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26Approxjmatequantities 27Dimensions
28Adyerbsofquantity
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33Theimpe1fecttense 34Thepasthistoric・ ３５Thecompoundtenses 36Howtheperfectisused 37HowlhefUturepeIfectisused 38Howtheplupe企ctisused 39Howlhepastante]iorisused 4 0 T h e c o n d i t i o n a l a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p e r f e c t 41Thesubjunctive 4 2 1 h e p r e s e n t s U b j u n c t i v e
4 3 T h e i m p e r f e c t s u b j u n c t i v e 44Thepe症ctsubjunctive 4 5 T h e p 1 u p e ] f e c t s u b j u n c t i v e 4 6 S e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s ; u s e s o f t h e s u b j u n c t j v e 47RenexiveveIbs
48Thepassive 4 9 T h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e 5 0 T h e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e 51Theimperative 52Theinfinitive
53hnpersonalverbs 54Adverbs
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Ⅳ肋剛pOsiliOn 56Refemngtopeople,thingsandplaces ５ ６ . l P h y s i c a l c h a l a c t e n s t i c s 5 6 ､ 2 P e r s o n a l i q ﾉ ５ ６ ． ３ R e l a t i o n s h i p s ５６．４Ａｇｅ ５６．５Ownership
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59AsldngqUestions VAmmle
6 1 G I e e t i n g a n d l e a v e t a l d n g ６ １ ． １ G r e e t i n g
６ １ ． ２ L e a v e t a ] ｄ ｎ ｇ ６ ２ Ｅ 叩 r e s s i n g c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n ６ ２ ． １ C o n g a t u l a t i o n s ６ ２ ． ２ A p p r e c i a t i o n
63Emressingapolo印esandsympalhy ６ ３ . l A p o l o g i e s ６３．２Sympathy 6 4 E J q p r e s s i n g s u 】 p r i s e a n d d i s g u s t ６ ４ . l S u l p r i s e ６ ４ ． ２ D i s g u s t
6 5 E q . I e s s i n g c o m a s t i n g a t t i t u d e s , e m o t i o n s , f e e l i n g s 65.11jkesanddislikes ６５．２Preference 66Loveandhate 67En↑hl1Si3Rmandindi焼Tence
68Hopesandfears
ⅥA昭mnentanon 70A獣eeinganddisagreeing ７０．１Ａ厚eeing ７ ０ ． ２ D i s a g r e e i n g ７ ０ ． ３ Ａ 厚 e e i n g t o d i f f b r 71AssertingandconEIming ７ １ ． １ A s s e r t i n g ７１．２ＣＯnErming 72Admittingandconceding ７ ２ ． １ A d m i t t i n g ７２．２Conceding 73Correctingandprotesting 74Comfa血ctingandcliticizing 75Suggestingandpersuadjng
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60Negating
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７ ７ ． ３ ０ b l i g a t i o n ７７．４Exemption 7 8 E x p r e s s i n g d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y ７８.lDoubtandcertainw 7 8 . 2 P o s s i b i l i 可 a n d p r o b a b i l i w ７ ８ ． ３ C o n d i t i o n a n d h y p o t h e s i s 7 9 E x p r e s s m g l o g c a l r e l a t i o n s ７９.lCause-e幼licit ７ ９ ． ２ C a u s e i m p l i c i t ７９．３Consequence-e叩licit ７ ９ ． ４ C o n s e q U e n c e i m p Ⅱ Ｃ ｉ ｔ ７９．５Aim
80Expressingopposition 81SmIcturing 81・lBegIming ８ １ ． ２ C o n t i n u i n g ８１．３Ending
３６ ５６ ７６ ７７ ０７ ０７ ２７ ３７ ４７ ６７ ７７ ８８ ０８ ０８ ２８ ３８ ７８ ９８ ９９ ４９ ９０ ４０ ４０ ８０ ９１ ２１ ３１ ６２ ２２ ２２ ７２ ９ ６ ２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ２２ ３３ ３３ ３３ ３３ ３３ ３
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Thereferencegrammal)whichisascomprehensiveaspossible,hasbeen s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d l h e n o u n p h r a s e d e a l j n g w i t h a ] l t h e e l e m e n t s r e l a t e d t o l h e n o u n : a r t i c l e s , p r o n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s a n d n u m b e r s a n d d l e v e r b p h r a s e d e a l i n g w i t h a l l t h e e l e m e n t s l e l a t e d t o d l e v e r b : t e n s e s , m o o d , p a r t i c i p l e s a n d adverbs．
Thefimctional厚ammariscomposedofd1reeparts,eachdemonsmtinghowto dod1ingswithlanguageinordertocommunicate・Thethreepmcipalfimctions i d e n 飯 e d a r e e 】 m o s i t i o n , a t t i t u d e a n d a r g u m e n t a t i o n ・ E a c h o f t h e s e i s d i v i d e d i n t o s m a l l e r f i m c t i o n a r e a s r e l a t e d t o l h e p r i n c i p a l f i m c t i o n ．
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２肋加‘“tiO〃
Ｍ ｚ 汀 ” 刀 g i n y o l v e s t a l l d n g a b o u t e v e n t s o r a c t i o n s i n t e l m s o f p r e s e n t , p a s t a n d f U t u r e t i m e , d a t e s a n d t i m e , a n d s e q u e n c e ． Repo戒昭describeswhatweorotherpeoplesayandwlite､Reportingisusually c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n i n b f o d u c t o r y v e r b ､ T h e r e a r e m a n y v e r b s whichcanin江oducereportedspeechofwhichthecommonestis‘sayLSomeof l h e o t h e r s a r e ‘ 1 h i n k , r e m i n d , a s k , h o p e , b e l i e v e , w a n t , s u g g e s t , a n s w e l ; a d m i t ， f b r g e t 1 L I n t e l r o g a t i v e s m l c t u r e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n d 1 i s s e c t i o n b e c a u s e w e n e e d t o ]mowhowtoobtaininfbmlation,andtodothisweaskquestions,andnegation isincludedbecause,ｏｆcourse,sometimesweneedtosaythatsomethingisnot lhecase．
Ａｍｍｍ②
EXpressinganattitudetowardssomeoneorsomedlingusual]ymeansthatwe a r e i n t r o d u c i n g a p e r s o n a l , s u b j e c t i v e e l e m e n t i n t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n : w e a I e i n d i c a t i n g o u r r e a c t i o n t o s o m e o n e o r s o m e l h i n g , w e a r e e v a l u a t i n g , a n d maIdngjudgements-inanon-detachedwHy8Andwemaydosospontaneous1y orintention心 C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a t t j t u d e s a r e t h e e m o t i o n s a n d f e e l j n g s w h i c h m o s t o f u s e叩erienceandemresshromtimetotiｍｅ､These,too,arepersonaland s u b j e c t i v e , a n d , o n o c c a s i o n , t h e y m a y i n f a c t b e a t t i t u d e s ､ T h e f b c u s o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s , t h e n , o n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s , e m o t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s a n d howwee印ressdlem,WelookErstatthewaysinwhichweg7EetormkeJeaIﾉeQf peoplewhenwearespealdngorwritjngtothem・Thenwetumtothewaysin whichwee印ressco"8ｍｍ”o"sand”p肥c”0",apoI噂esand則ﾉ772”” ands"加油ean“jSgz4s広Final]y1weconsiderwaysinwhichweemress conなastingattitudes,emotionsandfeelings:鰍鍋砿雌esandp嫉花"caIo” andha喝e"”sjZzsmandm"城陀"c&hOpesandたα畑α”mzﾉzzIand 砿α”ｍ”ム A】君ｕｍｅｎ髄、⑪皿
Effectjvecommunicationusufmyrequiresacertainamountofplaming,and dlisinvolvestheneedto
③⑥⑥
structurewhatwewanttosayorwlite d e t e r m i n e t h e b e s t s t r a t e g i e s t o e m p l o y selectlhemeansofemressionmostsuitedtolhesmlcture,tothe s n a t e 印 e s , a n d , a b o v e a l l , t o a s p e c i h c c o n t e x t o r s i t u a t i o n ．
Thestructureisthep伽胞inwhatwearesayingorwming,thes杜ategyisthe
血祁ctio"weareemploying,anddlemeansofemressionis山e8m加加”caIor j E x j c z z I s t r u c t u r e ( f b r e x a m p l e , v e r b c o n s b r u c t i o n , n o u n p h r a s e ) w h i c h i s m o s t a p p m p r i a t e f b r l h e p l a n a n d t h e f i m c t i o n ． Itmaybelhatasin9ewordisenou沙toachievewhatwewant,butｍｏｒｅ
＄
加加伽c伽〃
h r e q u e n t J y w e a r e i n v o l v e d i n a d i s c u s s i o n o r e m l a i n j n g s o m e t h i n g o r a r g u i n g a caseandsoonOften,thereissimplynotenou甑timetoplancarefil]]ywhatwe wanttosay-thou虫1hereismoretimewhenweaIewnting・Also,itwouldbe
v i r t u a 1 y i m p o s s i b l e t o 杜 y t o l e a m e v e r y f i m c t i o n a n d e v e l y m e a n s o f e 】 叩 r e s s i o n ・ H o w e v e n i f w e a l e f a m i l i a r w i l h s o m e k i n d s o f p l a n , w i d l v a r i o u s typesoffimction,andwilhsomeofthemeansfbre叩ressingthem,thenwecan n o t o n I y u s e l h e m o u r s e l v e s , b u t r e c o g n i z e t h e m w h e n w e a r e l i s t e n i n g t o o r r e a d i n g w h a t o 山 e r p e o p l e a r e s a y i n g o r w 1 i t i n g T h e r e a r e m a n y k i n d s o f p l a n i n w h a t i s S a i d a n d w r i t t e n , a n d t h e s e p l a n s v a r y i n c o m p l e 】 d t y E x a m p l e s o f p l a n s , o r p l a l m i n g , a r e t h e f b n o w i n g ：
( a ） c r e a t i n g a c l e a r o v e r a l l s m l c t u r e w i t h a n i n b D d u c t i o n , m i d d l e s e c t i o n a n d conclusion
( b ） l i s t i n g a s e l i e s o f p o i n t s ( c ） p u t t i n g a n o l h e r p o i n t o f v i e w a n d d e f E n d i n g i t ( d ） p r o c e e d i n g h f o m c a u s e t o e f f e c t , o r v i c e v e r s a ，
m s o m e s i t u a t i o n s , p a r t s o f p l a n s m a y b e e n o u g h a n d i n d e e d a p p r o p r i a t e f b r a c h i e v i n g w h a t w e w a n t , f O r e x a m p l e , ｏ ｎ ] y p a r t o f ( c ) . A t o t h e r t i m e s w e m a y n e e d t o p u t i n t o a c t i o n a f U l l y d e v e l o p e d p l a n , f O r e x a m p l e , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
( a ) ( d ) . F i n a l ] y ; w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t d l e r e i s n o s i n Ｊ ｅ , p e I f b c t p l a n s u i t a b l e f b r e v e r y s i t u a l i o n o r c o n t e x t ・ Thefimctionsavailabletouswhenwewanttoachievesomethingin
a r g u m e n t a t i o n a r e m a n y W e m a y ; f b r e x a m p l e , w a n t t o a g r e e , i n d i c a t e d o u b t ， r e j e c t , c r i t i c i z e ・ W e m a y w i s h t o e m p h a s i z e , p e l s u a d e , i n n u e n c e , e m r e s s o b l i g a t i o n ・ W h a t e v e r i t m a y b e , w h e l h e r w e a r e i n i t i a t i n g a d i s c u s s i o n , ｍ ａ ] d n g a s p e e c h , c o n b i b u t i n g t o a c o n v e r s a t i o n , r e a c t i n g t o a c o m m e n t , b r o a d c a s t o r r e p o r t , w e h a v e a t o u r d i s p o s a l a w i d e r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e m o v e s ・ W e c a n n o t , ｏ ｆ course,】mowhowsomeoneisgoingtoreacttowhatwearesaymgorwriting,so w e n e e d t o h a v e a c c e s s t o a r a n g e o f r e s p o n s e s i n o r d e r t o a d a p t t o a n u n f b r e s e e n r e a c t i o n , a n d r e s p o n d a p p r o p r i a t e ] y E
T h e s e c t i o n o n a r g u m e n t a t i o n p r o v i d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r a n g e o f f i m c t i o n s anddlemeansofemressingthem-whichareinfairlycommonuse,Ybuwill r e c o g n i z e t h e m w h e n p e o p l e a r e s p e a l d n g a n d w r i t i n g ・ I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t y o u b y t o p u t d l e m i n t o p r a c t i c e i n s p e e c h a n d w r i t i n g w h e n e v e r a p p r o p r i a t e ・ T h e f i m c t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s f b u o w s a g 7 F e 加 g a n d f Z j S a g 7 E e j 略 z z s s e 戒 昭 a n d co砿､z加ｇα”j戒"gandco"Ce"加gco刀ＥＣ伽gandpmZgs"gco””jc"g andc航c吃加gszJ8g巴s前略andpeだ"”j略emressingIﾉo”o",permissio〃and obIjgzztjo",伽呪沈andcerm加lWOgjazJ花”0砥o”0s耐o",ands”c”j略
４肋加血ctiO〃
T 7 z e g x U U ” ， I C S Iheexamplesinthereferencesectionaresimplemusなationsofthegrammar s t r u c t u r e i n q u e s t i o n ､ I n t h e f i m c t i o n a l s e c t i o n t h e e x a m p l e s a r e s e l e c t e d h o m contemporaryspokenandwrittenHfenchtodemonstratelhefUnctionin qUestion・Theyareactualexampleswhichhavebeenusedinourown e】叩elience,andtheyarequotedwithinasmuchcontextaspossibletomusbate dlefimctionandlherelated厚ammarsmlcture．
T7ze”恋伽tjOFzs Theexamplesinboththerefbrenceandihefimctionalsectionsare杜anslated
i n t o E n g l i s h ・ m t h e r e f e r e n c e s e c t i o n , b f a n s l a t i o n s a r e k e p t a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e totheFrench;imhefimctionalsection,ontheotherhand,wherelhereis
u s u a l I y a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f c o n t e x t , 1 h e E n 9 i s h e q u i v a l e n t i s p r o v i d e d ， r a l h e r t h a n a d i r e c t a n d p o s s i b l W h e r e f b r e , s t i l t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l ．
1℃”"”ﾉi"zctiOyzs T h e f b I m s i n a n y l i v i n g l a n g u a g e a r e m e n b l e a n d c h a n g i n g ､ A t a n y o n e t i m e t h e y c a n v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r o r w r i 唾 t o t h e p a r t o f l h e c o u m y h e / s h e c o m e s h o m o r l i v e s i n , a n d i n d e e d t o f a s h i o n ・ T h e r e i s s e l d o m o n l y o n e w a y o f s a y i n g o r w n t i n g s o m e d 1 i n g , a n d n o t v e r y o f t e n a o n e t o o n e e q u i v a l e n c e o f f b m l a n d f i m c t i o n ・
T h i s i s c l e a n y i l l u s 江 a t e d i n t h e s e c t i o n o n t h e i m p e r a t i v e ( A 5 1 ) w h e r e t h i s o n e 理 a m m a r s b ｢ u c t u r e i s s h o w n t o h a v e a v a r i e w o f f i m c t i o n s : t h e i m p e r a t i v e f b r m c a n b e u s e d t o e x p r e s s a n o r d e n a n i n s m l c t i o n , a n i n v i t a t i o n , e t c ・ I t i s a l s o Ⅲ u s m t e d i m h e m a n y f i m c t i o n s o f e a c h o f d l e t e n s e s ､ S i m i l a d ﾘ ﾙ i n t h e f i m c t i o n 乱 s e c t i o n , m a n y f b r m s a r e s u g g e s t e d f b r e 印 r e s s i n g o n e f U n c t i o n ： g v i n g d i r e c t i o n s 田 . 5 6 . 1 0 ) , f b r e x a m p l e , c a n b e e 理 r e s s e d t h r o u ゆ t h e i m p e r a t i v e , t h e f U t u r e t e n s e , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t w o , e t c ． 〕Ustasthereisanetwolkofrelationsbetweenfb1msandfimctions,sodlereisa
n e t w o r k o f f i m c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o e a c h s i n 9 e f i m c t i o n ・ A g r e e i n g 田 . 7 0 . 1 ) , f b r e x a m p l e , i s n a t u r a l ] y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s o p p o s i t e d i s a g r e e i n g 凪 7 0 . 2 ) , a n d t h e n a l s o w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l h e t w o a 夢 e e i n g t o d i f f e r 田 . 7 0 . 3 ）
HOMﾉto側伽book
T h i s b o o k b r i n g s t o g e l h e r t w o s e t s o f g u i d e l i n e s o n t h e F r e n c h l a n g u a g e ： A-Arefbrencegrammarcoveringthemajorpointswhichneedtobe m a s t e r e d s o t h a t y o u g e t l h i n g s r i 甑 t ・ B-Afimctionalgrammarcoveringthemajortypesofcommunicationyou maywantorneedtocarryout． Atyourdisposal,then,youhavedleessentialsofgrammar(sectionA)and a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e g r a m m a r i n a w i d e s e l e c t i o n o f f i m c t i o n s ( s e c t i o n B ) . W h e n wewereplBparinglhisbook,wekeptinmindthehfequentchangeswhichany l i v i n g l a n g u a g e u n d e r g o e s , a n d w e h a v e , d l e r e f b r e , i n c l u d e d c o m m e n t s o n e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e g u i d e l i n e s ､ A n d , w h e r e v e r a p p r o p r i a t e , w e h a v e i n c l u d e d i n f b l m a l w a y s o f s a y i n g o r w l i t i n g s o m e t h i n g ・ T h e m a j o l i t y o f e x a m p l e s h a v e cross-referencestoinfbrmalionconcemingoneormoregrammarpointsor c o n c e m i n g a d d i t i o n a l d e t a j l s o n t h e f i m c t i o n ． How;then,willyouusedlebook2Iifbrexample,youwantto厚eetsomeone， ｙｏｕｌｏｏｋｕｐＢ､61.1.hlthissectionyouwillEndanumberofsuggestionson d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g ‘ H i 1 ' o r ‘ G o o d m o m i n g 1 ; f b r e x a m p l e ､ I t b n o t v e r y d i f h c u l t t o l m o w h o w t o s a y h e Ⅱ o , ｏ ｆ c o u r s e , b u t , a r e y o u a w a r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e betweenBonjour1andBonsoir1?Omheodlerhand,youmi虫twanttopersuade someonetodosomelhing､TbEndasuitablewayofdoinglhisyoｕｌｏｏｋｕｐ Ｂ､75.3andyouwillagainhndanumberofsuggestionsfbrpersuading,and c r o s s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e g r a m m a r g u i d e l i n e ・ W h e n y o u a r e l o o k i n g a t thefimctions,wesuggestthatyoualsoconsiderlhemuchlongercontextthatis pmvidedtoseewhathappenstoagrammaticalfbrmwhenitisinuse． Thereareotherwaysofsayingandwritingthesamethings-theexamplesgiven hereareonlysuggestions,andyouareboundtocomeacrossothermeansof e 】 q p r e s s i o n t h e m o r e y o u c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h F r e n c h e i l h e r a t u n i v e r s i w o r
i n y o u r p r o f e s s i o n a l l j f e ､ W b r e c o m m e n d t h a t y o u c o n s i d e r t h e s u g g e s t i o n s p r o v i d e d h e r e , s e l e c t t h e f b r m , o r f b r m s , d l a t s u i t y o u b e s t a n d l e a m t h e m ； whenyoumeetaltemativewaysofsayingorwritingsomething,addthemto y o u r r e p e r t o i r e ．
JUstbefbrethere蛇Iencegrammarwehaveincludedasectionwiththesounds o f F r e n c h , a n d s e v e r a l w o r d s f b r y o u t o p r a c t i s e d l e s o u n d s ・ Y b u r t e a c h e r w i l l b e abletohelpyouwilhthem．
G 1 0 s s 卿 Manyofthetermsusedinthisgrammararee印lainedatdlebegjlmingofme sectioninwhiChlheyareused,butdlerearesometermswhicharenot e 】 叩 l a i n e d i n a s p e c i h c s e c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y o c c u r m s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s , a n d t h e r e aresomewhichalwayscausedifhculwfbrstudents・TheshortlistwhichfbⅡows includeslhetermswhichwelhinkneedspecialattention・Wehayeassumed d l a t m o s t s t u d e n t s u s i n g t h i s 厚 a m m a r a r e f a m j l i a r w i l h m o s t o f t h e b a d i t i o n a l g r a m m a r t e r m s s u c h a s n C u ､ , v e r b , a d j e c t j v e ． ”Iﾉ”：awordorphrasewhichgivesinfbrmationabouthowIwhereand/or w h e n s o m e l h i n g o c c u r s ・ T h e r e a r e a d v e r b s o f m a l m e l ) p l a c e , t i m e , d e g r e e ， d u r a t i o n a n d h e q u e n c y A d v e r b s c a n m o d i h r a v e r b ( f a i r e α " e c s o 伽 ) , a n a d j e c t i v e
( Z 7 , s d i f H c i l e ) , o r a n o d l e r a d v e r b ( b e α I ‘ C O ” 杜 o p ) . A d v e r b s a r e 理 a y s i n v a r i a b l e ， u n l i k e s o m e o t h e r p a r t s o f s p e e c h , 1 h a t i s , t h e y n e v e r c h a n g e t h e i r s p e l l i n g t o a g ? e e w i l h a n o t h e r p a r t o f s p e e c h ． α"花Ｃｅ””ａｗｏｒｄｏｒ厚oupofwordswhichprecedesanomerwordorgroupof w o r d s ､ R e l a t j v e p r o n o u n s , o r w o r d s s u c h a s c e , v o i l a , h a y e a n t e c e d e n t s t o w h i c h t h e y r e f e r b a c k ( 恥 Ｏ 脚 F ﾂ z e q u i a d o n n 6 1 m p o u r b o i 】 泡 ､ ！ a p a s b e a I 1 c o u p d ' a r g e n t ) ． α”Cs加o"：iheplacingofawordorphrasedjrecUybesideanotherwordor p h r a s e i n o r d e r t o p m v i d e m o r e i n f b I m a t i o n a b o u t l h e o d l e r o n e ( ﾉ ｾ z c 可 z J e s ChimGP花s雄”delaR6pubIiqud．
cohesjo"：thelinldngofwords,phrases,sentencesandparagraphsbymeansof c o h e s j I ﾉ e f Z E z ﾉ j c e S w h i c h m a y b e c l a u s e s , a d v e r b s , p r o n o u n s , n e g a t i v e s , e t c . ( i h e adverbsincludeet,mais,parcon唾,dabord)．
comp陀加e”awordorphrasewhichcompleteslhemeaningof;orgivesmore infbrmationabout,somelhingThecomplementmaybeawordinapposition (seeabove),adirectobject(Elleamang6Zapom”),anindirectobjectmIe彫"r avendu),theagentinapassⅣesentenceqatartea6t6vol6ep”Je"e廓 gzzrw卯).…
”可zJ8zztjo":1hisrefersto血theendingsofaverb､Verbsareusual]yclass亜ed a c c o r d i n g t o o n e o f f b u r m a i n c o n j u g a t i o n s i n F r e n c h : e 国 n 3 r e , − ０ 血 E a c h o f t h e c o n i u g a t i o n s h a s i t s o w n s e t o f s i x e n d i n g s f b r e a c h t e n s e ・ R e g u l a r v e r b s havethesetofendingswhichbelongtoaparticularconjugation,sogrammar booksareabletogiveamodelverbfbreachconjugationwhichalllheregular verbsofthatconjugationwillfbuow(Iegular-erverbsfbnowdonne喝fbr
Ｚ Ｉ Ｇ 肋 ｓ ｓ ａ １ ｙ
example).Irregularverbsarethosewhichdonotfbnoweilherthestemorlhe
e n d i n g s o f a c o n j u g a t i o n ､ T h e m o s t u s e f m i l r e g u l a r v e r b s a r e i n c l u d e d i n v e r b t a b l e s i n g r a m m a r b o o k s ・ T h e y a r e o f t e n e a s y t o r e m e m b e r b e c a u s e t h e y a l e o d d ．
zjeZgmz伽e応：１hesearewordswhichalepartofdlenoungroup・Therearemany o f t h e m i n F r e n c h a l l t h e a r t i c l e s q e , 皿 , ｡ u … ) ; t h e p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e s ( m o n , t o n , S o n … ) ; d l e d e m o n s m t i v e a d j e c t i v e s ( C e , c e t , c e t t e … ) ; t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e a n d e x c l a m a t o r y a d j e c t i v e q u e l ( a s i n Q “ I I e m a i s o n r / ! ) ; i n d e h n i t e a d j e c t i v e s ( c e r t a i n , c h a q u e , ｡ i f 瞳 e n t s , d i v e r s , m a i n t , p l u s i e u r s , q u 創 q U e , t o u O ； a n l c u n , n o l m a l ] y i n t h e s i n g u l a r 値 Ⅱ e I f a a u c u n t a l e n t . ) ; t h e c a r d i n a l n u m b e r s usedasadjectives(asindeuxjoumam． α舵cta”加‘舵cto"ec応:山edirectobjectisanounorpronounreferringtoa p e r s o n o r t h i n g d i r e c d y a f f e c t e d i n s o m e w a y b y a n a c t i o n ・ T h e d i r e c t o b j e c t i s n e v e r i n 位 o d u c e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n ( I l a l u I e I 加 没 ) T h e o b j e c t i s i n d i r e c t w h e n i t isinbfoducedbyapIeposition,usuallyaorde価ousledonnons〃Fzos”花卯愈Ｃａ ｄ ６ p e n d ‘ Z e " C s ” " " な . ) . I n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n s a r e m e , t e , l u i , n o u s , v o u s , l e u m Thesepronounsarenotprecededbya-itisbujltintothepronoun価ousle”r d o n n o n s . ) . Ｆ ｏ Ⅱ o w i n g d e , a n d o l h e r p r e p o s i t i o n s , d l e e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s a r e used(Cad6penddemi.)．
姉j花:refErstothemanypartsofverbswhichhaveendings､Theseendings i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r d l e s u b j e c t i s s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l , t h e t e n s e a n d d l e m o o d , T h e
姉"』抑eisthepartofdleverbwhichendsin-e喝一四一re,-o恥andinlhiscase t h e r e i s n o E n i t e e n d i n g g i v i n g i n f b r m a t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r l h e s u b j e c t i s s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l , o r d l e t e n s e ． 8E”era”〃zJmber：meseareveryimportant厚ammarconceptsinFrench・If youfbrgettomakeadjectjvesa厚eewilhnounsorverbswithsubjects,thenyou havesimplymademistakes,andlhatcancostyoumaｴks1GenderinHBnchis eithermasculineUe,il…),orfeminineOa,eⅡe…),andallnounsaremasculine
o r f e m i n i n e , a n d a d i e c t i v e s h a v e t o a g r e e w i t h t h e i m o u n ､ N u m b e r r e f e r s t o whelheranounorpronounissingularOustoneperson,thingoraction),or p l u r a l ( t w o o r m o r e p e o p l e , t h i n g s o r a c t i o n s ) . V e r b s h a v e t o a 寧 e e w i t h t h e i r n o u n o r p r o n o u n s u b j e c t ・
g E 7 ” 戯 t h i s i s l h e p a r t o f a v e r b w h i c h b e h a v e s l i k e a n o u n ・ I t i s , ｉ ｎ f a c t ， sometimesca]ledaverbalnoun(mangeant,missant…)．
j ” e 応 0 " α J ” わ : a v e r b o f w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t i s i l ‘ i t ' ( i l f 3 m ‘ i t i s n e c e s s a r y ) . T h e lmpersonalverbcansometimesbecomepersonalbylheadditionofapersonal pronoun(ilme勉血‘Imust')． ｍｍｏ”Zfz花：tochangeorinnuencethemeaningofawordorphraseinsome w a y T h e r e a r e v a n o u s w a y s o f d o m g t h i s , u s i n g n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , v e r b s o r a d v e r b s w h i c h h a v e s p e c i h c n u a n c e s ､ Y b u c a n a l s o , f b r e x a m p l e , i n g r e e t i n g a n d
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leave-taking-merelybyalteringlheintonationyouuse-makewhatyousay c o u r t e o u s o r d i s c o u r t e o u s , b r i e m u y o r a g g r e s s i v e . Ａ s l i g h t c h a n g e o f m e a n i n g i s calleda"”"Ce(ofmeanin9.Ybucanachieveadifferentnuancesimplyby a d d i n g , o r c h a n g i n g , t h e i n t o n a t i o n y o u u s e ・
加 Ｃ Ｏ 戯 t h i s r e f e r s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t f b r m s i n d l e c o n j u g a t i o n o f a v e r b w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h e f i m c t i o n s f b r w h i c h l h e v e r b i s u s e d . Ｓ o , y o u h a v e t h e i n d i c a t i v e m o o d ( f a c t ) , t h e s u b j u n c t i v e m o o d ( n o n f a c O , t h e i n t e r r o g a t j v e m o o d ( q u e s t i o n s ) , t h e c o n d i t i o n a l m o o d ( c o n d i t i o n s a n d h y p o d l e s i s ) , 1 h e i m p e r a t i v e mood(orders).Themoodofdleverbcanbechangedaccordingtowhatyou w a n t t o e 】 叩 r e s s ; f b r e x a m p l e , f a c t , n o n f a c t , q u e s t i o n s ．
”"sj"e”〃伽”"s”eIﾉe称：verbscanbedirecdy杜ansitive-fbnowedbya d i r e c t o b j e c t w i t h o u t a n y p r e p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e v e r b a n d t h e o b j e c t ( I l a l u l e 1 i 刃 r e . ) , o r i n d i r e c U y な a n s i t i v e f b U o w e d b y a n o b j e c t i l m o d u c e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n m s e s e r t d u n c o u t e a u . ) . S o m e v e r b s m a y b e e i l h e r d i r e c d y な a n s i t i v e 便 l l e a m a n q U e l e 柾 a i n . ‘ S h e m i s s e d l h e な a ｉ ｎ ' ) , o r i n d i r e c d y 廿 a n s i t i v e (EneamanqU“sapamle.‘Shebrokeherword'),butthemeaningusufmy c h a n g e s ､ h m a n s i t j v e v e r b s a r e v e r b s w h i c h d o n o t h a y e a n o b j e c t m d o r t . ) ． Someverbsmaybe杜ansitiveorintransitive(Ilboitqmebiも唾.−廿ansitiveorn b o i t . − i n 廿 a n s i t i v e ) . N o t e t h a t i m h e v a s t m a j o l i t y o f c a s e s , o n l y d i r e c U y 廿 a n s i t i v e v e r b s c a n b e c o m e p a s s Ⅳ e 、
Abb肥Iﾉ加加yzsIJse〃加肋isbOOk f f e m i n i n e , m m a s c u l i n e , s s i n g u l a l 》 p l p I u r a l qn-qUelqUhm,qch-quelquechose
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且伽0肌州伽仙 S e c t i o n s l 4 c o n t a i n g u i d e l i n e s o n t h e s o u n d s o f F r e n c h : v o w e l s , s e n u v o w e l s a n d
c o n s o n a n t s ･ T h e i n t e m a t i o n a l p h o n e t i c a l p h a b e t , i n s q u a r e b r a c k e t s , i s u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e s o u n d s , e a c h o f w h i c h i s f b Ⅱ o w e d b y e x a m p l e s f b r p r a c t i c e ､ S e c t i o n s 星 7 c o n t a i n g u i d e l i n e s o n t h e u s e o f a c c e n t s , l i a i s o n a n d e l i s i o n ・ D i c t i o n a r i e s ，
s u c h a s t h e C b ﾉ " F z s R o b e r t F 7 ” c ﾉ z D ” 0 " α り ﾉ ( 1 9 9 3 ) a n d t h e O J V b 7 z Z 助 C h e 旋 恥 " c h D j c 加 刀 α り ﾉ ( 1 9 9 4 ) d e s c r i b e s o u n d s u s i n g t h e s e c o n y e n t i o n s ．
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Theletterskandwoccuronlyinimportedwords:kilo,“gon.Theletterhisnot pronounced,butadistinctionismadebetweenamuteh,asinjZomme[omJin w h i c h h i s t r e a t e d a s a v o w e l , a n d a n a s p i r a t e h , a s i n h a r i c o t [ a R i k o l i n w h i c h h i s 杜 e a t e d a s a c o n s o n a n t ・ T h i s i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f b r l i a i s o n andelisiｏｎ(see6and7)．
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TherearelhreeaccentsinFrench:theacute(accentaigu),the郡ave(accent 浮諏e),andthecimumnex(accentcimonnexe)．
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The厚ave、isusedovere,aandalsouinlhewordojj‘wheremlegravemay i n d i c a t e d l a t d l e l e t t e r c i s i n a s な e s s e d s y Ⅱ a b l e : j ' e s p 2 r e , ‘ I h o p e ; e Ⅱ e s rega]並rent‘theylookedaf;po2te‘poet;manege‘menygo-roundjpveranaor b l t h e g E a v e i s u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i f f e r e n t w o r d s : ａ ( p r e p o s i t i o n ) , ａ ( v e r b ) ; ｌ ａ ( a d v e r b ) , l a ( d e h n i t e a r t i c l e o r p r o n o u n ) ; o t l ( a d v e r b o r p r o n o u n ) , 0 ｕ ( c o n j u n c t i o n ) . I t i s a l s o u s e d i n 喚 e t l a ‘ h e r e a n d t h e r e ; v o i l a ‘ 1 h e r e i t i s ; a u d e l a d e ‘ b e y o n d ; d 罪 ‘ a l r e a d y ：
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Thecilcumnexへcanbeusedoveranyvowel:〃ｍｅ‘Soul;br61e‘丘型;ｈａ加ｈｅ ‘ h e s h 3 p r 6 n e r ‘ t o a d v o c a t e ; ｡ ､ m e n t ‘ d u ] y h I t m a y i n d i c a t e l h a t t h e v o w e l i s l o n g ： e K t r 6 m e ‘ e x b r e m e I I 厚 a c e ‘ g r a c e I L O f t e n i t i n d i c a t e s t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f a n ‘ s ' ： ｍａｆ唾‘master;ｐate‘pastelkItmayindicateacon杜actionhomalatinsource word:ａｍｅ(””α)‘Soul;snr(sec"、s)‘sure,safe，､Itmaybeusedtodistinguish d i f f b r e m w o r d s : 。 ’ ( p a s t p a r t i c i p l e m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r o n ] y o f d e v o i l j , ｄ 〃 ( p a r t i t i v e a r t i c l e ) , c r n ( p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f c m i 位 e ) , c r 邸 ( p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f c m i r d ．
Notelhatdlecilcummexoverireplaceslhedot:cｍ誼e‘togrow；v2nmes ‘came（
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ThecediⅡａ(c6dind9showsthatcispronounceｄ[s]befbrea,ｏ,ｕ： comme､“mes{komasam1‘began;garpml[gaRs5]‘boy;｡e“[desyl ‘disappointedLComparethesewithlhefbⅡowingthreewordswherelhereisno
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c e d i n a : α 叩 a b l e k a p a b l ] ‘ c a p a b l e ; c o m m e n c e r l k o m d s e l ‘ b e g n 3 c " b e { l q / b l ‘ c u b e （ Thecedillaisneverusedbefbreeori．
一 躍
T h e d i a e r e s i s ( 位 6 m a ) , u s e d o v e r “ i i i n 世 c a t e s t h a t t h e v o w e l m u s t b e g v e n f U l l a n d s e p a r a t e p r o n u n c i a t i o n : N O 鋤 n o e l ] ‘ C h r i s n n a s 1 a s t 6 m 湿 e [ a s t e R o i d ] ‘ a s t e r o i d L T h e f b m i n i n e f b r m o f a d j e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n g u ( a i g z J ‘ s h a l p 1 a m b i g z ‘ ‘ a m b i g u o u s ' ） h a s a d i a e r e s i s : a i g 砿 i t o i n d i c a t e d l a t t h e e n d i n g s h o u l d b e p r o n o u n c e d l i k e l h e m a s c u l i n e f b m l : a i 解 a i g I J 引 e g y l , W i t h o u t t h e 血 a e r e s i s l h e l a s t t w o l e t t e r s o f t h e
f e m i n i n e f b I m s w o u l d b e s i l e n t , a s i n f 誠 i g u e I f a t i g l ' f a t i g u e ; i n m g u e E t R i g ］ ‘ i n 杜 i g u e I k T h e d i a e r e s i s r e p l a c e s l h e d o t o v e r a n i : h a i r ‘ t o h a t e L
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l j a i s o n i s l h e l i n ] d n g o f w o r d s t o f a c i l i t a t e p r o n u n c i a t i o n ・ I t o c c u r s w h e n a w o r d beginswidlavoweloramutehThehnalconsonantoftheprecedingwordnotnormal]ypronouncedinFrench-jspronouncedandmaybesli甑dy m o m e d i n i t s n e w f U n c t i o n o f e a s i n g p m n u n c i a t i o n : e Ⅱ e e s t a Ⅱ 6 ｅ [ E l E t a l e l ‘ s h e hasgonelIjaisonisusedon]ywherewordsarecloselylinkedinmeaningand lhewordsarespokenasaunitJtistherefbrelikelytooccurbetweenapronoun andverb,adjectiveandnoun,articleandnoun S o m e e x a m p l e s : l e s e n f a n t s I l e z 面 ] ‘ t h e c h i l d r e n $ 杜 o i s h o m m e s [ t R w q z o m J ‘ 1 h r e e m e n $ b e a u x a r t s l b o z a R I ‘ a r t s ； 獣 a n d a m o u r { g R d t a m u R ] ‘ 厚 e a t l o v e I l o n g e s c a l i e r I l 5 k e s c a l j e ] ‘ l o n g s t a i r c a s e ; a 】 l e z v D u s e n [ a l e v u z f i l ‘ g o a w a y l
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Aucun,bien,combien,e､,ｏｎ,menkeeplheimasalsound:onaime[5,8ｍ]‘ｗｅ like;unhomme(曲noml‘amanlBut,inothercases,dlemalnasalnis
p r o n o u n c e d a s a n o r d i n a r y n : b o n e n f a n t l b o n a f a ] ‘ g o o d l i 廿 l e c h i l d I a n c i e n 6 1 e v e [ a S j e n e l B v l ‘ f b r m e r p u p i r N o t e l h a t l h e n a s a l v o w e l i s a l s o p r o n o u n c e d a s a n o r d i n a r y v o w e l i n s u c h c a s e s ，
一 躍 ￨ : 謡 : ; 珊 鷲 M 蝋 I n a … ． h : 皿 h ･ … I … ' 掴 ' ｡ b 鈍 " ; ｌ ｅ 。 一睡霞鮮
Someexceptions:1hereisnoliaisoninvouseteⅡe[Vueell‘youandshe1orin m a i s o u i [ m e w i l ‘ y e s ； O r i n c e r t a i n n u m b e r s : l e s o n z e O e 5 z l ‘ 1 1 ; l e s h u i t I l e I I i q ‘ ８ １ c e n t u n [ s a 6 e l ‘ l O l I q u a 紅 e v i n g t I m I k a t R g v 庖 毎 ] ‘ 8 1 ; a n d n o t e i l e s t o n z e h e u 正 ｓ [ i l e 5 z c e R ] ‘ i t b l l o ' c l o c k 1 d i 】 f h u i t l d i z l I i t l ‘ １ ８ （
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p r o n o u n s j e , ｍ ｅ , t e , s e a n d t h e a r t i c l e o r p r o n o u n l e , a n d 廿 o m c e , ｡ e , ｎ ｅ , q U e ; a i s d r o p p e d 廿 o m t h e a r t i c l e o r p r o n o u n l a ， S o m e e x a m p l e s : j ' 6 c o u t e ‘ I a m l i s t e n i n g ) i l m P a i m e ‘ h e l o v e s m e I v a f e n ‘ g o a w a y i i l s ' h a b i l l e ‘ h e i s g e t l i n g d r e s s e d ； c ， e s t m o i ‘ i t も ｍ ｅ ; l ' h o m m e ‘ t h e m a n j l a n u i t d ﾉ a v a n t ‘ 1 h e n i 甑 t b e f b r e ； e Ⅱ e s n ’ e n t e n d e n t j a m a i s ‘ t h e y n e v e r h e a r ; l a f e m m e q I f i l a d o r E ‘ t h e w o m a n h e l o v e s ; l h a b i m d e ‘ t h e h a b i t ; l ' a m i e ‘ t h e h i e n d l Notetheexceptionleonze‘皿 一 躍
T h e e i s a l s o d r o p p e d f i D m l o r s q u e , ｐ 皿 s q U e a n d q U o i q U e b e f O r e i l ( s ) , e Ⅱ e ( s ) , e n ， 0,,皿(匂:lorsqumluiecIit‘whenwewritetohim/her;qUoiqU』eⅡeyaiⅡe s o u v e n t ‘ a l t h o u 虫 s h e g o e s t h e r e o f t e n A I t i s a l s o d r o p p e d h f o m j u s q U e b e f b r e a ， a 皿 , e n , i c i , o h a n d 副 o r s : j u s q U n c i ‘ u n t i l n o w ; j u s q I f a q U e Ⅱ e h e u r e ‘ u n t i l w h e n A
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Thereisnoelisionwhenje,Ｃｅ,le,IafbⅡowaverb：
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W i t h a t h i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l p m n o u n c e / c ' i s n o I m a l l y f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a l h i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l v e r b ： αso”e“Ｃ穆如蛇”e此＆Ifslhem・Itwasthem． and
Ｃｾs鐘moi.Ｃぜ”ｔａ俗Ⅱ需・IttImine･Itwastheirs・
C e / d a l s o o c c u r s i n a f e w s e t p h r a s e s ： αｍｅ“ｍｈｌｅ…
ＩｔｓｅｅｍＲｔｏｍｅ．．、
Andatthatpoint… adigant…Andsayingthis/that…
Sur“…
α歯i尽刻nt…
Ａｎｄａｓｈｅ/shedidthis/that.。，
( b ） ｃ ， e s t a n d i l ( i m p e r s o n a l ) e s t ‘ i t i s , t h a t i s ’
C ' e s t u s u a l l y r e f e r s b a c k t o a p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d i d e a o r m a t t e n ●
Ⅱ p m l e b i e n h a n 9 a 1 s ． HespeaksFrenchweu． O u i , d e s t v r a i ・ Yes,tha歯true，
N o t e t h a t t h e r e a r e m a n y e m r e s s i o n s o f t h e t y p e c ' e s t ＋ a d j e c t j v e a l l r e f b m n g backtosomedling C 1 e s t p o s s i b l e 。
l t b p o s s i b l e ・
C湾tdi桁嗣い‐
Thatもdiffim11t
旋唾十adjectivearefbⅡowedbyaninhnitive,dleprepositionalinksthe a d j e c t i v e a n d t h e i n h n i t i v e ． C哲如な胸嗣ＩＰａ他i雁．
Itwaseasytodo．
3 １ Ｉ Ｉ ｍ ｅ " 0 ” 8 ｍ "
nestusuallyrefersわr"α”toanewidea・Theprepositionlinkingetre十 a d i e c t i v e t o a n i n h n i t i v e i s d e ． IZseminte配ssantdEle曲irR
m F z ℃ s t p J z s f a c i l e 此 p a l l e r
I t w i l l b e i n t e l e s t i n g t o d o i t ・ ItbnoteasytospeakGerman．
allemand．
N o t e d l a t t h e s e a r e o n l y g u i d e l i n e s ､ W h e n l h e y a r e s p e a k i n g , F r e n c h p e o p l e d o n o t a l w a y s o b s e r v e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s o f e m r e s s i o n ． (c）ceci,cela
C e c i , l i k e c i , r e f e r s t o s o m e t h i n g n e a r i n t i m e o r s p a c e , a n d c e l a , l i k e l a , r e f e r s t o s o m e l h i n g m o r e d i s t a n t i n t i m e o r s p a c e ． RegardezcEci！Lookatthis1
a肱nem1appartientpas．Thatdoesnotbelongtome・ N o t e t h e s p e l l i n g o f c e l a : d l e r e i s ” a c c e n t ･ A n d n o t e a l s o t h a t c e c i r e f e r s f b r w a r d t o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t o b e s a i d , w h e r e a s c e l a r e f e r s b a c k t o s o m e t h i n g whichhasbeensaid： ECOﾛﾛｵ⑨ｚ“ci…
Ijstentothis…
AWez宮vousentendu“肋？
D i d y o u h e a r l h a t ？
(｡）“
C a ( = c e l a ) i s u s e d i n f b r m a l l y ; m a i n l y w h e n s p e a k i n g ､ I t m a y h a v e a p e j o r a t i v e m e a n i n g ． “neseditpas・ QzvarCommentfrw認 Q z c ' e s t i m p o s s i b l e 1 P o u r q U o i f z z ？ Q z s e n t m a u v a i s ！
Y b u d o I f t s a y t h a t k i n d o f t h i n g ， YbuOK?Ｈｏｗ'rethings2 T h a t も i m p o s s i b l e 1 W h y b t h a t ？ ThatSmeⅡsawfill1
andthevelyinfbrmal
QmsecroitcapabledelefairdAndhe/shethinkshe/shecan doit1
P り s s e s s j ” “ た c j j I ﾉ Ｅ Ｓ TheseadjectivesdenoteownershiporrelationshipTheyarea]waysplaced befbrethenoumheyqualj域andlheya]waysagreewithlhatnoun,Theyalso i n d i c a t e t h e n u m b e r ( s i n g m a r o r p l u r a l ) o f d l e o w n e Ⅲ T h e E n 副 i s h e q U i v a l e n t s a r e ‘ ｍ 〕 8 ｙ Ｏ “ h i s , ｈ ｅ l > i t s , o u B y o u l ) t h e i r 《 ．
3２Ｓ”c加砥
司'4.1ト
1℃ｒｍＢｇｍｄｈｍｍｍＢ
(a）Whenthereisonlyo"eownerthefbnnsare： b e f b r e a m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r
Ⅱｎｏｎ,ｍｎ,Ｓｏｎ
noun
befbreafemininesingmar
ｍａ,ｔａ,ｓａ
noun
befbreapluralnountnasculine
mes,tes,ｓｅｓ
o r f b m j n i n e ）
m砥biIIet
mybook y o u r t i c k e t
so7zdos
伽０〃livre
mavOihI唾
mycar
"zesgants
ｍＴｍｉｍ
yourhand
Z泡s雄res
mygoves y o u r b r o l h e r s
his/her/its
Ｓａ
his/her/its
sesflp加藤
his/her/its
back
ＴｍＩｍｉｔｕｒｅ
fbod
Howers
W h e m h e p o s s e s s i v e a d i e c t j v e i s f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a f e m i n i n e n o u n , o r a d j e c t i y e ， be甑mingwithavoweloramuteh,ma,ta,saarereplacedbymon,t0n,Son.
ｅ
駅皿昨 ｅ血・恥．ｍ 麺加皿加 刈刈刈１
ｒｌｒＬｒｋｍ〃１０
Ｏ ０ｓ ０ｅＯ ｓ３ Ｓ 皿皿皿睡皿ｎ
岬皿岬唖獅唾
ｍｙ(youl;his,ｈｅ亜ts)ｈｉｅｎｄ ｍ ｙ ( y o u I ) h i s , ｈ ｅ Ｏ ｃ ｌ ｏ ｃ ｋ ｍｙ(youI;his,henold teacher
my、oul;his,her)horrible house
、 ､ , t a , t e s a r e t h e f a m j l i a r f O I m s o f t h e a d j e c t i v e a n d c o l r e s p o n d t o t h e personalpronountu.‘ (b）Whenthereismo花娩”o"eownerthefbrmsare： ｎｏ江e,ｖｏ江e,leur
befbreasingularnoun
ｎＣＳ,Vos,leurS
befbreapluralnoun
（masculineorfeminine） （masculineorfbminine）
"”泡cousin(e）ourcousinzﾉ0ｶ℃pbre yourfather陀”onclelheiruncle FzosvoimT“ourcars”slivres yourbooks陀邸庵amiestheirhiends
1町位e,vosarethepoliteandpluralfbrmsandcorrespondtothepelsonal p r o n o u n v o u s ､ T h e y c a n t h e r e f b r e r e f e r t o o " e o w n e r 印 o n t e l y ) o r t o s e z ﾉ Ｅ ｍ ｊ ｏｗｎｅｒｓ．
( d L i k e t h e a r t i d e s ( s e e 9 . 3 ) , p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s u a Ⅱ y r e p e a t e d b e f b r e n o u n s i n l i s t s , u n l e s s t h e n o u n s r e f e r t o a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l p e o p l e a n d t h i n g s ．
錨 ； Ⅱ 恥 " ｡ " " g m ”
so〃oncleet”ｔａｍｅ
his/heruncleandaunt
加0〃ａｕｔｏｅｍ”bicydette
mycarandmybicycle
lb”tableetIb"だch姉蛭呂
theirtableandchairs
l n a f e w e 鞭 r e s s i o n s l h e p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e c o v e r s b o t h n o u n s ： 陀脚庵all6esetwmI肥s theircommgsandgoings ”snometpr6nomsyoursumameandErst names/yourfUllname
(d）Somepointstolemember：
h l F r e n c h , p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t j v e s a g r e e w i t h t h e n o u n q u a l i h e d , w h e r e a s i n E n g i s h t h e y a g r e e w i t h t h e o w n e r ： Ⅱatrouv6郵加、z“Hehasfbundhiswatch・
皿esontpe】通ｕ脆”c雌TheyhavelosttheirkeyE
E a c h o f t h e l h j r d p e r s o n s s i n g u l a r ( S o n , s a , s e s ) h a s ｡ ] I e e E n g l i s h e q u i v a l e n t s ： Ｓ ｏ ｎ ‘ h i s , h e n i t s ， ; s a ‘ h i s , h e n i t s ' ; s e s ‘ h i s , ｈ “ i t s （ soFzbol
his/her/itsbowi
sfzmere
his/her/itsmother
s e s j o u e t s
h i s / h e r / i t s t o y s
I f i t i s f d t n e c e s s a r y t o i d e n t i i y e x a c t l y w h o o r w h a t t h e o w n e r i s , a F r e n c h s p e a k e r w i l l a d d a a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n ( s e e 2 1 . 2 b ) ： so卯bo1jteI彫
he〃姉bowl
s e s i o u e t s 〃 J 砿
hjS/姉toyS
RemembertheFrenchequivalentofphrasessuchas‘withhishandsbehindhis bacr肱mainsderribre肥dos(see9.4b),andcertainolherphrasesinwhich HenchandEn副ishdonotcolrespond： Quesait-eⅡｅａ”"suje解
Whatdoesshelmowabout
ｎａｒｅ９ｕｄｅ陀測応ｎｏｍｅⅡes・
ＨｅｈａｓｈａｄｎｅｗｓｏｆＴｈｅｍ
me？
●
Non,””Ⅵeu]L Peut-ch泡,碗o卯colonel．
Ｎｏ,mate/oldchap P e r h a p s , C o l o n e l ．
hllhelasttwoexamples,theErstpersonpossessⅣese】qpressaffectionand/or respectandareusedwhenta]]dngdirecdytosomeone・ F i n a Ⅱ y m o t e d l e t w o p o s s i b l e E n 創 i s h 杜 a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g ： Ｉｍｄｅ〃zesamiR
ahiendofmine/oneofmy hiends
車
qmdeJCIJ庵aｍｌｓ
ahiendoftheirs/oneof lheirfTiends
３ ４
Ｓｍｊｃ加花ｓ
adoctorhiendoflheirs/one
1ｍｍＣｄｅｃｉｎｄｅ陀邸庵aｍｉｓ
oftheirdoctorhiends
I j k e t h e p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t j v e s , t h e p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s i n d i c a t e w h o t h e o w n e r is,buttheymustagreewilhthegenderandnumberoftheobjectowned(see l 4 ) . T h e E n g i s h e q u i v a l e n t s a r e ‘ m i n e , y o u r s , h i s , h e r s , i t s , o u r s , y o u l s , 1 h e i r s （
一 躍 ￨ : n W ; i … i s o n l y ｡ " … … f b … . ： ●
lemien,lamienne,lesmIens，
rｎｌｎｅ
lesmi2nnes
l e t i e n , l a t i e I m e , l e s t i e n s , l e s
youls
diGTm鴎
l e s i e n , l a s i e n n e , l e S s i e n s , l e s
his/hers/its
日弛Tｍｅｓ
IEtien…ＣＯnespondstolhepersonalpronountu． (b）Whenthereism0杷加〃0"eownerthefbrmsare： ｌｅｎ６n℃,ｌａｎ６唾,lesn6trEs
OurS
lev6tlE,lav6なe,leSv6bfeS
yours theirs
leleuI;lale“lesleurs
恥Ｖ６江ｅ…correspondstothepersonalpronounvous･Notetheaccentsonthe pronounsn6唾(s),Ｖ６虻e(s),butnotondleadjectjvesnotre,vo唾． Vbil荊ｍａｍｉｍｒＢ・ODleSt伽tjEFZ擁？
HereismycaltWhereisyours(yourone)？ Ⅱado唾sonpetit唾re・JedetestejEm陀確 HeloveshislitdebrolhelJhatemine． ●
●
Elleareussisone砿amen,malsnosamlsontrat61EsJC"感
Shehaspassedherexam,butourhiendshavefailedtheirs． NotelhatlhereisnoneedtobranslatetheEngish‘ond c
■
(c）ThepossessⅣepronounsmayfbnowaorde,inwhichcaselheconbacted fblmsau/aux,ｄｕ/desmustbeused．
NOuspensonssouventanosamis･Pensent-ilsa”陀邸だ?，
Weoftenthinkofour麺ends･Do1heylhinkoftheirs？
3 ５ Ⅱ ｍ ｅ " 0 ” 8 7 ℃ ”
EⅡenecraintpassonchien,maiseⅡeaPeurgjEsIﾉ6舵sb
S h e i s n o t f r i 甑 t e n e d o f h i s / h e r d o g , b u t s h e i s o f y o u r s ( y o u r d o g s ) ． 一 曇
USual]y；fbnowing6唾,ownershiporpossessionise叩ressedbya＋emphatic pronounora＋article＋noun,Foromerwaysofemressingownershipsee56.5. Ｃ,est〃eIlaltもhers・
IBsjoumauxsorz域e“Thepapersarelheirs， 恥IiⅥ氾est”p、虎SSG“Itb1heteacherbbook
FrenchnounsaremasculineorfeminineingendenThereareguidelineswhich helptoiden的thegenderofd1emajorityofnouns,buttherealemany e x c e p t i o n s a n d t h e r e f b r e , u n l e s s y o u a l e a b s o l u t e l y s u r e , i t i s a l w a y s b e t t e r t o c h e c k g e n d e r s a n d t o l e a m a n o u n a n d i t s d e E n i t e a r t i c l e ( s e e 1 6 . 1 1 6 . 1 4 ） t o g e t h e r ．
−『圃津Ｈ⑪wmidemiIymasCmmen0Imsacc⑪、i皿ｇｍｍｅａｍ皿ｇ （ a ） n o u n s r e f e r r i n g t o d l e m a l e s e x ： l e p b r e ‘ f a d l e r ; l e g a r 9 o n ‘ b o y ; I e f a c t e u r 4 p o s t m a I f b ” l a v i c t i m e ‘ v i c t i m 3 l a s e n t i n e Ⅱ e ‘ s e m y I l a p e r s o n n e ‘ p e r s o n j l a r c c r u e ‘ r e c r u i t ’ 一allofwhichcanrefbrtomenorwoｍｅｎ(see16.5)． (b）maleanimals：
l e c h i e n ‘ d o 獣 ' ' ３ n e ‘ d o n k e y ; l e v e a u ‘ c a l f ’ ( c ） d a y s , m o n t h s , s e a s o n s , p o i n t s o f l h e c o m p a s s , p a r t s o f l h e w o 1 1 d ： j e u d i ‘ T h u r s d a y ; o c t o b r e ‘ O c t o b e r ; a u t o m n e ‘ a u t u m n 3 l e s u d ‘sou出''０rient‘theEast(emworld)，
( ｡ ） m e t a l s , l a n g u a g e s , 江 e e s a n d s h m b s , w e i g h t s , m e a s u r e s , c u I r e n c i e s , l e t t e r s ， ､'Imbers：
１ ， o r ‘ g o l d l l e h a n 9 a i s ‘ F r e n c h 3 I e c e l i s i e r ‘ c h e 1 r y 窪 廿 e e 1 l e l d l o 『 l d l o 1 lemillimetre‘millime位eIIehanc‘frandleb‘b',IelO‘10’
b ” l a v i g l e ‘ v i n e ; l a t o n n e ‘ t o n ; l a m o i t i 6 ‘ h a l f ; I a l i v r e P o u n d s t e r l i n g / p o u n d i n w e i 虫 t ' … ， (e）otherparts・ofspeechusedasnouns：
３ ６
ＳＺｍｃ加噸
l e n o i r ‘ b l a c l d l e p o u r e t l e c o n 杜 e ‘ p r o s a n d c o n s ; l e s a v o i l と f 泡 i r e ‘ l m o w h o w ; l e d 6 j e u n e r ‘ l u n c h 3 l e p o u r b o i l E ‘ t i p , 引'6.2ト
H⑪wmidemi町mascmi皿e皿oImsacc⑪rdmgt⑨endi皿ｇ (a）mostnounsendinginaconsonant： I e b e c ‘ b e a k ｝ l e m o t ‘ w o r d ; I e c a n a r d ‘ d u c k ; l e b r a s ‘ a l m 3 l ' 6 t a n g ‘ p o n d 1 I e f b i n ‘ h a y ; l e n e z ‘ n o s e ; l e c h o b K ‘ c h o i c e I I e b i l l e t ‘ t i c k e t リ
l e p r o c も s ‘ m a l 1 l e c o u p ‘ b l o w ; l e c h a n g e m e n t ‘ c h a n g e ; l e r E p o r t e r ’ r e p o r t e r ’ b 砿 l a f a i m ‘ h u n g e r ; l a b o i s s o n ‘ d l i n k ; l a l a r g e u r ‘ w i d t h ↓ l a m e r ‘ s e a A S e e a l s o 1 6 . 4 a ． ．
( b ） m o s t n o u n s e n d i n g i n a g e , a u , 6 , c d e , も g e , も ｍ ｅ , e u , i , i 1 , i s ｍ ｅ , 0 u ： l e c o u r a g e ‘ c o u r a g e 1 l e b u 1 氾 ａ ｕ ‘ o f E c e ; l e c o m i t 6 ‘ c o m m i t t e e ; l e r e m e d e ‘ r e m e d y ; l e c o Ⅱ e g e ‘ c o n e g e ； l e p r o b l も ｍ ｅ ‘ p r o b l e m ↓ l e f e u ‘ E r e I l e p a r t i ‘ ( p o l i t i c a l ) p a r ﾛ ﾉ ﾘ I e d 6 t a i l ‘ d e t a i l Ⅶ e s o c i a I i s m e ‘ s o c i a l i s m 3 l e h i b o u ‘ o w 1 ，
b z J t l a p l a g e ‘ b e a c h $ l a c a g e ‘ c a g e ; l a p a g e ‘ p a g e ; l ' i m a g e ‘ p i c t u r e ; l a r a g e ‘ a n g e r ; l a p e a u ‘ s l d n ↓ l ' e a u ‘ w a t e r ; I a c r e m e ‘ C r e a m ↓ l a c l 6 ‘ k e y ; l a f b u r m i ‘ a n t ' … 一 墨
H0wmidemi町fEmim皿e皿⑪umsacc0rdmgmmeam皿ｇ ( a ） n o u n s r e f e n i n g t o t h e f e m i n i n e s e x ：
Iamere‘molher；la皿e‘girl/dau甑ter;Ia伊and-mere ‘ g r a n d m o t h e r ， (b）femaleanimals：
l a c h e v r E ‘ g o a t ; l a l i o n n e ‘ l i o n e s s 1 I a v a c h e ‘ C o w ; I a j u m e n t ‘ ｍ a r e ， (c）namesoffestivals：
l a P e n t e c 6 t e ‘ W h i t s u n 4 l a m u s s a i n t 1 A l l S a j n t s ' D a y ; l a N o 劃 ‘ C h n s t m a s ; P a q u e s ( f p l ) ‘ E a s t e r ’
６”Ｎｂ色lismasculinein】UyeuxNo訓‘MelTyChlistmas;asisPaquesinPaqUes esttOmb6aumoisdemars‘EasterwasinMarchthisyearl ( ｡ ） a c a d e m i c s u b j e c t s a t s c h o o l o r u n i v e r s i t y ： ｌ ' h i s t o i r e ‘ h i s t o r y ； l e s s c i e n c e s n a m r e Ⅱ e s ‘ b i o l o g y ; l e s m a t h 6 m a t i q u e s ‘ m a t h s 1 l a l e c m r e ‘ r e a d i n g b 砿 l e c a l c u l ‘ a m m e t i c ; l e d e s s i n ‘ d r a w i n g ; l e d m i t ‘ l a w ' …
3 ７
一 壁
Ⅱ肋e"0“9ｍ”
H⑪wtOidemnfemimnen0Imsacc⑪rdingmendmg (a）mostnounsendingin-ion,-0,：
l a c o m m i s s i o n ‘ c o m m i s s i o n 3 l a n a t i o n ‘ n a t i o n ; l a g u 6 r i s o n ‘ c u r e I I n m 郡 師 ｎ ‘ h o u s e ， ．
” t l e c a m i o n ‘ l o 】 r y ; l e c r a y u n ‘ p e n c i l ' … ( b ） m a n y n o u n s e n d i n g i n a s i l e n t e ：
l a p a m l e ‘ t h e ( s p o k e n ) w o r d ; l a m 6 m O i r e ‘ m e m o r y / d i s s e r t a t i o n ； I a r i v i e r e ‘ t h e r i v e r 7 n e c l d a c e 1 l a t a s s e ‘ 1 h e c u p ; I a v i s i t e ‘ 1 h e v i s i t ； l a 睡 血 e e ‘ r e t u m t o s c h o o l / u n i v e r s i 城 l a m i n e ‘ e m r e s s i o n / m i n e l l a d 錐 n s e ‘ d e f m c e I l a m o n n a i e ‘ c h a n g e ’
b ” l e m a n q u e ‘ l a c k I l ' i n c e n d i e ‘ h r e I l e l y c 6 e ‘ s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l / l y c e e l l e m u s 6 e ‘ m u s e u m $ l e l 6 g u m e ‘ v e g e t a b l e 1 l e s i l e n c e ‘ S i l e n c e ; l e n e m e ‘ ( b i 9 I i v e r ; l e t e r r i t o i r e ‘ t h e c o u m f y / F r a n c e ; l e g e n r e ‘ k i n d I l e g n u p e ‘ 厚 o u p 1 l e s e r v i c e ‘ s e r v i c e l lecon位61e‘comol'…
T h i s g r o u p i s p e 1 h a p s l h e m o s t d j f f i c u l t t o c l a s s Ⅱ y s i n c e t h e r e a r e m a n y e x c e p t i o n s w h i c h a r e m a s c u l i n e a n d t h e y a r e w o r d s w h i c h a r e u s e d h e q u e n d y E x t r a c a l e m u s t , t h e r e f b r e , b e t a k e n w i t h a l l n o u n s e n d i n g i n a s i l e n t e ． ( c ） g e o g r a p h i c a l n a m e s e n d i n g i n a s l e n t e ：
I a H a n c e ‘ F r a n c e ; Ｍ ｎ 部 e t e I r e ‘ E n g a n d 1 l a B r e t a g l e ‘ B r i t t a n y I l a lDi】氾‘theLoirellaInmise‘theThames’
b”IeM函que‘MexicoIleCambodge‘Cambodia;IeRh6ne‘theRhone;le DamIbe‘theDfm11he'…
T h o s e w h i c h d o n o t e n d i n e a r e u s u a l l y m a s c u l i n e ： l e C a n a d a ‘ C a n a d a ; l e D a n e m a m k ‘ D e n m a I k 3 l e J a p o n 7 a p a n ; l e Hainaut‘HainautlleVar‘Var，
T b w n s a r e o f t e n m a s c u l i n e : l e v i e u x P a l i s , b u t t h e p r e f e I r e d f b r m i s 伽 " " J e 此 FrmrP1I鴎‘Bmsselsjk
一 曇
Somenounswhichcanre蛇rtoeimersexaremasc111ine2
u n a n g e ‘ a n g e l ; u n a u t e u r ‘ a u l h o r ； l e p r o 蛇 s s e u r ‘ t e a c h e r ; ｌ ｅ ｔ６ｍｏｉｎ‘wimessIlem6decin‘doctor’
b u t s o m e t i m e s u n e f b m m e m 6 d e c i n ‘ a w o m a n d o c t o r ; a n d u s u a l l y u n 6 c r i v a i n ‘ w r i t e r ' b u t a l s o u n e e c I i v a i n e , a n d l a p m f ‘ 1 ｈ ｅ ( f e m a l e ) t e a c h e r ' …
3 ８ Ｓ ｍ Ｊ ｃ 加 花 ｓ
一 躍
Somenounshaveafemininefblmand,1herefbre,femininegenderfbrrefemng t o t h e f も m a l e c o u n t e l p a l t ： １macteur/uneacmce‘actor;un6poux/皿e6pouse ‘ h u s b a n d / W i f e ; u n I r a n 9 a i s / u n e l r a n 9 a i s e ‘Frenchman/Henchwoman↓un6colier/une6coIiere
‘ s c h o o l b o y / s c h o o l g i I 1 ’ ヨ16.7陰
Notelhelbrm31-ionof他mininenounshommasに''1inenouns：
‐en-eIm②ＩｍＩｵ認1池､/ImeTｵn1i“yzeanItR1izm
‐an-aTmeunpaysan/unepaysaFmeasmallfarmer ‐0n-onnelepa江on/lapa江oFmemanage喝ｂｏｓｓ ‐eur-euselevend師r/lavEnde噸eshopassistant -teur-瞳celelecteur/lalecmCelanguageassistant ‐ier-iも唾lepatissier/lapatissie花pasbrycook 一 塁
Somenounsadd-ssetofbnnlhefemininecountemart： unh6te/uneh6tesse‘host/hostessl；lemamE/lamailmsse ‘master/mishgess,
一 躍
S o m e n o u n s h a v e a d i f f e r e n t f b r m f b r t h e o p p o s i t e s e x ： leEls,lahlleson,daughter l,homme,lafbImneman,woman
lemonsieu】;ladamegendeman,lady roncle,latameuncle,aunt
lespeake喝Iaspeakerineannouncer/broadcaster lecompa厚10,,Iacompaglecompamon
ヨ'６．１０岸
S o m e n o u n s m a y h a v e e i l h e r g e n d e l 1 w h i c h e v e r i s a p p r o p r i a t e ：
ｕ ｎ / u n e e n f a n t ‘ c h i l d ; u n / u n e p r o p r i 6 t a i １ ℃ ‘ o w n e r l ｝ 皿 / u n e 6 1 e v e ‘ p u p i l ， 謡１６．１１ト
Thereareafewnounswhichmaybemasculineorfeminine,buttodaylheyare u s u a l l y g i v e n m a s c U l i n e g e n d e r ： ｕ ｎ / u n e a p r b s m i d i ‘ a n a f t e m o o l f
-,6.12岸
Somenounsmaybeeithermasculineorfeminine,butlhemeaningchanges a c c o r d i n g t d t h e g e n d e r ： 彫liv]氾theｂｏｏｋ血livre
dlepound
lEmnde
lhemethodJZzmode
倫Rhion
lEtOur
dletum
thetower
肱toIIr
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thecritic
彫cmtique
彫poste I e p h y s i q u e
t h e r a d i o / j o b p h y s i q u e
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crihmRm
dlepostofEce p h y s i c s
一躍￨謡縦淵職棚淵:懸綴…eopl…m，yb。 (a）whenadjectivesわ"0〃genstheyaremasculine：
lesgUJzsbonsetcourageuxgood,courageouspeople
( b ） w h e n a d j e c t j v e s p 花 C e " e g e n s t h e y a r e f e m i n i n e ： t o u t e s c e s b o n n e s g E F z s
a l l t h e s e g o o d p e o p l e
( c ） i f a d j e c t i v e s p 花 C e " e a n d j b " 0 " g e n s t h e y a r e f e m i n i n e a n d m a s c u l i n e ： lesviemesgBF2speuold,bomgpeople in雌mEssgmts,
弓'6.14ト
Gender⑪fcOmlD⑪Ｉｍｄｎ⑪皿ｓ
( a ） I f o n e e l e m e n t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n a d j e c t i v e , t h e c o m p o u n d n o u n t a k e s l h e g e n d e r o f t h e m a i n n o u n : l e c h e f d ' c e u v r B ‘ w o r k o f a r t 1 l a ” 伽 . ' 0 e u v r e ‘wod辻brce1le”b”poste‘postagestamp'ｋ
(b）Ifoneelementisanadjectjveoranadverb,thecompoundnountakesthe
g e n d e r o f t h e n o u n : l a b e Ⅱ e 仮 l 陀 ‘ d a u 師 e r i n l a W ( b u t n o t e J e r o u g e g m g E ‘ r o b i n ' ) , I e n o n ” 鹿 ” ” ‘ n o n p a y m e n t l ； l a n o n f Z g 7 忽 s s 如 卯 ‘ n o n 言 a g g l e s s i D n A (c）Ifoneelementisapreposition,dlecompoundnounisnormally m a s c u l i n e : Ⅲ e 必 t 6 t e ‘ h e a d i n g L
(d）Iflhehrstelementisverbal,thecompoundnounismasculine:le”ｍｐｌｍｅ ‘umbre血lerj形上bouchon‘co1kscrew'$ 司16.15岸
Plm罰1fmms⑪f皿⑪Nmsa皿dfMIjecliwes
T h e p l u r a l f b r m s j n m o s t c a s e s s i m p l y a d d s t o l h e s i n g u l a m o u n o r a d j e c t j v e ・ T h e E n a l s i s r a r e l y h e a r d u n l e s s l i a i s o n i s r e q u i r e d , b u t i t m z J s t b e u s e d i n w r i t i n g d e s 杜 o u s ‘ h o l e s ; d e s h o m m e s ‘ m e n 3 l e s e n n e m i s ‘ e n e m i e s ； b o n s / b o n n e s ‘ g o o d ; f b u s / f b Ⅱ e s ‘ m a d l S P e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g v e n t o t h e f b n o w i n g 厚DupS：
(a）ａsmall厚oupofnounsendingin-ouaddx:bijour‘jewels;caiⅡo”
４ ０
Ｓｔｍｃ加把ｓ
‘ p e b b l e s ; c h o 唾 ‘ c a b b a g e s I g e n o 皿 ‘ k n e e s ; h i b o 皿 ‘ o w l s ； j o U j o u 邦 ‘ t o y s ; p o u 工 ‘ l i c e （
( b ） n o u n s a n d a d j e c t j v e s e n d i n g i n a u , e u , e a u a d d x : d e s t u y a u 苑 ‘ p i p e s / t i p s I d e s c h e v e 皿 ‘ h a i r ; n o m e a u 工 ‘ n e w ｛ ( B u t n o t e p n e u s ‘ m e s I b l e u s ‘ b l u e / b r u i s e s l ）
( d i f n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s e n d i n s , x , z d l e r e i s n o c h a n g e i n l h e p l u r a l : s o l m s ‘ m o u s e / m i c e ; p r i x ‘ p r i c e ( s ) ； n e z ‘ n o s e ( s ) ; 厚 i s ‘ g r e y 1 h e m E u x ‘ h a p W L ( d ） t h e m a j o ” o f n o u n s a n d a d i e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n 雲 a l c h a n g e t o a l l x ： c h e v a l / c h e w z I “ ‘ h o r s e ( s ) ! ｝ m o r a l / ｍ o r α ” ‘ m o m l l ) 1 6 g a l / l 電 α ” ‘ l e g a l I i n t e m a t i o n a l / i n t e m a t i o n α ” ‘ i n t e m a t i o n a l ，
b u t t h e r e a r e a f も w e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s i m p o r t a n t r u l e , s u c h ａ ｓ ： b a l / b a l s ‘ b a l l ( s ) ; f E s t i y a l / 舵 s t i v a l s ｲ f e s t i v a l ( s ) ; ｎ ａ ” l / n a N ﾉ a l s ‘ n a ] ﾉ a l ； fatal/趣als‘fatall;Enal/malsorhnamx‘Enal，…
T h e o " w a y t o b e s u r e i s t o c h e c k i n a d i c t i o n a r y ( e ） n o u n s e n d i n g i n a i l a d d s ： c h a n d a i l ( s ) ‘ s w e a t e r ( s ) ,
b u t a f e w c h a n g e t o a u x ：
t r a 刃 a i l / 並 a v α ” ‘ w o r k , m a d w o r k s 1 v i t r a i l / v i t r α ” ‘ s t a i n e d g a s s window/s'…
a n d a d j e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n e i l a d d s ： p a r e i l ( s ) ‘ a Ⅱ k e , s i m i l a r ’
( f ） n o t e I o e i l / l e s y e u x ‘ e y e ( s ) ; a n d l e c i e l / l e s c i e l s ‘ s 蛾 s l d e s ; l e s c i e u x ‘ s l d e s ＝ E 1 m a m e n t , C l i m a t e , p a r a d i s e ％ (gjsomenounsareusedon]yinthesingular：
’ ' 6 1 e c m c i t 6 ‘ e l e c h i c i 剛 l e M o y E n A g e ‘ 1 h e M i d d l e A g e s ' a n d s o m e n o u n s a r e u s e d o n l y i n t h e p l u r a l ：
l e s m o e u r s ‘ c u s t o m s , b e h a v i o u r ; l e s e n w i r o n s ‘ o u t s I d r t s , v i c i n i 砿 l e s h a i s ‘ e m e n s e s 1 l e s v i v r B s ‘ f b o d s t u f 鼠 I e s a l e n t o u r s ‘ s u n o u n d i n g a r e a s ,
⑪familynamesdonotnolmallychange： IEsDupontnPaimentpasles R6浮血印
TheDupontsdoIftlikethe R 6 g n i e r f a m i l y
４１Ｉｍｉｅ"0“8ｍ"
N a m e s i m p o r t a n t i n h i s t o r y o r a r t c a n b e u s e d i n d l e p l u r a l ： ｙ'aiplusieursMonets．Ihaveseveralpaintingsby Monet．
(i）andsomespecialcases： 叩ＭＭＲ副ＣｕｒﾉⅡⅢ畦騒郡畦叩庵
ＳｍＭｒ/Gentlemen
、究伽ｍｅ/ｍｅｓｄａｍ⑨s
Madam,Mrs/Iadies
m3demnis⑨1に/meRdemnisE11⑭ｓ
Miss,Ｍｓ/Misses,Ybung Iadieg
hnnh⑪ｍｍｅ/hmlSh⑪ｍｍｅｓ
−６１６.畦
feHow/fellows
ｒｈｅＰｌｕｍｍｆｃ０ｍｐｏｕｎｄｎｍｍｓ 面向
( a ） I f l h e r i o u n i s w l i t t e n a s a s i n J e w o r d , t h e p l u r a l i s f b I m e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h rulesabove：
l e s p o r t e f E u i Ⅱ e s ‘ w a l l e t s 1 l e s p o r t e m a n t e a u x ‘ c o a t p e g s / c o a t s t a n d s ; l e s p a s s e p o r t s ‘ p a s s p o r t s ’ (b）Someguidelinesfbrcompoundnounsibrmedwilhahyphen： noun＋ｎｏｕｎ(bolh＋s):lesche齢lie皿‘adminis江ativecenbfes，
n o u n ＋ a d j e c t i v e ( b o t h 十 s ) : l e s c o f h e s f b r t s ‘ s a f e s ’ a d j e c t i v e ＋ n o u n ( b o t h 十 s ) : l e s r o u g e s g o r g e s ‘ r o b i n s ’ a d j e c t i v e ＋ a d j e c t j v e ( b o t h 十 s ) : l e s s o u r d s m u e t s ‘ d e a f m u t e s ， noun＋preposition＋ｎｏｕｎ(mainnoun十s):lesche毎．Ce皿E Iworksofart，
verb＋ｎｏｕｎ(noun十s):lesbouche-杜ous‘stand-ins，(b”see 1 6 . 1 6 e ）
v e r b ＋ v e r b ( n o c h a n g e ) : l e s l a i s s e z p a s s e r P a s s e s ’ v e r b ＋ a d v e r b ( ｎ ｏ c h a n g e ) : l e s p a s s e p a r t o l i t ‘ m a s t e r k e y s , a d v e r b ＋ ｎ ｏ ｕ ｎ ( n o u n 十 s ) : l e s h a u t p a l l e u r s ‘ l o u d s p e a k e r s ， Notel-On]ynounsandadjectivesusedtofblmcompoundnounscanbe m a d e p l u r a l ・ N o t e 2 W h e r e b o t h n o u n s a r e o f e q u a l v a l u e , b o d l b e c o m e p l u r a l ( s e e a b o v e ） butifthesecondnounisequivalenttoaprepositionalphrase,1heβ砿"o” 0 " l b ﾉ i s m a d e p l u r a l : l e s t i m b r e s p o s t e ‘ S t a m p s ， ( = d e p o s t e ) ． ( d s o m e c o m p o u n d n o u n s a r e v a n a b l e : e ､ 9 . , l e s a p r e s m i d i / l e s a p r e s I m d i s ‘ a f t e m o o n s ; l e s 評 a n d m e I e s / l e s 露 a n d s m e r e s ‘ g a n d m o t h e r s l ( d ） s o m e h a v e a n s e v e n i n d l e s i n g u l a r : ｅ ､ ９ ， l e p o r t e c l 6 s , l e s p o r t e c l 6 s ‘ k e y r i n g ( s ) ； l e p a r E c h o c s , l e s p a r e c h o c s ‘ b u m p e r ( s ) Ｌ
蛾Ｓ”c加陀ｓ
( e ） f b r s o m e t h e r e i s n o c h a n g e i n t h e p l u r a l : e ､ g ､ , l e s a b a t j o u r ‘ l i 甑 t s h a d e s ; l e s p a r e b l f s e ‘ w i n d s c r e e n s 1 I e s p o u r e t l e s c o n な e I t h e p r o s a n d c o n s l 司16.17ト
ｍｍａｌｆｍｍｓ⑪fImpOrtedWmds
( a ） g e n e r a l l y i m p o r t e d w o r d s f b r m l h e i r p l u r a l b y a d d i n g s : l e s r 錐 唾 n d u m s , l e s m e e t i n g s , l e s b i f t e c k s , l e s p a n o r a m a s , l e s m 6 d i a s ．
( b ） s o m e d o n o t c h a n g e : ｅ , g ､ , l e s v e t o , l e s p o s t s c r i p t u m ．
(dsomekeepthepluralfbrmoftheirlanguageofoIign:e・glessportsmen,les 厚 a f n t i ．
( d ） s o m e w o r d s o f l a t i n o I i g n h a v e b o t h E r e n c h a n d l a t i n p l u r a l s : e o g ､ ｌ ｅ ｓ ●
ｍ究苅ｍＩｎｍＲ/ｍ創苅ｍａ,leSminimmms/mfnim乳
(e）andtheEn甑shwordbabybecomesbabiesorbabys,whislq7becomes whisIdesorwhisIws,sandwichbecomessandwichesorsandwichs…
-…￨鯛器器鰯磯麗謡艦W協藍淵呼:'…“ 蜜16.'野
S o m e n o u n s w h i c h a r e s i n g U l a r i n H e n c h h a v e a p l u r a l E n 9 i s h e q u i v a l e n t : u n p a n t a l o n ‘ t r o u s e r s ; u n m a i Ⅱ o t ‘ s w i m m i n g m m k s ; u n c o Ⅱ a n t ‘ t i 甑 t s ; u n m a m a ‘ 叩 a m a s ' … a n d , c o n v e r s e l y ; s o m e s i n g m a r E n g j i s h n o u n s h a v e a p l u r a l H e n c h e q u i v a l e n t : ‘ f i m e r a l ' l e s f i m 6 r a i Ⅱ e s , ‘ d a l l m e s s ' l e s t 6 n e b r e s , ‘ m e T i f e a s u r y l e s Finances,‘infb】maliolflesimhrm別捕ｍｓ…
171卿砥 A d i e c t i v e s n o r m a l l y f b u o w l h e n o u n i f t h e y e 叩 r e s s a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e p e r s o n o r l h i n g r e f b n f e d t o , a l 山 C u 甑 s o m e v e r y c o m m o n a d i e c t i v e s p r e c e d e t h e n o u n ､ B u t , f b r s t y l i s t i c r e a s o n s o r f b r e m p h a s i s , d l e y m a y b e l o c a t e d i n a p l a c e t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t f m m t h e i m o r m a l o n e ､ A d i e c t i v e s m u s t a g r e e w i t h t h e i r nouningenderandnumben 弓−両１−トlAdjectiveswhichnormal]Ｗb肋叩thenoun：
( a ） a d j e c t i v e s o f n a t i o n a l i t W e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s ： I a l a n g u e e s p a 厚 m l e e s t d i f E c i l e ， S p a n i s h i s d i f h c u l t ・
n s s e s o n t m a l i 6 s a l ' 6 j i s e p r o t e s t a n t e ・ T h e y g o t m a r r i e d i n t h e P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h ．
“ｌｍｚｅ"”8ｍ"
皿ealacartedupartisocialiste･ ●
S h e b a c a l d c a r r y m g m e m b e r o f t h e S o c i a l i s t P a r 呼 ( b ） a d j e c t i v e s e m r e s s i n g a p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e l i s t i c , i b l m , c o l o u r ： C，estunenianttresmai厚も．
H e / S h e i s a v e r y t h i n c h i l d ， C,estunem稲RnnbIzm征he･
Itもawhitehouse．
( c ） p a r t i c i p l e s u s e d a s a d j e c t i v e s ： umoumerfatigue
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unehistoi】氾conm】e
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l a p a g e p r 6 c 6 d a n t e l,eauco1I顕、②
(d）adjectjvesqualihedbyanadverbendingin-ment： ＩｍＩｍｍｍｅｅｍ･息mementIaid
lmenfantincroyablement s t u p i d e
anexlremelyugyman a n u n b e l i e v a b l y s t u p i d c h j l d
−願麺器｜Someadjectivesareusuallyplace｡b或花thenoun： ( a ） b e a u ‘ h a n d s o m e ； ｂ o n ‘ g o o d I b r e f ‘ s h o r t ; d e m i e r ‘ l a s t ； g e n t i l ‘ n i c e ; 評 a n d
‘ g r e a t 律 C s ‘ b i g ; h a u t ‘ h i g h $ j e u n e ‘ y o u n g ; j o l i ‘ p r e t t y ; l o n g ‘ l o n g ; m a u v a i s ‘ b a d m e i l l e u r ‘ b e t t e r ； m o i n d r e ‘ l e s s e r ; n o m b 唾 u x ‘ m a n y ; n o u v E a u ‘ n e w l p e t i t ‘ l i m e I p 配 m i e r ‘ h r s t ; v a s t e ‘ h u g e i v i e u x ‘ o l d W r a i ‘ r e a l 1 v i l a i n ‘ u g j y ' … uneｂｅⅡe施ｍｍｐ
ｄｅｇ?ospieds unlongvuyage lapremiも唾ｐａｇｅ
alovelywoman b i g f e e t alongjourney dleErstpage
(b）someofthese,incertaincontexts,fbⅡowthenoun： ｌ３ｍｎｒｆｅｈｚｍｵ⑭ ｡，Umtonbmef
h i g h t i d e c u r U y
a n d w i t h d a y s o f t h e w e e k , s e a s o n s , p a r t s o f t h e y e a r ： １，eteprochain
neXtS11mmer
la“ｍｎｉｎ⑨ｄｅｍ池rｅ
lastweek
o l h e r w i s e , t h e y p r e c e d e t h e n o u n ：
4 ４
S”c加陀ｓ
t h e n e x t s t o p
leprochainamet ●
司'7.3岸
lapremiere/demierGsemame
dleErst/lastweekoflhe
desva函ｍｆ鴎
h o l i d a y s
S o m e a d j e c t i v e s c h a n g e l h e i r m e a m n g a c c o r d i n g t o d l e i r p o s i t i o n ： ２ｍ耐P､：une、姉RmlaFzcj泡mze/uneaFzc蛇ｒｍｅｍ舗侭ｎｎ
ａ(very)oldhouse/afbrmerhouse 価ｈ⑨r：
unIivredheがmesche応amis
anemensivebook/mydearfriends demier：
hmdi"、花Ⅳｌａ地、施肥Page l a s t M o n d a y / d l e l a s t ( o f a s e r i e s ) Ｐ ａ ｇ ｅ
ｎｍＵｖＷ｡訓唖
ｕｎｍ⑪tFzo”e”/une卯0瓦ueI肥voimre
anew(oIignal)word/anew(comldbe second-hand)ｃａｒ lpaImXB：
【ｍｅ皿e〃“脚泡/une”邸1mg皿e
a p o o r ( n o t r i c h ) g I l / a p o o r g d ( p i t y h e ] 』 ●
proplE：
s e u l ：
lesmamspmp花s/ｔｅｓｐｍｐ花sparoles ・ c l e a n h a n d s / y o u r o w n w o 】 f d s unefPmm偶se"蛇/lese"Zfzm飾池↑
alonelywoman/theonlycandidate ヨ17.4岸
I f m o r e l h a n o n e a d i e c t i v e f b u o w S d l e n o u n , a n d e a c h r e f e r s t o a d i s t i n c t a n d
e q u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , d l e y a r e l i n k e d b y e t ・ B u t i f t h e y f b m Q a u n i t o f m e a m n g " 城 t h e n o u n d l e r e i s n o n e e d f b r e t ・ U S u a l ] y ； 1 h e l o n g e s t a d j e c t i v e i s p l a c e d l a s t ：
unevuemsteetRzmsinteretasad,bolingview but
l a s c b n e p o I i t i q u e a n g a i s e lepartid6mocrateam6ricain
t h e B r i t i s h p o l i t i c f d s c e n e theAmericandemocratic
Parqﾉ
NOtethedifferentorderinHenchandEngishwhenanumberisusedwithan a d j e c t i v e p r e c e d i n g a n o u n ： IEs杜Oispremiersetudiantsrecevmntlesbourses，
T h e 並 s t t h r e e s t u d e n t s w i l l l e c e j v e l h e 厚 a n t s ．
4 ５
ヨ'7.5ト
Ⅱｍｅ"0“87℃“
睦mmmefmms0fadjectiwes F o r d e m o n s t r a t i v e ( s e e l 2 ) , p o s s e s s i v e ( s e e l 4 ) , i n d e E n i t e ( s e e l 8 ) , i n t e n D g a t i v e
( s e e 2 3 ) , n u m e r a l ( 2 4 ) , v e r b a l ( s e e 4 9 . 1 , 5 0 . 3 ) a n d e x c l a m a t o r y ( s e e １ ０ ． １ . ） a d i e c t i v e s s e e d l e s e c t i o n r e f e r e n c e s i n b r a c k e t s ． 一K17.6謡
T h e r e a r e u s u a l ] y s o m e e x c e p t i o n s t o l h e f e m i n i n e f b r m s o f a d j e c t i v e s , s o i t i s alwaysadvisabletocheckinａ世ctionaly (a）たminineadjectjvesalemosdyfb】medbyaddingetodlemasculinefbrm：
f b r t / f b r t e ‘ s 杜 o n 感 も c o s s a i s / c c o s s a i s e ‘ S c o t t i s h 3 d i r e c t / d i ｴ e c t e ‘ d i r e c t ； 、 C i r / n o i r e ‘ b l a c R
Ifthemasculinefbrmendsinaｎｅ,thereisnoneedfbrchangeinthefeminine f b l m ：
jeune(mandf)young；aimable(mandf)‘pleasant’ ButifthemasculinefbImendsineanｅ加況stbeaddedtomakemeadjective 他ｍｉｎｉｎｅ２
ｎｏｍｉｎ‘/nomin“‘nomjnated,shomisted;enerv@/enerv‘ｅ ‘ e x c i t e d , i r r i t a t e d ’
( b ） i f t h e m a s c u l i n e a d i e c t j v e e n d s i n a s , e 1 , e i 1 , e n , e t , o n d o u b l e l h e l a s t consonantandadde：
b a s / b a s s e ‘ l o w ; t r a d i t i o I m e l / t r a d i t i o n n e l 彫 ‘ m d i t i o n a l ；
p a l 氾 i l / p a I E i l I E ‘ l j k e ； i t a l i e n / i t a l i e m z e ‘ I t a l i a n ； c a d e t / c a d e t 蛇 ‘ y o u n g e r ( b r o t h e r / s i s t e l 1 ; b o n / b o m z e ‘ g o o d ’ N o t e l h e e x c e p t i o n s e t 〉 も t e : c o m p l e t / c o m p l b 蛇 T U Ⅱ , c o m p l e t e I i n q u i e t / i n q u i b 蛇 ‘worriedlconcret/concr2蛇‘Concrete'…
( d s o m e f e m i n i n e a d j e c t i v e s r e q u i r e s p e c i h c c h a n g e s ： ‐er＞-もrEprEmier/premi2”
Ｅ ｒ ｓ ｔ
−ｆ＞-vｅ温廿entif7a唾、i”attentive
‐eux身-eIIsehem1wmx/h固唾皿se happy ‐teur＞-triceconsolateur/conm1atF”comfbrting ‐eUr＞-eUSementmr/menteUSe
d e c e i t f i l l
Noted1atasmallgDUpofcomparatjveadjectivesendingin-eurfbrmthe f e m i n i n e b y a d d i n g e ： m e i l l e u r ( e ) ‘ b e t t e r ; s u p 6 I i e u r ( e ) ‘ s u p e n o 喝 u p p e r i i n f 過 r i e u r ( e ） ‘ i n f b r i m l o w e r ; e ﾛ K t 6 r i e u r ( e ) ‘ e x t e r i o I ) e x t e m a l I i n t “ e u r ( e ）
‘ i n t e l i o r I a n t “ e u r ( e y p r i o 喝 p I e v i o u s I p o s t 6 r i e u r ( e ) ‘ l a t e 喝 s U b s e q u e n t ; u l t 6 r i e u r ( e ) ‘ f i m h e r ; m a j e u r ( e ) ‘ m a j o r ; m i n e u r ( e ） ‘ m i n O r ’
r a q
４LO』
SZmcm花Ｓ
( d ） a d i e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n a t , o t a d d e t o f b r m t h e f e m i n i n e : d 6 1 i c a t ( e ) ‘ d e l i c a t e （ N o t e t h e e x c e p t i o n s : s o t / s o t 蛇 ‘ s t u p i d W i e i l l o t / v i e i l 1 o t 蛇 ‘ q u a i n t ； b o m o t / b o u l o t 蛇 ‘ t u b b y ； p a l o t / p a l o t 蛇 ‘ r a l h e r p a l e ％ ( e ） a d j e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n i n , a i n , e i n , u n a d d e ( t h e y d o " o r d o U b l e l h e l a s t c o n s o n a n t ) : v o i s i n / v o i s i n e ‘ n e i g b b o u r i n g ; h a u t a i n / h a u t a i n e ‘ h a u 沙 飢 plein/pleine‘full；commun/commune‘commoIf…
( f ） a d j e c t j v e s e n d i n g i n g u 〉 g u i j : a i g u / a i “ ‘ s h a l p L ( S e e a l s o 5 . 6 ） (副somespecialfbrms：、
b l a n c / b l a n c h e ‘ w h i t e ; d o u x / d o u c c ‘ s o f t , g e n d e ; f a v o r i / f E v o r i 蛇
‘ f a v o u l i t e 極 a i s / h a i b h e ‘ h e s h , c o o l ； h a n c / 赴 a n c 陸 ‘ h a n k , o p e n 3 l o n g / l o n g " e ‘ l o n g ; p u b l i c / p u b I i 9 l u e ‘ p u b l i c ; s e c / s c c I i e ‘ d r y …
⑪Therearefveadjectiveswhichhavetwomasculinesingularfbrms-the s e c o n d i s u s e d b e f b r e a m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r n o u n b e g i n n i n g w i l h a v o w e l o r a m u t e h ・ I t i s h o m t h e s e c o n d f b r m t h a t t h e f e m i n i n e a d j e c t i v e i s f b r m e d b y d o u b l i n g t h e l a s t c o n s o n a n t a n d a d d i n g e ： ｕｎｂｅ”gar9onunbeZarbreImebgI彫ｄ別、便
ａhandｓｏｍｅｂｏｙａｍｅ廿eeabeautifilllady unhommeJb〃ｕn./bIespoirune,/b雌amie acrazymanasmyhopeafbolishfriend uncoII輔ｎ〃２０邸ｕｎ〃zoZahzmdImunem0I彫resis楠､企e ■
asoftcushionlisdessness企ebleresistance un”邸Iﾉe“directeurun”"IﾉeZha肺ｔｕｎｅ〃””IjCrobe
anewmanageranewcoatanewdress unIﾉ蛇”s⑪血ｅｒｕｎｕ陀剛ｈ⑪ｍｍｅｕｎｅＩﾉ花"陀他ｍｍｅ
ａｎｏｌｄｓｈｏｅ。ａｎｏｌｄｍａｎａｎｏｌｄｗＤｍ３ｎ
T h e t w o m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r f b m l s h a ｙ ｅ ｏ ｎ １ ｙ ｏ " e p l u r a l f b I m : ｂ ｅ a u x , f b u s , m o u s ， ●
ｎＯｕＶｅａｕＸ,ⅥｅｕＸ．
ヨ'7.7霊
T h e a d j e c t j v e s 獣 a n d , d e m i , n u d o n o t a l w a y s f b Ⅱ o w t h e a b o v e g u i d e l i n e s ： (a）群anddoesnotaddanein企mininecompoundnouns:郡ａｎｄｍｂｒｅ
‘ g r a n d m o t h e r ; 淳 a n d r o u t e ‘ h i g h w a y i 伊 a n d r u e ‘ m a i n s t r e e t l 群 a n d p l a c e ‘ m a i n s q u a r e ; 評 a n d f 間 i ｍ ‘ v e r y h u n g r y 樽 a n d s o i f ‘ v e ] r y d l i r s t y m e … 獣 a n d c h o s e ‘ n o t verymuchA y，aigmld-faim．Iinveryhungry C'estonla写and-place？Whereislhemainsquare？ ⅡnFapasdit群and-chose．Hedidlftsaymuch．
4 ７ I I T ﾙ e " ” 8 ｍ "
ThepluralfbrmsoflheErstlhreeinthelistcanbewnttenwithorwithoutans： 豚 a n d ( s ) ｍ も 唾 s , 伊 a n d ( s ) r o u t e s , 獣 a n d ( s ) m e s ．
( b ） T h e a d j e c t i v e s 癖 a n d , l a l l g e , 住 a i s , p r e m i e 助 d e m i e r f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e a 郡 e e w i l h t h e i m o u n ： unefEnetmgmFz‘たouverte lesneurs"たhgscueillies
awideopenwindow heshlycutnowers
N o t e t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f m o r t ‘ d e a d I n o u v e a u ‘ n e w ； c o u r t ‘ s h o r t ; h a u t ‘ h i 甑 f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e t h e r e i s n o a g r e e m e n t , w h a t e v e r t h e g e n d e r a n d n''mberofthenoun： uneerIf#ｍｍｚＯ”n6e
as廿ll-bomchild
lemrs制ｓ”邸I2ezz紗､6ｓ
thRirnew-bomsons
( c ） d e m i ‘ h a l f ; p r e c e d i n g a n d l i n k e d t o a n o u n b y a h y p h e n , d o e s n o t a 郡 e e w i l h i t s n o u n , b u t w h e n i t f b Ⅱ o w s a n o u n a n d i s l i n k e d t o i t b y e t , i t a g r e e s i n g e n d e r o n l y ： une此”-h画Irfu
ahalfhour
brois娩加i-kilOs
lhreehalfldlos
uneh即reet伽mjC
anhouraｎｄａｈａｌｆｎ､３０
iiyrlit肥set地”
tenandahalflitres
( d ） ｎ ｕ ‘ b a l e l ; p r e c e d i n g a n d l i n k e d t o a n o u n b y a h y p h e n , d o e s n o t a g r e e w i t h i t s n o u n , b u t w h e n i t f b n o w s a n o u n i t a g r e e s w i l h i t i n g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r ： ”-tetebareheaded〃必piedsbarefbot
EⅡessonttcte〃“piedsmJsもTheyarebareheaded， b a r e f b o t ．
畳 ￨ 鯛 撫 駕 I ﾘ : : 柵 鯉 ｡ i n g e n d … n u m b " w i … n . u n ： ”enemb伽yzcjte
awhitenower
f2群fleⅦrsblZmcfzeS
whitenowers
( b ） c o m p o u n d a d j e c t i v e s d o n o t a g r e e w i t h l h e i r n o u n ： Imejupe碓肌ｊｂ"cf desjupes雄"ん"c‘
adalkblueskirt darkbluesldrts
４ ３ : S t r M c 畝 ７ 忽 s
(difdleadiectiveofcolourisalsoanoun,thereisnoa厚eement： unerobeci加施
alemondIess
desmbesciZmFz
lemondresses
N o t e l h e e x c e p t i o n s : d e s n u a g e s m s e s ‘ p i n k c l o u d s ' a n d a l s o m a u v e , f a u y e ， fim池瞳 FleuI窓F7zJz”gsetblzm征h鴎mm1veandwhiteHowers
(｡）iftwoormorecoloursareinvolved,1headjectjvesmayagfee,ornot,with lhenoun：
unechemisebZfmcUpe)ｅｔ
awhiteand厚eenshjrt
"e武e）
deschemisesblkmc(heS)ｅｔ
whiteandgreenshirts
”域es）
曇 ￨ 鯛 欝 a ‘ ﾘ e c i i v " m … e d a s a 伽 … d i n s u c h c … e … nparle加砿 刊脆verracZzzjrd6smm誠息．
Heisspea]dngloudly S h e w i l l s e e c l e a r l y h o m
Ontra”iⅡｅｇｊＺＪｒｅｎｃｅ
Wearewoddnghardjust
ｍｎｍｅｍｔ．
no1Az
ｎ ｏ ｗ ｏ ｎ ． ，
Otheradjectiveswhichdonota厚eewhentheyareusedasadverbsinclude： b o n / m a u v a i s ‘ g o o d / b a d l f b r t ‘ l o u d ； j u s t e ‘ e x a c d y l i 虫 t 1 d r o i t ‘ s m i 甑 t a h e a d 《
一 躍 ￨ 鰹 雛 n n s o f a ‘ i e c … … N ● t … n o w j n g m l … １ 画 ( a ） a n a d j e c t i v e q u a l j f y i n g t w o o r m o r e n o u n s i s i n t h e p l u r a l a f t e r l h e l a s t n o u n . I f o n e o f t h e n o u n s i s m a s c u l i n e t h e a d j e c t i v e i s i n l h e m a s c u l i n e p l u r a l ： ⅡaunOncleemnetante
Hehasagenerousuncleand
談rz‘柁睡 umerevueemnjoumal
aunt･
amonth]ymagazmeand
meFzsIzgZs
newspaper
( b ） w h e n c o m p o u n d a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s e d w i t h a p l u r a l n o u n , b o t h a d j e c t i v e s a r e p l u r a l ： ●
unepommeai厚edouce/despommesal部Es-douces
a b i t t e r s w e e t a p p l e / b i t t e r s w e e t a p p l e s
蝿
ヨ'7.1畦
Ⅱｍｅ"01"zgm叩
C⑪mPariSOn⑪fadjeCdiwEs(see56.9）
( a ） t o c o m p a r e p e o p l e , o r t h i n g s , E n g j i s h a d d s ‘ e r ' t o l h e a d j e c t i v e : ‘ b i g g e r t h a n , p r e t t i e r t h a n l W i m l o n g e r a d j e c t i v e s E n g i s h u s e s ‘ m o r e / l e s s … t h a l f ： ‘ m o r e d i f n c u l t l h a n A m H e n c h , C o m p a r a t i v e s a r e u s u a l l y f b r m e d b y u s i n g p l u s …queinore…1han↓moins…que‘less…1han$皿ＳＳｉ…qUe‘as…asI d , a u t a n t p l u s … q u e ‘ a l l l h e m o r e … ａ ｓ / b e c a u s e ' a n d i n a n e g a t i v e c o m p a n s o n ne…pasaussi(orsi)…que‘notas…as'： E l l e e s t P J h J s 評 a n d e 9 I J c v o u s ･ S h e i s b i g g e r t h a n y o u ．
皿 e s 7 z e s o n t p z l s a 妬 s i ( o 7 s j ) p e t i t e s 9 “ l e u r m も 肥 ． Theyarenotassma]lastheirmothem Cevinesta物邸如加"hJsrechemh6”'iIestraxa
T h i s w i n e i s a l l 山 e m o r e s o u 甑 t a f t e r b e c a u s e i t i s r a r e ．
Notelhatincompalisonsnemaybeaddedwhenqueisfbuowedbyaverb． Ⅱ e s t ” i F z s s t U p i d e 9 邸 b n F z e q e ) p e n s a i t ・
H e i s l e s s s t u p i d t h a n ( n o t a s s t u p i d a s ) ｗ ｅ t h o u g h t ． ●
(b）theadverbsplus,molnsmaybequalinedbybeaucoup,ｕｎｐｅｕ： 皿 e e s t ” p e I J p I 砿 i n t e l l i g e n t e 9 z J e s o n h e r e ，
S h e i s a l i t d e m o r e i n t e Ⅲ g e n t d l a n h e r b r o t h e m Celivre-ciestb”“0”m0irzscher9”celui-la Thisbookismuchcheaperlhamhatone．
( d t h e e m r e s s i o n s d e p l u s e n p l u s / d e m o i n s e n m o i n s ‘ i n c r e a s i n 9 y / l e s s a n d ●
l e s s ' m a y m o d i f y a n a d j e c t i v e , o f t e n w i t h d e v e n i r ： 恥 s n 6 g o c i a t i o n s s o n t d e v e n u e s ” P I z J s e F z p J I J s c o m p l i q u 6 e s 、
T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s h a v e b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d ， (｡）ｃｏｍｍｅ‘ljke,isusedinRimilpR2
blancO1e)ＣＯ加加eneige
aswhiteassnow
lissecom腕edelasoie
assmoothassilk
fbrt”加加eunID唾UUf
ass杜oｎｇａｓａｎｏｘ
N o t e t h e s m a l l c h a n g e s i n e a c h p h r a s e t h e u s e o f a n a r t i c l e i n s o m e ・ T h e y h a v e t o b e l e a m e d i n d j v i d u a l l y
５ ０
震17.12岸
Ｓｔｍｃ加花ｓ
SupexIamEfmmsOfadjectiwes
T b f b l m l h e s u p e d a t i v e i n E n 副 i s h ‘ e s t ' i s a d d e d t o t h e a d j e c t j v e , w h i c h i s p r e c e d e d b y ‘ t h e ' : ‘ t h e l o n g e s t , 1 h e c o m m o n e s t ' ､ W H h l o n g e r a d j e c t j v e s E n g i s h u s e s ' m o s t / l e a s t ' : ‘ t h e m o s t / l e a s t s p e c t a c u l a r 1 L I n I 1 r e n c h , t h e s t r u c t u r e i s a s fbuows：
leOa,les)＋plus/moins＋adjective(+noun)(+dｄ oｒ
leOa,les)十noun＋IeOa,les)＋plus/moins＋adjective(十de） ●
Samalsonest肱pII4sbeI陀叱肱Ville． HishouseisdlemostbeautifUl(one)inlhetown.
