga, Spain, 2005). [18] C. Mouri, A. Aali, X. Zhang, R. Laursen, Heritage Science 2, 20 (2014). [19] M. A. M. Nawwar, J. Buddrus, H. Bauer, Phytochemistry 21, 1755 (1982). [20] P. P. Pirone, Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants (John Wiley & Sons, 1978). [21] P. Shafroth, et al., Environmental Management 35, 231 (2005). [22] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). Annual precipitation (mm)

Pink flowers of an ornamental French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica) in a garden.

[1] B. R. Baum, The genus Tamarix (Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, 1978). [2] J. D. Brotherson, V. Winkel, The Great Basin Naturalist 46, 535 (1986). [3] S. Cirujano, Flora Iberica: plantas vasculares de la Peninsula Ibérica e Islas Baleares, Volume 3: Plumbaginaceae (partim)-Capparaceae, S. Castroviejo, et al., eds. (Real Jardìn Botánico, CSIC, Madrid, 1993), pp. 438–443. [4] K. W. Allred, Desert Plants 18, 26 (2002). [5] G. A. López González, Guìa de los árboles y arbustos de la Penìnsula Ibérica y Baleares (Mundi-Prensa, 2007), third edn. [6] V. H. Heywood, R. K. Brummitt, A. Culham, O. Seberg, Flowering plant families of the world (Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, 2007). [7] B. R. Baum, Flora Europaea, Volume 2: Rosaceae to Umbelliferae, T. G. Tutin, et al., eds. (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 292–294. [8] M. Aránzazu Prada, D. Arizpe, Riparian Tree and Shrub Propagation Handbook: An Aid to Riverine Restoration in the Mediterranean Region (Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, 2008). [9] J. H. Brock, Ecology and management of invasive riverside plants, L. C. de Waal, L. E. Child, P. M. Wade, J. H. Brock, eds. (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994), pp. 27–44. [10] B. L. Everitt, Environmental Geology 3, 77 (1980). [11] G. W. Frasier, T. N. Johnsen, Noxious Range Weeds, L. F. James, J. O. Evans, M. H. Ralphs, R. D. Child, eds. (Westview Press, San Francisco, 1991), pp. 377–386.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e011f06. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Guerrero Maldonado, N., López, M. J., Caudullo, G., 2016. Tamarix tamarisks in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e011f06+



08/04/2016 11:23

Taxus baccata Taxus baccata in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats S. E. Benham, T Houston Durrant, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Taxus baccata L., known as European or English yew, is a conifer native to Europe. It is an unusual conifer in that it does not actually bear cones, but berries. Unlike other conifers it is also non-resinous and is tolerant to repeated pruning. It has a very large environmental tolerance but is susceptible to waterlogging. Extremely long lived but very slow growing, yew’s strategy is that of survival. It is highly shade tolerant, normally found within the forest singularly or in small groups. European yew is extremely toxic, which has led to its removal in many locations, resulting in one of the largest declines of any European species. It is now protected: forests harbouring yew have been designated as special protection areas by the European Community (Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC). In recent times its importance as a source of taxane alkaloids for the manufacture of cancer-treating pharmaceuticals has come to the fore. The European or English yew (Taxus baccata L.) is native to most of Europe. It is an extremely long-living tree, with reports of some specimens of up to 5 000 years old1 . However, since it is very difficult to determine age accurately as the oldest specimens are almost always hollow2 making tree ring-based age estimation impractical, opinion is divided about the exact age of the oldest specimens3 . Yew is often multi-stemmed and its height rarely exceeds 20 m, but its longevity means that trunks can be very large: up to 4 m diameter. Root systems are shallow with extensive horizontal roots3 . A non-resinous conifer, the needles are very dark green above and yellow to matt green below; they are 2-3 cm long and 3 mm wide and linear in shape with a sharp point. Needles are set spirally around the shoot in two ranks and are not whorled2 . Yew is mainly dioecious; although examples of monoecious trees exist this is rare and usually consists of separate sexed branches. Male flowers are small green globules along the underside of last year’s shoots, whilst the female flowers are minute green flowers borne in the leaf axils of the previous year’s growth. After wind pollination scarlet berries approximately 7 mm in diameter are produced with a red fleshy aril (the only non-toxic part of the tree4) surrounding the dark central seed. Seeds are dispersed by birds which feed on the red flesh and pass the seeds. The yew is also capable of vegetative reproduction.


(Copyright Michael Wunderli, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)


Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Taxus baccata. Frequency of Taxus baccata occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for T. baccata is derived after Meusel and Jäger, and Jalas and Suominen21, 22 .

Distribution

Habitat and Ecology

The yew is native to most of Europe, the Atlas Mountains and Asia Minor. In Europe, yew woodland can be found over most areas, but it grows best in oceanic climates with moderate temperatures3 . Its distribution is limited in northern Europe beyond Britain, Ireland and southern Scandinavia by low temperatures and waterlogging and in the south by drought and high temperature5, 6 . Elevation increases from north to south with moisture demand for this reason and in the Mediterranean area, yew is usually restricted to higher elevations on northern slopes3, 7. It is thought to be the oldest tree genus in Europe; the oldest fossil record for Taxus in Europe dates to the Lower Miocene8 .

The yew normally appears as individuals or small groups of trees within the understorey, but natural stands can be found across its entire range. It normally occupies the mid to lower tier of a forest3 . Yew can grow on almost all soil types with adequate drainage, typically on humus and base-rich soils, but also on dry rendzina and sandy soils with adequate moisture7. The yew is intolerant of prolonged frost and cold although its tolerance varies by region and season. They are moderately drought tolerant and can cope with temporary flooding but are susceptible to longterm poor drainage. The temperature range for photosynthesis is greater than any other European tree species, allowing the yew to photosynthesise in winter when deciduous trees are bare of leaves; this contributes towards the yew’s extreme shade tolerance9, which is almost comparable to that of silver fir (Abies alba) and beech (Fagus sylvatica), the two most shade tolerant tree species of Europe10 . The yew’s root system is capable of penetrating the most compressed soils meaning they are able to survive under extreme conditions such as rocky terrain and vertical cliff faces11 .

Old multi-stemmed yew in Kingstone Wood (West Midlands, England). (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

Red fleshy berry-like fruits surrounding the dark central seed. (Copyright Roberto Verzo, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)

References

The properties of yew timber, heavy but elastic, made it historically important. One of the world’s oldest wooden artefacts is a wooden spear dating from the Palaeolithic era (around 150000 years ago)12 . In the Middle Ages it was used for a wide variety of items including musical instruments, furniture and longbows, and the wood was in such demand that it was felled almost to extinction across much of Europe13. Today it is not considered to be a commercial crop due to its extremely slow growth rate. However, it is highly valued as an amenity tree for hedging and topiary. In recent years yew has become important due to the taxane alkaloids found in its foliage which have been developed as an anti-cancer drug7, 14 .

[1] J. E. Milner, The tree book : the indispensable guide to tree facts, crafts and lore (Collins & Brown, 1992). [2] J. E. Eckenwalder, Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference (Timber Press, 2009). [3] P. A. Thomas, A. Polwart, Journal of Ecology 91, 489 (2003). [4] C. R. Wilson, J.-M. Sauer, S. B. Hooser, Toxicon 39, 175 (2001). [5] J. C. Linares, Forest Ecology and Management 291, 119 (2013). [6] A. Farjon, D. Filer, An Atlas of the World’s Conifers: An Analysis of their Distribution, Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Status (Brill, 2013). [7] F. Hageneder, Yew: A History, History Press Series (History Press Limited, 2011). [8] Kunzmann, Mai, Palaeontographica Abteilung B: Palaeophytologie 272, 67 (2005). [9] U. Pietzarka, Zur ökologischen Strategie der Eibe (Taxus baccata L.) : Wachstumsund Verjüngungsdynamik, Ph.D. thesis, Technischen Universität Dresden (2005). [10] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [11] D. W. Larson, et al., Journal of Biogeography 27, 319 (2000).






Yew has experienced one of the sharpest declines of all European tree species. Historically it was felled to provide wood for longbows and destroyed to prevent the poisoning of livestock13; yew is now endangered in many parts of its range where intensive land-use has caused a decline in numbers5, 15, 16 and regeneration rates are too slow to replace the existing populations5 . Additional pressure is now being put on the species from harvesting for the extraction of taxanes for pharmaceutical use17. Despite being poisonous, it is also frequently damaged by browsing and bark stripping by wild and domestic animals. The thin bark means it is intolerant to fire although it has a lower combustibility than other conifers. Relatively few insects attack it compared to other tree species because of its toxicity18 , but seedlings can be killed by pathogenic fungi17, stem canker has been seen in Switzerland19 and has been identified as the cause of death of some yews in Great Britain20 . Yew mite (Cedidophyopsis psilaspis), whose attacks cause bud mortality7, is considered a serious pest of yew in northern and central Europe3 .




Male yellow globose flowers at the base of the leaves.



[12] K. P. Oakley, P. Andrews, L. H. Keeley, J. D. Clark, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43, 13 (1977). [13] H. R. Hartzell (CRC Press, 1995), chap. 2, pp. 27–34. [14] M. Suffness, et al., Taxol : science and applications (CRC Press, 1995). [15] H. Ruprecht, et al., European Journal of Forest Research 129, 189 (2010). [16] A. Dhar, H. Ruprecht, H. Vacik, Forest Ecology and Management 255, 2835 (2008). [17] A. Lewandowski, J. Burczyk, L. Mejnartowicz, Forest Ecology and Management 73, 221 (1995). [18] W. M. Daniewski, et al., Phytochemistry 49, 1279 (1998). [19] J. Hassler, W. Schoch, R. Engesser, Swiss Forestry Journal 155, 400 (2004). [20] R. G. Strouts, T. G. Winter, Diagnosis of ill-health in trees (H.M.S.O., 1994). [21] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [22] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 2 Gymnospermae (Pinaceae to Ephedraceae) (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo, Helsinki, 1973).