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N ， i m p o r t e s i Z E Z e t 蛇 I n e l , a i m e n t p a s ･ I t d o e s l f t m a t t e r i f s o m e p e o p l e d o n I t l i k e i t . ( c ） ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ e ) 叩 r e s s i o n s u s i n g t e l ： deteⅡefa9on/maniも唾/sorte q U e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ） a t e l j o u r entantqUetel
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H o w e v e r s t u p i d l h e y a r e , t h e y n m a n a g e ． q u e l q u P u n ( m s ) p r o n o u n ‘ s o m e o n e , s o m e b o d y L I f q u e l q U P u n i s q U a l i E e d b y a n a d j e c t i v e , 1 h e a d j e c t j v e i s p I e c e d e d b y d e , 。 ： Q z J e j h 7 z u ” z e s t a l a p o r t e ・ SomeoneisatlhedooL
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Useof池esubjectlpr⑪ｎｍｍｓ
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Ｙｂｕｗａｎｔｔｏｃｏｍｅｏｒｎｏｔ？
Vbusisusedbolhasthefbrmal,singularpronoun-usuaI]ywhentheperson a d d r e s s e d i s n o t s o w e u l m o w n t o t h e s p e a k e r o r w r i t e r a n d a s t h e p l u r a l pronoun．
IbJJsvoulezveni1；Madame？
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Jeanandlsabene,wherewereyouthismoming2 (b）Whentherearetwoormoresubjectscaremustbetakentoensurelhatlhe c o I r e c t p l u r a l f b r m s o f l h e p r o n o u n a n d v e r b a r e u s e d ( s e e 2 9 ) . I f a f i r s t p e r s o n s u b j e c t i s i n v o l v e ｡ , t h e n t h e p l u r a l p r o n o u n i s n o u s a n d t h e v e r b a g r e e s w i t h n o u s ､ I f s e c o n d a n d l h i r d p e r s o n s u b j e c t s a r e c o m b i n e d , 1 h e n d l e p l u r a l p r o n o u n i s v o u s a n d t h e v e r b a g r e e s w i t h v D u s ・ MoietmonherE,〃ozJsim猫aucin6ma
町brodlerandlwillgotothecinema・ VbusetMadameGuiat,”ＩＩＳαIJeznousrepr6senteralar6Imion･
Y b u a n d M m e G u i a t w i l l r e p r e s e n t u s a t t h e m e e t i n ９ ． ＶもroniqUeettoi,”zJszﾉ鹿Jz助Ezdemain2
WYllyouandV6roniquecometomolroW？
( c ） Ⅱ ( s ) a n d e Ⅱ e ( s ) r e f e r t o m a s c u l i n e a n d f b m i n i n e n o u n s , s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l w h e t h e r l h e n o u n s a r e p e o p l e o r t h i n g s ． C'estuneviⅡemagmhque1EI肥attiredenomb唾uxvisiteurs chaqueann6e･
I t b a w o n d e r f U l c i t y 1 I t a m a c t s m a n y v i s i t o r s e v e r y y e a I L n ( s ) , e n e ( s ) a r e h e q u e n d y r e p l a c e d b W h e d e m o n s 杜 a t j v e p r o n o u n c e / c ' i f l h e verbisCtre． ●
mhommequim】attendaittouslessmrsaucoindelarue？Ｃ修”〃 ｍｏｎＰも唾． ●
Themanwhowaitedfbrmeeveryevenmgatthes位eetcomer?1ｔ wasmyfalheエ Q u i i a i s a i t c e b r u i t a f h e u X ? Ｃ 穆 如 i t l a p o l i c e ． 、
W h o w a s m a k i n g d l a t a w f U l n o i s e 2 I t w a s l h e p o l i c e ．
“ｆＳ”c加花ｓ
( ｡ ） Ⅱ i s u s e d a s t h e i m p e r s o n a l , o r n e u t e l ) s u b j e c t i n i m p e r s o n a l v e r b p h r a s e s ， andwilhctreandavDir(see53)：
jlimportede＋inhnitjveitisimportantto iIrestea＋jnhnitjveitrem3insto
i I e s t n 6 c e s s a i I E d e 十 i n E n i t i v e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o iIya
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Ⅱ e s t , i l 6 t a i t … i l y a , i l y a m ' a i t … a r e i l Ⅳ a I i a b l y s i n g u l “ w h e r e a s c ' e s t , “ t a i t c a n b e c o m e p l u r a l i f d l e s u b j e c t r e f e r r e d t o i s d ] i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l ( s e e 1 3 . 5 a ) ． − …
P⑪Ｓｍ⑪皿a皿d唾e⑪f血edi唾cmbjectpron⑪皿ｓ ( a ） T h e d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n s n o I m a l l y p l e c e d e l h e v e r b , o r l h e a u 】 d l i a r y v e r b ayo11も
ⅡmevOit．
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Hehasdecidedtodoit．
(dTheimpersonaldirectobjectpronounle/１，mayreplace,orreferbackto,an e n t i r e i d e a o r s e n t e n c e , o r c e l a l t i s h e q u e n t l y u s e d t o h n i s h o f f a s e n t e n c e , a n d i t i s h r e q u e n d y u s e d i n c o m p a r a t j v e c o n s b r u c t i o n s ･ ＵＩ３ｍ･ahient6ttermm6.Ⅱ随｡it･
Ｈｅ，nhavefiniRhedsoon・Hes利idso・
E l l e n P e s t p a s h e u r e u s e . 肥 陀 v o i s ・
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Didheheaqfthat?Heheardit．
ＥⅡeestbeaucoupplusinteⅢgenteqIronnejEcroyait・ Sheismuchmoreintelligentthanwethouゆt、
蝋 Ⅲ m e " 0 " " 8 , 叩
E ､ 副 i s h d o e s n o t a ] w a y s r e q u i l e t h e a d d i t i o n o f ‘ i t ' i n e q u i v a l e n t c o n t e x t s ､ B u t , i n somecaseswhereEn甑sh"oesinclude‘it;FrenchdoesnotThisocculswilh verbssuchasconsid6re喝tromEr：
E l l e c o n s i d c r e i n u t i l e d e r 6 p 6 t e r l a p h r a s e ･
S h e c o n s i d e r s i t p o i n d e s s t o l e p e a t l h e s e n t e n c e ・
h l c e r t a i n v e r b p h I a s e s l e / l ' i s a c t u a l l y p a r t o f t h e p h r a s e a n d 碗 ” b e i n c l u d e d ： e ､ g ､ Z b m p o r t e r s u r ‘ t o g e t t h e b e t t e r o f ; 肥 c h a p p e r b e Ⅱ e ‘ t o h a v e a n a I r o w e s c a p e l Ⅱs此mportaientsurleursennemis･
T h e y w e r e g e t t i n g t h e b e t t e r o f l h e i r e n e m i e s ， 一 躍
USe⑪funem血Ect⑪bjectlpron⑪Ims
Thesepronounsindude‘to'and/or‘fbr'intheirmeaning・Sowhenverbshavea i n l h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n , 曲 e p r o n o u n f b r m u s e d i s t h e i n d i l e c t o b j e c t ・ MaiseⅡe”a6crit､にcrireaqn） Butshehaswrittentohim・
Vbusallez”zJspemmemedepartir?⑩ermettreaqn） Ybuwill311owustｏleave？
SomeFrenchverbscanythemeaning‘to/fbrsomeone':ｅ､g､paye則chemhem S u c h v e r b s u s e l h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n f b r m ． 】evais彫chercherunmouchom
I m g o i n g t o g e t a h a n d k e r c h i e f f b r y o u ・ ＯｎｖａＩ砿payer皿cafも． Wehfegoingtobuyhimacoffee．
一 躍
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l e v a i s a P a 1 i s . ( 】 , y v a i s . ）
I i n g o i n g t o P a r i s ・ n v a a u l y C 6 e . ( Ⅱ y v a . ） H e i s g o i n g t o l h e l y c 6 e ・ Iareineestamiv6ealamameamidi･値Ⅱeyestaniw6eamidi.） Thequeenamvedatthetownhallatnoon・
S o n m a n t e a u e s t d a n s l ' a m l o i r B . ( S o n m a n t e a u y e s t . ） His/Hercoatisindlewardrobe，
皿 e s ' e s t t e n u e p r e s d e l a p o r t e . ( E Ⅱ e s y e s t t e n u e . ） Shestoodbythedoom
６６鴬Ｓ”c加砥
( b ） p r o n o u n : ｙ ‘ i t ' r e p l a c e s a ＋ n o u n ． Onrepondraatalettre.(Onyrepondra）
T h e y Ⅱ r e p l y t o y o u r l e t t e L NouspensonsatonannivE鱈aire・佃Ousypensons.）
W e a r e l h i n ] d n g a b o u t y o u r b i r t h d a y E n f a u t r 函 6 c h i r a c e t t e s o l u t i o n ･ O m f a u t y r 銀 色 c h i x も ） Ｗｅ'Ⅱhavetogvesomelhou甑ttothatsolution・ N o t e t h a t y c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f e r t o a p e r s o n i n i n f b l m a l u S e ： A房t-eⅡepens6ason壮bre?Oui,eneapensealui/eⅡｅｙａｐｅｎｓ６･
H a s s h e l h o u ゆ t a b o u t h e r / h i s b r o l h e l f Y b s , s h e h a s ( 1 h o u 甑 t a b o u t h i m ) ．
P a 1 1 e s y Tも]ｋｔｎｈｉｍ/he、
−団9.6ト
Enisanadverbialpronounmeaning‘hfomthere,ｓｏｍｅ,ofthemA
( a ） a d v e r b : e n r e f e r s t o a p l a c e o r l o c a t i o n a n d a ] w a y s r e p l a c e s a p h r a s e i n b D d u c e d b y d e ． N O u s n 1 a l l o n s p a s a P a r i s ・ N o u s e F z r e v e n o n s . ( r e v e n i r d e ）
W e t e n o t g o i n g t o P a ] i s , W b f e j u s t b a c k h o m t h e r e ． EⅡessortentdeIecole・Ellese"sortent.(sortirdeJ
Theyare(just)comingoutofschooLTheyarecomingout(ofi0．
( b ） p r o n o u n : e n r e p l a c e s t h e p r e p o s i t i o n d e ( u s u a l ] y p a r t o f a v e r b consmlction)＋noun． ●
QuelestsonnomfHClas,jenemIe"souⅥensplus.(sesouyenirdeリ W h a t i s h i s n a m e ? I i n s o l r y ; I c a n l t r e m e m b e r ( i t ) ． mprendsImpo鰐Memi,jen1erzaipasenvie.(avoiremiedeﾘ． Wbuldyouljkeadrink?Nolhanks,Idolftwantone． Ｃｍｍ誼t-eⅡecemman20ui,eⅡee"aluplusieurschapi征es.(li１℃ p l u s i e u r s c h a P i n ℃ s d e ）
D o e s s h e l m o w l h e n o v e l ? Y e s , s h e h a s r e a d s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s ( o f i O ．
EnmayrefertoaqUantityornumberofthingsorpeople・TheactualqUantiwor mlmbermaybespecihed． APteⅡｅｕｎ盆もme?Oui,ｅⅡｅ”ａ邸弘
Doesshehaveabrother?Yもs,shedoes/shehasone(brothel)．
腿；Ⅱ恥"0m"8m”
Prendsenco肥duvin・Non,memi,j'“aieu“sez6
Hayesomemorewine,NOdlanks,I'vehadenouゆ(ofiO． DeqUeⅡeamieparles-tu郡，“connais加心
Whichhiendwereyoutalldngabou唖]mowthree(ofthem)． Jeneveuxpasd，argem.J，erzaiZmpb ldoIftwantanymoney81havetoomuch(ofitj．
( c ） E n m a y r e p l a c e , o r b e s u b s t i t u t e d f b 喝 o r r e f e r t o , a n e n t i r e s t a t e m e n t o r i d e a ．
ANﾉez-v⑪usbesoindesommeil?Non,jelf”aiplusbesoin、
Doyouneedsomesleep?Ｎo,Idolftanymole． 皿nemPaimesplus郡,e"suisbouleverse1
Ybudon'tlovemeanymore?Ihntemblyupset1
( d ） E n a l s o o c c u r s i n c e r t a i n e 印 r e s s i o n s : e ､ g ・ e F z v o u l o i r a q n ‘ t o b e a r a g r u d g e a g a i n s t s o m e o n e ; s ， e F z p r e n d r e a q n ‘ t o t a k e i t o u t o n s o m e o n e ％ 】eluie"veu]f
l h a v e a g r u d g e a g a i n s t h i m / h e ] Ｅ
-露￨蕊鯉:淵謡冊撫N胤撫血…me…血s-…w圏y‘ SingularPlural 1stperson
Ｉｅｍｅ
ｎｏｕｓＦｚｏＪ４ｓ
2ndperson 3rdperson
ｔｕ蛇
ｖ ｏ ｕ ｓ " o " s ( a l s o p o l i t e s i n g u l a l ）
il/eⅡｅｓｅ
Ⅱs/eⅡesse
皿eselave.(selaⅣＢｒ）
S h e i s g e t t i n g w a s h e d ． Nousallonsrzo噸leverbient6t.(seleve】j
Wejregoingtogetupsoon． ●
s . ( s ｅ配 Aprbs鑓nfereposも(e)unpeu,ⅥensmangeraⅣｅｃｎｏ u p O s e 】 』
Afte]『you'vehadarestcomeandeatwilhus． NotethattheseverbsarenotnormallyreHexiveinEngish
鍋ＳＺｍｃ加把ｓ
2 １ ゴ２１．１ト
E伽p”tjcpywzOz"2Ｗｿ0s航0""”0雄rqfpywzOI"@ｓ
T h e e m p h a t i c ( s b f e s s e d ) p r o n o u n s h a v e s e p a r a t e f b r m s i n t h e t h j r d p e r s o n f b r m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e g e n d e r s , i n b o t h s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a L T h e r e i s a l s o a t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r f b r m s o i w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n d e E n i t e p r o n o u n s chaclm,ｏｎ,personne,toutIemonde(see18.4b,18.9,54.16,18.1b)． Plural
S i n g u l a I lstpersonmoi
、、皿Ｓ
２ndpersontoijvous lui/eⅡ⑨ｚｍｄｓｏｉ ３rdperson
ＶＯｕＳ
ｅｍＫ/便ⅡPＲ
■
ヨ21.2岸
T h e e m p h a t i c p r o n o l m s a r e u s e d i n a v a l i e t y o f c o n t e x t s ． ( a ） a f t e r a p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , s u c h a s d e , a u l i e u d e , p o 皿 c h e z ： Elleestaniv6echez"oi
Sheamvedatmyhouse． Onveutpartirα”砿伽jL Wbwanttoleavebefbrehim
Vbuspourrezlefaireszmse“ Ybucandoitwidloutthem．
〔 b ） a f t e r t h e p r e p o s i t i o n な
mdirectobjectpronounsme,te,lui,nous,vous,leurareusedwi血verbssuchas donnel;ob6血promemEandmean‘toｍｅ,toyou,toｈｉｍ/her…’ 皿ｅＪ砿apemzjSdesortim
Shealowedhim/hertogoout・ Ｏｍｚｏｚ４ｓａ”"”lelivrc･
Theygavethebooktous・
I f m e , t e , n o u s , v o u s a c t i n g a s a j 花 c t o b j e c t s a r e p r e s e n t t h e s e p r o n o u n s c a n n o t co-occurwiththe加戊舵ctobjectpronouns.Tbe印ress‘toｍｅ,toyou,ｔｏ him/her…'insuchcasesamoi,atoi,alui,ａｅⅡｅ…areused， 皿"epr6senteras〃e'ぬ Ybuwillin廿oducemetohen
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Certainverbssuchasveni島couril;involvingactualmovememtowards someone,arefbllowedbya＋emphaticpronoun． b
６９∼
Ｉｍｉｅ"0”8ｍ"
Eu⑨est”卯咋jmozJsb
Shecametous． IBSeIn胸nt侭SOyZtaI魅励I砿
Thechildrenwenttohim．
Afewiairlycommonverbsarealsofbｕｏｗｅｄｂｙａ＋emphaticpronoun・These v e r b s d o n o t i n v o l v e a n y m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s a p e r s o n : p e n s e r a , a v o i r r e c o u r s a j c t l E a , s , i n t 6 唾 s s e r a ：
Ⅱ〃eFzse〃e'ぬ
Heislhinkingabouthem Ｉｌｓｏ”souvent形”卯だ〃FzoI4sb
T h e y o f t e n c o n s u l t u l s ． C，est〃mjb
l t I S y o u r s ， nss，伽勉氾sse"””“
T h e y a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n u s ． (c）afterc'estandcesont： Ｃ，estm0i
1tもｍｅ・
C ， e s t m j ; u o I J s b
I t b y o u ( i n f b r m a l , f b r m a l ) ．
CeneseraPas伽i/g'ぬ
Itwon'ｔｂｅｈｉｍ/heェ
Ｃｅｓｅｒａ””
Itubeus・
Ｃ,est”邸s・
I t j S y o u ( p l ) ．
b u t f b r t h e t h i r d p e r s o n p l u r a l ： Cesonte”/ＧＩ姓．
ltjS1hem．
(d）toemphasizedlesubject L邸”nPensaitrien・
H e l m o w s n o l h j n g a b o u t i t ・ Ｍ ｂ ｊ ; j l i r a i s a n s t o i ・
Ｉ Ⅲ g o w i l h o u t y o u ，
A u s s i , s e u l ( e ) ( s ) ‘ t o o , a l o n e ； o r a c a r d i n a l n u m b e 喝 m a y b e i n c l u d e d f b r a d d i t i o n a l e m p h a s i s , a n d a u l r e s m a y b e a d d e d t o n o u s , v o u s f b r a d d i t i o n a l e m p h a s i s ． Ｌ”αZ4ssZpouxTale飽血Ｅ・ Ｈｅｗｉｌｌｂｅabletodoitaswen．
C,estpourlavie,”砿”z“
Ｗ も ' Ⅱ b e t o g e t h e n h e t w o o f u s , f b r a l w a y s ．
７０
ＳｍＪｃ如陀ｓ
NOusensommesraⅣi(eｳs,”zJs”Z花sb
A s f b r u s , 〃 e a r e d e l i 甑 t e d w i t h / a b o u t i t ． ( e ） ｉ ｎ e 】 m r e s s i o n s w i t h o u t v e r b s ： qui１，a趣僻ZVbIJsbPhzseJ雌 Ｗｈｏｄｉｄｉｔ?ＵＳ./Wedid・Nothen
mneveuxPasyaller?Mbi”FzPIIUsb
Y b u d o l f t w a n t t o g o ( t h e r e ) ? N e i l h e r d o I ． (f）incomparativephrases： E l l e e s t P I z J s i n t 6 r e s s a n t e 9 z J g J “
S h e i s m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n h e i s / h i m ， nalaylz6mevUiture9IJe碗oi Hehasthesamecarasme/Ihave．
②imhenegativephraseni…､i…､e…： lVZmj刀m0zJsyztz”砥“c印，姫derepond】氾alaquestion･
NeilheryounorweagreedtoanswertheqUestion． ⑪indoublesubjects： S o n p e r e e t J I J j s o n t a Ⅱ e s e n v i Ⅱ e ， Hisfalherandhewentintotown.(See29.2,29.5）
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mOi-miﾐｍｐ
ｎＯ１１Ｓ−ｍＰｍ便ＩＳ
ｔＯｉ−ｍｆｉｍＰ/ＶＯＵＳ−ｍ６ｍｅ
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Evelyonemustgohome． ０〃asouyentdesamisplusinteⅢgentsquesojL
WeoftenhavehriendsWhoaremoreintelligentthanweare，
7 1 1 Ⅱ m e " 0 " " 8 m 叩
c h u z c z J F z p o u r s o j L Everymanfbrhimself ヨ21.3器
Positi0皿⑪ｆｐｍｎ０Ｉｍｓ
( a ） P r o n o u n s a r e n o r m a l l y p l a c e d i m m e d i a t e l y b e f b r e t h e v e r b , t h e a l m l i a r y v e r b , o r a n i n n n i t j v e t o w h i c h d l e y a r e l i n k e d i n m e a n i n g i n s t a t e m e n t s ， q u e s t i o n s a n d n e g a t i v e f b r m s ： nJｾ呪わ唾
Headoresher/him/it．
1 1 y ” j S b
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Goandsaygoodbyeto them
OnpeuteFzZm"”rplusieurs．
Y b u m a y f i n d s e v e r a l ．
(b）Pronounsp肥Ce”anegatjveimperative,butjb"o〃apositiveimperative a n d a l e l i n k e d t o i t b y a h y p h e n ． 恥meparlezpjzscomme9a！Dolftspeaktomelikelhat1 lWFzpa』10nspjzs！Letbfbrgetaboutit1 Dites-”derevenirbiientatITbllhim/hertommeback soon1
Bois-“unpeu！Drinkalitde(ofit)１ PrEnds-肥maisne彫donnepas・Ｉ目keitbutdonﾉtgiveitto atonhfe唾！yourbrother1 Widlthepositiveimperatjvemeandtearereplacedbymoiandtoi． ＤＣ〃rze詮加⑥j”ｎ℃biI他ｫＩ
Givemeyourticket1
A n s i s a d d e d t o l h e s i n g u l a r p o s i t j v e i m p e r a t i v e o f e r v e r b s b e f b r e y a n d e n ・ wzs弧
Comeon1/Ｇｅｔｏｎｗｉｌｈｉｔ１
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(cリTherearetwosmallgroupsofverbs,eachfbⅡowedbyaninhnitive,and w i l h t h e m t h e p r o n o u n i s p l a c e d b e f b r e t h e ” " c j p a l v e r b : f a i r e , l a i s s e 喝 e n v o y e r andregardeIWD血ecouteI;entendre,sen血 Ony虎minstallerunplacard．
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n v a Z f z 伽 j s s e r p a r t i I b N e Z e s Z f z j 3 s e z p a s t o m b e r 1
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t o f e t c h h i s k e y s ・ S h e i s w a t c h i n g u s w o r k 、 I s m e Ⅱ i t b u m j n g ．
E Ⅱ ｅ ” I J s F 圏 g z m j 也 廿 a N ﾉ a i l l e 通 りｅ彫serzsbrOlen
Whemheplincipalverbisinthepositiveimperativefblm,dlepronounis p l a c e d a f t e r l h e i m p e r a t i v e a n d l i n k e d t o i t b y a h y p h e n ． ”iZBs-JEsen唾r！Showthemin1
“isse-”z4sdormirlLetussleep1 REg”zZe-jZzpleurer！Lookatherclying1 計2'､4ト
⑪ｍｅｒ⑪fpmnoIms Whenmorethanoneofthepronounsoccurinaverbphrase,thereisaspecial o r d e r i n w h i c h 山 e y a r e p l a c e d , T h e f b n o w i n g t a b l e i s a u s e f m g u i d e ： ｍｅ
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befbre
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befbrey
befOreen
に、。
VＤｕＳ
( a ） e x a m p l e s w i t h m e , t e , s e , ｎ ｏ u s , v D u s , l e / E l a / l ； l e s ： Ⅱｍｅ砲donne⑥、
Ｎｅ”Ius陸、on位epas1 E l l e s e j e g a l d e r a ･ Nous”砿比nve江ons
Hehasgivenittome・ Dolftshowthemtous1
S h e ' l l k e e p i t f b r h e r s e l f W e ' Ⅱ s e n d y o u t o g e t i t ．
che唾h配
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Wegivehim/hersomeevery day
Ⅱｎ１ｙｅ卯ａplus．
Thereもnoneleft．
恋 ｉ ｍ ｅ " 0 " " 8 m ”
( ｡ ） T h e e x c e p t i o n t o d l e a b o v e g u i d e l i n e s h a s t o d o w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e l m p e r a t i v e ､ T h e p r o n o u n s ﾉ b " 0 " t h e p o s i t i v e i m p e r a t i v e a n d a l e l i n k e d t o i t b y h y p h e n s ( s e e 2 L 3 b ) ． Donne-Ze-I唾！Giveittohim1
Montrez=Je-"0噸！Showittous1
Cherchez-IUsJ！Lookfbrlhemlhere1 of6℃z-IE””！Ｏ鮭rdlemsome1 nGm副nde-I”-”！Askhimfbrsome1
Withthepositiveimperativemoiandtoiareusedinsteadofmeandte,andare m o v e d r i ゆ t t o l h e e n d o f l h e g r o u p ： 厨‘mfls-JZz-加oj！Giveitbacktome1
壷 … 孟 嘉 … T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s l i n k l h e i n f b r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e t o a
p r e c e d i n g n o u n , p r o n o u n , o r n o u n p h I a s e ( a n t e c e d e n t s ) . T h e g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r o f v e r b s a n d a d i e c t i v e s i n t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e a 厚 e e w i l h t h e a n t e c e d e n t ． 一 犀
q u i ( i n v a l i a b l e ) ‘ w h o , w h i c h , t h a t ' i s t h e s u b j e c t i n l h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ､ I t i s u s e d f b r p e o p l e , a n j m a l s o r l h i n g s ： Ⅲ h o m m e ” i a t t e n d a i t a u c o i n d e l a r u e 6 t a i t s o ｎ ｐ も 唾 ． Themanwhowaswaitingatlhecomerofthes江eetwashis/her fathem
、 i , ” i a s I a i r c o n t e n t , d i s m o i p o u r q U o i ，
YbulookhappyTbⅡmewhy Cesontun6tudiantetunelectrice９噸vontnousrepr6sent唾
I t b a s t u d e n t a n d a n a s s i s t a n t w h o a r e g o i n g t o r e p r e s e n t u s ‘ IBchat9砿esttoUjoursdansmonjaIdinnPestpasamoi･ T h e c a t t h a t b a ] w a y s i n m y g a r d e n i s n o t m i n e ・ a n d i n s o m e s e t e 叩 r e s s i o n s a n d p r o v e r b s ： QzJjplusest…Andwhatbmore…
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t o g e l h e m
７ ４ i S t m c Z I " 笹 ｓ
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q u e / q u P ( i n v a I i a b l e ) ‘ w h o ( ､ ) , w h i c h , 1 h a t ' i s t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t i n t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , I t i s u s e d f b r p e o p l e , a n i m a l s o r t h i n g s ： V b i l a l e l i v r e d 7 I ｲ E m a s c h e r c h 6 p a r t o u t ･
There/Hereisthebookyoulooked/havebeenlookingfbr e v e I y w h e r e ． ●
IEs6tudiants9嘘Ⅱeainvit6ssontsesamls． Thest'１dfmｵRsheimﾉitedareherhiends．
E n g i s h d o e s n o t n e e d t h e p r o n o u n s ‘ w h o , w h o ( ､ ) , w h i c h , t h a t ' i n t h e r e l a t i v e d a u s e ､ B u t i n l i f e n c h , i n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s 腕 z J s t b e u s e d ． 一 墨
p r e p o s i t i o n 十 q U i r e f e r s o n l y t o p e o p l e ： l a f e m m e c h G z ” i j ， h a b i t a i s 6 t a i t h f a n 9 a i s e ・
ThewomanwhosehouselwaslivinginwasHrench． IEjeunehommea9”eⅡeadonn61escl6sdelavoim】おもtaitIm voIem
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l e q u e l , l e s q u e l s , l a q U e Ⅱ e , l e s q u e u e s ‘ w h o , w h i c l f a r e u s e d a s l h e s U b j e c t i n a
r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , i n s t e a d o f q U i , o n l y i n a d m i n i s b a t i v e o r 1 i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e ： C e t t e f e m m e , “ I J e 此 e t a i t f b r t 6 1 6 g a n t e , 6 t a i t e n r 6 a l i t 6 d e s s e r v i c e s d e p o l i C e ･
Thatwoman,whowasememelyelegant,wasinfactapolice o怖唾正
−[22.5岸
p r e p o s i t i o n ＋ l e q U e l … r e f e r s t o p e o p l e , a n i m a l s o r t h i n g s ： Ｃ ' e s t l a j e u n e f E m m e a I j e c Z f z 4 7 z 4 e I I e ( o r ” e c 9 ” ) n e s t a Ⅱ “ I 6 c o l e 、 Itbtheyoungwomanhewenttoschoolwidl・ mlestlesac血卯sZe9”j'aimisl'argen蝉 Whereisthebaglputlhemoneyin2
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｡e,aarecombinedwidllequeltofbrmthepronouns： d u q U e l , d e s q u e l s j d e l a q u e Ⅱ e , d e s q u e Ⅱ e s a U q u e l , a u x q u e l s , a l a q u e Ⅱ e , ａ ｎ 』 x q u e u e s
T h e s e c h a n g e s a r e s i m i l a r t o c h a n g e s m a d e w i t h d l e a r t i c l e s ( s e e 9 ) . T h e
c o n m c t e d f b I m s a r e u s e d w h e n e v e r d e o r a f b l m p a r t o f a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e o r l h e c o n s t r u c t i o n f b Ⅱ o w i n g a v e r b ：
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H i s m o t h e n 1 h a n k s t o w h o m h e w a s a b l e t o c o p e , i s v e r y m ・ U n g a r 9 0 n d ， a c c o r d , m a i s ” I 7 z J e Z ( o r ” 9 噸 ) s ， a 夢 t i l ？ Ａｂ叩yes,butwhichone？ 一 躍
w h e n r e f e n i n g t o p e o p l e , a n d f b Ⅱ o w i n g a p r e p o s i t i o n , e i t h e r l e q U e l o r q u i c a n b e u s e d ･ T h e e x c e p t i o n t o d ] i s r u l e o c c u r s w i t h t h e p r e p o s i t i o n s p a n m , ａ ｕ n o m b r e d e a n d e n t １ ℃ . Ｆ ｏ Ⅱ o w i n g t h e s e p r e p o s i t i o n s l h e a p p r o p r i a t e f b r m o f ●
l e q u e l i s a l w a y s u s e d ： l E s o t a g e s , ” ” j j E s 9 I j e j S s e l r o m a i e n t l e s t r o i s 唾 l i 夢 e u s e s ， 勘aifmtmorts･
T h e h o s t a g e s , a m o n g s t w h o m w e r e l h e t h r e e n u n s , w e r e d e a d ． 一 …
d o n t ‘ o f 7 a b o u t w h o m , w h i c h ; w h o s e ' i s u s e d f b r p e o p l e , a n i m a l s o r t h i n g s , a n d c a n b e u s e d i n s t e a d o f d e q u i , d u q U e l j d e s q l u e l s , d e l a q u e Ⅱ e , d e s q U e Ⅱ e s ： Vbicil，argent伽”(orα”班Dilabesoin･ Hereもthemoneyheneeds． C'estla皿e””(or此9蝿叱jtz9I4e此)ilparle･ I t b t h e g i r l h e b t a l l d n g a b o u t ． ●
C ' e s t l a m a i s o n 伽 ” ( o r 此 j h z u 7 z J e 此 ) j e m e s o u v l e n s ． ItwasdlehouselremembeL
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1 h e o r d e r o f w o r d s f b Ⅱ o w i n g d o n t i s i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t , v e r b ( 十 o b j e c O ： Ｖｂ池1忽ｍ姉Rn、””lesvoletssontvcrts，
T h i s / T h a t i s t h e h o u s e w h o s e s h u t t e r s a r e g r e e n ． IEs6tudiants伽砿lenomfigurecfdessoussontp面esdepassera monbu】氾audesquepossible･Merci･
W b u l d t h e s t u d e n t s w h o s e n a m e s a r e b e l o w c a l l a t m y o f f i c e a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e ・ T h a n k y o u ．
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I h e E n g j i s h 面 a n s l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e a r e f b l m a l s m l c t u r e s ・ I n f b r m a ] b ﾙ i n s p o k e n B 【 e n c h , t h e s e c o m p l e x s m l c t u l e s w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o sentences：
mnami…ienemesomiensiamaisdesonadIEsse…
計22.12謡
0血‘where,ｉｎwhich,whenPisarelatjveadverbwhichcanexpressplaceortime・
I t r e f b r s o n l y t o t h i n g s , O h c a n b e u s e d w i l h s e v e r a l p r e p o s i t i o n s : ｄ ' o n ‘ b r o m where/whichmaroh‘bywhich4jusqUotI‘how趣towhatextentLOUcan replacerelatjvEssuchasdansleqUel…,duqUel…,parleqUel…． Restezo〃vousctes1
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C ' e s t l e p a y s c Z b 此 i l v i e n t ・
雌1hecoumyhecomeshom． I e c o I m a i s I e s s e m i e r s p ” 0 な ( o r ” r J E s 9 I J e Z s ) o n a n i v e a l ' e g n s e 、 I I m o w t h e p a l h s t o d l e c h u r c h ． OnvB飯aj蛎卯”ilpeutaIlem We'Ⅱseehowfarhe'Ⅱｇｏ． Someexampleswhereohe麺ressestime： ｌｅｍｎｉｓｏｊｈ
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theyearwhen
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一 曇
p r e p o s i t i o n 十 q u o i r e f e r s o n I y t o l h i n g s ､ I t i s a l s o u s e d t o r e f e r t o n e u t e r p r o n o u n s s u c h a s c a c e l a , q u e l q u e c h o s e , n e n ： O n s a i t 此 ９ ” j i l s ， a g i s s a i t ・ Welmowwhatitwasabout．
Ⅱ a 6 c o u t 6 l e d i s c o u r s ” r も s 9 z J o i i l e s t a Ⅱ e p r E n d I 泡 u n v e r r e 、 H e l i s t e n e d t o t h e s p e e c h a n d a f t e r w a r d s w e n t f b r a d r i n k ・ nmPyavraimentpas地９”jginqui6te脇 T h e r e b n o t h i n g t o w o r r y a b o u t ・ Ｃｅ〃”oinouspensonscesontnoseqKamens･
Whatwearethinldngaboutisourexams． ヨ22.14岸
c e q U i , c e q u e / q 叫 c e d o n t ‘ w h i c h , w h a t ' a r e c o m p o u n d r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s ､ Ｃ ｅ ( i n v a r i a b l e ) r e f e r s b a c k t o i n f b r m a t i o n w h i c h m a y b e c o n t a i n e d i n a n e n t i r e s e n t e n c e , o r p a r a g r a p h ､ T h e p r o n o u n s q m , q u e / q u 3 d o n t f i m c t i o n e x a c d y a s i f t h e y w e r e b e i n g u s e d o n d l e i r o w n ( s e e a b o v e ) ： Elleat0ujoursxEfils6desesoumeｍｅ,“”jneluipla6tpas.(”i i s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ） S h e I S a ] w a y s r e f U s e d t o o b e y W v h i c h d o e s n ， t p l e a s e h i m / h e m E l l e f b r a “ ” ｾ I Z g v e u t . ( 9 " e i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ） Shewilldowhatshewants．
Ⅱ s n e s e s o u v , e n n e n t j a m a i s d e i c c ” ” n o u s l e u r p a I 1 o n s . ( 伽 祁 く P a 1 1 e r 此 ） Theyneverrememberwhatweta]ktolhemabout． 計22.15卜
t o u t c a n p r e c e d e c e q U i … ‘ e v e r y t h i n g ( t h a t , w h i c h y b Elleadore如噸“９”est6cossais， S h e l o v e s e v e r y l h i n g S c o t t i s h ． 】e舵raim砿“9"切胞medemande・
mdoeverythingsheasksmetodo．． Nousaylonsappris如姉“伽”nousaxﾉionsbesoin･
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e m p h a s i z e s o m e o n e o r s o m e t h i n g . Ｃ ' e s t i s u s e d f b r a l l p e r s o n s , s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a L C e s o n t i s u s e d f b r l h e t h i r d p e r s o n s p ] u r a l i n f b m l a l s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n contexts．
ＣｾstlsabeⅡｅ”ivacommedhabitudeaSsumrIecoms･ ItbIsahP11RwhowiⅡtakelheclassasuR1'aｌ
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C湾〃αso”nosamIs”jposentdesquestions．
I t b o u r f r i e n d s a s k i n g q U e s t i o n s ． Ｃ湾tdemain9I4bnvapartim
l t b t o m o n o ｗ ｗ ｅ ' I e l e a v i n g ， C湾tayectoutelafamine9邸bnpartiraenvacances・
I t b w i l h t h e w h o l e f a m j ] y d l a t w e ' Ⅱ b e g o i n g o n h o l i d a y T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s f i m c t i o n e x a c U y a s i f l h e y w e r e b e i n g u s e d o n t h e i r o w n ， w i l h o u t t h e c e ､ T h e v e r b i n l h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e a g r e e s w i t h t h e s u b j e c t , t h a t i s ， w i t h w h o e v e r o r w h a t e v e r i s i n な o d u c e d b y c ， e s t o r c e s o n t ､ Ｎ ｏ ｒ ｍ ａ ｌ ] y t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e o f 邑 位 e i s u s e d , b u t o l h e r t e n s e s a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e ： αsem麺Ecsamも唾”'iliraenltalie・
I t も / I t w i n b e h i s m o m e r h e ' u g o t o l t a l y w i l h ．
I f l h e s u b j e c t e m p h a s i z e d i s i m h e p r o n o m i n a l f b l m , t h e e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n i s used(see２１．２．．
α祁湾tpzzs〃zoj”iseraresponsable・ I t b n o t m e w h o ' Ⅱ ｂ ｅ r e s p o n s i b l e ．
童 , 卿 駕 篭 i i m 蝿 … T h e r e a r e d i f f b r e n t s e t s o f i n t e I m g a t i v e p r o n o u n s f b r p e o p l e a n d f b r l h i n g s , ａ ｎ ｄ someoflhepronounshayetwofbrms:ashortfbrm,andalongercompound f b l m w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e i n t e I r o g a t i v e i n v e r s i o n e s t c e ? T h e l o n g e r f b l m s a r e
m o r e l i k e I y t o b e u s e d i n c o n t e x t s w h i c h a r e l e s s f b m l a l s u c h a s s p o k e n F r e n c h ， o r i n f b r m a l l e t t e r s ・ S o m e o f d l e f b r m s a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r
l h e p r o n o u n i s t h e s u b j e c t o r o b j e c t o f t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e , o r w h e t h e r i t f b Ⅱ o w s a p r e p o s i t i o n ､ T h e i n t e n f o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s a r e u s u f m y a c c e p t e d a s m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r f b r a d j e c t i v e a n d v e r b a 厚 e e m e n t u n l e s s l h e p r o n o u n s c l e a r l y r e f e r t o f e m i n i n e a n . / o r p l u r a l n o u n s ．
−１函半lmnmsmrpeOPle S u b j e c t O b j e c t FoⅡowinga p r e p o s i t i o n
qui?orquiest-cequi？
who？
q u i 2 o r q u i e s t c e q U e / q l r 2
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e S t c e q U e / q u ！ ？
mthefbnowingexamples,notetheuse-ornot-ofinversion．
7 ９
Imlem0""8ｍ"
０噸estalaporte?/Ｑ”esか“9”estalaporte胃 Whoisatthedoor？
０噸vousavu(e/s)?/Ｑ”es“E9噸vousavu(e/s)？ Whosawyou？ Q”as-m杜Ouv解/Q”es此e9zJetuasnPouvも？ Ｗｈｏｄｉｄｙｏｕｈｎｄ？
Ｑ”a-t-0nentenduplemer?/Ｑ”esか“”bnaentendupleurer？ W h o d i d w e h e a r c l y i n g ？ Ａ９砿pame-t-eue?/Ａ”jesか“”もⅡeparle？ W h o i s s h e t a l k i n g t o ？
P砲s伽”iest-ilassis?/P池s叱り砿esf“９"mestassis？ W h o i s h e s i t t i n g b e s i d e ？ − …
ＦｍｍｓｆｍａｍｍａＩｓａｎｄｌｈｍｇｓ
ＳｕｂｊｅｃｔｑuPest-ceqUi？what？
Objectque/qu！?orqU'est-ceque/quI？what？ F o Ⅱ o w i n g a p r e p o s i t i o n d e , ａ … q u o 鷲 o r q U o i e s t c e q u e / q l r ？ ｏ ｆ ; t o … w h a t 2 Onceagain,intheexamples,notetheuse-omot-ofinversion． Q塑湾少“9噸t,int6reSSe？
W h a t a r e y o u i n t e r e s t e d i n ？ q邸湾か“9〃mdit？
W h a t i s h e s a y i n g ？ QIJevE唾、?/Q"湾候“9“tuveux号 Whatdoyouwant？
０噸pense-t-ildelamaison?/０脚湾f“9IJmpensedelamaison9 Whatdoeshethinkofthehouse2 ●
勘ｚ９“zconsiste-t-n?/勘ｚ９”iesf“９１超consiste？ Whatdoesitconsistof？
A I 】 g c 9 ” j v a t e Ⅱ e p a y e r l e s b i l l e t s ? / A I ﾉ e c 9 ” j e 誰 “ ９ " も Ⅱ e v a p a y e r l e s b i l l e t s ？
W h a t i s s h e g o i n g t o p a y f b r t h e t i c k e t s w i t h 2 一 墨
GEnＭ⑭Bi前“⑪ｎｍｅｕｓｅ⑪fmWe癖i⑪皿
( a ） ｑ ｕ ｉ ? ( s u b j e c t p r o n o u n , u s e d f b r p e o p l e ) 一 n o i n v e r s i o n ． ( b ） c o m p o u n d f b I m s a l r e a d b ﾉ i n c l u d e e s t c e ? , s o a d d i t i o n a l i n v e r s i o n i s " o t needed．
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( ｄ ｑ ｕ ｅ / q U J ? ( o b j e c t p r o n o u n , u s e d f b r t h i n g s ウ ー i n v e r s i o n n e e d e d ．
( d ） q u o 鷲 ( p r o n o u n f b n o w i n g p r e p o s i t i o n s , u s e d f b r l h i n g s ) 一 i n v e r s i o n n e e d e d ， 一 壁
Q u i ? a n d q u o i 2 c a n o c c u r i n p h r a s e s w i l h o u t v e r b s u s u a ] l y i n s p o k e n H f e n c h ． MoMartinestalaporte.Ｑ邸潔 MrMartinisatdledooLWho？
len?aipasentendu・Qz4O瀞 １．耐n'↑hear,What？
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Q z 4 0 i d e p l u s j o l i q U e l ， E c o s s 謀 WhatislovelierlhanScodand2
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T h e i n t e r l D g a t i v e p r o n o u n l e q U e 腰 ‘ w h o , w h i c h , w h a t 2 ’
恥 q I I e l i m p l i e s t h a t a c h o i c e i s b e i n g m a d e 廿 o m a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f l m o w n p e o p l e o r l h i n g s ・
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S i n g u l a r
p l l l T a l
l e q u e l 2 I a q u e Ⅱ e ？
l e s q U e l s 胃 l e s q U e Ⅱ e s ？
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d u q u e l 胃 d e l a q u e Ⅱ e 胃 a u q u e l ？ alaqueⅡ露
d e s q U e l S ？ d e S q u e Ⅱ e s 2 a 皿 x q U e l s ？ a u x q u e Ⅱ e S ？
L”IJe此des6tudiameschemhez-vouS2 W h i c h o f d l e s t u d e n t s a r e y o u l o o k i n g f b r ？ Detouslescoursalafac,吻醒Zpr6fe正s-tu2
W h i c h o f a ] l l h e c l a s s e s a t u n i v e r s i w d o y o u p r e f e r ？ Ⅱ m P a d i t q l f i l a b e s o i n d h m d e c e s l i v r e s ･ M a i s a z J 9 z J e 腰 Hetoldmeheneedsoneofthesebooks・Butwhich(one)？
A z 4 x M 7 z J g I I b s d e v o s a m i e s a Ⅳ e z v D u s e c r i 畷
Whichofyourhiendsdidyouwliteto？
8 １
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Ⅱ肋e"0”8ｍ”
T h e i n t e n s o g a t i v e a d j e c t j v e q u e l ? ‘ w h o , w h i c h , w h a t ? ， quelhasfburfbrms：
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q u e l ？ q u e n e ？
q u e l s 胃 q u e Ⅱ e s ？
Q“雌r6ponse胃 What/whichanswer？
Ｑ”陀吻oFzseat-eⅡedonn6e？
W h i c h a n s w e r d i d s h e g j v e ？
N o t e l h e i n v e r s i o n w h e n q u e l ? m o d j h e s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e , a s i n d l e E r s t t w o o f t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s ： ０噸ZspynjtSs即応serontl謡 Whichteacherswillbemere？
．qzJe恥etaitla虎加”quit'adonn61epourboixE？
W h i c h w o m a n g a y e y o u t h e t i p ？ Ｑ”陀膨邸把est-il2 Whattimeisit？
Q恥ZjD”sommes-nous？ Whatisthedate？
D a n s 9 I J e I j E p o c h e a t e Ⅱ e m i s l a c l 喫
W h i c h p o c k e t d i d s h e p u t l h e k e y i n ？ 一 躍
T h e i n t e n o g a t i v e a d v e r b s c o m b i e n d e / 鯉 ‘ h o w m a n y ? ； c o m m e n t ? ‘ h o w ? ; 0 漉 ‘ w h e r e ? ｛ q u a n d ? ‘ w h e n ? ’
h l s p o k e n H e n c h , S i m ” b y u s i n g i n t e r r o g a t j v e i n t o n a t i o n , a s t a t e m e n t c a n b e c o m e a q u e s t i o n ： Ilestl認Hebhere？
W h e n a n y i n t e ] m g a t i v e w o r d s a l e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s k i n d o f q u e s t i o n , t h e y a l e p l a c e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e n t e n c e ：
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donmer（doIm-十一ｅｊｔｏｇｖｅ 面nir（面n-十一ijtofiniRh V P n d w q t （ven d-十一 画 O S e n
T h e r e a r e a l s o v e r b s w h i c h h a y e a n i n h n i t i v e e n d i n g o i r : r e c e v D i r ‘ t o r e c e i v e ； g a s s e o i r ‘ t o s i t d o w n A V e r b e n d i n g s i n c o n h a s t t o d l e i n h n i t i v e i n d i c a t e t h e p e r s o n , t h e n u m b e 喝 t i m e ( t e n s e s ) a n d m o o d ( i n d i c a t i v e , s u b j u n c t j v e ) . W i t h d l e s e e n d i n g s l h e v e r b i s c a l l e d a n n i t e v e r b ．
一 躍 ￨ 職 ; 総 ; 鰯 ; 禰 駕 W 謡 1 p j e c t : s i n … b i … i n g u l … EWlechzm↑"bien･
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Ybuandyourbrothel;whohavebothbeenveryla勾〃aregoingto r e p e a t t h i s y e a L C ， e s t ” I J s 9 I J j s e m r p s 唾 s p o n s a b l e s ･ Ｗ ｅ ' u b e r e s p o n s i b l e ．
９ ３ ： I I m t e I ﾉ e 肋 8 ｍ "
C ' e s t i s u s e d w i d l a l l t h e s i n g u l a r e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s , ａ ｎ ｄ a l s o , i n i n f b l m a l c o n t e x t s , f b r a l l t h e p l u r a l e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s . h l m o r e f b l m a l w I i t t e n a n d spokenHenchlhelhirdpersonpluralfbrmiscesont(see13.5a,21.2c)． C湾膨IIEsquifbnttoUjourslavaisseⅡe、
、即alwaysdodlewashjngup． αso”e”quivontdonnerlareponseaumnnis杜e・
耽EyaregoingtolepIytolheMiniste工 a n d n o t e l h e e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s i c e I f e s t ‘ u n l e s s , e x c e p t f b l ) i f n o t ' （ i n v a l i a b l e ） ： Sj“〃湾#(P“)ｅ“quiest-ce胃 IfifSnot肋e、,whoisit？
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‘ f a m j ] y ; l e c o m i t 6 ‘ c o m m i t t e e ; l e p a r t i s o c i a I i s t e ‘ t h e s o c i a l i s t p a r t y ； l a f b m e ‘crowd，…：
Le”城SOC”雌彫a1ropdecandidats･
Thesocialistpamﾉhastoomanycandidates. InthecaseofsingularnounsemressmgqUamiwfbnowedbyaplur乱noun,the v e r b c a n b e s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l : l e m a n q u e d e ‘ l a c k o f ; l e r e s t e d e ‘ r e m a i n d e r o f othe喝restof:lafbulede‘crowdof'…：
1忽腕”u7zｲｇａ初F1gC”esrlmproblemepeusupportable・ ●
ThelackofmoneyisamaJorproblem． IeF””IJea物Eu成陀卯庵esZvraimentd6cevant・
I h e l a c k o f a n a u 血 e n c e i s r e a ] l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g ． Butlhespeakerorwritermaywanttofbcushm]lyomhepluralpartofthe c o m p o u n d s u b j e c t , a n d i n d ] i s c a s e , 血 e v e r b a g l e e s w i l h l h a t p l u r a l s u b j e c t ． Uｳze./b邸陀“gEFzs”"癖””tdanslesrues・ Acrowdofpeopleweredemonstratingimhesなeets．
９ ４
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M a n y s t u d e n t s d o l f t h a v e a g r a n t ． “mbje〃α独施gIZzjSsoFztaJ歴saumatch？
HowmanyEn甑shpeoplewenttolhematch2 彫邸叱gBFzso”αi"Z6lapiece･
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l f c o m b i e n d e ? a n d l a p l u p a r t d e a r e f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a s i n g u l a m o u n , t h e v e r b i s a l s o i n d l e s i n g u l 虹 Ｃｂｍｂ陀施娩伽如噸湾蛇-郷瞭
Howmuchofthetartisleft？
“pI邸”花est《嫁ｼ”“a M o s t o f i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n e a t e n ． 一 躍
C o m p o u n d s u b j e c t s l j n k e d b y e t : t h e v e r b i s a ] w a y s p l u I a l ． Pje而泡erMhZ癖ｉｍ”enRemhIe＝
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T h e y a l e b o l h t i r e d ． 恥 a b e J 陀 睡 J 7 z o i a J J 0 ｱ z s p r e n d r e u n c a f も ．
I s a b e l l e a n d l a r e g o i n g f b r a c o f f e e ． 一 墨
C o m p o u n d s u b j e c t s Ⅱ n k e d b y o u o r n i : 1 h e v e r b i s u s u a l ] y p l u r a l u n l e s s t h e subjectis,infact,reaⅡysingulalも． Ｍ１℃fzeZ0〃Mtz肥viendro”techerchem
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Neithermybrothemormysisterhelp(s)mymothem １Ｗ””m0iy””"s花鯉uncadeau･ N e i t h e r h e n o r l r e c e i v e d a p r e s e n t ．
9 ５ l m 7 i e I ﾉ e 的 9 7 ℃ "
N i l ' ｕ ｎ ｍ ｌ ' a u t r e m a y b e f O n o w e d b y a s i n g u l a r v e r b , b u t t h e p l u r a l i s a l s o p o s s i b l e ( s e e 1 8 . 8 ) ： lVZZ物卯祁肱”ＷｚねstaJ随/卯eSO”αI嫁hlipa】1em Neilherofthemwenttotalktohim/he、
N o t e t h a t l ' u n o u l ' a u t m e a I I " z Z J I s h a s a s i n g u l a r v e r b ： Ｅ””Itz邸舵pOI"mven血 Oneortheotherwjllbeabletocome．
T h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g r u l e o f t h u m b f b r c o m p o u n d s u b j e c t s a n d t h e i r v e r b s m a y p r o v e u s e f U l ：
● ・ i f l h e s u b j e c t s a r e l i n k e d b y e t u s e a p l u r a l v e r b ● i f l h e s u b j e c t s a r e l i n k e d b y o u o r n i a p l u r a l v e r b i s p r e f e l r e d I " z J E s s l t h e s u b j e c t i s l o g i c a l l y s i n g u l a r ２ t h e s p e a k e r o r w r i t e r i s t h i n k i n g o f a s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t ３ t h e s u b j e c t i s l ' u n o u l ' a u 唾 、 l h e se t h r e e c a s e s t h e v e r b i s s i n g u l 錘 一 躍
I m P e r s o n a l v e r b s , s u c h a s i l y a ‘ t h e r e i s / a r e ; i l r e s t e ‘ t h e r e r e m a i n ( s ) ; i l e s t a r r i v 6
‘ s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n e d / o c c u r r e d ' ( s e e 5 3 ) , u s u a ] l y r e m a i n s i n g u l a I ) z " h α 花 I ﾉ e r t h e s u b j e c t i s ．
Ⅲyaz”dES”７２”如加jzssivousn！acceptezpaslad6cisiondu c o m i t 6 d , e n t r e p r i s e ，
T h e r e w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s i f y o u d o l f t a c c e p t t h e d e c i s i o n o f thewoIkscouncil．
IZesrIje皿必gE妬ａｔ城zih2sal'aeroportcommeprevumaislevol avait6t6almmIf-
S o m e b u s i n e s s p e o p l e a r r i v e d a t t h e a i l p o r t a s a I r a n g e d , b u t t h e HiゆthadbeencanceⅡed．
G u i d e l i n e s o n l h e f b r m a t i o n o f t e n s e s a r e g i v e n b e l o Ⅷ b u t u n l e s s a n d u n t j l y o u a r e a b s o l u t e l y s u r e o f t h e f b r m s a n d t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f t e n v e r y s m a l l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i t i s g o o d p r a c t i c e t o c h e c k i n v e r b t a b l e s w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e m o s t u s e f U l i r r e g u l a r v e r b s ( s e e 8 2 ) . T h e g u i d e l i n e s r e f b r t o v e r b s α ” t h e i r compoundse､9.Ｖe血devemrevemcolwe皿 h l e a c h o f t h e c o n j u g a t i o n s t h e r e a r e m e g u l a r v e r b s , t h a t i s , v e r b s w h i c h
h a v e t h e i n h n i t i v e e n d i n g s e 砥 ｍ 一 正 , o i r b u t w h o s e s t e m s c h a n g e u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s ・ T W o o f t h e i r r e g u l a r v e r b s a Ⅳ o i r a n d c t r e a r e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l t h e i ] T e g u l a r v e r b s b e c a u s e d l e y a r e u s e d t o f b r m t h e c o m p o u n d t e n s e s ．
９ ６
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Allofthetenseshayeabasicmeaning-theyareusedtorefertopresent,fUture o r p a s t t i m e ､ E a c h o f l h e m i s a l s o u s e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g s ･ T h e s e a d d i t i o n a l m e a m n g s a r e u s u a l l y m a d e c l e a r i n a n a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e i n t h e sentencewhichindicatesexacdywhatthespeakerorwritermeans・HoweveEit isnota]waysnecessarytoconhmllheexactmeaning-1hetense,orcontext， maybeenou甑.Forexample,thepresenttensealonemaybeenou甑toe叩Ｉｅｓｓ ａｈ月hit Ellesg聡”t6t．
Shegetsupeally
B u t t h e s p e a k e r o r w r i t e r m a y 企 e l i t n e c e s s a r y t o i n d i c a t e q u i t e c l e a n y t h a t t h e actionisahabit．
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墨 嘩 M 墓 蝋 i M 鱒 ; 巽 纂 I 慨 … simpletenseshasacomespondingcompoundtense,fbrmedwitha”irore唾． S i m p l e t e n s e s p 7 1 g s e ” ( P r 6 s e n O ( s e e 3 1 . 2 ,
Compoundtenses’ P9旗ct(pass6compos9(see
3 1 . 7 ）
3 5 , 3 6 ）
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j m P e 戒 c t ( m p a r f a i t ) ( s e e 3 3 ,
P I ” e 虎 C t 伽 l u s q U e p a l f a i O
3 3 . 1 ）
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p “ t h j S t m i C ( P a s s 6
pastα"陀冗orいasse
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Theco”j伽”Jtense(conditionnel)ａｎｄitsconfespondingcompoundfbIm， theco”姉”Ipe旅cr(conditionnelpass6)(see40),are甘eatedseparate1y becauselheyfb】mabndge,intermsofmeaning,betweentheindicativeand t h e s u b j u n c t j v e ( s e e 4 1 ) ． 弓３１．２岸
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(a）‐erverbs:donner‘to印ve；composedoflhestemdonn-＋theendings-e， -es,−e,−⑪ｎs,−ez,−ent：
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i s s o n s , 1 s s e z , i s s e n t ：
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R e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e i r 郡 o u p h a v e i s s i n s e r t e d i n t h e p l u r a l f b l m s o f t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e , t h r o u g j l o u t l h e i m p e I f b c t t e n s e : j e E n i s s a i s ( s e e 3 3 ) , i n t h e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e : h n i s s a n t ( s e e 5 0 ) , a n d i n t h e p l u r a l i m p e r a t i v e f b r m s : E n i s s o n s ， 面 n i s s e z ( s e e 5 1 ) ．
S o m e v e r b s w i t h a n i r i n h n i t i v e h a v e t h e e n d i n g s o f t h e e r g D u p i n l h e p r e s e n t t e n s e ：
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S o m e v e r b s w i t h a n i r i n E n i t i v e h a v e t h e e n d i n g s o f t h e 唾 寧 C u p ( s e e b e l o w ) i n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e ､ T h e y m a y a j S o h a v e c h a n g e s i m h e s t e m , f b r e x a m p l e d o r m i r ‘ t o s l e e p ; p a r t i r ‘ t o l e a v e L
( c ） ‐ 唾 v e r b s : v e n d r C ‘ t o s e u c o m p o s e d o f t h e s t e m v e n d 十 1 h e e n d i n g s s , s , 雪 ｔ ‘ ｏ ｒ 富 ｡ , 0 , s , e z , e n t ：
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V e r b s w h o s e s t e m e n d s i n d d o n o t a d d t o r 雷 d i n t h e 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r : Ⅱ / e Ⅱ ｅ ” ” ; i l / e Ⅱ e ” 0 ” ‘ h e / s h e a n s w e r s ， ; i l / e Ⅱ e s e 彫 ” ‘ h e / s h e g o e s , ; i l / e Ⅱ e p 花 ” ‘ h e / s h e t a k e s ' 一 t h e d o f t h e i n h n i t j v e s t e m i s e n o u 甑 . O d l e r w i s e , t h e v e r b s h a v e t ：
boire‘todrinril/eⅡe加施
ｒ０ｍｐｒｅ‘tobrearⅡ/euemmpt fai】氾‘todo,make，Ⅱ/eⅡe施施
T h e o n e e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s m l e i s v a i n c 肥 ‘ t o c o n q u e r ， ( a n d i t s c o m p o u n d c o n v a i n c 肥 ‘ t o c o n v i n c e ' ) . T h e t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r e n d i n g i s c : i l / e Ⅱ e ” i l l c (”"”j"） (｡）‐oirverbs:recevoir‘toreceive'：
T h e s e v e r b s a l l h a v e t h e s a m e e n d i n g s a s 唾 v e r b s : s , s , t , o n s , e z , e n t , b u t thestemmayhavechanges．
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●
Inmostcasesthelstand2ndpersonspluralkeeptheinhnitivestem,with changesocculringinmesmgularandinthe3rdpersonplural． devoir‘toowe;must,should':je”為tufjbjSil/eⅡe伽施ｎｏｕｓ 此”FzSvous此IAGzbils/eⅡes“iIﾉe”
pouvoir‘tobeableto;can,may':jepe“tupe“il/eⅡepe“ nouspozJzﾉoJzsWUuspoI"Gzｹils/eⅡesPe邸”砿個otedle i n t e r m g a t i v e f b m l o f j e p e u x : p u i s j e ? ） s鋤Cir‘tolmow;lmowhowto':jesa為tusajSil/eIlesa肱nous s”0"sWuussaueZils/eⅡessa肥”
v O u l o i r ‘ t o w a n t ( t o ) ; w i s h ' : j e I 』 e ” t u I ﾉ 印 “ i l / e Ⅱ e z ﾉ e “ ｎ ｏ ｕ ｓ ”邸１０"s,musIﾉ”lEzbilS/eⅡeSIﾉe邸陀”
f a Ⅱ o i r a ] w a y s i n t h e i n m i t i v e o r t h e 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g U l a r : i l f a u t ‘ i t i s n e c e s s a r y ; m u s t ， 司31.3岸
avoir‘ｔｏhave'ａｎｄも唾‘ｔｏｂｅ， ●
aXJO1r：
j ， “
、ｍ】ＳａＩﾉＯＪＺＳ
tu4ZS
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il/eⅡeａ ils/eⅡesoFzt 邑曲も：
i e s I J j S
ｎ０ｕＳＳＯｍｒｊＺｅＳ
tueS
ｖｏｕｓ６ｊＥｓ・
il/elleesZ ils/eⅡesso"
ヨ31.4岸
Pomtstorememberaboutsomepresenttensefbrms： ●１hreeverbshavetheending-tes("ot-ez)withvous： §なe‘ｔｏｂｅ,
vousetes
d i r e ‘ t o s a y
vOusdites
faire‘ｔｏｄｏ;make’
vous値討⑨ｓ
●fburverbshavetheending-0nt,orfbrmont(not-entorenOwilhils/eⅡes： allerils/eⅡesvont
avoirilS/eⅡesont
fai１℃ils/eⅡesfbnt
6treils/eⅡessont
9 ９ I I m i e I ﾉ c 池 g m i 4 p
司31.5岸
SomefUrtherguidelinesonchangesinthespellingandfbrmof-erverbs-the
c h a n g e s m a y a 〕 s o o c c u r i n o l h e r p a r t s o f t h e v e r b s ( s e e 8 2 ) ． ●verbsendingin-e-＋consonant十一er ThefbnowingverbsaIeexamplesofverbswhichstrengthenthesoundofthe m i d d l e e w h e n t h e f b l l o w i n g s y l l a b l e i s n o t p r o n o u n c e d ： 1℃nouveler‘tolenew'doublesthel:jeF””Ije恥tu７℃"”IIeI“ il/eⅡer℃”"”恥ils/eⅡes花"o”e此”b砿nous彫"””んJzsWous 花施”IﾉeZez
jeter‘tothrow'doublesthet:jejE”ｍ次Z蛇Sil/eⅡeje蝿ils/enes 施雄砿加mOus庇ZW1swOus虎” a c h e t e r ‘ t o b u y ' c h a n g e s t h e m i d d l e e t o も : j ， J z c j b e 鱈 ｍ ａ ｃ ｊ 沌 蛇 s b il/eⅡe“舵彪ils/eⅡesach心陀”ｂ砿nous“hemFzsWousacjie”
●verbsendingin-cer Theseverbschangethecto9befbreaando:commencer‘tobegilf-nous cO加加e"“妬
●verbsendingin-ger Theseverbsaddebefbreaando:partagerItoshare'一ｎｏus””解ｏＪｚｓ ●verbsendingin-oyerand-uyer T h e s e v e r b s c h a n g e l h e y t o i b e f b r e a n e t h a t i s s i l e n t ： employer‘toemploy':j，e”勿彪tue”ん“il/eⅡee”ん鬼 i l s / e Ⅱ e s e 腕 〃 ん 陀 祁 b 雌 n o u s e ” p I b y o F z S , v o u s e 碗 p Z ○ J ﾉ Ｅ ｚ ●verbsendingin-ayer
T h e s e v e r b s m a y c h a n g e l h e y t o i b e f b r e a n e t h a t i s s i l e n t , b u t t h e y c α 〃 k e e P t h e y ：
payer‘topay(fbl)':je仰班(or”花),ｍ"町ﾉES(or”jEs),il/eⅡｅ Ｐ 町 ﾉ 巴 ( Ｏ ｒ ｐ ａ 彪 ) , n o u s P 町 ﾉ D F z s W o u s 〃 z Z J ﾉ ⑧ z ｳ n s / e u e s P 4 Z y e ” ( ｏ ｒ ”泥”
●verbsendingin-6-＋consonant十一er
T h e s e v e r b s u s u a l l y c h a n g e d l e も t o も b e f b r e a 御 a I e t h a t i s n o t p r o n o u n c e d ： e s p 6 r E r ‘ t o h o p e ( f O 1 j ， : j ' ｅ Ｓ ｐ ２ 喝 t u e s p e 函 i l / e Ⅱ e e S p ､ 蝿 i l s / e Ⅱ e s esp､””"mouse叩‘ｍ”vouses"６７沿乙 司31.6岸
Spellingchangesinverbsendingin電dre
● v e r b s e n d i n g i n a i n d r e , e i n d r e , − ０ i n d r e c h a n g e t h e n d o f d l e s t e m t o 厚 1 ‐ i n t h e p l u r a l f b r m s ： craindre‘tobehightenedof':jecmiFzStucm師Sil/eⅡecm加幼” n o u s c m I g 7 z o F z s W o u s ” Z g 7 z e 弓 i l s / e n e s a 籾 i g 7 z e ”
１００s”c加彫ｓ
●verbsendingin-0udlEchangethe-udofthestemto-Iv造inlheplulal mrms：
r6soudre‘toresolve;solve':je砥0”tu花sozJSil/ene潅0〃b” nous花SOI”FzSvous趣OIIﾉEzinS/eⅡes7‘so舵”
ThesearesomeofthechangeswhichoccurinthestemorUleendingsofverbs・ I t i s a I w a y s a d v i s a b l e t o c h e c k 山 e f b I m s i n v e r b t a b l e s ． -131.7ト
Ｈ⑨ｗｍｅｐｒＥｓｅｍｔｅｎｓｅｉｓｕｓｅｄ ● ｔ ｏ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s a n y a c t i o n t h a t t a k e s p l a c e s , o r i s t a l d n g p l a c e , i n t h e p r e s e n t ：
H e i s r e p a i r i n g h i s c a エ
Ⅱ”α彫sonauto・
● ｔ ｏ ｅ 叩 r e s s f a c t s , p r o v e r b s a n d g e n e r a l o r u n i v e r s a l b r u l h s ： NDusso晩"zeslel5m窃唖Itbdlel5thofMarch Idolftsmoke、 】 e n e 血 F ' z e P a s ， ３et4./b”7．３and4make7・ PierreqUimIJ彫ｎＩｊｍ”ssepasArouingstonegathersno I ｎ Ｏ ｕ Ｓ Ｓ ｅ ｌ ｎ Ｏ Ｓ Ｓ ．
●ｔｏｎａ]mteastory-thetenseislhencalledlhehistolicpresentandoccurs i n t h e i n f b l m a l n a l r a t i n g o f a s t o 噸 o r i n l i t e r a t u r e ・ m b o l h c o n t e x t s i t i s intendedtomakeastorymorevivid・ThefbⅡowingexbfactistakenhomU>ｚ 泥”ｅＨｂｍ瓶eSezJJbyRogerV8iIland,publishedinl951､Themainnalrative t e n s e o f t h e n o v e l i s l h e p a s t h i s t o r i c ： npassesansr6pondxE,courtasachamb唾etsejettesurlelit･n g a r d e l e s y e 唾 E x 6 s , a u d e l a d e l a f b n 6 b f e , s u r l a T b u r E i f f E l , m a i s i l nelavoitpas.Ⅱr6peteavoixhaute:TesuisIhommeleplusseul aumonde,jesuis.､j
Hewentpastwithoutanswenng,rantohisroomandlhlew himgelfonthebed・Hesta嘘doutof血eｗindowattheRi蹄１
Tbwembuthedidlftseeit・Hesaidoverandoveragain,‘Iamlhe loneliestmanimheworld,Ｉａｍ…’
●toemresslheneaI)orveIyneaI)fUtureorpast,especiallyinaspoken， infbrmalcontext：
J'ｙ”愈
Imofmeayingri甑tnow(Or
叩②ｓｏ減Ｈ２ｍｓｕｍｉｎ月Wｍｔ−
Sheもcomingoutina
Ⅱ”rmimancheprochain･ NousaIIDｧzsaucinfmaceso血
Hebleavingne江Sunday Wetegoingtothecinema t o n i ゆ t ・
】ｅ""jeJ2stoutdesuite．
IⅡbe、甑tback．
l u s e e t o i t . ） minl]te･
●
Ｘ Ｏ Ｘ
IImteIﾉe肋8ｍ"
IEtrain‘、f”ｄｅＰ別riR．
Ⅱso減曲1,iI1sｵｎｍ．
T h e P a l i s 杜 a i n i s O u s O i n ・ H e h a s j u s t l e f t ．
a n d n o t e t h e v e r b p h r a s e v e n i r d e ＋ i n h n i t i v e ‘ t o h a v e j u s t ' 十 p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ( s e e 3 3 . 1 ) ．
NousIﾙe"oFzs此commenc“Wehavejustbegun． ● ｔ ｏ ｅ 】 甲 r e s s h a b i t o r r e p e t i t i o n ： ⅡsemIJcIhemwl． Ⅱ”"彫lahai⑧touteslestmis
H e g o e s t o b e d l a t e ・ Hecutsthehedgeevery
RemgninpS．
threeweeks．
●toexpressacondition,mthesiclause(see40.2)：
S'ilfmf”bient6t,nouspou亜ons/pouvonspartil: IfheaIrivessoon,wecanleave．
司31.8ｰ
ItisimportanttorememberthatHenchhaso"epresenttensefbImbutEngish has”αasimplepresent-‘Itake,Ilisten,Iwlite'一andacontinuous(or p r o g r e s s i v e ) p r e s e n t 一 ‘ I a m t a k i n g , I a m l i s t e n i n g , I a m w r i t i n g ． Ⅱｃｈα死ぬ
H e s i n g s . ( o r H e i s s i n g i n g . ）
Theverbphrasectreen並ainde十inhnitivecanbeusedtoindicatethatan a c t i o n i s i n p r o g r e s s ： nesre〃”加切過crireunelett】氾．
H e i s w r i t i n g a l e t t e l h ( a t l h i s v e r y m o m e n O T h e v e r b p h r a s e a l l e r ＋ ( e ､ ) ＋ p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o e 】 叩 r e s s a n a c t i o n , o r e v e n t , i n p r o g r e s s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ： Certainssecteursdel'CconomieblitaImique”””s物加〃わ、雄 ●
SomesectorsoftheBIitisheconomyareimprovmg． 鷺331.9吟
Whenacominuousandco""”加gactionisexpressedalongwidlthetimeit
b e g a n ( ‘ s i n c e … ' ) o r a l o n g w i t h t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e i t h a s b e e n g o i n g o n ( ‘ f b r … ' ) ， F r e n c h u s e s l h e p r e s e n t t e n s e ： Ⅱ〃ぬ”depuisdimanche・
IthasbeenrainingsinceSunday Ca/Cela施師unqUartdheureqUejel'attends・ Thatbaquarterofanhourl，vebeenwaitingfbrhim/he、 DepuisqUand6ZEs-vousenEcosse？
HowlonghaveyoubeeninScotland？
1 ０ ２ Ｓ ｍ Ｊ ｃ 畝 F E S
Depuiscombiendetempses津Ⅱeetudiante？ Howlonghasshebeenastudent2 Ⅱｙａ位oismoisqUenousso晩"zesla We泥beenherefbrthreemondls． and
Vbilauneheu】把quenousvousa雄”OJ2sI
W e ' v e b e e n w a i t i n g f b r y o u f b r a n h o u r 1
hllhepreⅥousexampledlephrasevoila…que…isusedonlywithlhepresent t e n s e : v o i l a r e f e r s t o t h e p r e s e n t m o m e n t ・ meachoflheexamples,thecontinuousandco””加gactionise】甲ressed b y t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i n F r e n c h : 1 h e E n 9 i s h e q u i v a l e n t i s ‘ h a v e / h a s b e e x f ( ＋ p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e ) ．
ｍｅか加形蛇yzse
￨搬謙鷲:I駕藍Ｗ…compos…ein､…。 (a）donner： ｅ
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i l / e Ⅱ ｅ
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T h e I E i n E n i t i v e s d r o p t h e E n d e : j ' ‘ ” ” ‘ I s h a l l w r i t e 1 j e p 花 ” ” ‘ I s h a ] l t a k e ’
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IshallseⅡ
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唾 癖癖
(c）vendre：
M a n y o f l h e o i r v e r b s , a n d t h e i r r e g u l a r v e r b s o f t h e e I ; i r a n d r e c o n j u g a t i o n s , h a v e c h a n g e s i n t h e s t e m , b u t t h e y a I I h a v e t h e s a m e e n d i n g s ・ S o m e e x a m p l e s o f d l e s t e m c h a n g e s a r e g i v e n h e r e , b u t i t i s g o o d p r a c t i c e , ａ ｓ a l w a y s , t o c h e c k i n t h e v e r b t a b l e s f b r p o s s i b l e c h a n g e s ．
１０＄皿餓”e功8ｍ" q
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lsh311receive
i e z ﾉ e F 7 z z i
lshallsee
lshallhaveto;I must
pouvolr：
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lshallbeableto；
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lshalllmowO1ow
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je”””
Ishallwant/wish to
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pronoun＋wm hayeto;ｍｕｓｔ
６tre2
t e n i r ：
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Ellele虎】抑demain．Shewilldoittomolmw ●
t o e 】 叩 r e s s h a b i t , o r r e p e a t e d a c t i o n ( w i t h a n a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e ) ： ．NousIjmFzsunjoumalm噸腔ｊｂ"厩
Ｗe'ⅡreadapapereverydayE ●
t o e 叩 r e s s c o n j e c t u r e , s u p p o s i t i o n o r p r o b a b i l i t y ( s e e 3 7 ) ： Q u e l q U h m v i e n t d ' a m i v e m C e s e m t e s i m ﾉ i t 6 s ・ S o m e o n e h a s j u s t a m v e d ､ I t w i l l b e y o u r g u e s t s ・
●
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狐皿皿皿皿狐狐皿 勺ｎ勺ｎ刊ｎ勺ｎ勺ｎ．ｎ勺ｎ勺ｎ Ｓ ＳＳＳＳＳＳＳ
− 睡 霞 ← l S o m e o f d l e i l r e g u l a r v e r b s o f t h e o l h e r c o n j u g a t i o n s ：
１０４Ｓｔｍｃ加厩
●toindimtesomedistancehomsomeone： 助zdz力憩zvousenco正ｄＵｔｈ解
Wbuldyouljkesomemoretea2 J'”oIJcmiqUejepr錐reunverred,eau・
IwomIdprefera副assofwateL ● ａ ｓ ａ ｓ ｎ ﾉ l i s t i c d e v i c e , i n a n a l r a t i v e i n l i t e r a t u r e o r i n j o u m a l i s m ： ●
C'6taitqmjeunehomme柱もstimide,etilleFEs”郷toutesaⅥe・
Hewasaveryshyyoungman,andremainedsoa]lhislife． ●aslhetenseofthemainverb,accompanyingsi十presenttenseemressing c o n d i t i ｏ ｎ ( s e e 4 0 . 2 ) ：
OnJbmIav3isseⅡe,sionaletemps･
W e n d o l h e w a s h i n g u p , i f ｗ ｅ ， v e t i m e ． 一 壁
F r e n c h a n d E n 副 i s h u s a g e a r e d j f f e r e n t i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s ： ●wilhqUand/IorsqUe‘whelf:FrenchusesthefUturetense;E､甑shusesthe p r e s e n t t e n s e ．
Q””tulesyEjm”FzzStesparentsserontvraimemravis・
W h e n y o u j o i n y o u r p a r e n t s , t h e y n b e r e a l l y d e l i 甑 t e d ． ●wilhreferencetoa血tureactionFrenchismuchmoreprecisethanEngish ⅡfEraceq血””bYzbHe'ndoWhathewants． 一 壁
●ｔｏｅ】叩ressacominuousactioninthefUture： 】ese”jen征aindepreparerunrepasquandtuaniveras･ ●
I,Ⅱbeplepanngamealwhenyouamve． II6conomie”(e")stZ8g7zz”砿‘
TheeconomywiⅡcontinuetogetworse．
一 躍
T ｂ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s t h e n e a r f U t u r e q e f m m r p r o c h e ｳ : a l l e r ＋ i n h n i t i v e , w i t h a l l e r n o r m a l l y i n d l e p r e s e n t , o r i m p e l f e c t , t e n s e , T h i s v e r b p h r a s e i s u s e d i n s p o k e n a n d w l i t t e n , f b m m a l a n d i n f b r m a l H e n c h , a n d o f t e n r e p l a c e s t h e f U t u r e t e n s e ・ DespiteitsnameitcanrefもrtoanactioninaremotefUture･Itcameswimitan i d e a o f c e r t a i n w a b o u t t h e a c t i o n , w h i c h i s n o t n e c e s s a l i l y t h e r e i m h e f U t u r e t e n s e ･ I t m a y e 】 叩 I e s s i n t e n t i o n ． 叩②”だ"ss耐reuIssir念．
Shewillsucceed．
蝿 Ｉ ｍ ｉ ｅ 肥 , 1 , 8 m "
●
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T h e r e i s a s e q U e n c e o f t e n s e s w h i c h h a s t o b e u s e d w h e n c o n d i t i o n s a r e e 叩 r e s s e d i n F r e n c h ・ T h e s e q U e n c e i s d l e s a m e a s d l e s e q U e n c e o f t e n s e s i n E n 副 i s h c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e s ・ T h e d e p e n d e n t s i c l a u s e c a n p r e c e d e o r f b n o w t h e mainclause．
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TheconditionalpeIfectisusedwithaime”rも龍画devo血poumirandvDuloir： ●ｔｏｅ】叩Iessregfet： Ⅱ ” m i t b i e n α ” § v u i r l a p e i n t u x e d e P i c a s s o m a i s １ ， Ｇ m 叩 O s i t i o n S，eSttermin6ela“ｍ姉ｎｅｄｅｍ龍曜
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I h e c o n d i t i o n a l a n d d l e c o n d i t i o n a l p e l f b c t a r e u s e d ：
● t o g v e i n f b m l a t i o m h a t i s d o u b t f i l l , u n c o n E n n e d o r a l l e g e d e s p e c i a l l y i n dlemedi22
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I s i t m l e l h e I e w o l f t b e a m e e t i n g t o m o I r o w m o m i n g ？
m a c c i d e n t f b r m v i a i l E d h i e r ” ７ ” 城 が 唾 n t e 柱 o i s v i c t i m e s 、 T h i r t W h r e e p e o p l e a r e f b a r e d d e a d i n y e s t e r d a y S I a j l c r a s h ， ●
t o i m p l y c o n j e c t u r e , s u p p o s i t i o n o r p r o b a b i l i w ( s e e 3 2 . 5 , 3 7 ) ： ｏｎ鋤”“ilvapleuvo血 Y b u t l t h i n k i t w a s g o i n g t o r a i n ･ ＳｅｌＯｎｅⅡe皿efbule6nommefJEI"zzit詞廿PrMh･色ｒａｎｉｖ６ｅｄｕ Ｐｒ“dfmt＝
A c c o r d i n g t o h e r a h u g e c r o w d w a s w a i t i n g f b r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o amve．
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w i t h m e a n i n g : w h e r e a s t h e i n d i c a t i v e r e f e r s t o a c t i o n s a n d e v e n t s i n p a s t ，
p r e s e n t o r f U t u r e t i m e ( s e e 3 1 ) , t h e s u b j u n c t j v e i s u s e d t o e m r e s s 企 e l i n g s ， p o s s i b i l i t i e s , d o u b t s , w i s h e s , o r d e r s , e t c ､ m o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s U b j u n c t i v e i s u s e d whenanactionoreventisnotafact-ornotycrafact,orwhendlereissome s o r t o f d o u b t o r r e s e r v a t i o n a b o u t a p o s s i b l e a c t i o n o r e v e n t ・ Thesubjunctjveissometimesusedasａｍａinverb,butitusuallyoccursin d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s f b l l o w i n g v e r b s s u c h a s a Ⅳ m r p e u r q U e ‘ t o f e a r ' ; c r o i r e q u e ‘ t o t h i n k W o u l o i r q U e ‘ t o w a n t , w i s l f o r c o n j u n c t i o n s s u c h a s a v a n t q u e ‘ b e f b r e 1 p o u r v u q U e ‘ p r o v i d e d t h a t ; s u p p o s 6 q u e ‘ s u p p o s i n g / a s s u m i n g d l a f T h e s u b j u n c t i v e i s n o t 丘 e q u e n d y u s e d i n E n 副 i s h t o d a y I a n d 杜 a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e F r e n c h s u b j u n c t j v e t e n s e s m a y b e i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e h o m t h e i n d i c a t i v e t e n s e s ､ H o w e v e n s o m e t i m e s i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n c l u d e ‘ m a y 1 m i 獣 １ t , s h o u l d … ’ i n E n 副 i s h m n s l a t i o n s ． 司4'.1岸
ThesubjUmcmEte皿ses T h e r e a r e f b u r s u b j u n c t j v e t e n s e s ：
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曇 ￨ 無 : 離 駕 鷺 ｡ f i h e … t s u b j u n c t i v … i h e s a m e a s c … e n d i n g ．
l 2 2 S Z m c 加 把 s
● s o m e v e r b s h a v e t h e s a m e f b ] m s f b r a I I 醜 e s 加 g z 4 Z z z r a n d t h e 肋 ” ｐ ｇ 応 o 〃 P 血 m I o f t h e p r e s e n t i n d i c a t i v e a n d l h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e ： dｍｍＧｒ２
presentjefjDFmepresentqueje伽Fzyze indic2何vｅｔｕ‘ZO”essubjunctivequetu””ｅｓ ｉｌ/enefib”equ1il/eⅡｅ伽"” Ⅱs/eⅡeszJO卯JZe”quIils/eⅡｅｓ”””ｔ
●someverbshavelhesamefbrmsfbrthe的”ｐｅ応o〃pIzJmIofthepresent i n d i c a t i v e a n d t h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e , f b r e x a m p l e ： Enir：ils/elles加聴e砿qUms/eues"isse砿 mettTe2ilS/eⅡeS”雄”qUmS/eⅡeS””” rEcevolr：ils/eⅡes漉切i肥”ｑＵ）ils/eⅡes把切加e” venir：ils/eⅡes唯Fzyze”qUPils/eⅡeszﾉ蛇”e"＃
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h a v e s i m j l a r c h a n g e s i n t h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t j v e ： b o i r e : q U e j e b o ” q U e t u b o i I j e S q u ？ i l / e Ⅱ e 加 i 昭 q u ' i l s / e Ⅱ ｅ ｓ 加加e”一qUenousb”如職quevousb”jGz
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● ●
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Afewverbsnoton]yhaveadifferentfOrmhomlhepresentindicatjve-dley a l s o h a v e c h a n g e s i n t h e h r s t a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n s p l u r a l ： aller:quej城恥quema"“quPil/eⅡeai恥qU』ils/eⅡesα"”一 quenousα"わ】2S,quevousaIIjGz ayolr:quej，仰彪qUetua鱈qUPil/eⅡeα砿qUils/eⅡesaZe砿一que nous町ｽOrzSquevUusgﾘｽeｚ
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璽恥"雌｡卿"” Iheimpelfectsubjunctiveiscomposedoflhestemoflhesecondperson s i n g u l a r o f t h e p a s t h i s t o r i c m i n u s t h e s ＋ t h e e n d i n g s s s e , s s e s , 証 / ･ i t / , t ， s s i o n s , s s i e z , s s e n t ・ T h e i m p e r f b c t s u b j u n c t i v e k e e p s l h e v o w e l ( a , i , u ) o f l h e p a s t h i s t o r i c ､ T h e l h i r d p e r s o n s s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l a r e t h e o n e s y o u a r e m o s t l i k e l y t o m e e t , s o l h e y a r e l h e f b r m s g v e n b e l o w Z donner:qUPn/eⅡe伽卯”ｶqUils/eⅡes"ymJusse” E n i r : q U ！ i l / e n e β " 肱 q U ！ i １ s / e Ⅱ e s ” j S s e ” vEndre:qulil/eⅡeIﾉe”財qums/enes””jSse”
Thereisasmallgroupofverbswhichkeeptheuofthepasthistoric-mostof l h e o i r v e r b s , i n c l u d i n g l h e d e v D i r g r o u p , a n d a f e w r e v e r b s s u c h a s b o i r e ， c o n n a m f e , l i r e ．
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r e c e m i r : q U 1 i l / e Ⅱ e 花 “ j ; q u ' i l s / e n e s r E F z J s s e ” d e v D i r : q u W e Ⅱ e ” 咽 u P i l s / e n e s f j i J s s e " ｔ A v o i r a n d e 唾 a l s o k e e p t h e u o f l h e i r p a s t h i s t o r i c f b r m ： a y o i r : q U P i l / e I l e e “ q I r i l s / e u e s e I U s s e ” § t r e : q U ? i l / e Ⅱ e 繊 内 q U m s / e Ⅱ e s j i u s s ” ｔ
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i m p e ] f e c t a n d t h e p l u p e l f b c t s u b j u n c t i v e s t j l l o c c 皿 A g u i d e l j n e f b r l h e s e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s m c o n t e m p o r a r y F r e n c h : w h e t h e r t h e t e n s e o f d l e m a i n v e r b i s p r e s e n t , f U t u r e o r p a s t , u s e t h e p r e s e n t o r p e r f e c t s U b j u n c t i v e i n t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e ､ R e f e r e n c e t o p r e s e n t , f U t u r e o r p a s t a c t i o n s o r e v e n t s w i l l h e l p i n d e c i d i n g w h e l h e r t o u s e t h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e ( a c t i o n s a n d e v e n t s i n l h e p r e s e n t o r f U t u r e ） , o r t h e p e I f e c t s u b j u n c t i v e ( a c t i o n s a n d e v e n t s i n t h e p a s O ． 皿ｅ”””etu”減ESb Shewantsyoutogo・
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T h e s u b j u n c t i v e m a y o c c u r i n m a i n c l a u s e s h e q u e n d y i n e x c l a m a t i o n s , a n d u s u a ] ] y i n l h e l h i r d p e r s o n s m g u l a r o r p l u r a l ． ● t o e m r e s s a w i s h o r d e s i r e t h a t a n a c t i o n o r e v e n t s h o u l d h a p p e n ： （ Q J J g ) W 7 g ” z e " t l e s v a c a n c e s ! ( n o t e t h e i n v e r s i o n ） I w i s h i t w e r e ( w a s ) t h e h o l i d a y s 1 ”邸”"9邸nＪ?zssebeaudemain1 Ihopei歯Enetomo]row！
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i n c e r t a i n i m o m a t i c e m r e s s i o n s ：
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● i n t h e s m a l l g D u p o f e 叩 r e s s i o n s w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h a t i t d o e s n o t r e a l l y m a t t e r w h i c h p e r s o n , t h i n g , p l a c e , c a u s e o r m e t h o d i s i m o l v e d ‘ w h o e v e I ） whatevel)wherever…'(see18.13)： 9噸9zJetusOjs… 9”i９噸vDusam”…
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T h e s u b j u n c t i v e h “ m b e z J s e ‘ Z f b l l o w i n g c e I t a i n v e r b s o r c o n j u n c t i o n s ( s e e 46.4Ｊ､ThelistswhichfbⅡowgvethemostcommonoftheverbsand c o n j u n c t i o n s w h i c h i m o d u c e t h e s u b j u n c t i v e : t h e l i s t s a r e " o t e m a u s t i v e ､ Ｏ ｎ ｅ
o r t w o o f l h e v e r b s m a y a l s o b e f b l l o w e d b y a n i n d i c a t i v e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e a n i n g , f b r e x a m p l e ：
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１２７
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ThesubjunctivemayalsobeusedwilhoutanyinbDductoryverborconjunction whenaspeakerorwriterwantstosuggestthathe/shehassomedoubtor u n c e r t a i n Ⅳ a b o u t s o m e t h i n g ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ． 一 控
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l t も p o s s i b l e ( n o t r e a Ⅱ y l i k e 1 y ) t h a t s h e ' Ⅱ c o m e ・ 鰯創pOss肋陀卯もⅡｅＩﾉ彪卵Fze？ I s i t p o s s i b l e t h a t s h e u c o m e ？ Ⅱ卯惣srpJzspOss肋陀”もⅡｅ〃た"Fzeも
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11鋤Ⅲ恥肥吻gm叩
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T h e s e e 印 r e s s i o n s a r e u s u a ] ] y f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n : ｑ 皿 , q u e , ｄ ｏ n t ． Ｃ'est/Cesont睦叱、施庵quiα鹿”吻0”必 T h e y w e r e t h e l a s t p e o p l e w h o r e p l i e ｡ ． Ｃ，est〃”"彫"花histoire9“j'αjEjamais”蛇”” I t b 1 h e b e s t s t o r y I ， v e e v e r h e a r d ． Ⅱestlese"I61eve9”α〃comP歯laquestion・
H e i s t h e o n l y p u p i l w h o l m d e r s t o o d t h e q u e s t i o n ・ E l l e ｱ z e c o n n a n t p e 応 ⑪ ” e ” i s o 厳 a u s s i j o l i e q u ﾉ e Ⅱ e ・
S h e d o e s l f t l m o w a n y o n e a s p r e 町 a s s h e i s ・ N o t e l h a t l h e e 】 甲 r e s s i o n s l a p r E m i e r E / d e m i e r e f b i s ‘ t h e E r s t / l a s t t j m e ' a l e adverbialphrasesanddonotinnuencetheuseoftheindicativeorthe s u b j u n c t j v e ． 一 壁
w”s⑥rawmdingdhesubjmctiwe
l t i s s o m e t i m e s p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e s u b j u n c t i v e , T h i s u s u a l l y d e p e n d s u p o n l h e a y a i l a b i l i t y o f a l t e m a t i v e c o n s l m c t i o n s f b Ⅱ o w i n g v e r b s a n d c o n j u n c t i o n s , a n d o n t h e m a i n a n d d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s h a v i n g t h e s z z m e s u b j e c t , S o m e e x a m p l e s ：
！ ” I m h e I I g 池 g m " ｐ
●verbsandimpersonalverbs： insteadofavoirpeurque＋、e＋ ａｖｍｒｐｅｕｒｄｅ＋ infTnitivesUbjunctive eviterde＋jnhnitiveinsteadofcviterque＋ｎｅ＋ s u b j u n c t j v e vouloir十in同n流veinsteadofvouloirqUe＋ s u b j u n c t j v e iI飽皿t十jnhnitiveinsteadofilfautque＋ s u b j u n c t j v e
ilestpossiblede十insteadofilestpossibleque＋ ｉｎflnitivesubjunctive ilcomientde十insteadofilcomientque＋ infTnitivesubjunctive ●conjunctions：
sans＋inhn而veinsteadofsansque＋ s u b j u n c t i v e
pour十inhnitiveinsteadofpourqUe十 s u b j u n c t i v e
avantde＋inRni↑iveinsteadofavantque(+nd s u b j u n c t i v e
詞fHnde＋indilTativeinsteadofahnque＋subjunctive amoinsde十inhnitiveinsteadofamoinsque＋ｎｅ十 s u b j u n c t i v e
depeurde＋inhnitiveinsteadofdepeurque＋ｎｅ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e
demaniも唾ａ＋inHnitiveinsteadofdemaniも唾que＋ s u b j u n c t i v e
defa9ona十infnitiveinsteadofdefa9onque＋ s u b j u n c t i v e
S o m e c o n j u n c t i o n s m a y a l s o b e u s e d a s p r e p o s i t i o n s a n d i n な o d u c e n o u n s ： α ” ” s o n a n i v 6 e , i l / e Ⅱ e … ” I g 7 惨 l e u r d e p a r t , i l s / e Ⅱ e s … j " s 9 ” ｔｏｎｒｅｔＯｕｌ３ｔｕ…
４７
lMEJMj泥泥伽
R e n e 】 d v e v e r b s ( a l s o c a l l e d p r o n o m i n a l v e r b s ) a r e v e r b s w h i c h a r e p r e c e d e d b y r e n e x i v e o b j e c t p r o n o u n s : ｍ ｅ , t e , s e , n o u s , v o u s , s e ( s e e 2 0 ) . W 1 t h t h e i n E n i t i v e
a n d w i t h p a r t i c i p l e s t h e r e n e 】 d v e p r o n o u n u s e d i s a l w a y s t h e o n e w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e c l a u s e o r s e n t e n c e ､ T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e r e n e x i v e p r o n o u n s f b Ⅱ o w s t h e s a m e r u l e s a s t h o s e f b r o d l e r o b j e c t p r o n o u n s ( s e e ､ 2 1 . 3 ) . F o r p a s t p a r t i c i p l e a g r e e m e n t s e e 4 9 . 3 ． 肥vHis”稗mserImpeu．rmgoingtorestfbrabit．
ｌ ３ ４ ｉ Ｓ ” c 加 把 ｓ
一個47.1蜜
河也師騒esof唾制鯉xiwewrbs
血 t h e f b u o w i n g e x a m p l e s o n l y t h e m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r o f l h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e i s 印 v e n . ） ”"施” PresentserEposer‘toresfPerfbcts絶t、唾pos6'tohave r e s t e d ，
肋成azZ1izﾉe
Presentje"zeF叩osePe]Efbctje”s邸Js”os6 FutuIeje””osemiFutureperfectie”sgmi”Os6 jem穆如js”0s‘ hnperfectje””osmsPlupelfect Pasthistoricje”F”OsaiPastanteliorje””】”Csを Conditionalje””OsemZsCondimnalje”semIsr印osf
p e r f e c t
s ” z " z c t j I ﾉ e Present，queje”F叩osePelfectqueje”sojS”Os6
ImpelfectqUeje””osdzssePluperfbctqueje”./iusse”0s‘ 一 躍
ＨＯＷⅡ狸伺啄iWeWerbSa】氾ｕｓｅｄ、
S o m e v e r b s a r e g e n u i n e l y r e n e 】 d v e 1 h e i r a c t i o m E β Ｅ Ｃ 応 ” c k t o d l e s u b j e c t ・ I n d l e f b l l o w i n g e x a m p l e , i n F r e n c h ” f Z i n E n 劇 i s h , t h e 杜 a n s i t i v e v e r b c o u p e r ‘ ｔ ｏ c u t ' i s u s e d r e n e 】 d v e l y ： Shecutherself
皿esPestcoup6e･
R e m e m b e r l h a t l h e r e i s ” a g r e e m e n t o f l h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w h e n a r e n e 】 d v e v e r b i s u s e d w i t h a p a r t o f l h e b o d y ( s e e 9 . 4 b , 4 9 . 3 ) ． Elles,estlav6IEscheIIe“Shewashedherhaim
− …
S o m e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s a r e u s e d r e n e 】 d v e l y w h e n t h e a c t i o m h e y r e f e r t o i s i n f a c t r e n e 泣 v e ､ T h e c o l r e s p o n d i n g E n 甑 s h v e r b i s " o t n e c e s s a l i ] y r e n e 】 d v e ・ layertowashselavertogetwashed/wash nlmﾉelavaisselle，
H e i s w a s h i n g t h e d i s h e s ． Ⅱseltz”ayantdesecomh配
H e g e t s w a s h e d b e f b r e h e g o e s t o b e d ・
E x a m p l e s o f v e r b s w h i c h c a n b e b r a n s i t i v e o r r e n e 】 d v e i n F r e n c h , b u t ｏ ｎ ] ｙ 杜ansitiveorimansitiveinEn甑sh． cOucher
toput(someone)tobed
ｓｅｃｏｕｆｈＲｒ
togotobed
h乳hiller
todress(someone）
ｇｈ釦hiller
promener
totake(someone/somethin9
sepmmener
t o g e t d r e s s e d / d r e s s togofbrawalk
fbrawalk
蝿Ⅲ恥"e肋8m〃
一園璽ト
Someverbsarealwaysrene】dveinFrench-dleEngisheqUjvalentis"o血Some e x a m p l e s ： ●
sPasseo1r
tositdown
s , a p p r o c h e r
toapproach
s e d i r i g e r v e r s
t o g o t o ／
seservirde
touse
towards
一 躍
S o m e r e n e ﾖ d v e v e r b s h a j ﾉ e a r e c i p r o c a l m e a n i n g : ‘ e a C h o t h e r ' ( s e e 1 8 . 7 , 1 8 . 8 ) ． Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ e x a m p l e s ： s e t e l 6 p h o n e r ：
l V b z J s F z o z J s だ " 加 F Z o F z s l e w E e k e n d o Wetelephoneeacholheratlheweekend． s，ffrire2
E I I E s n e s e s O " t j a m a i s 6 C 7 f 晩
T h e y h a v e n e v e r w r i t t e n t o e a c h o t h e 典 ＳｅｒＥｍＣｎｍＴＥｒ：
恥se彫"“””ｔＲｚｍＲｄｉｒｅｕｎｍｏｔ･
Theymeetbutdon'tspeaktoeacholhem sed6tester：
IISse“睡蛇"晩
T h e y h a t e e a c h o t h e l h 司47.6岸
S o m e v e r b s h a v e a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g w h e n t h e y a r e u s e d a s r e m e 】 d v e s ： a印ｒｔｏａｃｔ
ｇａ感rde
tobeamatter/qUestionof
ａｌｌｅｒｔｏｇｏ
genaller
togoaWay
●
−E47.7ト
Rene】dveverbsmayhaveapassⅣemeaning(see48.4)一althou甑on＋anactive v e r b i s h f e q u e n U y u s e d f b r l h e p a s s i v e i n s t e a d o f a r e n e 】 d v e ( s e e 4 8 . 4 ) ： CeIanese”jamaisenan副ais!/O"ne”jamaiscelaenangaisI ThatisneversaidinEn9ish1
昌碧４７．８９雪
T h e s u b j e c t o f i m p e r s o n a l l e n e 】 d v e v e r b s i s a I w a y s i l ( s e e 1 9 . 2 . ) ： IZseZm邸”qUenoussommesnも(e)sdanslamemeville・ WehappentohavebeenbominthesamecityE
136Ｓｉｍ心加概
壷… ThepassiveinFrenchisverysimilartothepassiveinEngish:itiscomposedof l h e v e r b e 唾 ( i n l h e a p p r o p ] i a t e t e n s e ) ＋ p a s t p a r t i c i p l e , i n E n 9 i s h t h e v e r b ‘ ｔ ｏ b e ， ( i n d l e a p p r o p I i a t e t e n s e ) ＋ p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ・ T h e p a r t i c i p l e a I z ｲ ﾉ z Z y s a 厚 e e s w i t h m e s U b j e c t ． Activefbrm：
ＩＢｄｉ】℃cteura花妙lesnomeauxeleves・ Theheadmasterwelcomedlhenewpupils． Passivefbrm：
lEsnoUveaux6levesO"だ苑花FzJsparledirEcte皿
Thenewpupilswerewelcomedbydleheadmastem TheobjectOesnomeaux61evesｳofadirectly杜ansitiveverb(recemininan a c t i v e c l a u s e 〉 t h e s U b j e c t i n a p a s s i v e c l a u s e ､ T h e s u b j e c t O e d i 通 e c t e u j i n l h e
a c t i v e c l a u s e ＞ t h e a g e n t i n t h e p a s s i v e c l a u s e ・ T h e a g e n t i s i n t m d u c e d b y p a r o r byde,PartendstobeusedmoreheqUendylhａｎｄｅ,but,ifindoubt,the f b l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s m a y h e l p : u s e p a r f b r a n a c t i o n a n d f b r r e f e r e n c e t o s p e c i h c p e o p l e o r l h i n g s , a n d u s e d e f b r a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , f e e l i n g s o r t h o u 9 1 t s , h a b i t , a n d f b r g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e t o p e o p l e o r t h i n g S ． 皿ｅａ６彪加pj唾aucinemap”unami･
Shehasbeeninvitedtothecinemabyafriend． Ⅱsemfz“DmpjZg72‘此plusieursamis．． Ｈ e ， Ⅱ b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y s e v e r a l f r i e n d s ．
−犀lTheagentis"Ota]wayspresent： Sienescontinuenta位aⅣerserIaruesansfai】氾attention,ｅⅡesvont 6 Z ｱ E b J E s s 6 E s も
I f t h e y g o o n c r o s s i n g d l e s 位 e e t w i t h o u t l o o k i n g , t h e y r e g o i n g t o g e t l m r t ． 一 躍
I h e p a s s i v e i s q ﾉ p i c a Ⅱ y f b u n d w i l h d i r e c d y 杜 a n s i t i v e v e r b s , t h a t i s , v e r b s w h i c h canhayeadirectobject:e､g､正spectel3aime喝raconte鴎Someverbswhichare
d i r e c U y 杜 a n s i t i v e i n H e n c h m a y n o t b e d i r e c d y な a n s i t i v e i n E n 9 i s h a n d v i c e versa：
@ｍ"蛇rI窃臨耐n
tolistenmtheradio
che７℃Hzerla他ｍｍｐ
tolook/brthewoman
脇了
ＦＩｌｒ蛾eIﾉc池8ｍ"
一 躍
ｏ
ｍｅ"花rthehouse
ｅｍ配r”Fzs脱、鋪Rnm
mrEme腕berhermme
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Ｆｏｘｍｍｉ０ｎ⑪fmepassivE
伽thefbnowingexampleson]ylhemascumesingularofthepastparticipleis g i v e n . ） ActivE
Passive
Present
伽uj蛇rtoinvite
§j７℃加Iﾉjだ
Perfect
α”ir伽pj花tohave 〃”ir‘彪加沈館
tohavebeen
invited
invited
”"施肥
Present
h n p e l f e c t Pasthistonc
。〃
F u t u r e p e ] f ｅ ｃ ｔ
鯨
PeIfect
・Ｊ
Futule
唾岬睡”︾函︾
ｏｍｏｍｏｍ。、。“皿
， ，．， ， ，’， ●Ｉ ’● Ｉ。 ｊ・Ｉ
肋fZjaz"”
jeSⅢ施加Iﾉ海 iesemi醜U輝 j ' ‘ m i s 加 I ﾉ 漉 jeﾉiJs加砂" j'α彪彪加潅 j'”、j錘加Iﾉ姥
tobeinvited
wasinvited
sha]lbeinvited
wasinvited wasinvited havebeeninvited
sh311havebeen invited
P l u p e r f e c t
j，α”お加p蝉
j，α”is雄加zﾉ"
hadbeeninvited
Pastantenor
j ， e z J s 伽 I ' 雄 j'伽加陀ｍｆｓ ｊ，”misj加娩
j'eIJs鯉”旗 jesemis加Uf彪
hadbeeninvited
j'”mis錘加Uiだ
shomdhavebeen
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shouldbeinvited
imited
p e r f e c t s""z"zc伽e PIesent
l m p e r f b c t
q u e j ， j ” i 蛇 q U e j ' 伽 u j j z z s s e
quejesOjs伽Iﾉ海 quejeji4sse加沈穂
PerfEct
quejlajE伽Iﾉ海quei'α蛇“j”j蕗
a、/maybeinvjted was/mi虫tbe invited
(may)havebeen invited
P l u p e I f e c t
qUej,ezJssei”姥quej,ezJsse錘 加加彪
一睡図畔
h a d ( m i g d ] t h a v e ） beeninvited
Otherwaysofe麺ressinglhepassIve：
●ｏｎ＋d1irdpersonsingmarofanactivetense： Iおterroristeaj彪加彫ｒｍｇもk/O"α加彪７，談Ieterroriste・ T h e t e r m r i s t w a s i n t e I r o g a t e d ． ⅡsseFWz””廊商ｄＵｄａｎｇ“/Ｏ〃lesα”流”dudangeL They'ⅡbewamedofthedangeL
●rene】dyeverbs(remember、otallverbscanbeusedrenexively;see47.3, 4 7 . 4 , 4 7 . 5 , 4 7 . 6 ) ：
１３＄
Ｓか"c加恋
IEchampa厚1esebojr征もsfrais･
C h a m p a g n e i s d r u n k c h i u e d ． C e s l e g u m e s s e u e J z 4 j E ” p a r t o u t ･
T h e s e v e g e t a b l e s a r e s o l d e v e r y w h e r e ‘ InlessfbmlalFrench,sefailasevoil)gentendrE…＋infnitivecanalsobeused
t o e 】 ⑩ r e s s l h e p a s s Ⅳ e ： IEgar90ns＃esZjiz厳形"”応erparunautobus･
Theboywaslmockedoverbyabus、 皿 e s I e s t I ﾉ z ｲ g e r C I z J 肥 d u p a r t i ･
Shewasexcludedhomparwmembership．
● i m p e r s o n a l v e r b s ( w h i c h a r e a l w a y s i n t h e d ] i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r ( s e e 5 3 ) ) ， e s p e c i a ] ] y w i d l e 唾 十 p a s t p a r t i c i p l e , o r i n d l e r e n e 】 d v e f b r m ： ｌＺａｆ鯨飯tdeschosestembles･
A w f U l l h i n g s w e r e s a i d I Z s e p 砥 e " 蛇 q U e l q U e s p r o b l e m e s ， T h e r e a r e s o m e p r o b l e m s ． 一 密
A f e w d i r e c d y 位 a n s i t i v e v e r b s c a I m o t b e u s e d i n t h e p a s s i v e , f b r e x a m p l e a m i x w h e n i t m e a n s ‘ t o p o s s e s s l T h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e c o u d d n o t b e p a s s i v e i n E n 甑 s h e i t h e r ： 皿ｅａｕｎ征esbelappartement･
S h e h a s a v e r y b e a u t j f U l H a t ． 一 唾
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r l h a t W h e r e a s i n E n 9 i s h a p a s s i v e f b r m i s p o s s i b l e w i t h a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t , i t i s " O t i n H B n c h ( s e e 4 8 . 7 ) ． Hegavemethebook nm'adonn6leIivre．
、ﾉfzs感Iﾉemhebook/Thebookwasgventome、 Orzylztzdb刀潅leIivre．
一 躍
T h e r e a r e t h r e e v e r b s w i t h a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t w h i c h c z m b e u s e d i n t h e p a s s Ⅳ e t h e i n d i l e c t o b j e c t 〉 t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p a s s i v e c l a u s e ､ T h e v e r b s a r e o b 6 i r a q n ‘ t o o b e y s o m e o n e ; d 6 s o b e i r a q n ‘ t o d i s o b e y s o m e o n e ; p a ｴ d o I m e r a q n ‘ t o f b r g j v e someone（
恥S6lbVESO舵j、”なI'inR筒、耐哩
' I h e p u p i l s w i l l o b e y l h e t e a c h e m 耐nsmutrices匂zzo膨鞄deses61もves，
Theteacherwmbeobeyedbyherpupjls,
蝿lImbe肥吻8,叩
S o m e g u i d e l i n e s o m h e f b I m a t i o n o f p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s ： Verbswhoseinhnitiveendsin-er:thestemoflheinEnitjve＋も；
e ､ g ・ d o m l e r : d o n n e ‘ 甑 v e n ’ VerbSwhoseinhnitiveendsin-ir:dlestemoftheinhnitjve＋i;ｅ ９ 洞mir2hni‘EniRhed，
Verbswhoseinhnjtiveendsin-re:1hestemoflheinhnitive＋ｕ； e ・ g v e n d r e : v e n d u ‘ s o l d ’
B u t m a 7 Z y v e r b s , i n c l u d i n g d l e o i r g r o u p , d o n o t f b n o w l h e s e g u i d e l i n e s , a n d l h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s s i m p l y h a v e t o b e l e a m e d ( s e e 8 2 ) . Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ e x a m p l e s ： been
ｈnh℃：
bu
had
com砲imre：
COn”ｍｍＵ
convinced
ＣｎｎｍＵ
lmown
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taken
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ete eu・
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P a s t p a r t i c i p l e s m a y b e u s e d a s n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , v e r b s , p r e p o s i t i o n s a n d c o n j u n c t i o n s ． ●nouns：
ｌａｐ減sedenotes la恥fseenOemre
n o t e t a k i n g implementation
le〃２０花
thedeaｄｍａｎ
IaJJJe
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r e c e i p t
● a d j e c t i v e s ( a g f e e i n g w i l h l h e i r n o u n s ) ： lapO”たmzje des虎吻抵“”砥
thecloseddoor wen-lmowr'filmR
F r e q u e n 叩 t h e E n g j i s h e q u i v a l e n t o f a p a s t p a r t i c m l e i n H e n c h i s a p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e ： a g e n o u i l l 6 a1ssiR
k n e e l i n g s i t t i n g
pench6 pendu
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T h e E r s t p e r s o n p l u r a l i m p e r a t j v e i s o f t e n u s e d t o 部 v e e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a d v i c e ： A I I り J z s y 1
R e s Z m z s t r a n q u i l l e s 1
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I b J ﾉ U F z s 1 0 n p e u t p a r t i r i m m 6 d i a t e m e n t 1
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T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s w a y s o f g M n g a n o r d e r i n s t e a d o f u s i n g t h e i m p e r a t i v e ( s e e 7 7 . 3 ) ．
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f i ' 1 1 ' r e t e n s e ：
IEshommesso沌加”parlagauche1 M e n l e a v e b y d l e l e f t ！ ●infinilive： ●
Nepassepe卯醜erau-dehors1 Dolftleanout1
● a n d f b r a p o l i t e i m p e r a t i v e , u s e a n i n t e l r o g a t i v e f b r m a n d / o r t h e conditionaltense：
Ｐ ｂ 邸 I 2 e z 首 ” I J s / P o z J r 7 j E z 造 ” 妬 o u m r l a 企 n も 唾 ( s , n Ｖ ⑪ u s p l a i 眼 P1easeopenthewindow
５２zlbej城卯揃” T h e r e a r e t w o i n h n i t i v e f b 】 m s t h e p r e s e n t i n E n i t i v e , ｅ ・ g d o n n e 喝 E n i l W e n d l a a n d t h e p e 企 c t i n E n i t i v e , c o m p o s e d o f a v o i r o r c 征 e 十 p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ： ａ Ⅳ D i r d o m l 6 ‘ t o h a v e g i v e n $ a v o i r m i ‘ t o h a y e f i n i s h e d ; a m l o i r
v e n d u ‘ t o h a v e s o l d ; a v o i r 唾 u ‘ t o h a v e r e c e i v e d ; s ' ６ 唾 正 p o s も ‘ t o h a v e r e s t e d ; § “ a l l も ‘ t o h a v e g o n e ; a ] m i r e u ‘ t o h a v e h a d ; a y o i r etc‘tohavebeen,
一 躍
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I h e i n m i t i v e c a n b e u s e d a s a m m p e r a t i v e , a n e x c l a m a t i o n , a n d a s a n i n t e 江 o g a t i v e ：
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s p e a k 、 B e l i e v e y o u m l b b i s h 1
Q u e J 2 W i 花 ？
Whatcanwedo？
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Wherecanwego2
Quicm舵？
Whocanwebelieve？
T h e i n h n i l j v e m a y b e u s e d f b Ⅱ o w i n g d e o r e t d e , m a i n ] y i n w l i t t e n F ] r e n c h a n d r e p l a c i n g a t e n s e t o a d d a l i t n e v a l i e w t o a t e x t ： ‘ I e v i n d o i t s e d 6 g u s t e r a t a b l e ; a d i t l e j e u n e 6 t u d i a n t ・ 邸 α ｾ ﾘ ひ ” r : ‘ I お n t e m e n t 1 ，
‘ W i n e m u s t b e t a s t e d a t t a b l e , ' 1 h e y o u n g s t u d e n t s a i d ・ A n d h e a d d e d , ‘ S l o w l y 1 ’
一…−
T h e i n h n j t i v e m a y f b n o w t h e p r e p o s i t i o n s ：
ｐ ｏ 皿 s a n s , a y a n t d e 十 p r e s e n t ( a n d s o m e t i m e s p e r f e c O i n h n i t i v e ， a p r b s ＋ p e r f e c t i n h n i t j v e
T h e s e c o n s m l c t i o n s c a n b e u s e d p r o v i d i n g d 1 e s u b j e c t o f b o t h p a r t s o f t h e s e n t e n c e i s t h e s a m e , o d l e r w i s e a d i f f e r e n t c o n s な u c t i o n w o u l d h a v e t o b e u s e d n o t e d l e E n 副 i s h e q U i v a l e n t s ： C e s b o t t e s s o n t f a i t e s p o ” ” 訂 ℃ f 2 e F ： ThesebootsalemadefOrwa]ldng． E l l e e s t e I m r 6 e s a 砥 α I ﾉ O i r j h i t f / 2 Ｚ 旗 d e b r u i t ・ Shecameinwithoutma]dnganynoise．
A p r @ s ” O i r ” F z 鶴 n o u s n o u s s o m m e s r e p o s e ( 匂 s ・ A f t e r e a t i n g w e h a d a r e s t ．
AIﾉα”“Jｼ”Z離隔nousnoussommeslayelesmains･ B e f b r e e a t i n g w e w a s h e d o u r h a n d s ． 一 壁
W h e n t h e s u b j e c t o f b o l h p a r t s o f l h e s e n t e n c e i s l h e s a m e , s o m e v e r b s a r e f b Ⅱ o w e d d i r e c d y b y l h e i n E n i t i v e ､ Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ e x a m p l e s : a i m e 喝 a n e 喝 c o m p t e B d e v u 通 e n 唾 喝 e s p 6 r 印 f a Ⅱ o m m a n q U e 喝 p e n s e 喝 p o u y o i 】 ; p r 6 距 肥 風 s a m i J W e n i l W o u l o 血 NOuscomp釦FzsyaIjerdemain･ Wehopetogotheretomorrow；
149
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T h a t も g o o d ､ I t m a k e s y o u s l e e p ． ”iS7”α犯rlavoituE℃,simvB唾
H a v e t h e c a r r e p a i r e d , i f y o u l i k e ， Ⅱ〃た〃””雌rleS6tudiants、 Hemadethestudentswolk．
I f l h e r e a r e t w o o b j e c t s i n t h i s t y p e o f s e n t e n c e a n d o n e o f t h e o b j e c t s i s a p e r s o n , 1 h a t o b j e c t i s p l e c e d e d b y a ： E l l e 施 厳 ” ｱ 1 E r h P a n 9 a i s 〃 s e s e n f a n t s ・ S h e m a k e s h e r c h i l d r e n s p e a k H E n c h ．
I f m e i n m i t i v e i s l e H e J d v e d l e r e n e m d v e p r o n o u n i s d r o p p e d ： RZiZES雌雄CeSenf#mtS1
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V e r b s o f t h e s e n s e s : 6 c o u t “ e n t e n d l e , 唾 g a r d e I W o 血 s e m i r 十 i n h n i t j v e , a n d
I a i s s e 喝 e n m y e r + i n E n i t i v e n o t e t h e a l t e m a t i v e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , a n d t h e E n 9 i s h e q u i v a l e n t ：
】 e １ ， e " 蛇 ” s " Z e " 把 尻 ( 】 e I e n t e n d s q U i p l e u r e . ） I c a n h e a r h i m / h e r c r y m g ． ●
onα”des6tudiants施舵dustop.(…quifaisaient…） W e s a w s t u d e n t s h i t c h h i l d n g ． 一 躍
V e r b s ＋ p r e p o s i t i o n ( a , 。 e , p o n l r … ) ＋ i n E n i t i v e t h i s t y p e o f c o n s m c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e w h e n t h e s u b j e c t o f b o t h c l a u s e s i s t h e s a m e ､ I t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w t h e C o l r e c t p r e p o s i t i o n t o u s e , a n d t o l m o w i f l h e m e a n i n g o f l h e v e r b
c h a n g e s i f a d i f f b r e n t p r e p o s i t i o n i s u s e d ・ T h e p r e p o s i t i o n a n d t h e m e a n i n g s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d i n a d i c t i o n a r y 同nirde+in行nil-ivE
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Someverbsmayhavedifferentprepositionswith〃ochangeinmeaning：
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coT,筒mIGrao7de＋in同Tmvetocontinuetodo/doing sPeffbrceraorde＋inhnitiveto廿yｈａｒｄｔｏｄｏ 一 畳
S o m e e x a m p l e s o f v e r b s 十 曲 ＋ i n h n i t i v e ：
a p p r e n d r e a , s , a t t a c h e r a , a v o i r a , c 0 n s e m i r a , g h a b i t u e r a , i m i t e r a a n d s o m e e x a m p l e s o f v e r b s ＋ d e ＋ i n h n i t i v e ： a c c e p t e r d e , c e s s e r d e , C o n v e n i r d e , d 6 t e s t e r d e , s P e m p r e s s e r d e ， e s s a y e r d e Nous加晒s”mzes瓶is勾誠彫lemenage、
Webegantodolhehousewolk Ⅱ ａ ｃ ｃ ｓ ｓ ６ ” p a r l C r p e n d a n t l e m m ・ H e s t o p p e d t a l l d n g d u r i n g l h e E l m ． 弓52.唾
N o u n s a n d a d j e c t i y e s m a y a l s o b e f b u o w e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n + i n h n i t i v e ､ Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ e x a m p l e s ：
I a p t i t u d e a ‘ a p t i t u d e f b r ; l a d 6 t e m l i n a t i o n a ‘ d e t e l m i n a t i o n t o I ト １ ， i n t 4 r e t a ‘ i n t e r e S t i I f
l a r a i s o n d e ‘ r e a s o n f b r ; l e b e s o i n d e ‘ n e e d t o l ; l e s m o y e n s d e ‘ m e a n s ｔ ｏ ’
( A n d n o t e u n e m a i s o n a v e n d r e ‘ a h o u s e f b r s a l d u n e f e m m e a c r a i n d l 巴 ‘ a w o m a n t o b e f e a r e d 3 u n e m a c h i n e a c o u d r e ‘ a s e w i n g m a C h i n e ' … ）
d i s p o s e a ‘ w i l l i n g t o ; l e n t a ‘ s l o w t o I p r 6 p a r “ ‘ p r e p a r e d t o ， c a p a b l e d e ‘ c a p a b l e o f l f e s p o n s a b l e d e ‘ r e s p o n s i b l e f b r ; c e r t a i n d e ‘ c e r t a i n t o ， Ｎｏｔｅ
I Z e s t d i f f i c i l e f j E c o m p r e n d 】 氾 l e g r e c ・ Itisdi桁c111ttounderstandGreek． αlivree呉#ｄｉ桁愉lejtlire･
Thisbookisdifncmttoread.(See13.5b）
A n d n o t e a s s e z a n d m p + a d j e c t i v e + p o u r + i n m i t i v e ： n s s o n t Z m P p e 施 応 p o I J r s o 流 r s e I I I s ･ T h e y a r e t o o l i m e t o g o o u t a l o n e ．
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壷卿.… n n p e r s o n a l v e r b s a r e f a i I 1 y c o m m o n i n F r e n c h ､ T h e s u b j e c t i s e i t h e r i l o r c e , c e l a ， c e c i , a n d t h e v e r b i s a ] w a y s i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g U l a r o f t h e t e n s e r e q u i r e d ， i n d i c a t i v e o r s u b j u n c t i v e , P a s t p a r t i c i p l e s a r e i n v a r i a b l e ． 〃 e s t ” " 邸 p l u s i e u r s p e r s o n n e S ，
S e v e r d I p e o p l e c a m e ・
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曇 ￨ 職 聡 ･ n a l v e r b s h … a n g e o f m e " i n g s d e p e n d i n 3 ｡ f … e , o m h e v e 血 i l f a m q u e + s u b j u n c t i v e ‘ m u s t , n e e d t o , h a v e t o ' o r i l t n e ) f a u t 十 i n h n i t i v e ( u s i n g i n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n s : ｍ ｅ , t e , l u i … ) ： １１/izI"、9“tuo膨jSses鉱onpも正．
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I S 1 h e r e s o m e o n e a t t h e d o o r ? N o . T h e r e b n o b o d y E i l s ' 零 t ｡ e 十 n o u n o r j n h n i t i v e ‘ i t i s a m a t t e r / q u e s t i o n o f ' ： IZStZg”ｈｍｅ評osseso加ｍｅ"物７９”た
１ t も a m a t t e r o f a l a r g e a m o u n t o f m o n e y E I Z s ｾ ｚ ｇ ｉ ｍ 此 l a p z m y e r i m m 6 d i a t e m e n t ･
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N o t e t h e p a s s i v e f b r m o f l h e l a s t e x a m p l e ： U n e d a t e a 6 t e c o m B n u e . ( n o t a n i m p e r s o n a l v e r b i n t h i s c a s e リ
−顧霊罪Ⅱ(me)semble‘itseems(tomeｳthat， i l s e m b l e q u e + s U b j u n c t i v e ： I Z S e m b 陀 9 z J ね Ⅱ e α 卸 陀 e n I r a n c e c e t 6 t 6 ， I t s e e m s s h e も g o i n g t o H f a n c e l h i s s u m m e エ
i l s e m b l e q u e ＋ i n d i c a t i v e o c c u r s i n s p o k e n F r e n c h , a n d W h e n t h e v e r b i n d l e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e i s i n d l e i m p e r f e c t ： IZsemb陀卯もⅡenep””itpasyaⅡem l t s e e m s s h e c o u l d n I t g o ・
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T h e y d o n P t l h i n k s h e c a n d o i t b e f b r e T h u r s d a y E i l h m e … ) s e m b l e + i n h n i t i v e ( s a m e s u b i e c t i n b o t h c l a u s e s ) o r + a d j e c t i v e ： m 7 z e s e " T b 地 １ ， α ” i r I ﾉ z J B q U e l q U e P a r t ･
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T h a t d i d n I t s e e m v e I y i n t e r e s t j n g t o u s ．
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a l e t h r e e m a i n ﾛ ﾉ p e s o f a d v e r b : o f m a n n e r v i t e ‘ q U i c k / q m c k l y ； p l a c e i c i ‘ h e r e ； andtime-demain‘tomoIrowlTbtheseshouldbeaddedadverbsofqUaliw-bien ‘ w e Ⅱ ' a n d n e g a t i o n j a m a i s ‘ n e v e r l A d v e r b s m a y c o n s i s t o f o n e w o r d d i f f i c i l e m e n t ‘ w i t h d i f h c u l 城 a c o m p o u n d w o r d a p r b s d e m a i n ‘ t h e d a y a f t e r t o m o l r o w ; o r o f a p h r a s e t o u t a f 日 i t ‘ c o m p l e t e l y ｛ 一睡透畦
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l n g e n e r a l a d v e r b s o f m a n n e r a r e c o m p o s e d o f t h e f e m j n i n e f b r m o f a n a d j e c t i v e 十 一ｍｅｎｔ−
ｄ ｏ ｕ ｘ , d o u c e , d o u c e m e n t ‘ q u i e d J 〃 g e n d y p r e m l e 叩 r e m i e r e , p r e m i e r e m e n t ‘ h r s t o f a l l , h r s d y c o m p l e t , c o m p l e t e , c o m p l e t e m e n t ‘ c o m p l e t e l y ； t o t a Ⅱ y ， s 6 r i e u x , s 6 l i e u s e , s “ e u s e m e n t ‘ s e l i o u s l ヅ 一隠雪
A d j e c t i v e s e n d i n g i n e n t o r a m d m p t h e n t o f t h e m a s c u l i n e f b m l a n d a d ｄ −ｎｌｍｆｍｵｰ
e v i d e n t , e v i d e m m e n t ‘ e v i d e n t l y s u f E s a n t , s m s a m m e m ‘ s u f E c i e n t l y ; e n o u 甑 T h e r e a r e s o m e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s r u l e ：
l e n t , l e m e , l e n t e m e n t ‘ s l o w l y p r 6 s e n t , p r 6 s e n t e , p r 6 s e n t e m e n t ‘ a t p r e s e n t ’
一 躍
A d j e c t i v e s w h i c h e n d i n a v o w e l o t h e r t h a n e n o l m a l l y s i m p l y a d d m e n t t o l h e m月師ulinefbml：
p o l i , p o I i m e n t ‘ p o l i t e l y ， a b s o l u , a b s o l u m e n t ‘ a b s o l u t e l y a i s 6 , a i s 6 m e n t ‘ e a s l y 一 躍
S o m e a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s e d a s a d v e r b s , w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e o f f b r m : d u r ‘ h a r d ; b ｏ ｎ ‘ g o o d ; n e t ‘ s h o r f ( a s i n ‘ t o s t o p s h o r f ) ： 唾fmsertoutnettorefUsepointblank
h l s o m e c a s e s d i f f e r e n t a d v e r b i a l f b r m s a r e a v a i l a b l e , b u t l h e y a r e 〃 o t
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e ・ T h e y a r e u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d m a y h a y e s l i ゆ d y d i f f e r e n t m e a m n g s ． d u r ; d I u 氾 m e n t ‘ h a r d ; d e e p l y ; b a d ] y f b r t ; f b r t e m e n t ‘ e x t r e m e 1 y ; s b f o n g j y ; h i 獣 ] l ｙ C'esVb減dommage・
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ａ Ⅳ e c s o i n ‘ c a r e f U l l y ; d u n c o u p ‘ s u d d e n ] y ; c 6 t e a c 6 t e ‘ s i d e b y s i d e I e n d a n g e r ‘ i n d a n g e r 1 h o r s d h a l e i n e ‘ o u t o f b r e a t h $ s o u s p e u ‘ s o o n 3 s u r u n t o n m s t e ‘ s a d ] ｙ 一 躍
ComparamEandsuperIamEadwerbs T h e s e a d v e r b s a r e f b r m e d b y p l a c i n g p l u s , a u s s i , m o i n s b e f b r e t h e a d v e r b a n d , i f a p p r o p l i a t e , a d d i n g q u e i n l h e c o m p a r a t i v e a n d d e i n l h e s u p e d a t j v e : p l u s v i t e
( q U e ) ‘ q U i c k e r ( t h a n X a u s s i v i t e ( q u e ) ‘ a s q U i c k a s ; m o i n s v i t e ( q u e ｳ ‘ l e s s q u i c k ( t h a n ) ' ; l e p l u s v i t e ( ｡ e ) I t h e q u i c k e s t ( o f ) ; l e m o i n s v i t e ( d e ｳ ‘ d l e s l o w e s t ( o が EllepadePIIJsIﾉ鯉(9噸1噸)．
S h e s p e a k s m o r e q u i c l d y ( 1 h a n h e d o e s ) ． NOusayonsmang6azJssimp雄加e”(9脚emi)． W e a t e a s q u i c l d y ( a s y o u ) ． Ilsvoyagent”j『2s(91Je陀叫応e砿"な)．
T h e y m v e l l e s s ( 1 h a n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ) ． Iesuisvenu(eｳ彫pIIJsuj蛇poss肋幽
I c a m e a s q u i c l d y a s p o s s i b l e ． C ， e s t I e c h e v a l b l a n c q u i c o u r t l E 〃 ２ ０ 伽 s I ﾉ i 昭
1 t も d l e w h i t e h o r s e l h a t b g o i n g s l o w e s t ． 一 壁
C o m p a r a t i v e a n d s u p e r l a t i v e f b r m s o f t h e i I r e g u l a r a d v e r b s b i e n , m a l , b e a u c o u p , p e u ： ｂ ｉ ｅ ｎ ‘ w e Ⅱ ' ; m i e u x ( q u e ） ‘ b e t t e r ( t h a n ) ' ; l e m i e u x ( d e ) ‘ t h e b e s t ( o f ) ’ m a l ‘ b a 〔 Ⅱ y ; p i s / p l u s m a l ( q U e ｳ ‘ w o r s e ( t h a n ) ' ; l e p i s / l e p l u s m a l （ d 匂 ‘ w o r s t ( o f ) ，
b e a u c o u p ‘ m u c l f ; p l u s / a u t a n t ( q U e ) ‘ m o r e / a s ｍ ｕ ｃ ｈ ( t h a n / a s ) ' ; l e p l u s ( d e ) ‘ m o s t ( o f ) ,
p e u ‘ l i t d e ， ; m o i n s / a u s s i p e u ( q U e ) ‘ l e s s / a s l i t d e ( t h a n / a s ) ' ; l e m o i n s ( d e ﾘ ‘ l e a s t ’
Imaimescelivre?−Non,jeneraimepasb”zzco"pb Ybulikelhisbook?−Ｎo,notmuch．
』 ， a i m e 加 犯 ” c e l u i c i ( 9 邸 e c e l u i l 鋤 ． Ilikelhisonebetter(thanthatone)．
M o i , c P e s t c e l i V r E l a q U e j ' a i m e I E m 花 ” ( 此 t o u s ) ． Iljke的atbookbest(ofall)．
賑
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companson： ●
I o h a n l m v a i l l e p I I u s d 7 I ｲ e j e ” ( l e ) c r o y a l s ．
Johanworksmorethanllhou虫t，
一 曇
B i e n u s e d w i t h v o u l o i r : 1 h e p o s i t i o n o f b i e n m a y i n d i c a t e a l e v e l o f f b m l a l i w o r infbrm血Ⅳ： 皿e"e”b陀卯r6pondIEalaques面on.(fbmlal/infbrmal） S h e w i ] l b e p l e a s e d t o a n s w e r dlequestion． ⅡIﾉ0””””quetul'6coutes.(infbrmal） nvDusp】iede”邸勿irb花"１，“Out“(fbrmal） Hewouldlikeyoutolistentohim/he、．
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S o m e a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s o f q u a n t i t y ：
a p e i n e ‘ h a r d l y I t o u t a f a i t ‘ c o m p l e t e l y ； a p e u p r e s ‘ a l m o s t ’ 一 躍
AdwErbs⑪f師ｍ盛
Ｓｏｍｅexamples： a l o r s ‘ t h e n 3 a p r e s ‘ a f t e r ; a U j o u r d ' h u i ‘ t o d a y ; a u p a r a y a n t ‘ b e f b r e 1
a u s s i t 6 t ‘ i m m e d i a t e l y i b i e n t 6 t ‘ s o o n $ d e j a ‘ a l r e a d y ; d e m a i n ‘ t o m o l r o w l d 6 s o m l a i s ‘ ( f r o m ) ｎ ｏ ｗ ( o n ) ； ｅ ｎ ｈ ｎ ‘ a t l a s t , h n a l l y 1
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h i e r y e s t e r d a y ; l o n g t e m p s ‘ f b r a l o n g t i m e ; m a i n t e n a n t ‘ n o w ； p u i s ‘ t h e l f S o m e a d v e r b i f d p h r a s e s o f t i ｍ ｅ ： apr6sent‘atpresent;detempsentemps‘homtimetotime;tout a l h e u １ ℃ ‘ s o o n , l a t e r ’
一 曇
Adw⑱rlDs⑪fplace
S o m e e x a m p l e s ： a u t o u r ‘ r o u n d 1 c o m r e ‘ a g a i n s “ e d a n s ‘ i n s i d e ; d e h o r s ‘ o u t s i d e ； d e r r i e r e ‘ b e h i n d ; d e s s o u s ‘ u n d e m e a l h 3 d e v n n t ‘ b e f b r e ; i c i ‘ h e r e ； ｌ ａ ‘ h e r e , t h e r e ; 0 曲 ‘ w h e r e ’
S o m e a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s o f p l a c e ： e n a m i e r E ‘ b a c k w a r d s 1 e n a y a n t ‘ f b r w a r d s ; n u l l e p a r t ‘ n o w h e r e ’ -154.11岸
P0sili⑪皿⑪fadwerbs
Withsimpletenses,adverbsusuaⅡyfbuowlheverb,andwithcompoundtenses d l e y a r e u s u a l l y p l a c e d b e t w e e n d l e a u 】 d l i a l y v e r b a n d d l e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ・ Ｎ ｂ r m a l l y t h e y p r e c e d e a n i n h n i t i v e ・ 皿esZm”i此"鋤gα班”pbTheywo]kalot、 Elleｓｏ"鋤”IJC⑪”””"脇Theyhavewolkedalot・ nfambjC祁姉tpartinWe，uhavetoleavesoon・
F o r e m p h a s i s , t h e y a r e p l a c e d a t t h e b e g I m i n g o r a t t h e e n d o f l h e s e n t e n c e l〃zzimg“ｔｕｍ'ennuies1
R e a l l y ; y o u a r e a n n o y i n g m e 1
T h e y a l e p l a c e d b e f b r e a n a d j e c t i v e , a p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o r a n o t h e r a d v e r b w h i c h lheymodi鄭 Ellessomm噸"応b陀郡habin6es･
Theyarea]waysｗｅⅡdressed CetAⅡemandpmlefzssGzF”Ilehran9ais･
T h a t G e r m a n s p e a k s F r e n c h r a t h e r b a d l y E
B u t , d l e s e a r e o n ] y g u i d e l i n e s o n d l e p o s i t i o n o f a d v e r b s , a n d t h e y m a y ; f b r v a I i o u s r e a s o n s , b e m o v e d b D m l h e i r u s u a l p o s i t i o n ･ F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e a d v e l b i s q u i t e l o n g i t i s f e q u e n d y p l a c e d a t d l e e n d o f l h e s e n t e n c e ， Ellevifmdwmousvoir加邸”IWte”淫
She'ncomeandseeuslateron．
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鰯 ７ １ １ １ ｍ ｅ " e r b g m 叩
m a n n e I ; t h e n p l a c e , 1 h e n t i m e j u s t a s i n E n 9 i s h ． nestarriVも伽だ〃WizzJejFzechGzFzO砿仇加加邸雄
H e a r l i v e d o u t o f b r e a d l a t o u r h o u s e a t m i d n i g h t ． 畠54.1野
AdWErbS⑪fneganon(see60） Thefbrmsare： ｎ ｏ ｎ ｎ ｏ
､e…guも肥/(apeineウ
ｐ ａ ｓ ｎ ｏ
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ｎｅ…ｐｌｕｓｎｏｍｏｒｅ,longer ne…aumm(。/m1lqeリ ne…nobodymo-one ｎｅ…mT1恥ｍｆｍｔ pe応onne
霊54.13ト
h a r d l y
nota,notone
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Nonandpas
N O n i s t h e m a i n a d v e r b o f n e g a t i o n ． mveuxdusucre?ﾊnDFz(orMer℃i)．
L i k e s o m e s u g a r ? Ｎ ｏ ． P a s i s u s e d l i k e n o n i n s o m e w a y s , b u t i s l e s s f b r m a l ． ●
Ⅱveutchanterma1sp“moi！
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Ｎｏ１
p a s 1 / P a s d u t o u t I Pasunseul1
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司54.14岸
J e c r o i s 9 I J g r z O 腿
Idolftthjnkso
Sansdouteque n o n . / P m b a b l e m e n t p a s ．
P r o b a b l y n o t ．
A p o s i t i v e a n s w e 喝 w h i c h c o m a d i c t s a n e g a t i v e q u e s t i o n o r s t a t e m e n t , i s u s u a l l y i n h D d u c e d b y s i ( n o t o u i ) ． VbuS卯evouIezpJzsmPaccompa厚1e鳶MtzjSsj1 Ybudon，twanttocomewilhme?Yes,Ｉｄｏ１
F o r t h e p a r t i t i v e a r t i c l e i n a n e g a l i v e c o n t e x t s e e l l ､ 1 ． P⑨siti0n⑪megameadwErbs
h l s i m p l e t e n s e s n e p 花 c e z j E s t h e v e r b a n d p a s , p l u s , j a m a i s わ " 0 1 " t h e v e r h l n c o m p o u n d t e n s e s n e p 花 c e z j E s l h e a u 】 d l i a r y v e r b a n d p a s , p l u s , j a m a i s j b 肋 〃 1 h e a m d l i a r y v e l b ． IeyzevoisｱｫE処
Elles”sont””jSall6es‘
I c a I f t s e e a n y l h i n g ， T h e y h a y e n e v e r b e e n t h e r e ．
B u t P e r s o n n e , n e n , a u c l m ( e ) c a n f b u o w t h e v e r b , t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e , ｏ ｒ ａ ●
p r e p o s i t i o n ． Nousｱz師onsentendu〃e応”“ Wedidnmthearanyone． ●
皿eyzeposeraitcettequestionP”r両“”〃zorzaEb
S h e w o u l d n P t a s k l h a t q u e s t i o n f b r a n y l h i n g ( i n t h e w o r l d ) ．
P e r s o n n e a n d r i e n m a y b e u s e d a s s u b j e c t s o f l h e v e r b , b u t l h e y m z J s r h a v e t h e i r ne1
Pe応”Fze旅stvenmhierso血
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ＮＯｕｓｧzIayonsaIJcz"zsouciconcemantce杖e6mdiante・ Wehavenowomesaboutdlisstudent・
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脚：nmie肥肋8m"
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Heamvedoutofbreadlatourhouseatmidnight． 司54.12岸
AdwErbS⑪fnegati⑥皿(see60） Thefbrmsare： ｎ ｏ ｎ ｎ ｏ
､e…guも唾/(apeine）
ｐ ａ ｓ ｎ ｏ
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計54.1課
h a r d ] y
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NOnandpas
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Ⅱveutchanterma1S〃fzsmoiI
Ｈｅｗｉ]lsingbutnotme1 ●
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T h a t j S n o t p o s s i b l e ． Someemressionswithnonandpas： Maisnon1/AbsnlnUmfmt
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Andmoregendy： 】 e c r o i s 9 z # e 7 z O F z ・ SansdouteqUe n o n . / P r o b a b I e m e n t p a s ． 司54.14岸
Idolftthinkso、
P r o b a b l y n o t ．
A p o s i t i v e a n s w e B w h i c h c o n t r a d i c t s a n e g a t i v e q u e s t i o n o r s t a t e m e n t , i s u s u a ] ] y inmducedbysi(notoui)． Vbus7zevoulez〃“mPaccompa印1er?Mbzissj1 Ybudon'twanttocomewilhme?Yes,Ｉｄｏ１
罵昌型些ト
F o r d l e p a r t i t i v e a r t i c l e i n a n e g a t i v e c o n t e x t s e e l １ ． １ ．
ヨ54.16岸
PoSition⑪fnegatiWeadWBrbS msimpletensesnep花cezjEstheverbandpas,plus,jamaisわ"0"theverb・hl c o m p o u n d t e n s e s n e p 花 c F c l E s t h e a u 】 d l i a r y v e r b a n d p a s , p l u s , j a m a i s 拘 肋 " 1 h e a l m l i a r y v e r b ． JeFzevois減E恥
E l l e s y z i ﾉ s o n t j Z z " " Z s a l l 6 e s ．
I c a n J t s e e a n y t h i n g ・ Theyhaveneverbeemhere．
●
B u t p e r s o n n e , n e n , a u c u n ( e ﾘ c a n f b l l o w t h e v e r b , 1 h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e , ｏ ｒ ａ p r e p o s i t i o n ． Nous7z卸onsentendupe庵0”ａ Ｗ ｅ ｄ ｉ ｄ ｎ ' t h e a r a n y o n e ． ●
EllerzeposeraitcetteqUestionpo”両””〃zo列‘2Eも
S h e w o u l d n ﾉ t a s k t h a t q u e s t i o n f b r a n y l h i n g ( i n l h e w o d d ) ．
Personneand面enmaybeusedassubjectsoflheverb,butlhey腕zJsthavetheir ne1 Ｐｅ応”卯ｅ雄stvenuhiersom
N O b o d V c a m e l a s t n i 解 1 t ・ Aucun(eｳmaybereplacedbynulOe)infbrmalHench,andbypasun(eｳin infnTmalFrench．、 NOusF1IaⅣonsazJczz〃sOuciconcermntcette6mnigm施一
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ハルJIjEr6ponse〃h6t6donn6eauminisnfe，
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I 5 a I I I T h e 肥 池 8 m "
B o t h p a r t s o f t h e n e g a t i v e p r e c e d e a n i n h n i t j v e i f t h e y r e f e r t o t h a t i n h n i t i v e ． I d o l f t w a n t t o g o ・ H e p r e f e r s n e v e r t o g o t h e r e ．
IeFzeveuxp“yallen Ⅱpr錘reFzejtz”jsyaⅡe、
Notethatpersonalpmnounsareplacedbetweemheneandtheverborthe a l m l i a r y ( s e e 2 1 . 3 a ) ． ●
畠54.17吟
､ｅ…ｍ…ｍ… 即
Ⅱ〃泡ｖｕ”sameneFzjsas哩唾
Ｈｅｈ月Rn2tseenhismotherorhissistel：
lVZsamereyzisasoeur死eviendra/viendront.(see29.6） Neitherhismolhemorhissisterwillcome．
-154.18ト
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T h i s n e o c c u r s i n f b r m a l , o r v e r y c o l r e c t F r e n c h , b u t ｏ ｎ ] y i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s ､ I t i s f t e q U e n d y o m i t t e d h o m i n f b I m a l F r e n c h ・ I t i s u s e d ● a f t e r v e r b s e 】 叩 r e s s i n g f e e l i n g , a n d v e r b s e 】 叩 r e s s i n g a v o i d a n c e ： n a p e u r q U P e Ⅱ e F z e s o i t m a l a d e ・ Heも誼aid(1haOshemaybem．
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orも唾十nounphraseinmducedbyde． Maisnon1nesZ此”J陀刀zOW”eetgZ'邸Fze肱雄””ねSCT加鋤胞 N o 1 H e も a v e r a g e h e i g h t a n d m d e s c r i b a b l y u g l ｙ
M a n y a d ﾘ e c t i v e s m a y b e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e h a i l ; e y e s , e t c ､ N o t e t h a t c o m p o u n d adiecnvesofcoloursuchaschatainfbnc6or印isvertandsomenounslike ma両onareinvariableinHench：
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S h e b t a l l , t h i n , w i d l b r o w n e y e s a n d l i 沙 t b r o w n c u l l y h 趣
T h e d e E n i t e a r t i c l e o r a m i r 十 d e h n i t e a r t i c l e a r e u s e d t o r e f b r t o p a I t s o f t h e b o d y ：
Commeilestmi部ｏｎ…tucmisqu！ilvagalder肱ye嘩雄IJs？ ( S e e 9 . 4 b ）
H e b a l i t d e d a r l i n g 1 D o y o u l h i n ｋ ｈ ｅ , Ⅱ k e e p h i s b l u e e y e s ? Alasuitedesachute,eneα”厳吻”Jed6miseetlUsfZe“血加bgs dansleplatra
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m o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e s o m e o n e e l s e , a g a i n s i m p l y s t a t e t h e n a m e m a f も i l l y i n f b l m a l s i t u a t i o n , y o u c a n a d d c ， e s t o r v o i l a ： ●
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d e s ) h a s t o b e u s e d a f t e r d i １ ℃ c t e u r / d i r E c m c e , B u t k e e p i n m i n d t h a t a n u m b e r o f nounsusedfbrprofbssionshaveno蛇mininefbrm(see16.5)．
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c h a r g 6 d e ＋ i n E n i t i v e , c b f e 正 s p o n s a b l e d e ＋ ｎ ｏ ｕ ｎ ‘ t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f b r ; a n d m a n y d i f f e r e n t p r e p o s i t i o n s ( s e e 5 5 ) c a n b e u s e d d e p e n d i n g o n w h a t f b n o w s ： c h e z i s u s e d w i t h p r o p e r n a m e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r p e o p l e ：
１ ７ ０ 助 " c t i O F z s
Maintenant,il””"彫c“乙睦zzgEormaisa”nt,ilさ”tchaz ChzzzJm”t＆勘も肥salmhPs
HeworksfbrPeugeotnowbutheusedtobewithChaumont＆ FreresinLoches．
dansisusedwidlsectorsororganizations-whendlenameisnot s p e c i h e d ： 皿eauraitvouluen位er血F鱈I切猫eig"””etvoilaqU?eⅡese r e t r o u y a i t e m p l o y 6 e ” J z s z J 池 加 ” z J e d u c e n b 氾 一 V i l l e ・
S h e w o u l d h a v e l j k e d t o g o i n t o t e a c h i n g , b u t s h e 1 S w o r l d n g i n a bankimhecenbreoftown．
a i s u s e d w i t h n a m e s i n v o l v i n g a d e E n i t e a r t i c l e , w i l h i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d a l s o i n o r d e r t o b e s p e c i E c a b o u t d e p a m n e n t s w i t h i n a c o m p a n ﾘ ﾙ f b r e x a m p l e ： ＭａｂｅⅡe-soeurest唾sponsabledesachats〃MaIks＆Spenceret monbfere杜a”iⅡｅ〃伽Ｍａｍｅ,α〃D6partementde肥tatCivil･
Mysister-in-lawisheadbuyerfbrMaIks＆Spencerandmy b r o l h e r w o r k s f b r 山 e l o c a l a u t h o r i w i n t h e R e g s t r y O f h c e ． N a t u r a ] ] y ; 1 h e s e p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e o f t e n c o m b i n e d i n o n e s t a t e m e n t ：
I e s u i s c h a r g 6 e d ' ０ r g a n i s e r l e s e q q J 6 d i t i o n s f Z f m s 皿 e 露 a n d e s o c i e t 6 ●
d i n f b n n a t i q u e , ” s e r v l c e e q 叩 o r t a t i o n ・
I 4 m i n c h a r g e o f d i s p a t c h i n g g o o d s i n a b i g c o m p u t e r c o m p a n y ； imheemortdepamnent． 一 躍
Age
A m i r i s u s e d t o 厚 v e p r e c i s e d e t a i l s o f a g e ・ D o n o t f b r g e t a n s a f t e r t h e n u m b e r ： ●
蝿ｔｈＧｒｉｎｅａ叱趣a1zsetZmjS晩0忠
C a l h e l i n e i s 2 y e a l s a n d 3 m o m h s ( o l d ) ． Ⅱ””力”蛇-ci”αFzsenl，andeuxmille･
He，nbe35inlheyeartwolhousand． W i t h o l h e r v e r b p h r a s e s y o u c a n b e l e s s p r e c i s e ： Ｍａ皿ｅＩﾉｫC”α物”か９砿r2zB4msetmonms”s”ses”zfzgarzsも
胸dau甑terhasjusttumedl501adherEfteendlbirlhday)and mysonisahnostl2． Nounsmayalsobeusedtogiveanindicationofagewilhoutbemgprecise： C，est”ocZng‘”i”唾sdynamiqUe1
H e も a v e r y l i v e l y 8 0 y e a r o l d 1
Ｉ7 １
Ⅳ”0s加0〃
Ａｍｏｎａ]ﾉis,eⅡeα”ｅ９”mFz奴j”α物”§esb-mplaisantes1?]e d i r a i s p l u t 6 t l Z z c ” ” J z m i F z e b i e n t a s s 6 e ・
Inmyopinion,sheもalmost40-Ybumustbejoldng1SheもweU p a s t 5 0 ．
Verbssuchasc唾,paramEmaybecombinedwithadjectivesandpast p a r t i c i p l e s s u c h a s j e u n e , 3 9 6 ： Ⅱp"zz就並もsjeI"zepour6位ePDG(Pr6sident-DirEcteurGeneral） d e I e n 杜 e p r i s e 1
HeseemsveryyoungtobeChairmanandManagngDirectorof d l e c o m p a n y ！ N o t e t h a t t h e a d j e c t i v e o r p a s t p a r t i c i p l e i s s o m e t i m e s o m i t t e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n c o m p a r a t j v e e 叩 r e s s i o n s ： En杜もe評amitepourlesenfants(j28‘s)此mojJzs叱ci”mzsb AdmissionfTeefbrchildrenunder5．
ItisusefUltobeabletotalkorwriteaboutagegroups,fbrexamplewhen a n a l y s i n g a n a g e p y r a m i d , T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s w a y s o f d o i n g i t ： Ｙｂｕｃａｎｕｓｅａｇ６ｄｅ…ａ：
lesg6n6rationsl91岳1919,j28瞳ES“68it72ansaulerjanvier l988
thegenerationsbombetweenl915-l919,agedfrom68to72on lstJanuaryl988 ●
ｏｒａⅣｏ１ｒｅｍｒｅ．．、ｅｔ２
lesg6neralionsjUﾊzz”acmeⅡementeFz舵１５et35ans、
t h e g e n e r a t i o n s i n t h e p r e s e n t a g e b a n d l 5 t o 3 5 ． oraordeandahyphenbetweendletwoagelimits： A70-74ans,iInerEsteque70hommespourlOOfemmeset,〃 80唇８４ans,seulement50，
hllheage厚oup70-74,therearenow70malesfbrlOOfEmales andinlheagegroup8卜84,only50. 19％pourlesfbmmes伽21-24ａｎset１７％pourleshommes” 24-29ａｎｓ
１９％fbrfbmalesimheagegroup21-24aｎｄ１７％fbrmalesinthe agegroup24-29
a n d u s e t h e d e h n i t e a n d p a r t i t i v e a r t i c l e s w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e f b r m s o r a g e b a n d s ： Aurecensementdel954,JEsPJIJs”αな”sfbrmentImepyramide dhmgen唾nouveau,enfbrmede‘memedepaille，(Z切珍c"“
１７２：助加加砥
IOLI9a妬@ｍ””iF2sFzo腕b””9““”dEs20L29aFzs),maiS“
F ” i r z s g j b I O a r z s 》 n 6 s d u b a b y b o o m , s o ” n e t t e m e n t P J 妬 F z o m b 柁 嘩 Ａ 皿 d e m i e r r e c e n s e m e n t ( 1 9 8 2 ) , e n h n , l a p y r a m i d e t o u t entiも唾acettefbrmedemeuledepaille,伽”mjbs20L294msa peupresa“"だαIﾊＥＣ“恥dbsIOLI9a心estnettement
s”‘池吻珍仇“此４魅OL9fmSmarqu､eparlabaisser6centedela 鮭、耐ｔＡ
（ V 8 1 1 i n , 』 . ( 1 9 8 9 ) L ‘ z Ｐ ｂ ” ” o " " " ” j S g P a r i s : I a D 6 c o u v e r t e ） hlthel954census,1henumberofchildrenoverlOinfl1'fmced
t h e p r o m e o f t h e a g e p y r a m i d ( t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f l h o s e b e t w e e n lOandl9waslowerthanthepmportionofthosebetween20 a n d 2 9 ) , b u t l h e r e w a s a s i g n i f c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e u n d e r l O , b o m d u l i n g d l e b a b y b o o m ・ F i n a l l y ; i n t h e l a s t c e n s u s ( 1 9 8 2 ) , t h e a g e s m l c t u r e O O y r a m i d ) o f l h e p o p u l a n o n h a d c h a n g e d c o m p l e t e l M w i t h d l e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e a g e d b e t w e e n 20and29atalmostlhesamelevelasthoseagedbetweenlOand l9,butsi印1ihcandyhi虫er山anlhenumbersofchildrenunder 9 , c a u s e d b y l h e r e c e n t d o w n w a r d t r e n d i n f e r t i l i w r a t e s ． 一 躍
0Ｗ皿ership (a）AsimplewaytorefertowhatsomeoneownsistouseaverbsuchasaⅣｍｒ ●
o r p o s s “ e r ： ⅡaunappartembntaParisetlmer6sidencesecondairEen ●
provmce，
HehasanatinPalisandasecondhomeinlhecountry ( p r o v i n c e s ) ．
I a f 臼 m i l l e d e l j s i e u x a p e r d u p e u a p e u t o u s l e s t e n 9 a i n s q U P e Ⅱ e pOss鋤獅aImefbis, T h e l j s i e u x f a m i ] ｙ 厚 a d u a ] ] y l o s t a l l t h e l a n d i t u s e d t o o w n ．
Notethatsometimesyouhavetousedeafterlheverbwhenthequamiwis indefinite：
Sonnanceα此I物呼”etpJzs”I地陀刀切加danslar噂on.(See l l ）
Herhancehas(some)moneyandquiteabitoflandimhealea． Mere-厚and,commevousaIﾊBz"9ｍ加趣0”"lEs!(See１１．２） W h a t b i g e a r s y o u l V e g o t , G r a n d m o l h e r 1
O t h e r v e r b p h r a s e s , i n v o M n g も 唾 i n p a l t i c u l a I ) ｍ ａ ｙ ｂ ｅ u s e d ： EIleesrdepuispeupossgsse”α'Imeimmensefbmme，
S h e も r e c e n d y i n h e l i t e d a l a r g e f b r t u n e ．
噸；Ⅳ”０s耐｡〃
m 1 h e p r e v i b u s e x a m p l e , n o t e t h a t p o s s e s s e u r h a s n o f e m i n i n e f b l m . ( S e e 1 6 . 5 ) ： mantiqUaire‘”t“蛇"彫”此nomb唾uxobjetsvDl6s・
T h e a n t i q u e d e a l e r h a d a l o t o f s t o l e n g o o d s i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n ． MOnsieurlePmcure皿cesdocumentss”td6sommaise祁廊”Ｅ ●
pOssessJo恥
YburHonoul>1hedocumentsalenowmourpossessio､．
C'estisusedtoimoduceare蛇rencetoownership,fbnowedbyv亜ousphIases suchasamoi,atoi…,ordemes,detes…,ormonproprE,tonprop唾…(seel4)： C湾地”JJscesbeauxye唾l弧?(See13.5a,15.2） A r e t h e y y o u l s , 1 h o s e b e a u t i f m l e y e s 1 ？ ＡｕssiincroyabIeqUecelapuissepami唾,cRestun”"escadea皿xde m a r i a g e 1
U n b e Ⅱ e v a b l e d l o u 喚 i t m a y s e e m , i t b o n e o f m y w e d d i n g p r e s e n t s ！ Maisnon1C4estFJzapmp肥brosseadentsI
No1Itbmyowntoolhbrush1
(b）Insomeoftheaboveexamples,thepossessiveadjectivesmon,to､…are i n c l u d e d ( s e e １ ９ . T h e s e a n d p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s I e m i e n , l e t i e n … ‘ m i n e , y o u r ｓ … ' a r e h e q u e n d y u s e d t o e x p r e s s o w n e r S h i p ( s e e 1 5 . 1 ) ： n a v e n d u t o u s s e s v i e u x d i s q u e s ・ Hehassold311hisoldrecords．
Surcettephoto,vousvDyezmo卯marietmoi-mCme,”かEmaisonen a r r i e r e p l a n , e t i c i F z o s c h i e n s ･
md1isphoto,youcanseemyhusbandandme,ourhouseinthe b a c k 厚 o u n d , a n d h e r e a r e o u r d o g s ． C湾r”chamb正戊m0ietjeveuxquetuenl帥estous鰹jouetsdela！ ( S e e 1 3 . 5 a ）
1 t も " Z y r o o m a n d l w a n t y o u t o t a k e a l l y o u r t o y s o u t o f i t 1 A p r b s l a r 6 u n i o n , l e s d i r e c t e u r s s o n t p a r t i s d i n e r a v e c 陀 邸 庵 ｆ ｅ ｍ ｍ ｅ ｓ (or陀邸rfemme)．
A f t e r t h e m e e t i n g , 1 h e m a n a g e r s w e n t f b r d i n n e r w i t h l h e i r w i v e s ． m c r o i s q u e s o F z h o r l o g e e s t a l ' h e u １ ℃ ？
D o y o u t h i n k h i s / h e r c l o c k i s r i g 虹 ？ Ｎ，oubIiepaSmFzbonnetetZWzechaxpeI
D o I f t f b r g e t y o u r c a p a n d y o u r s c a I f I Notedlatson/ton,and"otsa/ta,areusedwilhhomogeand6cha1pe(feminine
174助"c加祁
nouns)becausetheybeginwithamuteh/vowel.(See4.1,14.1a)． T h e p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e i s n o t a ] w a y s r e p e a t e d w i l h a l i s t o f n o u n s ( s e e 1 4 . 1 . ： Ve皿ezin曲querIﾉＯｓｎｏｍ,prenoms,titrEsetqualit6ssurce fmmlH吋距一
P l e a s e e n t e r y o u r n a m e , f i r s t n a m e s , t i d e s a n d o c c u p a t i o n o n lhisfbrm．
TbavoidrepetitionapossessⅣepronounm8Valsobeused： Ｚｂ"nomeausacnemeplaitpas,１ｃｍ鹿"estbeaucouppluspratique･ Idolftljkeyoumewbag・Mineismuchmorepractical． ●
Iおmatin,jeprends”voimreetmonmanprendlZzs花Ｊｍａ
hlthemomings,Itakemycarandmyhusbandtakeshis(one)． Ｌｅ”malsonestplus露andequeZzzsje”a
T h e i r h o u s e i s b i g g e r t h a n h i s / h e r s ・ Moseni泡ntssontturbulentsmaisJEsIE邸庵sontencorepires!(See 1 5 . l b ）
O u r c h j l d r e n a r e r o w d y ; b u t l h e i r s a r e w o r s e 1 N o t e l h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l e s l e u r s ( p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n ) i n t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e a n d l e s l e u r ( p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s ) i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g o n e ： Ｊ,airepulesphotos,tuJEs陀”momeras?(See19,21.4）
Ｉ'vegotthephotos・WIllyoushowthemtolhem2 I n s o m e e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s , t h e a r t i c l e m a y b e d r o p p e d b e f b r e l h e p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n ： ■
C，etaitImepetitemmsonsanscachet,ｅⅡelants花”zeeny
d i s p o s a n t t o u s s e s b i b e l o t s ･
Itwasanordinalylitdehouse,butshemadeithersonceshehad ananｇｅｄｈｅｒｏｗｎｄ〕ingsinit． (dWithinanounphrase,ownershjpmaybee印ressedusingde(anddu,dela， des,ｄＩｄｅＷ)(see9)： ＩＥｍｇｍｔ閉皿勉Ｐａ江ickest唾st6dans肘Ｃｌ器se
Pa画ckbcoatisstillintheclassroom． 、ns筒、蛇mralElevelescahigrsfねselcvEs･
T h e t e a c h e r t o o k i n t h e p u p i l s ' n o t e b o o k s ・ IBpasseport”'immi群“taitenr理e，
Theimmi厚antbpassportwasinordem OnnPapasretmuv61epemlisdecondu唾叱距tudiante，
T h e y / W e h a v e n ' t f b u n d d l e s t u d e n t も d l i v i n g l i c e n c e ．
Ｉ7 ５
Ⅳ”0s加0〃
N o t e t h a t i n t h e s e f b u r e x a m p l e s , t h e d e s m l c t u r e c o u l d b e r e p l a c e d w i t h a p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e ： IIinstituteurarelev6JE"庵“h弛晦。
s o " p a s s e p o r t 6 t a i t e n r も 副 e ・
H O w e v e l ) j f t h e p o s s e s s o r i s a n i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t o r d 1 i n g a s i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g example ⅡestaⅡeconsulterlec制d器#ｒｅ此ZfzMtziFfa
HewenttocheckinthelandregisterintheTbwnHa]L
t h e n a c h a n g e o f s m l c t u r e w i l l i n v o ] v e a c h a n g e o f p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n ： Ⅱ e s t a Ⅱ “ l a M a i 1 i e p o u r e y z c o n s u l t e r l e c a d a s 江 e ･
H e w e n t t o t h e T b w n H a l l t o c h e c k i n t h e ( i t s ) I a n d r e 印 s t e m T h e c o m b i n a t i o n d e m o n , d e t o n … i s a l s o u s e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r a f t e r a n i n d i c a t i o n ofquantiw Ⅱ m i s 此 F F z E s n c h i e r s o n t d i s p a r u 1 T h r e e o f m y E l e s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d 1
a n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n d e ＋ p o s s e s s j v e p r o n o u n s d u m i e n , d u t i e n … ‘ o f m i n e , o f y o u r s . . . , ： Ｍｏｎ杜acteurestenpanne;lespropri6tai】氾sdelafEmlevolsme m10ntprct6unfjEs陀測心
晦廿actorhasbrokendown;theownersoflhenei甑bouring 角Tmhavelentmeoneoflheirs．
( d ） T h e p r e p o s i t i o n a h a s t o b e u s e d w i t h c e r t a i n v e r b s s u c h a s a p p a r t e n i r ‘ ｔ ｏ b e l o n g ’ Cettevoim】おaF2Pzz減jg”jtmon壮ere･ ThiscarbelongstomybrotheL
o r r e p l a c e d , ｗ ｈ ｅ ｎ a p p r o p r i a t e , w i l h a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n ： Cettevuiture伽iα”α汀花砿 Thiscarbelongstohim/heL
T h e p r e p o s i t i o n a 十 e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n m a y a l s o b e u s e d w i t h も 唾 ( s e e 1 3 . 5 a , 1 5 . 2 ) ： AqUiestceliwe？一睡jtnous,Monsie皿ⅡeS”Paul‘ Whoseisthisbook?−Notours,SimltbPaulb・ mutcequies””ies峨如jb
E v e r y t h i n g t h a t b m i n e i s y o u r s ・ Aquiso”cesvetements?−恥manteaues蛾J”etlesgantsso"蛾 ｅ'ぬ
Whodolheseclothesbelongto?−Thecoatishisandlhegloves arehers．
１ ７ ６ 助 " c t i o 砿
mthespoken,ratherthanwntten,languageandtoemphasizeownershipor a v o i d a n y a m b i g u i t y ; t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g f b l m s m a y b e f b u n d ： muchepas,desrmapoupeejt〃zoj1
Dolfttouch,itもｍｙｄｏⅢ mveuxdireqU1ilaprissaJaguar2-NOn,ilaplissavoiture〃e恥 laCmo･
YbumeanheもtakenhisJaguar?−Ｎo,ｈｅもtakenherClio． (e）Befbrepartsofthebodyoritemsofclothjng-whereEn副ishuseslhe p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e 一 F r e n c h u s e s t h e d e E n i t e a r t i c l e ( s e e 9 . 4 ) ： JevoudraisqUetutelayes彫visageet姓mains,etqUetute brosses焔dentsetJEscheveuxavantdepar血
ＩUljkeyoutowashyourfaceandhands,andbrushyourteeth a n d h a i r b e f O I e y o u l e a y e ・ I E v e z l h z m a i n d r o i t e e t d i t e s 1 e l e j u l も . ､ ノ
Raiseyourliゆthandandrepeatafterme,‘Iswear…’ Ⅱsetenaitla,IEsmainsdans魅poches･ H e w a s s t a n d i n g t h e r e w i t h h i s h a n d s i n h i s p o c k e t s ・
Howevel)thisisnotahardandfastmleandlhelearemanyexceptionstoit,in p a r t i c u l a r w h e n y o u w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e p o s s e s s i o n o r o w n e r s h i p ： １，aipos6”zmainsumz⑪"coeum
lputmyhandonmyheart・ o r w h e n d l e p a r t o f l h e b o d y i s q u a l i h e d ： IEb6b6aouvertseSgm池ZSyEuxb陀心 T h e b a b y o p e n e d h i s / i t s b i g b l u e e y e s ，
ortoayoidambigui呼Forexample,compare： Donne-moilkz”z恥pourlmyErserlamute・
Givemeyourhandtocrosslhes杜eet・ and
Donnez-moi”力氾””jevaiseKaminerlablessure・
Givemeyourhand(theonelhatbhur0,I'mgoingtoexamine t h e i n j u r y G
I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h e d j f f b r e n c e i n t h e u s e o f l h e r e n e x i v e p r o n o u n i n s e l a v e r l e v I s a g e e t l e s m a m s , s e b r o s s e r l e s d e n t s … a n d a l s o i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e ： Rassumz-vous,vousne”zJsetespascass6彫poi郡et.(See20,47〕 D o n ' t w o r r y ; y o u h a v e I f t b r o k e n y o u r w r i s t ．
1 7 7 Ⅳ E x p o s 伽 〃
andtheuseoflheindjrectobjectpronouninlhefbⅡowingexampletoindicate t h a t a n a c t i o n a f f e c t s s o m e o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e s u b j e c t o f d l e s e n t e n c e ： 図Ⅱeyzo砥asernも伽、罰inenamvzmt-
Sheshookourhandswhensheanived．
Ｓａｍｂｒｅ”abrosse膝cheveuxayantqIrilparte・ HismodlerbrushedhiRh別irbefbreheleft．
(f）Final]ymotethatlhemeaningofsomeverbsandnounsallowsyoutorefer m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e a c t i o n l e a d i n g t o o w n e r s h i p , f b r e x a m p l e ： ． ＩａｆａｍｉⅡesｾst”pmp癖cettete江equimerevenaitdedroit、 T h e f a m j ] y t o o k o v e r t h i s l a n d w h i c h w a s r i 虫 t f U Ⅱ y m i n e ・ Quepenses-tude”血、施肥acu7呪蹴加潅 Whatdoyoulhinkofmylatestacquisition2 一 塁
DImensi0ns(see27）
S p e c i h c v e r b s m a y b e u s e d i n o r d e r t o r e f e r t o l e n g t h , w i d t h , d e p t h , h e i g h t ， ｡ ] i c k n e s s , s i z e , s u l f a c e a r e a , c a p a c i 耶 e t c . , e ､ 9 . m e s u 1 氾 町 c h a u s s e 喝 f 園 i r e ・ C e t t e p l a n c h e 7 7 z e s " ” ２ m e t １ ℃ s ，
T h i s p l a n k i s 2 m e 甘 e s l o n g ・ n F 7 z e s z J ” u n m e t m q U a t r e v i n g t s e t P @ s e q u a t r e v i n g t q U i n z e l d l o s ・ Ｈ ｅ b 6 f b o t t a l l a n d w e i g h s l 3 s t o n e ・ 肥cJba砿sedu38･
Itakea(size)３８shoe． Theverbfai】℃isoftenusedtorefertodimensionsfmdRi尻Ｇ２
Iacorde力"３ｍも唾s，
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Iapiscine施厳4ｍも位es，
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hldleabsenceofcontextfbrthepreⅥousexample,youmiゆtneedtospecify thatyouarerefemngtodepth(asopposedtolength,fbrexample)anddle s t r u c t u r e u s e d I e q U i r e s d e ： Iapiscinejiz〃25”力電"ん"g(鵬”et2”力密此"ｍﾉby唾”
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Cettepiもcej2zit3碓向雷娩””(e”・ Thisroomis3mebreshi甑．、
A f t e r t h e o b j e c t b e i n g d e s c r i b e d , y o u h a y e t o u s e d e a g a i n ： C，estunpetitcheminabIwimn2膨勿加心Z泥sb
lfSaslmmroadaboutlXmjleslong． Ⅱaunecicamce”IOcE””Z7Essurlajambe、
H e h a s a 4 i n c h s c a r o n h i s l e g ・
Similany;whenthenoune印ressingdimensionissubjectoftheverb6唾,you needtousede：
Mesdamesetmessieurs,ｎｏｔｒＥａ賊jz4g2eestactueⅡement“５０００ ｍ§蛇s・
I a m e s a n d g e n d e m e n , w e a r e n y i n g a t ( a n a l t i t u d e o f ) 5 , 0 0 0 metres．
Ｉａｐｍ/brzf泥”decepuitsestzJもnvironlOme虹es・ ThiswenisaboutlOme江esdeep
T h e s a m e a p p l i e s a f t e r u s i n g a n a d i e c t j v e o f d i m e n s i o n ： 恥r6seauroutierdanoisest肋噌〃℃miron70900hno TheroadnetworkinDenmaIktotalssome70,9001qn．
D i f f e r e n t p r e p o s i t i o n s s u c h a s a , 。 e , p a r ＋ d e E n i t e a r t i c l e c a n b e u s e d t oreferto rliffprentmedlodsofmeasurement(see56.12)：
E x a m p l e s w i t h a ： IEseｮ甲ertso”"zes〃だlaprofbndeurdulacjt肱soyzzjE･
Ｔｈｅe】叩ertshavemeasuredthedepthoflhelakewitha s o u n d i n g l i n e ． Ｉおma9on”rｆﾉﾗESC､杜avail”砿Iﾉｅａ””'ぬ Themasoncheckshiswolkwithalevel．
N o t e t h a t i f y o u u s e a n a l t e m a t i v e e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s u c h a s a r a i d e d e , t h e d e E n i t e 2市clebecomesindefinite：
Iaprofmdeurα‘だ〃zeszJ花e”物ｉｔ施α'z"zesorz“ Ⅱu鋪βＢＳＯn位avail〃I”たfj'”戒Iﾉeα””ぬ
Exampleswithdeandpar：
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I I j 剛 A ” z ” z e s " だ e Z Z e s y e “ i l s u t t o u t d e s u i t e q u F e Ⅱ e s e r a i t t r o p 津 a n d e p o u r l e r 6 1 e ・
Helookedherupanddownandlmewri甑tawaythatshewould b e t o o t a l l f b r t h e p a r t ・ Iesr6sultatso”錘Cs〃７７１息s"”Zbbse”釦"etzﾉ鋤港”rZe “んIJlL
Theresultswereassessedby(fimheOobservationandve麺ed b y c a l c U l a t i o n ・
F i n a l l y m o t e t h e u s e o f l e n e x i v e v e r b s c o m b i n e d w i t h p r e p o s i t i o n s ( a ＋ s i n g u l a l ； ｅ ｎ ＋ p l u r a l ) t o i n d i c a t e t h e u n i t o f m e a s u r e m e n t ： Cheznous,lespommesse”Jz”””臓肋etlecidre”I肋淫
m o u r c o u n b f y ; a p p l e s a r e s o l d b y t h e 1 d l o a n d c i d e r b y d l e l i t r e ・ Suivantleurimportance,lesterrainssemes邸彫Fzte〃〃2,ｶ℃s”７７歯 ｏueJzjbec”℃sb
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e i r s i z e , a r e a s o f l a n d a r e m e a s u l e d i n s q u a r e metresorhectares．
一睡圃昨
quamiwa皿dnumber(see28,29
Whenyouwanttobepreciseaboutquantiwandnumbenyouusecaldinal n u m b e r s ･ h l l h e f b u o w i n g e x a m p l e s , n o t e c e r t a i n s m a l l c h a n g e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t h e s p e n i n g o f c e n t a n d v i n g t ( s e e 2 4 . 5 b ) ： Ⅱｙａ"ｉｓ“"tsoimFz蛇．ci”joursdansl,aIm6e・
Thereare365daysintheyeaI3 Sur9“向泡“”cj””冗陀ctudiantsinsc】itsenpremiereann6e d ， a n g m a i s , 9 ” ” 1 ﾉ 加 g Z S p a s s e r o n t e n d e u 】 d e m e a n n 6 e ，
O f 4 5 0 s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d i n E r s t y e a r E n 副 i s h , 8 0 w i l l g o i n t o s e c o n d y e a l b lEchifhedaffairesduGroupeestd，envimnZmis“"な”""Fzsde brancs,dOnt9””-1ﾉ加gZ造αな”I助yzsrEpr6sententlesvEntesa l ' 錐 a n g e 脇 ( S e e 2 4 . 8 ）
・TheGroupbtumoverisappro刺mately300mmionhancs,ｏｆ Ⅷ ] i c h 9 0 m i l l i o n r e p r e s e n t e 】 叩 o r t s 、 Whenyoudonotneedtobesoprecise,nounssuchasdizaine,centaine,millier maybeused(see26)： １ ， a i ” 蛇 ” Z g Z Z z i F z e “ I i v l 泡 s d e c u i s i n e ．
’ ， v e g o t a b o u t t w e n t y c o o k e r y b o o k s ， DeSamis?Ⅱs，“fｅｒａ恥s“"”Fz“b
Friends2He，Ⅱmakehundredsoffhnm．
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I f y o u w a n t t o r a n k t h i n g s , o r e m r e s s h r a c t i o n s , u s e o r d i n a l n u m b e r s p r e m l e 喝 demdeme,dbdbme,centieme...(see24.10上24.12)．
( a ） a s a d j e c t i v e s ： Attention,Ies叱趣ｐ把加彪庵ｂａ】reauxder6cheⅡesontcass6s・
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唯theEhhrichestcoumyinthewolld． ■
N o t e t h e p l a c e o f t h e s u p e r l a t j v e a d j e c t i v e i n l h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e ( s e e 1 7 . 1 2 ) ． ThefbⅡowingexamplemusbfateslheuseofpremier("0,ｍ)ｉｎdates： ●
IEcongfesalieu陀p形mIerouledeuxj叫加?(See24.7a）
W111theconferencetakeplaceomhehrstorsecondofJUne2 ( b ） a s n o u n s , w i t h a n a r t i c l e ( o r a p o s s e s s j v e a d j e c t i v e f b r r i d d l e s ! ) ： C,est彫d7zJaか姥"zeaseplaindreauchefderayDn,nousdevDns i n t e r v e n i r ! ( S e e 2 4 . 1 2 ）
Heb1hefblmhtocomplaintolhedepamnentalmanagenWe'Ⅱ h a v e t o d o s o m e t h i n g ． Ｍｂ卯ｐ花柳jerestl'oppos6derien,腕o〃ＳＥ””estunoiseaur6put6 vole“montoutestunjouet!(See24.12）
”hrstistheoppositeofnothing､Mysecondisabirdthat3sa weⅡ−１mownthieflinatoyE JenPaifaitqUP”9”花血ｍｏｎなavail.(See２５） rVeon]ydoneaquarterofmywork IEsilesrepr6sentent”c"z9zC姥加e鯉lasupeI過cietotaledela G r e c e . ( S e e 2 5 ）
TheislandscompriseaboutoneEfihofthetotallandareaof Greece．
(dDifEcultiescanalisewilhcouectiveemressionsofquamiw(fbrexample,la m o i t i 6 ‘ h a l f ' ) a n d w i l h h f a c t i o n s ( f b r e x a m p l e , l e s d e u x t i e r s ‘ t w o t h i r d s ' ) ｗ ｈ ｅ ｎ theyarepartofthesubjectofaverb,becauseyouhavetodecidewhelherlhe v e r b s h o u l d b e s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l ( s e e 2 9 . 3 2 9 . 9 ：
１８捗
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hllhepreⅥousexample,1heemphasisisontheqUantiw0amoiti9and t h e r e f b r e t h e v e r b a g r e e s w i t h t h e s i n g u l a r n o u n 、 ＬｅＳ９”蛇Ci”"姥"zesdubudgeto”ct6absorb6s･
F o u l 岩 E f i h s o f t h e b u d g e t h a v e b e e n s p e n t ・ 醜e加"”p”jedubudgeta6t6absorb6e(orabsorb9． A c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f l h e b u d g e t h a s b e e n s p e n t ・
Ybuoftenhavedlechoiceoffbcusingomhecomplement他ere-budgeOoron lhequantiw(UmeboImepartie)andhavetomakelheverbagreewidlthe s u b j e c t . 、 t h i s e x a m p l e t h e f e m i n i n e p a s t p a I t i c i p l e i n d i c a t e s f b c u s o n t h e qUanti呼Thisappliestomanyemressionssuchasleplus評andnomb唾,Im certainnombre,unepartie,lamaiorit6,laplupart・ThenounfbⅡowinglhemcan oftenbeconsideredaslhesubjectintermsofgenderandnumber(see29.3, 2 9 . 4 ) ：
L4zPI”α減zZesG℃csa”α”FzFzeFz鐘１，E甑sechr6tienne orthmhwxe･
T h e m a j o r i t y o f G r e e k s b e I o n g t o t h e G r e e k O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ． (d）O1herwaysofe理ressinghactionsofawholeincludetheuseofsurordont： ｍ ｚ Ａ Ⅱ e m a n d s ” 9 z J u z 力 笹 t r a 刃 a i l l e p o u r l ' e w 叩 o r t a t i o n ， OneineveryfburGermansisemployedinthee】叩ortsectoL IEDanemalkcomprend483iles,伽祁IOOemirOnsonthabitees， DenmaIkhasappro】dmately483islandsofwhichaboutlOOale i n h 3 b i t e d ．
Ybumayneedtoemressquantityandnumberswhenrefelringtoanmustrative documentsuchasatable・ThefbⅡowingtablecontainsinfbrmationhomthe l982censusinFrance：
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Ybumaysimplywanttodrawattentiontosomeofdlenumberspresentedin lhetable：
IEnombretotaldecommuness'もIbvea488a(Whenreadingthis a l o u d , ｙ ｏ ｕ s ” q U a 唾 m i l l e h u i t c e n t q U a 唾 v i n g t h u i t . ） Thetotalnumberof(urban)communitiesis4,888.