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e015921. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Benham, S. E., Houston Durrant, T., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Taxus baccata in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e015921+



183 08/04/2016 11:23

Tilia Tilia cordata, Tilia platyphyllos and other limes in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats E. Eaton, G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Tilia cordata Mill., known as small-leaved lime, and Tilia platyphyllos Scop., known as large-leaved lime, are very similar trees, both native to Europe and preferring warmer climates. Growing into large trees, they occur from southern Finland to southern Italy, and from the Caucasus to north-west Spain and Wales. Limes prefer lowlands to higher elevations, and have been a component of European woodlands for six millennia. Coppicing has been a common form of management for limes, as they produce long straight poles and can be very long-lived (>2 000 years) in this form. Lime wood is much valued for carving, as it is soft and resistant to splitting. Small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) and large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos Scop.) are large-sized deciduous broad-leaved trees. They are long-lived, able to survive more than 1 000 years even if coppiced1, 2 . T. cordata is the more common species in Europe, whilst T. platyphyllos extends farther south. Both species can reach 30-40 m in height with straight trunks up to around 1 m in diameter which are largely free of suckers and epicormic growth, unlike their hybrid Tilia x europaea (common lime). Their crowns tend to be quite neat and narrow, becoming untidier as they age, although the high crown can allow a branch-free bole of 10-15 m. Despite their common names, the leaves of these two species are very similar: both are often around 9 cm long, with T. platyphyllos up to 15 cm; pointed tips to the leaves are common to both, as are a cordate base, which is more irregular in form in T. platyphyllos, a finely-toothed leaf margin, and a dark green shiny upper surface with the underside paler3 . T. cordata has hairs in the vein axils on the lower surface of its leaves, whereas T. platyphyllos is only sometimes hairy on its underside. Both species flower profusely in June and July. The white or pale flowers, which are insect-pollinated, are fragrant and occur in clusters of 4 to 5. Seeds are first produced around 30 to 40 years of age, and every 2-3 years trees produce a reasonable crop of seeds. The seeds of T. cordata are smaller than those of T. platyphyllos: there are 7500 T. platyphyllos seeds per kilogram, compared to 29000 T. cordata seeds per kilogram4 .

16 m in diameter and may be up to 2 000 years old, although precise dating is difficult as the heartwood may have rotted away long ago13 . Whilst neither T. cordata nor T. platyphyllos is as susceptible to aphid infestation as Tilia x europaea, it has been said that the soils underneath lime trees may receive up to 1 kg per square metre of sugars from honeydew. This nutrient input is thought to stimulate nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soils, enriching them with nitrogen and phosphorus14 .

Importance and Usage Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology Native

Both the main lime species in Europe produce a wood that is light in colour and soft enough to carve, but resistant to splitting4 . Some of the earliest uses of lime wood includes bows and shields, as well as “bast”, which is a tough fibrous material derived from the inner bark and used for rope and clothing. Coppicing of Tilia has long been practiced, as the trees are capable of producing long, straight poles4 . As the wood of both T. cordata and T. platyphyllos can be worked easily, it has been a highly favoured material for carving since the Middle Ages, as well as for musical instruments, clogs, beehives, and cuckoo clocks15, 16 . Honey from the flowers of lime trees is also much valued, and a tea made from the flowers (Tilleul) has long been thought to have antiinflammatory properties17. One of the common uses of lime trees has been as a street tree in much of Europe, notably along Unter den Linden in the centre of historic Berlin18 .

Map 1-A: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Tilia cordata. Frequency of Tilia cordata occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for T. cordata is derived after EUFORGEN and Afonin et al.26, 27.

and the Alps lime stands and forests were much more abundant before the expansion and intensification of agriculture 7 0005 000 years ago10 . T. cordata can grow on calcareous soils, podzols, and brown earths, and can compete with oaks on stagno-gley soils, whilst T. platyphyllos is more usually found on rendzinas formed from limestone or basic igneous rocks. If the mean annual precipitation is greater than 850 mm, T. cordata can also move onto more lime-rich soils4 , but it is quite drought tolerant11 . Neither species is much affected by spring nor autumn frosts, as flushing is relatively late and buds set early11 . However, both species require some warmth, being limited in the north of their ranges by temperature. This is particularly true for the production of fertile seed, as in colder regions (such as northern Britain) it is often too cold for the pollen tube to grow following pollination12 . As such, opportunities for limes to spread in such areas only occur following particularly warm summers. Given its relative droughttolerance and its preference for warmer temperatures, the range of this species may increase in a warming climate11 . T. cordata and T. platyphyllos are both tolerant of shade and tend to grow in close proximity to other species in dense woodlands. Both species show substantial regenerative abilities and have been grown as coppice for millennia. Individual coppice stools may form rings

Isolated small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata) in Leskova Dolina (South Slovenia). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Threats and Diseases T. cordata and T. platyphyllos are generally quite disease resistant. Bleeding stem cankers caused by Phytophthora cactorum and Phytophthora citricola have been recorded on limes. T. cordata is sensitive to Phytophthora plurivora19, 20 . Aphids can be a problem, but to a much lesser extent with T. cordata and T. platyphyllos than with common lime: in severe infestations the honeydew dripping onto lower leaves allows sooty moulds to grow, blocking light from reaching the leaf surface. In common with several woody plants, limes are susceptible to be attacked by the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and by the nun moth (Lymantria monacha)21-24 . In particular, T. cordata is highly

Inflorescences of white-yellowish fragrant flowers arranged in clusters of 4-5. (Copyright Giovanni Caudullo: CC-BY)

Distribution


T. cordata and T. platyphyllos are native to much of Europe, with their ranges extending from southern Finland to southern Italy and the Caucasus. T. cordata is the more abundant of the two species and its core region is central and eastern Europe. It can be found as far north as southern Norway and Finland and at elevations up to 1 500 m in the central Alps5 . T. platyphyllos has a smaller range, reaching slightly farther south but only reaching southern Sweden at its northern extent and having a much more patchy occurrence in northern central Europe. Neither species is present in the far west of Europe, with the western extent in North-West Spain and Wales6 . In Europe, two other species of lime occur naturally: the silver lime (Tilia tomentosa Moench.) and the Caucasian lime (Tilia dasystyla Stev.) with two noticeable subspecies caucasica and dasystyla. T. tomentosa especially occurs in the Balkans and Hungary, while T. dasystyla is peculiar to the regions around the Black Sea5, 7, 8 .

Habitat and Ecology Both T. cordata and T. platyphyllos are trees of lowlands and the lower slopes of hills rather than higher elevations, and have been present in European woods for more than 10 000 years9 . In Britain, limes are generally associated with oak and beech woodlands, and their presence is often taken as an indicator or ancient woodland (i.e. since before 1600 CE)4 . In Central Europe

184

Large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos) on karst plateau near Lokev village (Sežana, Slovenia). (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Pendulous fruits of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata). (Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)



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Tilia Frequency < 25% 25% - 50% 50% - 75% > 75% Chorology

vulnerable to the gypsy moth and T. platyphyllos is susceptible to the nun moth. Invertebrates to which limes play host include Stigmella tiliae, a leaf-miner; the lime hawk-moth, Mimas tiliae; and Eriophyes tiliae, the lime nail gall16 . Natural regeneration of limes rarely persists long, as it is very palatable to small browsing mammals, such as bank voles4 . Mature trees may have their bark stripped by browsing cattle25 .

Red galls on lime leaves caused by the mite Eriophyes tiliae.

Native

Map 1-C: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Tilia tomentosa . Frequency of Tilia tomentosa occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for T. tomentosa is derived after Meusel and Jäger29 .


References

Leaves of European lime are very similar, with toothed margin, cordate base and pointed tips.

Trunk of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata), which generally reaches lower heights than large-leaved lime (Tilia platyphyllos).

(Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)



Map 1-B: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Tilia platyphyllos. Frequency of Tilia platyphyllos occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for T. platyphyllos is derived after EUFORGEN28 .



Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for the whole genus Tilia.




[16] A. Roloff, H. Weisgerber, U. M. Lang, B. Stimm, Bäume Mitteleuropas: Von Aspe bis Zirbelkiefer. Mit den Porträts aller Bäume des Jahres von 1989 bis 2010. (Wiley-VCH, 2010). [17] M. Blumenthal, American Botanical Council, Bundesinstitut für Arzneimittel und Medizinprodukte, Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines, The Complete German Commission E monographs (American Botanical Council, 1998). [18] M. Forrest, C. Konijnendijk, Urban Forests and Trees, C. Konijnendijk, K. Nilsson, T. Randrup, J. Schipperijn, eds. (Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2005), pp. 23–48. [19] M. Mrazkova, et al., Plant Disease 94, 272 (2010). [20] M. Mrázková, et al., Plant Protection Science 49, 155 (2013). [21] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [22] CABI, Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [23] CABI, Lymantria monacha (nun moth) (2015). Invasive Species Compendium. http://www.cabi.org [24] I. Skrzecz, Folia Forestalia Polonica 42, 41 (2000). [25] C. D. Pigott, J. P. Huntley, New Phytologist 84, 145 (1980). [26] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of lime (Tilia cordata) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [27] A. N. Afonin, S. L. Greene, N. I. Dzyubenko, A. N. Frolov, eds., Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries: Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds [Online] (2008). http://www.agroatlas.ru. [28] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of lime (Tilia platyphyllos) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [29] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998).

Bark of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata) forming longitudinal fissures at the base of the trunk.



[1] I. Colin Prentice, H. Helmisaari, Forest Ecology and Management 42, 79 (1991). [2] J. E. Milner, The tree book : the indispensable guide to tree facts, crafts and lore (Collins & Brown, 1992). [3] A. F. Mitchell, P. Dahlstrom, E. Sunesen, C. Darter, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [4] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [5] J. Jensen, S. Canger, Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the Third Meeting, 1316 June 1998, Sagadi, Estonia, J. Turok, et al., eds. (Bioversity International, 1998), pp. 28–38. [6] J. Svejgaard Jensen, EUFORGEN Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use for Lime (Tilia spp.) (2003). [7] K. Radoglou, D. Dobrowolska, G. Spyroglou, V. N. Nicolescu, Die Bodenkultur 60, 9 (2009). [8] C. D. Pigott, B. Francis, Edinburgh Journal of Botany 56, 161 (1999). [9] G. Lang, Quartäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas: Methoden und Ergebnisse (G. Fisher, Jena, 1994). [10] W. Tinner, B. Ammann, Global Change and Mountain Regions, U. Huber, H. Bugmann, M. Reasoner, eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2005), vol. 23 of Advances in Global Change Research, pp. 133–143. [11] G. E. Hemery, et al., Forestry 83, 65 (2010). [12] C. D. Pigott, Journal of Ecology 79, 1147 (1991). [13] C. D. Pigott, New Phytologist 112, 117 (1989). [14] D. J. Mabberley, The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 1997). [15] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013).