nyaI4I3commImesdelOOOOaIOOOOOhabitams.(andyouszZy quatorzecent唾izeormillequa唾cent芯Bize/dixmiIleacent m i l l e ）
Therearel,413dismctswithapopulationoflO,OOOtolOO,０００．
Notelhatyoudonotuseacomma,butleaveaspace-exceptfbrdates,l995inbignumbers､HoweveI1youdouseacommabefbredecimalpoints： 26,6％delapopulationtotalevitdansdescommunesrurales． ( a n d y o u s ” v i n g t s b w i r g u l e s i x p o u r c e n t ）
2 6 . 6 ％ o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s i n r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s ．
I n d l e a b o v e e x a m p l e , p o p u l a t i o n i s t a k e n a s l h e s u b j e c t o f l h e v e r b v i v r e , s o l h e verbissingul虹Ifyouplacelheemphasisomhepercentage,youhayeaplural v e r b ：
266％delapopulation”e”dansdescommunesmrales．
腿‘Ⅳ”0s耐0"
W h e n d e s c l i b i n g a t a b l e , o n e o f t h e d i f H c u l t i e s l i e s i n な a n s f e l r i n g n u m b e r s h f o m w r i t t e n t o s p o k e n f b r m , H e r e , f O r e x a m p l e , w h e n u s i n g d l e f b u r t h c o l u m n P o p u l a t i o n e n m i l l i e r s , y o u w o u l d w n t e 8 , 7 0 7 m i l l i o n s a n d y o u w o u l d s 〃 Huitm〃わ】zsseptcentseptminepersoImesvivEntdans l ， a 翌 o m 6 r a t i o n p a 1 i s i e n n e ・
Eiゆtmjllionsevenhundredandsevenlhousandpeoplelivein Parisanditssuburbs．
A n o t h e r w a y o f d e a l i n g w i t h d l e n u m b e r s , a n d l e s s p r e c i s e l y t h a n t h e v e r s i o n a b o v e , w o u l d b e l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g ( n o t e l h e a d d i t i o n o f d e i n t h i s c a s e a f t e r l h e nounmillions)：
P泥s此Fze””"mFzs”persoImesmentdansl'a悪omeralion p a r i s i e n n e ･
A l m o s t n i n e m j l l i o n p e o p l e l i v e i n P a l i s a n d i t s s u b u r b s ． AnaltemativeadverbfbrprもsdeisenViron： 助”Ｗｚ”〃”"如卯setfje”cjEPersonnesviventdans l , a g g o m 6 r a t i o n p a 1 i s i e n n e ･
Amundei甑tandaha]fmillionpeopleliveinParisandits suburbs．
F i n a l l y ; j f t h e u n i t i n d i c a t e d i n b r a c k e t s a t t h e t o p o f a c o l u m n o f f b u r f i g u r e n u m b e r s w e r e e n m i l l i o n s , y o u w o u l d s z Z y t h e n u m b e r i n m i l l i a 】 ｄ ｓ ‘ b i l l i o n s ' ： Accroissementprevudelapopulationmondialeenl'andeux m i l l e e t e n l ' a n d e u x m j l l e v i n g t c i n q POpzJkz加刀(１２〃”"jo” 2000
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madditiontothedenselypopulatedareaofParisandits suburbs(8,700,000inhabitants),５６olhersuburbanareashavea
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、Germany;４３％ofthepopulationareProtestantｓａｎｄ43.3％ areRnmfmC31hnlic．
o r s i m p l y 6 1 r e ＋ n o u n ： IaIrancees”FZe””Iji7IJa
H a n c e i s a r e p u b l i c ．
Theverb6唾alsofbaturesinanumberofe】叩ressionswhereitiscombined withpastparticiples,ｅ､9.§唾marquep鋤omouns,ｅ､g､錘eune難emplede： 恥IEIiefdemEspa厚1eest”ｍ７ｚＪｊｐ”umealtemanceen唾les c h a i n e s d e m o n t a 邸 e e t l e s v a l l 6 e s n m i a l e s . ( S e e 4 8 ）
T h e S p a n i s h l a n d s c a p e i s c h a r a c t e l i z e d b y a l t e m a l i n g m o u n t a i n c h a i n s a n d I i v e r v a l l e y s ． Madridest”〃加碓uniquefZesdif腿remesculturesqUiont l a i s s 6 I e u r s l r a c e s e n E s p a g 1 e ・
M a d l i d i s a u n l q u e e x a m p l e o f t h e d j f f e r e n t c u k u r e s w h i c h h a v e l e f t t h e i r m a 1 k o n S p a i n ． ”沌加腕彫””池地lapeinmrcespa邸o1edel，epoquebamqUe
estexceptionneⅡementbienr圏p砥e卯睦ａｕｍｕｓ６ｅｄｕＰｍｄｏ，
T h e 9 o r y o f S p a n i s h b a m q u e p a i n t i n g i s e x c e p t i o n a Ⅱ y w e n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P r a d o ．
N o t e h o w l h e p a i r a d v e r b ＋ a d i e c t i v e 伽 a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t r i c h e ） i n a p p o s i t i o n t o l a
p e i n t u x E e s p a 解 o l e a l s o c o n m b u t e s a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e l i s t i c o f S p a n i s h b a r o q u e p a i n t i n g s ・ Ｓ ｅ ｅ a l s o 5 6 . 2 t o r e f e r t o a p e r s o n I s q U a l i t i e s ． (b）Anumberofrene】dveverbsareusedwithdleprepositionparsuchasse c a r a c t 6 r i s e r p 理 s e d i s t i n g u e r p a r ：
IaGrecesBaz7zzcZ功jSc”rlecon征asteent】過dehautesm0ntagles etIeseauxbleuesdelaM6diteman6e.(See48.4）
Greeceischaractelizedby出ecomastbetweenhi甑mountains andthebluewatersoflheMeditemme2n．
( c ） M a n y m n s i t i v e v e r b s , t h a t i s , v e r b s w i t h a d i r e c t o b j e c t , m a y b e u s e d s u c h a s p r 6 s e n t e ” o s s 6 d e m N o t e l h e p l a c e o f t h e a d j e c t i v e s i n d l e f b l l o w i n g e x a m p l e ：
門恋
I l 8 5 I V E x W o s i t j o "
Ial牡ancepF泡seyz陀邸Fzegm池ね飯Iﾉe応jだ“〃zZysdzggset〃oss2zZe” 減 C h e ” 減 " z ⑰ i ｱ z e h i s t o r i q U e e t C U l m r e l ・
F r a n c e h a s a w i d e d i v e r s i t y o f l a n d s c a p e s a n d a r i c h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h e n t a g e ． (d）ThepassivefbrmisOftenusedwhendescribingasystemoraprocedure a n d r e f e m n g t o q u a n t i w a n d q U a l i t y ( s e e 4 8 ) ： E n G r e c e , I e p o u v D i r l 簿 s l a t i f e s t e x e r c 6 p a r l e P a 工 l e m e n t e t p a r l e pr6sidentdelaRもpublique・IEs300memb唾sduPaI1ement,sauf l2dﾉen唾eu弱sont61usausuf6fagelmiverseldiIもct[…]･IEsl2 d 6 p u t 6 s d , E t a t s o n t d e s i 印 1 6 s p a r l e s p a r t i s p o l i t i q U e s ･
h l G r e e c e , l e g i s l a t i v e p o w e r i s e x e r c i s e d b y t h e p a d i a m e n t a n d b y lhePresidentoftheRepublic・The300membersofpadiament a r e e l e c t e d b y d i r e c t u n j v e r s a l s u f b r a g e , e x c e p t f b r l 2 w h o a r e a p p o i n t e d b y d l e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ． 一 唾
C⑥ｍ即ams⑪皿(see１７．１１）
( a ） Y b u c a n c o m p a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s i n t e n n s o f o n e q u a l i w ： ”c伽zjSeestPluShauteque彫bzmG T h e c h a i r i s h i ゆ e r t h a n d l e b e n c h ・
o r t w o d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s i n o n e o b j e c t ： IEjardinestpJ晦肋鴫9噸伽７群 T h e g a r d e n i s l o n g e r t h a n i t i s w i d e ・
T h e c o m p a l a t j v e f b r m s p l u s o r m o i n s , w h i c h e 】 叩 I e s s i n e q u a l i 耶 a r e o f t e n u s e d w i t h a d j e c t i v e s , a s i n t h e t w o p r e Ⅵ o u s a n d t h e t w o f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s ： 】 e s u i s p Z I J s g m ” b 9 I J e l u i ･ Iamtaller↑hfmheis．
ⅡestpIzJspe蹴9噸moi・ Heissm月11Prthfmlam． andwithadverbs：
ParisesmzOj7zs勿加９zJelyon・
P a r i s i s n o t a s f a r a s L y o n s . ( o r P a r i s i s l e s s d i s t a n t t h a n l y o n s . ） I y o n e s t m o j r z s p 7 @ s 《 ７ I j g P a r i s 、
L y o n s i s l e s s n e a r t h a n P a r i s . ( O r l y o n s i s n o t a s n e a r a s P a r i s . ） orwithnouns：
llamonなePIIJs”“Zot9zJe叱如陀拡 Ｈｅもdemonstratedmorecheekthantalent．
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Dolfthangaroundthere,itもoneoftheworstpartsofthecity NemeprovoqUezpas,voussayezbienque”FzozJsZmjSjesuis陀 PItJsjb減etlb”j7zs脆陀！
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F r a n c e i s t h e s e c o n d b i g g e s t p r o d u c e r o f w i n e a f t e r l t a l y E Iesuis陀加eiJZe”“”z"zsmais陀娩mjere〃arzgImSb
lmtopinmalhsbutbottominEngish． ■
m t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e t h e u s e o f t h e i r r e g u l a r f b l m m e i l l e u r ( s e e 1 7 . 1 3 a ） andalsohowyoucancompareorrankthingsusingledemie配 (b）Ｓｏｍｅtimes,youmakeacomparisontoshowequali噸orsimjlali叩using p h r a s e s s u c h a s a u s s i … q U e w i t h a d j e c t i v e s ( s e e １ ７ ． １ １ ) ： lachaiseesraIJssi”"蛇９Izelebanc・
Theseatisashi少asthebench． l E j a r d i n e s t f z z J s S i 伽 F g g 9 z j e l o n g ・
T h e g a I d e n i s a s b r o a d a s i t b l o n g ． orwithadverbs：
】ecou蝿aI4ss”j蛇９IJelui･ Icanrunas歯stashim．
orwithnouns・Here,ｙｏｕｃａｎｕｓｅａｖｅｒｂも唾,aⅣomfaire…＋article＋ｍ６ｍｅ＋ noun(see27.2)： l忠ｂａｎｃｅｔｌａ征hniResO”此血沈6ｍｅ”呪陀”
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S h e w e n t s l j n l d n g a c r o s s l h e r o o m l i k e a l i o n e s s ・ o r c o n 杜 a i r e m e n t a , a l a d i f f 過 r e n c e d e t o e m p h a s i z e d i f f e r e n c e ： Ｃｂｒｚ”””"”Son雄re,】acquesnes,int6rEssaitpasaux 他mmes-
U n l i k e h i s b r o t h e 喝 J a c q u e s w a s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n w o m e n ．
●usingconjunctionssuchascomme,ainsique,dememeqUefbr s t r a i 甑 t f b r w a r d c o m p a r i s o n ( s e e 1 7 . 1 1 . 0 : ． Ⅱeststupide,””jzesasoeurd,aiⅡeurs1
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H e w o r k s o n l h e l a n d , l i k e h i s f a l h e r a n d g r a n d f a t h e r b e f b r e h i m ． ●usingｄ'autantplus/moins…queorplus/moins…plus/moinsinorderto i n d i c a t e p r o p o r t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n ( s e e 1 7 . 1 1 ) ： Ⅱsemblaitque"IIJsso卯〆彫沌IJssissa繭加o縮e此ＣＯｱzsfzc7zz"de tempsasespropres6tudes･ Itseemedasifthemoreherbrothersucceeded,thelesstimeshe
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N o t e t h a t a f t e r s u p e l l a t i v e f b l m s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h e s u b j u n c t i v e o r l h e i n d i c a t i v e t h e s u b j u n c t i v e t o i n d i c a t e u n i q u e n e s s , t h e i n d i c a t i v e t o e m p h a s i z e a f a c t ：
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● u s m g a d j e c t i v e s s u c h a s t e l ( o r t h e c o n j u n c t i o n t e l q u e ） , i d e n t i q u e , p a r e i l ： 皿esejetasurlui郷(or蛇"e)unti浮巴.(See18.11） S h e t h r e w h e r s e l f a t h i m l i k e a t i g r Ｂ Ｓ Ｓ ． ■
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T h e c h i l d r e n a r e p l a y i n g i n l h e g a r d e n ． ＬａＧｒもcefbrmeunepeIHinsulea邸s”JjEZEtJmﾌa
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Thatmoming,sheUsatbesidehiminthecomparlment． Vb位epere花"je”fZEspJZg7zedemainmaisiljmdabordeFzzﾉ"彫 awantde花”℃rcjiGz〃0”
YburfatherbcomingbackhromSpaintomorrowbuthe'Ⅱgointo townfirstbefbrehecomeshoｍｅ．
CommelaroutenationaleestbanPeee"力氾ZbIJ応et“Ｍｔｍｓｩil
nousfaudraPzzsserP”JEspe"“ｍ脚陀sh SincethemainroadbetweenTbursandLeMansisclosed,ｗｅ'Ⅱ havetouselheminorroads．
１9 ２
”"mio猫
Sometimes,theprepositionisdropped,fbrexampleinanaddress： ノ リ ” I 7 i 蛇 m e f j E s L i l Z z s d e p u i s d i x a n s ･
I , v e b e e n 1 i v i n g i n t h e R u e d e s l j l a s f b r t e n y e a r s ． Ⅱsont6t6oblig6SdeSegmWPlZZceG哲”邸拡 TheyhavehadtoparkinthePlaceGr6court．
hllhefbⅡowingexamples,notelheuseofthepronounsyandeninsteadofdle complements(enEcosseanddecheze”(see19.5,19.6)： SijecolmaisrEcosse?!】,yaiv6cupendantdouzeansetjemPy p l a i s a i s b e a u c o u p ・ Ｄｏｌ１ｍｏｗＳｃｏｄａｎｄ?IlivedtherefbrtwelveyearsandIlikedit
v e r y m u c h . ． h l u t i l e d ， e s s a y e r d e l e s a p p e l e l ; j ' e " 唾 v i e n s , i l n 1 y a p e r s o n n e ･
Nopointbryingtoca]lthem.I'vejustmedandlherebnobody t h e r e ．
I n f b r m a l o r c o l l o q u i a l u s e m a y l e a d t o m j S z J s e o f p r e p o s i t i o n s ： Elleestohtasoeur?“”城"r!(insteadofcjiezlEcoか” Ybursisterbwhere2ThehaiTdTesserも！
( b ） M a n y a d v e r b s a n d a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s i n d i c a t e l o c a t i o n ： 皿e蝿taitamus6eacachertouslesliv】氾sdeson丘もre,jCjer脇
”-42ESS噸fibrarmoilE,so妬leslits,“】7淀花lestableaux,α”Fもｓ 《たsbouteⅢes”Fお陀醒"泥retm6mefjE加悶ｅ〃f池ssozJsf趣haies
q U i b o m a i e n t l e j a r d i n ・
S h e h a d a g r e a t t i m e h i d i n g a l l h e r b r o l h e r b b o o k s , a l l o v e r t h e place-ontopofthewardrobe,undertheｂeds,behindthe p i c t u l e s , b e s i d e b o m e s i n t h e w i n e c e u a l 1 a n d e v e n o u t s i d e underdlehedgesroundlhegarden． Vadoncvoirα"彫"だsij'ysuis1 Getlost1
ＣＯⅡoquialusemayleadtoredundancies,especial]ywithverbsofmovement： Maman,jeso庵娩加応failBunfbot1
MUm,rmgoingouttoplayfbotbaU Jevais4泥Sc巴J２４ｶ℃”bzzschemheruneautrEbouteille･
Imgoingdowntogetanotherbome． (c）Relativeclauseswilhnoantecedentaresometimesusedtoreferto l o c a t i o n ：
畷Ⅳ”0"0〃
Vao”evemtemene,va!(homasongbyBranduar⑪ Gowherethewindtakesyou,ｇｏ！ mlemis,la-hau解Ｄｂなilest,lavuedoitc杜eextraominaire．
Ｄ'youseehjmupthere?Fromwhereheis,theviewmustbe e x b r a o r d i n a r y E a n d t h e s b r u c t u r e c ' e s t ＋ i c i , ｌ ａ … q u e f b r p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s ： Ｃ湾宛ci9IJenousnouSSommesrencon杜esilyavingtans・ Itwasherewemettwenwyearsago．
Ｃ ｾ s t e " B e l g j 9 I u e 9 I J e ' ' ０ n m u v e l e s m e m e u r s c h o c o l a t s . ( S e e 1 7 . 1 3 a ）
I t b i n B e l g i u m t h a t y o u g e t t h e b e s t c h o c o l a t e s ． (d）Placenamesareobviousindicatorsoflocation,whethertheyareusedon d l e i r o w n , ｅ ､ g ・ c o u n m e s , c i t i e s , o r i n n o u n p h r a s e s s u c h a s l a m e r E g 6 e ‘ 1 h e A e g e a n S e a 3 l ' 6 I 6 p h a n t d l A h i q U e ‘ t h e A h i c a n e l e p h a n t l N O t e t h a t t h e p r e p o s i t i o n aisusual]yusedwithcoumiesofmasculinegenderandenwithcounなiesof fEmininegendeｴWhemhereisnogende巧fbrexample,Chypre℃yprus；ais n o r m a l l y u s e d ( s e e 9 . 4 e ) ： Ｊ'aivもcudeuxans”B花S蝿unan〃MbuzZfZ部zs”〃troisans” Ｂｏ励花etjesuisα”鋤施-【〃zisdepuiss血、ois・
I l j v e d i n B r a z i l f b r t w o y e a r s , M a d a g a s c a r f b r o n e , B o l j v i a f b r three,ａｎｄrvebeenintheUnitedStatesfbrsixmonths．
Theprepositionaisalsousedwilhtownsandcities・Donotfbrgettomakethe n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s w h e n a n a r t i c l e i s p a r t o f l h e ｎ ａ ｍ ｅ ： ⅡpleutPlussomcnt向GkuSgUWqqrjt””加邸Fg
l t r a i n s m o r e o f t e n i n G l a s g o w t h a n i n E d i n b u r 甑 ． Ｊ，aid6cid6departir伽Our)unesemame”C”淫
Ｉ ' v e d e c i d e d t o g o t o C a i r o f b r a w e e k ・ Howevel;rememberthatlherearenumerous・exceptionsconcemingtheuseof
p r e p o s i t i o n s a n d c o u n t r i e s ( e n m r a n ‘ i n l r a n ' ) , i s l a n d s ( e n S a r d a i 瓢 e ‘ i n S a r d i n i a ； butaLaR6union),deparlmentsandregions,andthatinsomecasesmorethan oneprepositionmaybeused-evenwithcities-butinsuchcasesthemeanmg i s u s u a l ] ｙ a f f e c t e d ・ Desfburgonsdepoliceontpatrol血色”"s”徳duranttOutle weekend･
P o l i c e v a n s p a t r o n e d P a r i s t h e w h o l e w e e k e n d 、 NotehowthedefnitearticleisdroppedinsomenounphrasesinvoMngplace 、３ｍ白Ｒ２
１ ９ ４ 助 " c r i O " ｓ
IESIﾉ伽s此励zz"cesevendentpartoutdansIemonde． ＨenchwinesaresoldalloverthewnT1。
“"”"”14ﾉﾗfh7z蛇estdifi過rentde姥吻””α注彪
T h e A h i c a n e l e p h a n t i s d i f f e r e n t h o m t h e h l d i a n e l e p h a n t ・ N o t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e m m e a n l n g , a n d d j f f e r e n t p r e p o s i t i o n , b e t w e e n ： All6Paris!】eｍｅ並ouveactueⅡementfZfmslenorddelaHance．
（ A l t e m a t i v e l y ; w i t h a c a p i t a l l e t t e r : J e m e 杜 o u v e d a n s l e N o r d menameoflheregion） Ｈ ｅ Ⅱ o , P a I i s 1 I ' m i n t h e n o r l h o f F r a n c e a t t h e m o m e n t . ( p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n ） and ＩａＭｚｍｃｈｅｓｅ杜ouve”ｎｏｒｄｄｅｌａＲｒａｎ唾＝
TheChannelisomhenorthemcoastofFrance.(permanent s t a t e ） ■
(e)、mthepreⅥousexample,1hereisagoodillusbmionofaverb(se江ouver） usedtoin廿oducelocation･Thereareolherssuchassesituer：
CopenhagueseS航蛇surmedAmagem
CopenhagenisondleislandofAmage工 P a s s i v e f b l m s o f t h e s e v e r b s , ｅ ､ 9 . e t r e s i t u 6 , l o c a I i s 6 , o r i e n t e , a r e a l s o 丘 e q u e m l y used(see４８)：
皿 e d e S a I d a i g l e e s t s i Z Z 4 ‘ e a I o u e s t d e l , I t a l i e ・
S a r d i n i a i s s i t u a t e d t o t h e w e s t o f l t a l y G lapenteqUetuaper9oisesto旗"だeausud，
T h e h m s i d e y o u c a n s e e i s s o u t h f a c i n g 、 N a t u r a l h 〃 p o i n t s o f t h e c o m p a s s a r e h r e q u e n d y u s e d t o r e f e r t o g e o g r a p h i c a l location
IEsPays-Bassﾉetendentα”zo減”s”surenviron300kmetaｾｓＺ ”ozJesrsuremiron200hn，
TheNelherlandsareappro】dmately300hnhDmnorthtosouth andabout200kmfTomeasttowest．
andsometimestheyarecombined： ⅡIfyadecollinesquedanslesr簿ons”s”-es広(See54.21）
T h e ｏ ｎ ] y h i l l s a r e i n t h e s o u t h e a s t ． IavilledeCherbourgsehfouve”卯o秘ozJEstdelaHance･
C h e r b o u r g i s i n t h e n o r l h w e s t o f F r a n c e ．
1 9 5 1 Ⅳ ” 0 ” 0 〃
( f ） F i n a l l 】 ﾙ d l e r e i s a s e l i e s o f n o u n s , a n d c o l r e s p o n d j n g a d i e c t i v e s , w h i c h m a y a l s o b e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e g e o g a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n ： Cetteannee,nousnepasseronspasnosvacancesdansZeM湖i
ThisyearwewinnotbespendingourholidaysinlheMidi． IEversant””わ”ZdesA1pesdescenddefa9onabrUptejusquPa l a p l a i n e d u P 6 ･
OntheirsoudlemsidetheAlpsdropsteeplytolhePoplain． 一 雪
Man皿ｅｒ(see54.1-54.7）
W h e n r e f e r r i n g t o m a I m e 叫 1 h a t i s , b r o a d ] y a n s w e r i n g l h e q u e s t i o n ‘ Ｈ ｏ ｗ ? ' i n r e l a t i o n t o a n a c t i o n o r e v e n t , i t i s u s e f U l t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n ( a ) t h e m e a n s
usedtodosomething,(b)1hemannerinwhichsomethingisdoneand(dthe p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f o t h e r p e o p l e o r t h i n g s d u I i n g t h e a c t i o n o r e v e n t ．
(aOYbumayuseanounphlaseorpronou、in廿oducedbyaprepositionsuch asa,…c,sans,ｄｅ,aumoyende,aIaidede(see56.6)： 血江icotesjt伽”U加Ｃｕ〃ZfzmacjbjFZe2
Doyoulmitbyhandordoyouuseamachine?． ns'esthiss6jusqu1ausommet”F7zqW“'”ecmzja H e p u ] l e d h i m s e l f t o d l e s u m m i t b y a r o p e ・
S o m e t i m e s t h e s e p r e p o s i t i o n s o c c u r w i t h i n m o r e c o m p l e x s m l c t u r e s , f b r e x a m p l e , i n r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ： VbiciIalimea"Ｃｌ”zJeI彫"ａｓ“IesbanEauxdesaceⅡule.(See 2 2 . 5 ）
Hereb1heEleheusedtosawthrou沙thebarsofhiscelL
Anumberofverbsmaybeusedtorefertothemeansormethodsusedsuchas u s e r d e , e m p l o y e 喝 u t i l i s e 1 ; s e s e r v i r d e ： ElleaIJs6“s”c”mzepours,imroduilBdansl,organisation・
S h e u s e d h e r c h a r m t o g e t i n t o t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n ・ 恥e晩pIQWz”吻伽"gzJe”p”sWousga評erezlafaveurdela p o p u l a t i o n I o c a l e ・
I f y o u u s e l h e i r l a n g U a g e , l o c a l p e o p l e w i l l l o v e y o u f b r i t . ( S e e 5 0 . 6 ）
(b）Again,themannerinwhichsomethingisdonemaybestatedusinganoun p h r a s e o r a p r o n o u n m b D d u c e d b y a p r e p o s i t i o n s u c h a s s a n s , ｄ ｅ , ｅ ｎ , ａ ： Ｃ ， e s t s a J z s 帥 肋 o I J s 恋 " z e q U e l e s o u v n e r s o n t a c c u e i l I i I o r d r e d e 評 も v e . ( S e e １ １ ． ４ ）
T h e w o r k e r s g r e e t e d l h e s な i k e c a ] l w i t h o u t e n t h u s i a s m ．
196FtJ伽伽漉
meclire,c'estbienmaisjevemKteIentendredire生zﾉj肥”血(See 5 4 . 4 ）
W i i t i n g i t , t h a t b E n e , b u t l w a n t t o h e a r y o u s a y i t ・
S o m e t i m e s , t h e r e i s n o p r e p o s i t i o n d l e p a r t s o f t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e s i m p l y i n a p p o s i t i o n ： IEspassantsobservaientlaScbne,Z物か加銀zJs4
Thepassers-bywatchedwhatwasgoingondumbfbunded
h l d l e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e t h e u s e o f t h e d e E n i t e a r t i c l e l l m s o m e e】mressionsitisomitted,andtobecertainwhetheritisusedornot,itisbestto c h e c k i n a d i c t i o n a l y G n e s t i n t e r d i t d ' e n t r e r 血 加 b e s 卯 I j e s d a n s l e s 6 甑 s e s i t a l i e n n e s . ( S e e ５ ３ ）
I t i s f b r b i d d e n t o g o i n t o a n l t E 山 a n c h u r c h w i t h b a r e l e g s ・ N o t e l h a t t h e p r e p o s i t i o n s a n s i s s o m e t i m e s f b u o w e d b y a n i n 丘 n i t i v e ： nplitsonmanteauetsortits”sα舵””晩(See52.4） Hetookhiscoatandleftwithoutawold・
T h e g e m n d a n d l h e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e w j l l a l s o a Ⅱ o w y o u t o s t a t e t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h s o 、 e l h i n g i s d o n e , w i d l o r w i t h o u t e n ( s e e 5 0 . 6 ) ： IEscandidatsposentsomentcettequestion“mIdgi3s”晩
C a n d i d a t e s o f t e n b l u s h w h e n l h e y a s k t h a t q u e s t i o n ・ Ellecontinuaitamonte喝sespiedsche"””appuisurles a s p 6 r i t 6 s d e l a r o c h e ，
S h e c o n t i n u e d t o c l i m b , h e r f b e t s e a l C h i n g f b r f b o l h o l d s i n t h e unevensulfaceoftherock．
H b m s s α ” l e s e p a m e s , i l r e t o r q u a q U ？ i １ ， ｝ e n s a v a i t x i e n 、
S h r u g 印 n g h i s s h o u l d e r s , h e r e p l i e d t h a t h e ] m e w n o t h i n g a b o u t i t ．
I n t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e l h a t t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f m a n n e r i s i n a p p o s i t i o n ， A d j e c t i v e s o r r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s m a y a l s o b e u s e d i n t h i s w a y ： の”りjSmuz商成花略lecommissailBl'inte1mgeasursaviepriv6e etsesactivit6snoctmm癖。
PolitebuthIm,dlesuperintendentquestionedhimabouthis p r i v a t e l i f e a n d w h a t h e d i d a t n i g h t ・
R e g a r d e b i e n c e t t e i m a g e : u n d e s j e l m e s m a n i f b s t a n t s , ９ 噸 ｂ ｍ ７ 奴 ｉ ｔ ””加略sepr6cipiteverslesCRS(Compa部】ieR6publicainede S 6 c u 1 i t 9 . ( S e e 2 2 . 1 ）
L o o k c a r e f U l l y a t l h i s p i c t u r e : o n e o f t h e y o u n g d e m o n s 廿 a t o r s ， w h o i s w i e l d i n g a s t i c k , i s r u l m i n g t o w a r d s t h e C R S ( I i o t p o l i c e ) ．
Ｒ9 ７
ⅣExp0s脱0〃
M a n y a d v e r b s a r e a v a i l a b l e f b r r e f e r r i n g t o t h e m a n n e r o f d o i n g s o m e t h i n g ： Ⅱｐａ】1aitviteenla正galdantExement.(See54）
Hespokequicldyandhestaredatherashedidso．
andanumberofadjectivesmaybeusedasadverbs-andtherefbrebecome i n v a l i a b l e ( s e e 5 4 ) . T h i s i s l h e c a s e i n s e t v e r b p h r a s e s s u c h a s p a n e r f b r t ‘ t o s p e a k l o u d ] y ; c h a n t e r j u s t e ‘ t o s i n g i n t u n e 1 v o i r c l a i r ‘ t o s e e c l e a I l y b ⅡmesemblequIeⅡeso"”“”ｐ””砿 Ithinkthey'veaimedabithiゅ．
Butrememberthatnewphrasesofthis卯eareconstandybeingcreatedfbr p a r t i c u l a r s t y l i s t i c e f f e c t ・ T h u s , a d v e r t i s i n g h a s g i v e n u s ： IEslessivesquilayentPI砿b伽卯c!(=mieuX?）
W a s h i n g p o w d e r s d l a t w a s h w h i t e r ( = b e t t e r ? ) ！ (c)Naturalh〃avecandsansarethemainprepositionsusedtoinmducea nounphraseorpronountoindicatelhepresence,orabsence,ofanotherperson o r t h i n g ： 】eprendsl,麺ondemainaI2ec"zes娩嘩ＣＯ晩gZJes吟
IintakingtheplanetomolTowwithmytwoconeagues． Puisquec'estcomme9a,j'iraisa砥mj1
O I q l f l h a t b h o w i t i s , I , Ⅱ g o w i t h o u t y o u 1 Notethatlhe3T柿cleissometimesomittedbefbrelhenoun：
CelafaitdubiendepartirenwEelcendsaFzse嘘"な!(See１１．４）
Itdoesyougoodtogoawayfbrtheweekendwithoutthe children1
VbusvoulezfaiIBlavisiteα”c”s〃zsgz”泡？
Doyouwanttodothevisitwithorwithoutaguide？ Altematively;ａｎｅ印ressionsuchasencompa厚1ｉｅｄｅｍａｙｂｅｕｓｅｄ： 恥comedienacelebresonsuccbse卯”mPfZg7z花””"彫吻Z、”eb
T h e a c t o r c e l e b r a t e d h i s s u c c e s s w i t h t h e e n t i r e c o m p a n y 8 FinallyWerbssuchassejoindreaoraccompaglermaybeused： ledescendsprendrEunve”,voulez-vDusvOusjりi”膨仇腕o露 rmgoingdownfbradrink・Ｄｏｙｏｕｗａｎｔｔｏｃｏｍｅｗｉｔｈｍｅ２ IDrsqUeles6pouxDuvalsesontpr6sent6sauCommissariat,ils ‘〃虎"tfzc“”ag7z盛pα〃此leursdeuxenfants.(See４８）
１９８馳加加砺
WhenMandDm1eDuvalwenttothepolicestation,theywere a c c o m p a n i e d b y l h e i r t w o c h i l d r e n ． A“o腕pag7zetonhereaumagasin,s,ilteplafU
G o t o t h e s h o p w i t h y o u r b r o l h e l ) p l e a s e ！
国 Mzmzz伽9 Thissectionisabouthowweusetenses､Itfbcusesontheorganizationofa
n a l r a t i v e i n p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d f U t u r e t i m e ･ T h e r e a r e m a n y i n s t a n c e s o f u s e s o f s p e c i h c t e n s e s i n ‘ a n o t h e r t i m e ; f b r e x a m p l e , t h e u s e o f l h e p r e s e n t t e n s e t o e m r e s s p a s t a c t i o n s ､ B y w a y o f i n b D d u c t i o n , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o l o o k a t t h e variouspointsofviewwhichthespeakerorwriter-thenalrator-mayadopt、 Y b u m a y e nv l s a g e a n a c t i o n i n i t s d u r a t i o n ： lEsspectateurs砿α鹿"r(Iise“〃、”lepro厚ammeenattendant qUele】ideausbmre･
Theaudiencewere(are,willbe)readingtheprogammewhile t h e y ｗ ｅ ｒ ｅ ( a r e ) w a i t i n g f b r t h e c u r t a i n t o g o u p ． o r a s b e i n g c o m p l e t e d a n d h a y i n g o c c u I r e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t i n t i m e ： Mesparentso”pzzss‘(〃唖2彫”deuxmoisdevacancesaubord delam“
MyparentshavehadO1ad)twomomhs'holidayatlheseaside． o r a s a r e p e a t e d a c t i o n o r h a b i t ： 皿ｅｐ花”〃(p把唾ｐ””、)touSlesmatinSlelrainde8h30・
S h e c a u 甑 t ( c a t c h e s , w i l l c a t c h ) t h e 8 . 3 0 杜 a i n e v e l y m o m i n g ． oryoumaywanttodescribeanactionasbeingcompletedornotcompleted： Ⅱα(α”鵡”、)０"”花la蛇netre・
Hehas(had,ｗｉⅡhave)openedthewindow J'aiob蛇"皿nebourse．
I ' v e o b t a i n e d a 厚 a n t ． Ⅱ s 形 成 e r ℃ j h e r z r l e s c o u p a b l e s 、
T h e y a r e l o o k i n g f b r t h e c u l p r i t s ． ＩＥｓｐ正mibresneurs〃”αmjSsa詑砿 ●
Ihe5rstHowerswereappeanng．
1 1 蝋 Ⅳ ” O s i t i O 〃
ヨ57.1岸
ＰＩＥＳｅｍｔｉｍｅ(see31.2,31.7）
( a ） m o r d e r t o i n d i c a t e l h a t a n a c t i o n o r e v e n t i s t a k i n g p l a c e a t d l e p r e s e n t moment,youcanuselhepresenttense-howeverlongorshorttheactionsor e v e n t s m a y b e ： Ｉａｈｍｅ如鵡uncri把蛇卯飾danslanuit・
Themoonisshiningandaclyringsoutintheni甑t・ Someverbsandverbphrases,suchassemettrea＋nounorinhnitive,§征een 位ainde＋inhnitjve,nepasarreterde＋inhnitive,allowyoutoemphasizelhe startordevelopmentofanactioninthepresenttime： Ahquandmcme,tuZW7zeな”力御”私
A b o u t t i m e t o o 1 Y b u 1 r e s t a r t i n g y o u r w o r k 1 RappeⅡetoutal，heｍｅ,ileste〃”加鯉F圏g”zibrsonfEuilletonala t 6 1 6 ，
C a l l b a c k l a t e l > h e b w a t c h i n g h i s s e r i a l ( o r s o a p o p e r a ) o n t e l l y Thepresenttensecanalsoconveythenotionofrepetition,whichmaybemade moreem1icitthrou甑theuseofe理ressionssuchastouslesiours,chaqUe d i m a n c h e . . . , o r v e r b s w i l h l h e p r e E x 唾 s u c h a s r e d i r e ： npasseet肥passe如邸蛇sIescj”加加MZEsdevantlemagasin･
Hewalksupanddownin廿ontoftheshopevelyEveminutes．
( b ） N a t u r a l l W h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i s u s e d f b r d i r e c t s p e e c h ： ‘Ⅱnep陀砿plus,vous"0邸Iﾊ８画α此rjouerdehorsmaintenantノ
‘ I t i s l f t r a i n i n g a n y m o r e , Y b u c a n g o a n d p l a y o u t s i d e n o w B ’ A n d w h e n a n o t h e r t e n s e , f b r e x a m p l e , t h e i m p e r f e c t , i s u s e d w i t h i n d i r e c t s p e e c h , ａ ｓ i n ： ．Ⅱaditqu？il抜歯”beau， Hesaidtheweatherwashne，
i t r e f b r s t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e o f t h e c o l r e s p o n d i n g d i r e c t S p e e c h ： Ⅱadit:‘Ⅱ施itbeauL H e s a i d , ‘ I t j S h n e w e a l h e r . ，
(dThepresenttenseisalsousedtoindicatethatsomething,suchasaproverb o r a d e h n i t i o n , h a s t i m e l e s s u n i v e r s a l v a l u e ：
IIUmion施赫lafbrce．Cinqfbistrois‘gzz彫qUinze・ Uniwiss杖engthFivetimesthreeequalsEfteen．
S o t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e m a y w e u o c c u r m a p a s t n a I T a t j v e ､ I n t h e f b n o w i n g e x a m p l e ， t h e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t d l e r e i s o n e u n i v e r s a l w a y o n e t a l k s a b o u t o n e も c h i l d r e n ：
200
肋"c前0砥
●
恥smilitantsdecemomementontpa11もｄｅｓａｍｍａｌＩｘｃｏｍｍｅｏｎ ”准desesenfants･
T h e a c t i v i s t s / m i l i t a n t s i n t h e m o v e m e n t s p o k e a b o u t a n i m a l s a s y o u s p e a k a b o u t y o u r c h i l d r e n ．
S e e 5 7 . 2 f b r o l h e r e x a m p l e s o f t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i n a p a s t n a I r a t i v e ． (｡）Othertensesaresometimesusedwithactionsoreventsorbehayiour
o c c u m n g i n t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ・ 血 s p e e c h , f b r e x a m p l e , t h e i m p e r f e c t , f U t u r e l c o n d i t i o n a l , o r p l u p e I f e c t t e n s e s m a y b e u s e d a s a w a y t o b e m o r e p o l i t e ： ‘吻砿d感s流Ｇｚ?−ん”"ZfzjSunIdlodetomatesetunelivrede
h a l i c o t s v e r t s , s ' n v u u s p l a f t ﾉ ( S e e 4 0 . 4 ）
‘ W h a t w o m d y o u l j k e ? ' ‘ I l d l i k e a l d l o o f t o m a t o e s a n d a p o u n d o f F r e n c h b e a n s , p l e a s e . ， ‘'わ“姉””zJsqUejevousconduisealagaIc?−汎zcCep蛇mi volomfPrsJ
‘ W b u l d y o u l i k e m e t o d l i v e y o u t o t h e s t a t i o n ? ' ‘ I a l i k e i t v e r y much，
膨如施肥”vousdemanderunpetitservice.(See38） I , v e c o m e t o a s k a l i t d e f 目 v o u r o f y o u ．
N o t e a l s o t h e u s e o f t h e i m p e l f e c t f b r e m r e s s i n g e n d e a r m e n t , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h p e t s a n d b a b i e s ： Ⅱα”irboboasapattecepetitchien-la
T h a t l i t d e d o g h a s h u r t h i s p a w 8 ( e ） R e m e m b e r t h a t e a c h ‘ t i m e ' 一 p a s t , p r e s e n t , o r f U t u r e i s d e h n e d i n r e l a t i o n totheolhersandthattherefbrethereareconnectionsbetweemhem,Ｆｏｒ
e x a m p l e , t h e p e r f E c t i s o f t e n u s e d f b r a p a s t a c t i o n w h e m h e r e i s a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e s e n t t j m e ( s e e 3 6 ) ： Ｃｏｍｍｅｏｍｚｌｚｚｐ“encore“”皿”花1,assassin,１，enquetese pOIJ応"雄
S i n c e t h e y h a v e n P t f b u n d d l e m u r d e r e r y e t , 1 h e i n q u i r y i s c o n t i n u i n g ． ⅡFze施蹴Paschaudici1J'αj⑰”e花Iesfenetresavantdepartirpour a6re財tupe嘩腔Jbmzermaintenant，
I t b n o t v e r y w a l m i n h e I e 1 I o p e n e d t h e w i n d o w s b e f b r e I l e f t t o ajrlheplace-youcanshutlhemnowG
一 雪
Past耐、鯉
( a ） h l o r d e r t o f b c u s o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n o r e v e n t i m h e p a s t , y o u s h o u l d u s e d l e j m p e l f e c t f b r d e s c l i p t i o n o r t o i n d i c a t e a s t a t e o f a f f a i r s ( s e e 3 3 . 1 ) ：
2伽
Ⅳ E x p O s j t j O 〃
Ianuitmm如厳surIaviⅡeetil施商”虚oid・
Ni甑twasfa]lingoverlheciwanditwascold． T h e i m p e r f e c t i s a l s o u s e d f b r r e p e a t e d a c t i o n s o r h a b i t s i n t h e p a s t ( s e e 3 3 . 1 ) ： Quandj熔如なetudiante,jeme陀”Zst6t,jep””jStravaillertoute lajoum6e,sortirleso町pmsje花”腕"ze”jSlelendemain...,et j e n P § “ i s j a m a i s f a n g u 6 e 1
Whenlwasastudent,ＩｕｓｅｄｔｏｇｅｔｕｐｅａｄＪ５Ｉｕｓｅｄｔｏｗｍkall dayIgooutintheevening,thenlstartedagaindlenextday…， andlwasnevertired1．
T h e i m p e r f e c t a l s o o c c u r s i n h i s t o l i c a l n a l r a t i v e s f b r s W l i s t i c e 碇 c t ､ I n t h i s c a s e ， i t r e f e r s t o a n a c t i o n w h i c h i s c o m p l e t e d , a n d p r e s e n t s i t a s a ‘ p h o t o 厚 a p l f f b r lhereader:〃
Enmail981,Iran9oisMitte亜ande””tdansl'histo唾.(See33.1） mMayl981,Fran9oisMittelrandmadehistory
(b）Whenrefemngtoone,oraseries,ofcompletedactionsoccumngata particularpointinthepast,ｙｏｕｕｓｅ山epasthisto】ic・Note,howev“thatdle p a s t h i s t o r i c i s u s u a l l y r e s m c t e d t o t h e w r i t t e n n a l r a t i v e ( s e e 3 4 . 2 ) ： Son泥hicUle,lanc“1201,1ﾉh,”z””Ievirage,heIJmzla balriere,血t卿0”etaIkzs'6crasercomreunarb唾deIautre c6t6delaroute･
Hisc遜廿aveningat75mph,missedthebend,hitlhebame町 swervedandcrashedintoatreeontheothersideoftheroad．
W h e n s p e a l d n g , a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y w h e n w r i t i n g , t h e p e l f e c t i s u s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e p a s t h i s t o l i c ・ T h e f i m c t i o n s o f t h e t w o t e n s e s a r e , f b r d l e p u ] p o s e o f r e f b m n g t o o n e o r a s e r i e s o f a c t i o n s c o m p l e t e i n t h e p a s t , ｔ ｏ a ] l i n t e n t s a n d p u l p o s e s ， i d e n t i c a l ( s e e 3 6 ) ．
Ⅱα”z””levirageethe邸権labamiere,puislavoiturBα@館 《岬｡『姓etils4estj℃7Yzsfcontrcl，arb唾deIau杜ec6tedelaroute･ HemissedthebendandhitdlebameI;thenlhecarswervedand hecrashedintothetreeontheothersideoflheroad
WhencombinedwilhtheimpeIfectinacomplexsentence,thepasthistoric a l l o w s y o u t o e m p h a s i z e t h e s u d d e n n e s s o f a n a c t i o n ( s e e 3 4 . 2 ) ： 皿e伽e””〃enchanmnnantquandunloups邸辱tdedemere nmfbum6･
Shewaswalldngalonghummingtoherselfwhenawolfcame outfTombehindathicket．、
202励加"0噸
( d O t h e r t e n s e s , n a m e l y t h e p h l p e l f b c t ( s e e 3 8 ) a n d t h e p a s t a n t e r i o r ( s e e 3 9 ) ， w i l l a l l o w y o u t o c o n s i d e r a c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n 世 o m d l e p o i n t o f v i e w o f i t s dllrR1-mn目
ＩＥｐｒｏ蛇sseurα”itlonguementexpos‘Iesraisonsdesa d§misSi⑪n
T h e t e a c h e r h a d e m l a i n e d t h e r e a s o n s f b r h i s l e s i g n a t i o n a t l e n g t h ・ h o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f i t s r e s u l t ： TbusremarqUも正ntcombieneⅡeα”茄c伽､解
Everyonenoticedhowmuchshehadchanged・
o r o f i t s o c c u l r e n c e a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t i n ( p a s O t i m e ､ N o t e l h a t d l e p a s t a n t e l i o r i s o n ] y u s e d i n s p e c i E c w n t t e n c o n t e x t s ： Ｑ””〃e雄花”師jsasiesteausoleil,lelibvrefZ@℃沈如ｄｅ 唾 p r E n d r E l a c o u r s e . ( S e e 3 9 ） WhentheharehadEnisheditssiestainlhesun,itdecidedto continuelherace．
( d ） N O t e t h a t o l h e r t e n s e s ‘ i n m l d e ' i n t o p a s t t i m e ; f b r e x a m p l e , t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s t o l i c a l n a r r a t i v e s ： Napol6on”Z殖p彫”alorsunenouvenecampa砂1equicon蛇ｌａｖｉｅ ａｕｎ露andnombredesoldats･
ThenNapoleonundertookanolhercampaignwhichcostlhe l i v e s o f m a n y s o l d i e r s ・
m t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e m a c t t h e p r e s e n t a n d f t l t u r e t e n s e s a r e u s e d , f b r s ﾛ ﾉ l i s t i c e f f e c t , i n a n a r r a l i v e o t h e r w i s e w r i t t e n i m h e p a s t t e n s e ： Ｄもs1957,…lessixmemb唾s姪cjtib彫砿decons並uireune
commlmaut“conoImque･…IEsdroitsdedouanesem” t O t a l e m e n t 鋤 加 加 盗 l e p r e m i e r j u i l l e t l 9 6 8 e t l e s p o I i t i q U e s communesSem"tmjSeseJzPlZzCedUrantcetted6cennie….Ｅｎ
ｌ９８１ｅｔｅｎｌ９８６,lesadh6sionsdelaGrece,del,Espagleetdu Pormgal7w加７℃も把加lenancsuddeIaCommunau嘘.…
Paranblement,laCommImaut6sｾがmzesurleplanintemational enrenfbr9antleslienscon並actuelsnou6sayeclespaysdusudde laM6diterram6e．
『 o n t a i n e , Ｒ ( 1 9 9 2 ) , ‘ L e s G m n d e s P h a s e s h i s t o r i q U e s ; ｉ ｎ Ｄ な ノ e F o F z s s ” j 皿 、 " a D o c u m e n t a t i o n e u r o p 6 e n n e ）
2 0 ＄ I V E x p o s 師 0 〃
．、1957,...1hesixmembercounmesdecidedtocreatean
economiccommuniWG…Customsdutieswouldbecompletely eliminatedonlstJulyl968andcommonpolicieswouldbeput
inplaceduringlhatten-yearperiod..､ml981andl986the emyofGreece,SpainandPortugalwoulds廿engthenthe southemnankoflheCommunity…Atlhesametime,the C o m m u n i w e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f i n t e m a t i o n a l l y b y s 杜 e n g l h e n i n g contr3ch1311inkswidlcolm行i偶stothesomhofthe MeditelTfme3n．
NotesomefUrther‘inmlsions'ofthepresenttenseinpasttimeinthefbuowing n a r r a t i v e ・ T h e E r s t o n e r e l a t e s t o l h e c h a r a c t e r も t h o u 喚 t s ‘ i n r e a l t i m e ; a n d t h e s e c o n d i s a n i n t e r v e n t i o n b y l h e n a r r a t o r ： Ⅱayaitplislem6trocommetouslesmatinsa7h30･Soudain,la mmes'immobilisaQzJesepfzsse-減瞭陀”jS6”e"肥如城… fmEntsesprBmierespens6es･Puisvoy臼ntqUepersonnene r 6 a 夢 s s a i t e t q u ' u n s i l e n c e p a s s i f s ' i n s t a l l a i t , i l d 6 c i d a q u f a p r e s t o u t i l n P y p o u v a i t l i e n e t q u e m i e u x v a l a i t a t t e n d r e p a t i e m m e n t commetouslesaunEs.Ｙα-減IunbesoinpIusixr6sistiblequecelui deseconfbrmerau評oupeauqueloJzse加邸蛇、創撰 Hehadtakenlhemetroashedideverymomingat7､30．
Suddenl〕〃1hetrainstoppedWhatbhappening?Iingoingtobe l a t e … w e r e h i s f i r s t l h o u g h t s ､ T h e n s e e i n g t h a t n o b o d y w a s r e a c t i n g a n d l h a t a p a s s i v e s i l e n c e e n s u e d , h e d e c i d e d t h a t h e coulddonolhingaboutitanywayanditwouldbebettertowait p a t i e n t l y l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e m ､ I s t h e r e a n y m o r e i I r e s i s t i b l e n e e d thantoconfbrmtothegroupinwhichonehndsoneself2 T h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i s a l s o u s e d , w h e n s p e a k i n g , t o r e f e r t o a n a c t i o n i n t h e n e a r p a s t ( s e e 3 1 . 7 ) ： ルso庵dechezlecoifIburetmn1as面ｅｎ唾marqu61
r V e j u s t l e f t t h e h a j r d r e s s e r も a n d y o u d i d n ' t e v e n n o t i c e 1 AⅡ60ui?…tuasdelachance,沖y7f”ａｌ'instantI
HeⅡo,yes?…you'reluc町!I'mjustin1 AltemativelWoumayuseaverbphrasesuchasvenirde＋inhnitjve(see31.7)： Vbusavezdelachancedeme柾ouve喝泥Iﾉ彪Jzsα物流Iﾉer1
Ybu'reluclqバocatchme,I'vejustamved 一僧57.3岸
ｍｍｍｔｉｍｅ(see32.5）
( a ） W i t h t h e f U t u r e t e n s e s , y o u c a n r e f e r t o a c t i o n s w h i c h w i l l o c c u r a t a l a t e r d a t e o r t i m e ・ N o t e t h e e q u i v a l e n t E n 甑 s h t e n s e s ．
鋤４励加伽蛎
ルP把池jmirendez-vouschezledemistedemainmatin．
’'ⅡmakeanappoilmnentatlhedentistjStomo江ｏｗｍｏｍｍｇ・ Ybucanalsofbcusonthefi1h1reresultofanaction：
AsseyEz-vous,MonsieurMajllousem肱dansuninstant･ Tnkeaseat.Ｍ・M3illn11willbehereinamoment．
NDusattendonsayecimpatiencelesr6sultatsdesp唾mie唾s cnmonscriptionsquisem”ｃｏｍｍ”町Z嘘sapartirde20h30.(See48〕
W e a r e w a i t i n g i m p a t i e n d y f b r t h e r e s u l t s h E o m t h e E r s t constituencieswhichwillbeannouncedhom8,30onwards．
ｍｖｅｒｍｓｊｄ'iciImmoism”、s把仰tonpmmiersalai】池et"y2tzIums P I I z s d e p r o b l b m e s d ， a r g e n t . ( S e e 3 7 ）
Ｙｂu'Ⅱsee,inamonlhhfomnowyou，nhavehadyour世stsalalyand you,Ⅱhavenomoremoneyproblems， W h e n t h e r e a l i z a l i o n o f a f U t u r e a c t i o n d e p e n d s o n a n o t h e r a c t i o n , y o u u s e f U t u r e t e n s e s i n b o l h c l a u s e s 1 h e f i l t u r e p e l f b c t f b r l h e E r s t a c t i o n a n d t h e f U t u r e f b r l h e second：
ｏｎ”outｕ”“mSqUandtu””FzzSetl,ons初j"zemencore
l o r s q u e l ， a m o u r s e m F 7 m 砿 ( h o m a s o n g b y J o e D a s s i n ） Ｗも'Ⅱgowhereyouwant,Whenyouwant,andstillmakelovewhen ourlovehasdied：
QuandeⅡesempaF雄moussemrzsplus杜anquiues.(See32.6,37）
Whenshehasgone,ｗｅ'Ⅱbehappien ( b ） m l h e f b 1 o w i n g e x a m p l e i n i n d i r e c t s p e e c h , m e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e i s u s e d i n l h e m n s f b r 丘 o m d i r e c t s p e e c h i n t h e f U t u r e t e n s e ( s e e 5 8 . b ) ： ⅡaditqIfil”"”〃cesoim＝Ⅱadit:舵viendraicesoir％
H e s a i d h e w o u l d c o m e t o n i ゆ t ､ = H e s a i d , ‘ I ' Ⅱ c o m e t o n i 甑 t ’ ( c ） T h e p r e s e n t t e n s e ( s e e 3 1 . 7 ) , a n d t h e p e l f e c t ( s e e 3 6 ) , a r e o f t e n u s e d f b r a n a c t i o n w h i c h w i l l t a k e p l a c e i n m e n e a r f U t u r e , e s p e c i a l ] y w h e n s p e a ] d n g ： N e b o u g e z p a s , j 初 r 7 f p e t o u t d e s u i t e 、
D o l f t m o v e , 皿 b e l i 獣 ] t 出 e r e 、 IZspα"”enGuadeloupedemainsoin
T h e y a r e l e a v i n g f b r G u a d e l o u p e t o m o 】 T o w e v e n i n g ･ U n p e u d e p a t i e n c e l e s e n f a n t s , c e I f e s t p I u s 杜 b s l o i n m a i n t e n a m ， encorequeIquesminuteset”zZSsomF7zesa減り“
H a v e p a t i e n c e , c h i l d r e n , i t b n o t v e r y f a m o w ] U s t a f e w m o r e mim'tesandwe'llbethere．
２ ０ ５ １ V ” 0 s 飯 0 m
A I t e m a t i v e 恥 v e r b p h r a s e s s u c h a s a l l e r + i n h n i t i v e , o r § 唾 s u r l e p o i n t d e 十 i n h n i t i v e , o r d e v o i r ＋ i n h n i t i v e , m a y b e u s e d ： A t t e n t i o n , l e 征 a i n e n p m v e n a n c e d e P a 1 i s e t a d e s t i n a t i o n d e Bo】meaux”e”wenga１℃． Attention､Thetr3in什omParisfbrBordeauxisaboutto・amveatdle s f n 1 i n n ．
】evouslaisselescl6s,”IJssommess”彫po伽t“”減酪
H e r e a r e t h e k e y s , ｗ ｅ ' r e a b o u t t o l e a v e ・ As-tudesnouveⅡesde】acques?Non,ｍｍｓｊ,enaumidemain,ｉＭｂ施 加初”GIE屍
A n y n e w s o f J a c q u e s ? Ｎ o , b u t l ' Ⅱ h a v e s o m e t o m o l r o w ; h e b s u p p o s e d t o c a l l m e ．
一 …
Dalesa皿ｍｉｍｅ(see9.4c）
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価 o t e t h e E n 9 i s h m n s l a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t j v e c l a u s e i n t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e . ） ‘ I E g o m e m e m e n t d 6 v a l o r i s e n o s d i p l 6 m e s ， : t e Ⅱ e e s t I a n t i e l m e entfmdmedansleSmani侭．
‘ T h e g o v e m m e n t も d e v a l u i n g o u r d e g r e e s ， w a s l h e c r y h e a r d d u r i n g l h e d e m o s ．
価 o t e l h e e l l i p t i c a l p a s t p a r t i c m l e e n t e n d u e , i n s t e a d o f a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e “ O n ■
e n t e n d a i t , i n l h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e . ）
orlheverbmayevenbeinthemiddleofthequotation： A
‘ O n n e r e v e p a s , o n n e p r 6 t e n d p a s o b t e n i r I a b r o g a t i o n d e s l o i s P a s q u a , ” 耐 ｍ ｅ " 蛇 C h a l I i e , m a l s o n v e u t s e n s i b i l i s e r . ｡ 』 ( S e e 5 2 . 5 ） ‘ I t l S n o t a p i p e d r e a m , w e I r e n o t s a y i n g w e Ⅱ g e t l h e P a s q u a
l e 印 s l a t i o n o v e r t u m e d , ' s a i d C h a I 1 i e , ‘ b u t w e w a n t t o m a k e t h e publicaware…,
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W h e n s p e a I d n g α ” u s i n g a q u o t a t i o n , t h e c o n v e n t i o n i s t o u s e ( e t ) j e c i t e a t t h e b e g n n i n g a n d s o m e t i m e s E n d e c i t a t i o n a t t h e e n d o f t h e q u o t a t i o n ： J a c q u e s C h i r a c a s a n s d o u t e r a i s o n q U a n d i l a f E r m e , e Z j E c i 喝 q U e ‘lePremierMinis唾aunprobleme…clajeunesseJ
J a c q u e s C h i r a c i s p r o b a b l y l i 甑 t w h e n h e s a y s , a n d l q u o t e , ‘ t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r h a s a p m b l e m w i t h l h e y o u n g . ， ( b ） Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ t i m e s , o n l y p a r t o f l h e o l i g n a l s p e e c h i s d i r e c d y I e p o r t e d i n i n v e r t e d c o m m a s b e l o w w h i l e t h e r e s t i s p r e s e n t e d a s i n d i r e c t s p e e c h ： ‘ B i e F z s “ r e t O r q U e d ？ e m b l 6 e l e P r e m i e r M i n i s t m a c e U x q I 1 i o s e n t luidemanders,me’dsteencoreuneplacesurlemarch6dela p r e s s e 6 c O n o m l q u e ・ ‘Ofcourse;isthePrimeMinisterもretorttothosewhoventureto
a s k h i m i f t h e r e i s r o o m f b r a n o l h e r e c o n o m i c j o u m a l i n d l e malket．
m 1 h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e , a d i r e c t q u e s t i o n : ‘ E d s t e t i l e n c o m u n e p l a c e s u r l e m a m h 6 d e l a p r e s s e 6 c o n o m i q u e ? ' i s i n d i r e c d y r e p o r t e d ・ N o t e 曲 a t s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i r e c t q u e s t i o n h a v e g o n e ( i n v e r s i o n a n d t h e q u e s t i o n m a I 1 0 a n d t h a t s i h a s t o b e u s e d a f t e r t h e v e r b ( d e m a n d e d ・ F o r o l h e r n ﾉ p e s o f i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n ， i n t e l r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s a n d a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s e d a n d q u e ? ‘ w h a t ? ' ( o b j e c t ) b e c o m e s c e q U e w h i l e q U i ? ‘ w h a t ? ' ( s u b j e c t ) b e c o m e s c e q u i T n k e t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e ： Iasecr酎舗顕、｝adit:‘VbusvoulezvDusin“rireendGⅦ苅畠、便
ann6e?Otlavez-vDusfaitvotl氾premiereann6e?CommemvmIs
a p p e I e z v o u s ? Q u e Ⅱ e e s t v D n e a d 】 氾 s s e ? Q u e f b n t m s p a r e n t s ? ， （ d i r e c O
T h e s e c r e t a l y s a i d t o m e , ‘ Y b u w a n t t o g o i n t o t h e s e c o n d y e a r ？ Wheredidyoudoyourhrstyear?Whatisyourname?Whatis youraddless?Whatdoyourparentsdo?, Ｉasecr6tairemPademand6SjjevOulaismPinsclireendemdeme ann6e,”j'awaisfaitmapremiereann6e,ＣＯ"””jemPappelais， d 7 z z e I l b 6 t a i t m o n a d m s s e , “ 9 I J e f a i s a i e n t m e s p a 】 氾 n t s . ( i n d i r e c O
Thesecretaryaskedmeaboutmyrequesttogointolhesecond yeal)whereltldonemyErstye“whatmynamewas,whatmy addresswas,andwhatmyparentsdid・ hladdition,somechangeshavetobemadewithtenseswhentheinなoductory verbisinlhepastOnPademandも).Howevel)whentheinbroductoryverbisinme p r e s e n t o r f U t u r e , t h e t e n s e s u s e d a r e t h e s a m e a s f b r d i r e c t s p e e c h ：
2 1 4 即 " c t i o 妬
Monpere戯”"'〃”蛇”silescandidatssonts6rie唾(Ｔｅ”Z⑨ｍｊ ｓ ｉ . . 』 ）
町 f a d l e r s a y s h e ' n v o t e i f t h e c a n d i d a t e s a r e s e n o u s . ( ‘ I ' Ⅱ v o t e i f … , ）
MonperE””慨”蛇、〃silescandidats6taientserieu】も(?ｅ ”蛇、商si.､ﾉ）
町 f a t h e r s a y s h e w o u l d v o t e i f t h e c a n d i d a t e s w e r e s e ] i o u s . ( ‘ I a v o t e i f … ' ）
Bolhofdlesewilhanin面oductoryverbinthepastbecome：
Monpereα””,"”””rsilescandidats6taients6rieux.(See 4 0 . 1 ）
町 f a d l e r s a i d h e w o u l d v o t e i f t h e c a n d i d a t e s w e r e s e n o u s ．
h l t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e t h e s e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s i s i n v a l i a b l e , a n d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n t e x t , t h e r e i s a l i t d e a m b i g u i t y a b o u t w h a t w a s a c t u a Ⅱ y s a i d ( ‘ I w m v o t e ' ｏ ｒ ‘ I w o u l d v o t e , ) ．
Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ t i m e s , t h e i n 杜 o d u c t o r y v e r b i s f b n o w e d b y q U e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e , i n p a r t i c u l a r w h e m h e c o l r e s p o n d i n g d i r e c t s p e e c h i s a n o r d e l ) a r e q u e s t , e t c . ： D j S I ” q U P i l l e J 2 z s s e t o u t d e s u i t e ! ( ‘ 函 s l e t o u t d e s u i t e ! ' ) ( s e e 4 6 . 2 ） Tb11himtodoitatonce1(‘Doitatonce1'）
Eagentaer唾9zJejeluir”ze雄monpermisdeconduire． (‘DoImez-moivo並epermisdeconduire,gilvOuspl誼t0
Thepolicemantoldmetohandovermydrivinglicence.(‘Give m e y o u r d l i v i n g l i c e n c e , p l e a s e ! ' ） A l t e m a t i v e l y ; a n i n E n i t i v e m a y b e u s e d , s o m e t i m e s i I m o d u c e d b y d e ： DjS-J””le〃i形toutdesuite‘ Tbuhimtodoitatonce
Ellemtzp海plusieursfbis"Jｾz“0"pag7zeralagarG･
Sheaskedmeseveraltimestoaccompanyhertothestation． m1hefbuowingexample,山ereisnodebecauseoflheverbestimer＋mhnitjve． D'apresl'interviewquej'ailue,iles〃ｍｅ”Ojrjh"toutceqm6tait h u m a i n e m e n t p o s s i b l e p o u r r 6 p a r e r s e s e n E u r s . ( S e e 1 1 . 4 , 2 2 . 1 5 ）
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e r v i e w l r e a d , h e l h i n k s h e h a s d o n e e v e r y t h i n g h u m a n l y p o s s i b l e t o m a k e u p f b r h i s m i s t a k e s ． R e n e x i v e v e r b s s u c h a s s e d 6 c l a I e l ; s ﾉ a m u e r ＋ a d i e c t i v e p r o v i d e a n o t h e r w a y o f r e p o r t i n g i n d i r e c d y ：
郷：Ⅳ”0s航0〃
Enconclusion,lePr6sidentduConseils湾t錘雌花saZjV2z〃des
p r o 伊 b s r 6 a l i s 6 s d u r a n t l a r 6 1 m i o n ・ Inconclusion,thechailmanoftheboalddeclaredhewas
satishedwilhthepro厚fessmadeatlhemeeting． Lad6positionindiquequelesuspects湾tα”””叩妨陀apres I m e h e u r e d , i n t e r r o g a t o i r B ・
T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s u s p e c t c o n f e s s e d a f t e r a n h o u r o f q u e s t i o n i n g ． ●
Ｉ
Somechangesneedtobemadewithpersonalpronounsandpossesslve a d j e c t i v e s w h e n u s i n g i n d i r e c t s p e e c h ： PaulapmmisquP〃viendraita]ﾉecsoncamlonpourm城dera d6m6nagen(‘ルviendrai麺deraⅣecmoncamionﾉ）
Paulpromisedtocomewithhislorrytohelpmemovehouse． (‘皿comeandhelpyouwilhmyloI呼'） ●
Ⅱarappel“PaulqUPiIdevaitveniravecsoncammn・ HeremindedPamlthathewastobomewithhislorry
T h e p r e Ⅵ o u s e x a m p l e i s a m b i g u o u s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t , i n d l e a b s e n c e o f c o n t e x t ， y o u d o n o t l m o w w h e t h e r i l ( d e v a i t v e n i j w a s l h e o r i g i n a l s p e a k e r o r n o t , t h a t i s ， WhelherheorPaulsaid:Weviendraiayecmoncamionﾉ(‘I'ucomewithmylo”'）
W h e n m n s f e r r i n g h o m d i r e c t t o i n d i r e c t s p e e c h , o l h e r c h a n g e s h a v e t o b e m a d e w h e n y o u a r e r e f e I r i n g t o t i m e a n d p l a c e ： IEdirecteuraannonc6:‘IErapportserapret此”z加/”"s〃Fze se”zj7zeノ
T h e m a n a g e r a n n o u n c e d , ‘ T h e r e p o r t w i l l b e r e a d y t o m o l T o w / i n aweek.，
I f l h i s i s p a r t o f a n a l r a t j v e , a n d l h e s p e e c h i s r e p o r t e d , t h e n i t b e c o m e s ： 恥di】把cteuraalmonc6quelerapportseraitpret陀 陀Fz4jb”伽/"”se”iFzePIIJsmFzjL(See40.1）
Themanagerannouncedthatdlereportwouldbereadythenext day/aweeklateL A d v e r b s o f t i m e v a r y m a t u r a l l 】 ﾙ a c c o r d i n g t o d l e t i m i n g o f t h e o r i g n a l s t a t e m e n t a n d l h e i n f b n n a t i o n g i v e n ： ⅡaaImonc“jCrqUelerapportseraitpret"噸I"zZ物”/”Fzs"Fze se”ziFzeb
H e a n n o u n c e d y e s t e r d a y l h a t l h e r e p o r t w o u l d b e r e a d b ノ t o d a y / i n a w e e k ‘
2 1 6 助 m c r i O J z s
naalmonceZ物”Ｐｊり”quelerapportseraitpretIg
陀 池 j ” z α 加 / z " z e s e 碗 a i F z e p I z J s 奴 『 z j L Heannouncedtheotherdaylhatthereportwouldbereadylhe nextday/aweeklatem I忠19juin,lendemainducIime,vousamﾉezd6clar6dansvo杜B d6position,etjecite:7esuischezmasceurzj2p"ｉｓ"””h陀rso鰯 Pouvez‐vousconhlmeraUjouId'huiqUelejourducrime,vous voustrouviezbien8,medulacchezvDなEsOeul)etce,cｵepzJjSjkz zﾉe"ぬ”sOi席
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SheUpromisedme,‘I'nmeetyoubackhereintwohoursIInever s a w h e r a g a i n ・ T W o a n d a h a l f h o u r s a f t e r l h e d i r e c t s p e e c h a c t u a ] l y o c c u I T e d ： 】'6taisaⅣecce杖e皿e…,jenesa1spascequfeⅡe面t・EnemFayait Promisdeme唾hrouvEr肱aquatrEheures/ilyalmedemi-hem氾．
Iwaswithlhegll…,Idolftlmowwhatshebdoing､Shea promisedmelhatshewouldmeetmebacktheleatfbur o ' c l o c k / h a l f a n h o u r a g o ・ Aweeklater：
Cejo唾胞,j'airencon“cette皿e,maisjeneIaijamais】おvue alorsquPeⅡｅｍ’aⅣaitpromisdemere杜ouverdeuxheurEsaprもｓ 瞳-"s/””FztlkzMtz流昼
Thatd郡Imetdlegirl,butIneversawheragainaldloughshea promisedtomeetmetwohourslaterthere/inhontoftheTbwn H a l l ．
(c）Valiouswaysofreporting-especiaⅡyleportingwhatwassa鰯一areoften fbundinminutesofmeetings・Manynansitiveverbsareusedtowliteminutesc o m p a r e t h e t e n s e s i n H f e n c h a n d E n 副 i s h ： Enomrantlaseance,MmeDupuisso邸加ｉ彪伽ｂ兜、ﾉe腿zJeaux d616gu6spr6sentset6noncerordredujo皿
Openingthemeeting,MmeDUpuiswelcomedlhedelegatesand s e t o u t t h e a g e n d a ．
鯉 ７ Ⅳ E x p O s i 加 卯
Ｍ･CounEau花胞Iﾉez陀sα”F”J犯sdanslebilanpresemC． Ｍ・Courreaunotedanom31ieRinthebH1fmcesheet．
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M､Ｃ､7”pg此9z4Maulerjamierl994,nousfwonsunereservede 23500000E
M . Ｃ ､ r e c a l l e d t h a t o n l s t 〕 a n u a r y l 9 9 4 , w e h a d r e s e r v e s o f 2 3 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 f r a n c s ．
Ｍ､RsoIzIig7ze9zJenousayonsvoteunbudgetend6s6quilibreet 9z4enousravonspasd'au杜esolutionquederappelernos di冊mT1蛭Ｓ・
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H e a d d e d t h a t i t w a s d l e s h a r e h o l d e r s ' e q u i t y t h a t w a s a f f e c t e d ． nhneG･lui"0”91Jg“Zfm！estpaspr6vu・
Mne.Ｇ・replieddlatlhathadnotbeene】叩ected‘ PassivefOrmsarealsohequendyusedinminutes(see48,48.1)： Aprbsdiscussion,laredactiondumemorandumest”0旗ｅａｌａ Ｅｎｄｅｌａｓ６ｆｍ唖．
FoⅡowingdiscussion,thedraftingofthememorandumwas p o s m o n e d t j l l t h e e n d o f t h e m e e t i n g ． lapropositionestso邸陀､ｲgparM.Ｃ・…,F噂j泡彪e”FMneB….， eⅡees節､副他ｍｍｔ”だeal'Ⅷmnimi焔．
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c h a q U e s e c t i o n ･ Ｍ・Ｎ・wantedtoknowwhelhertherewasadetajledbreakdown
o f s p e n d i n g f b r e a c h d e p a m n e n t ．
218励加加蛎
E ] q X e s s i o n s i n a p p o s i t i o n , w i d l l h e s e c o n d , o r s u b s e q u e n t o n e s , c o n t a i n i n g a r e s p o n s e a r e a l s o u s e d i n m i n u t e s ・ T h e s e v e r y c o m p a c t s m l c t u r e s a r e u s e f U l f b r c o m b i n i n g q U e s t i o n ( s ) a n d a n s w e r ( s ) , a n d t h e y a l s o p r o v i d e s q j i s t i c v a r i a t i o n ： ”旋仇“ｍ"ze"蛇rles20000FdefraisdiversemB感sな§sen1990, Ｍ･、ｐ魅eFz蛇unefacturedelaSoci6teDuchemin、
Askedtocommentonthe20,000Fmisceuaneousemenditurein l990,Ｍ.mpresentedaninvoicefromtheSociet6Duchemin．
恥”0妬e〃”ze9IJes加卯deMmeVsurlameil1eu】氾fa“nde r 6 a l i s e r d e s 6 c o n o m i e s , Ｍ ･ Ｒ ｐ 花 G j S e q u e s e s c h a r g e s s o n t d 鋪 ｃｏｍｐ正ss6esauma]ｑｍｕｍ.(See48）
manswertoaquestionhDmh血neVomhebestwayofmaking s m n g s , Ｍ ・ E s t a t e d l h a t h i s c o s t s / e ” e n s e s h a d a l r e a d y b e e n r e d u c e d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e ・ Answersore】叩lanationscanalsobeprovidedusingcommeafterthe i n t r o d u c t o l y v e r b ： Ｍ･Ｙｃｉ蛇”mmemzsoFzprofDndedesmauvaiSr6sultatslachute desvEntesdeWihfmlpSrR副ﾛ耐…
Ｍ ､ V c i t e d t h e f a l l i n n e w c a r s a l e s a s t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f b r l h e p o o r r e s u l t s . . ． …ilα”Fzcemmme伽趣鋤加emjSoFzlaconjoncturemondiale cons6quentealaGuerrBduGolfE． …headdedthatafUrtherreasonwaslhewoddeconomic
s i t u a t i o n f b Ⅱ o w i n g t h e G u l f W a I t
5９
Askj昭9zJes加砺
( a ） A s i m p l e a n d i n f b l m a l w a y o f a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s c o n s i s t s o f m a k i n g a s t a t e m e n t a n d u s i n g a p p r o p l i a t e i n t o n a t i o n w h e n s p e a ] d n g , a n d a d d i n g a q u e s t i o n m a l k w h e n w r i t i n g ： Vbusvenez,ｏｎｙｖａ鳶
A r e y o u c o m i n g , s h a l l w e g o ？ IUmepretestonvも１０？
YbunIendmeyourbike？ Ⅱ'enveuxpas？
Y b u d o I f t w a n t a n y ？
( b ） A l t e m a t j v e l W o u m a y i n 位 o d u c e a q u e s t i o n w i l h e s f c e q u e ? . Ｔ ｈ ｉ ｓ e 】 ⑩ r e s s i o n i s a l s o f a i d y i n f b l m a l :
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砥Z造“9z4etupoImmsmega】血erlesenfantsvEndredisoir?(See 5 7 . 4 ）
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( c ） N o t e t h a t a ] l o f t h e q u e s t i o n s i n ( a ) ａ ｎ ｄ ( b ) r e q U i r e ‘ y e s / n o ' a n s w e r s , T h e r e i s a m o r e f b r m a l w a y o f a s k i n g l h i s ﾛ ﾉ p e o f q U e s t i o n , u s i n g i n v e r s i o n o f l h e v e r b a n d t h e s u b j e c t a p r o n o u n s U b j e c t i s l i n k e d t o l h e v e r b o r l h e a l m l i a r y v e r b b y ahyphen,anounorpropernounsubjectis"” EIEs-”IJsprctear印0ndrealapremierequestion,DanieⅡe？
A r e y o u r e a d y t o a n s w e r t h e E r s t q u e s t i o n , D a n i e u e ？ 1Esgovemementss”Fwz郷Zsr6pondreacetappelded6tresse l a n c 6 p a r l a S o m a l i e ？
Wmdlegovemmentsbeabletorespondtotheappealfbrhelp fi･omSom31i32
h 1 v e r s i o n u s u a l ] y o c c u r s i n w r i t i n g b u t m a y a l s o o c c u r w h e n s p e a ] d n g , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n p o l i t e c o n v e r s a t i o n , a n d i n d i s c u s s i o n ( s e e 2 3 . 3 ) ： ”商飛fmmer？
Maylsmoke？ I b z J J E z I ﾉ o z j s q U e j e v o u s a c c o m p a g l e ？
Wbuldyoulikemetogowilhyou？ (d）Whenaquestiondoesnotcallfbra‘yes/no'answel)itisfbcusingonone p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f e 】 叩 o s i t i o n , f b r e x a m p l e , l o c a t i o n o r o w n e r s h i p , a n d l h e r e f b r e o n o n e p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f t h e s e n t e n c e s u c h a s t h e c o m p l e m e n t ・ I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s o r p r o n o u n s ( s e e 2 3 . 1 ) m a y b e u s e d i n t h i s c a s e , a s w e u a s l h e f b r m s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e : i n t o n a t i o n , e s t c e q U e ? , a n d i n v e r s i o n ・ WhenyouwanttoEndoutwhoorwhatisthesubjectoftheverb,you u s u a l l y u s e q U i ? ‘ w h o ? ' o r q I r e s t c e q u i ? ‘ ｗ ｈ 懇 , ： Q砿afait9ar Whodidthat2
Q"湾fcE9”luipeImetdﾉ６t１℃aussiaImgan畷 Whatisitthatallowshimtobesoalmgant2
Q u i e s t c e q U i 鷲 ‘ w h o ? ' a n d p a r t i c u l a 1 1 y c ' e s t q u i q U i ? ‘ w h o ? ' a r e m o r e c o Ⅱ o q u i a l fbrms：
Ahnon1C徳””9噸atouchemonordinateur? Ohno1Whobbeenatmycomputer2
2 2 0 助 " c t i o 砥
N o t e l h a t y u u c a n b e m o r e p r e c i s e a n d d i r e c t i f y o u u s e p a r m i , d e n 唾 ‘ o f ； among＋nounorpronounafterqui2： Ｑ ” p a m z j ” z J s s e p o r t e v o l o n t a i r e p o u r c e t t e m i s s i O n 鷺 W h i c h o f y o u w i l l v o l u n t e e r f b r t h i s t a s k ？
a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t i n a n i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n q u P e s t c e q U i ? b e c o m e s c e q u i ： Ｊｅ”此”Z”Ece9”luiperme㎡enEaussiamogant・
I w o n d e r w h a t i t i s t h a t a l l o w s h i m t o b e s o a n f o g a n t ・
I n o r d e r t o a s k w h o o r w h a t i s d l e d i r e c t o b j e c t o f t h e v e r b , u s e q U i ? , q U e ? , q u o i ? ： QzJB”jS-mParla舵net】泡?Ｑ"湾庇e9Zze畝”た？
W h a t c a n y o u s e e o u t t h e w i n d o W ? W h a t c a n y o u s e e ？ Ｑ唾”jS-mencemoment?Ｑ砿esf“9嘩如”j怠曾
Whocanyouseeatthemoment?Whocanyousee？ A n d t h e r e i s t h e v e l y i n f b r m a l ： mvois”0鱒/卯潔 Ybucanseewhawwho？
NotethatquoiorqueaIeoftenusedwithaninhnitive：
Jenesaisplus9”Z(Or9IJe)或花ni9”i(or9“)施i彫asonsUiet・
Idolftlmowwhattosayanymoreorwhattodoabout． him/her/it．
mtenogatjvepronounscanbeusedtoreferbackorfOrwardtoanoun(see 2 3 . 5 ) ：
Ｊ ， a i p l u s i e u r s v a I i 6 t 6 s d e p o m m e s d e t e m E : I E s 9 z J g Z J E s v o u l e z v o u S ？ （ b a c l O
I ' v e s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f p o t a t o : ｗ ｈ ｉ ｃ ｈ ｄ ｏ ｙ ｏ ｕ ｗ ａ ｎ ｔ ？ L e 9 z J c Z c h o i s i r a i s t u p a r m i t o u s c e s m a m e a n X ? ( f b r w a r d ）
W h i c h o f a l l l h e s e c o a t s w o u l d y o u c h o o s e ？ A n d l e s s f b l m a l l y ： 】 ， e n a i p I u s i e u r s s o r t e s , v o u s v o u l e z I e s 9 z 4 c I J E s ？
Ｉ ' v e s e v e r a l k i n d s , 1 A l 1 i c h d o y o u w a n 解 ． 、 l c h o i s i r a i s 胞 9 z J c L t o i , d e t o u s c e s m a n t e a u x ？
W h i c h o f a ] l t h e s e c o a t s w o u l d y O 〃 c h o o s e 2
T b h n d o u t w h o o r w h a t i s t h e 加 成 花 c t o b j e c t , y o u n e e d t o u s e a p r e p o s i t i o n s u c h a s a o r d e ・ T h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l w a y s p r e c e d e s t h e i n t e l r o g a t i v e t e r m ( s e e 2 3 . 2 ) ：
221：
iIVEKpos飯0m
Ａ９”Ａ９”j趣tes-vousallusionquandvDusditescel誰 ○
Who/Whatareyourefemngtowhenyousaylhat2 Ded7zJjsemoqUe-t-o熊
Whoareyouma]dngfimof？ a n d l e s s f b n n a l ] y ： Ａ ９ 脚 j / Ａ ９ ” j e s f “ ９ I J e v o u s f a i t e s a l l u s i o n q u a n d v D u s d i t e s c e l 鑑 Who/WhatareyourefbningtowhenyDusaylhat？
a n d d e E n i t e l y i n f b l m a l ： TUfmSallusion〃d7zJ⑰ieKactemen解
Y b u i f e t a l l d n g a b o u t w h a t e x a c d y ？ Whenyouwanttolmowaboutlocation,time,cause,mannenquanti噸etc.,use i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s o n t h e i r o w n ： ”et9””auralieuIaprochainer6union?(See23.7） Whereandwhenisthenextmeeting？ Celaarrive勿蛎IEsco恥bjb"？
T h a t h a p p e n s h o w o f t e n ？ 恥那珂"oicettesoci6tea-t-eⅡelicenci6tantdepersoIme照(See 2 3 . 8 ）
Whyhaslhiscompanymadesomanystaffredundant？ mcomptesyaller“加ｱﾂze"rsitavoimreestenpanne？
Howdoyouintendtogetlhereifyourcarhasbrokendown？ a n d f b n o w i n g p r e p o s i t i o n s ： Ａ Ｉ ﾉ e c 9 砿 e s t 雲 c e q l r i l s p a r t e n 淫 W h o a r e t h e y l e a v i n g / g o i n g w i l h ？ mvasmonters””ojPourpeind】氾lePlafbnd2
W h a t a r e y o u g o i n g t o s t a n d o n t o p a i n t t h e c e i l i n g ？ F i n a l h ﾙ i n t e l r o g a t i v e a d j e c t j v e s ( s e e 2 3 . 6 ) a n d p r o n o u n s m a y b e u s e d a s ・ d e t e m l i n e r s w i t h o r w i l h o u t a p r e p o s i t i o n ： QJJeIJbmz"雌花est-cequejedoisremplirpoureffEctuerun versement？
WhatfbmlmustlEllininordertomakeapayment？ Ｑ ” I E S I ﾉ " I E s v o u l e z v o u s v i s i t e r p e n d a n t v D t r e s 6 j o u r ？
W h a t c i t i e s d o y o u w a n t t o v i s i t d u r i n g y o u r s t a y ？ Ｃ錘陀”卯蛇”此9“laparterre？
Whosecoatisitontheground2
222肋"c加砥
Ｄα砺伽9zJeI陀decespiecesvoulez-vousfailEinstaⅡerledouble v i 位 a g e ？
Whichoftheseroomsdoyouwanttohavelhedouble副azing i n ？
( e ） s o m e t i m e s , t h e q U e s t i o n d o e s n o t c a l l f b r a n a n s w e r b u t i s s i m p l y a w a y o f c r e a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t o r c o n v e y i n g a p a r t i c u l a r f e e l i n g ： Ⅲ α ､ / 2 z " 9 z J U 溝 Ⅲ ” 飯 # “ ? … 】 e n P e n r e v l e n s p a s ! ( s u l p l i s e ） Hedidwhat?Hesaidlhattoyou?…I1mamazed1 Cb””””"l怠乙‐”IJs9“た腕ｾ"so河EavectOut“(complaint， c a l l f b r s y m p a l h y ） Howonearthcanlmanagewithallthat(ｔｏｄｏ)？ Notethatsomequestions,especial]ywilhpoummwhichintermsoffbnnareof t h e ‘ y e s / n o ， t y p e , a r e i n f a c t a i m e d a t e l i c i t i n g a f U l l e r a n s w e r ： POI”Gz道zﾉα婚〃ze伽刀Fze『Z弛邸喝s'ilmusplaft？ Canyougvemelhetimejplease？ ESfcc9IJe”妬〃皿F7ね乙祁ozjsex7ﾌoser吻脚osi加卯devo唾partisur c e t t e q u e s t i o 熊
Canyougveusyourparq7もpositiononthisissue?
F i n a l ] y ; t h e l e i s t h e q u e s t i o n t a g w h i c h y o u c a n a d d t o a n y s t a t e m e n t w h e n y o u a l e s e e ] d n g s o m e o n e 1 S a g r e e m e n t w i t h y o u r q u e s t i o n I f e s t c e p a s ? T h i s l i t d e e 叩 r e s s i o n i s u n i q u e , 1 t c a n b e u s e d f b I m a l l y o r i n f b l m a ] ] y l t n e v e r v a l i e s i n j t s f b I m a n d i t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o e v e r y s i n 副 e q u e s t i o n t a g i n E n 副 i s h ‘ i s I f t h e / s h e / i t ? ， c a I f t y o u ? , d i d ､ ' t ｗ ｅ ? , w o l f t l ? , s h o u l d I f t l h e y ? L S o m e t i m e s , i t i s u s e d s i m p l y t o e n d a s e n t e n c e a n d h a s n o r e a l i n t e I r o g a t i v e f i m c t i o n . S o m e t i m e s i t i s u s e d t o r e i n f b r c e a s t a t e m e n t , Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ t i m e s , i t i s m e r e l y l h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a n e r v o u s t i c 1 Vbusaimezla厚ammairehan9aise,rzHes“ｅＰａＳ？ YbuljkeHenchgrammal)dolftyou2 IaqUestion,〃湾候“ｐ四resteomerte・
T h e q u e s t i o n , ｏ ｆ c o u r s e , r e m a i n s o p e n ．
(see54.12-54.24〕
A s i n a s 1 d n g q u e s t i o n s ( s e e 5 9 d ) , y o u h a v e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n n e g a t i o n a p p l i e d t o t h e 〃 加 陀 s e n t e n c e o r c l a u S e f m l n e g a t i o n , a n d n e g a t i o n a p p l i e d t o o n l y o n e p ” o f t h e s e n t e n c e o r c l a u s e p a r t i a l n e g a t i o n ． (a）Themostobviouswaytoapplyfijlnegationistousene…ｐas(see54.16)：
22患Ⅳ”0噸0m
SilesDupont”so”pjzslam血1temnt.ｃ'estquPilsrzeujC”、” 夕
p“
I f d l e D u p o n t s a r e n o t h e r e n o w i i t b b e c a u s e t h e y w o l f t b e comlng．
Neisoftenomittedininfbrmalspeech(see54.19)：
E Ⅱ e e s t p a s v e 皿 e J a c q u e l i n e , j e s a i s p a s p o u r q U o i 、
Jacquelinehas㎡come・Idolftknowwhy
W h e n s p e a ] d n g , o t h e r s h o r t c u t s m a y b e t a k e n a n d o n l y p a s i s u s e d , f b r e x a m p l e ， withanadverb,inanswertoaqUestion：
N o n , m e r c i , p j z s t o u t d e s u i t e . ( = ･ J e n e v e u x p a s p r e n d r e u n v e r r e ( d e v i n ) t o u t d e s u i t e . ）
NC,thanks,notri虫taway
P a s i s r e p l a c e d b y n i … ｎ ｉ … ( s e e 5 4 . 1 7 ) w h e n d l e r e a r e t w o e l e m e n t s i n t h e n e g a t i o n , f b r e x a m p l e , t w o n o u n s o r t w o v e r b s ： Pauvrepetite,eⅡe施祁”泡加雄彪(Notetheomissionofthe a r t i c l e . ）
P o o r l i t d e t h i n g , s h e h a s n e i t h e r a f a l h e r n o r a m o d l e エ Jecroisquenous列』a]Jons”Ie助ひ〃d'igmrerceconnit,”“J”de n e p a s c o n d a m n e r l e s r e s p o n s a b l e s d e s m a s s a c r e s ・
I b e l i e v e w e d o n o t h a v e t h e I i ゆ t t o i g n o r e t h i s c o n n i c t , n o r l h e r i g h t n o t t o c o n d e m n t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f b r t h e m a s s a c r e s ． 似Otethedoublenegation:ｎｏus〃monsp妬IedroitdeFze"“condamn匪nous d e v o n s c o n d a m n e 里 T h i s u s a g e i s f b r e m p h a s i s . ） １１列e”池砿”戒(pJzJs)depuislongtemps・ Hehasnotsaidawordorlaughedinalongtime．
N o t e t h a t t h e p r e Ⅵ o u s s t r u c t u r e i s r a r e l y u s e d w h e n s p e a k i n g i n f b r m a l l y p n t h e otherhand,whenspeakinginfOImally;itispossibletoavoidne…、…ｎｅ… ‘､either..．、or…、or...，：
V b i l a D o c t e “ i l F z e m a n g e p I ” ( e t / ､ i ) F z e d o r t p I I J s も Wbu,DoctoEhewon，teatorsleep． Pasissometimesomitted,inamorefbrmalcontext,aftertheverbscesse喝osem ●
p o u v o 四 s a v o i r ( s e e 5 4 . 1 9 ) ： nFzeS”totlallem
HedoesIftlmowwheretoｇｏ‘
224”"c加砺
Insteadofne…pas,youcanusethenegativefbrmofanounoradjective(see 5 4 . 2 4 ) ：
C e n F e s t p a s p o s s i b l e 1 ＝ Ｃ ' e s t i r l Z p o s s 妨 陀 ！
I t b i m p o s s i b l e 1 o r a p r e p o s i t i o n ：
皿eestsaFzs血加減陀愈gb(see１１．４)＝Elle徳pzzsdedomicile． ( S e e １ １ ． １ ） Shehasnofixedabode．
(b）Thenegationmayapplytoonepartofthesentenceonh〃suchaslhe G
s u b j e c t ( s e e 5 4 . 1 6 ) ： Pe応oFmeFzlestwnu
Nobodycame． RjE〃aumonde7zeme蛇rachangerd，aⅣis･
Nothinginthewo11dwillmakemechangemymind． AzJc”devousFzHestqUalihepourfairecetravaiL
Notoneofyouisqufmedtodolhiswolk Ⅱ”aaIJcIJJzeraisondesﾉenerv“
T h e r e b n o n e e d t o g e t e x c i t e d ． orthenegationmayfbcusomheverb： nmeIﾉje"s”"”jSmevo迦 Ybunevercometoseeme． ＥⅡｅ〃℃、α旋卯”"伽sα”雌
S h e 血 d I f t w a n t t o k n o w a n y l h i n g a b o u t i t ・ NOusFzeIﾉ”んrzsPIIJsvUusvom Wedon，twanttoseeyouagam・
A d v e r b s e 】 叩 r e s s i n g f i l l l n e g a t i o n r e p l a c e p a s ｉ ｎ 山 e n e g a t i v e s t m c t u r e s n e … iamais,ｎｅ…nen,ｎｅ…plus,ThisisnotdlecasewhenlesspowerfUladverbs areinvolved：
ImzeⅥenspass”””mevo血
YbudonPtcometoseemevelyoften． Elle徳Pzzsvouluensayoir””"ZZZg巴も
Shedidlftwanttolmowanymoreaboutit． ●
NousFzevoulonspzzsv0usvoIrmJzs加加加e砿
W e d o n P t w a n t t o s e e y o u a l l l h e t i ｍ ｅ ．
”Ⅳ”0"0〃
( c ） F i n a l b m o t e t h a t a q u e s t i o n o r a c o m m a n d m a y a l s o b e n e g a t i v e ： Ｐり””ojFzねs減IＰ砿enco肥仰減"露 W h y h a s I f t h e / i t a n i v e d y e t ？ ｌ Ｖ ｂ 邸 肌 j E p J z s d e f a i I E t e s d e v o i r s 1 D o l f t f b r g e t t o d o y o u r h o m e w o r k 1
a n d d o l f t f b r g e t t h a t w h e n i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f d l e ‘ y e s / n o ' t y p e , t h e a n s w e r i s s i / n o n ：
１ V ﾌ 廓 E s z ﾉ 0 噸 P u z s c o 〃 ” j ｼ z c Z J d e S o n i n n o c e n c 露 Ｍ ｏ ｉ , s i A r e y o u n o t c o n y i n c e d o f h i s i n n o c e n c e ? Ｉ ａ ｍ ・ BecalefUlwhemhereisadoublenegation：
血 卯 e c r o i s p “ q u 1 i l 〃 e f a u t p “ r e v e i l l e r l e s e n i a n t s m a i n t e n a n t 2 Si,masraison,laissons-lesdomm血/Non,onaassezattendu m姉ntfmzmtI
D o n ， t y o u l h i n k w e s h o u l d n ' t w a k e t h e c h i l d r e n n o W ? Y b s , ｙ ｏ u ， ｒ ｅ ｎ 甑 t , l e t b l e a v e d l e m a s l e e p . / N O , ｗ ｅ ' v e w a i t e d l o n g e n o u 甑 ！
A伽伽
６ １ -161.】雲
G”e"略α”JeaIﾉc-如膨昭
G 】 犯 e ｌ ｍ ｇ ．
T h e v e r b a l l e r i s o f t e n u s e d a f t e r i n t r o d u c t o r y t e r m s s u c h a s s a l u t ( i n f b l m a l ) ‘ h i ’ o r b o n j o u r ‘ g o o d m o m i n g / a f t e m o o l f ： Sα如喝lesmeCS,“”？
Hithere,youguys1OK2 MonsieurDmerge喝加可0噸commentaJIEz-vous？
Ｍ･DuvergeI)goodmomingHowareyou？
T h e r e p l y m a y b e m o d u l a t e d w i l h i n t o n a t i o n o r u s i n g v e r b s o r a d v e r b s , a n d i t i s quitecommontothanksomeoneatlhesametime： Ouais,蝉Ｐｅ”αJ陀吋ettoi胃
Yeah,ＯＫyou？ Z泥sb犯脇””j;etvous-mCme？
VeryweLthankyou,Andyourself?
Thetelmofgreetingisoftencombinedwilhatide,whichprecedesorfbⅡowsit Bonso恥MessieursDames！Ｇｏｏｄevening,ladiesand gendemen1 Chersamis,bonjour！Friends/COⅡeagues,good moming1 BoniourDocteur！Goodmoming,Doctor！ WhenintroducedtoapersonfbrlheErsttime,youcanusetheabovetelms ( b o n j o 皿 b o n s o 血 S a l u t … ) a n d / o r a d j e c t j v e s o r p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s , s u c h a s h e u r e l Ⅸ , e n c h a n t 6 ＋ ｄ ｅ ＋ i n f i n i t i v e , o r s i m p l y o n l h e i r o w n ： ●
BoniourMademoiseue,蛇she"花““た”vo位econnalssance．
Goodmoming,MissSmith,velypleasedtomeetyou． 励zc”"Z窪！
D e l i 獣 1 t e d 1
２２７；ＶＡ飯加伽
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ＨｅⅡoDanieue,I'mpleasedtomeetyoul'veheardalotabout you･
Thestandardopeningfbrmulainconespondence,whenyoudonotlmow d l e p e r s o n y o u a r e w r i t i n g t o , i s ： Madame/MOnsie画
DearMadam/Sm
Y b u a d d t h e d e E n i t e a r t i c l e a n d t i d e i n a v e l y f b r m a l l e t t e r ： MonsieurleDirecteuI；(underthetide/nameandaddress） DearS血
MadameleMam氾,(underthetitle/nameandaddress） DearMadam，
TheuseofcherindicateslhatyoulmowthepersonqUiteweⅡ一veryｗｅⅡifyou a d d a p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e o r w i s h t o b e i n f b m l a l ：
CWEe庵amis，DearMrandMrsSmith,/w dearhiends，
ヨ61.2岸
Ｃ腕把Madame，
Dearn位sSmilh，
M b F z c j h e r J e a n ，
”dearJohn，
I 心 a Ⅳ e t a l d 1 n g Notethatsomeoflhetermsofgreeting:Salut,bonsoir…mayalsobeusedfbr l e a v e t a 1 d n g ・ B o n j o u r i s u s e d a s a t e r m o f g r e e t i n g o " ： AnezsaI“ademain1
OIqBye1Seeyoutomorrow； B”so恥MessieursDamesetbo”eβ"“so』だeI
Goodni甑t,ladiesandgendemenEnioytherestoftheevening1 ItisfaiI1ycommontousephrasesintroducedbytheprepositionainorderto refbrtoafUturemeeting,suchasademainabove： AZJ花”jrDocteU叫勿伽SeF”iFZePmC”iFZe1
Goodbye,DoctoLTmnextweek1 SalutMartin,"孤砿如城!
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m c o n e s p o n d e n c e , i n f b r m a l l e a y e t a l d n g m a y b e e 】 叩 r e s s e d u s i n g s h o r t p h r a s e s w i t h a d v e r b s o r a d j e c t i v e s ：
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fDmilい‐
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m a m o r e f b l m a l r e 甑 s t e W o u w o u l d u s e t h e i m p e r a t i v e ( S e e 5 1 . 3 ) ： Ｃ ７ ｚ ｙ ａ ｚ ぅ M O n s i e u l > a l ' e 即 叩 r e s s i o n d e m e s s e n t i m e n t s l e s m e m e u r s ･ Y b u r s f a i t h f i 山 Ｉ ｙ １
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W i t h b e s t r e g a r d s ， oraverbwidlthepronounvous：
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N o u n s m a y b e u s e d o n t h e i r o w n o r r e i n f b r c e d b y t o u t a n d a p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e ：
2 2 9 V A t t j 加 伽
CompIiments！Wendone1 mutesmes姫Iicitations!(SeeCongratulations1 1 8 . 1 a ）
InordertocompⅡmentsomeonewithvariousdegreesofemphasis,ｙｏｕｃａｎｕｓｅ ｃ ' e s t ＋ a d v e r b o r a d j e c t i v e ( s e e 1 3 . 5 b ) ： Maisdisdonc,ｃｾstpzms抑JzJ血如”cequemasfait1
Hey1Itもnotbadatanwhatyou'vedone1 Vb江eeqqJ0sition,c湾tたmzidhzb喝bravO1 Ybure】dlibition,it,swonderfUl,wendone1
M o r e f b r m a 1 h 〃 w h e n w l i t i n g a n d f b r s o c i a l c o n t e x t s , e ・ g b i r t h , m a r r i a g e , n e w job,youcanuseaphrasewithaprepositionsuchasa,po皿…candnoverb： APauletVHr夢nie,α”ctoutesnos髭licitationspourvD杜emariage. （ o n a c a r d ）
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ＣＯ､厚atulationsfromtheboardofexaminersonyour p e ] r f b I m a n c e i n l h i s e x a m ・ Nousvous4zzj花SSO"smIJsFzosIﾉ“”debonheuretdeprosp6面t６． WewishyoueveryhappinessandprosperityE
oraverbfbnowedbytheprepositionde＋nounorinhnitjve： 肥mer噂jm4isavecvous“吻祁ajSs”cFdeCameline・
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Mercibeaucoup Memienco肥．
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o r a s h o r t p h r a s e ： M e r c i p o u r t o u t 、
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MercimilIefbis．
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A n o t h e r g a s s ? T h a n k s , b u t n o l h a n k s . ( o r N o , t h a n k y o u . ）
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T h a n k y o u f b r y o u r k i n d i n v i t a t i o n ．
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１tもverykindofyoutohaveimitedbodlofus・ VbtreimﾉitationFzo噸α〃"g7zu””jS航
W e w e r e d e l i g h t e d t o r e c e Ⅳ e y o u r i n v i t a t i o n ・ a n d d l e n a c c e p t t h e i m i t a t i o n w i t h v e r b s o r v e r b p h r a s e s s u c h a s a c c e p t e r a V E c p l a i s i r d e ＋ i n h n i t j v e ‘ t o a c c e p t w i t h p l e a s u r e ; s e r e j o u i r d e 十 i n E n i t j v e ‘ t o b e deli甑tedtdc'estavecplaisirque…‘Iampleasedto…'： 、Nousα“叩如"sα”cpkzisir”ｎｏus形Fzcjb℃ａｕｖｉｎｄ'honneum Wewillbedeli“edtocometothereception lemeF噂jmzjS礎trEdesv6江es.(See15.1c）
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Y b u ｍ ａ ｙ a p o l o g i z e m o r e p r o f U s e l y u s i n g p o l i t e f b r m s o r a d X ﾉ e r b s ： Ievousp旋叱IIfeKcusem l a s k y o u t o f b r g i v e m e ． 脆”"mePardonne砥
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T h e f b l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s a r e t a k e n h o m o f h c i a l o r b u s i n e s s c o n t e x t s ： IaDirectionvousp旗αｾzc“pZErm邸蛇ssese秘zJsespO”“" ｅ””“jhc趣、加恥
T h e m a n a g e m e n t h o p e s y o u w i l l a c c e p t i t s a p o l o g i e s f b r t h e ermrintheinvoice．
NOus瑠花rZmzs”７zepo”Cir伽刀Fzers砿陀〃vo杜eappel.(See 5 4 . 1 9 ）
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v O u S p r i o n s d e b i e n v o u l o i r n o u s e m K c u s e 鴎 ( e W K c u s e r d e ＞ c e d o n t ） Theinvoicewasinfactsenttoyoubymistake,andwehopeyou w i Ⅱ a c c e p t o u r a p o l o g i e s 、
Whensuggestjngane叩lanation,thee籾ressionofapologymaybefbⅡowedby a v e r b i n t h e i m p e l f e c t o r p l u p e r f b c t t e n s e s ： ErczｲsGz-恥o4jene”"伽ispasmusd6rangem
l ， m s o l r y ； I d i d I f t w a n t t o d i s t u r b y o u ． Ｅ"砥Gz-”刺'α”iscmbienfairE･
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leFEg7℃"inEniment,maisjenep””ispasf圏ireaut】氾ment・
I ， m t e r r i b l y s o n y ； b u t t h e r e w a s n o l h i n g e l s e l c o u l d d o ． Malheureusement,〃ｍ》esZ"Poss肋Ze“vous花“”ir a U j o u r d ' 1 ｍ i ・
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Ｉ'msony;IhadtomakeaIrangementsinyourabSence・ PaIdonne-moi,jeｱ”"mjSPJzs”tepallercomme9aI F o l g i v e m e , I s h o u l d 1 f t h a v e s p o k e n t o y o u l i k e t h a t 1
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I s w e a l ; I ' n n e v e r d o i t a g a i n ．
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A l t e m a t i v e l W o u m a y u s e a n a d j e c t i v e s u c h a s q u e l w i t h a n o u n , o r a n a d v e r b suchasmmmewilhaverb：
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Alsoinwnting,anumberofverbsmaybeusedwithnounssuchas condol6ancesorsympathieandlhecauseofgEiefmaybeinnfoducedwithterms suchasal,OCC悉inndeoren：
NousvousadrBssonsnosplussincもrescondol6ances仇Zbcazs加卯 ”ladispa】ition廿agquedevo杜eE1s･
Wesendyouourdeepestsympathyonlhe杜agjcdeathofyour son．
】evousfaistoutesmescondol6ances”cesmomentsdifnciles･
IextendtoyDumydeepestsympalhyatlhisdifEculttime
235VA飾加伽
hnperativefOIms,whichaIemuchmorefbmlal,canalsobeused(see61.2)：
Omsbien,chereAnne,ａｌ，ew叩IEssiondemaprofbndesympathie･ Pleaseaccept,(my)dearAnne,mydeepestsympathy OUyGzquenoussommesdetoutcceurayEcvDusetsoyezassur6s denot１℃sincもresympame，
Ourheartsgoouttoyouandwesendyouourdeepestsympathy AltemativelWoumayuselheemphaticfblmc,est…que： Ｃねstavecuneimmensemstesse9鵬nousaⅣOnsapprisled6ccsde Vict“
ItiswithimmFmses3dnessthatwehavele3medofVictorb d e a l h ．
6４ 一函野
E x F ’ y 1 e s s j 昭 s " ” y f s e a ” 〃 i S g I J s j
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W h e n s p e a k i n g , s u ] p r i s e i s o f t e n c o n v e y e d b y i n t o n a t i o n a l o n e , a n d m a r k e d i n w r i t i n g b y p u n c t u a t i o n ： Elleaprisleverredebiも配et…ｅⅡeluiavers6surlat6te1
Shetookthe副assofbeerand…poureditoverhishead1 ●
InteIjectionssuchasoh1andah1maybeused,toe叩resssmPnseand ａｄｍｉ'･柿ｏｎ：
O〃quelbeaubleu1 Oh,whatabeautifUlblue！
4WvoilaClajre1JemedemandeceqUiIamene．
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W b w 1 I t b r e a ] ] y c o o l / b r i l l i a n t a t y o u r p l a c e 1 ●
A n d t h e r e a r e m a n y s h o r t e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s , w h i c h a r e u s e d t o e 】 叩 r e s s s u ] ｐ ｎ ｓ ｅ ｏ ｒ d i s b e l i e f 蝉 a l o r s 1 a h b o n ? ! p a s p o s s i b l e 1 s a n s b l a g u e 1 n o n ! . . ． “α勿燭】ean-Pascal,fafaitunepaille1 W e u J e a n P a s c a l , l o n g t i m e n o s e e 1 ZYe咽ilaneig61
WeⅡnow1Itbbeensnowing1 C ' e s t / c e n P e s t p a s 十 a d j e c t i v e a r e a l s o h e q u e n d y u s e d ( s e e l 3 5 a , 1 3 . 5 b ) ：
2 3 6 F t J " c t i o 7 z s
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e】qpresssulpnse：
皿ｐ伽is”ZEs?！
A I e y o u j o l d n g ？ ●
] e n P e 〃 ｱ E z ﾉ z e F z s p a s ･
I c a l f t g e t o v e r i t ． quandeneluiadit9a,il”est愁苑babaI Whenshetoldhimthat,hewasnabbergasted1
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h1amorefbrmalregisteWoucanuseemressionsmapposition： Ａ"0〃§ZmzFze”“ilnParienr6pondu・
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T b o u r g r e a t s u r p l i s e , 1 h e s a n c t i o n s w e r e l j f t e d ． ●
orも唾十pastpamcipleexpressingsurpnse： ■
NOus”oyzs‘彪位もss"ゆ両sparcechangementdamtude．
W e w e r e v e r y s u l p r i s e d b y t h i s c h a n g e o f a t t i t u d e ． J e s I z j S s i t Z § だ e ” r s a r 6 a c t i o n ･ I,mastonishedathisreaction．
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ShewasamazedtoEndthather/hissalaryhadbeenincreased．
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o r a v o i r ＋ n b u n e m r e s s i n g s u l p n s e ： NOus”0恋e邸伽s邸ゆ汰edelevoiranfverenpleinenuit･ Weweresulprisedtoseehim/itamvinginthemiddleofthe ni甑t
o r v e r b s e 叩 r e s s i n g s u l p r i s e s u c h a s s P a l t e n d r e a ‘ t o e 麺 e c t ; s m p l E n d r e ‘ t o s u l p r i s e ' ： 】'aⅣDuequejene”αrZEFzgわなpas・ I a d m i t l m d l f t e 】 m e c t l h a t ． 】 e d o i s d i l E q u e c e t t e d 6 c i s i o n m 1 a s z J m r 7 s a l m u s t s a y d l a t d e c i s i o n s u 】 p r i s e d m e ．
一 躍
Disgust A g a j n , i n t e l j e c t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e ：
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o r c ' e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e e m r e s s i n g d i s g u s t ( s e e 1 3 . 5 b ) ： Ｃ'esthmTihle！IfShomble1
Oestd6gueulasse1Thatもdisgusting1 C,estr6vTD1tantIItbrevolting1 o r c ' e s t 十 ｎ ｏ u n e 】 叩 r e s s i n g d i s g u s t ：
Ｃ，estunel'onte！Itbadis厚ace1 C，estwaimfmtunsc副nJ詞1便！Thatbarealsmn巾Ⅱ
A n d t h e r e i s t h e a d j e c t j v e q U e l ＋ n o u n e m r e s s i n g d i s g u s t u s e d a s a n i n t e I j e c t i o n ： QueⅡehorreur！Thatもhomble1
QueⅡepuanteurici！Whatastinkhele1
orce＋noun＋e唾十adjective,sometimesreinfbrcedbyanadverb(see１２．１)： CesteakestabsoIumentimmangeable1 Thissteakisinedible1
C e t a p p a r t e m e n t e s t i n d e s c r i p t i b l e 1 ThisHatisindescribable1
o r c ' e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ d e ＋ v e r b ： desttoutdemcme6cmIJm”α椀”jrapayErleshonorairesdela famineroyaleavecnosmp6ts1
I t も d i s g u s t i n g t o h a v e t o p a y t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e r o y a l f a m i ] y wilhallourtaxes1
躍８即加加蛎
o r v e r b ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ q U e 十 s u b j u n c t j v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ： Je"”esczm4北zJe”9IJeIon”jSseamsimemelesgensala porte！、
Ihnditscandalousthatonecanthrowpeopleoutinthisway1
Ｗｈｅｎe】叩lainingwhatyouaredisgustedabout,youcanuseapassivefbrm十 p r e p o s i t i o n ＋ e x p l a n a t i o n ( s e e 4 8 ) ： les邸jSだ”膨ep”je”擁”"tqUiestr6serveauxSDF(sans d o m i c i l e 励 K e ) ．
rmdisgustedbythe位ealmentgiventopeoplewidmoExed abode．
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A n n o y e d b y t h e r e c e p t i o n l h e y g o t , t h e y l e f t w i t h o u t s a y i n g g o o d b y e ． oryoucanofferthee】叩lanationfOⅡowedbyaverbornounemressmgdisgust： IJamtudedeshommespolitiquesmeだ"01彪
T h e a t t i t u d e o f l h e p o l i t i c i a n s d s g u s t s m e ． IEprixdeslegumesest”sczmzjhz陀！ ●
T h e p r l c e o f v e g e t a b l e s i s a d i s 印 a c e ．
国師蝿""鱗卿鰯蝿‘伽｡伽紬呼 一 躍
W澗鯉ｓａｎｄｄｉＲＩｉｋＰｓ
ｌ ｂ ｅ 】 甲 r e s s l i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s , y o u c a n u s e a v a l i e t y o f v e r b s a n d v e r b p h r a s e s suchasaimer‘toljke,love;agacer‘toannoy;averbsuchasaimer＋noun： m a j j 7 z e s l a l i t t 6 r a t u 1 氾 a n g a i s e ？
Y b u l i k e E n g i s h l i t e r a t u r e 2 somPnmesusedwithhi⑨n：
J , a i F 7 1 E b i e n l e s C e u f S a l a c o q u e ．
I r e a l ] y l j k e s o f t b o i l e d e g g s ． 、１，αi"mes雄"Jean南Pie厳e?−Non,cetypemlfZ8zzc巴！
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239
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N O , I d i d l f t l j k e i t v e r y m u c h ．
a v e r b e m r e s s i n g l i l d n g / d i s l j l d n g ＋ i n E n i t i v e , o r 丘 e q u e m ｶ ﾙ ＋ q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t j v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ：
】enP”Jzepas施舵lacuisine、
I d o l f t l i k e c o o k i n g ． 皿eaiJwze9邸bnImjhssedescadeaux・
S h e l o v e s g e t t i n g p r e s e n t s ． m i n s t i t u t r i c e n P a i " z e p a s 9 " b n l u i f 2 Z s e d e s 癖 o s m o t s ･
T h e t e a c h e r d o e s I f t l i k e p e o p l e u s i n g b a d l a n g u a g e ． andphrasesinなoducedbyc，estorCa(seel35b,13.5.)： “t'””IEsⅥSiteurs'?−Oui,cｾst蛇sbjeFz1
D i d y o u l j k e ‘ T h e V i s i t o r s ' ? − Y e s , i t も v e r y g o o d 1 hnpersonalverbscanalsobeused(see53)：
mui§”tP伽肋陀d'ayDiraeffectuertoUiomslesmCmest証hes・
I t w a s b o I i n g f b r h i m / h e r a l w a y s d o i n g t h e s a m e j o b s ・
a n d t h e s m l c t u l e s u s e d f b r e m p h a s i s , c e q u i / c e q u e … c ' e s t o r c ' e s t q u e / q I f ‘what…isthat'(see22.16)：
α9噸med6plaitchezcetautem；cねst”fldonnetoujours l ， i m p 正 s s i o n d e p r e n d r e s e s l e c t e u r s p o u r d e s i m b e c i l e s ，
W h a t l d o l f t l i k e a b o u t t h i s w r i t e r i s t h a t h e a l w a y s g v e s t h e I m p r e s s i o n o f t a k i n g h i s r e a d e r s f b r f b o l s ．
α9噸j，aimequandjesuisenvacances,c℃srIesoleil,c””IilnIy a p a s d h e u r e , c ｾ s r 正 s t e r a u Ⅱ t j u s q u ' a m i d i e t l e s l o n g u e s s o i r 6 e s p a s s 6 e s d e h o r s s u r l a t e r r a s s e ･
W h a t l l o v e w h e n l ' m o n h o l i d a y i s t h e s u n , t h e f a c t t h a t y o u d o n ' t h a v e t o w a t c h l h e c l o c k , y o u c a n s t a y i n b e d t i l l l u n c h t i m e ・ a n d s p e n d l o n g e v e n i n g s o u t o n t h e t e r r a c e ． Otherin江oductoIyverbsmaybeused,suchas6prome阿廿Ｏｍｅｒ＋ｎｏｕｎ十曲十 i n h n i t i v e , a n d も 位 e ＋ a d j e c t i v e o r n o u n ＋ d e , w i t h n o d e E n i t e a r t i c l e ： J'”ｍ”e血P吻疎r勿加ePmme”rseuleenfbr6t・ I e n j o y w a Ⅱ d n g a l o n e i n t h e f b r e s t ．
２ ４ ０ 肋 m c t i O 7 z s
ⅡZ、脚”｡b伽sar球zcfjD"〃”邸陀rdelamusiqUe、
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Ⅱestα”蛇”此ja麺．
H e b a j a z z e n t h u s i a s t ． 一 躍
Prもfe”、⑨
Ｔ ｂ e 】 叩 r e s s p r e f e r e n c e l h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f v e r b s a n d v e r b p h r a s e s a v a i l a b l e ， i n c l u d i n g p r 6 姫 r e r x a y ‘ t o p r e f e r x t o y ： Je"球”Ievinrouge“vinblanc・
I p r e f e r r e d w i n e t o w h i t e w i n e ． a n d l h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r 6 髄 唾 r ＋ i n E n i t i v e ＋ p l u t 6 t q u e 十 i n 面 n i t i v e ：
Nous抑噂勧℃妬so流rtouslesdeuxP血的r9zJe正ncon唾rdestasde g e n s ，
W e p r e f e r t o g o o u t j u s t l h e t w o o f u s r a l h e r t h a n m e e t i n g c r o w d s o f p e o p l e ．
P r e f e r e n c e c a n o f c o u r s e b e e 】 叩 r e s s e d i n a n e Ⅲ p t i c a l w a y I f b r e x a m p l e i n a d i a l o g u e ： maimesI6cha】Pejalme?Non,p伽鯨tlavErte・
Y b u l i k e t h e y e Ⅱ o w s c a I f ? Ｎ o , ( I p r e f e 】 j 1 h e g f e e n o n e ． A Ⅳ u i r ＋ ｎ ｏ ｕ ｎ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g p r e f e r e n c e ＋ p o u r i s a n a l t e m a t i v e ： I'aimecertainsmorcea皿modemesmaisj'“”蛇pF“池ctjりＦｚ
" 0 ” l a m u s i q u e c l a s s i q u e ． 、ikesomemodempiecesbutlpreferclassicalmusic． ●
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I f i t d o e s I f t b o t h e r y o u , w e p r e f e r S a t u r d a y r a t h e r t h a n F r i d a y
h n p e r s o n a l f b n n s a r e a l s o u s e d : i l v a u t m i e u x q U e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ‘ i t w o u l d b e b e t t e r t o … ' ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) , i l p a r a n t / e s t p r 錐 r a b l e d e ＋ i I f n i t j v e ‘ i t s e e m s / i s p r e f e r a b l e t o … ' ： Ⅱｍｅ”、厳"匂ZmbIe此gzz雄rranciensystもme,lenouveauest tmpcompIiqU6･
Itseemstometobepreferabletokeeptheoldsystem,thenew o n e i s t o o c o m p l i c a t e d ．
鯉1；Ⅷ揃加伽
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ItwouldbebetterfbrittobeHidayeveningbecausewedoIft w o l k t h e d a y a f t e I も
N o t e l h e u s e o f l h e c o n d j t i o n a l t e n s e i n t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e ･ T h i s i s q u i t e h e q u e n t f b r e m r e s s i n g p r e f e r e n c e p o l i t e l y : v e r b ( i n t h e c o n d i t i o n a l ) ＋ q U e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ： ●
●
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orcelaﾉCe＋verb(imheconditional)十mieux：
Aneufhemes？α伽、！"、、解、〃抑泥岬ahuitheu唾s・
N i n e o ' c l o c k ? I t w o u l d s u i t m e b e t t e r a t e i ゆ t 、 oranounphrase＋verb(intheconditional)：
壷 " … 瀞 淵 撫 … 。 m o r d e r t o r e i n f b r c e e m r e s s i o n s o f l i k i n g a n d d i s l j l d n g , y o u c a n u s e a d v e r b s ： J'aime伽0万噸””Iacuisinechinoise,etvouS？
IloveChinesefbod,ｄｏyou？ 鋤〃0踏加ojp“””” Ｏｈｎｏ,IdoIftlikeitatall1
Ⅱもpromebeα“0”伽pZfzisirihsemoqUerdesa皿唾s･
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o r a d j e c t j v e s ：
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Ｊ ｅ 祁 焔 p m u v e a I J c z J " e s a t i q j 2 z c t i り " a e f f e c t u e r d e s t a c h e s r 印 6 t i t i v e s ．
’ I g e t n o p l e a s u r e h o m d o i n g r e p e t i t i v e t a s k s ・
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T h e s e v e r b s m a y a l s o b e f b Ⅱ o w e d d i r e c t l y b y i n h n i t i v e s ( s e e 5 2 . 5 ) ： Ⅱ J z z Z ひ 花 s e P m 7 1 z e J z e r s o u s l a p l u i e ・ H e l o v e s w a Ⅱ d n g i n l h e r a i n ． 】e姪ZEs蛇”iF･souf丘irdesenfants・
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T h e s e a n d o d l e r v e r b s m a y a l s o b e f b Ⅱ o w e d b y q U e 十 s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ： B r i 甑 t t e B a r d o t n e s z 4 ” 0 両 E p a s d 7 I J e l ' o n j h s s e d u m a l a u x a n i m a u x ･
B r i g i t t e B a r d o t c a n n o t t o l e r a t e p e o p l e h u r t i n g a n j m a l s ・ R i e n a s l h e s u b j e c t i s a n a l t e m a t i v e f b r e m r e s s i n g l o v e a n d h a t e ( s e e 5 4 . 1 6 ) ： PmIrmoi,旋卯Fze””unesoir6een唾amisaucoiｎｄｕ蛇u・
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msaisbienquepourlui,減”yzAes”i花9艇lemensonge･
Y b u l m o w v e r y w e Ⅱ 1 h a t f b r h i m n o d l i n g i s w o r s e t h a n t e l l i n g l i e s ．
S o m e o f t h e e 】 p r e s s i o n s u s e d f b r l j k e / l o v e m a y I o f c o u r s e , ｂ ｅ ｕ ｓ ｅ ｄ ｔ ｏ ｅ 籾 r e s s e n d l u s i a s m 今 m a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e , s p o n t a n e o u s e n d l u s i a s m c a n b e e m r e s s e ｡ , i n p a r t i c u l a r w h e n s p e a ] d n g , w i l h s h o r t p h r a s e s s u c h a s ： Super！Super！ 耐“1Ienteid生！AnexceⅡentidea1
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Unljkeodlercoun杜iesinEuropetheUKhasreiectedtheSocial CharteE
(f）Disagreementcanalsobeemressedusinganoun(assubjectoflheverb） o r a n i m p e r s o n a l f b r m 十 i n h n i t i v e ： ●disagreementwithastatement Vbs”吻加Jzsso”卿o”'zJgs此如邸陀"”商e”blZzFzceetne p e m e n t p a s C t r e 】 氾 t e n u e s p a r l e C o n s e i l d e d i s c i p l i n e . ( S e e ４ ８ ）
Ybure】叩lanationsarequiteimprobableandcannotbeaccepted b y l h e d i s c i p l i n a I y b o a r d ．
2 5 2 ” " c t i o 砥
Ａｍｏ〃”喝〃es””z"jSs肋陀娩sItz鋤諺ssere卯ＣＥＳ”7Jzgsaun
p r o f b s s e u m ( S e e 5 3 ）
Inmyopinion,itisunacceptabletotalkinsuchawaytoa teachem
m 1 1 h e p r e v l o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e t h e u s e o f a m o n a Ⅳ i s t o r e i n f b r c e l h e e 】 叩 r e s s i o n o f d i s a g r e e m e n t a s a p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n . ） ●disa淳eementwidlaproposal Pourl'instant,切旋stpzzseFzIxjSagE”陀旋sat域z舵les consommateursenomrantlessupermamh6sledimanche.(See ５ ３ ）
Forthetimebeingwesimplycalmotconsiderkeeping c u s t o m e r s h a p p y b y o p e n i n g s u p e I m a I k e t s o n S u n d a y s ． ““cjS加卯“たmzerind6Enimentleslocauxscolairesapres l P a p p a r i t i o n d e q U e l q U e s c a s d e m 6 n i n g i t e p a m 厳 j 池 z c c B p ” b Z a （ S e e 5 2 . 1 0 ）
T h e d e c i s i o n t o c l o s e l h e s c h o o l s i n d e h n i t e l y f b n o w i n g l h e o u t b r e a k o f m e n i n g i t i s s e e m s u n a c c e p t a b l e ・ Andnotelhefbnowingexampletaken丘omadebateindleEumpean ParliamentinwhichmembersobjecttodleviewsofJMLePen： 【…ＩＣ'estpourqUoi,MonsieurlePr6sident,Mesdameset
M e s s i e u r s , j e s e r a i c o n 唾 c e t t e p r o p o s i t i o n , e n s o u l i 評 ａ ｍ ｑｕ！encorEunefbiseⅡeest6tablieparunconsensussoumoisqUi negesteﾖ叩rim6paraucuncoumierhNouslfalﾉDnspas6t6invit6sa fairepartie｡e…唾clamation:aFz2estp“”則…dest a b s o I u m e n t v r a i , j e s m s l e p r 6 s i d e n t d e c e 群 o u p e , j ， a i t o u t i 評 o r 6 decetteinifmtive．
（ﾉｂ"”IQ版CjeJfjEsCb腕、”α邸慾恥､”e""es： D6batduPallementeump6en-S6ancedu15.2.90） Thatもwhy;MrChaiIman,LadiesandGendemen,Iwouldbe a g a i n s t t h e p r o p o s a l , ａ ｎ ｄ Ｉ ｓ な e s s t h a t o n c e a g a i n a d e c i s i o n w a s takenbehindmybackanditwasnotputinwriting・Wewerenot a s k e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e … ( T h a t i s n o t m e 1 ) … i t i s a b s o l u t e l y b r u e ， Iamthechailmanofdlegroupandl]mewnothingaboutwhat w a s g o i n g o n . ( S e e 7 0 . 1 ） (９NotethefbⅡowingrangeofnegativeresponses-hominfblmalspokento f b r m a l w r i t t e n e x a m p l e s ： Situ3nnn2UnemmThgmdise姫免血uPusemusa6t61iw6e･
Vbusdemandezr6parationaux仕aisdelaSoci6t6･ Iasecr6tairwDusannonceaut61印honequevous d e v B z p a r t i c i p e r a u x h f a i s ．
■
聯ⅥA,解ｍｅ"”｡〃
I1aulwgoodshavebeendeljveredtoyouYbuask fbrcompensationhomthecompanyThe s e c r e t a r y t e l e p h o n e s t o s a y y o u m u s t c o n m b u t e ． R e s p o n s e s ：
αJTzz伽e"ze”ｐ妬Ｉ肋砿ｐ伽is”z””９”源
P a s s e z m o i l e d i r e c t e u m ( s p o k e n , i n f b l m a l ）
C e r t a i n l y n o t 1 A r e y o u j o k i n g ? P u t m e o n t o l h e managem
膨卯esIJzspJzsjZｾzcmFzZPo”p4罪ralorsqueje
n P e n s u i s p a s r e s p o n s a b l e . ( s p o k e n / w r i t t e n ， i n f b l m a l / f b l m a l ）
Icannotagreetopaysincelamnotresponsible ( f b r t h i s ) ．
Ecoutez,je蝿7℃雄”jSjEIzePe肌”asfuc℃B"蛇r
6 t a n t d o n n 6 q u e … ( s p o k e n , f b r m a l ) ( s e e 4 9 . 1 ） Look,Iregfetthatlcannota厚Eebecause… IapropositiondeladirEctionselonlaqueⅡeje devraisassumerunepartiedesh6aisFzePg”§蛇 花”IUE…(written,fbrma])(see54.19）
Themanagementbsuggestiomhatlshould meetpartoflhecostisunacceptable… 一 躍
A卸氾ei皿gmdiifer
Whenbolhsidesofanargumenthavebeene】叩ressedandnocompromise r e a c h e d , 1 h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m i 甑 t s i m p l y a g r e e t o d i f f も r b e f b r e b r e a ] d n g o f f S t a t e m e n t s o f a 厚 e e m e n t t o d i f f b r o f t e n u s e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , s o m e t i m e s c o m b i n e d w i l h i d i o m a t i c e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s s u c h a s r e s t e r s u r s e s p o s i t i O n s o r a ] m i r d e s i d 6 e s b i e n a n f c t 6 e s / d e s p o i n t s d e v u e d i V e r g e n t s ：
Chacundenous湾陀s”sesposi"Jzs:vDusawezvonc0pinion， moilamienne.(See15.1,21.2）
Weareeachsure/conyincedweare]igjlt:youhaveyourⅥews andlhavemine．
Soit,zﾉozJsWousprenezagauche,〃ozJsadmiteetnousvEnnns
bienqUeⅡe6qUipeaniveraenpreImerausommet.(See21.2） Ri諏.Ybugoomheleft､Ｗｅ'Ⅱgoonmerightandwe'Ⅱseewhich t e a m g e t s t o t h e t o p h r s t ． Inthesecondexample,notehow山esecondnousisdifferenthomlhe面rstone i n l h a t i t i n c l u d e s e v e r y o n e : v o u s 十 n o u s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t w o t e a m s ．
254肋"crims
由……州 計7'.’豊
Assertmg
(a）TherearemanydirectwaysfbrsomeonetoassertsomelhinginspeeCh･ W h e n p e o p l e w i s h t o d e c l a r e / s t a t e / a s s e r t s o m e t h i n g , 1 h e y s i m p ] y u t t e r w h a t e v e r i t i s d l e y w a n t t o d e c l a r e / s t a t e / a s s e r t ・ O c c a s i o n a Ⅱ y ; h o w e v e l ; t h e f U n c t i o n i s m a d e m o r e e m l i c i t i n t h e u t t e r a n c e i t s e 1 f a s i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s ： EntantqUepr"identderassociation,je“c雌花lacon姫rEnce ouverte、
AsPresident/ChairmanoftheAssociation,Ideclalethe
c o n f e r e n c e o p e n ． Vbusdev】氾z"F城Ers”I伽"””l,exactitudedesinfbImations comfmmesdanscedocument．
Ybumustsweamnyourhonourthatlheinfblmationcontajned inlhedocumentisaccurate．
IEscOndanm6squiontenEnet61ib6r6s〃ｍｃ伽”z花砿Ieur mnocencedepuisdenombreusesannees.(See33.2）
Themenwhohavehnallybeenreleasedhadbeenproclaiming t h e i r i n n o c e n c e f b r m a n y y e a r s ． (b）ThepreⅥousexamplesinvolvelhestructureverb＋nounandallofthem c o n t a i n a s t a t e m e n t o f a n o f E c i a l n a t u r e ､ T h e p a s s i v e f b r m o f d l e v e r b , o r t h e structurenoun＋pastparticiplecanalsobeusedinsuchacontext： Iediscourssurler61edes姫ｍｍｅｓ曲msUasoci6t6sem-蔵I
pmFzo"c§"”IeMinistredelacondition髄minine?(see48）
W111thespeechonlheroleofwomeninsocietybegjvenbylhe Min耐erfbrWbmenNsAffairs？
lEsjoumauxneparlentqUedesg姓肱”抑"s施旋shie喝lorsdela coniE唾ncedeprEsseaParis.(See49.1）
T h e p a p e r s a r e f U l l o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n / s t a t e m e n t s m a d e y e s t e r d a y a t t h e p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e i n P a r i s ． (cjmadetajledreportofanexchange,suchasthefbnowingexamplehoma policereport,statementsareinなoducedbyacolonandmnscIibedbetween invertedcnmm3R9
14h35-IEsuspectd6clare:T'mpass61asoir6edu2novemblBau 耐TnfmaL
1435Thesuspectstated:Ispenttheeveningofthe2ndof Novemberatlhecinema
2 5 5 Ⅵ A 7 g z 4 脱 e " 如 加 〃
R e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r u l e s g o v e m i n g i n d i r e c t s p e e c h ( s e e 5 8 ) h a v e t o b e t a k e n intoaccountinolherinstances：
恥suspect姫c伽”α”irPfzss6lasoir6eaucinema，
Thesuspectstatedhehadspenttheeveningatthecinema、
Anexampleofminutestakenatameeting： IEcomptableα”､o‘9IJelasituationhnancibredelasoci6t6 etait噸浦円倫iRfmte、
TheaccounｫantconHrmedthatthehmnci31situationofthe
c o m p a n y w a s s a t i s f a c t o r y (d）hlspeech,itisnotunusualtostateyourintentiontomakeanassertion： Iaissez-m0iparl“je”zJz2m庵”泡qUelquechose.(See40.4）
Allowmetospeak,Iwanttosaysomething・ SivouslepermettezetaunomdetousmescoⅡegues,je飯miceci：
I f y o u w i l l a l l o w m e , a n d o n b e h a l f o f a l l m y c o n e a g u e s , Ｉ ｗ ｉ ] l s a y this…
-171.2霞
Cmnnmning
USually;anarrangement,orastatement,ismadeandthenconfirmed (a）Conhmlationofananangement： AIasuitedeno唾conversaliont616phoniqUedu3,10.94,””I陣 mJZ価71zermar6servationpar唾tourducouni“
F u r t h e r t o o u r t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f 3 ､ 1 0 . 9 4 , p l e a s e c o n h m l myresewationbyretum． Ⅱdevrait6treaniv6maintenant,ilabig〃PFfsle杜aina8hOO commepr6vu･ Heshouldhaveamvednow3Heajatakelhe8o，clocktr3inaR
p l a n n e d ． (b）Conhrmationofastatement：
Depuisno杜Ebulletindelamatinee,lesautoritesmaritimes”ｔ ａｒＺＥｓ諺lapr6sencede950personnesaborddｕｆｅｍｙａｕｍｏｍｅｎｔ ｄｅｌ，麺cidem
Sinceourmomingbulletin/announcemem,themaritime autholitieshavecon丘Imedthat950peopleweleonboardthe f e r r y a t t h e t i m e o f l h e a c c i d e n t ． Mesdamesetmessieurslesjur6s,notezbienqueselonle t6moi部1agedeson6pouse,IaccusCsetrouyaiteneffetason
2 5 6 ” " c t i O 妬
domicileceso睡胞,etqUelesvoisinsco城mze”egalementses
d 6 d a r a t i o n s q u a n t a u x d 6 p l a c e m e n t s d e I a j o u m 6 e ・
I a d i e s a n d g e m l e m e n o f l h e j u 恥 p l e a s e n o t e d l a t a c c o r d i n g t o theevidenceofhiswifも,theaccusedwasinfactathomelhat
n i 獣 1 t , a n d l h e n e i J ] b o u r s a l s o c o n h r m h i s s t a t e m e n t conceminghismovementsduIingtheday
( c ） Ｓ ｏ , ｉ ｎ f a c t , a s s e r t i o n o f t e n p r e c e d e s c o n E I m a t i o n , a n d c o n h l m a t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d l h r o u ゆ 1 h e u s e o f v e r b s s u c h a s c o I r o b o r e 則 c o n h r m e l W 6 r i h e 喝 a t t e s t e r a n d d ] r o u 虫 t h e u s e o f a d v e r b s s u c h a s b i e n , e n e f f e t , e 錠 c 伽 e m e n t ・ C o n E I m a t i o n c a n b e i m p l i e d w h e n s p e c i h c ‘ n e g a t i v e ' v e r b s a r e u s e d w i l h n e g a t j v e a d v e r b s , a s i n n e p a s d 6 m e n t h m e p a s m e r ： I n t e 亜 o g 6 1 o r s d u n e c o n f E 】 氾 n c e d e p r e s s e t e n u e c e m a t i n , ｒ ａ 血 も ｔ ｅ 仕an9ais”p“””城Iesall館ationsfaitescon唾l並dansles j o u m a u x s p o r t i f S ･
Q u e s t i o n e d a t a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e t h i s m o m i n g , 1 h e H e n c h a t h l e t e d i d n o t d e n y l h e a l l e g a t i o n s m a d e a g a j n s t h i m i n l h e s p o r t s p a p e r s 、
(｡）Astatementcanalsobeconhlmeddlrou甑repetition,asinthefbⅡowing e x c h a n g e ： ０npeutvousjoindreaquelnum6ro?Au4472239poste357・Je r6pete:4472239pos蛇３５Z
Wecancontactyouatwhatnumber?坐72239Ext､357.皿 r e p e a t d l a t : 4 4 7 2 2 3 9 E x t ､ ３ ５ ７ ．
Ｚ２
此加減昭α”CO伽e伽昭
Admidling
A d m i s s i o n i s a m j l d f b r m o f a g r e e m e n t i n d l e s e n s e l h a t i t i s a s s u m e d , d e s p i t e i n i t i a l r e l u c t a n c e , d l a t a p e r s o n h a s c o m e r o u n d t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f h i s / h e r i n t e d o c u t o r u p o n r e n e c t i o n ､ F o r e x a m p l e , o n e m i 甑 t s a y d e s t v m i , c e r t a i n ， 唖 a c t , e v i d e n t , i n c o n t e s t a b l e , b u t l h e i n t o n a t i o n w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t h f o m t h a t o f
s i m i l a r e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s l i s t e d i n 7 0 ､ 1 ａ a n d 7 0 . l b : w h e n y o u a r e a d m i t t i n g s o m e t h i n g anoteofdoubtwillprobablybeaddedtodlewords．
(a）hlmostcases,admissionisemIicidyrecog1jzedlhroughusingoneoflhe f b n o w i n g v e r b s : ( e n ) c o n v e n i 喝 r e c o n n a i 位 e , ａ ｄ ｍ ｅ ｍ ｅ … Vbusawzraison,j，e"“”死“
Y b u a r e I i 喚 t , I ( h a v e t o ) a d m i t / a 厚 e e ．
(b）Ｓｏ,apersonmayadmitoragreetoastatementoranideainadiscussion．
257
ⅥＡ７郡加師如加卯
Thes3meverbscanbeusedtoadm竹miRｵakesor魚il'''･es：
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Itishi虫time(1haO1heintemationalcommunityadmittedits enDrsconcemingtheprotectionoftheenvlronment． Iadir℃ctlicedel,ctablissementdevra4z”zetZ7喝devHntleConseil
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t h a t t h e a C c u s a t i o n s m a d e a g a i n s t t h e b o a r d e r w e r e w r o n g ． 一 壁
mnceding
(a）Wnhinthehamewo】kofargumentation,ａｄｍｉ廿ingisinfactoften c o n c e d i n g , t h a t i s , a g r e e i n g i n p a r t w i t h t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r b p o i n t o f v i e w i n o r d e r t o d i s a g r e e a f t e r w a r d s i n o t h e r w o r d s g o i n g s o m e o f h i s / h e r w a y b e f b r e t a l d n g a d i f f b r e n t p a l h ・ A c o n c e s s i o n , t h e r e f b r e , c a n b e i d e n 麺 e d i n r e l a t i o n t o w h a t f b l l o w s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l s m l c t u r e i n v o l v e d h a s t h r e e d i s t i n c t s t a g e s ： １
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２
目
a c c o r d e q u e ‘ I h a X 7 e t o a d m i t , i f y o u l i k e , I ' Ⅱ a c c e p t t h a t p o i n t , I a g r e e w i d l y o u l h a t ; b y a n a d v e r b s u c h a s c e r t e s , e n e f f e t , e f f E c t i v e m e n t , s o ｉ ｔ ‘thatbmle,yesindeed1byanimpersonalfbrmsuchasilest v r a i / 唾 a c t / c e r t a i n q u e ‘ i t i s m l e l h a t 1 h The”"s鯨Ｏｍｈmugjlacohesivedevicemalldngopposition(see 8 0 d ) : m a i s , n P e m p 6 c h e q u e , c e p e n d a n t , r e c o I m a i s s e z l e , c e l a d i t , i l l f e n restepasmomsvralque,enrevanche,vousconc6derBzbienque， a d m e t t e z t o u t d e m も m e q u e ‘ b u t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , y e t , y o u m u s t a d m i t t h a t , h a v i n g s a i d l h a t , i t i s n o n e l h e l e s s b r u e t h a t , o m h e o t h e r h a n d ， y o u w j l l a d m i t l h a t , y o u h a v e t o a d m i t n e v e r t h e l e s s t h a t 《 The‘“87℃eme砿thatis,thee】甲ressionofadifferentpointofview ( s e e 7 0 . 2 c , 7 0 . 2 . ) w h i c h i s , ｏ ｆ c o u r s e , o p e n t o c o n c e s s i o n o n t h e p a r t oftheinterlocutoE
(b）Concessionisimportantinadebatingornegotiatingsituation,inorderto h a v e c i v i l i z e d e x c h a n g e s a n d t o s e n d t h e b a l l b a c k i n t o t h e i n t e d o c u t o r b c o u r t 、 N O t e t h e d 1 r e e s t a g e s i m h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s ： 泥泥”"”jS9JJ'ilyabeaucouPdecirculationacetteheure-ci， ７７zJzZSmm此7'Z師zeぅcelafaitunesemameqUemusamVEzen
retardtouslesmatins,“〃epe”pIi4s〃””，
I a d m i t l h a t t h e r e i s h e a v y t r a f 5 c a t t h i s t i m e o f d a y I b u t ( n e v e r t h e l e s s ) y o u h a v e b e e n l a t e e v e r y m o m i n g l h i s w e e k ・ T h a t / T h i s c a l f t g o o n ．
258肋"c加細
αJ7Es>ilyadescasd'utilisateursdedroguesdurEsqUisontaussi consommateursdedroguesdouces.“吻乱勉柁”卯”issGz-喝ｏｎ ”jZz”ZsPmIJIﾉ“"erusagedecaImabisconduisait automatiqUemental，usaged，h6rOme･
C e r t a i n l y ; t h e r e a r e p e o p l e w h o u s e b o d l s o f t a n d h a r d d r u g s ・ Hayingsaidthis,youmustadmitlhatithasneverbeenproved l h a t l h e u s e o f c a n n a b i s a u t o m a t i c a l ] y l e d t o l h e u s e o f h e r o i n ． EneffEt,”１４s”ｍｅ伽JzsmzJs9“lalivraisonco亜espondantau bonno235Ba6t6efIbctueeayectroisjoursderetald・恥花”"che lesmamhandises6taientenparfait6tataumomentde Ⅲ”editionetparcOnsequent瓦oIJs”po””sIﾉozJsIﾉe庵erqmme partiedumontante，dg6endommagesetint6rets･ 〃
WeadmitthatdledeliveryoforderNo､235Bwasinfactthree d a y s l a t e ・ H o w e v e l ; t h e g o o d s w e r e i n p e l f e c t c o n d i t i o n w h e n lheyweredespatched・Ｗｅｗｍ/cantherefbrepayonlyhalfofthe a m o u n t y o u a r e s e e k i n g ．
国
Cby71ec伽gα”"､“茄昭
Thesefimctionsareusedwhenthespeakerwantstocorrectastatement
p r e v i o u s l y m a d e b y h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f o r b y p r e v i o u s s p e a k e r s p e l h a P s b e c a u s e o f a c c u r a c y 5 I t i s a l s o u s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t e x t s o r d o c u m e n t s w h i c h r e q u i r e t o b e zmRnded．
( a ） I f a s p e a k e r r e a l i z e s t h a t i n c o r r e c t i n f b r m a t i o n h a s b e e n c o n v e y e d , t h e n a p o l o g i e s a r e o f t e n i n o r d e r ( s e e 6 3 . 1 ) ： A 1 t e n d e z , e 】 c c z J s G z m o Z , J e 7 叩 把 " g Z s b a 9 z 4 e j e ” " l h z j S ” 喝 c , e s t q U 1 i l ya3millionsdech6meursinsclitsmais5millionsdesans-emploi d , a p r も s l e s e s t i m a t i o n s ， Waitamoment,１，ｍsorry;I'Ⅱstartagain･Whatlmeantwasthat
t h e r e a r e 3 m j l l i o n r e 恩 s t e r e d u n e m p l o y e d b u t 5 m i l l i o n o u t o f w o r k a c c o r d i n g t o e s t i m a t e s . ( a n d n o t m e c o n b r a I y a s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , f b r e x a m p l e ） (b）Thereisatendency;whenweareconecting,todenythewrongstatement o r d e h n i t i o n E r s t , a n d t h e n i n m d u c e t h e c o r r e c t e d o n e ･ T h i s i n v o l v e s n e g a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s ＋ m a i s ､ T h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e i s a l d n d o f p r o t e s t , i n a c a s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ： Attemion,vousmPavezmalcomprise,jE”ip蛎飯t”'ilnefaⅡait pasaccorderdecong6sdepatemit6mzzzs9IJel，onnepomaitpas seIepemlettrepomlemoment． ●
259
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CarefUl,youhavemisunderstoodme,Ididnotsaythatpatemity l e a y e s h o u l d n o t b e g r a n t e d , b u t t h a t i t c o u l d n o t b e a f f b r d e d f b r ・ t h e t i m e b e i n g 、
N o t e h o w t h e c o n j u n c t i o n q u e h a s t o b e r e p e a t e d a f t e r m a i s t o i n t r o d u c e l h e s e c o n d c l a u s e ､ T h e n e x t e x a m p l e i n v o ] v e s c l a r i h c a t i o n O f a d e E n i t i o n ： ●
J e n e s a l s p a s s i j ' a i 6 t 6 杜 も s c l a i 】 ｩ q U a n d j e d i s E u r o p e , j ℃ " 蛇 ” ｓ 〃o”“ｌａＣＥ(Communaut6europ6enne)”isla印andeEurope， y c o m p I i s t o u t e s l e s n o u v e Ⅱ e s n a t i o n s “ s t a n t a u j o u 】 d ， h u i ・ Ｉｄｏ㎡lmowifljVemademyselfverycle虹WhenlsaVEuropel
dolftmean山ｅＥＣ田uropeanCommunity)butawiderEurope i n c l u d i n g a I l d l e n e w ( e ｍ ｅ r g i n 副 c o u n m e s / n a t i o n s ． (c）mmostcases,thespeakerwillannouncehis/herintentiontorephraseor
toclan句astatementthathe/shehasmadebyusingoneoracombinationof l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e 】 印 r e s s i o n s ： P e m n e t t e z m o i d ' a p p o r t e r u n e p r 6 c i s i O n ： Allowmetoaddapoint： C e q U e j e v o u l a i s d i r e , c ' e s t c e c i ： Whatlmeantwasthis：
】 e d e v r a i s p e u t e 位 ｅ ｍ ? e ﾛ 叩 n i m e r a u t r e m e n t ：
P e r h a p s l s h o u l d e 】 叩 r e s s m y s e l f d i f f b r e n d y ： J e m P e 日 q j i q U e :
L e t m e e 叩 l a i n ： Ｅｎｄａｕｔ１℃stermes,…： motherwords,…：
( ｡ ） M a n y c o r r e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a r e i m o d u c e d b y j ' a u r a i s d a ＋ i n E n i t i v e ( s e e 4 0 . 5 ) ：
En6voqUantlesproblemesdela舵､ｍｅ,j物吻榔jS”pr6ciserque j e v o u l a i s p a l l e r d e l a f E m m e a c t i v e . ( S e e 5 0 . 6 ） Whenlraisedtheproblemsofwomen,Ishouldhavemadeit clearthatlwasrefeIrmgtowoI1dngwomen．
(e）Similare’叩ressionscanofcoursebeusedwhencoIrectingsomeoneelse， I n l h i s c a s e , t h e r e m a y E r s t b e a n e 】 叩 r e s s i o n o f d i s b e l i e f o r d i s a g r e e m e n t s u c h a s v r a i m e n 鱈 ‘ r e a l ] y ? ; d ﾉ a p 企 s m e s r e n s e i g l e m e m s ‘ a s f a r a s l a m a w a r e ; c e I f e s t p a s l e c a s ‘ 1 h a t b n o t t h e c a s e 1 f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a n e g a t i v e s b f u c t u r e ＋ m a l s ： 』VbJz,vous./izi“e汀氾”;e〃”"必１，innation”PfZSα”砿3％ 〃zαj３２％cetteann6e-la
N o , y o u ' r e w r o n g ・ I n n a t i o n d i d n o t , ｉ ｎ f a c t , r e a c h ３ ％ b u t 2 ％ t h a t y e a l も
260
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( f ） s o m e t i m e s , y o u m a y w i s h t o c o I r e c t o l h e r p e o p l e , n o t b e c a u s e y o m h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e t o t a l ] y w r o n g b u t b e c a u s e y o u w a n t t o g o f i m h e l ) a n d b u i l d o n w h a t t h e y h a v e s a i d ・ Y b u w i l l b e c o r r e c t i n g v e r y d i r e c d y i f y o u u s e a n i m p e r a t i v e f b l m , s u c h a s p r 6 c i s o n s i t o b e s p e c i h c / l e f b b e s p e c i h c ' o r d i s o n s p l u t 6 t q u e ‘ ｏ ｒ r a t h e r ; o r j e ＋ v e r b i n l h e c o n d i t i o n a l a s i n j ' i r a i s m 6 m e p l u s l o i n / j u s q U 2 a d i １ ℃ q U e ‘ I w o u l d g o f i I r t h e r / a s f a r a s t o s a y 1 a n d m u c h l e s s d i r e c t , o f c o u r s e , i f y o u u s e a n impersonalfbImoron： O""Ｏ脚F7zz師加CmeaI彫r"I焔勿加e”だcjSer9IJecelas,aPplique aussiatouslesau位espaysdumonde･
O n e c o u l d g o e v e n f i m h e r a n d s a y t h a t t h i s / 1 h a t i s a l s o 廿 u e o f a l l othercolmh･ies．
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t h e n c o r r e c t e d o r r e p l a c e d l h r o u ゆ u s i n g s b f u c t u r e s s u c h a s n o n p a s … m a i s , I n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e , t h e o b j e c t i s n o t r e f U t e d b u t i n c l u d e d a n d e x t e n d e d w i t h nonseII1②ｍｅｎｔ…ｍ誠ｓ郡】需ig
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InAmendmentNo､２，IproposethatArticlelshouldreadas fbuows：
Vbusnousproposez,qUantamus,伽7“fzcが”suivanteaIartiCle 2 ：
Y b u p r o p o s e t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g w o r d i n g i n A r t i c l e 2 ：
(i）AmendmentshayetobesubmittedinwritingbyMPsandusua]lyinvo]ve i n f i n i t i v e s ：
M､Beteille,rapporteu1;apr6sente”α””E”砿np3,”辱 c o m m e s u i t : ‘ s 恥 ” 減 F ' z e r l e s s e p t p 唾 m i e r s a l i n 6 a s d e r a r t i c l e 2 j L MB6teme,therapporteuI>hastabledanamendment,No.３，
w h i c h r e a d s a s f b l l o w s : d e l e t e d l e E r s t s e v e n p a r a g r a p h s o f A r t i c l e 2 ．
２６１：
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A p r e s l ， a r t i c l e 3 , j F z s 擁 r I ， a r t i c l e s u i v a n t ：
A f t e r A I t i c l e 3 , i n s e r t l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g A r t i c l e ：
T h e s e a r e e x a m p l e s o f c o r r e c t i o n w h e r e s o m e t h i n g i s t a k e n o u t o f o r a d d e d t o t h e j n i t i a l d o c u m e n t , W h e n t h e e 】 d s t i n g t e x t i s m o ” “ 1 h e n b o t h t h e o r i g i n a l andthenewproposedtextshavetobeinsertedininvertedcommas： …ilconvientdeIi】氾:‘１，ｍ昌筒、ｵｄｌＩＡ１唖ce-MOseⅡe，ｅｔ〃o〃Ⅷ，A1sace％
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I m h e l s t p a r a g r a p h o f A r t i c l e 2 r e p l a c e ‘ d e p e n d e n t c h j l d r e l f w i l h ‘ c h j l d r e n o f d j f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ｓ １ Ｌ ( j ） T h e f b l l o w i n g e 叩 r e s s i o n s a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e ： Remp伽蛇ｒＸ”rY ForXsubstituteY
亜花YjtJZzpjZzcc/”'た邸叱Ｘ･ ForXreadY：
Comadictingsomeoneorcontradictingastatementisadoptingtheopposite viewJn出atsense,itisljkeanextremefbnnofdisagreementandislhe o p p o s i t e o f c o n E r m i n g ．
(a）Thesimplestandmostdirectemressionofcomadictionisnonasareply t o a p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t a n d s i t o a n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t h e r e r e i n f b r c e d b y a u comr3i鯉
nｍ？aspaslechoix1-Maissj；”“””彪(See54.14） Ybuhavenochoice1-Butldo1
(b）Inargumentation,fOrexampleinadebateordiscussio､,youcan c o m a d i c t b y t e Ⅱ i n g y o u r i n t e r l o c u t o r d i r e c d y t h a t h i s / h e r v i e w s a r e w m n g ： Vbusvous杜Ompez･OrVbusctesdansl，erreum
Y b u ' r e w r o n g / m i s t a k e n ． V b s a r g u m e n t s s o n t i n a d m i s s i b l e s ・
Y b u r a r g u m e n t s a l e u n a c c e p t a b l e ． (c）ＡltemativelWoucanusejewidwariousverbalfbImswhichstatethatyou
2 6 2 肋 " c t i o 7 z s
a l e c o m a d i c t i n g s o m e t h i n g ､ Y b u c a n m a k e i t c l e a r ] y a n d E I m j y y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n ： 泥嘩娩“Z‘gひ減りzJe””cesargumentsfallacieux・
I c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t m e s e I m f b u n d e d / f a l l a c i o u s a r g u m e n t s ． 泥"だ聡Iﾉe加砿ｐａ減加娩花””ＣＯ”泡lademieretheorie鋤ancee・
Iamparticularlyopposedtolhelastlheorylhatwasput、 fbrward．
h l t h e p r e v i o u s t w o e x a m p l e s , n o t e h o w a d v e r b s c a n p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n mnTr副dim-inn．
(d）Ybucanalsouseimpersonalfblmsbeginningwithilorce,torefertolhe s t a t e m e n t y o u w a n t t o c o n b a m c t , a s i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e ( s e e 1 9 . 2 c , 1 9 . 2 . ) ： Vbuspr6tendezqueIapauy】氾teadisparuenHance,orjZn?enest 癖Jzﾉ”jsdestmzJ”たi拡嘩
Y b u c l a i m t h a t p o v e r n ﾉ h a s b e e n e r a d i c a t e d i n F r a n c e , b u t t h a t i s u t t e r l y w m n g ． Notehowtheopposition(see80d)isinmducedbycohesivedevicesor‘now’ a n d m a i s , a n d a l s o h o w l i e n a n d t o u t a f a i t c o n h i b u t e t o l h e c a t e g o r i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n l h i s f i m c t i o n ・ T h i s i s a l s o t r u e o f a u c u n a n d t o u t i n l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s ： R鹿Fz旅stmoinssnr!(See54.16）
Nolhingcouldbefimher丘omlhebfudl1 Iar6alit6estm砿au唾!(See18.1d
T h a t i s q U i t e u n l r u e 1 Ⅱ 刀 ｙ ａ ” c z J F z e r a i s o n d e l e c r o i r e ! ( S e e 5 4 . 1 6 ） T h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e i t 1 (e）HavingmadeitclearthatyoutotaⅡydisagreewithyourinterlocutol)you woUlddlenprobablygoontoemlain/provetheconなaIyWhenyoustateyoul i n t e n t i o n t o d o l h i s , i m p e r a t i v e f b m l s o r j e v a i s ＋ i n h n i t i v e a r e u s e f U l ： “jSsez崖m0jvous彪加o”ErleconbraiIE.(See51.3）
Letmedemonsmtetheopposite． Ie”fsvDusIepmIz”屍(See32.8） I s h a l l p r o v e i t t o y o u ．
(f）Inordertoemphasize山eopposition,youmi甑tstaltthesentencewitha clauseintroducedbycontrairementa‘con杜aJyto;aladif随rencede‘unlike'… ( s e e 7 0 . 2 e ) ：
2 6 3 : Ⅵ A 靭 脱 e " 如 加 "
●
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の"”i肥”"域cequevousmsmuez,jenPaipasmch6.(See22.14）
C o m a l y t o w h a t y o u a r e s u g g e s t i n g / i m p ] y i n g , I d i d n o t c h e a t ．
( ９ １ ， e 鞭 o s i t i o n , w h e n d e n i a l i s e 印 r e s s e d , t h e v e r b d 6 m e n t i r ‘ t o d e n y ' a n d i t s relatedfwmRcanbeused：
IafamiⅡemyaleafbrmeⅡement姫加e励箆larumeurselonlaqueⅡe l a r B i n e 6 t a i t s u r l e p o i n t d a b d i q U 唾 ( S e e 2 2 . 5 ）
T h e r o y a l f a m i ] y h a s f b r m a l ] y d e n i e d l h e m m o u r l h a t t h e q u e e n wasabouttoabdicate．
I e t 6 m o i 邸 a g e d e l P a u t o m o b i l i s t e 正 s t e s a F z s “ " z e " 砿 T h e d r i v e r b e v i d e n c e r e m a i n s u n c h a l l e n g e d ．
国卿卿卿‘…鴫 S u g g e s t i n g i s u s e d t o r g c o m m e n d a p a r t i c u l a r c o u r s e o f a c t i o n o r l i n e o f t h o u ゆ t t o s o m e o n e e l s e ､ T h e r e f b r e , i t i s p e r h a p s s i m i l a r t o a E r s t o r m i l d s t a g e o f p e r s u a s i o n ・ Itisusedtorecommenddlatsomeonedoes,ordoesnot,dosomelhing・Ybumay
a l s o w a n t t o i n n u e n c e o t h e r p e o p l e , s o d l a t t h e y c o m e r o u n d t o y o u r i d e a / b e l i e f o r s o t h a t t h e y f b Ⅱ o w l h e r i g h t c o u r s e o f a c t i o n a n d / o r r e j e c t d l e w r o n g o n e ､ E x a m p l e s o f c o n t e x t w h e r e t h e r e j S a n a t t e m p t t o i n n u e n c e p e o p l e s o t h a t l h e y b e l i e v e , 。 ] i n k
o r d o s o m e t h i n g a r e l e g a l p l e a s , e v a n g e l i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s o r d e b a t e s ・ I n s u c h i n s t a n c e s , o n e o f t e n a t t e m p t s t o p e r s u a d e l h m u ゆ 1 h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v a l i d a r g u m e n t s ・ T h i s i s a c h i e v e d m m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s a n d w i t h m a n y d j f f e r e n t g r a m m a t i c a l f b r m s , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e i l l u s m t e d i n 7 5 ､ 4 ． −園5.1ト
Suggesnng
(a）Anumberofverbscanbeused:recommande恥ugg6re喝conseille”roposer
f b Ⅱ o w e d b y e i t h e r a q n d e f a i r e q c h o r q U e q n f a s s e ( s u b j u n c t i v e ) q c h ： S i l e s c o n d i l i o n s c h a n g e n t d u r a n t l a n u i t , I e s f b r c e s d e p o l i c e 花com””e､”α””如加0”ｉｓ雄‘J海”erleursv6hiculesde p n e u s n e i g e ・ ( S e e 4 0 . 2 ）
I f t h e c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e n i ゆ t , t h e p o l i c e w i l l r e c o m m e n d t h a t d r i v e r s p u t s n o w q ﾉ r e s o n t h e i r c a r s 、
Q u a n d j ' a i a p p e l 6 1 e c a b i n e t c e m a t i n , 、 征 e s e c r 6 t a i r e a s z 4 8 g 曾 だ 9 Ｊ Ｊ ｅ Ｊ 叩 花 F z F z e 唾 n d e z v u u s d i r e c t e m e n t a N ﾉ e c v o u s . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 ） W h e n l c a ] l e d d l e o f f i c e t h i s m o m m g y o u r s e c r e t a r y s u g g e s t e d l makeanappoinnnenttoseeyoupersonaⅡｙ
2“馳加tio"ｓ
( b ） T h e s a m e v e r b s c a n b e u s e d w i t h a l i t d e a d j u s m e n t t o t h e s b r u c t u r e ： VUlafbrceduvent,je蛇CO猫e"陀旋Fzepzzsso”taplancheavoile a U i o u r d ' h u i . ( S e e 4 9 . 1 , 5 4 . 1 6 ）
B e c a u s e o f l h e h i 沙 w i n d , I s u g g e s t y o u d o n P t g o w i n d s u l h n g t o d a y I心conseilmunicipala花”加”Fzz施9“lepublic”厳pIIJsacces 群atuitementamxmus6esdelaviⅡe･(See46.3）
T h e m u n i c i p a l c o u n c i l h a s s u g g e s t e d / r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e
p u b l i c s h o u l d n o l o n g e r h a v e h f e e e m y t o m u s e u m s a n d g a l l e r i e s ． m t h i s n e g a t i v e s e n s e , t h e f i m c t i o n i s o f t e n u s e d t o w a m s o m e o n e f Z g z z 加 s t s o m e t h i n g , 1 h r o u 甑 v e r b s s u c h a s : d 6 c o n s e i l l e r a q n d e f a i l 泡 q C h , d 6 c o n s e i l l e r q c h a q n , m e m e q n e n g a r d e c o n 位 e q c h , a v e r t i r q n d e n e p a s f a i １ ℃ q c h ： IZesrfbrtement“COｧzse"必α“蛇Ｃｌ、施陀抵勉se蛇減rd3nglamnede
d 6 c h a r g e m e m s a n s v c t e m e n t s d e p r O t e c t i o n . ( S e e 5 3 ）
I b c h n i c a l s t a f f m u s t n o t e n t e r t h e u n l o a d i n g a r e a w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g ． AIﾉerガSsez-陀娩FzeP“o"〃jErdefairesademandedevisa麺ant
d , e n 江 e p 配 n d r e c e v o y a g e . ( S e e 2 1 . 3 b , 5 4 . 1 6 ）
R e m i n d / W h m h i m n o t t o f b r g e t t o a p p l y f b r a v i s a b e f b r e l e a y i n g ondlejoumey
( c ） I n s p e e c h , t h e f a c t 山 a t y o u i n t e n d t o m a k e a s u g g e s t i o n i s o f t e n a n n o u n c e d a s
a f b ] m o f p o l i t e n e s s , s o a s n o t t o c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f 印 v i n g a n o r d e l ; w i t h e 叩 r e s s i o n s s u c h a s p e m l e t t e z m o i , p u i s j e ： F e ” g Z 蛇 z J y z o Z f Z g ” z J s s I 唖 庖 陀 r u n p l a n d ， a c t i o n ･ M a y l s u g g e s t a p l a n o f a c t i o n ？ P Z z j S 弓 j E / i z i 形 u n e p r o p o s i t i o n ？ Maylmakeaproposal？ "mFzejZ姓坤mpOse席
I h a v e a s u g g e s t i o n t o m a k e ：
( d ） T h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e ( a l s o a f b l m o f p o l i t e n e s s ) ( s e e 4 0 . 4 ) i s o f t e n u s e d ， s o m e t i m e s i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h p e u t e 位 e ： 睦邸姥蛇sem齢切加泥叱soumelnfecettequestionauvote,6tant d o n n 6 q U P u n c o n s e n s u s n e s e m b l e p a s p o m o i r 6 t r E a t t e i n 淫 ( S e e 4 9 . 1 , 5 3 ）
W O u l d i t n o t b e a g o o d i d e a t o p u t t h e q u e s t i o n t o d l e v o t e s i n c e 山 e I e s e e m s t o b e n o p o s s i b i l i w o f r e a c h i n g a c o n s e n s u s ？
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QIJeajmjS-如叱pjzsseralamaisonceso1rvers8hO０？
WOuldyouliketocomeroundtonightaboutei甑t？ １Ｗ””je”ｍ雌"pjzs此”り邸蛇rcepointal'ordredujour2(See 5 3 . 2 ）
Wbulditnotbeagoodideatoaddlhistolheagenda2 (f）Suggestionscanalsobemadelhrou甑dleuseofimpersonalverbphrases,in p a r t i c u l a r i l f a u t / i l f n u d r a i t 十 i n h n i t i v e o r 十 q u e + s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 5 3 . 2 ) ： IEdi1氾cteurdupersonnelpenseqUli城”mit9砿lesouwiersso施祁 蛇"IJsaucourantdelanomEⅡer“ementationsurlesconditionsde 江ayaiL
T h e p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e r t h i n k s l h e w o I k f b r c e s h o u l d b e k e p t i n f b r m e d o f l h e n e w r e g u l a 1 i o n s o n w o d d n g c o n d i t i o n s ． ヨ75.2岸
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(a）Thiscanbeachievedusingverbssuchaspersuader/convamcreqnde+noun： nsﾉ噂tdecoFz”伽”les”ｍ花嫁“Z伽だだtdeceprojet.(See53.2）
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o r u s i n g t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g , i n c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s : p e r s u a d e r / c o n v a i n c 唾 q n q u e ＋ i n d i c a t i v e , f a i r e a d m e t t １ ℃ / r e c o l m a i t r e a q n q u e ＋ i n d i c a t i v e , f a i r e c h a n g e r d ﾉ a ] ﾉ i s / d i d 6 e a q n ：
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c e t t e a f f a i r e q u i p r 6 s e n t e d e n o m b r e u x m s q u e s . ( S e e 2 2 . 1 , 4 6 . 7 ） I 1 h i n k y o u r e a l l y s h o u l d g i v e t h e m a t t e r s o m e l h o u 甑 t b e f b r e g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h i s / t h e b u s i n e s s b e c a u s e i t b v e r y r i s 跡 A”"”jS,”bmjSbjE"anntenterlmprocespourdommageset
i n t 6 r § t s a 刃 a n t q u ！ i l n e s o i t t r o p t a r d . ( S e e 4 6 . 4 ） m m y o p m l o n , y o u ' d b e l i g h t t o s t a I t p r o c e e d i n g s f b r c o m p e n s a t i o n b e f b r e i f s t o o l a t e ． 画
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a r e q u e s t ( s e e 7 6 . 4 ) , w h i c h i n t u m g e n e r a t e s a p a r t i c u d a r r e s p o n s e ( s e e 7 6 . 5 ) ． V b l i t i o n a l s o d e a l s w i t h t h e d e l i b e r a t e o r s p o n t a n e o u s n a t u r e o f a n a c t i o n ( s e e 7 6 . 6 ） a n d E n a l ] y ; y o u m a y ; o f c o u r s e , s t a t e w h a t y o u d o n o t w a n t ( s e e 7 6 . 7 ) ． 一 密
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( b ） o n e , o r t w o , i n h n i t i v e s ( W i t h o r w i t h o u t a p r e p o s i t i o n ) ( s e e 5 2 . 5 , 5 2 . 8 , 5 2 . 9 ) ： I 母 d i r e c t e u r d e l ' 6 t a b l i s s e m e n t a a l m o n c e q I f i I I ﾉ 皿 吻 〃 ” ｉ ｒ ａ ｚ ‘ 9 7 ? z e " 蛇 r l e s e f f e c t i f S d ， i c i l ， a n p r o c h a i n ・
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m o r d e r t o a s k w h a t s o m e o n e i n t e n d s o r w a n t s , y o u c a n s i m p l y r e s o r t t o q u e s t i o n s ( s e e 5 9 ) . T h e f b l m s u s e d d e p e n d o n h o w s p e c i h c d l e o p t i o n s p r o v i d e d b y t h e q u e s t i o 、 a r e ．
( a ） h l t h e c a s e o f t o t a l l y o p e n c h o i c e , q u e ? q u P e s t c e q U e ? q u o 鷺 c a n b e u s e d ( s e e 2 3 . 1 2 3 . 3 ) ：
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W i l l y o u h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d r i n k 2 ( c ） W h e n t h e o p t i o n s f a n w i t h i n a s p e c i h c a n d r e s t r i c t e d r a n g e , i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s + n o u n s o r i n t e I r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s a r e u s u a Ⅱ y u s e d ： Q “ I ﾉ ﾗ w ﾂ z a g B d 6 s i r e z v U u s ? ( S e e 2 3 . 6 ）
W h i c h c h e e s e w o u l d y o u l j k e ？ P a r m i t o u t e s c e s e c h a l p e s , ” 醒 此 t e p I a i r a i t ? ( S e e 2 3 . 5 ） W h i c h o f a l l o f t h e s e s c a r v e s w o m d y o u l j k e ？
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( ｡ ） W h e n d l e r e a r e s p e c i h c o p t i o n s , t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s a n d p r o n o u n s a r e h e q u e n d y c o m b i n e d w i l h s m l c t u r e s s u c h a s o u o r s o i t … s o i t ： L e s 9 z 蛇 肱 v o l I l e z v o u s , l e s G o l d e n ” l e s R e i n e t t e ? ( S e e 2 3 . 5 ） W h i c h w o u l d y o u p r e f e 喝 t h e G o l d e n D e l i c i o u s o r t h e R e i n e t t e s ？ Q J J e I I e m 雄 p r 6 f E r e z v o u S W b u s p o u v E z v o u s i n s t a Ⅱ e r s o i t e n t e r r a s s e , s o 蝿 l ' i n t “ e u L ( S e e 2 3 . 6 ）