Hairs in the vein axils on the leaf lower face of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata). (Copyright David Nicholls, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)


This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e010ec5. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Eaton, E., Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Tilia cordata, Tilia platyphyllos and other limes in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e010ec5+



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Ulmus Ulmus - elms in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats G. Caudullo, D. de Rigo Among elm tree species, prevalently concentrated in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, three species are present in Europe with a wide range and native to most countries: the European white elm (Ulmus laevis Pall.) which has a more southern range, the wych elm (Ulmus glabra Huds.) which has a more northern range, and the field elm (Ulmus minor Mill.) which has a more eastern range. Elms are deciduous medium-sized trees, characterised by pollination and seed dispersal driven by the wind. They all are components of mixed broadleaved cool forests, distributed principally near rivers and floodplains. These tree species have always played an important cultural role, being part of the traditional rural landscape as a tree of multiple purposes, such as working and firewood, fodder supplier, living grapevine support and more recently as an ornamental and roadside tree. The introduction into Europe in the last century of the fungal pathogen Ophiostoma, causing the Dutch elm disease, has devastated the elm populations throughout Europe with two destructive epidemics. Despite their drastic reduction, elms are not considered endangered species, as the main losses regarded mature cultivated trees in urban areas and countryside. Breeding programmes have selected hybrids resistant to Dutch elm disease for ornamental purposes, while in natural forests elms are less susceptible to this pathogen and more threatened by habitat reduction and water regulation.


White elm (U. laevis) is a riparian tree growing principally along rivers. (Copyright Stefano Zerauschek, www.flickr.com: AP)

Map 1-A: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ulmus glabra. Frequency of Ulmus glabra occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for U. glabra is derived after several sources16, 17, 46-49 .

shoot in U. glabra and U. minor. The wind pollinated flower is bellshaped, without petals, and dark purplish-red to brownish. The fruits are ovate samaras, with a single central nut seed rounded by a membrane, which may have a hair-fringed margin in U. laevis, 2-3 cm, maturing in late spring11-13 .

Distribution


The elms are deciduous medium-sized trees, growing from 20 m (Ulmus minor) up to 40 m (Ulmus glabra). The crown can vary much in shape: it is generally open, broad, billowing, from domed to cylindrical, but also conic. The bark is brownish-grey, deeply furrowed, smooth when young only in U. glabra. The leaves also vary greatly in dimension and form. They are alternate, dark green, usually asymmetrical at the base and acuminate at the apex, with toothed margins, from 4-10 cm long in U. minor to 1018 cm long in U. glabra, smooth and downy above in Ulmus laevis and with black glands along leaf veins in U. minor. In autumn U. laevis sheds its leaves earlier than the other two species. Elms are monoecious hermaphrodite species: the flowers appear before the leaves in early spring, arranged in clusters of 10-30 elements, with 20 mm long stems in U. laevis, while close to the

The European elms are a component of cool mixed broadleaved forests, showing a clear preference for water- and nutrient-rich soils, distributed principally near rivers and streams or on floodplains18 . U. glabra is adapted to hemiboreal and temperate forests with cool summers. It is a more demanding species, thriving in moist forests with rich soils and high humidity, or in groves along streams, but rarely in very wet or flooded areas19, 20 . It does not tolerate basic soils, growing better on mildly acid soils up to pH 4.721 . It occurs in mixed forests with



186

Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Ulmus glabra.





Habitat and Ecology


Elm leaves have accuminate apex, toothed margins and are asymmetrical at the base; those of wych elm (U. glabra) are the largest, reaching 18 cm in length. (Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)

Importance and Usage For centuries elms have played an important cultural role in rural areas, being part of the traditional landscape as a tree of multiple uses32 . From a commercial point of view, elms are a Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation (dimensionless)



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Wych elm (U. glabra) is the tallest among European elms, reaching 40 m in height.

The three European elms all have a widespread range, and are native to most European countries. U. glabra has a more northerly distribution than the others, occurring in Norway up to the Arctic Circle and only on mountain areas in its southern range, extending east to the Urals. U. minor thrives better in southern Europe, reaching at its northernmost extent the Baltic Sea. Southwards it can be found up to Algeria, Israel and North-eastern Iran. U. laevis has a more eastern distribution, from central France to the Ural Mountains. It ranges from South Finland on north, to its southernmost limits in Bulgaria and Crimea8, 14-17.

other broadleaved species, often associated with noble trees such as ashes (Fraxinus spp.), maples (Acer spp.) and limes (Tilia spp.), and locally more abundant in optimal sites22-24 . U. laevis occurs in riparian forests along large rivers such as the Rhine, the Elbe and the Danube, at altitudes of less than 300 m, thriving in damp, periodically flooded, soils6, 25 . Despite being typically found in moist sites, it can tolerate moderately dry and deep soils, preferring slightly acid and siliceous soils. The hairs on the samaras increase their ability to float by surface tension, favouring long-distance dispersal by water18, 26, 27. In forest stands, it is a dominated species of mixed alluvial forests, rarely reaching heights of 35 m, occurring with pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), ashes (Fraxinus spp.), alders (Alnus spp.) and along with willows (Salix spp.) and poplars (Populus spp.) in more flooded and disturbed sites24 . U. minor, like U. laevis, is a riparian tree. It occurs in Mediterranean regions along banks of relatively small streams. In central Europe it is a prominent component of woods along major rivers together with U. laevis, while in southern Russia and the north-east Balkans it is a component of wooded steppes4 . Unlike other elms, it is more of a pioneer species, characterised by being light-demanding and fast-growing. It also tolerates different stresses well, such as waterlogging or drought, pollution and salty winds19, 28 . It has a strong ability to reproduce rapidly by root suckers, even at several metres of distance, forming connections between root systems, so it is often found in groups at the forest edge, seldom as pure stands29 . Like U. laevis, U. minor grows in floodplain broadleaved communities with pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and with ashes (Fraxinus spp.) in less frequently flooded sites22, 24, 30 . Adults of both riparian elms show a higher tolerance to inundation than common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), but less than white willow (Salix alba)31 .

Ulmus

source of good-quality wood, easy to work and used for furniture, flooring and as firewood, except U. laevis, which has a lower density and cross-grained wood, which causes difficulty in machine cutting and defects25, 29 . It has also an exceptional resistance to water decay, so that timbers are used as underwater piles, in shipbuilding and for water pipes28, 29 . U. glabra grows at relatively high altitudes and also in European boreal areas. The European mountainous areas are associated with soil erosion rates higher than the average. As this phenomenon is particularly serious in the boreal mountain system33 , U. glabra contributes to provide a valuable service in watershed protection and soil stabilisation34 . Given the suitability for elms to live in high humidity areas, all the European elms may help to mitigate soil erosion by water even where particularly frequent or intense precipitation patterns are observed, and along riparian areas. In the Mediterranean regions since ancient Greek times, U. minor was traditionally used as


Field elm (U. minor) seeds are circular samaras with the nut in the middle. (Copyright Alan Semper, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

Map 1-C: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ulmus minor. Frequency of Ulmus minor occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for U. minor is derived after several sources15, 16, 47, 48, 51 .

living support for grapevines, also providing fodder in summer and small-wood and poles when coppiced. This practice was then exported by the Romans to the whole of Europe35 . In fact, thanks to its fast-growing, re-sprouting ability and easy propagation by suckering, U. minor has been widely propagated and planted in the countryside and more recently on roadsides and in urban areas6 . However, the pandemics of the vascular Dutch elm disease starting in the last century devastated the elm populations in the whole of Europe, making it necessary to substitute it with other tree species or with other Dutch elm disease-resistant elms, such as Siberian elm and its hybrids36 .

Taxonomy of elms

Seed germination of the field elm (U. minor). (Copyright Franco Giordana, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)


Map 1-B: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Ulmus laevis. Frequency of Ulmus laevis occurrences within the field observations as reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial range for U. laevis is derived after several sources16, 46, 50 .


The story of the elms is marked by the two destructive epidemics, caused by the introduction of hyper-virulent fungal pathogens, Ophiostoma ulmi in the 1920s and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi in 1970s, usually called Dutch elm disease (DED). It is considered one of the most significant tree diseases known in the world, having devastated the elm populations throughout Europe and North America37. DED is very aggressive and is transmitted by the bark beetles of genus Scolytus or throughout root connections, attacking principally mature U. minor leading to death in 2-3 years38 . U. glabra is susceptible to the fungal agent, but remains unaffected at higher latitudes, where the insect vector cannot survive. U. laevis is susceptible, but less attractive for the bark beetles, so its population was not severely damaged by the DED, except in the western ranges6 . Several strategies have been adopted in an attempt to prevent infection and reduce the impacts of DED. The chemical and biological controls against the pathogen or the insect vector encountered many limits, due to poor results or high costs when utilized at large scales39 . Two breeding programs arose in Netherlands and in Italy after the pandemics, having a success for selecting cultivars resistant to DED with the use of Asian parental materials. Most of those hybrids were planted in substitution of garden elms38, 40 . However, the widespread use of cultivars has increased the risk of ‘genetic pollution’, mainly when planted in the countryside near to natural forests6 . Despite their drastic reduction during the last century, the European elm species (in a narrow sense) can be considered not actually in danger. The main losses regarded introduced and cultivated plants in urban areas and countryside with relatively poor genetic variability6 . Concerning elms in forest habitats, although larger trees are heavily affected by DED, in the United Kingdom and southern Sweden there has been reported significant resilience of a fast turnover population of poles in the understorey41, 42 . Particular attention in conservation has been also given to small and marginal populations at the borders of their natural distributions, with the aim of minimising the risk of genetic loss. Among the European elms, U. laevis is the less susceptible to DED. However, its populations are often in small and fragmented stands as a result of the reduction of the riparian forests, caused by water-basin regulation and demand for agricultural lands. Potentially, genetic drift as a result of

Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Ulmus laevis.