W h i c h t a b l e w o u l d y o u p r e f e r ? Y b u c a n s i t o n t h e t e r r a c e , o r i n s i d e ． ( e ） A l l t h e e x a m p l e s a b o v e a r e d i r e c t q U e s t i o n s w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t i n v o l v e a n m v e r s i o n o f t h e v e r b . ( S e e 5 8 c , 5 9 ) Q u e s t i o n s c a n a l s o b e i n d i r e c t a n d a g a i n , t h e s m l c t u r e s v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n h o w s p e c i h c t h e o p t i o n s a r e ： １ ， ” 加 m j S b j e " s ” o j r c e 9 z J e t u c o m p t e s f a i r e d a n s l a v i e ! ( S e e 5 8 b ） r d l j k e t o l m o w w h a t k i n d o f c a r e e r y o u i n t e n d t o f b n o w 1 IEplombier””抑itsα”irsinousvom0nsqUPilcommenceles trayauxdemain.(See46.3）
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( a ） W h e n y o u r e q u e s t s o m e l h i n g h o m s o m e o n e e l s e , y o u c a n , o f c o u r s e , u s e s o m e o f t h e v e r b s a n d v e r b p h r a s e s i d e n t i h e d i n 7 6 ､ １ − Ｗ i d l t h e a p p r o p l i a t e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u ､ ． 肥zﾉe“9zJe”噸sOyGz”応apartira8hOOet.j初j”mjS9zJezﾉoz4s
p z z s s ” m e p r m d r e t o u t d e s u i t e a p r も s ､ ( S e e 4 6 . 3 ）
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( b ） m l h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e h o w t h e u s e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e ‘ s o f t e n s ’
t h e r e q U e s t ､ T h i s t e n s e i s o f t e n u s e d f o a s k s o m e o n e ( p o l i t e 助 t o d o s o m e d ] i n g s o m e t i m e s i n i n t e l r o g a t i v e f b ] m s f b r e v e n m o r e i n d i r e c t r e q u e s t s ( s e e 4 0 . 4 ) ： 睦候“91Je”p”mzEsmer2jりか"彫auBardelaP1aceapresla 亜ance？
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P I e a s e l e t m e h a v e y o u r p r i c e s a n d t e r m s f b r l h a t i t e m ． ( d ） N a t u r a l l z f O r a m o r e c a t e g o r i c a l r e q U e s t , y o u c a n u s e l h e i m p e r a t i v e ( s e e 5 1 . 3 ) ：
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通 k e m y p u r s e a n d g e t m e t w o b a g u e t t e s ( p l e a s e ) ； ( e ） T h e i m p e r a t i v e v e u i l l e z ＋ i n h n i t i v e o r t h e e m r e s s i o n j e v o u s p r i e d e ＋
i n h n i t j v e c a n b e u s e d t o i n n D d u c e r e q u e s t s , f b r e x a m p l e t o m a k e e n q u i r i e s o r p l a c e o r d e r s i n c o m m e r c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ： 陀砿IjGz加也”Qyerlesdeuxdemiersnum6rosdevotrEpublication． ( S e e ５ １ ． １ ）
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I w o u l d a p p r e c i a t e i t i f y o u w i l l r e p l y b y r e t u m ． O t h e r s i m i l a r p h r a s e s i n c l u d e : j e v o u s s a u r a i s 癖 a v e u i n e z a m i r I o b l i g e a n c e ， b o l h f b Ⅱ o w e d b y d e ( b i e n v o u l o i l j f a i l B ． ( ９ Ｆ ｏ ｒ ｍ o r e p r e s s i n g o r i n s i s t e n t r e q U e s t s , t h e a p p r o p l i a t e v e r b s ( + i n E n i t j v e o r s U b j u n c t i v e ) a n d ( s o m e t i m e s ) a d v e r b s c a n b e u s e d ： JecOmp彫s””砥ｐＯ”zﾉe"irdimanche･
IamcountingonyoutocomeonSunday 皿伽jS伽sjS蛇rauprもsdelagendammenep”r”etespapierste sojE滅花皿蛎imm6diatement.(See46.4）
Ybumustinsistthatthepoliceretumyourpaperstoyou immediately Vbsprofesseurss””i陀減伽s加加加g”9噸”zJs”zJsp感e""恩乙a cetexamen.(See46.3）
Y b u r t e a c h e r s i n s i s t l h a t y o u s i t t h e e x a m ． 一 畳
曲qpressmg(U、)wilIm厚nessmactupon唾皿est Thesimpleste】叩ressionofd]isis,ｏｆcourse,touseOmornonbutinmany c a s e s , i n p a l t i c U l a r w h e n n e g a t i v e , 1 h e r e s p o n s e i s q u a l i h e d
( a ） S h o r t p o s i t i v e a n s w e r s i n c l u d e : O u i , d a c c o m ! ‘ Y e s , o f c o u r s e ; P a s d e p r o b l e m e 1 ‘ N o p r o b l e m 1 ; Ｃ ， e s t c o m m e s i c ， c t a i t f a i t ! ‘ T 3 k e i t a s d o n e 1 ' ( s e e 7 0 . 1 a ) ． (b）Negativeanswersoftenincludesomesortofjus面cationsuchas:】ene P e u x P a s … ‘ I s i m P 】 y c a l f t … ' Ｃ ' e s t i m p o s s i b l e … ‘ I t b i m p o s s i b l e … ' ( s e e 7 0 . 2 a ， 7 0 . 2 b ) ：
Malhemeusement,c湾timposs泌喝nosstockssontepuises・
Unfbrtunately;itboutofthequestion,wehayerunoutofstock
(ｄＡｆＵⅡerresponsetoarequestcanbegivenusingthefUturetense(see32.5)： Pkus”P”b陀加ejete伽卯Fzemi”ＣＯ”fje”加pOurtaterrasse・
N O p r o b l e m , I ' Ⅱ g i v e y o u a h a n d w i d l t h e t e l T a c e ． SachezqUe”唯〃eI加穆mF2spzzslesordinateu】おquevousavez command6s(carno江edemiere曲cturenPapasenco正eter尋鋤． ( S e e 2 2 . 2 , 7 5 . 4 . ）
Wealeunabletodeliverlhecomputersyouordered(because o u r l a s t i n v o i c e h a s n o t y e t b e e n p a i d ) ．
2 7 7 Ⅵ A 7 g Z j ” " m t j o 〃
o r v e r b s , i n p a r t i c u l a r v o u l o m p o m o i r ＋ i n h n i t j v e o r a c c e p t e r d e , r e f U s e r d e ＋ in而而ve：
Oui,lesb6n6vUlesdeno唾organisalion”邸陀""た〃gzss"彫『． ｌ ' a n i m a t i o n d a n s v o 唾 c I u b d u 杜 o i s i e m e a g e . ( S e e 5 2 . 5 ） Y e s , t h e h e l p e r s i n o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e h a p p y / w i l l i n g t o o r g a n i z e t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n y o u r o l d f b ] k s ' ｃ l u b ．
IadirectionaF噂/i4sjatzc”雄rauxvendeursl，au”entationqums demandaiem｡(See22.2,52.9）
T h e m a n a g e m e n t h a s r e f i l s e d t h e p a y r i s e t h e s h o p a s s i s t a n t s w e r e s e e k i n g ．
o r o l h e r v e r b p h r a s e s o f l h e t y p e c 唾 十 a d j e c t i v e o r p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ＋ ａ ＋ i n h n i t i v e ( s e e 5 2 . 1 0 ) ：
恥mbunalest(tout)ｐ海域vDus“”Fz北rla顕misedepeinedont vDusavezfaitlademande.(See22.8-22.11）
T h e c o u r t i s r e a d y / p r e p a I e d t o a g l e e t o y o u r r e q u e s t f b r remission．
N o n , ( v u I 6 t a t d a n s l e q u e l v o u s a v e z m i s l ' a p p a r t e m e n t , ) ｎ ｏ u s 〃 ｅ so”zespzzsd2iSﾘﾌﾞ0s曲〃肥””e陀rvo唾ＣＯn画tdelocation.(See 2 2 . 5 , 4 9 ‘ l ）
NC,(becauseoflhestatetheHathasbeenleftin,)wearenot p r e p a r e d t o r e n e w y o u r l e a s e ．
( ｡ ） T h e r e a r e a l s o m o r e i n d i r e c t w a y s o f a c c e p t i n g o r r e f U s i n g t o a c t u p o n a r e q u e s t , w i t h i m p e r s o n E U f b r m s ： A
Aucunproblemepoursamedi,"卯oz4ses”OSS泌陀”"Imgrmeme lesweek-ends.(See53）
NoproblemfbrSaturdayWvecandeliverevenatlheweekend． J'S1血sd6solee,moiet肥an,”(”)ｐ””"“””atesqUarante a n s . ( i n f b I m a l ) ( s e e 1 8 . 9 ）
S o l r y ; m e a n d J o h n , w e c a l f t c o m e t o y o u r f b r t i e l h b i r l h d a y b a s h ．
m t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e , n o t e t h e c o Ⅱ o q u i a l ‘ a b u s e ' ｏ ｆ o n , u s e d i n f a c t i n s t e a d o f nOuS．
一 塁
nGUih座璽ｔｅ⑪r皿⑪皿-血ｍｈＰｍｔｅａ“叩畠
AnumberoftemlsandemIessionsconveylheideathatsomethingwasdone onpulpose,ｏｒnot､Whenitisacontroversialissue,1hestatementsofteninclude c ， e s t / c e l f e s t p a s … ( q u e d e ＋ i n f i n i t i v e ) ： (a）widlanoun：
２謎 I ］
馳加加砿
Ｎ 、 , j e I f a i p a s v o u l u 9 a , c 惣 如 i t u n a c c i d e n t ! ( S e e 1 3 . 5 b ） NojIdidlftwantthattohappen,itwasanaccident1 C悟”rbiensonintemion9zJe此t'0況呼rapartin(See13.5b） H e i n t e n d e d t o f b r c e y o u t o l e a y e 、 Notethatwilhnounssuchasvo10nt6orintention,themorefblmaltelcanalso beused：
IevoisqUevous6tessu】prisdeconstaterqUe蛇IIeetaitsa”ぬ"鯉 ( S e e 1 8 . 1 1 a ）
I s e e y o u ' r e s u l p r i s e d l h a t d l a t w a s w h a t h e w a n t e d ． ( b ） w i d l a n a d j e c t i v e ： Sijevousaio錠ns6,croyezbienque“彬如i”鯛加”加卯FzelL Cぜmitm6metoutafait伽”ん卯如j歴(See13.5b）
Iflhaveoffendedyou,believemel由dnotmeanto・Itwas c o m p l e t e l y u n i n t e n t i o n a L (dAnumberofverbphrasesarealsoayailable,sometimesreinfbrcedby adverbsoridioms：
】Efassure唾ilsrzeIb”pjzs施肱exp恋
I a s s u r e y o u t h e y d i d n o t d o i t d e l i b e r a t e l y Aucon征aire,jediraisqU畑so”‘ZgiIﾉ0町"”彫””ete〃mzJ蛇 “"”ISS”“血”IJsa
O n l h e c o n t r a l y ; I w o u l d s a y t h a t t h e y a c t e d d e l i b e r a t e l y ( o r i t wasdeliberate)andlhey]mewexacdywhatlheyweredoing． (d）Thenotionofvolitionis,ｏｆcourse,cenbraltotheheldofcnminallaw
whichprovidesnumerousexamplesofuseofdlerelevantterms,andin p a r t i c m l a r o f s b f u c t u r e s i n v o M n g l h e p a i r a v e c , s a n s 十 n o u n s u c h a s i n t e n t i o n ， p r 6 m 6 d i t a t i o n ： Mesdamesetmessieurslesjur6s,jevousrappeⅡeqIfils'a印td'un cnmepr6m6曲tも,maissaFzs加陀"加卯detuem(See11.4,49.1,53.2）
IadiesandgendemenoflhejulyIIIemindyoulhatthiswasa p r e m e d i t a t e d c r i m e , b u t ( t h a O 1 h e r e w a s n o i n t e n t i o n t o k i u ． 一 躍
Ｓｆｗｍｇｗｈａｔｍｕｄｏｎ０ｔｗ団nt
F i n a l l ％ v o l i t i o n i s a l s o c o n c e m e d w i t h e 】 叩 r e s s i n g w h a t a p e r s o n d o e s n o t w a n t ・ Mostofdleexamples2ｳveninpreⅥoussectionscould,ofcourse,bemade negative,ａｎｄ７６．５dealswithwhatapersondoesnotwanttodo． (a）HoweveEtakinganeallierexample,notedledifference,becauseofthe shiftoflhenegativeinthesentence,between：．
2 7 9 Ⅵ A i g z " , , e " ” 0 〃
Ｍａ皿e”pJzsd魁cjZだ.,etudierl'italienalhmiversite.(See54.16〕
Mydau虫terhasnotmadeuphermindtostudyltalianat u n j v e r s i t y and
MaHllead6cid6“Jzep“‘”Z花rl'italienaIImiⅣersite.(See 5 4 . 1 6 ）
Mydau甑terhasdecidednottostudyltalianatuniversiWG m1hehrstcase,shehasnotyetmadeuphermindwhereasinlhelatt“sheis
d e E n i t e 1 y n o t g o i n g t o s t u d y l t a l i a n ・ S o d l e d j f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e d e g r e e o f detelminationaboutwhatwill/miゆtactuEmyoccurandthelocationofthe n e g a t j v e , N o t e t h e d i f f b r e n c e i n l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g p a i r ： ] e r z e s o 邸 ” 雄 p U z s q u 1 i l v i e n n e . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 5 4 . 1 6 ） Ｉｄｏｎｏｔｗｆｍ↑ｈｉｍｔｏｃｏｍｅ． ■
J e s o u h 麺 t e q u P i l 7 z e I ﾉ z e F z F z e P “
Ihopehewillnotcome．
( b ） W h e n t h e e m r e s s i o n o f v o l i t i o n i n d l e E r s t c l a u s e i s p o s i t j v e , t h e s u b j e c t hasmorecomolandmakesamoredeliberatestanceonwhathe/shewamsor i n t e n d s ：
IEminisnfeaJ，加陀卯加卯娩nepasd6missionnem(hedeEnitely intendsnotto)(see54.16）
T h e m i n i s t e r i n t e n d s n o t t o r e s i 印 1 ． IEministre”"dzsZ'加蛇祁加〃“d6missimmem(atlhisstage） T h e m i n i s t e r d o e s n o t i n t e n d t o r e s i 厚 1 ． Suchpairscouldbeiden面edfbrmoste叩ressionsofvolitionalthou甑there a r e s o m e e x c e p t i o n s w h e r e o n ] y o n e s m l c t u r e i s d e s i r a b l e ： lepy雛把”jSquevous池SOJﾉEzpJus杜Ｏｐｅｍ氾tardcesoim(See 4 6 . 3 ）
I w o u l d r a t h e r y o u w e r e n o t t o o l a t e t o n i 甑 t 、 (clWhenbothclauseshavelhesamesubject,theverbinthenegativeclauseis f b Ⅱ o w e d b y a n i n h n i t i v e ： NOusFz3e”jS昭忽OFzsPjmsa初149ｍ”蛇rlecapitalsocialpourle mnmfmt合
W e d o n o t i n t e n d t o i n c r e a s e s h a r e c a p i t a l f b r t h e t i m e b e i n g ． Whentherearetwoclauseswithtwodifferentsubjects,1henegativeverbis usu皿yfbⅡowedbyque＋subjunctive：
280助"c伽砺
IEsch6meursFzesoⅢ加娩"”鱈91”"leur./zzsselachaIit6、 Theunemployeddonotwanthandouts．
( d ） H O w e v e E s o m e t i m e s l h e r e a r e a l t e m a t j v e s m l c t u r e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h ●
verbssuchasvoI】１０通samlr：
ん”””pzzsd7IJe加此肋zJEsaubaccalaureat./ルrzeIﾉe”P妬蛇 ” i r ‘ c f z o I ｲ g r a u b a c c a l a u r 6 a t . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 4 6 . 7 ）
I d o l f t w a n t y o u t o f a i l y o u r b a c ( s c h o o l l e a y i n g c e r t i E c a t e e x a m ) ．
ＳＥＳ”彫"おFzIO”"“e”jE9IJセルseperzねdansce杖e群ande viⅡe,/Ses”彫卯応７２℃”P妬e"唯叱伽”Iﾉoir"e減ZJedanscette g ? a n d e v i l l e ･
H e r p a r e n t s d o l f t w a n t h e r t o g e t l o s t i n t h a t h u g e c i 呼 ( e j A d j e c t i v e s o r a d v e r b s c a n b e u s e d t o v a r y l h e d e 厚 e e o f e m p h a s i s ： ＩＢＳ評§vistesn?⑪ntpaslam0加鋤泡intentiond,annulerleur m a n i f b s t a t i o n . ( S e e 1 7 . 1 3 c , 5 2 . 1 0 ） Thesmkershavenointemion/havelfttheleastintemionof
c a l l i n g o f f t h e i r d e m o n s t r a t i o n C r o y E z m o i , j e n 1 a Ⅳ a i s g z I p s o 伽 F 7 z e ” p a s l ' i m e m i o n d e v o u s b l e s s “ （ s e e 5 2 . 1 0 ）
B e l i e v e ｍ ｅ , I h a d a b s o l u t e l y n o i n t e n t i o n o f h u r t i n g y o i l ．
I t i s a p p r o p l i a t e t o l o o k a t e 唖 r e s s i n g p e m I i s s i o n a n d o b l i g a t i o n t o g e t h e r a s
m e s e f i m c t i o n s e n t a i l g v i n g ( s e e 7 7 . 1 ) o r d e n y i n g r i 甑 t s ( S e e 7 7 . 2 ) a n d i m p o s i n g (see77.3)orexempting丘omduties(see77.9.Ybuwillseeh皿sometimes， t h e s e s u b f i m c t i o n s o v e d a p ． ヨ77.1岸
Permi悪ｉｍｎ
( a ） P e m 1 i s s i o n o r l i 9 1 t s c a n b e g r a n t e d u s i n g v e r b p h r a s e s s u c h a s a c c o r d e 男 ｡ 、 m e r ＋ l a p e r m i s s i o n , １ ， a u t m i s a t i o n , l e d r o i t d e … a q n ：
ｏｎ〃4zcmrzZ‘陀鋤⑰厳娩”蛇α”乃”“jSesaprもslademdeme gue1remOn血ale、
Henchwomenwere印venthevoteaftertheSecondWbrldW錘 Mespa】おｍｓｍ℃””"液I”如猶α加卯”so減rjusqu1aminuit・
w p a r e n t s h a v e g i v e n m e p e m l i s s i o n t o b e o u t u n t j l m i d n i 部 ] t 、 ( b ） V e r b s e 】 ⑳ r e s s i n g p e r m i s s i o n c a n a l s o b e u s e d : ｅ ､ g ・ p e r m e m e a q n d e f a i l E
q c h , a u t o r i s e r q n a f 白 i z e q C h , p e m m e m e / a u t m i s e r q U e q i l f a s s e ( s u b j u n c t i v e ) q c h ：
２３１
ⅥAF郡加e"如加卯
lおpmviseura”ｍＪｆｓ６９“lescourssojE砿””焔pom
pemzc妨泡α“錐I'esm初ssis”aunepiecedeth63t】泡.(See46.3） TheheadmasterhasgjvenpelmissionfbrclassestobecanceⅡed toallowpupilstogotoseeaplay
(dWhennegative,alloftheabovesbructuresareusedtodenypermissionor r i g h t ： 恥chefderayDmztz"加応ｅｐ“ZeszﾉeJz4jE邸庵jts初sseOiretｱze pem8g"“9脚,油p"rｍｅ”plusdecinqminutesdepause.(See 4 6 . 3 ）
Thedepamnentsupervisorwillnotallowtheshopassistantsto sitdownortakemoredlanfiveminutes,break．
(d）Theverbpouvoiralsoplaysanimportantrole,fbrexample,whenaskingfbr p e m 1 i s s i o n ： PZzjS張か”r?−０ui,”z4sPo邸I'Ｇ２ｳmaisdanslecoinfilmeurs・ Maylsmoke?−Yes,ｙｏｕ、郡butindlesmokingarea・ Analtemativewouldbe：
V b u s p e n n e t t e z q u e j e f U m e ? ( S e e 4 6 . 3 ） Maylsmoke？
(e）Therearenumerousphrasescombininga刃oirorc唾withanounto emressnuancesofentidementorpermissiontodosomething・Hereareafew withdroit(+ａ＋noun,＋ｄｅ＋verb)asthenoun：
Sijem?inscBisdanscetteElierede杜oisiemecycle,”、i犯f2m” 邸rzeb皿応e?(See40.2）
I f l r e g s t e r f b r t h i s p o s t g f a d u a t e c o u r s e , w i l l l b e e n u d e d t o a gant2 En政ance,lesfbmmesattendantdesjumeauxso砿”鋤ひ"“
ｐ形姉修descong6smatemit6suppI6mentaires.(See50.5） hlFrancewomene叩ectingtwinsareentidedtoadditional m a t e m i 可 l e a v e ， mJztmsp“陀伽ひ"此”jz4gEr1
Y b u h a v e n o r i g h t t o c r i t i c i z e m e 1 D r o i t i s a l s o c e m a l t o m a n y n o u n p h r a s e s , p a r t i c u l a n y i n t h e l e g a l h e l d : ｅ ､ 9 ． d r o i t d e 浮 帥 e , ‘ r i 沙 t t o s t l i k e 1 d r o i t d e p a s s a g e , ‘ r i ゆ t o f w a y ; d r o i t d e p o u r s u i t e ， ‘ I i ゆ t o f a c t i o n ; d r o i t d e r e c o u r s , ‘ r i g h t o f a p p e a l ; d r o i t s d ﾉ a u t e u 聡 ‘ r o y a l t i e s ' ： (f）mpersonalverbsoroncanalsobeusedtograntordenypelmissionina m o r e i n d i r e c t w a y ：
282助"c加砺
IZestpemzjS“mFzs"I”undictionnairependantre図Kamen.(See 5 3 ） Dictinmriesareallowedinexnms
Esf“9"℃〃αled、〃zjEposerdesqUestions?(See18.9）
A r e w e a ] l o w e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s ？ 一m雪
Prnhihirimn
( a ） V e r b s e 理 r e s s i n g p r o h i b i t i o n i n c l u d e i n t e r d i r e , d 6 f b n d r E a q n d e f a i r e q C h ， emp6cherqndefnireqch,andintelnirB,d6fendre,empccherqUeqnfasse ( s u b j u n c t j y e ) q c h ．
( b ） T h e s e a r e s o m e t i m e s r e i n f b r c e d b y a d v e r b s ： Je”砿加蛇減jS./bmzeI陀””“””池rsurceton1
I c a t e g o l i c a l ] y f b r b i d y o u t o s p e a k t o m e i n t h a t t o n e o f v o i c e ． Iar噂edeIoldred嘩掘"t”soJz"zeFzt9廼JES”j》zesseP”Ze” p e J z z i h z ” l e s 卸 a s . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 4 7 . 5 ）
T h e m l e o f l h e O r d e r t o t a l l y f b r b a d e t h e m o n k s t o s p e a k d u I i n g men1R．
V e r b s e 印 r e s s i n g p r o h i b i t i o n h a v e c o l T e s p o n d i n g i m p e r s o n a l f b m l s , f b u o w e d b y i n E n i t i v e s , a n d s o m e t i m e s u s e d w i t h p r o n o u n s ： lZesZ加陀極itdbsD流rdel,enceintedubfitimentayantquela s o n n e r i e n ? a i t r e t e n t i . ( S e e 4 6 . 4 , 5 3 ）
I t i s f b r b i d d e n t o l e a v e m e 評 o u n d s b e f b r e d l e b e Ⅱ h a s r u n g ・ CommejJ77zResr燭も”邸娩”IJsPa准I;jevDusenvDiecemoten sec正t・(See53）
Sincelamfbrbiddentospeaktoyou,Iamsendingyoulhisnote msecret．
(dThepassivefblm6唾十pastparticipleisusuallyusedinthenegative,on n o t i c e s , f b r e x a m p l e ： IEschiens7zeso”pzzs鯉加zjSdanslemagasin.(See48.1）
D o g s a r e n o t a l l o w e d i n l h e s h o p ． IEscheqUes〃eso”p““cEp嫁(See48.1）
C h e q U e s a r e n o t a c c e p t e d ．
(d）Prohibitjvenoticescanbeevenmoredirectandsimplyfeatuleanoun ( w i t h o u t a n a r t i c l e ) 十 i n h n i t i v e o r a d j e c t i v e ： DefEnsedesm行､Ｔｍ師
Nopalldng
ｍｔＧｒ術硫ｎｎｄ,盆怖征hｐｒ
Noposters
泌 融 Ⅵ A F 解 加 e " 如 加 卯
Keepoffdlegrass A1cooIprohib6，Ｎｏａlcohol Pelousein蛇rdite
orbothfbrmscanbecomhined：
P m p r i 6 t 6 p r i 花 e , d 6 f e n s e d e n t r “ P I i v a t e p r o p e r t y ; ｋ ｅ ｅ ｐ o u t ・
N o t e : o t h e r w a y s o f p r o h i b i t i n g a n a c t i o n i n c l u d e n e g a t i v e f b r m s o f l h e e m r e s s i o n s g i v e n i n 7 7 . 1 , 7 7 . 3 . 一 躍
⑪ｍｉｇｍ⑪皿
( a ） A n u m b e r o f v e r b s a n d v e r b p h r a s e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o e m r e s s o b l i g a t i o n , f b r e x a m p l e o b l i g e 1 3 f b r c e 喝 c o n t r a i n d r e q n a f a i r e q c h , m e t t r e q n d a n s l ' o b l i g a t i o n / e n d e m e u r e d e f a n ℃ q c h a n d s o m e v e r b s o f v o l i t i o n ＋ s U b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) w h i c h aleusedwhenadutyisimposedonsomeone： 血 s a c c i d e n t s t o U j o u r s p l U s n o m b r e u x d u s a I e K c も s d ' a l c o o l cwz”ig7ze”JES”"花嫁〃、邸I”陸rlesmesuresder6pression． （ S e e 5 2 . 9 ）
T h e g r o w m g n u m b e r o f a c c i d e n t s c a u s e d b y d n n k i s f b r c i n g d l e g o v e m m e n t t o i m o d u c e a d d i l i o n a l r e s な i c t i v e m e a s u r e s ・ I a f a c t u r e a y a n t 6 t 6 e m q J 6 d i 6 e i l y a s i x m o i s , ” I J s z ﾉ o I u s J 7 z e 加 恋 即 娩”"形”"01JSF‘gIErdansleshuitjours・
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laloie域gC9zJe”砥ＣＯ漉脚ItjEzunconseillerjuridique i n d 6 p e n d a n t . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 ）
Thelawdemandsthatyouconsultanindependentlegaladvisen ( b ） Ｅ 匪 十 p a s t p a r t i c i p l e , i n t h e s t r u c t u r e 6 唾 t e n u / f b r c 6 / c o m a i n t / o b 1 i g 6 d e fai１℃qch,canbeusedtoshowlhatapersonhas,ordoesnothave,todo s o m e d ] i n g ( s e e 4 8 ) ： ＩＥＣontratstipuleqUenousnesommespasresponsablesetpar cons6qUent”ZJwzesomF7zesp“蛇"IJsdbzﾉozJsj極Ｚｂｍ”琴尻 Thecontractstateslhatwearenotresponsibleandarenot t h e r e f b r e o b l i g e d t o p a y ( y o u ) c o m p e n s a l i o n ・
Rapporte-lepuisqUlilyauntrou:lavendeusesemobI嬢e旋彫 Ｚ ' 生 加 祁 伊 尻 ( S e e 2 L 3 b , 2 1 . 4 ） 亜keitbackbecauselherebaholeinit:theassistantwillhaveto
c h a n g e i t f b r y o u ，
h l d l e h r s t o f t h e s e t w o e x a m p l e s , n o t e h o w t h e o b l i g a t i o n o r a b s e n c e o f i t stemshomaconなact:lecontratstipuleque.…Thisisoftenthecasebecause
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a n y c o d e , d o g m a , l e g a l t e x t , e t c ・ c r e a t e s a n u m b e r o f o b l i g a t i o n s a n d c o n s e q u e n d y i s o f t e n r e f e 面 e d t o w i t h e 叩 r e s s i o n s i n a p p o s i t i o n s u c h a s s e l o ｎ ｌ ｅ ｒ 理 e m e n t , Ⅲ a p r e s l e s s t a t u t s , c o n f b n n 6 m e n t a l ， a r t i c l e l O , ( v o u s c t e s t e n u d e … ) ： Ｄ ' a p r e s I e s s t a t u t s d e n o t l B r 6 s e a u r 6 g i o n a l , l e s n o m e a u x membresso砿詑Fz噸娩so”ze的℃leurdfm副nded,adh“ｏｎａ
ｌ ， o r g a n i s a t i o n n a t i o n a l e d a n s l e s d e u x a n s q U i s u i v e n t l e u r i n s c r i p t i o n . ( S e e 1 1 . 4 , 2 2 . 1 ）
m a c c o r d a n c e w i d l l h e r e g u l a t i o n s o f o u r r e g i o n a l n e t w o l k , n e w m e m b e r s h a v e t o a p p l y f b r m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l h i n t h e t w o y e a r s f b 1 o w i n g l h e i r r e g i s b a t i o n ． (c）Theverbomoundevoir＋inEnitiveor＋de＋il'fTnitiveiscen廿altothis
f i m c t i o n a n d f b a t u l e s i n s e v e r a l e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s s u c h a s s e d e v o i r d e , i l e s t d e m o n devDirde,sefaireundevoirde：
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T b o b t a i n y o u r r e s i d e n c e p e m i t y o u m u s t c o m p l e t e t h e s e t w o f b l m s c a r e f m ] y Unbonchefd6qI血pese”tparfbis”舵autoritairB・ Itistheduwofagoodteamleadertobeauthoritalian/showhis a u d l o r i w a t t i m e s ・
DevOir＋nounisusedwhensomelhjngisowedtosomebody： nltesouⅥensqUe"ｍｅ”is此脆噌B7z録(Seell）
Yburememberyouowemesomemoney？ BeaucoupdegenspensentqUelesenfants血加e”陀函pec” ”応”だFzZSb(See28,29.4）
M a n y p e o p l e t h i n k d l a t c h i l d r e n o w e l h e i r p a r e n t s s o m e r e s p e c t ． ( ｡ ） Ａ ｍ ｉ ｒ ａ ＋ i n h n i t j v e a l s o c o m e y s o b l i g a t i o n , w i t h o r w i t h o u t a c o m p l e m e n t ： Ditesavo杜epa位onque施趣lui”池尻(See51.3）
Tbllyourbossthatlhayesomethjngtosaytohim．． ’患s6tudiantsdep唾miも唾aIm6eo”pJzjs陀邸庵虎砿I睦 磁Fzsc7fp釦”花”脆(See18.3,52.9） F i r s t y e a r s t u d e n t s h a v e t o E l l i n s e v e r a l r e 感 s m t i o n f b l ｍ ｓ ． ( e ） h n p e I s o n a l v e r b s c a n a l s o b e u s e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r i l f a u t w i t h a n o u n ：
”Ⅵ岬加e""0〃
PourvousinscrirB,〃”施””e］cjm〃””””Zsszz…鈍“” p h o m s b ( S e e 5 3 . 2 ）
T b c o m p l e t e y o u r r e g s b f a t i o n l n e e d a c o p y o f y o u r b i r t h c e r t j h c a t e a n d t w o p h o t o g a p h s ・
o r a l t e m a t i v e 1 y f b U o w e d b y a n i n h n i t i v e ( s a m e s u b j e c t i n b o t h c l a u s e s ) o r q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ： POurposersacan血dature,〃J2z”e”ＯＷｍｎ皿(See53.2） YbuhavetosendaCVwhenyousubmitanapplication． 刀愈”absohlment9姪如so歯形"ZｱもepourlOhOOcarnous p a r t i m n s a u s s i t 6 t . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 5 3 . 2 ） Ybumustbebackattenbecausewe,releavingonthedot．
O t h e r i m p e r s o n a l v e r b s i n c l u d e i l e s t i n d i S p e n s a b l e / n 6 c e s s a h ℃ / o b n g a t o i r e d e 十 i n h n i t i v e ( s a m e s U b j e c t i n b o 山 c l a u s e s ) o r q U e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 5 3 . 2 ) ． ●
(f）Whenusedinthenegative,theaboveemressionsdonotusual]yconvey t h e a b s e n c e o f o b l i g a t i o n b u t r a l h e r t h e o b l i g a t i o n 〃 o Z t o d o s o m e t h i n g ： 吻 蛎 F z e 此 I ﾊ a z " j z s Z m u c f z e 7 c e t t e p o r t e , e Ⅱ e v i e m d ， 邑 唾 p e i m e . ( S e e 3 1 . 7 ）
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血沈zspzzsjt花F"p肋cefbmmlaire伽aiscelui-1鋤.(See52.9） Ybudolfthavetofillinthisfblm(butdlatone)．
w i t h n e p a s a Ⅳ o i r q c h a 十 i n h n i t i v e ： 皿７ztzsp妬娩ｊｂｍ０ＩＪ”花仇花”"閥 YbudoIfthaveafbmltoh11in ●
( ９ T h e v e r b p o u y o l r c a n a l s o c o n v e y o b l i g a t i o n , i n p a m c u l a r w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h n e . . ､ q u e ： ⅡateⅡementinsist6qUeEnalement,sespaIEntwzわ””９醒 鈍加肋ze鹿
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他 ） T h e r e a r e v a l i o u s w a y s o f o r d e l i n g s o m e o n e t o d o s o m e d 1 i n g ( o b l i g a t i o n ） o r n o t t o d o s o m e l h i n g の r o h i b i t i o n ) ( s e e 5 1 . 3 5 1 . 5 ) ： ●
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Ｎ ， e n t 】 迄 z p a s I Ney可hjSjamais9a1 雁 t ' e n 1 / U f z s W 1 ( S e e 2 1 . 3 b , ５ １ ）
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● t h e o l d e r o r i n s m l c t i o n c a n b e g v e n m o r e p o l i t e l y w i l h v e u i I l e z o r a p a s s i v e f b r m ：
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P a s s e n g e r s a l e a s k e d n o t t o s m o k e d u r i n g l h e H i 獣 ] t 、 ● i n s t r u c t i o n s o n n o t i c e s o r r e c i p e s , f b r e x a m p l e , a r e u s u a l l y 印 v e n i n i n h n i t i v e s ( s e e 5 2 . 2 ) ： SOmzeraⅣantdﾉenlTem
R i n g b e f b r e e n t e n n g ． AssaisO"Fzeretse瓦ﾉｒｉｍｍ飼萌他mfmt岳
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(a）Anumberofverbsandverbphrasesareavajlabletodenotethatsomeone d o e s n o t h a v e t o d o s o m e l h i n g , ｅ ､ g ・ d i s p e n s e r d e 十 i n h n i t i v e ： Ceten位etienvousziZspeJzse此”砿ralar6uniondﾉinfbrmanonotl
i e s m c m e s r e n s e i 邸 e m e n t s s e r o n t c o m m u n i q u 6 s . ( S e e 2 2 . 1 2 ） Thisconversationmeansthatyoudonotneedtocometolhe infbm13Tinnsessionwhichwi]ldealwithlhesameinfnrmation．
(b）Passivefbnnsareusedhequendy：
Ⅲ α § 鰭 g r c 畑 p 彪 娩 s e r v i c e m i l i t a i r e p o u r d e s r a i s o n s m 6 d i c a l e s ． （ S e e 4 8 . 2 ）
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Ｄ ‘ g z Z g 芭 ‘ 姓 o b l i g a t i o n s m i l i t a i r e s . ( S e e 4 9 . 1 ） ． M i l i t a l y s e r v l c e c o m p l e t e d ． (｡）Otherverbsincluded6charge唯par部e喝emKon6rensous杜aireand,ｏｆ c o u r s e , n e g a t i v e f b r m s s u c h a s n e p a s C t 1 氾 t e n u / f b m 6 / o b l i g 6 / Ｃ Ｏ n 位 a i n t / d a n s ' ' ０ b l i g a t i o n ＋ d e f a m 把 q c h , i n c l u d i n g m a n y v a l i a t i o n s w i t h v e r b s s u c h a s s e s e n m secro1rE：
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p a y s d ' ０ 面 部 n e . ( S e e 5 2 . 9 ）
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h a v i n g t o e s t a b l i s h b r a n c h e s o u t s i d e t h e i r c o u n t r y o f o r i g f n ． ( f ） I m p e r s o n a l v e r b s , e i l h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a n v e , c a n a l s o b e u s e d ( s e e 5 3 , 5 3 . 2 ) ：
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I Z 7 z e s e m p “ o b l Z g m り j 形 α ｾ m s s j S 蛇 r 弧 a r 6 1 m i o n d i n a u g u r a t i o n p o u r a d h 6 唾 r a l ， a s s o c i a t i o n ，
I t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l t o a t t e n d t h e i n a u g u r a l m e e t i n g t o b e c o m e a memheroftheassociation．
② m 1 p e r s o n a l f b l m s i n 位 o d u c e d b y c e n P e s t p a s ( s e e 1 3 . 5 ) p r o v i d e a l t e m a t i v e s ， withorwithoutacomplement：
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T h e r e も n o p o i n t i n p u n c h i n g y o u r t i c k e t t o d a y 1 h e m a c h i n e s havebrokendown．
仇）Andnepasavoirbesoinde＋inhnitivecanbeusedwithanypersonal p r o n o u n s , i n c l u d i n g o n ： Ｏ〃”〃“beso加叱”叩erI61ectricit6sionnes'absenteqUlun w E e l e e n d . ( s e e 1 8 . 9 , 4 0 . 2 ）
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hospitalbecauselknewhewasdying．
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配 り ： Ⅵ A , 郡 加 e " ” 0 〃
p r e f も r a b l e t o n e p a s d e v o i r ＋ i n h n i t i v e , n e p a s a y o i r a 十 i n E n i t i v e , n n e 通 u t p a s q u e ＋ s U b j u n c t i v e t o e 鞭 r e s s e x e m p t i o n , u n l e s s d 1 e c o n t e x t m a k e s i t a b s o l u t e l y c l e a r l h a t i t i s 〃 o t a c a s e o f o b l i g a t i o n n o t t o d o s o m e t h i n g ( s e e 7 7 . 3 f 〕 ．
国…’昭伽卿膨"""卿 Doubtandcertainw(see78.1)aIeatoppositeendsofacominuumwhere p o s s i b i l i t y a n d p r o b a b i l i W ( s e e 7 8 . 2 ) a s w e n a s c o n d i t i o n a n d h y p o t h e s i s ( s e e 7 8 . 3 ) a r e a l s o t o b e f b u n d ・ M a n y d i f f b r e n t g r a m m a t i c a l f b r m s a r e u s e d t o e m r e s s a ] l t h e n u a n c e s o f m e a n i n g i n v o l v e d , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e r e v i e w e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h o c c a s i o n a l e m p h a s i s o n s p e c i h c c o n t e x t s s u c h a s e 】 叩 r e s s i o n o f r e s e r v a t i o n indPh円teorinaneconnmicfbrecast．
一 躍
､⑨ubta皿dcertai皿呼 Thesemaybeemressedsimplythrou沙1hemeaningofindjvidualverbornoun p h r a s e s ．
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Idoubtlhattheparcelwjllhavebeendeljveredbecauseitwas o n ] y p o s t e d y e s t e r d a y m o m i n g ・ Apresamirentenducet6moi部age,turze伽邸蛇yzzspIIJsune seconde鯉soFz伽”ceFzcuも
HavingheaIdlhisevidenceyouwiⅡnolongerhayeanydoUbts abouthis/herinnocence．
Themeaningoftheverbsusedmayallowyoutoconveyspecihcnuancesof d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n w ; f b r e x a m p l e s a X m i r f b r e ” r e s s i n g c e r t a i n t y o r u n c e r t a i n t y o H m o w l e d g e , s e d e m a n d e r ‘ t o w o n d e r ' ： 】eszujS(aVeccertitude)qmlnemelaisserapastombeⅢ ＩｌｍｏｗｈｅｗｉⅡnotletmedown．
NOusyzesα”砿p“encoreceqUenousreserveWaⅣc､血(See22.14） Wedonotknowwhatlhefiltureholdsfbrus．
Jetepariequenosconclmentsse“””j泡砿bien“91Je”ｚＪｓ ａ肋"s加池etsurtoutsj”IJsa肋r1sJhmcerlenouveauproduit a 刃 a n t 1 , 6 t も . ( S e e 3 2 . 8 ）
Iamsureourcompetitorsarewonde1ingwhatwearegoingto doandespecia]lywhetherwearegoingtolaunchthenew productbefbresummeエ
2 9 0 ” " c t i O 砥
( b ） N o u n s : i n l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s w i t h a n o u n s u b j e c t , n o t e t h e s m l c t u r e noun＋verb＋quant注 Le“邸陀ｐｅ応ｉｓ蛇９””“ｎｏｍｂ正eqKactdepersonnesabordde l,appareilaumomentdel,accident･
Doubtremamsastolheexactnumberofpeopleaboardthe planeatlhetimeoflheaccident． ■
Ie”"ZWzHes”I妬pemzJs9”"”Zfzresponsabilit6duconducteur dautobusd2msceta唖fWmt-
T h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e d l i v e r o f l h e b u s w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f b r dleaccident．
N o u n s a l s o o c c u r i n p h r a s e s s u c h a s d e t o u t e 6 v i d e n c e , e n t o u t e c e r t i t u d e , s a n s a u c u n d o u t e , s a n s l e m o i n d r e d o u t e u s e d a s a d v e r b s o r i n a p p o s i t i o n ： Ｄｅ”即陀釦耐Erzc喝cetteloiquiestapprouy6epartouslespartis serapromulgu6edanslesmoisaven恥(See48.1）
O b v i o u s h 8 1 h e l e 甑 s l a t i o n w h i c h i s a p p r o v e d b y a l h h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w i l l b e p r o m u l g a t e d i n t h e n e x t f e w m o m h s ． I E p m j e t d e t u n n e l t e n a n t c o m p t e d e s c o n s i d 6 r a t i o n s 6 c o l o 夢 q U e s semszmsaIJc”伽邸蛇pr6随r6atoutautre.(See48.1,50.5）
T h e t u n n e l p r O j e c t w h i c h t a k e s e c o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t w i l l w i l h o u t a n y d o u b t b e l h e o n e s e l e c t e d ・
T h e s a m e f b r m s c a n b e u s e d t o e m r e s s c e r t a i n 可 ( i f p o s i t i v e ) o r d o u b t ( ｉ ｆ n e g a t i v e ) , f b r e x a m p l e , v e r b p h r a s e s w i t h c 位 e o r 卸 C i r ： 砥一睡snr9“Iaportedel,appartementestfEml6eacle解 AIeyousurethatthedooroflhenatislocked？
Oui,j城伽c”mzjb“Z初”jrjbmz‘e〃c"ayamdeparti里 Yes,Iamcertainllockeditbefbreweleft．
Non,j画z2e"s〃jSpjzs“７ｍ”(See19.6b） ＮＣ,Iinnotsure．
ルァzes邸歯p“peFsz榔唾9噸PamckZ初"た、z‘Ｗｔ“favHntdeme l e s r E n d l E . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 4 6 . 7 ）
I m n o t c o n v i n c e d P a b r i c k l o c k e d i t b e f b r e g y i n g m e b a c k t h e k e y s ，
N o t e t h a t e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s o f c e r t a i n t y ＋ q u e a r e f b n o w e d b y t h e i n d i c a t i v e w h e r e a s e m I E s s i o n s o f d o u b t ＋ q u e a r e f b Ⅱ o w e d b y t h e s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ．
( c ） T h e r e a r e m a n y i m p e r s o n a l f b l m s a v a j l a b l e t o e 】 m r e s s d o u b t o r c e r t a j n 平 ●anadiective：
29Ｒ
…』：ⅥA7gIJ腕e"加加〃
I a p o l i c e r e 杜 o u v e r a t e Ⅱ e l e s m a r c h a n d i s e s v o l 6 e s ？
W n l t h e p o l i c e E n d t h e s t o l e n g o o d s ？
certain可Ｃ'est6vident.(See13.5b） (withoutacomplememjYes,theywiⅡ、 certaintyⅡestcertainqu'eⅡefErade sonmieux.(See13.5b）
(wilhacomplemenOThey'Ⅱcertain]ydotheir b e s t ．
doubtCeserait6tonnant.(See
1 3 . 5 b 〕
（widloutacomplemenOItwouldbesurprising(if t h e y d i d ) ． doubtnestdouteuxqlreⅡepmsse toutremuye典(See46.3）
（withacomplemenOItisdoubtfUllhattheyⅡget e v e r y l h i n g b a c k ・ ●
v e r b a n d n o u n p h r a s e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r f b r e 印 r e s s i n g c e r t a i n w ： Ｄ，apreslesjoumauxdecematin,〃”ﾉh厳αＩＪＣ”dmJ蛇9zJela mamfesseduminis位eesW'jO"”蝿Ⅱ印oquepourlecomptedes R u s s e s . ( S e e 1 1 . 4 , 4 6 . 3 ）
Accordingtothismomingbpapers,thereisnodoubtthatdle m i n i s t e r ｂ ｍ ｉ ｓ な e s s w a s s p y i n g a t t h e t i m e f b r t h e R u s s i a n s ． Ｉ息Sjoumauxnenousapp唾nnentrien,C熔如加吻j”z“””！ （ S e e 1 3 . 5 b ）
ThepapershaveIfttoldusanything,itwascommonknowledge1 D,acco1通,onlasoup9olmait,maisd6sormaiscjEs””“流”ｊａ （ S e e 1 3 . 5 b ）
Ｒｉ甑t,wesuspectedit,butnowwelmow Entoutcas,avectout9d,〃”s”2S鋤泡９“sesm6moiresqI血sont surlepointdeparai唾Sc”Fz4j””せもsbien.(See48.4,53.2,57.3）
Ａｎｙｗ叩withallthisfUss,thereisnodoubtthathermemolrs whicharejustabouttocomeoutwmse1veryweu． (d）Certainwordoubtcanbee印ressedwilhtermssuchas繭ｅｎ＋ｎｅ,personne + n e , t o u t u s e d a s s u b j e c t s ： 馳庵”FzeFzePe”卯彬rl'eqdstencedecesdocuments.(See54.16）
Nobodycandenythee】dstenceofthesedocuments・ Rjerme"ｍ邸”91Jccesdocuments“jS蛇拡(See54.16） T h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o p r o v e d l a t l h e s e d o c u m e n t s e 】 d s t . ．
２９２：”加加"ｓ
Zb””po確仇cｍ舵9””lawもrit6.(See18.lb）
E v e r y ｡ ] i n g l e a d s m e t o b e l i e v e l h a t h e i s t e l l i n g t h e m l d l ， ( e ） T h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e c a n b e u s e d t o e m r e s s u n c e r t a i n w a b o u t a f a c t ・ I t i s ， f b r e x a m p l e , ｖ ｅ ｒ ｙ c o m m o n ] y u s e d i n p r e s s a r t i c l e s w h e n a p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e o f infbm1ationhasnotbeenve面ｅｄ(see40.6)：
S e l o n l e s m m e u r s , l e b a n q U i e r i n c r i m i n 6 d a n s c e t t e a H a i 】 池 d e haude“mjtd6ja9"”Iepays.(See49.1） Rumourhasitthatlhebankerinvolvedinthehaudcasehas
a l r e a d y l e f t l h e c o u n 可 Ｄ'aprbsdessoumesprochesduminis並e,ilse”だs”Zepoi”血 ｐ砥g"”sad6mission.(See11.4,57.3b）
A c c o r d i n g t o s o u r c e s c l o s e t o l h e m i n i s t e n h e i s a b o u t t o t e n d e r h i s r e s i 瓢 a t i o n ． ．
( f ） Y b u m a y w i s h t o e 切 叩 r e s s r e s e r v a t i o n o r d o U b t s a b o u t a n o t h e r p e r s o l i s s t a t e m e n t i n a d e b a t i n g s i t u a t i o n m o r d e r t o d o s o , y o u c a n u s e a d v e r b s s u c h a s v r a i m e n t ? , p a s f b r c 6 m e n t 1 , p a s n 6 c e s s a i r B m e n t 1 ： S e l o n l e s s t a t i s t i q U e s , I 6 c o n o m i e d e l a H a n c e e s t e n b o n 6 t a t ． ’椀zi"zgyz畷
A c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s , t h e F r e n c h e c o n o m y i s i n g o o d h e a l t h ・ R e a l l y ？
o r a d j e c t j v e s s u c h a s s c e p t i q u e , p e r p l 巴 《 e ： Vbusditesqu！ilnIyaqUe8％dech6magedanscetter蝉on;j'amue q u e j e s u i s s c B p Z j i 7 z ｲ e も ( S e e 5 4 . 2 1 ）
Y b u s a y / c l a i m l h a t t h e r e i s o n l y 8 ％ u n e m p l o y m e n t i n t h i s a r e a ; Ｉ h a v e t o s a y l h n d t h a t h a r d t o b e l i e v e ・ V b u s m e v o y E z p e " J 迫 り 彪 ; j e n e s 皿 s p a s c o n v a i n c u e q u e c e s o i t v r a i ・ Ybucanseelinconfilsed;Ilmnotconvincedthatthatもmle・ orverbssuchasdouterde：
１ b u s p r 6 t e n d e z q u e n o 位 e s e r v i c e n 1 a p a s r 6 p o n d u a v o s l e t 肱 Ｅ ｓ ｍａｉｓ,危anchement,j℃卯伽"鰹(See19.6b）
Y b u c l a i m / s t a t e / s a y t h a t o u r d e p a m n e n t h a s n o t r e p l i e d t o y o u r l e t t e r s b u t , f r a n l d y ; I d o U b t t h a t / h a v e m y d o u b t s a b o u t t h a t ・ a n d q u e s t i o n s e 】 m r e s s m g r e s e r v a t i o n o r d o u b t ： EZEs-”砿slr9IJeceschifhessoje”(orso”唖acts?(See46.3）
A r e y o u s u r e l h e s e E g u r e s a r e a c c u r a ｔ ｅ ２ Ｃ ７ ℃ リ ノ 巳 z ” I J s v r a i m e n t 9 z 4 e c e s o 〃 l e c a s ? ( S e e 4 6 . 3 ） ＤｏｙｏｕｒｅａⅡybelievethatbmle/thistobethecase？
２ ９ ３ １ Ⅵ A r g z " 7 2 e " 如 加 〃
(９madebatingsituation,imentiontoemressreservationisofteninなoduced u s m g p o l i t e o p e n i n g s s u c h a s p e r m e t t e z m o i d e 十 i n m i t i v e ( s a m e s u b j e c t i n b o t h c l a u s e s ) o r j e v o u d r a i s ＋ i n f i n i t i v e o r q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ： 恥mze#ZEz造Fjto”ぜ"ze妨氾“J”jFzes花semesquantalavalidit6de
c e t a r g u m e n t . ( S e e 7 8 . l b ）
A l l o w m e t o e m r e s s c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t l h e v a l i d i w o f l h e i r a r g u m e n t ． 形””mjS施舵”花”p唾mierOrateurgZe”"emJE]pi彪盆''６gard d e s s t a t i s t i q U e s q u P i l a m e n t i o n n 6 e s . ( S e e 2 2 . 2 , 4 9 . 4 ）
I w o u l d I i k e t o s a y t o t h e h r s t s p e a k e r t h a t l h a v e r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e s t a t i s t i c s h e g a v e / r e f も 】 r e d t o ． ■
o r l h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e o f v e r b s e 】 叩 r e s s m g r e s e r v a t i o n ： 80％departicipationauxprochaineselections？“伽””Jmemit1
80％tumoutatthenextelections?Ｉｄｂｅｓｕ]ｐｎｓｅｄ１ 膨犯semisbienjm"Fz‘e!(see19.6b） ●
IUbeverysulpIised1/ThatwouldreaⅡysulpnseme1 肥旋"”fZmisp“ｍａ”醜”た鴎sij'etaisvUus!(See40.2）
Iwouldlftcountonit,iflwereyou1 ■
o r 1 m p e r s o n a l p h r a s e s r e f e m n g b a c k t o w h a t i s i n d o u b t u s i n g c e q u e , c e q U i , c e l a ： a9IzevousvEnezdavancerestpmb随””“e”jsc邸如b雌(See 2 2 , 1 4 ）
Whatyouhayejustsaid/Thepointyouhavejustputfbrwardis p r o b l e m a t i c a n d d e b a t a b l e ． wusnousayezlraceunecourbeparfaitemaiscE肱Ize超/胞陀p“ ｊｂ”””Zfz花α"鯉
Y b u h a v e s k e t c h e d / d r a w n a p e l f b c t c u r v e / p i c t u r e f b r u s , b u t i t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r j ] y r e H e c t r e a l i 唾 orimpersonalphrasesrefeITing/b、ﾉzmjtowhatisindoubtusingilsemble＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e , i l y a l i e u d e ＋ v e r b e m r e s s i n g r e s e r v a t i o n ： IZse"zbje力溌§〃"””９〃Unesifaiblepmportiondel,echantillon ait”0”“cettequestion.(See46.3,53.3）
I t i s v e r y s u ] p r i s i n g l h a t s u c h a l o w p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e s a m p l e s u r v e y r e p l i e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n ． IZyaI陀邸”s，加蛇rmgErs”lamargede】reurtoI6r6edansles relevもsdedoIm6esquevousmentionnez(See22.2,49.1,53）
T h e r e i s r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h e m a r g i n o f e n f o r i m h e d a t a y o u r e f e r t o ．
2錨肋"c"0"s
一 曇
P0ssibili町a皿dprobabiliq7 T h e s e n o t i o n s c a n b e s e e n a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t w o i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e s o n a s p e c m l m h o m d o u b t t o c e r t a i n t y ( s e e 7 8 . 1 ) ．
(a）Somee叩ressionscanbeusedtoemressbodlwithsli甑tvaliations,e､9.ily adescIwmces/unefhgmEe・Notethedjfferentcons杜uctionswhichfbnowthese
i m p e r s o n a l p h r a s e s ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ： 〃ｙ〃JjEsch”Z“SPO”９噸lediIEcteurdesventes””envDyage
d P 6 t u d e l a s e m a m e p r o c h a i n e . ( p o s s i b i l i 助 I t i s p o s s i b l e l h a t t h e s a l e s d i r e c t o r w i l l l e a v e o n a s t u d y t o u m e x t w e e k ． IZyα“jb7”c”卯cUs9”p】”池ravionlundi.⑩robabili助 Itbljkelythathewinny(ouO/taketheplaneonMonday ＩＺｙａＰｅ邸娩cFzJmcBs血Ｐ””irlecontacterayantsond6part・
( i m p r o b a b i l i W ） Therebnotmuchchanceofbeingabletocontacthimbefbrehe l e a y e s ．
皿吻ａａｚＪｃｚ"zec”Jzcc娩陀、z伽erleraPportatempspourlelui
c o n 丘 “ ( i m p o s s i b i l i t y ） T h e r e , s n o p o s s i b i l i 可 / c h a n c e o f E n i s h j n g d l e r e p o r t i n t i m e t o 甑 v e i t t o h i m ． (b）Peut-6なeisverycommon]yusedtoemresspossibiliw：
●eidleronitsownasaresponse： Comptes-tuga】dercettevieillearmo”?−恥”訪穆(雄"),ｏｎ ＶＢｒｒａ
Ａｒｅｙｏｕｇｏｉｎｇｔｏｋｅｅｐｄ]is/thatoldcupboard/wardrobe?−Yes， m a y b e , ｗ ｅ ' Ⅱ s e e ・ A l t e m a t i v e s i n c l u d e 蝉 s e p e u t , 蝉 s e p o u r r a i t ( b o t h i n i b l m a l , s p o k e n ) ( s e e 1 3 . 5 . ) , ( c l e s O p o s s i b l e , ( c e n I e s 0 p a s m p o s s i b l e ( s e e 1 3 . 5 b ) ． ●orwid]inasentenceandinvaIiouspositions： ●
ｐｅ”鋤Ees越陀d殿pαｱガ＆(notelheinversion） P e I h a p s s h e h a s a l r e a d y g o n e / l e f t ・ 睦 ” 蝕 む 9 1 J 切 陀 ” I 4 g Z F z z b i e n v e n i x も ( i n f b r m a l , s p o k e n ） PerhapssheUljketocome・ 皿eestpe”§舵d6iapartie.(noinversion）
P e r h a p s s h e h a s a l r e a d y g o n e / l e f t ． (c）Theverbpoumiriscentraltoanumberofe】叩ressionsindicating p o s s i b i l i 坪 I t c a n b e f b n o w e d b y a n i n f n i t i v e ：
２ ９ ５ １ Ⅵ A 7 g I J 腕 e " 如 加 〃
Unaccidentpe”α椛犯ratoutmoment･
Anaccidentcouldhappenatanytime． A1tention1Umminpe”ｅｎα”ｅｍｎａｍｅ.(See19.6b） Waming1AnolhertrainmaybefbnoWing． ■
orusedinammpersonalemIessionsuchasilsepeutqUe＋subjunctive(see 4 6 . 3 ) ：
I Z s e p e 砿 d 7 z J e l e s r u e s s o j e 祁 往 e s e F z c o " b F 恋 e s a c e t t e L h e u r e c i ・
Thes杜eetsmaybefmlof杜afncjustnow8 IZPe”α流IIer9zJejesoisenretardmaisc，estvraiment位esrare． ( S e e 1 3 . 5 b ）
Imaybelatehomtimetotimebutitもmostunusual． andpomoiranddleolhere印ressionscanbeusedintheconditionaltense(see 4 0 . 6 ) ：
Vite,allumeleposte,lespreImerscoureursP0邸汀抑ね”deiaa]ﾉoir
h a n c h i l a l i 瓢 e d ﾉ a r r i v 6 e . ( S e e 5 2 ）
Quick/Hunyup,putonthemthe位strunnersmay/migjlthave c r o s s e d t h e E n i s h i n g 】 i n e a l r e a d y VUlesprotestations,〃sepo”””IJelegomemement./hsse mamheambre.(See49.1）
hlviewofthepmteststhegovemmentｍａｙｄｏａＵ−ｔｕｍ． Danscetteenquete,nous師OnstoUjou】浴rEcherch6deuxsuspects， or〃pozJ”its噂rdelam6mepersonne1
D u r i n g l h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e h a v e a l w a y s b e e n l o o k i n g f b r t w o suspects,butitmi喚tbeOusOoneperson1．
( d ） F i n a l ] y ; a d j e c t i v e s s u c h a s p o s s i b l e , i m p o s s i b l e , c v E n t u e l o c c u r i n v a r i o u s c o n t e x t s a n d c a n b e u s e d t o e m r e s s p o s s i b i l i w a n d i m p o s s i b i l i w ： ●inimpersonal田叩ressions： IZyzIes”蛎加poss勉Ze9IJ'猶α"陀”enHancependantles vacances.(See46.3,53）
I t b n o t i m p o s s i b l e / I t b p o s s i b l e t h a t d l e y Ⅱ g o t o F r a n c e d u l i n g t h e h o l i d a y s ．
Ⅲｍ３ｅｓ"”OSS泌陀“"o"s花"CO””a皿jouzdﾉhui.(samesUbject inbothclauses,ｓｏｕｓｅｄｅ十inhnitive）
Icalftmeetyoutoday
● i n v e r b p h r a s e s , f b r e x a m p l e r E n d r e p o s s i b l e ‘ t o m a k e p o s s i b l e ' ：
2 9 6 助 " c r i o J 2 s
CechangementdattitudedelapartdugomGmementisra61ien 花 ” P o s s 泌 陀 u n e a m 6 I i o m t i o n d e s r e l a t i o I 1 S d i p l o m a t i q u e S e n 杜 e l e s d e u x p a y s ･
Thischangeofamtudebymelsra e l i g o v e m m e n t w i l l m a k e p o s s i b l e a n i m p m v e m e n t i n d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e m h e twocoun行ies．
●ｏｒｗｉｔｈｎｏ'ｍＲ２
M a l h e u l 泡 u s e m e n t , v o u s d e v e z e n v i s a g e r u m e a 8 g m ” 加 Ｆ ｚ ６””eI陀delamaladiedevoなepereaucoursdesmoisavenim R e g r e t t a b l W o u w i l l h a y e t o c o n s i d e r t h a t y o u r f a l h e r b m n e s s m a y p o s s i b l y g e t w o r s e i n t h e c o m i n g m o m h s ． ( e ） T h e c o n f e s p o n d i n g n o l m s , o r a d v e r b s , a r e a l s o u s e d ：
I E s 6 v 6 n e m e n t s s u r v e n u s d a n s l ' 味 y b u g o s l a Ⅳ i e p r o m e n t q u e l a poss泌漉鯨ahmegue亜e"ep“””た鋤氾totalementewmclue.(See 4 8 . 3 , 4 9 . 1 ）
E v e n t s i n l h e f b m l e r Y i l g o s l a y i a d e m o n s t r a t e d l a t t h e p o s s i b i l i w o f ( a ) w a r c a n n e v e r b e t o t a l ] y e x c l u d e d ． P o u r l , e n c a d l E m e n t d u t a b l e a u , j e 蛇 r a i § ” r z 加 e I I ” z e ” a p p e l a u n s P 6 c i a I i s t e ．
' ' n p r o b a b l y g e t a n e 印 e r t t o h a m e t h e p i c t u r e ．
( f ） Ｓ ｏ ｍ ｅ t i m e s , t h e l i n e b e t w e e n p o s s i b i l i w a n d p r o b a b i l i w i s e a s n y c r o s s e d ， f b r e x a m p l e s i m p ] y b y u s i n g a n a d v e r b o f r e i n f b r c e m e n t s u c h a s b i e n ： R e g a m e l e c i e l 1 Ⅱ s e m b l e b j E " q u e l e t e m p s v a c h a n g e r b ( S e e 5 3 . 3 ）
L o o k a t l h e s 1 q / 1 I t l o o k s l j k e t h e w e a l h e r b g o i n g t o c h a n g e ． n s e p o u r m i t b i e n , i l e s t b i e n p o s s i b l e q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e a r e t w o p o s s i b l e
a l t e m a t i v e s a s w e n a s o n d i r a i t b i e n q U e f b r m o r e i n f b I m a l l a n g u a g e ： CaalorS10rz””鋤陀"9噸qUelqUhmaessay6defbrcerlaporte1 Blowme1Ybuathinksomeonehadmedtobreakdownthedoor1
( 副 O t h e r a d v e r b i a l f b r m s , s u c h a s s a n s d o u t e , c e r t a i n e m e n t , m a y b e u s e d t o e m r e s s p r o b a b i l i Ⅳ ( " o t c e r t a i n 切 . N o t e t h e i n v e r s i o n i n t h e E r s t e x a m p l e ： S"１s”"蛇α-津I陀錐ObIfg鹿此9”雄rcettepiece m o m e n t a n 6 m e n t p o u r a l l e r r 6 p o n d r e a u t 6 1 印 h o n e . ( S e e 3 2 . 8 ） Shemusthayelefttheroomfbramomenttoanswerdle
t e l e p h o n e ．
２９７
Ⅵ A 1 g Z j m e F z 加 t j O 〃
CommetunPaspasenco唾r“etafactulE,ilsvont“”姉e”” v o u l o i r t e f a i r e p a y e r d e s i n t e r e t s . ( S e e 3 2 . 8 , 5 2 . 6 ）
Sinceyouhavelftpaiddlebmyet,theyuprobablywantyouto p a y i n t e r e s t ． ⑪And,ｏｆcourse,termswhosemeamngsuggestsprobabiliworimprobabiliw m a y b e u s e d , i n v a l i o u s p o s i t i o n s i n a s e n t e n c e , a s i m p e r s o n a l e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s ( s e e 4 6 . 3 ) ：
〃estlreSIﾉ”iSe腕b姉陀９JJﾔmnomeaUsecr6taireg6n6ralsem r z ０ ｍ ｍ § d i c i q U e l q U e s j o u r s . ( S e e 4 8 , 5 7 . 4 . e ）
I t i s v e l y l i k e ] y t h a t a n e w g e n e r a l s e c r e t a r y w i l l b e a p p o i n t e d i n a f e w d a y s ． Ⅲes”e肌pmbab肥9zJeledirecteurncenci6so"彫加"Zfzc‘副am i a n v i e n ( S e e 4 8 ）
Itisunljkelydlatthemanagerwhohasbeenmaderedundant w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b e f b r e J a n u a l y E (i）NotethatnegatjvefbrmsoftheseimpersonalverbshavetobefbⅡowedby averbinthesubjunctjveandalsothatdlereisatendencytousepeuorguも唾 vraisemblable/pmbablera山erlhanimraisemblable/improbable・Howeve喝the lattermaybefbundinsomecases： Ｃ，estplusqr"p、”b脇c，estca1r6mentimpossible1
I t b m o r e t h a n u n l i k e l y / i m p r o b a b l e , i t も h r a n 1 d y i m p o s s i b l e 1 Ibrmswhosemeaningsuggestsprobabiliworimprobabjlitymayalsobeused asadverbs：
IEsn6gociationsont吻切jSemb伽b彫"ze”echoueenraisonde l ' i n 杜 a n s i g e a n c e d e s p a r t i e s e n p r 6 s e n c e . ( S e e 5 5 . 4 ）
Thenegotiationshaveprobablybrokendownbecauseofthe i m a n s i g e n c e o f t h e ( t w o ) s i d e s / p a r t i e s ( i n v o l v e d ) ． a s a d j e c t i v e s ： Iatensioncroissantequise域tjourlaisseaugulBrun6chec p m " b I e d e s n 6 g o c i a t i o n s . ( S e e 5 0 . 3 , 5 2 . 7 ）
T h e i n c r e a s i n g t e n s i o n m a k e s a b r e a k d o w n i n n e g o t i a t i o n s l o o k l j k e l y ： asmnnDo職
SelontoutePmbab漉嬉letmmelneserapasouⅣertaupublicala
d a f e p r 6 v u e ， I t i s q u i t e l j k e 1 y l h a t l h e t u n n e l w i l l n o t b e o p e n t o t h e p u b l i c o n thedatescheduled．
鴎 】
８ 助 m t i O 7 z s
( j ） V e r b s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n e 印 r e s s i n g p r o b a b i l i 噸 i n p a r t i c u l a r d l e verbdev0ir：
画ens,ilnPyaplusd'echafIaudage,lesomnerso””肥4だ"zoJz蛇r pendantlewEe鵬end!(See53.2）
Look1Thescaffbldingbgone,Theworlqnenmusthavetakenit d o w n / d i s m a n d e d i t d u l i n g t h e w e e k e n d ． N C 並 e r e p r e s e n t a n t f Z e I ﾉ 、 〃 p z z s s e r v o u s v D i r a Ⅳ e c l e s 6 c h a m i l l o n s e n d 6 b u t d e s e m a i n e p r o c h a i n e . ( S e e 5 7 . 4 b ）
O u r r e p l e s e n t a t i v e s h o u l d c a l l o n y o u w i l h s a m p l e s a t t h e beglmingofnextweek ００．Someverbsareusedspecihcal]ytoemIesstheprobabiliwofanegatjve o c c u n f e n c e , f b r e x a m p l e , r i s q u e r d e ＋ i n h n i t i v e o r c r a i n d r e ( f b r t ) q u e / a y D i r ( b i e n ） peurqUe＋ne＋sUbjunctive： IEsd6pensesoccasioIm6esparlecon浮bs7fs9姪加fbrt旋 彪 Ｓ ｍ ” f s e r l e s c o m p t e s d e l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n p o u r I e u f e r c i c e e n c o u r s ． ( S e e 4 9 . 1 , 5 4 . 4 ）
TheemensesincuIredbylheconferencemay/mi甑tweⅡupset t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n N s b u d g e t f b r t h e p r e s e n t E n a n c i a l y e 虹 ルcmiFzs”'〃yzeso〃並optardpourlecin6macarclestsamedietiI yα"./b『たSc”FzcEspo”9zJecesojrdejacomplet.(See46.3）
I i n a h r a i d t h a t i t m a y b e t o o l a t e f b r l h e c i n e m a b e c a u s e i t b S a t u l d a y a n d i t b q u i t e l i k e l y d l a t i t も a l r e a d y f m L
I n l h e p r e v i o u s d o u b l e e x a m p l e , n o t e t h e i n s e r t i o n o f n e i n l h e E r s t p a r t o f l h e s e n t e n c e f b Ⅱ o w i n g i e c r a m s q U e ( s e e 5 4 . 2 3 ) ． ■
写
( 1 ) ． m a p r e v l o u s e x a m p l e ( s e e 7 8 . 2 i ) , t h e u s e o f l a i s s e r ＋ a u g u ] 氾 r e 】 q p r e s s i n g p r o b a b i l j t y w a s h i 獣 ] ] i 虫 t e d ： Iatensioncroissantequisefaitjour伽jSseaz4gz"”1m6chec " 、 b ” l E d e s n 6 g o c i a t i o n s ．
S i m i l a r c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e w i m p e r m e t d e ＋ i n E n i t j v e o r e s t a ＋ i n E n i t i v e ( s e e 5 2 . 9 ) ：
labaissedestauxdim6r6tpemze”ｾ”jSfZgBrunexEprisedu mamh6(del')immobiliem
T h e d r o p i n i n t e r e s t r a t e s s u g g e s t s a r e c o v e r y i n l h e p r o p e r t y ma1ket．
2 9 9 Ⅵ A 靭 加 e " 如 加 〃
AlasuitedespluiestorrentieⅡesdelanuitdemierE,des
i n o n d a t i o n s s o ” ” r 沙 I ﾉ o i r d a n s c e r t a i n e s r 6 夢 ０ ， s ． A f t e r l a s t n i 獣 1 t も t o I r e n t i a l r a i n , n o o d i n g i s l i k e ] y i n s o m e a r e a s ．
(､）O1herverbsinlheconditionaltensemaybeusedtoe叩ressprobabiliW ( s e e 4 0 . 6 ) ：
形”旗ｍｊＳ９"jWZneIﾉje”mpas， b
lbethewolftcome．
α伽加惨如卯Fzemjt9Iueleproblemedel'mandeduNord”jSse訪氾 emierement感0J邸dicilaEndeIann6e.(See46.3,48,57.4e）
ItwouldsuIprlsemeiftheNorlhemhelandproblemcanbe f U l l y r e s o l v e d b y t h e e n d o f l h e y e a r ，
T h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e i s o f t e n u s e d f b r f b r e c a s t i n g , a s i n t h e f b n o w i n g e x a m p l e s ( e c o n o m i c f b r e c a s t ) h o m Q z p j m I ( A u g u s t l 9 9 4 ) ： Aprcsavuirrecul6deO,9％enl993,lePIB(Produitmt“eurBrut）
”Iﾉ、〃Pmg7沼SSercetteann6edel,8％,selonIOCDE(Organisation deCOop6rationetdeD6veloppementEconomiques).(See52.4）
HayingdmppedO､9％ｉｎ1993,theＧＤＰ(grossdomesticproducO
s h o u l d r i s e l h i s y e a r b y 1 . 8 ％ , a c c o r d i n g t O t h e O E C D ( O r g a n i z a t i o n f b r E c o n o m i c C o o p e r a t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n O ． IEsem叩ortationsse”施加lemoteurau]dliajredece杖ｅ正pnse.… EⅡesPmg7泡ssumje”de4,3％.…MaisnossuccesaW6位anger semje"が而酬Ⅱ縮szm徳.…Ｒ“ＴＩ画２，０杜ee躯c“entcommErc油１ α加加IJe”〃sensihl鰹mfmtenl995． ◆
Thelecoverywillbee唖ort-led….EXportsshouldIiseby 4､3％….Butourresultsabroadwillnotbesl'桁fiRnt.…Our
b a l a n c e o f p a y m e n t s s u l p l u s w i Ⅱ Ｃ Ｏ n s e q u e n n y s u f f e r a considerablede企1ineinl995．
一睡峠
ｃ０ｎｄｍ０皿皿ｄｈｙｐ⑪血esns A h h o u g h d j f f e r e n t i n m e a n i n g , t h e s e t w o n o t i o n s a r e c l o s e i n t e l m s o f l h e s t r u c t u r e s u s e d B r o a d ] y ; w h e n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f o n e f a c t ( u s u a l ] y i n t h e m a i n c l a u s e ) d e p e n d s o n t h e r e a l j z a t i o n o f a n o t h e r ( h y p o t h e s i s o r c o n d i t i o n i n t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e ) , t h e n w e h a v e a h y p o t h e t i c a l s e n t e n c e ． (aOSiiscommon]yusedinacomplexsentenceofthistype(see40.2)： Sjlet6moin”“IaccusesemcoFz4Zfz加睡(See48）
Iflhewimesstalks,1heaccusedwillbefbundguil叩 Djs-Ietoutdesmte,ｓｉｍｎｅ””pasyalle砥
SayｎｏⅧjfyoudon1twanttogo．．
300助"c加砺
I h e h y p o l h e s i s c a n b e s e t i n d l e p r e s e n t , i n t h e p a s t , Ｃ ｌ ) a s i n l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e K a m p l e , i n l h e f i l t u r e ･ P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n h a s t o b e p a i d t o t h e u s e o f t e n s e s ( s e e 4 0 . 2 ) ：
Sile評and-pも唾””〃adisparai位e,lespetits-enfantsjhj減蛇mjE7zt d，une群Ossefbmme、
I f m e i r g r a n d f a t h e r w e r e t o d i e , t h e 厚 a n d c h j l d r e n w o u l d i n h e r i t avastfbrtune．
q u a n d ＋ a p p r o p l i a t e t e n s e ( f U t u I e o r f U t u r e p e r f e c O i s a n a l t e m a t i v e ( s e e 3 7 ) ： mpourrassortir9””虹”、s蛇ｍｚ伽‘tonなaⅣaiL
Ybucangoout/leavewhenyouhaveHnishedyourwoIk.(note t h e E n 甑 s h t e n s e ） ( b ） h l a l l t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e s w i l h s i , n o t e t h a t l h e c o n d j t i o n / h y p o d l e s i s m a y b e c o m e a r e a l i t y l n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g c a s e s , h o w e v e n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s l h a t i t cannotberealized(see40.2)：
Sj"”fsjり嘘macombinaisoncejo唾1曲,庇sem歯riche a u j o u r d ' h u i
l f l h a d u s e d m y c o m b i n a t i o n o f n u m b e r s l h a t d a y ； I d b e r i c h no1AZ
SZjWztz”たpzzsJ71ei”atemps,je”"籾is泥”e庵尭！ IfIhadnItbrakedintime,Iwouldhavelmockedherdown1
( c ） T h e f b n o w i n g e x a m p l e i l l u s な a t e s a n a b s 杖 a c t p l i n c i p l e ･ m t h i s c a s e ， s b r u c t u l E s o f t h e t y p e s u p p o s o n s q U e / s i … a l o r s / d a n s c e c a s a r e o f t e n u s e d ( w i d 1 t h e i n d i c a t i v e ) ：
Six＋２estegala6,α町庵ｘ＝４．
Ifx＋２equalＳ6,1ｈｅｎｘ＝４． andnotelhehypodlesisinthefbⅡowingexample： Sz鞭posoFzs”籾αＰ歯le杜ainde8hOO,”FzScccvzsilarriveraa Nantesal2h30．
Ifhecauゆtthe8o'clockbain,hewmamveinNantesat12.30. ( d ） O 1 h e r w a y s o f e 】 叩 r e s s i n g c o n d i t i o n i n c l u d e ： ●・usingclauseswilhlheconditionaltenses Azzazso"”zzsFzese7fEzp“”fiViz厳娩ceproduit,”砿””zJs陀 泥”cyerdanssonemballaged'０㎡gne，
I f t h e i t e m d o e s n o t m e e t w i t h y D u r a p p r o v a l , p l e a s e r e t u m i t t o u s i n t h e o r i g i n a l p a c k i n g ．
3伽
ⅥA7gzJ伽e"加加〃
Ceto1ninateurestmUnidunem6moireamdliaire”rzsZ7b”OZj池se o”am6mo唾disponibIesem姉晒哩旅”蛇po”uneapplication s p 6 c i h q u e . ( S e e 4 8 ）
Thiscomputerhasemandablecapaciwshouldlhememory p r o v e i n a d e 9 u a t e f b r s p e c i f i c a p p Ⅱ c a n o n s ． S o m e t i m e s , t h e c o n d i t i o n i s i m p l i e d r a l h e r l h a n e 印 I i c i t , e s p e c i a l l y i n s p o k e n , o r c o u o q u i a l , l a n g u a g e ： TUJ物邸mjSIﾉIJeleurcneraPrもｓｃｏｍｍｅＦａ…unevraiedemeur6e1 (師”I初”jSzﾉIJe,跡”邸rYzjSp油ecommemoipourune d e m e u r 6 e . ）
I f y o u U s e e n h e r s h o u t i n g a t d l e m l i k e l h a t … a r e a l h a l f L w i t 1 ”吻切jSI物呼”jetele花加”fstoutdesmte,crois-moi,maisje suisfhmfhfe1
IflhadthemoneHIUgiveitbacktoyouri虫taway;believeｍｅ， but１，ｍbroke！
●usingclauseswilhthesubjunctive Celo夢cielesthfessimpleautilise”””j加祁9IJeIﾉo砿0hse”jEz b i e n l e s p r e m i も 唾 s c o n s i 騨 e s d e m a n i p u l a t i o n . ( S e e 4 6 . 4 ）
T h i s s o f t w a r e p a c k a g e i s v e r y e a s y t o u s e , p r o v i d e d y o u f b n o w t h e i n s m l c t i o n s a t t h e b e g i l m i n g ． Iad61egationarmBraal,h6teldanSqUelqUeSminutes,〃〃zoilzs
9IJcJ”ｍｂ砿”厳p7fsdu正tard・motelheinsertionofne(see 54.23))(see46.4J
T h e d e l e g a t i o n w i l l a n i v e a t t h e h o t e l i n a f b w m i n u t e s , u n l e s s dlebusislate．
Dieutepardonnera,ｐｏｚｍﾉzJ9醒如α"JEsteconfEssen(See４６．９ G o d w n l f b r g i v e y o u , i f y o u g o t o c o n f e s s i o n ． a n d l e s s d i r e c t l y ： QIJe"”噸加邸1%e(subjunctive)encorea杜amerdanslequarti“ e t j ， a p p e Ⅱ e l e s n i c s ! ( s e e 4 6 . 1 ）
Iflhndyouhangingaboutinlheareaanymore,I'ⅡCaⅡdle p o l i c e 1 ●usingclauseswiththeinmcative ●
m d e v r a s e l m s a g e r d i f f 過 r e n t e s p o s s i b i l i t 6 s p o u r l , c t e p r o c h a i n ， se勿卯91Je卿aZJmsob蛇皿Ounontonpemmisdeconduireenjuin． ( S e e 1 8 . 2 , 3 7 ）
Y b u ' Ⅱ h a y e t o d 1 i n k a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f b r n e x t
3 0 2 即 " c t i O 7 z s
summeEdependingonwhe山erornotyougetyourdriving licencein]Une．
IEtarifestdin魁rent,s砿””91Je”噸愈iZEsvmereservationau c o m p t o i r o u p a r t 6 1 6 p h o n e ・ ・
Therateisdifferentaccordingtowhetheryoumakeyour r e s e r v a t i o n a t r e c e p t i o n o r o v e r l h e t e l e p h o n e ． ■
●usmgrelativeclausesorgerunds lbutepersonne叩JieFz舵”〃sansbadged,identihcationserait imm6diatementrep6r6eparlacam6ra.(See11.4,22.1,48）
Anyoneentering(orwhomay/mi評enter)wilhout identiEcationwomdbepickedupimmediatelybylhecamera 恥 s i g 7 z a F z r c e t t e p 6 t i t i o n , i l a u r a i t p r o w 6 q U ? i l e s t w a i m e n t o p p o s 6 a u n u c l 6 a i r E . ( S e e 4 0 . 6 , 5 0 . 6 ）
Bysigning/Ifhesignedthepetitionhewouldha]ﾉeprovedhe r e a l l y i s a g a i n s t n u c l e a r p o w e L ●usingphrasessuchasaconditiondeoramoinsdefbⅡowedbyaninhnitive ( s e e 4 6 . 7 ）
VbuspomEztousvenirprendlelmveIrechezmoiacoFzai加祁此 ”p“た”bfopdebruitcarlesenf3ntsdorment.(See54.16）
YbucanaIlcomeandhaveadrinkinmyhouseprovidedyDu d o I f t m a k e t o o m u c h n o i s e b e c a u s e t h e c h j l d r e n a r e a s l e e p ． Ceproblemescientinqueestsicomplexequ?〃”irzs此s”端Ies 6 q u i p e s d e r e c h e r c h e n e p o u l r o n t j a m a i s e n d 6 c o u v r i r l a s o l u t i o n ． ( S e e 1 9 . 6 ）
T h i s s c i e n t i h c p r o b l e m i s s o c o m p l i c a t e d t h a t l m l e s s l h e y w o l k togetherdleresearchteamswillnever(beableto)mdlhe s o l u t i o n ．
●usingacomplementofconditionin杜oducedbyencasde,sans,ａｙｃｃ,etc． 恥azs””卯娼Iesv6hicl皿ess,immobilisentsurlabanded'an96t d u r g e n c e e t r 6 q u i p e d e m 6 c a n i c i e n s i n t e r v i e n t a u s s i t 6 t ・
Ifthereisabreakdownthecarsstopintheemergencylaneand themechanicsgettowoIkimmediately Stmsc”称zesWuusn1即ezaucunespoirdehanchirlecoL
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o r g a n i z e l h e i r o w n d e v e l o p m e n t p l a l m i n g ． ( e ） F i n a ] ] y ; i t i s i n t e l e s t i n g t o l o o k m o r e c l o s e l y a t t h e v e r b s u p p o s e r t o s e e h o w d i f f e r e n t f b r m s c o n v e y d j f f e r e n t n u a n c e s o f m e a n i n g ・ S u p p o s e r q u e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t e 唖 r e s s i o n s ) 十 i n d U c a t i v e i s u s e d t o m a k e o r t o c h e c k a n a s s u m p t i o n ・ T h i s i s a n a l t e m a t j v e w a y o f e 】 叩 r e s s i n g p r o b a b i l i w ( s e e 7 8 . 2 ) ： Ⅱ e s t m a i n t e n a n t l O h O O , j b s 皿 ” o s e 9 z J e l e f a c t e u r e s t p a s s 6 ・ Ｉｔｂ１０ｏ'clocklsupposetheposnnanhasbeen． ルsIJ”ose9“tuF泡sZEsdme解
I s u p p o s e / a s s u m e y o u ' r e s t a y i n g t o e a t / f b r d i n n e r ？ JacquelinePemet,jep溢邸”?…IDuislE評and,enchant6・
J a c q u e l i n e P e m e t , I p r e s u m e ? … L o u i s L e g r a n d , d e l i 甑 t e d t o meetyou．
HoweveEwidlsupposonsqUe,ensupposantque,asupposerque,youcan i n d i c a t e a h y p o d l e s i s a n d y o u u s e t h e s u b j u n c t i v e ： S"”osoyzs9鵬deselectionsa花砿lieuenjuin,queⅡessontvos p r 6 d i c t i o n S ? ( S e e 4 6 . 4 , 7 8 . 3 c ）
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I f t h e l i s e i n l o n g t e ] m i n t e l B s t r a t e s p e r s i s t s , i t w i l l c a u s e d i f n c u l t i e s i n l h e p u b l i c s e c t o r b o n D w i n g r e q U i r e m e n t ・ I f p u b l i c s p e n d i n g i n c I e a s e s ( w h i c h i s h i 獣 ] l y l i k e l y a s t h e n e x t e l e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s ) , 1 h e c e m a l b a n k s w i ] l E n d i t d j f h c u l t t o r e d u c e s h o r t t e n n i n t e r e s t r a t e s , a n d l h i s w i l l s l o w d o w n t h e r e c o v e ] r y E
直即"蝿卿…… C a u s e ( s e e 7 9 . 1 , 7 9 . 2 ) a n d c o n s e q u e n c e ( S e e 7 9 . 3 , 7 9 . 4 ) a l e i n s e p a r a b l e n o t i o n s a n d b o l h a r e o f t e n p r e s e n t , ｅ 叩 l i c i d y o r i m p l i c i d y ; i m h e s a m e s e n t e n c e ， P a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s c a n b e g v e n t o e i 山 e m l l h i s s e c t i o n w e w i l l a l s o s e e h 皿
a l t h o u g j l d i s t i n c t i n m e a n i n g , a i m ( s e e 7 9 . 5 ) c a n b e f a i d y c l o s e t o c o n s e q U e n c e intelmsofmeansofe印ression．
-…￨麗篭罵鶏ｂｅ……u…少 ( a ） T h e m e a n i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s , e i t h e r n o u n s ： “ｍｉｓ”“son6checestsimple:ｅⅡｅｎＰａｌｉｅｎ鐘tcettealmee･
T h e r e a s o n f b r h e r f a i l u r e / s h e f a j l e d i s s i m p l e : s h e h a s d o n e n o t h i n g d 〕 i s y e a l ； CettecirculaiIeminist6rieⅡerEpr6sente伽”砿e”tousnos p r o b l e m e s ･
T h i s g o v e m m e n t ( m i n i s t e r i E d ) c i r c u l a r i s a t t h e r o o t o f a l l o u r p r o b l e m s ． o r v e r b s e 】 m r e s s i n g c a u s e ：
I E n o u v E l e n g o u e m e n t p o u r l ' o p 6 r a s 4 g x 7 ﾌ I j h 7 z z e ” r l a n o t o 面 e t e d e PaⅣarottipendantlacoupedumondedefbotball･
T h e / T h i s n e w c r a z e f b r o p e r a i s b e c a u s e o f P a v a m t t i 1 S r e p u t a t i o n d u r i n g d l e W b l l d C u p ( f b o t b a l l ) s e r i e s ． o r p a s s i v e f b x m s ： IBd6s6qUilibredelabalancecommercialeestaz砿@"αr(orest” 鋤ｕｎｅ９Ｋｃもsdmportalions.(See48）
I h e d e h c i t i n l h e b a l a n c e o f b a d e i s a r e s u l t o f e x c e s s i v e i m p o r t s ．
郷：Ⅵ”肌e"”0〃
o r a d j e c t j v e s ： Ｄ ' a p r b s l e s e p 叩 e r t s , I a 】 氾 c m d e s c e n c e d e c e r t a i n e s m a l a d i e s s e r a i t 加皿ZZzb陀仇lapoⅡutionatmosph鐘que.(See11.4,40.6）
Accordingtothee】叩erts,therenewedoutbreakofsomediseases i s d u e t o a i r p o Ⅱ u t i o n ． (b）Prepositionalphlasesusedwithanoun(see55.4)： IEsa夢icnIlteursseplai部entdt”砿e””"”fS陀加psb FaImersalecomplainingabout/becauseofdlebadweathem IEsrendementsa獣icolesontau印nent6gyV沈eα”boJmes ””i伽Fzs碓彪omIngjh7zJBsも
T h e h a r v e s t s h a v e i m p r o v e d a s a r e s u l t o f f 2 v o u r a b l e w e a d l e r condimns.
N o t e t h a t a c a u s e d e a n d “ c e a , r e s p e c t i v e ] y I i n 杜 o d u c e a n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e causeorreason､Enraisondeisusuallynemalandcouldtherefbrebeusedas analtemativetoeitheL
WhenthecauseistheabSenceofsomedlingjyoucanusefautede： Ｒz邸陀””湾】？zQye漉止”"spo秘nousallons6t】℃oblig6sde f a i r e d u s t o p 、
B e c a u s e t h e l e i s n o o l h e r k i n d o f m n s p o r t , w e a r e g o i n g t o h a v e tohi価h-hike．
Whenthecauseisconnectedtotimeorduration,usesousIeffEtdeorafbmede：
IatemperamredevraitbaissersoIJs叱族t此Zｾzsp”za
His/Hertemperatureshouldgodownwith(orbecauseof)1he a s p i I i n ． AJb涯叱pe応勿§ｍ"c島ilEnirabienpard6crochersondipl6me． ( S e e 5 2 . 8 ）
I f h e p e r s e v e l e s , h e w i l l g e t h i s 由 p l o m a ． Singeprepositionssuchasde,p砥a,pourmayalsobeused,withnouns： ⅡestmaladefZechzZg7伽b
H e i s s i c k w i t h d i s a p p o i n t m e n t ． CethommeaqI血tt6sontrawailetSafamilleP”α”””Voyage･ Ihemanlefthisjobandhisfamilybecauseofhisloveof位ayel． orwithmfinil-ives：
3 0 6 肋 " c t i O F 2 s
mtemineslasant“ん”rautanU
Ybu'uminyourheahhifyousmokesomuch/withallthat s m o k i n g ． Cetemployもa6teIicenci6po””oirPm”9z嘘unebagarredans lesveS筒air鴎．
Theemployeewassackedfbrcausingadisturbanceinlhe cloakroom/chan印ngroom． (dConjunctions：
Forasmi沙tfbrwardemlanation,youcanusepameque： N，est-ilPaSensituationdechec”７℃U9zJe〃g応oJmeFze 此 F z c O I J m g E ？
IshenotunderachievingbecausenobodyisgMnghimany e n c o u r a g e m e n t ？
n l o r d e r t o s t a t e c a t e g o l i c そ m y ( r a t h e r 山 a n e m l a i n ) , u s e c a r ： 恥profEsseurneviendrapascemalin”r〃est”z”ね Theteacherwolftbeherethismomingbecauseheism．
Notethataclauseinmducedbycaris刀e"erusedβ応tinthecomplexsentence． Ｐ u i s q u e i s e m p h a t i c a s w e n a s c a u s a l ､ I m h e f b n o w i n g e x a m p l e , t h e c a u s e i s showntobelhedecisivefactorfbrdleresignationandlmownbodlbyyouand d l e p e r s o n y o u a r e s p e a l d n g t o ． PWJis9IJeIﾉ0蛎池”邸ZG乙P“”皿g碗e馳戯jed6missionne・ S i n c e y o u w i l l n o t i n c r e a s e m y p a y / s a l a r y ； I a m r e s i g n i n g ． Notedlatwhendlereismorethanonecause,quein廿oducestheothercauses： IEsfEmmesviventpluslongtempsqueleshommesPα極り”"Es seP花o“”e”daVantagedeleursant6et9邸切JEsso”ｍoins s U j e t t e s a c e r t a i n s a c c i d e n t s ・
WbmenlivelongerthanmenbecauSelheyaremoreconcemed a b o u t t h e i r h e a l d l a n d ( b e c a u s e ) 1 h e y a r e l e s s p r o n e t o c e r t a i n ﾛ ﾉ p e s o f a c c i d e n t ． Tbemressalogicalconnectionbetweentwofacts,ｙｏｕｃａｎｕｓｅｃｏｍｍｅ： αｍ”〃7城Js"tfje”"gEF;same唾afaitvenirlem6decin.(See 5 2 . 6 , 5 2 . 9 ）
B e c a u s e h e w a s l e f i J l s i n g t o e a t , h i s m o t h e r c a l l e d t h e d o c t o n andtoreinfbrceastatemente】叩Iessingcause,usedPautantqUe(see56.9c)：
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nlpoImfaisprend】氾危oid,側物邸如”9IJem〃tIsPFなsd7z犯”〃surle d o s ! ( s e e 4 0 . 6 ）
Ｙ ｂ u ' Ⅱ c a t c h c o l d , b e c a u s e y o u ' v e h a r d l y a n y c l o t h e s o n 1
W h e n y o u w a n t t o c a s t s o m e d o u b t o n a g l v e n c a u s e , y o u c a n u s e s o u s p r 6 t e x t e q u e ＋ i n d i c a t i v e o r d e ＋ i n E n i t i v e ：
Bonnomb唾d6mdiantsnP6taientpasencou1謡cematin,sozus pだ』画cZ泡9zJelesroutesso卯te”e唾“(See29.3,29.4J
A l o t o f s t u d e n t s w e r e n o t i n c l a s s t h i s m o m i n g , s u p p o s e d l y becauseofthesnowontheroads．
W h e n s p e a l d n g a n d / o r f b r e m p h a s i s , s i … c ' e s t q u e o r c l e s t … ｑ ｕ ｅ ｍ ａ ｙ ｂ ｅ ｕ ｓ ｅ ｄ ： SfZs〃eso”P“encorEla,ｃｾst9邸,酷ｏ砿、毎Iautobus，
I f d l e y r e n o t h e r e / t h e r e y e t , i t ' s b e c a u s e t h e y ' V e m i s s e d l h e b u s ． ｃ℃s峨皿zJsefjeJ”９噸ｍｐ陀邸形s？ Areyoucryingbecauseofhim？
J，espe唾quecwzRes"fzs”r℃c9砿"o鯉α汀”oFzs9zJe”zJsPa河壇z1
I h o p e i t b n o t b e c a u s e w e , r e a m v i n g d l a t y o u l r e l e a y i n g 1 W h e m h e c a u s e i s d e n i e d , n o n q u e o r c e m P e s t p a s q u e m a y b e u s e d w i l h t h e s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ) . T h i s i s a p a r t i c U l a ] j y u s e f U l l d e v i c e i n a r g u m e n t a t i o n ： ]enesmspasd,accordavecvous,”Fz9IJEvoschifhessoje” m e x a c t s , m a i s p a m e q u e v o h 過 i n t e r p r 6 t a t i o n m e p a r 誼 t f a u s s e ． ●
( S e e 7 0 . 2 c ）
I d o I f t a g r e e w i t h y o u , n o t b e c a u s e y o u r h g u r e s / s t a t i s t i c s a r e m a c c u r a t e , b u t b e c a u s e y o u r i n t e l p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m s e e m s wrongtome．
(｡）Adverbssuchaseneffbtortant：
U S e e n e f f e t t o e m p h a s i z e y o u r p o i n t ： O n p e u t d i １ ℃ q u e I e s j e u n e s r e p r 6 s e n t e n t u n e c a t も g o I i e v u l n 6 r a b l e
s u r l e m a m h 6 d u t r a v a i l ・ 恥 e 舵 吟 c o m m e r i n d i q U e c e t a b l e a u ， I e u r s e m p l o i s s o n t s o m e m p r 6 c a i r e s ･
O n e c a n / c o u l d s a y y o u n g p e o p l e a r e a v u l n e r a b l e g r o u p i n t h e l a b o u r m a r k e t ･ m d e e d , a s t h i s t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , t h e y o f t e n w o l k i n c a s u a l j o b s ．
andtanttoputemphasisondlecause：
Ⅱ f a i t l e v i d e a u t o u r d e l u i 如 加 〃 e s t ‘ Z g 花 s S 砿
H e d r i v e s e v e r y o n e a w a y ( h o m h i m ) h e I S s o a g g r e s s i v e 1
3 0 8 即 加 t i O 7 2 s
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Causemaybeconveyed””c"Iyinvaliousways： ( a ） i n a p p o s i t i o n ：
即 u o ﾘ f z ” t o u t c e s a n g , l a p a s s a n t e g e s t 6 v a n o u i e . ( S e e 4 9 . 3 , 5 0 . 6 ） W h e n s h e s a w a l l t h e b l o o d d l e p a s s e r b y f a i n t e d ． D６””Zg窓spardesm6thodespomciもresviolentes,lesjeunes a d h 6 r e n t s d u p a r t i n e p o u v a i e n t p l u s s e m o b i l i s “ ( S e e 4 9 . 1 ）
R e p e n e d b y t h e v i o l e n t m e l h o d s o f t h e p o l i c e , y o u n g p a r q ﾉ s u p p o r t e r s w i l h d r e w t h e i r s u p p o r t ． ０℃姫“ｍ”卿Z四tunepouITasjamaisroulerdemlit.(See49.1） Y b u 2 r e s o e 血 a u s t e d y o u ' Ⅱ n e v e r b e a b l e t o d l i v e a t n i 獣 1 t ． 助rjC蝉叱”砿unteld6ploiementdeCRS(Compa浮皿e R6publicainedeS6curit9,lesmanifestamsontcommenc“jeter d e s p i e n ℃ s d a n s l e u r d i l E c t i o n ・
OmagedbythesheernumbersofCRS(Iiotpolice)1he demonstratorsbegantostonethe、． ( b ） i n s e p a r a t e c l a u s e s ：
Iavoiture6如廊ｍｍＩ７”“”７，ｇａｌ，en廿ceduvillage,nousaⅣons d血fairele正steducheminapied(See50.5）
Becausedlecarbrokedownaswewereenteringthevillagewe hadtogo山elestoflhewayonfbot． IEsvoitures,９砿加e”Ce”雌雄叫池αj蝿doivente江eeliminees ducenbfedePalis.(See22.1）
C a x s , w h i c h a r e d l r e a t e n i n g ( t h e q U a l i w o f l i f e i n ) 1 h e c i ﾛ ﾊ m u s t bebaTmed廿omlhecen廿eofpRriR
Ierefmsedﾉadopteruneproposition9砿”α“”se猫.(see22.1, 5 4 . 1 6 ）
IrefUsetoadoptameaninJessPmposal．
(c）Ｓｏｍｅtimes,inparticularwhenspealdng,thecausalrelationmi沙tbe s i m p l y s u g g e s t e d b y c o n t e x t , i n t o n a t i o n o l ) ｗ ｈ ｅ ｎ w r i t i n g , b y p u n c t u a t i o n ： ●
ⅡnevapasvemraUjourd'hui,ilestmalade．
H e i s n o t c o m i n g t o d a y ; h e i s i ] 1 ． andinanewspaperreport： ●
IbmpeteenBreta伊1e:ｃｍｑｐ§cheursport6sdispams．
S t o r m i n B r i t t a n y : E v e h s h e r m e n r e p o r t e d l o s t ．
309
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I f y o u c o n s i d e r l h e h r s t o f t h e t w o e x a m p l e s , t h e m a n b a b s e n c e 6 h e c o n t e x t ） w o m d b e t h e c a u s e o f t h i s e 】 叩 l a n a t i o n ・ B y a d d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e i n t o n a t i o n ( i n d i c a t i n g p l e a s u r e , s a d n e s s , r e g r e t , i n d i f f e r e n c e … ) t o l h e s e c o n d c l a u s e i l e s t m a l a d e , a n d a n a p p r o p ] r i a t e G a l l i c s h m g , y o u c a n c o n v e y t h e c a u s e , ａ ｎ ｄ ｗ h a t youthjnkaboutit．．
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C⑪皿SeqUence-em叩Iicit
Whentheemphasisis”施吻onconsequence： ( a ） I f y o u w a n t t o i n d i c a t e i n a n e u b r a l w a y t h e l o g c a l r e s u l t o f a f a c t o r a n a c t i o n , u s e c l a u s e s i n な o d u c e d b y s i b i e n q U e o r d e s o r t e q u e ： C ， e s t u n c e r c l e v i c i e u x : l e s j e l m e s s a n s d o m i c i l e n ﾉ o n t p a r
d 6 E n i t i o n p a s d a d r E s s e s 泌 陀 " 9 邸 ｂ 卯 F z e Z e ” ” J v 7 e " “ d 》 e m p l o i ． ' 歯 a v i c i o u s c i r c l e : i f y o u n g p e o p l e a r e h o m e l e s s t h e y h a v e n o a d d r e s s s o l h e y c a n I t g e t a j o b . ( c o n s e q u e n c e ） 恥scolisont6t6post6scematin”sorTE”'泌仰両uem”en lranceayantNO劃.(See46.4）
T h e p a r c e l s w e r e p o s t e d d 1 i s m o m i n g s o t h e y w i l l a m v e i n FIancebefbleChnstmas.(resulO
( b ） n l o r d e r t o s な e s s l h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c o n s e q u e n Ｃ ｅ , y o u m a y u s e a u p o i n t q U e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ) ：
Iamaladierad飯gur6e,”pO伽”邸セルe"esr此”"zJg m6connaissahle
T h e d i s e a s e d i s h g u r e d h e r t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t s h e i s u m e c o 印 1 i z a b l e ． o r s l m c t u r e s s u c h a s t a n t d e , s i , t a n t , t e Ⅱ e m e n t … q u e w i t h n o u n s ( s e e 2 8 ) ：
ZZz””Fz砿eso""jzss6depuisl'accident9JJcje潅漉祁施”e此 P I z u s l a d a t e 甑 a c t e 、
1 t も s o l o n g s i n c e l h e a c c i d e n t l h a t l c a n ' t r e m e m b e r t h e e x a c t d a t e a n y m o r e ， o r w i t h a d j e c t i v e s o r a d v e r b s ( s e e １ ７ ． １ １ ) ：
Ceconnitestsi“”IarEetdu】氾ｇｊｂｐ"jSsi肋JZg蛇”芯”糊se恥碓 qUepersonnene並ouyeradesoluti0n、
T h e c o n n i c t i s s o c o m p l e x a n d h a s g o n e o n f b r s o l o n g l h a t i t lookslikeno-onewillhndasolutiontoit． orwithverbs：
3 1 0 剛 " c t i o F Z S
Vb唾団sα蛇J陀加e”pmg7沼ss‘depmsIPandemier9"，〃se”ZmIJIﾉe entetedecl3sse
Ybursonhasmadesomuchprogresssincelastyearthatheisat t h e t o p o f d l e c l a s s ， hlasense,suchdoublesbfucturesputemphasisonbothcauseand consequence：
IEgouvemementest蛇J陀”””汀Ｕ加”(cause)”'〃耐j7zSPi形 p I z J s c o n h a n c e a q u i c o n q u e ( c o n s e q U e n c e ) ．
T h e g o v e m m e n t i s s o c o l r u p t t h a t i t n o l o n g e r i n s p i r e s c o n h d e n c e i n a n y o n e ． Notedlatyouhavetouselhesubjunctivewhenthesentenceisnegativeor i n t e I r o g a t i v e ： 皿旋srm砿叱””p砿Sim極91Je”砿”jEzdeiapartir1
B u t i t b n o t s o l a t e d l a t y o u h a v e t o l e a v e ( a l r e a d y ) ． IaIrElsa-蔵Zvraiment””“trayail”碗Fze”j3se〃f§F7zep“ leurrendrevisiteaNo雛
Haslheirsonreallysomuchwolklhathecalftvisitthemat Christmas2
(dPrepositionssuchaspourandamayalsobeusedtoe】mressconsequence･ Pourmaybecombinedwithadverbssuchasbfoporassezinconsmlctionssuch as
江op/assez＋adjective＋pour＋inhnitive t r o p / a s s e z ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ p o u r q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e
orwilhimpersonalverbssuchas ilsufntde＋inhnitive(Omoun)＋pour十infnitive(orpourque＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ） i l f n u t q u e 十 s u b j u n c t i v e ＋ p o u x ＋ i n h n i t i v e ( o r p o u r q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ） MescoueguessonmssGzjtZID”PC””oiress”demefairE Ii唖mie醜
吻ＣＯⅡeaguesarejealousenou獣1tohavemedtohayeme sacked．
Certainspensentquecet6clivainafnche”pfZｾ沈む"Z流ｂｉ姥po” ”ｂ"ぬp肥"rzeaus“eux.(See46.4） Somepeopled1inkmatthis/thewriteristooeccenmctobe t a k e n s e n o u s l y
３XＩ
裾ⅥAygZ#腕e"mtiO〃
IZs姉td'unbonca腿加”se肥【わ'merdutonus･ Agoodcoffbeisenouゆtogetyourenergyback
"た”toUjoursg7抑jSserlemoule"0”9zJe陀騨蛇””rlZzcIhep“ Alwaysgreaselhetinsolhatthecakedoesnotstick AandaupointdearealsoibⅡowedbyaninhnitive： 】evaisvousaImoncerunenoweⅡeな”zJs””erlesoufne1
Iingoingtoannouncesomenewswhichwmtakeyourbreath away
恥sch6meursdelonguedureepeuvEntC征ed印rim6sα”o”此 ”"I蛎施舵lemoindlEeffbrtpourtrouvBrdu柾awaiL(See54.16）
T h e l o n g t e l m u n e m p l o y e d c a n b e s o d e p r e s s e d t h a t l h e y w i l l notmakeanyeffbrttohndwolk．
(d）Conjunctionsoradverbsmayalsobeusedtoe籾ressconsequence､Some a l w a y s 加 加 ” “ t h e c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g d l e c o n s e q u e n c e , f b r e x a m p l e c , e s t p o u r q U o i , a u s s i , α o n , w h i l e o l h e r s c a n 腕 o z ﾉ g w i d 1 i n t h e s e n t e n c e , f b r e x a m p l e d o n c , p a r c o n s e q u e n t , e n c o n s 6 q U e n c e , a i n s i , d e s l o r s ： Iesouynersontsaccag61，usine;cｾs”皿珂”jilsont6t61icenci6s． ( S e e 4 8 . 2 ）
T h e w o l k e r s v a n d a l i z e d l h e f a c t o r y ; t h a t b w h y l h e y h a v e b e e n sacked．
NobWRP(WyageurRepr6sentantPlaciedpamOurtuner辱0nde fbrteschaleursestivales.Ａ"ssjayons-nousmTmisonvfhimdede
f b n c t i o n d h m S y S t b m e d e c l i m a t i s a l i o n ･ Ourrepresentativecoversanarea/regionwhichcanbecome
v e r y h o t i n s ｕ ｍ ｍ ｅ ｍ Ｓ ｏ , w e h a v e i n s t a u e d a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g i n h i s companycaL
VbusmPaⅣEzrembours6,je唾､氾如JzcmapIainte・ｏｒⅦusmPavez 唾mbours6et伽刀cje配tiIBmapIainte． YbuhaverepEndmesoI i n w i l h d r a w i n g m y c o m p l a i n t ． Iad61cgationjaponfuseaeuunempechementdedemibrE minute･助"卯s勾娠"“nousprionstouslesservlcesconcem6s ｡ ' a l m u l e r l e s r 6 s e r v a t i o n s e t a u 杜 e s a r r a n g e m e n t s i n i t i a l e m e n t pr6vuspourlajoum6ededemain.(See9.3） ●
T h e J a p a n e s e d e l e g a t i o n w e r e d e l a y e d a t l h e l a s t m i n u t e ・ Therefbre,weareasldngallthedepamnentsconcemedto
c a n c e l b o o k i n g s / r e s e r v a t i o n s a n d o t h e r a n a n g e m e n t S o n 副 n a l l y m3defbrtomorrow5
一 盃 一 一 一 一
誕２助加tiO7zs
Mesdamesetmessieurslesjur6s,vousaⅣezdesonnaisentendu
t ⑨ u s l e s t 6 m o i n s a y a n t E 唖 o s 6 l e u r v e r s i o n d e s 瞳 t s . ( S e e 5 0 . 5 ） V b u s d i s p o s e z ” z s i d e t o u t e s l e s i n f b m m a t i o n s n 6 c e s s a i r e s a v u s d副ｉｈｆｍ釦ns・
I a d i e s a n d g e n d e m e n o f t h e j u r ] ﾙ y o u h a ｽ ﾉ e n o w h e a r d a l l t h e w i m e s s e s ( 感 v e t h e i r v e r s i o n o f l h e e v e n t s ) . Y b u l h e r e f b r e h a v e a l l l h e i n f b r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o h e l p y o u r e a c h a v e r d i c t ． I E s f b r c e s d e p o 1 i c e o n t t o l 6 r 6 , v o i r e p a r t i c i p 6 a u な a E c d i v o i r e ・ Ｄ ａ ｓ Ｊｂ畑⑪nnepeuts6tonnerquedes杜oupeauxentiersd6I6phants a i e n t 6 t 6 d 6 c i m 6 s d a n s c e t t e r 簿 o n . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 4 8 . 2 ）
Thepolicehavetumedablindeyeto,andhaveeven p a r t i c i p a t e d i n , 山 e i v o r y t r a d e . Ｓ ０ ， i t i s n o s u l p r i s e l h a t e m i r e h e r d s o f e l e p h a n t s h a v e b e e n d e s n g o y e d i n l h e a r e a ． N o t e l h e v a l i o u s n u a n c e s : c P e s t p o u r q u o i , a u s s i ( W i t h i l w e r s i o n o f t h e v e r b ) ， donc,dbslorss廿esstheundeniablelogcoflheconseqUence,encons6qUenceis oftenusedinafblmaladministratjvecontext,andainsicanallowyoutosumup anddrawaconclusionhomanargument．
(e）Ijkecause,consequencemaybeconveyedsimpIythrou獣11hemeaningof individualnouns：
Lesかfs此伽花cEssjmzsefbntparticulierementsemirdans c e r t a i n s s e c t e u r s , ( S e e 4 7 . 2 , 5 2 . 6 ）
T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e r e c e s s i o n a r e b e i n g f e l t p a r t i c m l a r l y i n c e r t a i n sectors．
mnete配ndspascomptedesco猫勿zJe卯ces血鱈fzcZEs1 Y b u a r e l f t a w a r e o f l h e c o n s e q U e n c e s o f y o u r a c t i o n s ． orverbs：
恥scmeso”e”zz”Ⅲ6nommesprobIemesauxEtats-Unis.(See １ １ ． ２ ）
ThenoodinghascausedenoImousproblemsinlheUSA mutilisationcroissantedesmatiもrBsplastiqUesseZmzJ砿””Ime
d 6 厚 a d a t i o n d e l ' e m i r 0 n n e m e n t . ( S e e 4 8 . 4 ） n l c r e a s i n g u s e o f p l a s t i c s h a s l e d t o / r e s u l t e d i n d a m a g e t o l h e p
environment．
一 曇
mnseqUence-mPIicit
( a ） 】 U s t a s i n t h e c a s e o f c a u s e , s o m e t i m e s d l e r e i s n o e 】 叩 l i c i t c o h e s i v e d e v i c e betweentwoindependentclauses・ConseqUenceisimpI”bycontext， i n t o n a t i o n o r p u n c t u a t i o n ( s e e 7 9 . 2 c ) ：
瓢３ ' : 】 . ､ 溌 瀧
ⅥＡ７郡加師如tiO卯
V b u s c t e s 唾 m r 6 s t 0 u t a l j h e u r e a y e c d e s c h a u s s u r B s p l e i n e s d e b o u e , l a m o q u e t t e e s t c o u v e r t e d e t a c h e s 1 Ybucameinafbwmomentsagowithyourshoescoveredin mud,andthecalpetiscoveredinmalks．
NotelheuseofdlepronounenimhefbⅡowingexample・Itrefersbacktolhe c a u s e i m h e c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e ： CetexerciceestbeaucoupbfopcompliqUe,j'”pe】nsmonlatin． (See19.6c）．
Thisexerciseismuchtoo〔咽、nt,IcanRtmakeheadortailofit．
( b ） m s o m e c a s e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r w h e n s p e a l d n g , e t i s u s e d b u t l h e c o n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s i n f a c t a c a u s e / c o n s e q u e n c e r e l a l i o n ： ●
I'aisentiqUeqUelqmmmesuivaitetjemesuismiseacoum＄
IsensedsomeonewasfbⅡowingmeandlbegantorun． (c）RelatjveclausesmayaIsobeused： IEcamionaheurt61avDiture”α､/h施娩”ｍ卯確α”avantde gimmobilise鴎(See22.1,46.7）
Thelorryhitlhecarwhichsomersamtedtwicebefbreitcameto a h a l t ．
計79.5罵
Ａｉｍ
(a）Thesameconjunctions(see79.3a)maybeusedtoemressbolh c o n s e q u e n c e a n d a i m ､ F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e t h e r e i s n o t enou甑contexttoindicatewhetherdleresultwasintended(ajm)ornot ( c o n s e q u e n c e ) ：
ns,estmalconduit“so”9陛sesvoisinsFzeIﾉJeFme70”hJslem血 Hebehavedbadlytostophisnei甑bourscomingtoseehim． ( a i m ）
o7Hebehavedbad]ysohisnei甑boursdolftcometoseehim anymore.(consequence）
I f a i m i s i n t e n d e d , v i e n n e n t i s s u b j u n c t i v e ､ I f i t i s c o n s e q u e n c e l h a t i s m e a n t ，
Ⅵ e n n e n t i s i n f a c t t h e p r e s e n t i n d i c a ｍ ｅ ( S e e 4 6 . 4 ) . h l l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e , t h e 術昌愉nctionisclearer：
J'en位etiensmavDim】把娩so冗診”惣此sojtenco唾enbon6tatdans d b K a n s . ( a i m ）
I l o o k a f t e r m y c a r s o t h a t i t w i l l s t i n b e i n g o o d c o n d i t i o n i n t e n y e a r s ， t i m e ．
3１４馳加加漉
１，emetiensmavoitm氾此so"9蛇lZeesrencorBenbonetat 位 1 a l 浮 も s o n a g e ﾘ . ( c o n s e q U e n c e ）
I l o o k a f t e r m y c a r s o t h a t i t i s s t i l l i n g o o d c o n d i t i o n ( d e s p i t e i t s a g e ) ．
SimilaI1y;pourqUecanin杜oduceanaim(pourqueisa皿那fbnowedbythe
s u b j u n c t i v e s o l h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a j m a n d c o n s e q u e n c e i s o f t e n c l e a r o n ] y becauseofcontexO：
Cette6coIemposehnifbrmepo”9Izeleselevessoje”toussur u n p i e d d 6 g a I i t 6 ・
T h e s c h o o l m s i s t s o n u n j f b r m s s o t h a t t h e p u p i l s a r e a j l e q U a l ． ( a i m ）
a n d c o m p a r e ： m e s m a i n t e n a n t a s s e z g 泡 n d p o z J r d 7 z J E j e t e . / h s s e c e r t a i n e s mnmmcessurmavie、
Ybuareadult/oldenou獣mowfOrmetoteⅡyousomeofmy secrets．
IfindoUbtaboutlhedifferencebetweenaimandconsequence,byaddingthe
e m p h a t i c c l e s t … q u e ・ I f i t w o l k s , i t i s a i m , i f n o t , i t i s c o n s e q U e n c e ､ L e t u s t e s t l h i s w i t h l h e p r e v l o u s e x a m p l e s ： O e s t p o ” 9 I J e l e s 6 1 も v e s s o 虎 F z t t o u s s u r u n p i e d d 館 a l i t e ‘ 7 z d E c e t t e 6 c o l e i m p o s e l ' I m i f b r m e . ( T h i s m a k e s s e n s e , i t w o r k s : s o ＝ a i m ） I t 3 s t o m a k e a l l t h e p u p i l s e q U a l t h a t l h e s c h o o l i n s i s t s o n lmifnrmR．
C筏”o”9“jete./2zssecertainesconEdencessurmaⅥe9zJetues
maintenantassez獣and.(Thisdoesnotmakesense,itdoesnot wolk:solheorignalstatementemressedisnotanaimbuta c o n s e q u e n c e ） ●
S o m e t i m e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r a f t e r a m m p e r a t i v e , p o u r q U e i s a b b r e v i a t e d t o q u e ： mumeunpeu,9zzeje”jElacoupedecemanteau・ nlmroundabitsothatlcanseethecutoflhiscoat．
O t h e r c o n j u n c t i o n s w i l l a l l o w y o u t o e m r e s s t h e n o t i o n o f a n o b j e c t i v e t o b e 花achefZfbrexampleaEnqUe,defaConqI1e＋subjunctive…(see46.4)： 】，aicomoqu6toutlepersonnelcemati、哩励zd7Iｲclecalendrierde l ﾉ a n n 6 e a v e n i r ” j S s e e 1 r e 6 t a b l i ．
I ' v e c a l l e d a l l t h e s t a f f t o g e t h e r t h i s m o m m g s o d l a t t h e p l a l m i n g / s c h e d u l e f b r l h e y e a r c a n b e o r g a n i z e ｡ ．
‘津：僧せ
猟 Ⅵ 4 , 9 , ‘ 剛 ‘ " " 0 ｍ
Ⅱfaudmitraccoumirlevoile””””切潅加加be"‘zsplusbas quelatailledevo唾、be， Ybutl/IUhavetoshortenlheveilsolhatitdoeslftfkmbelowlhe
w a i s t o f y o u r d r e S s ．
o r w h a t y o u a i m t o a z ﾉ o j Z j I f b r e x a m p l e d e p e u r q u e , d e c r a i n t e q U e ＋ ｎ ｅ ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ) ： Cette蛇mmeacachel,eりdstencedesonenfant”ｐｅ”d7IJeles servlcesSociaUxFzelme、膨励℃”lagarde、 ThewYm3nconcealedherchildbe】dstencetoavoidthesoci31
servicestakinghim/herawayhcimhem 恥PDG(President-DirecteurG6n6ral)veutfbrmerlui-mcmeson
jeunecoⅡaborateur”c、加蛇9”Jzesoitp“alahauteurdes n o m e u e s r e s p o n s a b i l i t 6 s q U i l u i i n c o m b e n t ・ Thechailman/managjngdirectorwantstoなainhisyoung a s s i s t a n t h i m s e l f t o e ､ s u r e h e i s u p t o h i s n e w r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ． (incaseheisnotuptothem） BecarefUltodistinguishbetweentheemletivenefbnowingdepeurqUe(inthe Hrstexampleabove)(see54.23)andthenegationne…ｐas(inthesecondone)． (b）Prepositionsmayalsobeusedwhenyouaxeaimjngatsomelhjng,ｗｉｔｈ ｎｏｕｎｓ：
Cettepromotion,tulaveuxpo”伽92りi彫ｏｕｐｏ”脆呼”胃
Doyouwantthispromotionfbrlheprestigeorthemoney？ Denombreuxm6nagesfbntdeseconomles“IﾉIJegZ伽”esaz抑zzjb e s t i v a l e . ( S e e １ １ ． ２ ）
Manyfamjliessaveupfbrasummerjaunt． orinfin術ves：
4価zfj"蛇ral'ayenircesproblemesdecash-n”nousdevrons
e w d g e r d e n o s c l i e n t s q U m l s r 理 e n t l e u r s f a c t u r e s r a p i d e m e n t . ( S e e 4 6 . 3 , 4 6 . 7 ）
Tbavoidcash-nowproblemsi、future,wemustreqUestdlatoul c u s t o m e r s s e t d e t h e i r i n v o i c e s q u i c 1 d y E Elleprenddescoursdusoir”FzsZ伽蛇卯加〃”ｐasserunconcours l e m o I s p r o c h a j n ． Sheistakingeveningclassesinordertositanexamnextmomh． ●
orwhenyouareaimingatazﾉOjZj加gsomedling：
3 I 6 F t m c t i o 漉
Ⅱgestlev“5ｈＯＯｄｕｍａｔｉｎ”ｐｅ”α節Eenretardason e n n f e t i e n . ( S e e 4 6 . 7 ）
HegotupatEveinthemomingbecausehewasscaredhemiゆt belatefbrhisinterviewE
”rcm加蛇4抵加“”jCsblespropri6tair巴sdesiIEuxdelouerdes ⑱h釦mhresd！麺ndi盆ntsdoiventin噸Ⅱerdesd6tecteursdefUm坐
( S e e 4 6 . 7 ）
B e c a u s e o f i n c r e a s e d E r e l i s k , h o u s e h o l d e r s w i s h i n g t o 産 n t roomstostudentsmustinstaⅡsmokedetectors．
(c）Arelativeclausewilla]１０wyoutobemorespecihcaboutdleaim・mlhe fOnowingexamplenotedleuseoflhesubjunctivecastingdoubtonthe e 虹 s t e n c e o f t h e o f 6 c e i n q u e s t i o n ( s e e 4 6 . 5 ) ： PDur6tablirno江esiegedanscetteville,noussommesala rechemhed，皿bureau9砿so厳assezpmcheducenなe・
Tbsetupourheadquartersind1isci剛Wearelookingfbran of5cenearlhecen廿e，
(d）Final]Woumaye叩ressaimdlrou甑themeaningofnounsandnoun p h r a s e s ： lEsstarlettesd6ambulaientsurlaCmisette”Fzs蛇b”"sezJIe､耐ｚ “seJ2z蛇形”珂雌rparlescin6astes.(See46.7）
S t a d e t s w a n d e r e d a l o n g l h e C r o i s e t t e ( i n o r d e l ) t o b e n o t i c e d b y d i r e c t o r s ．
o r v e r b s a n d v e r b p h r a s e s ： C'estunartistepmvDcateurq皿”域e"力j形花呼rsonpublic，
Hebaplovocativepelfbrmerimhathemestomakethe m'diencereact． oracomhinH1ionofverbsandnouns：
Gracead,habilesmanceuvresdansl，ent】氾p】ise,ｉｌａｐｕａ旋加"hgles o恥Ｃｆ論q血"応α雄.(See22.2,55.4）
Byclever/skinedmanceuvringinlhecompanyhemanagedto 師hiPvehis3imR．
N a t u r a n y ; o p p o s i t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o d i s a g r e e m e n t ( s e e 7 0 . 2 ) , c o n c e s s i o n ( s e e 7 2 . 2 ) ， p r o t e s t ( s e e 7 3 ) , l a c k o f v o l i t i o n ( s e e 7 6 . 5 ) a n d p r o h i b i t i o n ( s e e 7 7 . 2 ) . H o w e v e 軍 t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n s o m e o f l h e m a n y f b r m s w h i c h
料 3 １
蜂 Ⅵ A 1 g z ‘ 腕 e " ” 0 〃
a l l o w y o u t O e m r e s s t h e a b s e n c e o f l o g c a l r e l a t i o n s ( s e e 7 9 ) a n d t o a s s o c i a t e
i n d e p e n d e n t f a c t s s e t a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e ｴ A h h o u g h t h e r e a r e e m l i c i t w a y s o f a s s o c i a t i n g o p p o s i n g i d e a s e s p e c i a l ] y t h r o u 甑 t h e u s e o f c o n c e s s i v e f b l m s
suchasbienque‘althou“si‘althou説quique‘whoever'一opposmgor c o n t r a s t i n g i d e a s a r e v e r y q f t e n l i n k e d b y a p p o s i t i o n , o r b y i m p l i c a t i o n ． (a）Prepositionssuchasmal群も,avec,sansmaybeusedwithnouns： IEbatimentaet6partieⅡementdem1itparIincendie”惣穆 J'加蛇ｍｅ卯加Fzrapidedespompie応．
T h e b u j l d i n g w a s p a r t i a l l y d e s な o y e d b y E r e d e s p i t e t h e s w i f t intervemionofthefiremen．
”“戒”sIJc鱒s0btenuparlaCommunaut6,toutesles
r 6 a l i s a t i o n s e s p 6 r 6 e s a u m o m e n t d e s a f b n d a l i o n n P o n t p a s 6 t 6 c o n c r 6 t i s 6 e s . ( S e e 4 8 , 4 9 . 1 ）
、 s p i t e o f l h e s u c c e s s o f d l e C o m m u n i t 】 ﾙ n o t a l l o f t h e l e s u l t s envisagedwhenitwascreatedhavebeenachieved．
I n s o m e c a s e s , f b r e x a m p l e w i l h a v E c o r s a n s , o p p o s i t i o n i s l e s s e X p l i c i t ： AI2ecso〃air加加蛇蛎eⅡeestcapabledesacteslesPlus d i a b o l i q u e S ，
D e s p i t e h e r i n n o c e n t a p p e a r a n c e , s h e i s c a p a b l e o f t h e m o s t di倉holicalamnns．
Whenrealiwisdifferentfromwhatmi甑thavebeene籾ected,youcanuseau l i e u d e o r I o i n d e i f t h e e m p h a s i s i s o n w h a t d i d 〃 o r t a k e p l a c e ・ T h e s e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s a r e f b Ⅱ o w e d b y i n E n i t i v e s ： “”℃”迦陀仰旋卯鍋lechauffeurs'estengag6dansunerueⅡe” 膨 邸 ” Ｐ 肥 F z f j b ℃ l ' a r t e r e p 1 i n c i p a l e ･
Comalytoa]le】叩ectations,thedliverwentdownasmalls杜eet i n s t e a d o f t a k i n g t h e m a i n r o a d ． Lo加α物paiserledebat,lesproposdeI6vcqUeontprovuqu6un t O Ⅱ e g 6 n 6 r a l ・
h l s t e a d o f c a l m i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n , t h e b i s h o p も w o r d s p r o v o k e d g e n e r a l u p r o 錘
Notethereinfbrcementofoppositionimhehrstexamplebylheuseofcon唾 touteattente(see80c)．
(b）Ifyouwishtosaythatpartofsomethingisexcludedhomthewhole,ｕｓｅ ｓ a 域 e 9 K c e p t 6 , a p a r t , s i c e n P e s t , h o n n i s … , a n d s i n o n f b n o w i n g a n e g a t i v e c l a u s e ： ZbzJsJEsc””sα呼恥sontassur6slematin・
A l l l h e c l a s s e s e x c e p t o n e t a k e p l a c e i n t h e m o m m g ．
318
肋"c加砺
Zb蛎膝"邸庵sontassureslematin,ｅ９"叩彪Z初瑚騨zisquialieule mcmejoural8hOO･
A l l t h e c I a s s e s t a k e p l a c e i n d l e m o m m g , e x c e p t E n 副 i s h w h i c h i s at6pm､onthesameday AzJcz伽ｌｉｍＥ〃eles加館F℃ssqsj7zo〃lesbandesdessinees･
T h e y a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n a n y b o o k s e x c e p t c o m i c s / c o m i c s t l i p s ．
( d C l a u s e s m a y b e i n な o d u c e d b y o r c o n t a i n a d v e r b s , o r a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s s u c h a s a u c o n t r a i r e , p a r c o m e u s u a l ] y r e f e m n g b a c k t o a p r e Ⅵ o u s statement/sentence：
IaIrancesemblee位e征esfamrableaIUnionEcono皿queet MOn6tai１℃;leRoyaume-Uni,“commi喝necachepassa r6ticence･
HanceseemstobeverymuchinfavourofEconomicand M o n e t a r y U n i o n ; t h e U K , o n d l e o t h e r h a n d , i s c l e a d y r e l u c t a n t ・ Uned6p正ssion位もsactiveamvesurlenordoHzrcｗｚ”
ｌ ' a n t i c y d o n e d e s A 9 o 正 s c o n t i n u e r a a p r o t 6 g e r l e b a s s i n m6diterran6en.(See52.8）
A d e e p d e p r e s s i o n i s a p p r o a c h i n g n o r t h e m a r e a s , B u t l h e anticycloneoverlheAzoreswinensurecalmweatheroverlhe MeditelT3nean
N o t e t h a t c o n b 氾 f e a t u r e s i n m a n y s e t p h r a s e s , ｅ ､ g ､ n a g e r a c o n 並 e c o u r a n t ‘ t o swimagainstthecuIrent裕廿EcomIBnamre‘tobeunnatural;withoutadehnite a r t i c l e ( s e e １ １ ． ４ ) ．
T h e f b u o w i n g a r e e x a m p l e s w h e r e o p p o s i t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d r a d l e r t h a n e】叩ressedinlheuseofenvain,価nalement…(emphasizedbyc，est…qUeinthe s e c o n d e x a m p l e ) ： 恥sm6decinso””だ””伽(oro””伽ｅｍ”t彪郡姥)dele ranimen(See52.9） Thedoctorshaveなiedwithoutsuccesstorevivehim，
BerIusconiamitalmonc6qUJilviendraittetehaute;ｃ湾オ ノ前煙陀”"tprombas9"'ils,estpr6sent6devantlesjuges.(See38, 4 7 . 2 ） Berlusconihadannouncedlhathewouldcomewithhishead
heldhiゆ;inlheendhekeptalowprohleinhontofthejudges N o t e h o w t h e a d j e c t j v e s e u l i m p l i e s a c o m a s t i n t h e f b n o w i n g e x a m p l e ： mensembledelaCEI(CommlmamedesEtatsmd6pendants)sem s o u s l a p l u i e ･ S g z z I E s M o s c o u e t S t P 6 t e r s b o u r g a u m n t l e p l a i s i r d e q U e l q u e s 6 c l a i r c i e s ･ RainwillaffectmostofdleCIS(1hefbrmerUSSR).Moscowand S t P e t e r s b u r g w i l l h a v e s o m e s u n n y s p e Ⅱ s 、
１
319
ⅥAFgzJme"如加〃
(｡）Cohesivedevicessuchasmais,n6amnoms,quandm6me,pourtant,ｎＰｅｎ… ●
p a s m o m s , a r e v e r y u s e f i l l f b r e m r e s s i n g o p p o s i t i o n ､ T h e y a l s o r e f e r b a c k t o a p r e Ⅵ o u s s e n t e n c e o r c l a u s e , o r t o a n e m ] f e s s i o n i n a p p o s i t i o n ( s e e 7 2 . 2 a , b ) ． NotethattwooflhedevicesoccurimhehIstexample： Ⅱneigerasurl,ensembledel'Ecosse”zislesoleilfera〃”廊加ojJzs sonapparitionsurlapartieestdupays･
Therewillbesnowthrou甑outScodandbutwilhsomesunny s p e l l s i n t h e e a s t ( o f t h e c o u n な y ) ． Appel6samanifbste喝lesMilanaissontpozJ””vEnusmoms
nomb唾uxquelesjoumalistes･
TheMilanesehadbeencalledontodemons廿atepubliclybut t h e r e w e r e f b w e r d e m o n s 廿 a t o r s t h a n j o u m a l i s t s ． Accul6alafaillite,il〃ｾ〃estpJwwｼzo伽s“cjt泥aacqu6】irune deu油もｍｅｅｎｔ】把p】fse･
Despitehisbankmptcy;hewasdeterminedtoacqulreanolher business．
(e）Clausesmaybein杜oducedbyconiunctionssuchasalorsqueortan曲sque t o e 印 I e s s o p p o s i t i o n a n d s i m l n t a n e i 剛 w i t h t h e i n d i c a t i v e ： Ａ ｌ り 庵 ９ I z e d e s m i l l i o n s d ' e m p l o i s s e P e F z j t z j e F z t e n c o r e d a n s l a p唾ｍｉも正m0iti6desann6es80,desmillionsd,emploisnomcaux o”depuislors雄“金(See33.1,48）
M i l l i o n s o f j o b s w e r e s t i l l b e i n g l o s t i n t h e e a r l y l 9 8 0 s ； s u b s e q u e n d y m i l l i o n s o f n e w j o b s h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d ． 『術Iedroited upartisocialistes皿旋” l a p r o p o s i t i o n m y z ‘ j l S 9 I J e ●
l , e ｍ Ｐ ６ ｍ ｅ ｇ ｆauchela“"o"cBavecⅥgueul＄
Theri甑twingoflhesocialistparmsbackingtheproposal whereasitisbeingcondemnedsmngjybylhefarleft． andbyconjunctionssuchasbienque,qI10iqUe,mal露6que‘althou甑withthe s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ) ： B施肥９域IsojrdenaturBessentieⅡementeconomiqUe,Ie
progFammedemesu】泡sprendencomptelapmtectionde l'eImronn巴mentetducommmma画血
A l t h o u g h i t i s e s s e n t i a l ] y a n e c o n o m i c p l a n , t h e m e a s u I e s t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d c o n s u m e r p r o t e c t i o n ． S i i s f r e q u e n d y u s e d t o e m r e s s O p p o s i t i o n ( h e r e r e i n f b r c e d b y 】mmanquablemenOorconcession,Itdoesnotin廿oduceaconditionindle f b U o w i n g e x a m p l e , a n d , t h e r e f b r e , i s n o t r e s m c t e d t o t h e s e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s u s e d f b r e m r e s s m g c o n d i t i o n s ：
３郷”"c加晒
S j l e s p r o b l c m e s d e B e m a r d T a p i e n e t o u c h e n t p a s d i r e c t e m e n t l e s s o c i a l i s t e s , i l s v o n t ” ” z ” z J z z b 彫 " z e ” a f I a i b I i r l ' 6 1 e c t 0 r a t d e g a u c h e . ( S e e 3 2 . 8 ）
A l d l o u ゆ B e m a r d T a p i e b p r o b l e m s d o n o t a f f e c t t h e s o c i a l i s t s d i r e c d J ﾙ t h e y w i l l i n e v i t a b l y w e a k e n l h e s o c i a I i s t v o t e ． A n d t h e r e a r e c o n j u n c t i o n s s u c h a s q u a n d b i e n m e m e , m e m e s i ‘ e v e n i f ' w i d l t h e 少し
鼻、
conditionalinthem3incl副'Re：
Q””雄"””ilmPo瞳iraitlalIme,jene卿ozJsemjSpas， E v e n j f h e o f f E r e d m e t h e m o o n , I w o u l d I f t m a n y h i m ． Ｍ 助 Z e S i l e s f b m e s d e l ' 0 N Ｕ ( O r g a n i s a t i o n d e s N a t i o n s U n i e s ） i n t e r v E n a i e n t r a p i d e m e n t , t o u s l e s c i v i I S n e p o " m z j E ” p a s 6 位 e sauv6sdImmnRR証re.‘
E v e n i f t h e U N f b r c e s w e l e t o i n t e r v e n e q u i c l d J 〃 n o t a l l d l e civilianscomldberescuedhomlhemaRR2〔Te．
( f ） S o m e t i m e s e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d o n p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t s i n t h e s e n t e n c e
e m r e s s i n g o p p o s i t i o n , f b r e x a m p l e , o m h e n o u n ､ N o t e t h e w i d e r a n g e o f c o n c e s s i v e c o n s m l c t i o n s s u c h a s q u e l q U e ( a d j e c t i v e ) ‘ w h a t e v e r ; q U e l q u e ( a d j e c t i v e ) ＋ n o u n ＋ q u e ‘ w h a t e v e r I 卜 q u e l q u e … q u e , a u s s i … q I 1 e , t o u t … q u e , ｓ ｉ … q u e ‘ h o w e v e r ' ( a d v e r b ) ＋ s u b j I m c t i v e w h i c h i m p l y o p p o s i t i o n ( s e e 4 6 . 4 ) , a n d f b c u s o n a n e l e m e n t i n t h e s e n t e n c e i n l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s o n n o u n s ： Q I J e Z s 9 z J g s o j e 城 I E s e 】 c B ７ ℃ j ℃ e s ” ｒ ｍ ｆ Ｓ ｩ c e t 6 I も v e r e m s e d e l e s f a i 】 氾 ．
W h a t e v e r e x e r c i s e s a l e s e t , t h i s p u p i l r e f i l s e s t o d o t h e m ． Q " e l h 7 m ‘ 9 s α " 減 j S s e ” " 応 9 z ‘ e Z b " ｃ ｏ ｍ ｍ " " " e ( s u b j u n c t i v e ) , i l y a t o U j o u r s d e s g e n s q u i s l d e n t h o r s p i s t e e t s ' ” o s e n t a u x n s q u e s d ' a Ⅳ a l a n c h e . ( S e e 1 8 . 1 2 a ）
W h a t e v e r w a m i n g s a r e g i v e n , 山 e r e a r e a l w a y s p e o p l e w h o s l d o f f p i s t e a n d e 】 叩 o s e l h e m s e l v e s t o r i s k o f a y a l a n c h e ．
a n d i n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e s o n p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s a n d a d j e c t i v e s , a n d i n t h e l a s t oneonanadverb：
QIJejh7zJe姫陀”伽鑑9晩JIEsso鹿砿cesdeux6tudiantes
n ? o b t i e n d m n t p a s d ， 釦 e i n s c r i t e s d a n s I e m c m e 癖 o u p e d e t r a y a u x d i r i g 6 s . ( S e e 1 8 . 1 2 b ）
Howeverdetelminedtheyare,山esetwostudentswolftsucceed
i n g e 杖 i n g i n t o t h e s a m e t u t o l i a l 厚 C u p ． N o t e t h a t i n l h i s c a s e q u e l q U e i s a n a d v e r b , a n d i s l h e l e f b r e i n v a r i a b l e , w h e r e a s
i n t h e p r e v l o u s e x a m p l e q u e l q u e s ( a n ﾉ e r t i s s e m e n t s ) i s a n a d j e c t i v e ､ A n a l t e m a t i v e wayofsayingthesamethingwouldbe：
灘ⅥA,郡"‘"”｡〃
A"sSidZ蛇、z伽‘es9邸切腔so泥“Cesdeuxetudiantes nbbtiendmntpasd'６位einscritesdanslememegmlpedetr鋤aux d i r i g 6 s ．
SimjlarlymoteimhefbⅡowingexamplehowtoutcanbeadverb(toutchr6tiens） o r a d j e c t i v e ( t o u t e s p i e u s e s ) ( s e e 1 8 . 1 . ) , w i t h t h e i n d i c a t i v e ： Zb”c〃だ雄猫９嘘ISSC”ilsnefbntp唾叩edaucunecompassion etmzJZzsp施砥es9"℃I彫s”mjSse“lag6n6msiteleurest mmnmIe
HoweverChristiantheymaybe,theyshownocompassion,and howeverpioustheyseem,theydonot1mowthemeaningof g e n e r o s i t y 8 F i n a l I y I a n e x a m p l e w i l h s i ‘ d e s p i t e l h e f a c t t h a t , h o w e v e r ; f b c u s m g o n a n adverb：
S i ” z Z 9 I J ' 〃 雌 e b l e C ⑪ n s e i l d e c l a s s e a d 6 c i d 6 d e l , a m o r i s e r a p a s s e r d a n s l a c l a s s e s u p 6 r i e u r e ，
D e s p i t e l h e f a c t d l a t h e i s n o t a g o o d r e a d e l > t h e s t a f f m e e t i n g hasdecidedtoallowhimtoproceedtolhenextyeaL ( ９ Ｃ Ｏ n c e s s i v e r e l a t j v e p r o n o u n s q u i q U e ‘ w h o e v e r l ； o h q u e ‘ w h e r e v e r 1 q U o i q u e ‘ w h a t e v e r 1 w i t h l h e s u b j u n c t i v e , c a n b e u s e d ( s e e 4 6 . 1 ) ： ■
Q砿d7IJE“so彪jenesulspasl制 Whoeveritis,I,mnothere1
０曲９噸”砿”妬czzdZjEzWousnemP6chapperezpas･ Whereveryouhide,ｙｏｕｗｏｎ'tgetawayfiDmme． nsneserontpasd,accord,９”ｉ９鵬如ajSesb
T h e y w o l f t a g r e e , w h a t e v e r y o u s a y 5
A n d s o m e t i m e s o p p o s i t i o n i s j m ” c j t i n r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ( w i l h t h e i n d i c a t i v e ) : hna夢nez-vousqueceteKte,９皿””o""IIJsje"庵e泥拠畑aete
s e l e c t i o n n 6 p o u r l ， e p r e u v e d e 仕 a n 9 a i s ! ( S e e 2 2 . 1 , 4 8 . 1 ）
C a n y o u i m a g i n e , 1 h i s t e x t , w h i c h h a s s e v e r a l e r r o r s i n i t , h a s beenchosenfbrtheFrenchex3m！
⑪Ofcourse,thereareotherimplicitwaysofe鞭ressingopposition;fbr e x a m p l e , b y u s i n g a p p o s i t i o n o r s i m p l y i n t h e m e a n i n g o f v e r b p h r a s e s ： 皿pe岬伽℃ｍ”“9唯如”””jenechangeraipasdaxﾉis｡(See 2 2 . 1 4 ）
Ybucansayanythingyouwant)Ｉｗｏｎ'tchangemymind．
3 2 2 即 " c t i o 猫
Ｏ 〃 α b e m J P Z 【 z c e r d e s p o u b e Ⅱ e s s u r l e s p a 1 1 d n g s , l e s g e n s c o m i n u e n t a j e t e r l e u r s o r d u r E s n P i m p o r t e o h ｡ ( S e e 1 8 . 1 4 c , 5 2 . 8 ）
E v e n t h o u 甑 t h e r e a r e l i t t e r b i n s i n c a r p a I k s , p e o p l e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o t h r o w t h e i r r u b b i s h a n y o l d p l a c e ・
o r l h r o u ゆ t h e u s e o f d i f f B r e n t p a r t s o f t h e v e r b s u c h a s t h e i m p e r a t i v e o r t h e c o n d i t i o n a l t e n s e e s p e c i a I I y w h e n s p e a l d n g ( s e e a l s o 7 9 . 2 , 7 9 . 4 ) ： O f e s i 9 a t e d 6 f b u l e , j e n e t e d o I m e r a l p a s c e l i v r e 1
M a k e a s m u c h n o i s e a s y o u l i k e , I w o n t g v e y o u t h e b o o k 1 O n m e 伽 廊 F z e m i r t o u t l ' o r d u m o n d e q u e 9 a n e c h a n g e r a i t 面 ｅ ｎ ａ ｍａｄ６ｃ燕⑪nI
E v e n j f t h e y g a v e m e a l l 山 e m o n e y i n t h e w o l l d , I w o u l d l f t changemymind．
（ i ） Ｆ ｍ ａ ｌ ] y ; i t i s w e Ⅱ w o r t h n o t i n g t h e u s e o f a n t i l h e s i s , w h i c h i s o f t e n u s e d f b r
s W 1 i s t i c r e a s o n s i n l i t e r a t u r e , a n d e m l o i t e d f U Ⅱ y i n a d v e r t i s i n g b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s ｙ ｏ ｕ ｔ ｏ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s e v e r y l h i n g a n d i t s o p p o s i t e ・ E x a m p l e s o f l h e s e s h o r t s h a l p s y m m e な i c a l f b n n u l a e o r s l o g a n s a b o u n d i n a d v e r t i s i n g ： M i n i m m r z 伽 加 愈 m a i s i l f a i t l e m J z 】 勅 m J m ( w a s h i n g p o w d e l ） M i n j m i r ( = P e r s １ ， ， 週 , m i n i p r i c e m a ] d j o b 1 U》zpe姉c此vautmieuxqu！”9ｍ”耽りc!(safewbelO
A l i t d e c l i c k i s b e t t e r t h a n a b i g b a n g 1 / C l u n k c l i c k : e v e r y m p 1
８ I s j 7 7 J c 畝 y f " ９ W h e t h e r y o u w a n t t o m a k e a s p e e c h , s e n d a m e m o , w l i t e a r e p o r t o r i n t e r v e n e i n a m e e t i n g , w h a t y o u s a y o r w r i t e w i l l h a v e m o r e i m p a c t i f i t i s s 杜 u c t u r e d ・ B r o a d h ﾙ y o u w i l l n e e d a n i n m d u c t i o n , a m i d d l e s e c t i o n , a n d a c o n c l u s i o n . 、
t h i s s e c t i o n , y o u w i l l E n d a n u m b e r o f u s e f U l f b l m s u n d e r t h r e e h e a d i n g s ： B e g i l m i n ｇ ( i l m o d u c t i o n ) ( s e e 8 1 . 1 ) ; C o n t i n u i n g O n i d d l e s e c t i o n ) ( s e e 8 1 . 2 ) ； E n d i n g ( c o n c l u s i o n ) ( s e e 8 1 . 3 ) ． 司8Ｍ霊
Be割１，ｍｇ
(a）Theverybeginning
B e f b r e g e t t i n g t o t h e t o p i c i t s e U i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o u s e p o l i t e f b r m u l a e , e s p e c i a l ] y w h e n y o u t a k e 山 e H o o r ( f b m l a l s p o k e n c o n t e x l j , s o m e t i m e s e m p h a s i z e d b y c , e s t … q u e ：
32趣ⅥＡ７郡脱e"""
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a U j o u r d ' h u i a I o c c a s i o n d e c e c o n 厚 も s ，
I t i s a g r e a t p l e a s u r e f b r u s t o b e h e r e w i l h y o u t o d a y a t d l i s confbrence．
C筏tpourmoi”9ｍ”加卯Fze”9“depouvOirmPadresseraun p u b l i c d 6 m i n e n t s e p q J e r t s ・
Itisagfeathonourfbrmetobeabletoaddressanaudienceof e m i n e n t e x p e r t s ．
A l t e m a t i v e ] y ； y o u c a n u s e j e / n o u s ＋ v e r b p h r a s e o r v e r b ＋ i n h n i t j v e ： ﾉbs"js唾she"花””ｐ””ir"、”rzcErZ初I肋皿加〃“〃た””IJe
d a n s I m c a d I e a u s s i m a 厚 1 i h q u e . ( s a m e s u b j e c t i n b o t h c l a u s e s , s o usede＋inhnitivd
Iamverypleasedtobeabletogivelhewelcomingaddressin s u c h m a 厚 ] i h c e n t s u l r o u n d i n g s ． IMozJsdZ"P池cjp"sα物”jr‘だ加砿雄〃”砿Ｐ花s師陀rlesresultatsde nosemdes.(See48.3）
W e a r e p l e a s e d t o h a y e b e e n i n v i t e d t o p r e s e n t o u r r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t o y o u ． A t t h e v e r y b e g i l m i n g i t i s q u i t e u s u a l t o r e f e r b a c k t o a n e v e n t / ａ f a c t ､ N o u n p h r a s e s m a y b e u s e d f b r t h i s ： 恥”0砺ejtvmeIetn℃du2ianviem0ussommesheure皿de voussoumetnB1meofhEpourlesarticlessuivants：
m r e p l y t o y o u r l e t t e r o f 2 n d 〕 a n u a r y ； w e a r e p l e a s e d t o m a k e y o u a n o f f e r f b r t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g a r t i c l e s ： Ａｌ，occasiondece2I､mecon厚もsdel，Organisation,jeso血aitela bienvenueauxmemb】氾spr6sentsparmmouspo”Zfzp柁加姥把 ●
ﾉ b i s b
O n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h i s 2 1 s t c o n f e r e n c e o f t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n , I extenda(war、)welcometolhosememberswhoaIewidlusfbr dlefirsttime．
(b）mtroducinglhetopic
Inwntingaletterorreport,thetopicmaysimplybeannouncedwilhanoun fbⅡowedbyacolon： O妙t:demandedﾉofh氾(incommercialcoIrespondence） R e : r e q U e s t f b r q U o t a t i o n Mb聯Orgalnisationdes6quipesdenuit(inareporO R e : ､ i ゆ t s h i f t s c h e d u l e / r o s t e r
３ 鯉 即 " c t i O J z s
T h e t o p i c m a y a l s o b e c o n t a i n e d i n d l e t i t l e o r i n t r o d u c t o r y s e n t e n c e , a f t e r p h r a s e s s u c h a s a u s U i e t d e , a p r o p o s d e , s 皿 c o n c e m a n t , 配 l a l i f a … ‘ c o n c e m i n g … , ： Rapportducon唾mai唾皿sz”此Waccidentsurvenulel3mars l992aEvrysurlechantiernp2.(See49.1）
ForemanHsreportomheaccidentatconstructionsiteNo､２at Evlyonl3thMarchl992． Propositionde唾solutiondesd印ut6sEmstdelaGraeteetau唾s，
ａｕｎｏｍｄｕ群0UpedesVertsauPar1ementeump6en,ｓ”la c o h 6 s i o n 6 c o n o m i q u e e t s o c i a l e ･ MOtionfbraresolutiontabledbyMPsEmstdelaGraeteand
o l h e r s , o n b e h a l f o f d l e G r e e n G r o u p i n t h e E u r o p e a n Palliament,oneconomicandsocialcohesion．
mverbphrases,youshouldusetheconditionaltense(see404)： 肥””mjSpallerdelacoImaceptioIL
I s h o u l d l j k e t o s p e a k a b o u t c o l m a c e p t i o ､ ． 】 ， α j ” 噸 j S a b o r d e r l e t h b m e d e I 6 d u c a t i o n p r e s c o l a i 】 氾 ． I s h o u l d l j k e t o t a c l d e t h e s u b j e c t o f p r e s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n ・
o r m a r e l a t i v e C l a u s e f b Ⅱ o w i n g 山 e t o p i c ： 池 Ⅱ e e s t l a q U e s t i o n j t l Z z 9 z J B I l E j E ” z j 血 z 産 r 印 o n d r e . ( S e e 2 2 . 6 ） T h a t i s t h e q U e s t i o n l s h o u l d l i k e t o a n s w e 工 Vbila“””jE””zzisvousen唾tenim(See22.14）
T h a t i s w h a t l w o u l d l j k e t o t a l k t o y o u a b o u t ・ P o r a m o r e d i r e c t o r p o w e l f U l i n b r o d u c t i o ､ , u s e t h e p r e s e n t o r f U t u r e t e n s e ： Ｊｅ雄Fzsa6mquerleproblemesuivant8
I w i s h t o r a i s e l h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g m a t t e r ： Dansmon”0s６，je”雄milaquestiondel'autonomiedes r零０，s・
h l m y p a p e l > I s h a l l d e a l w i l h d l e q u e s t i o n o f r e 印 o n a l a u t o n o m y A n o u n 十 r e l a t i v e c l a u s e m a y p r e c e d e t h e t o p i c ： “９zJEs蜘犯”iJzozus加鯨肥sseconcemeled6veloppementdes autoroutesdeIinfbrmation.(See22.1）
T h e q U e s t i o n w h i c h i n t e r e s t s u s i s l h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n i b l m a t i o n s u p e r h i g h w a y s ・ LeZF泌加e９噸ｍｅＩ刀穆0c℃zJpea杜aitaur61edes蛇mmesdansles s o c i 6 t 6 s a c t u e Ⅱ e s . ( S e e 2 2 . 1 ）
wconcemtodayisdlemleofwomenmcontemporarysociety
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Le"、碓確9””zｲsα肋妬α”恥erportesurle正cyclagedes d 6 c h e t s n u c l 6 a i １ ℃ s ・ ( S e e 2 2 . 2 ）
Thepmblemwealegoingtoana]yseconcemslherecyclingof nuclearwaste．
(c）Announcinganoudine Thefim'retenseisoftenusedtoin杜oducetheol'f1ineofatext：
肥”i蛇mZlaquestionen杜oispoints:premiも唾ment…， demdemement…(See54.1）
Ishalldealwidldlequestioninthreeparts:frst…,second…
mthefbⅡowingexample,notetheuseofthefUturetense,fbnowedbyayantqUe + n e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e o r a y a n t d e ＋ i n f i n i t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 , 4 6 . 7 ) t o a n n o u n c e t h e n1I市neofabook：
Ｃ,estpourqUoiunpremierchapit】氾池”eJJe7zzles獣andstraitsdu
peuplementdelalrancedepuisses⑧r噂nesα””47Izele demdbmerze征aiteplusend6taildesfacteursdesonevolution･Par a i l l e u r s , l a p o p u l a t i o n h f a n 9 a i s e l f e s t p a s l a s i m p l e j u x t a p o s i t i o n d，individI1sindiffもmnci6setiI”恋施域漉encoreinsisterau c h a p i 唾 m s u r s a d i v e r s i t 6 e t l e s i n 6 g a I i t 6 s q u i l a l r a y e r s e n t a Ⅳ ａ ｎ ｔ ｄﾉaborderenEnauchapi唾Ⅳlesｐ】incipauxemeux d6mo群aphiqUes．
（ V a ] l i n , 〕 . ( 1 9 8 9 ) L a P り ” ” o " " " p z z j s a P a r i s : L a D 6 c o u v e r t e ） ThustheErstchapterwiⅡprovideabroadoudineofthe populationofFrancehomitsoligins,andthesecondwm p r o v i d e a m o r e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f i t s e v o l u t i o n ・ H o w e v e I ) t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f F r a n c e i s n o t s i m p l y a c o u e c t i o n o f u n d i f f も r e n t i a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d w e w i l l f b c u s a g a i n i n t h e t h i r d
c h a p t e r o n i t s d i v e r s i w a n d i t s d i s p a l i t i e s , F i n a l l y ; i n l h e f b u l t h c h a p t e r w e w i l l d e a l w i t h ( t h e ) m a j o r d e m o g r a p h i c i s s u e s ・ I n t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g s p o k e n i n t e r v e n t i o n s , d l e s p e e c h i s i n な o d u c e d b y j e v o u d r a i s …,andfbⅡowedbysomeofthenumerouscohesivedevicesavailablefbr presentinganoudine:。！unepart…dauなepart,durantlap唾mierepartie,dans lmdemdemetemps：
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pro摩ammel6夢slatifetjeleferaibrievement.Ｄ”epa減r6ner厚ｅ ｅｔａ初”診”花larechemhedCveloppementetsesimplicationsen matiも唾depolitiqueindusmeⅡe･ 夕
（DebatduPadementeuropeen-S6ancedulO､3.93） MadamPresident,ＣＯⅡeagues,Ishouldljketoconcentrateinmy p r e s e n t a t i o n o n t w o a s p e c t s o f d l e l e g i s l a t j v e p r o g f a m m e a n d l
3 2 6 助 " c t i o 妬
shalldosoblie町Firstofa]l,ener部andsecond,reseamhand
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d l h e i r i 、 p l i c a t i o n s m t e l m s o f i n d u s m a l p o l i 呼 陀”幽加issivouslepermettez,diviserceliecauserieendemK tempss6par6sparunepause.Ｄ"””吻脚沿加j271g”減島 j'aborderailaqUestiondel,cvolutiondelasciencel…]･DZms”
地”姥ｍｅ蛇加”j，aborderailaquestiondelaresponsabilit6des hommesdescience[…]．
（Poots,Ｍ・(1990)“Scね"cem0庇ｍｅ,ｐｍ８７盆0”§r蝿 H e r i o t さ W B t t U n i v e r s i 噸 E d i n b u r 創 ] ） I s h o I n d l i k e t o d j v i d e m y t a l k i n t o t w o p a r t s w i d l a b l e a k i n b e t w e e n ・ h l t h e h r s t p a r t l s h a ] l d e a l w i d l t h e e v o l u t i o n o f
s c i e n c e ・ m l h e s e c o n d l s h a ] l d e a l w i l h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i w o f s c i e n t i s t s ．
W h e n b l e a ] d n g d o w n a n o u d i n e i n t o i t s v a l i o u s c o m p o n e n t s , c o l r e s p o n d i n g ， f b r e x a m p l e , t o t h e v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o r c h a p t e r s o f a b o o k , t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g f b r m s mayoccur：
N o u n ( r e l a t i n g t o d l e s e c t i o n o r c h a p t e 】 j ＋ v e r b a n n o u n c i n g t h e t o p i c ： ”se“池ねp””0”eI喝s”lesp0litiqUesd，emploi.(See 2 4 . 1 1 ）
T h e s e c o n d p a r t d e a l s w i t h e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c i e s ・ L e c f z a p 肋 Ｅ ７ Ｕ な e 〃 s i t u e r l a p l a c e d e l a p o l i t i q u e d e Ⅲ e m p l o i d a n s l e s e n j e m K d e s a n n 6 e s q U a 唾 一 v i n g t s ・
C h a p t e r 7 a i m s t o e s t a b l i s h e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y a m o n g t h e m a j o r issuesofthel980s．
O n c e d l e t o p i c i s a n n o u n c e d , s u b s e q u e n t s e n t e n c e s a r e h e q U e n d y i n 廿 o d u c e d b y G e s t w h i c h i s o f t e n f b n o w e d b y a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ： Ｃｾstlethemedesdeuxdemierschapi江es･
T h i s i s t h e t o p i c o f t h e E n a l t w o c h a p t e r s ． Ｃ ｾ s t d e t o u t c e l a ” " t i Z e s t d ﾂ z J e s 加 冗 d a n s l a p 唾 m i e r e p a r t i e d e c e t omrage・
田 a r o u , Y : e t R i g a u d i a t , 』 . ( 1 9 8 5 ) Ｌ ｅ Ｍ ｚ 施 膨 ” Z 7 m ﾉ z z j l リ P a n s : H a t i e l ）
T h a t i s l h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e f r s t p a r t o f t h i s w o l k C 1 e s t Z b 城 # d e s d e u x p 正 面 e r s c h a p i 杜 E s d e c e l i v r e 9 I z e g J E 唾 p o n d r e a c e s q u e s t i o n s ．
（ C h a s s a r d , Y e t C o n c i a l d i , Ｅ ( 1 9 8 9 ) L e s R e I ﾉ e m J s e " 局 ” c a P a r i s : I a D 6 c o u v e r t e ）
T h e p u l p o s e o f l h e h r s t t w o c h a p t e r s o f t h i s b o o k i s t o a n s w e r l h e s e q u e s t i o n s ．
327…
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色
A n a d v e r b 十 i l f a u t ＋ i n h n i t j v e m a y a l s o b e u s e d ： Ebzs”喝〃ん”””e彫rlesp1incipales6mlutionsconcemant W6volutiondesrevenus.E城鴎〃jiz砿s'加蛇rmgCrs”lamanibre d o n t s , O p e r e l a r 印 a r t i t i o n d e s １ ℃ v e n u s e n l r a n c e ． （Chassard,Y:etConcialdi,Ｅ(1989)LesReIﾉe”se"F、"“ Paris:LaD6couverte）
Thenweshalltouchonlhemajordevelopmentsconceminglhe
p a t t e m o f i n c o m e d i s m b u t i o n ・ F i n a Ⅱ y ; w e s h a Ⅱ e x a m i n e l h e w a y i n c o m e d i f f e r e m i a l s o p e r a t e i n F r a n c e ．
F i n 心 i t i s w o r l h n o t i n g l h e u s e o f p u n c t u a t i o n ( e s p e c i a Ⅱ y d l e u s e o f b r a c k e t s ）
whengivingtheoudineofabook：． I E s c h a p i h 迫 s c o r r E s p o n d e n t c h a c u n a u n p o s t e b u d g e t a i r e e t o n t 6t6ordonn6sselonI6volutiondeIemcrolssance･malimentation
( c h a p i b f e 2 ) e t W h a b i l l e m e n t ( c h a p 近 e 3 ) c o n n a i s s e n t u n d 6 c l i n r e l a t i f … m h a b i t a t i o n ( c h a p i 唾 4 ) e t l e s t r a n s p o r t s ( c h a p i 位 e 5 ）
a p r b s a ] m i r b e a u c o u p a u 印 n e n t 6 , s e m b l e n t p e u 6 1 o i 厚 1 6 s d e l e u r 6 t a t s t a t i o n n a i １ ℃ ・ I e r e l a i s d a n s l a p r o 露 e s s i o n d e s d 6 p e n s e s a d 鋪 も t 6 p l i s p a r l a c u l t u l B e t l e s l o i s i r s ( c h a p i t r e 6 ｝ , ｄ ' u n e p a r t , e t ， d a u な e p a r t , p a r l a s a n t e ( c h a p i t r E 7 ) ．
田 e l p i n , Ｎ ・ e t V e r g e 喝 ， . ( 1 9 9 1 ) “ Ｃ ｂ " ｓ ｏ ｍ ｍ α " o 〃 C j E s I 5 h c m ” j S ） Paris:LaD6cowerte）
E a c h c h a p t e r d e a l s w i l h a n i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o l d b u d g e t i t e m a n d t h e s e a r e a I r a n g e d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e o v e r t i m e ・ T h e c o s t o f f b o d ( c h a p t e r 2 ) a n d c o s t o f c l o d 1 i n g ( c h a p t e r 3 ） h a v e d e c l i n e d s l i g M y … H O u s i n g ( c h a p t e r 4 ) a n d m n s p o r t ( c h a p t e r 5 ) h a v i n g e m e r i e n c e d a s U b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e , n o w
a p p e a r t o h a v e s t a b i l i z e d ･ S p e n d i n g o n c u l t u r e a n d l e i s u r e o n t h e o n e h a n d h a s i n c r e a s e d ( c h a p t e r 6 ) a s h a s s p e n d i n g o n h e a l t h ( c h a p t e r 7 ) ． 弓81.2岸
C⑪ｍｍｕｉｎｇ
( a ） A d v e r b s a r e o f t e n u s e d t o i n d i c a t e a t r a n s i t i o n , d l a t i s , a m o v e f f o m o n e
t o p i c o r i d e a t o a n o d l e m A d v e r b s o f o p p o s i t i o n ( s e e 8 0 G 8 0 d ) , f b r e x a m p l e , m a y i n n F o d u c e t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a f b 形 a n d a g a i n s t t y p e o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n ： P o u r t o u t e s c e s r a 1 s o n s , l a r 6 d u c t i o n d u t e m p s d e t r a ] ﾉ a i l a p p a r a l t
c o m m e l a s o l u t i o n d u c h 6 m a g e , C E p e y z 4 Z z z 砿 i l i m p o r t e a u s s i d ' e n e v o q u e r l e s i n c o n v 6 n i e n t s ･ Forallofthesereasons,areductioninwolkinghoursseemsto bethesolutiontomeproblemofunemployment.ＨOweveEitis
j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s ( o f s u c h a p o l i c y ) ．
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A d v e r b s a n d a d v e r b i a l p h r a s e s m a y i n b r o d u c e l h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s w h i c h c o m i b u t e t o a r g u m e n t a t i o n w i d ] i n t h e t e x t ：
Ⅱ f a u t f b u m i r a u x f E m m e s q U i 杜 a y a i l l e n t d e s s m l c t u r e s a d 6 q u a t e s p o u r l a g a I d e d e l e u r s e n f a n t s , 9 J 物 加 極 p a m e q u r e Ⅱ e s O n t c o m m e t o u t c i t o y E n l e d r o i t d e t r a v a i l l e 喝 ” s e m ” 睦 邸 p a m e q U P i l y a u n e d e m a n d e i m p o r t a n t ｅ ｄ ｅ ｍ ａ ｉ ｎ ｄ ' c e I m 氾 q u a l i h 6 e . Ｄ 城 雌 " 応 ｄ ａ ｎ ｓ c e r t a i n s d e s s e c t e u r s c o n c e m 6 s , l e s f b m m e s n o u v c Ⅱ ｅ ｍ ｆ ｍ ォ
q U a l i E 6 e s s o n t p l u s n o m b 唾 u s e s q u e l e u r s h o m o I o 3 1 e s m a s c u l i n s ； ””"α”℃c6崎parcequelemspeIfbmmancesautra”ilsont
m e i Ⅱ e u 正 s l o r s q l r e Ⅱ e s j o u i s s e n t d ' u n e s 6 c u 1 i t 6 d ， e s p r i t p a r mPpOrtaleUrsenf白ｍｓ･
W e m u s t p r o v i d e w o d d n g w o m e n w i t h a d e q u a t e s m l c t u r e s ( a s s i s t a n c e ) i n c a r i n g f b r l h e i r c h i l d r e n ; h l s t b e c a u s e , l i k e e v e r y memberofsocie唾theyhaveari喚ttowork,andsecond b e c a u s e l h e r e i s a s u b s t a m i a l d e m a n d f b r a q u a l i n e d l a b o u r f b r c e ･ M o r e o v e 喝 m c e r t a i n o f d l e s e c t o r s i n q u e s t i o n t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f r e c e n d y q U a l i h e d w o m e n t h a n m e n ; a l s o ，
t h e i r p e r f b l m a n c e i s b e t t e r w h e n t h e y h a v e p e a c e o f m i n d w i t h r e g a r d t o l h e i r c h i l d r e n R s w e l f a r e ．
( b ） h n p e r s o n a l v e r b s f b Ⅱ o w e d b y e 】 甲 I e s s i o n s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t l h e d i s c u S S i o n i s t o c o n t i n u e a r e u s e f U l m e a n s o f s b r u c t u r i n g w h a t y o u w a n t t o s a y o r w ] E i t e ( s e e 5 3 ) ：
ＩＩｙａｕｎ”舵脚℃blb"fe仇沌soJJz力むα”””CIO彫lesd6bats：
T h e r e i s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m t o b e r e s o l v e d b e f b r e t h e d i s c u s s i o n e n d s ：
" 愈 姉 m a i n t e n a n m b o 雄 r 陀 p 把 加 j e r " o 加 t d e l ' o r d l E d u j o u r ： W e m u s t n o w t u m t o t h e f r s t i t e m o m h e a g e n d a ： IZm”jeFzta物0叩””此z“jb"ZBfzSpectdeceprogfammeqm ●
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I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s p o i n t t o r a i s e a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f l h e progfammewhichmi沙tbeusemtous．
( c ウ P o u r ＋ i n h n i t i v e m a y a l s o b e u s e d , f b r e x a m p l e , t o i n b D d u c e a r e s p o n s e ： 動邸r"0””v､位eqUestion,je蛇raideuxrBmarques： manswertoyourquestion,Ishallmaketwocomments：
o r t o r e t u m t o a p o i n t , p e l h a p s a f t e r a d i g r e s s i o n ： ●
勘”e"花IMe"jrα”ｍ雄”qmnouspr釦ccupe,jevoudrais pmposerlasolmionsuivante：
Tbretumtolheproblemunderdiscussion,Ishouldljketo p r o p o s e t h e f b l l o w i n g s o l u t i o n ：
３
２ ９ ､ Ⅵ A 7 g I J 脱 e " 加 加 "
( ｡ ） F i n a ] l y ; E r s t p e r s o n p l u I a l i m p e r a t i v e s a r e o f t e n u s e d t o c h a n g e t h e s u b j e c t ( s e e 5 1 . 3 ) ：
S i v U u s l e v o u l e z b i e n , p a s s o 抵 皿 p o i n t s u i v a n t c a r l e t e m p s p a s s e ・
I f y o u h a v e n o o b j e c t i o n , l e t u s t u m t o t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g p o i n t b e c a u s e t i m e i s p r e s s i n g ・
V b u s a y e z e v o q U 6 v o s q u a l i h c a t i o n s ; ” " o J z s e 〃 m a i m e n a n t 仇 v ０ 位 E e m 6 r i e n c e p r o f E s s i o n n e n e ， YbuhavedUscussedyourqualjfcations;canwetumnowtoyour p r o f e s s i o n a l e m e n e n c e ・ o r t o r e t u m t o l h e p o i n t ：
EKcusez-moidecetteintemlption…maimenant,泥泥”Jzs仇”ｓ ”O邸”F1S、
I a p o l o g i z e f b r i n t e m l p t i n g … n o w i c o u l d w e r e t u m t o t h e matterinlwmd
C e t t e r e m a r q U e s u r l e s i m m i 母 ? 6 s e s t i n t 6 r e s s a n t e m a i s ” ｐ ｅ 脚 わ J 2 s
p J m s 此 I ﾉ z J e F z o 蛇 s 〃 e t q U i e s t l a p o p u l a t i 0 n a c t i v e d a n s s o n m悪mhle
T h a t c o m m e n t o n i m m i g a n t s i s i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t l e t b n o t l o s e s i 甑 t o f o u r t o p i c 1 h e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e ． 斗81.3岸
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( a ） Ｗ ｈ ｅ ｎ c o n c l u d i n g a s p e e c h o r a w m t e n t e x t , i t i s o f t e n n e C e s s a r y i n d e e d ‘ a d v i s a b l e t o s u m u p l h e m a i n p o i n t s c o v e r e d ・ m o r d e r t o a n n o u n c e y o u r i n t e n t i o n t ｏ ｄ ｏ ｓ ｏ , y o u m a y a s k d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s ： Ｑ妬IIezﾉIJeaｾFzse加碓pg”Ｏ脚”加蛇””［だgzzgEr娩血stmctuIe delaCommlm皿t6europ6eImeetdesonordreju】idique？
W h a t t h e n i s l h e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n c o n c e m i n g t h e s m l c t u I e o f l h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i w a n d i t s l e g a l s y s t e m ( s ) ？ m c o n c l u s i o n s , d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s a r e a l s o u s e d t o o p e n u p t h e d e b a t e a n d s u g g e s t f U r t h e r p o i n t s t o b e e 》 叩 l o r e d ： IBrevenummmmmd'insertion・qIJeI彫”C”so"２版”c"？ ● ●
I n c o m e s u p p o r l f H o w e f f e c t i v e w m i t ｂ ｅ ？ ● ●
D a n s l e s c i n q U a n t e a n s q U 1 Ⅵ e n n e n t , ｌ ａ ｐ 肥 s s i o n a W 6 m i g m i o n d u Sudvae杖ee豚fram⑨mEntfbrte:ｅｓか“I"me〃zerzacB”z"zec”"“仇
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D u r i n g t h e n e x t h f 句 y e a r s , e m i g r a t i o n p r e s s u r e h o m l h e S o u d l w i l l b e i m m e n s e : d o e s l h i s p o s e a t h r e a t o r i s i t a n o p p o r t u n i 城 P r o b a b 1 y b o l h ．
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( b ） I t i s n o t u n c o m m o n t o h n d a n o u n f b u o w e d b y a c o l o n ､ h l t h e f b Ⅱ o w i n g e x a m p l e , c e r t i t u d e s … : i s u s e d t o i n d i c a t e a s u m m i n g u p o f l h e v a n o u s p o i n t s indleconclusion：
Ｄ ｅ 唾 c e r t i t u d e s p o m I a p o p u l a t i o n 丘 a n 9 a i s e a u s i e c l e p r o c h a i n ： e Ⅱ e s e r a p l u s a g 6 e e t s a p a r t d a n s l a p o p u l a t i o n m o n d i a l e s e r a r6伽咋一
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c e n t u r y : 1 h e n u m b e r o f e l d e l l y p e o p l e w i l l b e g r e a t e n a n d i n t e 】 m s o f n u m b e r s i t w j Ⅱ f b l m a s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e w o １ １ ｄ p o p u l a t i o n ． (c）Theconditionaltenseisoftenusedintheconclusion：
、 P l u t 6 t q U e d e l ， e m p l o i , i l J h ” 切 彪 o n l ' a v u t o u t a u l o n g d e c e l i v r e ， p a l l e r d e s e m p l o i S ･
A s w e h a v e s e e n t h r o u g l o u t t h e b o o k i t w o u l d b e b e t t e r t o t a l k o f j o b s r a t h e r t h a n e m p l o y m e n t ・
a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e c o n d i t i o n a l i s u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s m l c t u r e s r e 企 n i n g b a c k t o p r e c e d i n g a r g u m e n t a t i o n , f b r e x a m p l e , d a n s c e s c o n d i t i o n s , p o u r c e s mn筒臨：
Dfz猶cEsm”Z加心ilco"zﾉ鹿F””"ily””〃'た邸dentamerdes poursuitescon唾lebmlsporteurdesmamhandises･
m t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t w o u l d b e a p p m p r i a t e / t h e r e a r e 厚 o u n d s f b r t a l d n g l e g f d I a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c a m e m
T h e i m p e r s o n a l f b l m i l s e r a i t ( o r e q u i v a l e m j ＋ a d j e c t i v e s s u c h a s o p p o r t u n ， u t i l e , n 6 c e s s a i r e , i n d i s p e n s a b l e , s o u h a i t a b l e d e ＋ i n h n i t i v e i s a l s o u s e f i l l h e l e , i n p a r t i c u l a r f b r m a l d n g r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ：
PUurtoutescesralsons,〃sem〃Opp＠ｍ"z此nepas加冗Erun j u g e m e n m o p h a t i f s u r l a q u e s t i o n ・
F o r a l l o f t h e s e r e a s o n s i t w o u l d b e a d v i s a b l e n o t t o p a s s t o o haswajudgmentonlhematteェ
( d ） m a w r i t t e n r e p o r t , y o u c a n u s e d a s h e s , w i t h n o u n p h r a s e s o r i n h n i t i v e s , i n o r d e r t o r e c a p a n d / o r m a k e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a s c l e a n y a s p o s s i b l e ： Cetaccidentmeten6videncelan6cessit6：
α ” e 加 廊 此 s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n a u x n s q u e s d u p e r s o n n e l e m p l o y 6 ●
α , 卿 z e 花 t ﾉ ﾒ Ｓ ｍ 〃 4 北 s c o n s i 部 1 e s d e s 6 c u m i t 6 -〃物〃”"”Zeaccm血personnelaumomentdu配levBmentdes 6 q U i P e s ．
N o t e t h e c h a n g e s w h e n c h a n g i n g h o m n o u n p h r a s e s t o i n h n i t i v e s ：
3 瓢 Ｊ Ⅵ A 1 g z # ｍ ｅ " 如 加 〃
Cetac面mfmtmeten6videncelan6cessit6：
−曲mieuxse"s泌泌erlepersonnelemployもauxnsqUes f j C だ I ﾉ j S e r l e s c o n s i 厚 1 e s d e s 6 c u r i t e
-此ｍｉｅｕｘｍ"”Zerlepersonnelaumomentdu正lbvementdes c q m p e s ，
T h e E n g i s h e q u i v a l e n t w o u l d p r o b a b l y u s e i n h n i t i v e s ： T h e a c c i d e n t h i 甑 l i 甑 t s l h e n e e d t o
i m p r o v e s a f e 呼 c o n s c i o u s n e s s a m o n g p e r s o n n e l k e e p s a f e Ⅳ i n s m l c t i o n s u p t o d a t e i m p r o v e s u p e r v i s i o n o f p e r s o n n e l d u r i n g s h i f t c h a n g e o v e r s ・
T h e f b u o w i n g i s a n o l h e r e x a m p l e o f l h e u s e o f d a s h e s t o s m l c t u r e t h e infbrmalion：
A i n s i , s a n s p o r t e r I a f f a i r e d e v a n t u n s e r v i c e d e c o n t e n t i e u x , e t comptetenu
〃 j i J F z e ” 減 ” 肱 q U a l i t 6 d e s s e r V i c e s d e M ･ Ｄ ｕ ｐ ｍ Ｓ − 〃 物 ” ℃ ” 施 血 c a s s o c i a l p r e s e n t 6 p a r l a f 3 m i Ⅱ e d o n t i l a s s u r a i t l霊smhsistzmce
i l s e m b l e r a i t 6 q u i t a b l e d e d o n n e r u n e s u i t e f a v o r a b l e a l a mem3ndedeln胸mill②‐
s o , t o a v o i d l e g a l p r o c e e d i n g s , a n d t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t d l e q U a l i w o f s e r v i c e g i v e n b y M , D u p u i s a n d l h e c a s e m a d e b y t h e f a m j l y ; f b r w h o s e w e l f a r e h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e
i t w o u l d s e e m f a i r t o g i v e a s y m p a l h e t i c h e a l i n g t o l h e f a m i ] y b r e q u e s t ．
( e ） N a t u r a l l y ; w h e n d r a w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s , y o u w i l l o f t e n h a v e r e c o u r s e t o a d v e r b s e 唖 r e s s i n g c o n s e q u e n c e ( s e e 7 9 . 3 d o ： I a p o l i t i q u e d e l , e m p l o i e s t a i r z s i n e c e s s a i 】 お m e n t p l u 1 i e Ⅱ e e t m b K t e ・ I E p l u s u r g e n t e s t 伽 廊 c d e n O u s p r 6 p a r e r a c e t t e 6 v o l u t i o n ， 。 ， a m C n a g e r n o 杜 e s o c i 6 t e e t s e s r a p p o r t s a Ⅳ E c l e m o n d e e ９ K t も 】 i e u r enfbnctiondecettenoweⅡedonned6mogfaPhiqUe･
E m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y i s t h e r e f b r e n e c e s s a l n y p l u r a ] i s t i c 、 P r e p a r a t i o n f b r d l e s e c h a n g e s i s u r g e n d y n e e d e d , ａ ｎ ｄ w e m u s t a d a p t o u r s o c i e w a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h l h e o u t s i d e w o r l d i n te】msofthisnewdemographicordeL
B u t y o u m a y a l s o w a n t t o d i s m i s s 〃 ｍ " g c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h s 廿 u c t u r e s s u c h a s n o n p a s q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e ( s e e 4 6 . 4 Ｊ ： Maisc，estbiensnrduc6tedelafEc0ndit6qUesejoueIejeu
e s s e n t i e l ･ l V b ” “ 9 邸 ' " 愈 " I e c r a i n d r e d e v o i r v i e i l l i r l a p y r a m i d e d e s a g e s o u l e s p o p u l a t i o n s d u N o r d p e r d 唾 d u p o i d s p a r r a p p o r t a
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Ｃ ｅ Ⅱ e s d u S u d , m a i s s m p l e m e n t p o u r q U e l a p o p u l a t i ｏ ｎ 丘 a n 9 a i s e comiTmedﾉ諏吋“
B u t t h e c r u c i a l m a t t e r i s o f c o u r s e t h e f b r t i l i w r a t e ､ O u r c o n c e m s h o m l d n o t b e t h a t t h e r e i s a h i 虫 e r p r o p o r t i o n o f e l d e l l y p e o p l e n o r t h a t t h e r e i s a d e c l i n e i n d l e N O 血 e m p o p u l a t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e S o m h , b u t s i m p l y l h a t l h e p o p u l a t i o n o f H a n c e s h o u l d com-in1'ｅｔｏｅ】dst．
Cela”””p“direpo””ｍ”91J』jJ〃j陸sed6sint6唾sserde l ' 6 v D l u t i o n d e s v a l i a b l e s d 6 m o g ? a p h i q U e s ･
T h a t d o e s n o t m e a n h o w e v e r d l a t w e c a n i 印 1 o r e d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e s ．
( f ） T h e m e a n i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s m a y o f c o u r s e i n d i c a t e d l a t l h e y a r e p a r t o f a c o n c l u d i n g r e m a ] ｋ ● ｅ ｎ ＋ n o u n o r n o u n p h r a s e : e n r 6 s u m 6 , ｅ ｎ ｄ 6 面 n i t i v e , e n E n d e c o m p t e , ｅ ｎ ｓｏｍｍｅ,enguisedeconclusion…
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I w i l l c o n c l u d e b y s a y i n g t h a t w e a r e c o u r t i n g d i s a s t e r i f w e d o n o t a c t q u i c l d y
A n d t h e r e a r e v a n o u s d e v i c e s , s u c h a s d l e h a m i n g s m l c t u l e c l e s t … q u e , o r l h e u s e o f p h r a s e s i n a p p o s i t i o n , a v a j l a b l e t o f b c u s o m h e c o n c l u s i o n ： Ｅ ｔ ｃ ね s Z s u r c e t e r r a i n l a c a p a c i t “ m o b i l i s e r l e p o t e n t i e l h u m a i n dﾉunpays-9Jueseiouerain“tabIementlabataiⅡemondialedeIa c o m p 6 t i t i v i t 6 ･
A n d i t i s h e r e o n d 1 i s g r o u n d t h e a b i l i t y o f a c o u n 杖 y t o m o b i l i z e i t s h u m a n r e s o u r c e s 1 h a t 獣 o b a l c o m p e t i t i o n w i l l b e f b u “ ．
勘q耐z,et“semma”yzc恥勿恥ilest6videntqUecesproblemesne sontpaspresdedisparame･
F i n a l l J 〃 a n d t h i s w i l l b e m y c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s o b v i o u s l h a t t h e s e p r o b l e m s a r e n o t a b o u t t o d i s a p p e a l も
② A t t h e z ﾉ e ､ ﾉ e n d , p u n c t u a t i o n o r d i r e c t q U e s t i o n s ( s e e 8 1 . 3 a ) m a y b e u s e d f b r E n i s h i n g e f f e c t ' ： A c e j e u , l a m a j o r i t 6 d e s l h P a n 9 a i s p o m r a i e n t b i e n s e r e 杜 o m E r n0u6s…
h l d 1 i s , t h e m a j o r i w o f F r e n c h p e o p l e c o u I d w e n h n d 曲 e m s e l v e s tobethelosers…
3 3 ａ ； Ⅵ A 7 W l 0 e " ” 0 〃
N e c o n v i e n d r a i t i l p a s d i m G r s e r l e p r o p o s e t d ！ e s s a y e r d e s a m l r
p o u r q U o i I e s c o u p l e s a U j o u r d h u i f b n t e n c o r e d e s e n f a n t s a h n d e c o m p r e n d I E c e q U i p e u t l e s m o t i v e r a e n f a i 】 氾 e n c o r E d e m a i n ？ Wbulditnotbebettertolookatdlematterlheotherwayround
a n d t r y t o e s t a b l i s h w h y c o u p l e s t o d a y c o n t i n u e t o h a y e c h j l d r e n inordertounderstandwhatwillmotivatelhemtohavechjldren imhefUture？
A n d i n s p e e c h , 1 h a n l d n g i s o f t e n i n o I d e ] G i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h r e m e r c i e r d e 十 inEnitiveornn1m2
]Evous花”F℃ie””ir"OFz4JIz"mesqUestions，
ThankyoufbranswemgmyqUestions・ Nous形”祁勿猫lepublic血s””施如仰勉"active・ W e w o u l d l j k e t o l h a n k e v e r y o n e p r e s e n t f b r l h e i r a c t j v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n ． Ｍな"i””力むα雄"加肌
Thankyoufbryourattention E b q 耐 z I M b 7 ℃ 〃
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c o n j u g a t i o n s ( e 喝 m r e a n d 0 i r i n n n i t i v e s ) a n d s o m e o f l h e i l r e g u l a r v e r b s i n h e q u e n t u s e ・ T h e p I i n c i p a l p a r t s o f t h e v e r b i n c l u d e d a r e : t h e p r e s e n t i n h n i t i v e ， i h e p a r t i c i p l e s , t h e p r e s e n t , f U t u l e , i m p e r f b c t , p a s t h i s t o 】 i c , p e l f e c t a n d c o n m t i o n a l t e n s e s , t h e i m p e r a t i v e s , a n d t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e o f t h e s u b j u n c t i v e ・ T h e s i x p a r t s o f e a c h o f t h e t e n s e s c o l r e s p o n d t o l h e h r s t , s e c o n d a n d t h i r d p e r s o n s s i n g u l a r ( j e , t u , i l / e Ⅱ e / o n ) a n d p l u r a l m o u s , v o u s , i l s / e Ⅱ e s ) . T h e r e n e x i v e
v e r b s ' a s s e o i r i s 印 v e n w i t h i t s r e n e 】 d v e p r o n o u n s , a n d b o t h l h e p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t j v e f b r m s o f i t s i m p e l a t i v e a r e i n c l u d e d ・ T h e E r s t a n d t h i r d p e r s o n s o f d l e i m p e l f b c t s u b j u n c t i v e a n d l h e h r s t p e r s o n s i n g m a r o f t h e p e l f e c t a n d p l u p e 虚 c t s u b j u n c t i v e a r e g l v e n . ‘
G u i d e l i n e s o n t h e f b m l a t i o n o f s i m p l e t e n s e s a l e g v e n i n s e c t i o n s 3 1 . 2 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , a n d f b r l h e f b I m a t i o n o f c o m p o u n d t e n s e s , r e f b r t o t h e g u i d e l i n e s o m h e a l m l i a l y v e r b s a v o i r ( s e e 3 5 . 1 ) a n d § 蛭 ( s e e 3 5 . 3 ) . R e m e m b e B o n c e y o u l m o w d l e s i m p l e t e n s e s o f a m i r a n d 6 唾 a n d t h e p a s t p a r t i c i m l e o f t h e v e r b y o u w a n t t o u s e , y o u c a n f b l m a n y o f l h e c o m p o u n d t e n s e s ・ T h e p e l f b c t i n h n i t i v e i s
f b r m e d b y u s i n g t h e p r e s e n t i n E n i t i v e o f l h e a u 】 d l i a l y v e r b a n d t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e ( s e e 5 2 ) ． T h r e e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o r e m e m b e r ：
l M o s t F r e n c h v e r b s a r e r e g u l 錘 T h e y c o n f b r m t o t h e g u i d e l i n e s o n f b m l a t i o n o f t e n s e s ､ N e v e r l h e l e s s , i I r e g u l a r v e r b s a r e i n 丘 e q u e n t u s e a n d v e r b t a b l e s a r e
p r o v i d e d s o l h a t s t u d e n t s h a v e e a s y a c c e s s t o a c h e c I d i s t ､ M o s t o f t h e i I r e g u l a r v e r b s a r e l n g m u p s t o o : w h e n y o u l m o w m e t t r e , f b r e x a m p l e , y o u a l s o l m o w i t s c o m p o u n d s , a n d l m o w i n g w h a t h a p p e n s w i t h v e r b s e n d i n g i n i n d r e ( s e e c r a i n d I B , f b r e x a m p l e , i n l h e v e r b t a b l e s ) , m e a n s t h a t y o u h a v e a l l t h e v e r b s w i t h i n m i t i v e s e n d i n g i n i n d １ ℃ a t y o u r E n g e r t i p s 、
２ F o r m a t i o n o f t h e t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r o f l h e i n t e I r o g a t i v e a n d i t s n e g a t i v e f b r m s f b r a l l f b r m s e n d i n g i n a v o w e l : r e m e m b e r y D u m z J s t a d d t b e f b r e i l ， e n e a n d o n , o r u s e e s t c e q u e ？ Ａｔ−ｉｌｄｍｍ解 Va-t-on？
H a s h e g i v e n ？ N , a t e Ⅱ e p a s e c I i 畷 HasIftshewlitten？ A I e w e / y o u / t h e y N e p m l e t i l p l u s ？ DoesnPthespeak g o i n g ？
anymore2
3 3 5 W b r I 7 m b 肱
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F i n i r a 戸 t i l ？
W111hehnish？
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I s l f t s h e g o i n g ？ Wblftweever
r e p l y ？
nｍ
Est-cequPildonne？Est-cequIilnedonnepaS？
I f d l e v e r b d o e s n ' t e n d i n a v o w e l , t h e n t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e i s f b r m e d i n t h e u s u a l w a y : p r e n d i l ? , n l a u r a i t e Ⅱ e p a s ? , r e 9 0 i t o n 2 T h e o n ] y e x c e p t i o n t o l h i s i s v a i n c r e ‘ t o c o n q U e r ' a n d i t s m o r e u s e f U l c o m p o u n d c o n v a i n c r e ‘ t o c o n v i n c e ' ： cOnyainc-t-il/ene/０，２
３ T h e r e a r e v a r i o u s w a y s o f a s I d n g q u e s t i o n s w i d l t h e h r s t p e r s o n s i n g u l a n Y b u cansimplymakeastatementandaddlheintonationofaqUestion,oryoucan s t a r t y o u r q u e s t i o n w i l h E s t c e q u e ? , q I f e s t c e q U e ? , Q u e ? , ０ 浬 … . B u t i t i s p o s s i b l e w i t h a v e r y f e w v e r b s t o u s e i n v e r s i o n w i d l j e : a i j e , d i s j e ? , d o i s j e ? ， s a i s j e ? , s u i s j e ? , v a i s j e ? , a n d n o t e t h e i n t e I r o g a t i v e f b r m f b r p o m 0 i r : p u i s j e ？ ４ F o r f b l m a t i o n o f t h e f U t u r e p e r f e c t , c o n d i t i o n a l p e r f e c t , ｐ l u p e r f e c t a n d p a s t anteriortenses,ｓｅｅ35.1.