The genus Ulmus includes 20-40 species prevalently in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and concentrated mostly in Eurasia1 . The ambiguity in number of species results from the difficulty in their classification, which is very complex and is still under debate. In fact elms have a strong intra-specific variability in morphological traits, not only geographically, but even in the same tree during growing stages as a response to environmental conditions. Moreover, they have an extensive natural hybridisation capacity between them2 . With the use of chloroplast DNA, a simplified classification of European elms has been proposed. It counts three ‘large’ species belonging to two sections, which comprise different varieties and subspecies historically described 3, 4: Ulmus laevis Pall. (European white elm) belonging to the Blepharocarpus section, Ulmus glabra Huds. (wych elm) and Ulmus minor Mill. (field elm) belonging to the Ulmus section. U. minor can be defined as a complex of species, sometimes described on the basis of morphological traits and geographical distribution as separated species: i.e. Plot’s Elm (Ulmus plotii), the English elm (Ulmus minor var. vulgaris syn. Ulmus procera) and the grey elm (Ulmus minor subsp. canescens syn. Ulmus canescens)5, 6 . U. glabra has a strong latitudinal variations and two subspecies have been proposed: U. glabra subsp. glabra in the southern range and U. glabra subsp. montana in the northern range. A variety is also recognised in Caucasus (U. glabra var. trautvetteri), which is sometimes treated as a separate species (Ulmus elliptica)7, 8 . The variety Ulmus laevis var. celtidea syn. Ulmus celtidea is an endemic elm native of northern Ukraine, which differs morphologically from U. laevis6, 9, 10 . Finally U. glabra and U. minor can naturally hybridise in intermediate forms, commonly referred to as Ulmus x holandica (Dutch elm), and both hybridise with Ulmus pumila (Siberian elm), recently introduced from Asia.


Galleries of Scolitus beetle on a wych elm (U. glabra). Annual average temperature (°C)



(Copyright Ronnie Nijboer, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



187 08/04/2016 11:23

Ulmus

landscape changes along large rivers could represent a more serious risk than DED6 . Aside from this serious disease, elms are susceptible to the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). A. glabripennis can also attack several other trees, such as several species of maple (Acer spp.), poplar (Populus spp.) and birch (Betula spp.), whose distribution partially overlap with that of elms43-45 .

Wych elm (U. glabra) seeds mature in late spring. (Copyright Graham Calow, www.naturespot.ork.uk: AP)

References

Seedling of field elm (U. minor).

Field elm (U. minor) isolated tree in rural area. This elm rarely exceeds 20 m in height.

(Copyright Franco Giordana, www.actaplantarum.org: AP)

(Copyright Ptelea, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)

Flowers of white elm (U. laevis) are clustered on long stems. (Copyright Velella, commons.wikimedia.org: PD)



188

Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised field observations from forest plots for Ulmus minor.







[1] S. L. Sherman-Broyles, Flora of North America North of Mexico, Flora of North America Editorial Committee, ed. (New York and Oxford, 1997), vol. 3. [2] N. Machon, M. Lefranc, I. Bilger, J. P. Henry, Heredity 74, 39 (1995). [3] S. J. Wiegrefe, K. J. Sytsma, R. P. Guries, Systematic Botany 19, 590 (1994). [4] R. H. Richens, Elm (Cambridge University Press, 1983). [5] E. Collin, I. Bilger, G. Eriksson, J. Turok, The Elms: Breeding,Conservation, and Disease Management, C. P. Dunn, ed. (Springer US, 2000), pp. 281–293. [6] E. Collin, Noble Hardwoods Network: Report of the Fourth Meeting, 4-6 September 1999, Gmunden, Austria and the Fifth Meeting, 17-19 May 2001, Blessington, Ireland, J. Turok, G. Eriksson, K. Russel, S. Borelli, eds. (Bioversity International, 2002), pp. 50–67. [7] P. Uotila, Sorbifolia 28, 5 (1997). [8] A. Buchel, The Elms - Breeding, Conservation, and Disease Management, C. P. Dunn, ed. (Springer, 2000), pp. 351–358. [9] V. L. Komarov, et al., Flora of the USSR Volume V (Keter Press, Jerusalem, 1970). [10] H. J. Elwes, A. Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland Vol. 7 (Privately printed, Edinburgh, 1913). [11] A. F. Mitchell, A field guide to the trees of Britain and northern Europe (Collins, 1974). [12] O. Johnson, D. More, Collins tree guide (Collins, 2006). [13] M. Goldstein, G. Simonetti, M. Watschinger, Alberi d’Europa (A. Mondadori, 1995). [14] R. Petrokas, Baltic Forestry 14, 204 (2008). [15] E. Hultén, M. Fries, Atlas of North European vascular plants (North of the Tropic of Cancer), Vols. I-III. (Koeltz scientific books, 1986). [16] J. Jalas, J. Suominen, Atlas Florae Europaeae: distribution of vascular plants in Europe Vol. 3 Salicaceae to Balanophoraceae (Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanario, Helsinki, 1976). [17] H. Meusel, E. Jäger, eds., Vergleichende Chorologie der Zentraleuropäischen Flora - Band I, II, III (Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1998). [18] J. C. López-Almansa, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 31, 17 (2004). [19] R. Petrokas, V. Baliuckas, Baltic Forestry 20, 238 (2014). [20] H. Hytteborn, A. A. Maslov, D. I. Nazimova, L. P. Rysin, Ecosystems of the World, Vol. 6: Coniferous Forests, F. A. Andersson, ed. (Elsevier, 2005), pp. 23–99. [21] G. F. Peterken, Woodland Conservation and Management (Springer Science & Business Media, New York, 1993). [22] H. H. Ellenberg, Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2009), fourth edn. [23] L. Saarse, S. Veski, Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Geology 50, 51 (2001). [24] U. Bohn, et al., Karte der natürlichen Vegetation Europas; Map of the Natural Vegetation of Europe (Landwirtschaftsverlag, 2000). [25] E. Collin, EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation and use for European white elm (Ulmus laevis) (Bioversity International, 2003).

[26] M. Venturas, N. Nanos, L. Gil, Forest Ecology and Management 312, 170 (2014). [27] L. Nielsen, E. Kjær, Tree Genetics & Genomes 6, 643 (2010). [28] P. S. Savill, The silviculture of trees used in British forestry (CABI, 2013). [29] A. Praciak, et al., The CABI encyclopedia of forest trees (CABI, Oxfordshire, UK, 2013). [30] H. Décamps, M. Fortuné, F. Gazelle, G. Pautou, Landscape Ecology 1, 163 (1988). [31] A. Schnitzler, The Botanical Review 63, 40 (1997). [32] G. F. Borlea, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 13, 29 (2004). [33] C. Bosco, D. de Rigo, O. Dewitte, J. Poesen, P. Panagos, Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 15, 225 (2015). [34] J. E. Norris, A. Di Iorio, A. Stokes, B. C. Nicoll, A. Achim, Slope Stability and Erosion Control: Ecotechnological Solutions, J. E. Norris, et al., eds. (Springer Netherlands, 2008), pp. 167–210. [35] H. M. Heybroek, Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gesellschaft nr. 88 (2003), pp. 117–119. [36] A. Solla, et al., Forest Science 51, 134 (2005). [37] C. M. Brasier, Mycopathologia 115, 151 (1991). [38] L. Mittempergher, A. Santini, Investigación Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales 13, 161 (2004). [39] A. Turbé, et al., Disturbances of EU forests caused by biotic agents - final report, Tech. Rep. KH-32-13-151-EN-N (2011). Final Report prepared for European Commission (DG ENV). [40] A. Santini, A. Fagnani, F. Ferrini, L. Ghelardini, L. Mittempergher, HortScience 42, 712 (2007). [41] G. F. Peterken, E. P. Mountford, Journal of Ecology 86, 205 (1998). [42] G. von Oheimb, J. Brunet, Acta Oecologica 31, 229 (2007). [43] D. de Rigo, et al., Scientific Topics Focus 2, mri10a15+ (2016). [44] J. Hu, S. Angeli, S. Schuetz, Y. Luo, A. E. Hajek, Agricultural and Forest Entomology 11, 359 (2009). [45] N. A. Straw, N. J. Fielding, C. Tilbury, D. T. Williams, D. Inward, Forestry 88, 84 (2015). [46] A. N. Afonin, S. L. Greene, N. I. Dzyubenko, A. N. Frolov, eds., Interactive Agricultural Ecological Atlas of Russia and Neighboring Countries: Economic Plants and their Diseases, Pests and Weeds [Online] (2008). http://www.agroatlas.ru. [47] B. Jonsell, ed., Flora Nordica, Vol 1: Lycopodiaceae - polygonaceae (The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, 2000). [48] R. Alìa Miranda, et al., Regiones de procedencia de especies forestales en España (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Madrid, 2009). [49] Sociedade Portuguesa de Botânica, FloraOn: Flora de portugal interactiva (2014). http://www.flora-on.pt. [50] EUFORGEN, Distribution map of European white elm (Ulmus laevis) (2008). www.euforgen.org. [51] Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, BSBI Big Database (2015). http://bsbidb.org.uk.

This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e01bd40. The purpose of this summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related main topics. This QR code points to the full online version, where the most updated content may be freely accessed. Please, cite as: Caudullo, G., de Rigo, D., 2016. Ulmus - elms in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e01bd40+



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European Peacock butterfly (Aglais io) on a rhododendron flower. (Copyright Danielgrad, www.wikipedia.com: CC-BY)

Fly agaric mashroom (Amanita muscaria). (Copyright cafepampas, pixabay.com: CC0)

Maturing blackberries of Rubus shrub . (Copyright FraukeFeind, pixabay.com: CC0)

Rosalia longicorn (Rosalia alpina), xylophagous beetle of the family Cerambycidae. (Copyright zseeee, pixabay.com: CC0)