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Ｓｔ
︽副︽副︽副︽劃︽副︽副
ｅｄ ｅｄ ｅｄ ｅｄ ｅｄ ｅ ｄ
iirP弦
ｎＳｍ ＳＳｔｍ 肥Ｓ 曲面血幽血曲
diront
Ｚ廿 ｍ 画唾、、ｎ唾
０Ｅ ０ｒ ０ｒ ０ｒ ０ｒ ０ １ Ｃ ｃｃ ｃｃ Ｃ
diIa
Ｓｔ
dirons
睡ｍｍｍｍｍｍ ｍｍｍｍｍｍｍ
唾︾︾唖岬唖州
Ｏ０００００
devez
Ｓｔ・孤鵡、 唖唖皿唖唖唖皿皿ｍ
devons
ｍｍｍｍ皿ｍ Ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ ０ Ｃ
doit
fmindrBz
ｎｚｎ Ｏｅｅ
dois
consmli耐
肥Ｚｎ
Ｓ ｎｔ Ｚｎ
croyons
皿ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ００ Ｆ ｃＯ ｃＯ ｃ
Ｓ ｔｎ ｎＺ Ｏ Ｓｅ Ｓｅ Ｓ
croyez croient
dimR
d i s a n t , 。 i ｔ
逃・遮証・韮・理・悲
croit
dimi
d i l e ‘ s a y I t e u ,
dois
d e v o i r ‘ h a v e t o , ｏ ｗ ｅ ’ d e v a n t , ｄ ａ ( d u e , 。 u s , d u e s ）
CrOlS
c r o i r e ‘ b e l i e v e ’
cmindront
唖・皿・皿・唖・唖・唖
匠禰inrire‘fear
c r o i s
c r o y a n t , ｃ ｒ ｕ
旧mindrons
ＳＳｔ印印印
c r a i g n a n t , c r a i n t
唾唾皿皿唾唾 ０Ｃ ０Ｃ ０Ｃ ０Ｃ ０Ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
COulant,COuru
consmlf砲R
cons、]isant,congm]iｔ
ＯＳ ｅＳ ｅ ＳＳｔＳ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ ｎｎｎｎｎ、 ＯＣ ０Ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
coulirTunF
cons江11i面i
conRm1ire‘b皿d,
Ｓ ｔｎ ｎＺ ｏｅｅ
●
ｍ・唾・唾血・唖・邸・唖
connalssant,ｃｏｎｎｕ
皿皿皿皿ｍｍ Ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ ０ Ｃ
conn戒tTe‘Ｉｍｏｗ’
配。ｄ勺。、ｑｑｄ勺ｄｐｄ
cond1'ire‘lead,
恥皿皿皿皿皿皿
conduisant,conduit
l 3 N D I c M M I I v E l I N F I N m v E & P A I m C I P L E S
339陥池mbIes
CＯＮＤＩｎ０ＮＡＬ
硫翻噸職弧WyE
conduisisSe,conduisit Ｓ
ｎＺｔ
ｅｅＳｅｏ ｍ ｏ 肥 ｍ
ｎ・山・山・山・山・皿・皿
COnn3uR
conmiRgPz
Perfect aleconduit
P l u p e 1 f b c t
h n p e 1 f e c t connusse,connqt Ｓ
ｎＺｔ
ｅ ｅＳｅ ． 、 。 肥 ｍ
ｏｎｔｃｏｎｍｌ
血叩erfect
eusseconduit
ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ Ｓ Ｓ 釦・釦・釦・釦・証・釦 ｍｍｍｍｍｍ Ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ ０ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
ａｖｅｚｃｏｎｎｌＩ
cond1'iR”
COnn副iSSOnS
Ｓｎ
ａｖｏｎｓｃｏｎｎｌｌ
唾唖皿皿唖睡
ａｃｏｎｎｌｌ
︽ｍＡｍＡｍ︽皿︿皿︽劃
ａｓｃｏｎｎｌｌ
ｍｍｍｍｍｍ Ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
ａｌｃｏｎｎｌｌ
COnnI1iR
condI1igOns
Ｓｎ
ontcond1'iｔ
ＳＳｔｍ唾・韮
ａ刃EzconrhTit
皿率皿︾皿“皿”皿・ｍ
avonscoｎＨ１１ｉｔ
ａｄ勺。。。℃ｄＴｄｇｄ
acondlIit
ｎｎｎｎｎｎ ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
ascondnit
ｔＳＳＳＳＳＳ
肥司ｄａｄｄ、ｑＴｑ▽ｄ
恥皿皿皿皿皿皿
PeIfEct
aiconH'１it
SUBJUNCrIVE
PerfEct ●
aｌｅｃｏｎｎｌｌ
Ｐ ｌ ｕ ｐ ｅ ｒ ｆ Ｅ ｃ ｔ ｅｕｓｓｅｃｏｎｎｕ
ｅｅ
ｍｍ
ｎｎ ｏＯ ｃＣ
aiconsm】it
cons1rlli繭iR
consmliR
aSCOnRm】iｔ
consmlirajs
consmliRnnR
ａｃｏｎｓｍｌｉ↑
conshrI1ir丹廿
construisez
avonsconsmli↑
consbmirinns
cons江､櫛Ｉｍｓ
aieconsmIit
avezconsmli↑
consm1iripZ
ＣＯｎＳｍ]浦eZ
P l u p e 1 f e c t
ontconstmi↑
cons位InimfQnt
consmliR色ｎｔ
eusseconstmit
l m p e r f e c t c o n s m l i s i s s e ， cons杖uisit
ｓ
唾唾唾・皿・吐血
COumSSe,ＣＯｕｍｔ
Ｓ ｎ ｚｔ
ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０Ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
Ｓ
酔酔罪・皿・評墾
ｍ・釦・釦・釦・劃・副 Ｉ ｒＣ ｒｃ ｒｃ ｒＣ ｒ Ｃ Ｃ
Ｐ℃rfEct ●
alecouru
P I u p e r f E c t
l m p e r f e c t
c r a i g n i s s e , c r a i g n i t
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
periEct aiec掴int
P I u p e 1 f E c t eussecr3int
h n P e r f E c t
CrOIS
crole
croyons
croies
c m s s e , c r f i t
croyez
croie
PerfEct
c r o y i o n s c r o y i e z
alecru
P I u P e r f E c t
croient
eussecru
ＳｎＺｅｍ ｅ ｅ ｅ Ｏ Ｖ ●Ⅳ。Ⅳ。Ⅳ。Ⅵ。Ⅵ。１ ０ｄ ０ｄ ０ｄ ｅｄ ｅｄ ０ ｄ
dois
devons
Ｓｔ
devez
dis disons
●
h n p e r f E c t dusse,dUt PerfEct
aiedQ
P 1 u p e r f b c t
h n p e r f E c t d i s s e , d i t Ｓ
ｎｚｍ
dites
ｅｅＳｅ．ｍ・肥ｅ
■
ＳＳＳＳＳＳ 逝曲逝逝山血
ontdit
Ｓｎ
ayezdit
ＳＳｔｍ配．肥
avonsdit
I m p e r f b c t
eussｅｄｑ
血血唖迩血血
aidit
asdit adit
Ｓｍ
ontdn
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ
avonsdO avezdU
・麺・麺・麺△唖。︾・麺
adq
ｄｄｄｄｄｄ
aidO
asdO
c r a i g n o n s c r a i g n e z
ｍ
ｏｎtｃｒｕ
Ｓｍ
ａｖｅｚｃｒｕ
EWllnR
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ
ａｖｏｎｓｃｒｕ
画一皿︾皿︾皿恥唾一画
ａｃｍ
ＯＩ ０ｒ ０ｌ ０ｒ ０ｒ ０ Ｉ Ｃ ｃｃ ｃｃ Ｃ
ａｌＣｒｕ
Ｅｎｌｌｒ倶冗
Ｓ
ontm･ｎｉｎｔ
ａｓｃｒｕ
ｃｏｕｒｏｎｓ
ＳＳｔｍ唾・罪
avezc頂int
唖唖唖血血血
ayonsc耐int
・皿・皿・皿・皿・皿・ｍ
ａ仮mim
ＣＯ１１ｒＳ
Perfect
R11RRecoum
ｒｃ ｒｃ ｒＣ ｒＣ ｒＣ ｒ ｃ
aic”ｉｎｒ
ａｓｃｍｉｍ
鉦・釦・
ontcouru
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ ｎ
ａｙｏｎｓｃｏ１ｍn
axﾉezcouru
唖・唖・皿・唖
ａＣｍｎｒｕ
ｍｍ
ａｓｃｎＩｍｌ
Ｏｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ ０ｃ Ｏ Ｃ
ａｌｃｏｕＩｕ
cons江uise
Pelfbct aiedit
P l u p e r f E c t eussｅｄｉｔ
340陥功師bIes
ｎ
血 ・ 皿 ・ 皿 ・ 皿 ︽皿睡・唖
ｏ ｅＳｎ ＳＳＳｔ 皿宰唖諏唖
ｅＳｎ ︾皿﹄皿︾皿︾
Ｃ ｃｃｃｃＣ 参ｅ〃ｅ“ｅ〃ｅＰｅ少ｅ
ＳＳｔ ｅＳｎｅＳｎ
皿醒恥舎卿睡碑趣睡麺麺識︽︾
ｍｍｍｍ”、叩叩叩叩叩叩 ｅｅｅｅｅｅｅｅｅｅｅｅ
視
dormions
睦巾曲血如血曲
ｔ
Ｓｎｔ
espeIcz
Ｓ畝
Ｓ ＳｔｎＺｅＳＳｔ恥配・唖 卿・卿・卿・皿・江・卿・皿・皿・皿．ｎ．ｎｒ
〃
ＳＳｔｍ唾・肥
皿皿皿皿皿皿６６ｐ ６ｐ 〃ｐ ｅｐ 〃ｐ ｅｐ ６ 鴎鴎閉露鴎鴎 ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
esperons
ｎ．ｎ．ｎ．ｎ．ｎ．ｎ
Ｓｔ
，
Ｓ ｔｎ ｅＳ 狸癖卒︽廻癖癖閉Ｓ航
ＳＳ Ｓ露 齢 齢 斌 、 睡 恥 鴎 鴎Ｓ 鴎Ｓ 鴎Ｓ酷
Ｓｎｔ
ｔ
ＳＳｔｎＺｅＳｎ
唖・咽・理・皿・鉦・咽・錘・鉦趣・皿．唖・証
畷恐恐醸承恋面面面面面面
Ｓｔ
皿唾、、唖ｍ
ｅｅｅｅｅｅＳｔ
ＺＯ ｎ 可 可 可 可 可 可 ・ 釦 鎚 ａ Ｏｎｅ
Ｓ曙 Ｓ爵 Ｓ鴎 Ｓ酷 Ｓ鴎 Ｓ企 ｒ企 ｒ企 ｒ陀 ｒ舶 Ｉ陀 ｒ “
Ｓ ｅ Ｓｎ
●皿鎚ａ︽皿誰、匪
ｍｍｍｍｍｍ 企舶舵陀免免
Ｓｎ
・皿・唖・唖・皿・皿、
ＳＳｔｍ配・砥
陀陀陀陀陀陀
Ｓ
ｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
●皿唾、皿睡ｍ
舵陀陀企免陀
Ｓｔ
ｎＯ Ｚｅｎ ｅＳ ｅｅ ｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
felmer‘shut，
陀陀陀免企企
felmant,ferme
ｏ皿唾、、唾ｍ
espere
ilねⅡⅦ↑
園lait
ilf111d掴
ilfaut
値11nirmuSt’
espere
ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅ ｒ 壷ｅ６”ｅ６●ｅ〃ｅ ｐ ｐＳ ｐＳ ｐＳ ｐＳ ｐ Ｓｅ Ｓ ｅ ｅｅ ｅｅ
f a i r e ‘ d o , m a k e ’ f a i s a n t , i a i t
esperes
咽・皿毎咽。Ⅵ。Ⅵ砲
envoyez envoient
Ｃ ＣＣＣＣＣ ｅ”ｅ〃ｅ〃ｅ〃ｅ夢ｅ
envoie
Ｓｔ
envoyons
Ｓ
ecmﾉez
・鉦
6crivent
dormiez
︾唖唖︾唖
夕 ■
釦鎚ａ、唾、 江肱賦汀な画 呼睡眠皿呼脈 ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
P
envole
︾皿。唾・唖．皿。唖。ｍ
e s p e r e n t
Ｓ ｔ ＺＯ ｎ ｅｅＳ ｅＳ ｅｎｅ
essayant,essaye
ｔ 可 可 可 可 可 可 Ｓ Ｓ ｔ Ｓｍ ｔ鴎ｎ 騨恥恐邸函恥面面面面圃肋
e s s a y e m y ，
Q 夕 夕
e s p 6 1 e r ‘ h o p e ， e s p 6 r a n t , e s p e r e
envoies
e n y o y e r ‘ s e n d ’ e n v o y a n t , e n v o y 6
ｇ ”
唾・皿
dolmant,ｄｏｌｍｉ
Ｃ ｃｃｃｃＣ 今ｅＰｅ少ｅ〃ｅＰｅ〃ｅ
ｅｃｎｖｏｎｓ
dombniR
皿００００００
d o l m i r ‘ S l e e p ，
e ”
doImnit
碩昼ｄｄｄｄｄｄ
6 c r i t
dorm3iR
ｎｚｎ ｎＯｅｅ 6cmｓ
§c虚e‘wlite’
hnpe㎡もct
︾唾唾血唖麺耐
ecns
6 c r i v a n t , e c r i t
l I N D l K 蛸 m x v 雷 INFIMⅢＶＥ＆I乳RIYCIPLES
donT13ffmt
f a l l u
3 4 1 Ｗ ､ 吻 如 b I E s
lCONDmONALlil【MPEIW郷I態 PerfEct
SUBJUNCTⅣＥ Pmsent
ontdormi
ont6crit
少
PerfEct
donninng dolTni”
P l u P e I f E c t
dolment
色''RＲｅｄｏｒｍｉ
eCnS
6crivons 6crivez
envole
envoyons envoyez
〆
a i e s p e r 6 夕 夕
P
asespere 夕 夢
aespelfe 夕 夕
avonsespere P P
夕
o n t e s p 6 r 6
e s p e r e r a i e n t
espere
e s p e r e s
avezfait
少
P l u p e r i b c t e u s s e e n v o y 6
PeIfect
espere 夕 ◆
” P
espenons
espenez
e s p e r e n t essaye
essayons essayez
f a i s
仇iRnns f a i t e s
ontf3it ilaf泡llu
申
aleenvoye
少
Ｓ
avonsfait
PerfEct
h n P e 1 f E c t e s p e r a s s e , e s p 6 r a t
，
ｎＺｔ 班球球・皿・韮麺ｅｅｅＳ・皿、 ・ｚ 肥ｔ 印
afait
h n P e r f b c t e n v o y a s s e , e n v o y a t
e s p 6 r o n s e s p 6 r e z
ＳＳＳＳＳＳ舗鴎銘記鴎船 齢“鎚閉鈴飴胞胞胞胞也胞
asfait
Ｓｍ
舗倫it
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ
少
ontessaye
皿・皿・血．ｍ・配・皿Ｓｔ ｅ ｅｅｅｅｅｎ
少
夕
可可却却却却・・唾・睡画・皿・唖・鉦 Ｓ ＳＳＳＳＳ
aessaye
avonsessaye avezessaye
郎齢飴露鴎鴎免企企陀免陀
夕
aie6clit
P l u p e 1 f b c t
，
少
f m i e s s a y e a s e s s a y 6
PerfEct
eusse6crit
夕 ●
esperenez
6 c r i v i s s e , e c r i v i t
espere
a
avezespere
aiedolml
I m p e r f E c t
ＳＳ
e s p e r e r a i s e s p e l f e r a i s e s p 6 r e r a i t e s p 6 r e r i o n s
●
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ Ｏ ｅ ｎ
avezenvoye
ontenvoye
dolme
肥．姪．肥・狐・弧・妃
夕
dolmez
０００００Ｏ ｍｍｗｍｍｍ ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
〃
avonsenvoye
ｎｅ ＳＳｔＳ ｎＺ
aenvoye
画・皿・皿・皿・咋・画
夕
ｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｗｍｍｍｗ ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
alemmye
a S e n v o y 6
mnPerfbct d o m l l s s e , ｄ ｏ ｌ ｍ ｉ ｔ
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
avez6clit
dolmes
Ｓ
avons6clit
domlons
肥肥肥・加・唾唖
aecrit
dorme
●ｎ．ｎ．ｎ．ｎ．ｎ・ｎ
asecrit
dors
Ｃ ｃｃｃｃＣ 〆ｅ〃ｅＰｅ“ｅ“ｅ〃ｅ
ＳＺｎ ＳＳｔｎ ｅ
−皿率皿率皿恥皿碗皿一咽
Ｃ ｃｃｃｃＣ 塚ｅ参ｅ参ｅも“ｅ“ｅ
aieclit
。ｍ・劃・皿．、。ｅ・劃
avezdOrmi
ＳＳｔｎｚｅ ｎ
avonsdormi
●皿・血・皿・血・皿ｍ
adormi
Ｏ０００００
asdnrmi
ｄｄ○ｄｄｄｄ
aidoTmi
a i e e s p e r e Plupe虚ct e u s s e e s p 6 r 6 h n P e r f E c t e s s a y a s s e , e s s a y a t Peribct 少
a i e e s s a y e P l u P e 虚 c ｔ 夕
eusseessaye
h n P e 1 f e c t f i s s e , f i t Perfbct aiefait
P l u P e r f E c t eussefhit
i'ぬT1rimi↑
ilねille
hnperfect iI倫11m
Perfect
i l a i t f 8 1 1 u
P l u p e r f E c t ileqtfallu
I m P e r f b c t fbImasse,企rmat Ｓ
ｅ飴ｅ・岬・唾亜
ｍｍｍｒｍｍ
企陀陀陀陀陀
Ｓ
ｎＺ
ｅＯｅ ｍｍｍ
免企企
ontfeIm6
・皿・皿・皿。ｍ・肥・画
avezfenn6
ｎｅ Ｓ Ｓ ｔＳ ｎＺ
avonsfelm6
ｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
aibrme
陀陀蛇企免胞
aifelm6
asfelm6
PerfEct aiefeIm6
P l u p e I f b c t eusseferm6
342叱功mbIEs
。、Ｓｎ ｅＳｅ 趣・皿・皿皿△ 函睡・恥
睦、伽伽ｍｍｍ
Ｓ
ｅＳｔ 釦遜ａ︿皿誰画
ｅｅｅｅｅ負ｅ ｇ ｇｇｇｇｇ ｍｍｍｍ麺ｍ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
ｔ
ｎｔ
麺・麹・騨・甑・詳解画極極伽睡画
ｅ ＳＳｔ砿Ｚ証 ＳＳｔ畑ｚｍ
ｍｍｍｍｍｍｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍ
Ｓ
虹鎚ａ、配叩Ｓ
唖︽皿・皿
ｅＳｎ 皿・皿・皿へ
００００００
ｅＳｎ
曙Ｓｍ
ｐ▲、△Ｄ△Ｄ△ｐ︽ｐ△ｐ︽、△Ｄ▲ｐ１ｐＤ些、▲ｐ、墨Ｄ△Ｄ﹂、１
郵班皿︽︾︾︾唖唖麺唖︾︾鉦錘諏函錘錘
ｎＺｎ Ｏｅｅ
砥砥、血皿垂皿皿麺皿函亜 ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐ
ｔｎ Ｓ ｔｎＳＳＯＳ ｎＺ 、Ｚ ｅ ｅ
︾︾岬唖︾︾唖︾唖唖︾︾ ︽皿︽皿今週︽皿︽唖︽唖 ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐ
画唾函皿唖皿
ｅｐ ｅｐ ｅ ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｅ ｐｅ ｐｅｐ
︾・︾・︾・︾・︾・︾︾︾“唖唖唖唾唾画趣唖酔
釦 ・劃・皿。、。肥・釦ＳｎＳｎ ＳＳＳＳＳＳ
Ｓｎ ｎ Ｚ ｅ ｔ ｔ ＳＳ・ｔ
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ ｎ 皿
釦。皿 ・皿・皿・唖・岬
．ｎＺ州
００００００
皿Ｓ ｕ
皿。 唖
Ｓｔ
皿・唖︽皿・皿・皿・皿
p e r d r e ‘ l o s e ’ p e r d a n t , p e r d u
ｐ、＆ｐｐＤ＆Ｄ＆
p a r t i r ‘ l e a v e ， partanbparti
ＳＳｔＳＳＳ
p a r a i p e ‘ a p p e a r p a r a i s s a n t , ｐ ａ ｍ
ｍＴｆｅｓ ｍｅｔｔｅｚ
ｍｉｍｎｔ ｍｅｔｔｅｎｔ
ｍｌｍｅＲ
ｍｅｔｍｎＲ
ｔ
l i r o n ｔ
Ｓｚ ｎｅ ＳＳｔｎ ・麺・皿・皿。、．肥・証 ＳⅡ ＳⅡ ＳⅡ ＳⅡ ＳⅡ Ｓ Ⅱ
I i s e n t
・釦Ｓ、配、 l i r e z
ｍ ｊ ｔ ｍｅｔ
︾︾︾︾︾︾唖唾睡唖唖耐 ｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍ
Ｓ
ｎｔ
ｍｅｔｓ
・皿・ 皿・皿 ︾緬唖ｈｂｂ ｂ
I f R P 7 E
ｍｌｓ
ｍＰｔＳ
mettant,ｍｉｓ
lurent
l i r o n s
f b l ' m i R R i e 院 fbUmigR別ient
皿 ｓ ｍ ｅ ｍ ｅ ‘ p u t ’
lnmes
l j r a
l i s o n s
fbl1miR9ions
ｎＺｎ ＯＢｅ
ouvrant,ouvert
ｎＯＺ ｅＳ ｅｅ ｅｎ ｅ 叩皿皿皿皿皿 ００００００
o u v r i r ‘ o p e n ,
ＯＺｅｎ ｅＳ ｅ ｇ ｇｅ ｇｅ ｇｇｅ ｇ ｍｍｍ皿皿皿 ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
少
l n t e s
l i t
f h U ' m i R R 月 i t
卸・皿・皿皿・皿・唖・皿
mangeant,mange
lut
l j l a i
l j l a s
hnperfect
睦如如如ｍわわ
m a n g e r ‘ e a t ，
lus l i s
l i s
fO1'miRR丹iR
fbumissant,fbumi
lus
l i l e ｨ I B a d ,
l i s a n t , l ｕ
fbUmiRR丹iR
f b u m i r ‘ p r o v i d e ，
l x N D I c A f I w 園 l I N F I N m V E & E A I m C I P L E S
3 4 3 脆 池 畝 ６ １ G ｓ
CoNDITIONAL
１W”lR職寵溌鵬
avonslu avezlu
l u s 9 e , l u t
l i s e z
l i s e l i s i o n s
Perfbct aielu
l i s i e z ‘
P l u p e r f E c t
I i s e n t
eussｅｌｕ
駅浮Ｓ解・邸・酔騨
I m p e r f E c t
m a n g e a s s e , m a n g e a t Pe1fEct
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
皿血皿、迦迦 ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
Ｓ
ｎ
ＯＺ
aiemang6 P 1 u p e r f e c t eussemang6
唯噸娠血唾唾 ｅｅｅｅｅｅ ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
1mpe唾ct
Ｓ
Ｓ
ｎＺ Ｏｅ
幅枕杜 ｅｅｅ ｍｍｍ
m i s s e , ｍ ｉ ｔ ＰｅｒｆＥｃｔ
正Ｚｍ
avezmis
e 1 ' R R e f h ' １ ｍ ｉ
nnpe虚ct
ｍ皿ｍ ｍｍｍ
凸
ayonsmls
■
P 1 u p e r f E c t eussemis
I m p e r f e c t
ｓ
ouvlisse,oumt Perfbct
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
ＯｕＶＩｅＺ
唾唾唾・岬・皿唖
ｏｕｖｒｏｎｓ
ｎ
avezouyert
oｕｖｒｅ
ｏ０００００
avonsouvert
砥・醒麺・皿醒・証
aouvert
皿皿皿唖唖皿 ０００ＯＯ０
asowert
aleowert
P 1 u p e r f e c t eusseouvert
ontoUVert
Ｓ ｎＺ ｔｎＺｔ ＳＳＳ
砿Ｚｔ
ｅｅＳｅｏ ｍｏ 肥印
Ｓ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ
ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
ＤＬｐＤ今、畠、︽Ｄ△Ｄ▲、公Ｄ４Ｄ公Ｄ△、基
p e l d s p e r d o n s p e r d e z
皿鉦垂麺鉦唖唾唾唾血血唖
p a r t o n s p a r t e z
Ｄ里Ｄ＆ＤＬＤ▲Ｄ▲Ｄ冬
a i p e r d u a s p e r d u aperdu avonsperdu ayezperdu ontperdu
●
pals
ＳｎＳｎ
s u i s p a l t i ( e ） e s p a r t i ( e ） e s t p a r t i ( e ） s o m m e s p a r t i ( e 〕 s e t e s p a r t i ( e ) ( s ） s o n t p a r t i ( e ) s
paralssons paralssez
皿・皿・皿・皿・皿・ ︾
avezpam
ontpam
palals
Ｓｎ
aparu avonspam
恥︾︾︾︾︾Ｓ唖 ・麺 砥唖 ｔ血 ｎ麺 Ｚ唖 ｅｅ 唾ｅ 睡ｅ 画ｅ 趣ｅ 睡ｅ 睡
aspam
ｐｐＤ﹄ｐｐＤ△ｐｐＤ▲ｐｐ畠ｐｐｐｐｐＤ︽ｐ星
alpam
●
alemls
ontmis alouvert
aiefb''mf
muperfEct
l i s e s
Ｓｎ ｔ
３ｍｉｓ
ｅｅｅｅｅｅ
ｍｍｌｓ
ａｓｍｉｓ
PerfEct
l i s e
ｅｅ ｇ ｇｅ ｇ
少
ontmange
fbumisse,fbumit
l i s
Ｓｎ
夕
avezmange
︾・ ︾ｅ ・︾・︾唾睡唖麺唖睡 ｅ ｅ︾ ｅ︾ ｅ・ｅ
avonsmange
ｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍｍ
′
h n p e r f E c t
lisons
ontlu
aimange asmange amang6
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
alu
ｅｅＳｅｏｍ ・ 配 ｍ
3R11Y
Ｓｎ
ＳＳｔｍ顕・韮
皿睡血血雌世
ailu
ｔ銘銘粥詔詔詔
fbllmissez
ｎ
avonsfb11mi ayezfbmmi ontfblｎｍｉ
fO1lmiR
fbl1missons
如ｍｍｍ允如
afb',mi
．唖．︾︾恥︾︾．ｅ 唖
asfb''mi
ｍｍｍｍｍｍ
aifb''mf
︾・皿・皿・皿・皿・皿皿
Perfect
SUB1UNCTIVE
h n p e 1 f E c t p a l u s s e , p a l d t Pe1fEct alepam
P l u p e r f b c t eussepam
I m p e r f b c t p a l t i s s e , p a m t Perfect
s o i s p a r t i ( e ) P l u p e r f e c t f U s s e p a l t i ( e ） I m p e I f E c t
p e r d i s s e , p e r d i t Perfect
a i e p e r d u P 1 u p e r f E c t eusseperdu
3坐Ｗb池mbIes
虚・証・悲麺・唾・皿・唖・皿
ｃｔｔ ｅＳＳＳＳＳＳｅ ｐ・副誠・釦・釦・劃・劃ｌ
ｍｍｒＪｕ制勝畔臥血
Ｓ
ＳｅＳｔ ｎ ｅＳｎ
“叩吐血咋唾姓雌改血睡血
Ｓｔ
ｔ
血血山血血血 、ｎｎｎｎｎ 肥肥随肥確肥
管皿遜ａｍ配叩
ｎｅ ＳＳｔＳ ｎＺ 画趣虹血睡血 、ｎｎｎｎｎ 唾肥唾肥肥肥
ＣＤＣ〃ＣＤ︽ＹＣ沙ｎＹｎｎｎｎｎｎ ｅ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅＩ ｅ 肥肥肥唾唾唾 Ｉ ｒ
recevront
recevaient
Ｓ ｔｎ ｅＳ ｐｐｐｐｐｐ
Ｓｍ
recev1ez
Ｓ ｔｎ ｅＳ
唾雌、、咋唾 ｐｐｐｐｐｐ
ＳＳｔｎＺｅ 画・皿・皿・皿・唾・皿 Ｄ凸Ｄ＆Ｄ込、里ＤＬＤＬ
肥肥肥肥配肥
recevrez
恥・顕血︿皿雄・皿
ｎｅ ＳＳｔＳ ｎＺ 皿・皿・岨・皿・脈・皿
Ｏ０００００ ｐｐｐｐｐｐ
唖唾唾唖唖皿唖唖唾唖唖廻 ＯＯＯＯＯＯ肥配配肥肥肥 ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐ
Ｓ
Ｓ ｔｎ ｅＳ
ｒｒｒｒｒＩ
睡雌並血睡血 、ｎｎｎｎｎ ｏ００００Ｏ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐ ６鐸ｅ”ｅ”ｅ６”ｅ
鴎Ｓｎｔ
唾雌虹、唾唾 ＳＳＳＳＳＳ
ＳＳＳＳＳＳ
麺・皿・麺・皿・鉦・麺
ｎｅ Ｓ Ｓ ｔＳ ｎＺ
ｒｒｒｒＩｒ
ｔ
ｎｅ ＳＳｔＳ ｎＺ 虹迩血血姓迩 ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎｏ ｎ ０ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐ ６６“ｅ“ｅも“ｅ
Ｓ
哩唖哩皿唖血 ａＳ ａＳ ａＳ ａＳ ａＳ ａ Ｓ
Ｓ ｔ ｎＺｍ
唖唾姻血畦血 、ｎｎｎｎｎ ｏ００００Ｏ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐ 参ｅ参ｅ”ｅ〃ｅ６今ｅ ｒ ｒＩｒｒＩ
Ｓ ｔ ｎＺｎ
Ｓ ｔｎ ｎＺ
証・鎚諏麺鉦韮
savoir‘lmowI
配cev10ns
ＳｔＳ
ＳＳＳＳＳＳ
s a c h a n t , S ｕ
■
recevait
IEcewons
ＳＳｔｍ配印ｎＺ誠
ｅｄ ｅ 曲曲ｄｄＯｄ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎＯ ｎ ｏ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐ 参ｅＰｅ少ｅＰｅ少ｅ〃ｅ ｒ ｒｒｌｒｒ
r e p o n d r e ‘ I B p l y r 6 p o n d a n t , r 6 p o n d u
B
recevIa
ＳｄＳ ｅｄ ｅｄ ａ．ｍ．ｍｗｗ・ｍ ｄＯ ｄｄ
ren巾、↑豊rend,】
唾率哩．︾・理・︾．︾唖唖
1 p l e u t
ｕｐ ｌｐ ｌｐ ｌｐ ｌｐ ｌｐ ｌⅡ ｐ Ｆ
p l e u v o i r ‘ r a i l r p l e u v a n t , ｐ ｌ ｕ
recevals
ｆ９９ｃｃｃｎｎｎｎｎｎ 肥配正正疋配配肥肥肥配肥
r e n d r e ‘ g i v e b a c k
i l p l u t
p l a i s p l a i s p l a i t p l a i s o n s p l a i s e z p l a i s e n t
recevals
p l u s p l u s P l u t plames p l O t e s p l u r e n t p l a i r e ‘ p l e a s e ’ p l a i s a n t , ｐ ｌ ｕ
lecevral
r e c e v o i r ‘ r e c e i v e ノ
皿ＳｔＳｍ
p r e n d l e ‘ t a k e j p l e n a n t , ｐ ｒ ｉ ｓ
Pasthismric P唾sent
recevras
IEcevant,re9u
、△ｎＺｎＳＳ
pouvant,ｐｕ
叫哩、皿唾皿、、皿皿唖皿 唾肥肥犯肥肥 ｅｅｅ００ｅ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐ
p o u v o i r ‘ c a n , b e a b l e j
INpI旧斑漉V１Ｅ
￨ I N F I N I T I V E & 皿 m C I P L E S
3 4 5 陥 r b m b I e s
lCONDITTONALlI躍餓YXWE
SUBJUNCTIVE P】氾sent
Pel症ct
ＳＳｔ肥Ｚ皿・咽 麺麺麺趣恥心血皿 ｌｌｌｌｌｌＤ１ ｐｐｐｐｐｐ﹃Ⅱ
a i p l u a s p l u a p l u a v o n s p l u a v e z p l u o n t p l u
p l a i s p l a i s o n s p l a i s e z
i l a p l u
p l a i s e p l a i s e s p l a i s e p l a i s i o n s p l a i s i e z p l a i s e n t
I m p e r f e c t
i l p l e u v e
n n p e r f b c t i l p l O t
p l u s s e , p l n t Perfbct
a i e p l u P l u p e r f b c t e u s s e p l u
Pe】fEct
i l a i t p l u P l u p e r f E c t i l e n t p l u
recevez
ontre9u
asrendl1
avezlﾓ、｡'T ontrendu
a i e p r i s P 1 u p e r f E c t eussepns
I m p e I f b c t r e 9 u s s e , r e 9 n t Perfect
f U e r e 9 u P l u p e r f b c t eussere9u
h n p e r f E c t rendisse,肥ndit Pe虚ct
aierendu
P l u p e r f b c t
R円fhons
ａＳｕ
ＲＦｍｍｉｔ
sachez
ａｖｏｎｓｓｕ
Ｒｍ１ｒｌｎｎＲ
ａｖｅｚｓｕ
頭1ｍＰ７ｚ
ｏｎｔｓｕ
Ｒｍｌｒ月ient
ｂ
◆
Ｓ
sache
ｎＺｔ
ＲＲ１１ｍｌＳ
Ｒ月11ｍｉＲ
Ｓ
aｌＳｕ
ａｓｓｕ
止血生血唯唖Ｓ妬Ｚｔ
ontr6pondu
、冬Ｄム、晶Ｄ＆Ｄ▲Ｄ△如誕如師証証
repondez
、Ｏ ｎｎ Ｏ Ｏｎ Ｏｎ ＯｎＯ比匪舶血睡面
r 6 p o n d s
r 6 p o n d o n s
戸ｅ少ｅ少ｅ〃ｅ〃ｅ〃ｅ ｒ ｒｒｒｒｒＳＳＳＳＳＳ
少
rem”
Pe】fEct
eusserendｕ
ｎｅ Ｓ Ｓ ｔＳ ｎＺ 唖血唖血並並 ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎ０ ｎｏ ｎ Ｏ ｐ６ ｐ ｐ６ ｐ ｐ６ ｐ ６ Ｉ ｒ６ ｒ ｒ６ ｒｒ
air6pondu
asrepondu ar6pondu avonsr6pondu avezr6pondu
rfmds
rendons
Ｓｎ
a r e n d ' ' １ avonslBndu
唾唖趣坤睡唾 、ｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎ ｅ ｒ ｒＩ ｒｒ Ｉ
airendu
ＳＳ ｎｔ ＺＳｔ
Iecevons
Ｓ 曲曲如並血 唾・岬・脈・麺・︾・唖曲
re901S
mperfect p n s s e , p l i t
Ｓｔ
prenez
ｆｅ ９ｅ ９ｅ Ｃｅ Ｃｅ ９ｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎｅ ｎ ｅ Ｉ ｒｒ ｒｒ ｒｒ ｒｒ ｒＩ ｒ
avezre9u
唖・唖・唖・血・唾・唖
are9u
avonsre9u
ＳＺｎ ＳＳｔｎ ｅ
asre9u
ｅｃ ｅｃ ｅｃ ｅｃ ｅＣ ｅ Ｃ ｅ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅｒ ｅ ｌ ｒ
alre9u
prenons
ｎ
o n t p r i s
a i t p u P l u p e r f e c t
Ｓ
◆
avezpns
Perfbct
Ｓ ｎ Ｚｔ
●
avonsprls
p r e n d s
唾皿咋。皿・唖晒
ａｐｎｓ
l m p e r f b c t p u s s e , p t l t
eussepu
配鵡肥肥肥配 ｐｐｐｐｐｐ
●
配肥肥肥睡肥
alpns
aspns
ｅ ｅＳｅ ｏ ｍ ｏ 妃 ｍ
ontpu
ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ ＳＳ Ｓ Ｓ ｍ・山・山・山・山・ｍ ｐｐｐｐｐｐ
avezpu
、ＳＳｔｍ配・韮 ＳＳｔｍ唾．ｅ唖唖唖血血逝
ayonspu
唖・唖・皿・皿 唖・ 皿 ｎ ｎ ｎ ｎ ｎ ｎ
apu
０００００Ｏ ｐ ｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐｐ
alPu
aspu
Impe11bct P
r 6 p o n d i s s e , r e p o n d i t Pe虚cｔ ● 夕
alerepondu P I u p e r f E c t eusserepondu グ
I m p e r f b c t s u s s e , s f l t PerfEct aiesu
P l u p e r f E c t euSＳｅＳｕ
3 4 6 V b r b m b I e s
l I N F I N n W E & I ﾘ l R r I C I P L E S
FNE漉躯Ｗ園 唖。Ｓ 岬。 唖。 唖州 睡岬ＳＳ Ｓ Ｓ
P1℃sem
噸Ｚｎｔ Ｏｅｅ
畦・唾血・皿・皿・ｍ
ＳＳＳＳＳＳ
suivle‘ibⅡoW
s u i v a n t , s u i v i
v1ns
ven節↑
vmmes
veni唾
vhltes
ven2fRnt
ⅥｍＥｎｔ
velrons
voyez voient
veIront
Verrez
ⅥＳ
ｖ ｉ ｓ
ｔ
唖唾血唖唖ｍ ｕｕｕｕｕｕ ｍｍⅦ、、、
Ｏｅｅ
Ｓ ｔｎ ｎｚ
ｔ ＳｎＳ ＳｔｎＳ Ｚｎ ｅ
velra
哩血吐血皿皿 ６Ｖ ｅＶ ｅＶ ０Ｖ ０Ｖ ｅ Ｖ
vouloir‘want,wislf voulant,voulu
voit
voyons
“Ｓｎ ＳＳｔ ｍｍｍ ｍ唾皿
ｖｅｎ弓F1R
v j J n t
veniong
ｅ彦ｅＰｅ〃ｅ夢ｅ〃ｅ Ｖ ＶＶＶＶＶ
ＶｅｒｍＵ
1fntRR
vins
恥・恥麺・麺・唖・睡血血血血吐血
VO1S
vois
lfnmes
ｖｅｎ角uR
０Ｖ ０Ｖ ０ Ｖ Ｖ Ｖ Ｖ Ｖ Ｖ Ｖ０ Ｖ０ Ｖ０Ｖ
v o i r ‘ s e e ,
tins
I i n t
ven月iR
Ⅵvront
v o y a n t , ｖ ｕ
tins
ｎ
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． e / d ， ＋ a d j e c t i v e f b Ⅱ o w i n g i n d e n n i t e ， neutenandnegativeplonouns l １ ． ４
o m i s s i o n o f a r t i c l e s i n s e t e 】 叩 r e s s i o n s
s t a t i n g y o u r i n t e m i o n ｔ ｏ ｅ】叩lain/pmvethecomaIy74e c o n 杜 a s t i n g a t t i t u d e s , e m o t i o n s , f E e l i n g s 6 5 approvalanddisapproval69 enth1臆i月Ｒｍ月ndindi碇rence67
l 1 . 4 , 1 8 . 1 a , ５ ６ ． ２
d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s ： 副 o i r u n a i r / a v o i r l ' a i r ＋ a d j e c t i v e
hopesandfEars68 １ i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s 6 5 ､ 1 , a n d p r e f e r e n c e
56.2a-b
a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s 5 9 , 2 3 , 7 5 . 4 b , 7 6 . 3 , 8 2 a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s i n a c o n c l u s i o n 8 1 . 3 a , g n P e s t c e p a s ? ５ ９ e -t-incertainquestionfblms82 assertingandconErming71 a s s e r t i n g e 】 叩 l i c i d y 7 1 ･ l a d
confirminganalrangementora statement71.2a-c
c o n h l m i n g b y r e p e t i t i o n 7 1 . 2 ． attitude,seelnなoduction cardinalandordinalnumbers24,56.4,＆７
s i m p l e f b r m s 2 4 ･ I compoundfbrms24.２ compoundfbrmslinkedbyet24､３ fbumumberswhicharenot mvariable24.5
65.1-2
loveandhate66
c o r r e c t i n g a n d p r o t e s t i n g 7 3 c o r r e c t i n g i n f b r m a t i o n a n d a p o l o g i z i n g 7 3 a denyinglhencorrecting73b announcingthecolrection73c correctingsomeoneelse73f amendingdocuments73h-j c r i t i c i z i n g , s e e c o m a d i c t i n g a n d c r i t i c i z i n g de
e印ressingownership56､5c w i t h i n h n i t i v e s 5 2 . 8 , 9 , 5 8 b , 6 3 . 1 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 8 1 . 3 ｄ ｎｏｕｎ＋ｄｅ＋infini↑ive52.10
a d j e c t i v e 十 . e ＋ i n f i n i t i v e 5 2 ・ l 0 d e i n s u p e r l a t i v e s 1 7 . 1 2 .,autantque…79.1ｃ
ｍiⅡｅ24.6,8
ｄ,瓢ｎｔｒｅｓｌａ６ａ−ｂ
cardinalnumbersindates,tidesof
ｄｅｍｍｈ雁ｕｘｌ８､ｌ５
ldngsandqueens,withchapters
ｄｅｔｅＩｓ18.11ａ
鋪Ｉ伽”
d e r e p l a c e d b y e n 1 9 . 6 b i l e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ d e 十 i n h n i t i v e
usmgvariousfbrmsofpouvoir 78.2c-e
1 3 . 5 b , 5 2 . 1 0
a d d i n g b i e n t o e ] 叩 r e s s p r o b a b i l i w
ｒｅｍｅｍｉｅｒｄｅ６２､２
7 8 . 2 ｆ
．e＋nountodescIibewhat
ｅ 印 r e s s i n g n e g a t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y 7 a 2 k c o n d i t i o n a n d h y p o t h e s i s 7 8 3 w i t h s i c l a u s e s , o r q u a n d 7 8 3 a c o d l e r w a y s o f e 】 甲 r e s s i n g c o n d i t i o n
somethingismadeoZand d j m e n s i o n s 9 . 4 e , ２ ７ ． ２
r e f e l r i n g t o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ： ＠位e＋ｄｅ＋nounphrase56､1,8 e q q 9 r e s s i n g d i m e n s i o n s : 。 e ＋ a d j e c t i v e / n o u ､ 5 6 . 6 , 2 7 . 2 ｉｎｅ印ressionsoftiｍｅ57.4d d e E n i t e a r t i c l e s , s e e a r t i c l e s
78.3d
u s i n g v a r i o u s f b r m s o f s u p p o s e r 7 8 , 3 e asummaryoffbrmsincontext78,3f elisio、7.1-5
emphaticpronouns21
d e m o n s 廿 a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s l 2
fbrms2L1
mTmsl2,l
fbⅡowingprepositions2L2a
with-ciand-Iaaddedtonouns１２．２ ｉｎ１吋ｓ１２．５
f b n o w i n g ａ 2 1 . 2 b , ａ ｎ ｄ e 】 叩 r e s s i n g ownership565a c ， e s t / c e s o n t ＋ e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s
d e m o n s t r a t i v e p r o n o u n s l 3 fbrmsl3･l
1 3 . 5 a , 1 8 . 9 ; 2 1 . 2 ｃ
f b Ⅱ o w e d b y r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s １ ３ ． ２ ｆ ｂ Ⅱ o w e d b y p r e p o s i t i o n s １ ３ ． ２
ｃ , e s t / c e s o n t ＋ e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s 十
with-ciand-la13.4
ｆｂremphasis2L2d
m e a n i n g s o f １ ３ ． ４ Ｃ ｅ / c , ; c e c i , c e l a ; ９ ａ 1 3 . 5
ine】叩ressionswithoutverbs2L2e i n c o m p a r i s o n s 2 1 . 2 ｆ
ｃ , e s t / c e s O n t 1 3 , 5 a , 6 2 . 1 , 6 4 . 2
ｗｉｔｈｎｉ…ｎｉ...ｎe…21.2g i n d o u b l e s u b j e c t s 2 1 ､ 2 h , 1 9 . 2 b ' 2 9 ‘ ２
qui22.16
ｃ，est…que…fbremphasis62､2,63.2 w i t h r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s 1 3 . 5 a , ２ ２ . l 6 d e s c r i b i n g a n o b j e c t : c ， e s t / i l s ' a 感 t d e …qui,que/q叫dont…５６．１ w i t h e m p h a t i c p r o n o u n s 1 3 . 5 a , 2 1 . 2 c ， 2 2 . 1 6 , ａ ｎ ｄ e 】 叩 r e s s m g o w n e r s h i p 56.5a
ceinsete】mressionsla5a i n 哲 o d u c i n g s o m e o n e : ご e s t / v o i l a
w i t h m e m e ( s ) 2 1 . 2 i , 1 8 . 1 0 a , c w i t h a u s s i , s e u I , a u t r e s 2 1 . 2 d
s o i 2 1 ､ 2 j , 1 8 , 9 m o i , t o i , w i m p o s i t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s 2 1 . 3 b , 2 1 . 4 . , 5 1 . 2
p o s i t i o n o f p r o n o u n s 2 1 ､ ３ orderofpronouns2L4 e 】 叩 o s i t i o n , s e e m t r o d u c t i o n
5 6 . 3 ｂ
ｃ ' e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ a ＋ i n f i n i t i v e / i l e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e 十 . e ＋ i n f i n i t i v e 1 3 . 5 b
fautede79‘lb
hactions25,56.7
c e c i , ｃ ｅ ｌ ａ 1 3 . 5 c , 1 9 . 3 Ｃ
“13.5d d i m e n s i o n s 2 7 , ５ ６ ． ６ l e n g l h 2 7 ､ 1 2 , 5 6 . 6
b r e a d t h , h e i g h t , d e p t h 2 7 ､ 2 , 5 6 . 6 w e i g h t 2 7 ‘ 3 , 5 6 . 6 .e＋adjective/noun566
9 r e e t i n g a n d l e a v e t a k i n g 6 1 g r e e t i ､ ９ ６ １ ． １ ． mcorrespondence61,１
１ e a v e t a k i n g 6 1 2 incorresDondence６１．２
d i s a g r e e m g , s e e a g r e e i n g a n d d i s a g r e e i n g
h y p o t h e s i s , s e e d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y
d i s g u s t , s e e s u l p r i s e a n d d i s g u s t d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y 7 8 variouswaysofe】叩ressingdoubtand
i m p e r a t i v e s , s e e v e r b s impersonmverbs,seeverbs
c e r t a i n Ⅳ 7 8 . ｌ ａ − ｅ
ｅ印ressingdoubtinadebating situatiｏｎ78.1ｆ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g d o u b t a n d r e s e l v a t i o n p o l i t e l y ) i n a d e b a t i n g s i t u a t i o n 7 8 . 1 g
i m p e r s o n a l p h r a s e s r e f b r r i n g b a c k o r f b r w a r d t o w h a t i s i n d o u b t 7 8 ､ ｌ ｇ ｅ 印 r e s s i n g p o s s i b i l i t y a n d p r o b a b i l i t ｙ ７ ８ ． ２
u s i n g i m p e r s o n a l p h r a s e s 7 8 ､ 2 a usingpeut-@t正78.2ｂ
i n d e f i n i t e a d j e c t i v e s , p r o n o u n s , a n d a d v e r b s l8
t o u t ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 1 ａ ｔout(pronoun)１８.lb tout＋autrel8・lc
t o u t ( a d v e r b ) 1 8 . 1 ｄ ｄｉ髄rent１８．２
divers１８．２
p l u s i e u r s １ ８ ． ３
p l u s i e u r s ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 3 a p l u s i e u r s ( p r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 3 b c h a q u e ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 4 ａ
3 5 2 肋 z i e x
indeEniteadjectivescom皿ea c h a c u n ( e ) ( P r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 4 ｂ c e r t a i n ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 a 5 a c e r t a i n ( p r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 5 ｂ ａ ｕ 唾 ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 6 ａ ａｕ杜es＋emphaticpronoun2L2d
ｃｏｍｍｅnt?,⑥睡,quand?andtheir p o s i t i o 、 ２ ３ ． ７
wilhanounsubject23,7a widlapronounsubject23､7b p o u r q u o i ? ａ ｎ ｄ ｈ ｏ ｗ ｉ ｔ ｃ ａ ｎ ｂ ｅ ｕ ｓ ｅ ｄ ２ ３ ､ ８ i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s w i d l o r w i t h o u t mversio、２３．９
au益echosela6c
． ａ u 位 e ( p r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 6 ｂ ｄ'amui１８．６． １，ｕｎ…lIautre１８．７
p r e p o s i t i o n s p r e c e d i n g s o m e o f l h e i n t e l r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s 2 3 ・ l O i n r e p o r t e d ( i n d i r e c O s p e e c h 5 8 b ， 76.3e
1 , 1 ｍ ＋ p r e p o s i t i o n 十 1 , a u t r e １ ８ ． ７
on＋Son,soi,se,andvmls１８．９
h o w t o a s k q u e s t i o n s 5 9 a e , 7 5 . 1 e ， 7 6 . 3 a d , s e e a l s o a s I d n g q u e s t i o n s i n t r o d u c i n g y o u r s e l f o r s o m e o n e : g i v i n g y o u r name,usingaverbsuchaspr6senter
a g r e e m e n t o f a d j e c t i v e s a n d p a s t p a l t i c i p l e s w i t h o n １ ８ ． ９
i l T e g u l a r v e r b s , s e e v e r b t a b l e s , ８ ２
１，unet/oul,autIE18､８ nil，ｕｎｍｌ,auなＥ１８‘８
0 , 1 8 . 9 , 7 3 f i s e e v e r b s : p a s s l v e
56.3a b
o n u s e d t o f b r m 山 e p a s s i v e l 8 ､ 9 , 4 8 . 4 , 6
ｍ § m e ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 1 0 ａ ｍｅｍｅ(pronoun)18.10ｂ
１ e a v e t a l d n g , s e e g r e e t i n g a n d l e a v e t a k i n g l i F I i s n 、 6 . 1 4
1 o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s 7 9
ｍｅｍｅ(adverb)18.10c
mT'ＲＲ７９,l
somesete】叩ressionswithmeme
s t a t i n g a c a u s e 麺 】 i c i U y 1 o r c a s t i n g doubtonacause79.1a-d
18.10ｄ
ｔ ｅ ｌ ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 1 1 a , 5 6 . 9 ｃ ｔｅｌいronoun)18.llb s o m e s e t e J 印 r e s s i o n s w i t h t e l l 8 ･ l l c
i m p l i c i t c a u s e 7 9 ､ 2 a c conseqUence79､３
s t a t i n g a c o n s e q u e n c e e m l i c i d y 79.3a-d
qUeIqulun18.12
q u e l q u P u n ＋ d e ＋ a d j e c t i v e l 8 ､ 1 2 b
i m p l i c i t c o n s e q u e n c e 7 9 , 4 ａ − ｃ
queIqUecmse18.12
ａｉｍ７９､５
q u e l q u e c h o s e ＋ d e ＋ a d j e c t i v e l 8 ､ l 2 b q u e l q u e ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 1 2 a , 8 0 f q u e I q u e ( a d v e r b ) 1 8 . 1 2 b , 8 0 f q u e l q u e s u n s ( p r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 1 2 b q u 1 q u e b q u o i q u e ＋ s u b j u n c t i v e 1 8 . 1 3 , 80g
quoique(pronoun)andquoique （ c o n j I m c t i o n ) 1 8 . 1 3 , 8 0 g n m p o r t e q u e l ( a d j e c t i v e ) 1 8 . 1 4 a n F i m p o r t e l e q u e I ( p r o n o u n ) 1 8 . 1 4 b n P i m p o r t e q u i ( p r o n o u n ) , a n d q U i c o n q u e l 8 ､ l 4 b mmportequbi(pronoun)18.14b nmmportecombien,ｃｏｍｍｅnt,０曲， q u a n d ( a d v e r b s ) 1 8 . 1 4 ｃ ｍ郡nt18.15
m a i n t r e p l a c e d b y p l u s d ' 1 ｍ , p I u s i e m s l deTmmh正皿18.15
i n d e n n i t e a r t i c l e s , s e e a r t i c l e s i n E n i t i v e s , s e e v e r b s
i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , a n d advelbs23,５９
n a r r a t i n g : t e n s e s r e f e m n g t o o t h e r t i m e s 5 7 ， seesequenceintimeandtenses,and verbs:howtouseeachoflhetRng便s
n e g a t i o n , s e e a d v e r b s o f n e g a t i o n , h o w t o f b r m n e g a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s , a n d d I s a g r e e m e n t , c o n h I m i n g , c o n c e d i n g ， c o l r e c t i n g , c o n t r a d i c t i n g a n d c l i t i c i z i n g ， p e r s u a d i n g , v o l i t i o n , ｐ ｅ ｌ ｍ i s s i o n a n d p r o h i b i t i o n 7 7 c , 7 7 . 2 , e x e m p t i o n nounsl6
masculinenounsaccordingto meaningl6.1 ｍasculinenounsaccordingtoending １ ６ ． ２
femininenounsaccordingto m e a n i n ９ １ ６ ． ３ 企mininenounsaccordingtoending １ ６ ． ４
ｍasculinenounsrefemngtoemher sex16.5,56.3c nounswi山ｍ２ｓ価'1ineand他mininE
f b l m s f b r p e o p l e 2 3 ・ l f b r m s f b r l h m g s 2 3 ､ ２ g u i d e l i n e s o n i n v e r s i o n 2 3 , ５ ９ ， ８ ２ q u i ? a n d q u o i ? S t a n d i n g a l o n e 2 3 . 4 l e q u e l ? a n d i t s f b l m s 2 3 ､ ５
fbrmsl66-8 nounswimdjfferentｍ３ｓｃ１'Iineand 化mininefbmls１６．９ nounswitheidlermasm11ineor
i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d i e c t i v e q u e l ? a n d i t s
changeofmeaningwithchangeof g e n d e r l 6 . 1 2
fhrms23､６
i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s c o m b i e n d e / d ， ? ，
fEmininegenderl6.10
genswithmasculineorfeminine
35瀞肋血ｘ
a d j e c t i v e s l 6 ､ l 3 genderofcompoundnounsl6･l4 pluralfbrmsofnounsl6､l5 pluralofcompoundnounsl6､１６ p l u r a l o f i m p o r t e d w o r d s 1 6 . 1 7
themdirectobjectpronounsanda １ ９ ． ４
ｙ ( a d v e r b ) 1 9 . 5 a , ５ １ ｙ印ronoun)replacinga＋noun 19.5b
nounswhichchangetheirmeaningin
ycomPris49・ｌ
t h e p l u r a l f b l m l 6 ､ l 8 nounswhicharesingularinFrench a n d p l u r a l i n E n g l i s h l 6 . 1 9 nounswhicharepluralinlrenchand s i n g u l a r i n E n g l i s h l 6 ‘ １ ９
ｅ ｎ ( a d v e r b ) r e p l a c i n g d e 1 9 . 6 a , ５ １ ｅ ｎ ( p r o n o u n ) r e p l a c i n g d e ＋ ｎ ｏ ｕ ｎ
numbers,seecardin31andordinalnnmhers
o b l i g a t i o n , s e e p e l m i s s i o n a n d o b l i g a t i o n o p p o s i t i o n 8 0 , s e e a l s o d i s a g r e e m e n t ， p r o t e s t i n g , I a c k i n g v o l i t i o n , p r o h i b i t i o n ， l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s cohesivedevices80d
i m p l i c i t o p p o s i t i o n 8 0 h orderofpronouns21.4,51
o r d e r o f p r o n o u n s w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e imperative21.4.,51
19.6b
e n r e f も I r i n g t o q u a n t i w 1 9 ､ 6 b e n r e p l a c i n g a s t a t e m e n t 1 9 . 6 c e n i n s o m e s e t e m q p r e s s i o n s 1 9 . 6 d p e r s u a d i n g , s e e s u g g e s t i n g a n d p e r s u a d i n g p o s i t i o n o f p e r s o n a l , r e n e x i v e ･ a n d c e r t a i n emphaticpronouns21.3 ． b e f b r e t h e v e r b , t h e a u x i l i a r y v e l b , t h e i n n n i t i v e 2 1 , 3 a , １ ９ ． ３
ｗ ｉ ｔ ｈ n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s 2 1 . 3 b a d d i t i o n o f s t o t h e s i n g u l a r p o s i t i v e i m p e r a t i v e o f e r v e r b s b e f b r e y ａｎｄｅｎ２Ｌ３ｂ
ｗ ｉ ｔ ｈ ｉ 泡 i r e , l a i s s e 喝 e n v o y e r a n d v e I b s o f ｐａｒｃｅｑｕｅ…79.1C
p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s , s e e v e r b s p a r t i t j v e a r t i c l e s , s e e a r t i c l e s p a s s i v e , s e e v e r b s p e r m i s s i o n a n d o b l i g a t i o n 7 7
g i v i n g p e r m i s s i o n t o d o s o m e d l i n g ７７.l
d e n y i n g p e r m i s s i o n 7 7 ・ I c p r o h i b i t i o 、 7 7 . 2 a c p r o h i b i t i v e n o t i c e s 7 7 ､ ２ ． ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g o b l i g a t i o n t o d o s o m e U l i n g 7 7 . 3
o b l i g a t i o n e 】 叩 r e s s e d i n l e g a l t e x t s 77.3b-c
o b l i g a t i o n n o t t o d o s o m e l h i n 9 7 7 . 3 f o r d e r i n g s o m e o n e t o d o s o m e t h i n g 77.3h
sayingthatsomeonedoesnothaveto dosomething77.4 personalpronounsl9 fbrmsl9･ｌ ｔｕａｎｄｖｏｕｓ19.2a
thesenses21､3c
p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e s l 4 fblmswithoneownerl4･la fbrmswidlmorelhanoneowner l4･lb
i n l i s t s l 4 . ' c , 5 6 . 5 b
d i f f e r e n c e s 仕 o m E n g l i s h 1 4 . 1 d insupedativefOrms17.12-13
withthepmnounautrE18,6ａ ｗｉｌｈｏｎ１８．９
ｅ Ｊ 叩 r e s s i n g o w n e r s h i p 5 6 5 b c lesIeursandlesleur56.5b
r e f e r r i n g t o p a r t s o f t h e b o d y 5 6 ､ 5 e ， seealsodefinit⑧articles
possessivepronounsl5 fbrmswilhoneownerl5･la fblmswilhmolethanoneowner 15.1b
conhactedfbrmswithaordel5,lc
p o s s i b i l i t y I s e e d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n t y p r e p o s i t i o n s a n d p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s 5 5 ， 、 ｓｅｅａｌｓｏａａｎｄｄｅ
agreementoflheverbwithtwoor m o r e s u b j e c t p r o n o u n s 1 9 . 2 ｂ
ｏｆｍａｌｍｅｌ１ｏｒmeans５５．１,５６．１２ ｏ ｆ p l a c e 9 . 4 e , 5 5 . 2 , 5 6 . 1 1 a , ｄ
ｉ ｌ ( s ) , e Ⅱ e ( s 〕 1 9 . 2 ｃ
ｏｆｔｉｍｅ５５,3,57.4 ｏｆcause55.4,79.1b
ｏ ｎ 1 8 . 9 , s e e i n d e E n i t e a d j e c t i v e s ， pronouns,andadverbs
ofconsequence79､5b
c e / c ' r e p l a c i n g i I ( s ) , e Ⅱ e ( s ) 1 9 . 2 ｃ ｍ e s t ＋ a d j e c t i v e 十 . e ＋ i n E n i t i v e
o f r e s t r i c t i o n 5 5 ､ 5 , 8 0 ｂ
13.5b,52.10
t h e i m p e r s o n a l d i r e c t o b j e c t l e / l ’ 19.3c
p o s i t i o n o f d i r e c t o b j e c t p m n o u n s 1 9 . 3 a , ２ １ ． ３
t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t p r o n o u n s I e / l 1 l e s
ｏ ｆ ａ ｉ ｍ , o r p u r p o s e 5 5 ､ ６ r e f e r r i n g t o o c c u p a t i o 、 5 6 . 3 c r e f e l r i n g t o a g e g r o u p s 5 6 ､ ４ ｅ ) 叩 r e s s i n g d i m e n s i o n s 5 6 ､ ６ ｅ叩ressingcomparison56､9Ｃ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g o p p o s i t i o n 8 0 a d,aｐｒｂｓｌＬ４
nevercomhin色I１ｗｉｍａｏｒｄｅ
ｐ ｒ e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s , s e e v e r b s
ｌ９３ｂ
p r o b a b i l i t y ; s e e d o u b t a n d c e r t a i n w
354肋"ex
p r o n o u n s , s e e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , i n d e h n i t e ， i n t e r r o g a t i v e , p e r s o n a l , p o s s e s s i v e ， r e n e 五 v e , r e l a t i v e , a n d o r d e r o f p r o n o u n s ， andpositionofpmnouns p r o t e s t i n g , s e e c o r r e c t i n g a n d p r o t e s t i n g puisque79.1c
p u n c m a t i o n i n d i r e c t a n d r e p o r t e d ( i n d i r e c t ） speech58a innmmhRrs24､９
r e f e l r i n g t o p e o p l e , t h i n g s a n d p I a c e s 5 6 d e s c r i b i n g p e o p l e a n d l h i n g s 5 6 ､ l d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o n e も p e r s o n a l i t y 5 6 , ２ d e s c r i b i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s 5 6 ‘ ３ m a k i n g i n t r o d u c t i o n s 5 6 ､ 3 b fbrmalintroductions56､3b
g i v i n g i n f b r m a t i o n a b o u t s o m e o n e も o c c u p a t i o n 5 6 ､ 3 Ｃ ｅ 印 r e s s i n g a g e 5 6 ､ ４
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g o w n e r s h i p 5 6 ､ 5 a d , f r e f e l r i n g t o p a r t s ｏ ｆ 山 e b o d y 5 6 . 5 e r e f e l r i n g t o s i z e , s e e d i m e n s i o n s 5 6 ､ ６ r e f b r l i n g t o q u a n t i t y a n d n u m b e r 5 6 . 7 , s e e a l s o c a r d i n a l n u m b e r s ，
a p p r o 】 d m a t e n u m b e r s , f r a c t i o n s r e f e r r m g t o q u a l i w a n d d i s t i n g u i s h i n g features５６．８
companso、５６．９ i n e q u a l i t y 5 6 ､ 9 a
e q u a l i t y o r s i m i l a r i t y 5 6 9 b otherwaysofcomparing56.9c g i v i n g d i r e c t i o n s 5 6 1 0 g i v i n g l o c a t i o n , o r i g i n o r d e s t i n a t i o n 56.11
r e f e I r i n g t o t h e m a n n e r o f d o i n g something56.12 datesandtime57､４
renexivepronouns20 fbmls20､l
s e e a l s o o r d e r o f p r o n o u n s , a n d p o s i t i o n o f p r o n o u n s renexiveverbs,seeverbs
r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s 2 2 , s e e a l s o i n d e E n i t e pronouns fbrms22.1
q u i 2 2 . 1 , 1 8 . 1 3 , 1 8 . 1 4 , b p l e p o s i t i o n ＋ q u i ２ ２ ． ３
fblmcequi…c'est…/c'estque… ６ ５ ． １
t o u t c e q u i … 2 2 . 1 5 , 1 8 . ｌ ｂ ｃ'est/cesont…qui,qUe/q叫ｄｏｎｔ 22.16
ｄest/cesont十emphaticpronoun十 qui,que/q叫ｄｏnt22.16
r e p o r t i n g i n f b r m a t i o n ( i n d i r e c t s p e e c h ) ５ ８ w r i t i n g m i n u t e s 5 8 c i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s 5 8 b
s e q u e n c e i n t i m e a n d t e n s e s 5 7 . 5 , 5 7 ‘ 5 d t e n s e s e 印 r e s s i n g p r e v l o u s a c t i o n s o r events57.5a
t e n s e s e 】 q l r e s s i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s actionsorevents57.5ｂ
ｔ ｅ n s e s e m r e s s i n g s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n s orevems57.5c
soundsofFrench vowelsl nasalvowels2 seml-vowels/semi-consonants3 consonants4
dlelettersk,ｗｉｈ４･l
smIcturing81 b e g i l m i n ９ ８ １ ． １
c o h e s i v e d e v i c e s g i v i n g a n o u d i n e 81.1c
u s e o f p u n c t u a t i o n 8 1 ､ 1 c c o n t i n u i n g 8 1 ､ ２ c h a n g i n g l h e s u b j e c t 8 L 2 c e n d i n g 8 1 . 3 a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s a s a c o n c l u s i o n 8 1 . 3 a , g
u s e o f p u n c t u a t i o 、 8 1 . 3 b , ｡ , g c o h e s i v e d e v i c e s i n d i c a t i n g a conclusion8L3e-f
s u b j u n c t j v e , s e e v e r b s s u g g e s t i n g a n d p e r s u a d i n g 7 5 s u g g e s t i n g 7 5 ・ l a b
a n n o u n c i n g y o u r s u g g e s t i o n p o l i t e l y 75.1c-d
p e r s u a d i n g s o m e o n e t o l h i n k t h e w a y youdo75.2a三b,d s t a t i n g t h a t y o u a r e p e r s u a d e d 7 5 ､ 2 c p e r s u a d i n g s o m e o n e t o d o s o m e t h i n g 75.3a
ｑ ｕ ｅ ２ ２ ･ ２ l e q u e １ ２ ２ ． ４
persuadingsomeonenottodo
p r e p o s i t i o n ＋ l e q u e １ ２ ２ ． ５
o t h e r w a y s o f p e r s u a d i n g a n d
ｄ ｅ , ａ 十 l e q u e １ ２ ２ ． ６ ．０，t２２．８
．０nt＝dequi,duque122.8 orderofwordsfbⅡowingdont22,９
d o n t f b Ⅱ o w i n g i t s a n t e c e d e n t 2 2 ､ l O d o n t n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o d e q u i , d u q u e l ”_１１
０ｈ22.12,80g p r e p o s i t i o n ＋ q u o i 2 2 ､ １ ３
cequi…22.14,andtheemphatic
something75.3b d i s s u a d i n g 7 5 . 4 supposer78,3e
s u r p r i s e a n d d i s g u s t 6 4 ．sulpliseanddisbelief64・l d i s g u s t 6 4 2 a n d g i v i n g a n e 印 l a n a t i o n f b r i t 6 4 ､ ２
s y m p a l h y i s e e a p o l o g i e s a n d s y m p a t h y t e n s e s , s e e v e r b s , s e e a l s o s e q u e n c e i n t i m e andtenses
−１
３ ５ ５ 肋 Z た ｘ
verbs29,８２
t h e f b u r c o n j u g a t i o n s 2 9 a g r e e m e I 1 t o f v e r b a n d s u b j e c t 2 9 o l ， 1 9 . 2 b , 2 9 . 2 5 , 5 6 . 7 ｃ
ｃompoundsubjectslinkedbyohorni ２ ９ ． ６
i m p e r s o n a l v e r b s a n d a g r e e m e n t 2 9 , ７ f b r m a t i o n o f t e n s e s 3 0 , ８ ２
i n d i c a t i v e t e n s e s : s i m p l e a n d c o m p o u n d ３ １
“e＋pastparticiple35,３
a g r e e m e n t o f p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w i l h t h e s u b j e c t 3 5 . 4 h o w t h e p e l f e c t t e n s e i s u s e d 3 6 ， 5 7 . 2 b , ６ ３ . l
comparedwiththeimperfbct36,33.l
h o w t h e f i l t u r e p e r f E c t t e n s e i s u s e d 3 7 i n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s f b Ⅱ o w i n g d e s q u e , a u s s i t 6 t q u e , q u a n d , l o r s q u e ， 、
apresque37
１hepresenttense3L2 of-erverbs3L2a of-irverbs3L2b of-reverbs31.2c of-oirverbs3L2d avoi喝もt】氾３１．３
v e r b s e n d i n g i n e l “ e t e 易 C e 喝 9 “ ‐oyeB-uye叫一ayer31､５
v e r b s e n d i n g i n 6 ＋ c o n s o n a n t 十 一 e ｒ ３ １ ． ５
v e r b s e n d i n g i n i n d r E 3 L 6 verbsendingin-0udre3L6 h o w t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i s u s e d 3 1 : 7 = 9 , 5 7 . 1 2 , 5 7 . 2 . , 5 7 . 5 ｅ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g d i r e c t i o n s 5 6 , l 0 a b v e n i r d e ＋ i n h n i t i v e 3 1 ､ 7 , 3 3 . 1 , 5 7 . 2 ｄ ｓ ｉ ＋ p r e s e n t 3 1 . 7 , 4 0 . 2 , 7 5 . 4 c
F r e n c h p r e s e n t t e n s e E n g l i s h presenttenses3L8 etreentrainde＋inflnitive31､８
ａ ｌ I e r ( + e n ) ＋ p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e 3 1 ､ ８ dlefUturetense32
f b r m s 3 2 a c , 3 2 . 2 = ４
h o w t h e f i l t u r e t e n s e i s u s e d 3 2 ‘ 5 , 5 7 . 3 , 6 3 . 1 , 7 7 . 3 ｈ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g d i r e c t i o n s 5 6 , l O a 戸 ｂ ｑ ｕ ａ ｎ ｄ ＋ f U t u r e t e n s e 3 2 ､ ６ ，treentrainde＋fnfmitive32､７
a l l e r ( + e n ) ＋ p r e s e n t p a l t i c i p l e 3 2 ､ ７ ａⅡer＋inhnitive32,8,57.3c,７４e
p r e s e n t t e n s e , f U t u r e m e a n i n g 3 2 ､ ８ theimper企cttense33 fbrm3fiOn33
h o w t h e i m p e r f e c t t e n s e i s u s e d 3 3 . 1 ,
h o w l h e p l u p e r f b c t t e n s e i s u s e d 3 8 ， 5 7 . 2 c , ６ ３ ． １
ｓ i ＋ p l u p e r i E c t 3 8 , ４ ０ ． ２ h o w d l e p a s t a n t e r i o r t e n s e i s u s e d 39,57.2c,57.5e
i n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s f b n o w i n g d も ｓ ｑ ｕ ｅ , a u s s i t O t q u e , q u a n d , l o r s q u e ， aprもsqueaPeine39 theconditionalandthecondil-inn別I
p e l f e c t t e n s e s 4 0 fbrms40,３２ howlhecondi↑ionalandconditinn3I
p e r f b c t t e n s e s a r e u s e d 4 0 . 1 , 7 8 . 1 e
m d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s f b Ⅱ o w i n g d e s q u e , a u s s i t 6 t q u e , q u a ､ d , I o r s q u e 40.1ｂ
ｓｉ＋conditionalandcnTwlifinn丹I
p e l f e c t 4 0 , ２ siandthesequenceoftenses40.2, 78,3a-b
o r d e r o f c l a u s e s w h e n e 】 叩 r e s s i n g conditinns40,２
s i n o t i n t r o d u c i n g a c o n d i t i o n 8 0 e f useofquetoinbfoducesecondand s u b s e q u e n t c o n d i t i o n s 4 0 . 3 howtheconditinnaltenseisused 4 0 . 4 , 6 , 6 5 . 2 , 7 3 ‘ 7 5 . 1 . , 7 5 . 4 ‘
7 6 . 1 . , 7 6 . 4 , a c , 7 8 . 1 9 , 7 8 . 2 , , 80e,h,81.3c
h o w l h e c o n d i t i o n a l p e I f b c t t e n s e i s used40.5-6,63.1,73d
t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e 4 9 fbrmation49
ｓ i ＋ i m p e r f e c t 3 3 ､ １ ， ４ ０ ． ２
p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s u s e d a s n o u n s ， a d j e c t i v e s , p r e p o s i t i o n s ， c o n j u n c t i o n s 4 9 ､ l m e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w i t h e t r e 4 9 ､ 2 , 3 5 . 3
u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p a s t
a g r e e m e n t o f t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w i t h
2 , 5 7 . 2 a , ６ ３ ． １ venirde＋infinitive33､１
historic33,l
t h e p a s t h j s t o r i c 3 4 , 5 7 . 5 ｅ ｆｂｒｍ円筒ｏｎ３４．１
h o w t h e p a s t h i s t o r i c i s u s e d 3 4 , 2 , 57.2b
u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i l h t h e i m p e r f e c t 3 4 ､ 2 , 3 3 . 1 thecompoundtenses35 a v o i r ＋ p a s t p a r t i c i p l e 3 5 ・ l agreementofpastparticiplewithme
p r e c e d i n g d i r e c t o b j e c t 3 5 . 2 noagreementwithen35､２
rene]dveverbs49,３
a g r e e m e n t o f t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w i t h t h e s u b j e c t 4 9 . 3 n o a g r e e m e n t i f t h e r e n e 】 d v e p r o n o u n
i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t ４ ９ ． ３
a g r e e m e n t w i t h a p r e c e d i n g d i r e c t o b j e c t 4 9 . 3 n o a g r e e m e n t w i l h a d i r e c t o b j e c t fbⅡowingtheverb493 a g r e e m e n t o f t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e w i t h avoir４９．４
３５６
Ｖ
伽mex
elbsco”"Uea
n o a g r e e m e n t w i l h l h e s u b j e c t 4 9 . 4 a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r e c e d i n g d i r e c t o b j e c t 4 9 , ４ n o a g f e e m e n t w i t h e 、 ４ ９ ． ４ ， Ｃ ａ 印 e e m e n t o f l h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f i m p e r s o n a l v e r b s 4 9 ･ ５ p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f f m i r e i n m e conR↑mctionfaire＋infin術ve４９．７
Ｖu,ycompris…４９ t h e p a s s i v e 4 8 fbrmation48,４８．３
ｐａｌ１ｄｅ＋theagent48
f b m l e d m a i n l y w i t h な a n s i t i v e v e r b s 482
o d l e r w a y s o f e 】 叩 r e s s i n g t h e p a s s i v e ４ ８ ． ４ ０，４８．４
rene】dveverbs4a4
t h e p a s s i v e w i d l a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t i n E n j i s h , b u t n o t i n F r e n c h 4 8 ､ 6 7 p a s s i v e f b r m s f b r w r i t i n g m i n u t e s ５８．１Ｃ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g e n t h u s i a s m 6 7 e 】 叩 r e s s i n g e x e m p t i o 、 7 7 . 4 ｂ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g c a u s e 7 9 ･ l t h e i m p e r a t i v e 5 1 fbrms51,５１．１
i m p e r a t i v e s w i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s 21.3b
i m p e r a t i v e s o f r e n e 】 d v e v e r b s 5 L 2 h o w i m p e r a t i v e s a r e u s e d 5 1 . 3 , 6 1 . 2 , 6 3 . 1 , 2 , 7 3 6 7 4 e , 7 6 . 4 . = ｅ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g d i r e c t i o n s 5 6 ･ l O a p e r s u a d i n g 7 5 , ４ ． ｅ 】 甲 r e s s i n g c o n d i t i o n s 7 a 3 d e 】 叩 r e s s i n g o p p o s i t i o n 8 0 h changing由esubject8L2d asanex恥mation51､４
o t h e r w a y s o f g i v i n g a n o r d e r 5 1 ． 5 , 7 7 . 3
u s e d a s n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , v e r b s ， g e r u n d s , p l e p o s i t i o n s ， c o n j u n c t i o n s 5 0 ､ 1 6 , 5 6 . 1 2 b 6tantdOIm６４９．１
t h e s u b j u n c t i v e 4 1 thefburtensesofthesubjunctive41.1 thepresentsubjunctive42 s i m i l a r i t i e s o f s o m e s u b j u n c t i v e a n d indicativefbIms42・l
stemchangesinmeindicativeand l h e s u b j u n c t i v e 4 2 . 2 , 3 1 . 2 , 3 1 . 5 6 verbswhichhayecompletely differentfbrmsimhepresent i n d i c a t i v e a n d s u b j u n c t i v e 4 2 . 3 verbswithai昨Tentfbrmsandalso
changesimheErstandsecond p e r s o n s p l u r a l 4 2 . ４ 1 h e i m p e I f e c t s u b j u n c t i v e 4 3 t h e p e r f b c t s u b j u n c t i v e 4 4 t h e p l u p e r f e c t s u b j u n c t i v e 4 5
s e q u e n c e o f t e n s e s : t h e s u b j u n c t i v e i n dependentclauses46,46.24
F r e n c h p r e f e r e n c e f b r t h e p r e s e n t a n d p e r f b c t s u b j u n c t i v e t e n s e s 4 6 ， 57.5a
t h e s u b j u n c t i v e i n m a i n c l a u s e s 4 6 ・ l 1 h e s u b j u n c t i v e i n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s ４ ６ ． ２
e m r e s s i n g d o u b t , u n c e r t a i n 剛 p o s s i b i l i w 4 6 ､ 3 , 7 8 . 1 a 三 c n e p a s d o u t e r q U e ＋ i n d i c a t i v e 4 6 ､ 3 , 78,1ａ
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g n e c e s s i 恥 o b l i g a t i o n ， r e s t r i c t i o n , a d v a n t a g e 4 6 ､ 3 , 7 5 . 1 f
e m r e s s i n g w a n t i n g , w i s h i n g ， a g r e e i n g , a c c e p t i n g 4 6 . 3 e 》 叩 r e s s i n g f e e l i n g s , e m o t i o n s ， a t t i t u d e s 4 6 . 3 , s e e a l s o a t t i t u d e ， 78.2k
ilSembleque53､３
usedasanolm52.1
e x p r e s s i n g t i m e ４ ６ ． ４ e m r e s s i n g c o n c e s s i o n 4 6 ､ 4 , 8 0 ← ｇ ｅ ] 叩 r e s s i n g h y p o l h e s i s , c o n d i t i o n
usedasanimperative,an e x c l a m a t i o n , a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e
e 】 叩 r e s s i n g a i m , r e s u l t , c o n s e q u e n c e
theinEnitive5２
１ h e p l e s e n t a n d p e I f b c t i n E n i t i v e s 5 2
5 2 . 2 , 7 7 . 3 ｈ
46.4,78.3d-e 46.4,79.3b-c,79.5a
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g d i r e c t i o n s 5 6 ､ 1 0 b u s e d i n c o l r e c t i n g d o c u m e n t s 7 3 i 弓 ｊ ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g v o l i t i o n 7 6
s u b j u n c t i v e o r i n d i c a t i v e f b Ⅱ o w i n g d e
fbⅡowingde523
ｅ 】 叩 r e s s i n g p l a c e 4 6 ､ ４ s u b j u n c t i v e a f t e r n o n ( p a s ) q U e 4 6 ､ 4 ,
f b u o w i n g p o Q m s a n s , a p r e s , a y a n t d e ５ ２ ． ４
s o r t e q u e , d e m a n i も r E q u e , ｄ ｅ ｆ ａ ９ ｏ ｎ ｑ ｕ ｅ ４ ６ , 4 , 7 9 . 3 ａ
79.1c,81.3e
usedwhenthesubjectisthesamein b o m p a I t s o f d l e s e n t e n c e ５ ２ ． ５
s u b j u n c t i v e i n a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e 4 6 . 5 ,
intheconsmctionverb＋a,ｄｅ,ｐｏｕｒ
s u b j u n c t i v e f b u o w i n g c e r t a i n n e g a t i V e c l a u s e s : i l I f y a r i e n q u e
…＋mhnitive52､８，７６
a s s e z , t r o p ＋ a d j e c t i v e ＋ p o u r ＋ inflnitive52･lO
t h e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e 5 0 fbrmatiｏｎ５０
79.5c
…４６．５
s u b j u n c t i v e f b n o w i n g q u 1 q u e , q u o i quelal3
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ＴｈｅＧｍｍｍｑｒｉｓｄＭｄｅｄｉｎｆｏｌｗｏｐｑｒ１s．Theshorfersecﾅion c o v e r s f r q d i f i o n q l g r q m m q f i c q l c q f e g o r i e s s u c h q s w o r d o r d e r ， q d i e c f v n o u n s , v e r b s q n c l q d i e c f i v e s ､ T h e l q r g e r s e c i i o n i s c q r e f u l l y o r g q n i z e d q r o u n d l q n g u q g e f u n d i o n s q n d n o f i o n s s u c h q s ：
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