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Glossary

Achene: a simple dry fruit containing a single seed. [see Fig. 3a overleaf]. Acuminate: gradually tapering to a point [see Fig. 4f overleaf]. Adventitious: a structure arising from an unusual place; e.g. roots growing from the shoot system. Aeolian soil: soil generated with sediments eroded, transported and deposited by the action of the wind. Agroforestry: a land-use system with two or more interacting plant species, where one of them is a tree or shrub. Alkaloid: a group of natural chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms produced by a large variety of organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants, animals). They can be extracted and used in traditional and modern medicine, interacting with the metabolic systems of humans and animals. Allelopathy (adj. allelopathic): negative effects created by a plant on the growth or development of other nearby plants by releasing toxic substances. Anamorph (adj. anamorphic): in mycology, an asexual reproductive stage in a fungus life-cycle, which also includes a teleomorph, the sexual reproductive stage. In the past some fungi had a double nomenclature related to their different stages, recently declared scientifically invalid. Androdioecious: species having separate plants with staminate flowers and plants with perfect fully-functional flowers [see Fig. 2b overleaf]. Androecious: the plant having the male flowers in a dioecious population. Androgynomonoecious: species having in the same plant perfect fullyfunctional flowers, pistillate and staminate flowers. [see Fig. 2b overleaf] Andromonoecious: species having in the same plant perfect fully-functional flowers and staminate flowers. [see Fig. 2b overleaf] Androsterility (adj. androsterile): see pistil. Anthropogenic: caused or produced by humans. Apomixis (adj. apomictic): reproduction of plants where the embryo develops without fertilisation occurring. Apophysis: A natural outgrowth, swelling or enlargement. Arborescent: having the shape of a tree, tree-like. Arcto-Tertiary geoflora: floral assemblage that once covered the Northern Hemisphere, from roughly the late Mesozoic to mid Cenozoic Eras. Aril (syn. arillus): a fleshy fruit that covers or is attached to the seed, often edible to encourage dispersion by animals. Array: of data (including spatial data), information or numerical models. In computational science, collection of homogeneous or heterogeneous layers (for example, field observations of forest tree species; land cover maps on the distribution of broadleaved/coniferous taxa; maps on bioclimatic and geographic information) which may be processed in a compact way (array programming) as a sequence within numerical models. Arthropod: an invertebrate animal with an external skeleton (exoskeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods include the insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. Autoecology: the term generally refers to diagrams also known as climatespace diagrams. For a given taxon, an empirical autoecology diagram is based on the available field observations to illustrate the pattern of selected bioclimatic quantities (for example, the average annual temperature versus the total annual precipitation) associated with the locations where the taxon has been observed. When available (as is the case in this Atlas), autoecology diagrams also illustrate the empirical climate space occupied by all the taxa (presence/absence autoecology). Axil: the upper angle between one part of a plant and another part. Auriculate: having an auricle, i.e. an ear-shaped lobe at the base of a leaf. Big data: in computational science, collection of data whose appropriate analysis and computational modelling requires specific techniques in order for the challenging amount of information to be managed. Usual standard approaches of numerical processing are generally inadequate with big data due to their dimension or complexity/heterogeneity. The qualification of data as “big data” highly depends on the typical computational resources, software and knowledge available in given historic time. Bioclimatic: referring to climatic aspects relevant for the biology of the organism (for example, referring to temperature, precipitation, evapotranspiration, solar irradiation, etc.). Biogenic volatile organic compounds: volatile organic compounds produced by plants. Involved in plant growth, development, reproduction and defence. While contributing to tropospheric ozone and secondary particle formation, they also have indirect effects on cloud formation and climate change. Bisexual: see monoecious BP: acronym standing for “Before Present” with “Present” being the 1st January 1950, reflecting the time when radiocarbon dating became practicable. Brachyblast: branches with shortened internodes (brachyblasts) as opposed to branches with long internodes. Bronze Age: the term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the metalworking included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcrops of ores, and then combining them to cast bronze to produce sophisticated tools such as sickles or knives. This is the earliest period in which some civilisations introduced writing. BVOC: See biogenic volatile organic compounds. Calyx: the outer floral envelope that protects the developing flower bud, consisting of the sepals. Cambium: the tissue in the stems and roots of plants, consisting of cells that divide rapidly to form new layers of tissue. In woody plants it lies between the bark and wood of the stem; on its outer surface the vascular cambium forms new layers of phloem, and on its inner surface, new layers of xylem. Chasmophyte (adj. chasmophytic): plant growing in rock crevices. Chorology: study of the spatial distribution of organisms. Climate-space diagrams: see autoecology. Computational model: mathematical model in computational science requiring computational resources to analyse or estimate specific statistics and information on the behaviour of a natural or artificial system (for example, the relative probability of presence or the habitat suitability of forest tree species). Computational science: scientific and technical methods to analyse existing information and to estimate unavailable information with the help of mathematics and computational models. Constrained spatial multi-frequency analysis: (acronym: C-SMFA) in computational science, a spatial frequency analysis of a given quantity

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(for example, the frequency of field observations concerning a given tree species) which considers multiple spatial scales to account for the different local density of data. Furthermore, C-SMFA is constrained to be consistent with an additional available information to improve the overall quality of the frequency analysis. In this Atlas, S-SMFA is exploited to estimate the relative probability of presence of forest tree species. Constraint: for the meaning in computational modelling, see semantic constraint. Cordate: having a heart-shaped outline. [see Fig. 4b overleaf] . Coriaceous: leathery. Corolla: the inner circle of petals of a flower, usually of a colour other than green. Corvid: a bird belonging to the crow family Corvidae, e.g. jays, magpies, choughs. Corymb: a flat-topped flower cluster in which the individual flower stalks grow upward from various points on the main stem to approximately the same overall height. [see Fig. 1b overleaf] . Cotyledon: an embryo tissue within the seed which upon germination forms the embryonic leaf/leaves of the plant. Coumarin: an organic compound naturally present in many plants. It has a sweet odour, recognised as the scent of new-mown hay. It is used in perfumes, for giving aroma to drinks and tobaccos, and more recently for clinical medical purposes. Cryptic: see refugia Cuneate: having the shape of a wedge, triangular at the base and tapering to a point. [see Fig. 4g overleaf]. Cyme: A usually flat-topped or convex flower cluster in which the main stem and each branch end in a flower. Decumbent: spreading horizontally with the ends growing upwards Dehesa: a Spanish word which refers to the savannah-like open woodland traditionally managed as a multi-purpose agricultural system in the Iberian Peninsula. In Portugal it is named montado. This agro-sylvo-pastoral land use provides firewood, shading and secondary products (i.e. acorn, olive, nuts, cork, manna, etc.) from trees and pasture for livestock from grass land. Main tree species managed as dehesa/montado are principally Mediterranean evergreen oaks, holm oak (Quercus ilex), cork oak (Quercus suber), Lusitanian oak (Quercus faginea) and Pyrenean oak (Quercus pirenaica), but also ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) and stone pine (Pinus pinea) with other accompanying tree such as olive (Olea europaea) and junipers (Juniperus oxycedrus and J. thurifera). Dendrochronology: the science of dating based on the analysis of tree ring patterns. Dioecious: species that has male and female flowers (or reproductive structures) in separate plants. Diploid: organism which contains two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. Disking: Agricultural term to describe the process of using a disk, or harrow, to disturb the soil, setting back natural succession by cutting up grassy vegetation, thus preventing an area from maturing into briars, shrubs, and trees. Dormant (adj. dormancy): an induced and hormone-regulated stage of inactive state in which growth stops and metabolism is slowed. Drupe: a fruit with the seed inside a woody shell (endocarp) surrounded by a fleshy part (mesocarp) and skin (exocarp). [see Fig. 3b overleaf]. Ecotone: the transition zone between two different plant communities, e.g. between forest and prairie. Ectomycorrhiza: a fungus that forms a symbiotic relationship with the roots of various plant species. Unlike other mycorrhizae, they do not penetrate their host’s cell walls, developing in the intercellular spaces. They form a dense hyphal sheath surrounding the root surface, helping the host plant to take up water and nutrients and to access carbohydrate supplies. Edaphic: related to the soil. Emarginate: having a broad shallow notch at the apex. [see Fig. 4f overleaf] Empyreuma: the smell and taste associated with burning vegetable and animal matter. Empyreumatic oils are obtained by distilling various organic substances at high temperatures. Endemic (adj. endemism): a species that lives in a defined and restricted geographical zone or habitat type. Endocarp: see drupe Entomophilous: form of pollination whereby pollen or spores are distributed by insects. Epicormic: growing from the bark of the trunk, stem or branch. Epiphyte: a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant, deriving its moisture and nutrients from air and rain. In the temperate zone they are principally mosses, lichens, algae and liverworts. Eutrophic: characterised by an abundant accumulation of nutrients that support a dense plant life. Fascicle: A bundle or cluster of stems, flowers or leaves. Fastigate: having erect branches, often appearing to form a single column with the stem. Fennoscandia: a region comprising the Scandinavian Peninsula, Finland, Karelia and the Kola Peninsula. Field observations: data referring to measurements performed in the environment where a certain organism or association of organisms lives (for example, measurements of whether a certain tree species is found in a certain local environment). Complementary to laboratory measurements and computational modelling estimations. Flexuose: bent from side to side in one plane in zigzag form. Forest plot: local-scale field observation concerning forest resources. Forest plots are often the basis of national forest inventories and of other thematic datasets on forests. Frugivore: (adj. frugivorous) an organism that feeds on fruit. Galbulus (pl. galbuli): a fleshy berry-like seed cone of junipers and cypresses. Gall (syn. cecidium): an abnormal outgrowth of plant tissue, similar to tumours, caused by parasites, principally insects, and used as a habitat for development and as a food source. Garrigue: a discontinuous Mediterranean vegetation composed of low bushy

scrub species associated principally with calcareous rocky soils and hot arid climates. This formation often develops as consequence of a degraded maquis vegetation after fires or intense exploitations. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism or group of organisms with reference to a single trait or set of traits, as distinguished from the physical appearance. Geospatial: in computational science, it refers to data or information which is geographically distributed and covers significantly broad spatial extents. Under these circumstances, for example the simple approximation of the portion of Earth’s surface covered by the spatial extent as a geometrical plane is no more valid. Glabrous: smooth; without hair or scales. Glacial-interglacial cycles: Continental ice-sheets in the Northern Hemisphere have grown and retreated many times in the past. Times with large ice-sheets are known as glacial (cold) periods that were separated by (warm) interglacial periods. We are currently in an interglacial period called the Holocene that initiated 11 700 years BP. Glaucous: having a pale greyish or bluish green colour, often with a whitish bloom which may be rubbed off. Globose: ball-shaped. Gynodioecious: species having separate plants with pistillate flowers and plants with perfect fully-functional flowers [see Fig. 2b overleaf]. Gynoecious: the plant having the female flowers in a dioecious population. Gynomonoecious: species having in the same plant perfect fully-functional flowers and pistillate flowers [see Fig. 2b overleaf] Gynosterility (adj. gynosterile): see stamen Habitat suitability: (acronym: HS) potential suitability for a certain organism (e.g. a tree species) to live in a given local habitat. It is generally a quantity varying from 0 (0 %, unsuitable habitat) to 1 (100 %, potentially very suitable habitat). Computational science may be required for HS to be quantitatively estimated. Depending on the objective to be investigated, HS may consider interspecific competition and other ecological aspects, or may instead just consider bioclimatic limitations. In the latter case, the estimated HS constitutes a potential limit which may be altered by the local ecology (typically, the bioclimatic-related HS of a certain taxon may be higher than the actual one due to competing taxa which are more fit in a given habitat). Heartwood: the older, non-living central wood of a tree, consisting of nonfunctioning xylem tissue that has become blocked with resins, tannins and oils and providing mechanical support. Heartwood is usually darker and harder than the younger sapwood. Hectare: one hectare is 100 × 100 metres. Heliophilous: organism that needs, or tolerates, a high level of direct sunlight. Hermaphrodite: organism or reproductive organs that have both male and female structures. Relating to flowers, hermaphrodite flowers can be called also bisexual or perfect. [see Fig. 2b overleaf]. Hilium: a scar or a mark remaining on a seed or spore at its point the site of its former attachment. Holocene: The Holocene is the geological epoch that began approximately 11 700 years BP and continues to the present. Hygrophylous: adapted for growth in a wet or damp environment. Hypoglycin A: a natural amino acid which occurs in several plants; this compound is toxic if ingested, causing profound hypoglycaemia. Imbricate: Having regular overlapping edges Inflorescence: a grouping of flowers on a stem or in a leaf axil. Interstadial: Time period corresponding to a temporary period of thaw in the middle of an ice age. Involucre: a ring of small leaves, or bracts, at the base of a flower, flower cluster, or fruit. Iron Age: in archaeology, the Iron Age (in Europe between about 1 200 BC – 1 BC) refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy to produce hard metal tools. The adoption of iron coincided with other changes in past cultures, often including more sophisticated agricultural practices and artistic techniques. Karst (adj. karstic]: terrain or landscape characterised by largely bare, rocky surface and irregular limestone in which erosion has produced fissures, sinkholes, underground streams and caverns and underneath which rivers flow. Lanceolate: having a narrow shape and tapering to a point at each end, with the base slightly wider. [see Fig. 4b overleaf]. Lenticel: small raised corky spot or line through which gaseous exchange occurs. They typically appear on bark but also on fruits. Lignicolous: organism which grows or lives on or in wood. Maquis (syn. matorral): this is the main vegetation along the Mediterranean coasts, where summers are hot and dry, and rain falls abundantly in winter. It contains densely packed bushes, shrubs and evergreen trees with generally coriaceous leaves, occasionally deciduous during the summer. Marcescence (adj. marcescent): deciduous tree that retains its leaves through the winter, shedding them only when new leaves emerge in spring. Marl: a crumbly mixture of clays, calcium and magnesium carbonates, and remnants of shells that is sometimes found under desert sands and used as fertiliser for lime deficient soils. Matorral: see maquis Maximum habitat suitability: (acronym: MHS) referring to bioclimaticbased habitat suitability, it represents the maximum spatial extent where a given taxon is suitable to live. It may also be referred to as survivability. Complementary to the average habitat suitability (AHS), which only focuses on the optimal ecological niche of a given taxon. MHS is greater or equal to AHS. Low values of MHS may be exploited to identify the less suitable areas for a given taxon to survive, irrespective of other ecological aspects such as interspecific competition. Conversely, correspondingly low values of AHS may only identify non-optimal areas. In these areas, the taxon is in a sub-optimal condition where it may or may not be able to survive, depending on other factors. Melliferous: producing or promoting the production of honey. Mesic: characterised by or adapted to a moderately moist habitat. Mesocarp: see drupe. Mesoclimate: the climate of a small area not representative of the general climate of the district Mesolithic: This period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, around 9 200 BC, and ended with the introduction of agriculture, the date of which

European Atlas of Forest Tree Species | Glossary


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varied by geographic region. Mesophile (adj. mesophilous, mesophilic): an organism which grows best in a moderate temperature. Mesophyte (adj. mesophytic): plant that grows in an environment having a moderate amount of moisture. Metadata: in computational science, information concerning a certain set of data expressing, at least partially, their semantics and how the data have been generated. Monoecious: species that has both male and female flowers ion the same plant; flowers can be unisexual when they have only male or female structures, or can be hermaphrodite (or bisexual, or perfect) when flowers have both male and female structures. [see Fig. 2b overleaf]. Monopodial: tree with a trunk that develops by continuing growth of a single shoot apex. Montado: see dehesa Morphogenesis: the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape. Mucilaginous: slimy and sticky. Mutualism (adj. mutualistic): a relationship between two organisms of different species in which both benefit from the activity of the other. Nectariferous: producing nectar. Neolithic: This was a period of early rural technology and societal development; specifically it included the use of domestic crops and animals, usually accompanied by ceramic production. It began about 10,200 BC in areas of the Middle East, and started later in other parts of the world.

Pole: Tree of a size larger than a sapling but smaller than a mature specimen (actual dimensions very by region). Polymorphic: organisms of a single species displaying a number of varieties of form. Polyphagous: organism that feeds on different types of food. Related to plants, they are parasites of several plant species. Polyploid: organism which contains more than two set of chromosomes (diploid), e.g. triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), etc. Polyploidy is common among plants, which may display novel morphological variations from parental diploid forms. This mechanism may contribute to the speciation process.

Pontic: denoting or relating to the Black Sea.

Sere (adj. seral): the sequence of ecological communities successively occupying an area from the initial stage to the climax.

Pubescent: covered with a layer of fine short hairs or down. Pyrophyte: plant that is resistant to fire and/or that needs fire to propagate. Quaternary: the geological epoch that spans from about 2.6 million years BP to the present. The Quaternary Period is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene (2.588 million years BP to 11.7 thousand years BP) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years BP to today). The Quaternary period is typically defined by the cyclic growth and decay of continental ice sheets driven by Milankovitch cycles and the associated climate and environmental changes. Quiescence (adj. quiescent): an inactive state in which growth stops and metabolism is slowed imposed by unfavourable environmental conditions.

Obligate: required or necessary.

Rachis: the main stem or axis of an inflorescence or compound leaf.

Ovoid: egg-shaped. Palmate: having more than three lobes or segments that spread out from a common point [see Fig. 4b and 4c overleaf]. Palynology (adj. palynological): the study of live and fossil spores, pollen grains, and other microscopic plant structures. Panicle: an indeterminate inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on branches of the main axis or on further branches of these. [see Fig. 1b overleaf]. Pannonia (adj. Pannonian): a geographical term indicating the plain of EastCentral Europe, surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains (north and east), the Alps (west), and the Dinaric Alps and the Balkan mountains (south), through which flow the Rivers Danube and Tisza.

Sensu lato: Latin term meaning “in the broad sense”. In taxonomy it may indicate that the name is used more inclusively than sanctioned by current practice (e.g. including sub-species). Sensu stricto: Latin term meaning “in the strict sense”. In taxonomy it indicates that the name is used in a more narrow sense (e.g. excluding sub-species).

Raceme: an inflorescence with stalked flowers arranged singly along an elongated axis, with the flowers at the bottom opening first.

Oomycete (syn. oomycota): microscopic filamentous organisms with pathogenic or saprophytic lifestyles. They were classified among fungi and later placed in the Heterokonts, a group composed principally of algae and diatoms.

Semantics: in computational science, the logical and quantitative meaning of a certain quantity, data, information or model. Metadata and semantic constraints are typical tools to express the semantics of numerical data, either spatially distributed (e.g. maps) or not (e.g. average statistics).

Pome: a fleshy fruit not formed from the ovary, but consisting of an enlargement of the receptacle which encloses the ovary and the seeds. It is typical of some members of the Rosaceae family; e.g. apple, pear, quince, medlar. [see Fig. 3b overleaf].

Oblanceolate: having a lance-shaped outline, with the thin end at the base [see Fig. 4b overleaf]. Obovate: having an egg-shaped outline, with the narrow end at the base [see Fig. 4b overleaf].

must be nonnegative; while the relative probability of presence of Fagus sylvatica in the area cannot exceed the relative probability of presence of all the broadleaved taxa in the same area (see also constrained spatial multi-scale frequency analysis).

Refugia: spatially limited areas where plants and animals can grow and survive during adverse or unfavourable environmental conditions (e.g. cold glacial period). Particularly small refugia are sometimes called micro refugia. Cryptic refugia are refugia which are difficult to identify because of their very small size and/or because of the extremely reduced number of individuals of a species. Refugia comprise areas with sheltered topography and buffered, stable local microclimatic and edaphic conditions, which are e.g. important for moisture supply. Relative distance similarity: (acronym: RDS) in computational science, the similarity between two patterns of data based on their relative distance (i.e. the aggregated dimensionless ratio between the numeric values associated with each pattern). For example, in this Atlas RDS is applied to estimate the maximum habitat suitability of a given tree species in a certain area, based on how similar are the bioclimatic conditions of the area with the ones found where the available field observations indicate the presence of the species.

Sepal: one of the green leaf-like or petal-like structures composing the calyx of the flower, the outer floral envelope that protects the developing flower bud.

Serotinous: plants which need an external environmental trigger to release seeds. In certain conifer cones, this can be the high temperatures from wildfire or heat shock (pyriscence). Serrated: saw-toothed. Sessile: stalkless and attached directly at the base. Silviculture: a branch of forestry dealing with the development and care of forest trees. Silvoarable agroforestry: (acronym: SAF) agricultural systems where both crops and trees are cultivated in the same land area. For example, SAF may consist of widely-spaced trees intercropped with arable crops. Similarity: in computational science, and particularly in pattern analysis, similarity refers to a quantitative way of estimating the distance between two patterns of data (for example, to estimate how closely related are the bioclimatic conditions of two different spatial areas). Sociability: in vegetation analysis it is a 5-point scale to indicate the qualitative degree of clumping or the gregariousness of a plant species in a sampling plot. The classes start from 1, a plant growing singly, to 5, a plant growing in pure populations. Spatial frequency analysis: in computational science, analysis of the local spatial pattern of frequency of given quantity. For example, the analysis may focus on the frequency of field observations concerning a given tree species. In this Atlas, both the species frequency and the relative probability of presence have been estimated with different implementations of a spatial frequency analysis, based on different computational modelling approaches. Stamen (pl. stamens or stamina; adj. staminate): reproductive male organ of the flower, consisting of a stalk (filament) bearing an anther where pollen is produced. Staminate flowers have only stamens or sterile pistils (gynosterility).

Petrophytic: (of a plant) adapted to growing on rocks or scree.

Relative probability of presence: (acronym: RPP) probability of finding a certain organism or entity (for example, a certain tree species) in a given area, irrespective of the probability of finding other entities (e.g. without taking into account other tree species). Concerning tree species, the sum of the RPP associated with different taxa in the same area is not constrained to be 100 %. For example, in a forest with two co-dominant tree species which are homogeneously mixed, the RPP of both may be 100 %.

Phloem: the tissue in vascular plants that conducts synthesized food substances from the leaves to the other parts of the plant, consisting primarily of tube-like cells that have porous openings.

Relevé: a French word translated into “list”, “statement” or “summary” among the English meanings in its use in vegetation studies. Typically the vegetation relevé is a list of the plants recorded in a sampling plot.

Stolon: a long stem that usually grows horizontally along the ground and produces roots and shoots at widely spaced nodes.

Phreatophyte: a plant with a very long root system that mainly uses groundwater as its source of moisture, typical of desert and semi-desert habitats.

Rendzina: a young, rocky and shallow soil, lacking in moisture, associated with carbonate bedrock (chalk, limestone).

Stoma: (pl. stomata) a pore in the epidermis of a plant organ, used to control gas exchange with the environment.

Rhytidome: outer layer of bark.

Strobilus (pl. strobili): the seed cone of coniferous trees.

Phytophagous: feeding on plants, including shrubs and trees.

Samara: a dry fruit with its wall expanded into a wing [see Fig. 3a overleaf].

Succulent: plant having thick, fleshy, water-storing leaves or stems.

Saprophyte: organism that lives and feeds on dead organic matter.

Survivability: see maximum habitat suitability.

Sapwood: the newly formed outer wood located just inside the cambium of a tree trunk and consisting of active xylem tissue for water conduction. Sapwood is usually lighter in colour than heartwood.

Taxon: term used to describe a taxonomic category or group (e.g. phylum, order, family, genus or species). A taxonomic category or group, such as a phylum, order, family, genus, or species.

Sawfly: a common name for insects belonging to suborder Symphyta (order Hymenoptera). It is a large group of insects, whose larvae look like caterpillars and are phytophagous. The common name derives from the saw-like female ovipositor used to cut into plants where the eggs are laid.

Tegument: an outer covering.

Scabrous: rough to the touch.

Tetraploid: see polyploid.

Sclerophyll (adj. sclerophyllous): a type of vegetation or plant characterised by thickened, hardened foliage, adapted to resist loss of moisture in dry habitats.

Thermophile (adj. thermophilous, thermophilic): organism living and thriving at relatively high temperatures.

Pectinate: set like the teeth of a comb Pedicel: the stalk bearing a single flower of an inflorescence. Petiole: the stalk of a leaf.

Phytoplasmas: a group of bacterial plant parasites responsible for important diseases. They infect and replicate inside the host tissues and are principally transmitted by insects. They are characterised by the absence of a cell wall, behaving as a virus. Phytoremediation: the use of plants or trees to decontaminate polluted soil or water. Phytosociology: The branch of ecology that deals with the characteristics, classification, relationships, and distribution of plant communities the branch of ecology dealing with the origin, composition, structure, and classification of plant communities (see section on page 32). Pinnate: an arrangement in a divided leaf where leaflets arise from both sides of a common leaf-stalk. They can be described according to the depth of the division (lobed, cleft, parted and divided), and according the number of divisions (odd pinnate, with a single leaflet at the tip, or even pinnate, with a pair of leaflets at the tip). [see Fig. 4c overleaf]. Pistil (adj. pistillate): reproductive female organ of the flower, consisting of ovary, style and stigma. Pistillate flowers have only pistils or sterile stamens (androsterility). Pith: the soft, spongy tissue in the centre of the stem. Plant functional traits: functional traits are morphological, biochemical, physiological, structural, phenological, or behavioural characteristics that are expressed in phenotypes of individual organisms and are considered relevant to their growth and to their response to environmental conditions. Plasticity (adj. plastic): the property of an organism to adapt to different ecological conditions. Podsolization: reflects the downward migration of Al and Fe, together with organic matter, from the surface areas, and their accumulation in the soil profile’s deep areas.

Self-sterility (adj. self-sterile): the name for several mechanisms used by hermaphrodite plants to prevent pollen grains from fertilising the same individual (self-fertilisation or autogamy), thus encouraging the exchange of genetic materials among different plants (outcrossing or allogamy). Semantic array programming: (acronym: SemAP) in computational science, a computational modelling approach to compactly process arrays of data preserving the consistency of their underpinning semantics. For example, SemAP is applied in this Atlas to compute the relative probability of presence (by means of the constrained spatial multi-frequency analysis) and the maximum habitat suitability (by exploiting the relative distance similarity approach). Semantic constraint: in computational modelling, it formally expresses a logical or mathematical property which characterises the quantitative meaning (semantics) of a certain quantity. For example, the average total annual precipitation in a given area logically must be greater than or equal to the average precipitation of the wettest month in the same area, and both

Stellate: star-shaped. Stenoendemism (adj. stenoendemic): species existing only in 1 singular place, e.g., one island. (c.f. endemism) Stipule: small, usually paired leaf-like outgrowths, occurring at the base of a leaf or its stalk.

Stoloniferous: producing stolons.

Terpenoid: a large class of organic compounds derived from the hydrocarbon isoprene. They are widely found in plants and frequently used for their aromatic qualities.

Tomentose: covered with dense intertwined hairs. Trichome: hairs, bristles, scales. Triploid: see polyploid. Umbel: a flat-topped inflorescence in which the flowers arise from the same point in the main stem and have stalks of the same length, with the youngest flowers at the centre. [see Fig. 1b overleaf]. Ungulate: a large terrestrial mammal characterised by hoofed toes; e.g. horses, deer, cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer. Unisexual: see monoecious Xeric: characterised by dry conditions. Xerophilous: organism that is able to thrive in a dry climate. Xylem: plant tissue that conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to all other parts and provides mechanical support. It is composed of sapwood and heartwood, forming the wood of trees and shrubs. Xylophagous: organism whose diet consists primarily of wood.

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Fig. 1: Flowers

Fig. 2: Plant Sexuality

Fig 1a: Structure

Fig 2a: Flower types according to presence or absence of the different reproductive organs. Perfect Flower (hermaphroditic)

Stigma Style Anther Filamen

Pistil

Imperfect Flower Staminate Pistillate

Stamen

Petal (Corolla) Perianth

Ovary Sepal (Calyx)

Peduncle

flower with both male and female structure

Receptacle

flower female structure

Fig 2b: Plant species classified according to presence of one or more flower types.

Fig 1b: Inflorescences

Corymb

flower male structure

Panicle

Dichasium

Hemaphrodite

Monoecious

Plant with perfect flowers

Plant with both staminate and pistillate flowers

Monochasium

Subdioecious Andromonoecious

Gynomonoecious

Androgynomonoecious

Plant with staminate and perfect flowers

Plant with pistillate and perfect flowers

Plant with pistillate, staminate and perfect flower

Androdioecious

Raceme

Compound raceme

Spike

Catkin

Dioecious Androecious

Gyneocious Plant with staminate flowers

Plants with perfect flowers

Gynodioecious

Plant with staminate flowers

Spadix

Umbel

Compound umbel

Plant with pistillate flowers

Thyrse Plants with pistillate flower

Plants with perfect flowers

Fig. 3: Fruits Fig 3a: Dry

Samara

Nut

192

Fig 3b: Fleshy

Pod

Silique

Silicles

Achene

Capsules

Legume

Follicle

Lomentum

Drupe

Aggregate fruit of druplets

Berry

Pome

Hesperidium

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Fig. 4: Leaves Fig 4a: Arrangements

Alternate

Opposite

Opposite and decussate

Whorled

Imbricate

Fascicled

Fig 4b: Shapes - simple

Cordate

Deltoid

Elliptical

Lanceolate

Linear

Oblanceolate

Oblong

Obovate

Ovate

Rhomboid

Spathulate

- compound

Palmately Compound

Pinnately Compound

Pinnately Compound (terminal leaflet absent)

Pinnately Compound (terminal leaflet present)

Fig 4c: Incisions - pinnate

- three-palmate

Lobed

Cleft

Parted

Divided

Lobed

Cleft

Parted

Divided

Fig 4d: Margins

Entire

Serrate

Double-serrate

Serrulate

Dentate

Denticulate

Crenate

Undulate

Ciliate

Fig 4e: Venations

Pinnate

Palmate

Palmate reticulate

Longitudinal

Fig 4f: Apex

Aristate

Parallel

Areolate

Dichotomous

Reticulate

Fig 4g: Base

Cuspidate

Acute

Obtuse

Acuminate

Spine-tipped

Rounded

Bristle-tipped

Emarginate

Mucronate

Retuse

Attenuate

Cordate

Cuneate

Auriculate

Rounded

Sagittate

Truncate

Oblique

Hastate

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Appendices The European Commission Institute of Environment and Sustainability

The Joint Research Centre As the Commission’s in-house science service, the Joint Research Centre’s mission is to provide EU policies with independent, evidence-based scientific and technical support throughout the whole policy cycle. Its work has a direct impact on the lives of citizens by contributing with its research outcomes to a healthy and safe environment, secure energy supplies, sustainable mobility and consumer health and safety. The JRC draws on over 50 years of scientific work experience and continually builds its expertise based on its seven scientific institutes, which host specialist laboratories and unique research facilities. They are located in Belgium (Brussels and Geel), Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain. While most of our scientific work serves the policy Directorates-General of the European Commission, we address key societal challenges while stimulating innovation and developing new methods, tools and standards. We share knowhow with the Member States, the scientific community and international partners. The JRC collaborates with over a thousand organisations worldwide whose scientists have access to many JRC facilities through various collaboration agreements. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/about

The mission of the JRC’s Institute for Environment and Sustainability (JRC-IES) is to provide scientific and technical support to EU policies for the protection of the environment, and the more efficient and sustainable management of natural resources at global and continental scales. IES carries out research to understand, monitor and anticipate the complex interactions between human activity and the natural environment, in order to support the development and implementation of policies that protect the global environment and ensure that strategic resources (water, land, forests, food, minerals) are managed in a more sustainable manner for the benefit of present and future generations.

JRC mission statement As the Commission's in-house science service, the Joint Research Centre's mission is to provide EU policies with independent, evidencebased scientific and technical support throughout the whole policy cycle. Working in close cooperation with policy Directorates-General, the JRC addresses key societal challenges while stimulating innovation through developing new methods, tools and standards, and sharing its knowhow with the Member States, the scientific community and international partners. Key policy areas include: environment and climate change; energy and transport; agriculture and food security; health and consumer protection; information society and digital agenda; safety and security, including nuclear; all supported through a cross-cutting and multidisciplinary approach.

JRC-IES activities Working together with the policy Directorates-General of the European Commission and in partnership with a global network of scientific institutions, agencies and international organisations, the IES provides the scientific basis for EU environmental policies and for the integration of environmental concerns into other policies such as those related to agriculture, cohesion, development and energy. Through its research activities, the work of the IES contributes to the Europe 2020 Strategy 1 and its flagship initiatives for a resource-efficient Europe, the Digital Agenda for Europe, Innovation Union, and the Industrial Policy for the Globalisation Era. Within these political priorities, the IES promotes policy coherence across a large number of European policies, action plans and programmes related to the environment. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/about/ institutes-and-directorates/jrc-ies

JRC value statement "The JRC aims to operate to the highest standards of quality, efficiency and integrity with respect to the society as a whole, to its customers and to its own staff." Our work ranges from detecting and measuring genetically modified organisms (GMO) in food and feed to developing nuclear forensics technology for combating illicit trafficking of nuclear material and to using satellite technologies for monitoring land use and emergency situations such as forest fires and floods. Our activities also involve the definition of food safety standards, research into new energy technologies and evaluating policy options, for instance related to climate change.

The European Union The European Union (EU) is an economic and political association of European countries with a combined population of over 500 million inhabitants (7.3% of the world population) and an economy representing approximately 20% of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The EU has evolved from the original six countries of the European Coal and Steel Community (1951) and the European Economic Community (1958), to 27 Member States. The term ‘European Union’ was established under the 1993 Maastricht Treaty. The EU is represented at the United Nations, the WTO, the G8 and the G20.

https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/about/institutesand-directorates/jrc-ies/what-we-do

The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions adopted by the Member States. Important institutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the Court of Justice of the European Union, and the European Central Bank. The members of the European Parliament are elected every five years by EU citizens. Dr. David Wilkinson

http://ec.europa.eu/

Director of the Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) Directorate-General JRC

The Institute for Environment and Sustainability is located in Ispra, a small town on the shore of Lake Maggiore in northern Italy. (JRC)

The European Commission The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union (EU) responsible for proposing legislation, verifying the implementation of the decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the day-to-day running of the EU.

Publications Office of the European Union The EU Bookshop website (http://bookshop.europa.eu/) is your single access point to publications from the European Union institutions, agencies and other bodies, published by the Publications Office. The EU Bookshop provides an overview of the publications’ contents through comprehensive bibliographic notices. You may download publications in PDF format free of charge. If a publication you are looking for is not available, you can use the ‘PDF on request’ function to be informed by e-mail as soon as the PDF is added to the website. You can also order a single copy of any free-of-charge publication, provided it is in stock. As for priced publications, you can place an order with the EU Bookshop by choosing one of our sales agents, or download the PDF file free of charge. Publications are usually shipped within 48 hours of receipt of the order. You can find publications through simple and advanced search functions, browsing by thematic area or by author (e.g. European Union institution). Furthermore, you may choose to sign up to ‘My EU Bookshop’ and access personalised functions, for example, save search queries for regular use, or be notified by e-mail about new releases that interest you. The Publications Office aims to make the EU Bookshop the common entry point for European Union publications. Currently, the website is available in 22 languages. All atlases are available in hardcopy (€25) or as a pdf file (free of charge).

The Commission acts as a cabinet government, with 28 Commission members - one representative per Member State. The Commission is composed of thirty-three Directorates-General, including a General Secretary and 11 services. IRMM

Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (Geel)

IET

Institute for Energy and Transport (Petten)

ITU

Headquarters

Institute for Transuranium Elements (Karlsruhe)

IPTS

Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (Seville)

IHCP

Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (Ispra)

IPSC

Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (Ispra)

ISM

Ispra Site Management

IES

Institute for Environment and Sustainability (Ispra)

The seven scientific institutes and headquarters of the JRC. (JRC)

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Information on copyright, citation and disclaimer In this chapter information is provided on the copyright and licensing aspects underpinning the content of this Atlas. The material included in this book consists of modelled maps and diagrams, textual information and artistic work (photos, drawings, ...). The following section “Copyright notice and disclaimer” also defines the reuse policy to which this content is subject1-3 . The section “How to cite the content of this book” explains the recommended citation format to properly acknowledge this work when referring to it in scientific, technical or other documents. Specific third-party content (e.g. artistic work) may be subject to different copyright and licensing. This chapter explains the terminology, licensing conditions and acronyms with which these aspects are annotated throughout the Atlas4 .

Copyright notice and disclaimer © European Union, 2016 The information and views set out in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Conventions and acronyms for individual copyright notices Specific third-party content (e.g. artistic work) may be subject to different copyright and licensing. Throughout the Atlas, information on these aspects is provided in the caption of each artistic work (e.g. photos, graphs, drawings, ...) which is subject to conditions specified in individual copyright notices.

The information on specific third-party content is structured by providing the name of the author or copyright holder, the licensing conditions and – where available – a URL pointing to further online information: Author name, acronym of the licensing conditions, URL where the following acronyms and abbreviations are used: • AP: Atlas permission. • PD: Public domain; • CC0: Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication; • CC-BY: Creative Commons Attribution license; • Crown Copyright: Open Government Licence. The following sections describe these terms.

Atlas Permission (acronym: AP) The copyright holders of the individual document (which may be e.g. an individual image, diagram, ...) for which this permission is granted give the European Union specific permission to modify and combine the aforementioned document with the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species, published by the Publication Office of the European Commission.

Public Domain (acronym: PD) Works in the public domain are not covered by a license5 . The specific material in the public domain is not copyrighted and no license is associated with it. Licenses exist which formally dedicate a work to the public domain, also providing a fallback license for cases where that is not legally possible4-7. Works released under these licenses are indicated with the acronym associated to the specific licenses (e.g. CC0).

Creative Commons licenses Works covered by a Creative Commons license are provided, along with the legal code, also with a Commons Deed which is “the ‘human readable’ version of the license [...] a handy reference for licensors and licensees, summarizing and expressing some of the most important terms and conditions”8 . In the following, a summary is provided from the Commons Deed associated with the Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication and the Creative Commons Attribution license. For completeness, the full legal code is also provided.

Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication (acronym: CC0) Reuse is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged. The reuse policy of the European Commission is implemented by a Decision of 12 December 20111 . The general principle of reuse can be subject to conditions which may be specified in individual copyright notices. Therefore readers are advised to refer to the copyright notices of the individual documents (including individual images, diagrams, ...). Reuse is not applicable to documents subject to intellectual property rights of third parties.

Individual copyright notices applied to individual documents (individual documents may be images, diagrams, ...). The corresponding copyriht notices are annotated in the captions with acronyms opr abbreviations (PD, CC0, CC-BY, AP or Crown Copyright) whise definition is provided in this chapter. Fig. 1: Visual summary of the copyright and licensing aspects associated with the content of this book. This summary is not a license and highlights only some aspects of the actual license. It is recommended to review carefully all of the terms and conditions of the actual license (see in particular the section “Copyright notice and disclaimer” in this chapter and the subsequent sections for the individual copyright notices) before using the licensed material.

Some of the key features of the Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication (CC0) rely on dedicating a work to the public domain by waiving copyright and related rights in a work, to the fullest extent permitted by law9 . If the waiver is not effective for any reason, then CC0 acts as a license granting the public a license to use the work for any purpose9 . In particular, a summary of CC0 is provided by its Commons Deed6 : • The person who associated a work with this deed has dedicated the work to the public domain by waiving all of his or her rights to the work worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law6 . Users • can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission6 .

Box: Background information and how to cite the content of this book Each chapter in this book presents an extended summary providing an accessible dissemination of the main topics, aimed to be understandable by the general public but at the same time scientifically sound. Therefore, each chapter has been revised by scientific experts and includes a comprehensive list of scientific references. Although the chapters have been written by a number of different authors, they have been harmonised to obtain information that is as homogeneous as possible throughout the Atlas. The full version of each chapter (expanded and fully peer-reviewed) will be published in the online version of the Atlas at https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/. The online version of each chapter is the recommended version to cite. Each chapter in the book has a section providing the recommended citation format for the printed version of the chapter: , 2016. . In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. pp. <page(s)> Citing individual chapters should be the preferred option. To refer to the entire book as opposed to individual chapters, please cite as: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), 2016. European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. 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[12] Creative Commons, Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0), Creative Commons, Mountain View, California, USA (2015). [13] Free Software Foundation, Free Software Directory (Free Software Foundation, Boston, USA, 2012), pp. 7034+. http:// directory.fsf.org/wiki?curid=7034. [14] Creative Commons, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0), Creative Commons, Mountain View, California, USA (2015). [15] Free Software Foundation, Free Software Directory (Free Software Foundation, Boston, USA, 2015), pp. 12289+. http:// directory.fsf.org/wiki?curid=12289. [16] Forestry Commission, Copyright (2016). Archived at http://www.webcitation. org/6fU50tQOs. [17] Crown copyright, Open Government Licence for public sector information, The National Archives, Richmond, Surrey, United Kingdom (2015). Archived at http:// www.webcitation.org/6fU7yVvsw.<br /> <br /> Appendices | European Atlas of Forest Tree Species<br /> <br /> JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 197<br /> <br /> 197 08/04/2016 11:23<br /> <br /> JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 198<br /> <br /> 08/04/2016 11:23<br /> <br /> JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 199<br /> <br /> 08/04/2016 11:23<br /> <br /> JRC_EFDAC_forest_atlas.indd 200<br /> <br /> 08/04/2016 11:23<br /> <br /> LB-04-14-282-EN-N<br /> <br /> The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species is the first comprehensive publication of such a unique and essential environmental resource, that is, our trees. Leading scientists and forestry professionals have contributed in the many stages of the production of this atlas, through the collection of ground data on the location of tree species, elaboration of the distribution and suitability maps, production of the photographic material and compilation of the different chapters. The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species is both a scientific publication, in which researchers and forest specialists can find rigorous and up-to-date information on the many tree species of our forests, and a publication suited for education and the dissemination of information about the richness of our forests to our generation and future generations. Trees, as all other forms of life, adapt to the conditions in which they live. This adaptation is reflected in the shape of their leaves, their seeds, and their strategy for dissemination and expansion. Each chapter of the Atlas presents, in addition to the description of each tree species, high quality graphics and photographs showing the climatic preferences and singularities of the different species of trees.<br /> <br /> The European Atlas of Forest Tree Species includes not only the publication you are looking at, but also a dynamic database of information on our trees, their use, their threats, and eventually the changes that climate may bring about in our forests. This 1st edition of the European Atlas of Forest Tree Species will shortly be followed by the publication of an online version which will incorporate updated information of forest resources and their distribution. The European Atlas of Tree Species will thus be continuously updated as new information on tree species becomes available. Trees are an essential resource for human life. As well as being an important economic resource, they are also a reservoir for biodiversity; they protect our soils, purify our water, clean the air we breathe and populate the forests we use for recreation. 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European Atlas of Forest Tree Species

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