Geology of Middle Earth

The Geology

of Middle-earth Middle-earth

WilliamAntonySw1th1n Sw1th1n

Sarjeant Sarjeant

Abstrac Abstract: t: A preliminary reconstructionof  the geology of  Middle-earthis attempted,utilizing attempted,utilizing data illustrations s by its arch-explor arch-explorer er J.R.R. J.R.R. Tolkien. Tolkien. The tectonic tectonic reconstruct reconstruction ion presented in text,maps and illustration earlier findings findings by R.C. Reynolds Reynolds (1974). Six plates are now recognized recognized,, whose whose is developed developed from earlier

motions motions and collisions collisions have create createdthe dthe mountains mountainsof Middle-earth structuredown n which the Middle-earthand and the the riftstructuredow River Anduin flows. The stressesinvolved in the plate collisions faults,whose collisions have producedpattems of faults,whose lines have determined determined the course courses s of the other other rivers and the occurr occurrenc ence e of the richest ore deposits. However, However, the time of Bilbo and activity y is at a and Frod Frodo o is a period of tectonic quiescence. Volcanic activit “hot-spots", minimum minimum and confined confined to four all at some distan distance ce from from plate margins, margins, while while seismic seismic activity is minor. Tolkien’s paintings, in particular, show show how glacial and riverine riverine erosion erosion have shaped shaped Middle-earth’s topography. Keywords: Keywords: eruptions

earthquak earthquakes, es, erosion, erosion, faulting, faulting, Middle-ear Middle-earth th geology, tectonics, tectonics, topograph topography, y, volcanic volcanic

The periodof  the rise of geology, in the late eighteenth eighteenthand and early ninete nineteent enth h cent centur uries ies,, coincided coincided with with the epoch epoch during during which which this Earth of ours first ours was being fully explored for the first of  time. time. Most Most its explorer explorers s were were able able to fumish fumish quite quite accurate accurate accounts accounts of  the geography of the lands lands they they had had visited, but but few few were were trai traine ned d geologists. The geological

informationthose explorers explorers brought brought back tended tended therefore therefore to be incidental and imprecise. Even Even so, the geologists of their data, to homelanddid homelanddid their best to utilize these scraps of data, begin formulating a picture of geology on a global scale. scale. In seeking seeking to elucidate elucidate the geology of Midd Middle le-e -ear arth th,, our our of  task task is simil similar ar.. We have have a good general it s general picture picture topograph topography, y, drawn drawn by Christopher Tolkien on the basis of the t he that informatio informationf nfumis umished hed by his father, father,as prime explorer of that

in her survey of “The Elder Elder Ages Ages and and the Later Later Glacia Glaciatio tions ns Of  the Pleistocene trace e the successive Epoc Epoch” h”.. In this, she she strov strove e to trac overthrow of  Morgoth to a period geogra geographi phies es from the overthrow indeed, into beyon beyond d the time time of Aragom’srule Aragom’srule in Gondor- indeed, eart earth h was was Marg Margar aret et Howes Howes (1967),

the late late Pleistoce Pleistocene ne Epoch, Epoch, when the the geography of Middleearth earth had had been reshaped reshaped into present-day Eurasia Eurasia and north north

Africa. Africa. I-Ierwork was original and imaginative, but it strayed

far from Tolkien Tolkien,, utilizing data of  such questionable authen authentic ticityth itythat, at,in in thelast analys analysis,hercon is,herconclu clusio sions ns mustbe mustbe set setaside.

The truly semina seminall wor work k on Middle Middle-ea -earth rth geology was writte written n by Rober Robertt C. Reyno Reynolds lds for for The The Swanse Swansea a Geog Geograp rapher her

special special world. world. We have also the the excellen excellentt paintings done done by the explorer himself, representing his vision of Middle-earth

“The Though entitled in 1974. Though Geomorphology of Middleeart earth" h",, it is much more thanthat, for it applies the concepts of plate tectonics then current to the whole geography of 

and published

in the 1973 calendars ars and 1973 and 1977 1977 Tolkien calend subsequent compilations. In addition,we addition,we have the scraps scraps of  informati ation on to be found in The Hobbit Hobbit and The geological inform Lord of  the Rings Rings - inci incide dent ntal al obse observ rvat atio ions ns only, only, but but

Middle Middle-ea -earth rth (Figure 1). Four plates were recognized recognized - the the Eri Eriad ador or Plat Plate e in the the west, the Rhovanion Rhovanion Plate in the north, north, and and the Harad Harad and Mord Mordor or Plat Plates es in the the sout south. h. The The Rive Riverr Andu Anduin in was was

nevertheless helpful.

considered as flowing throughwhat was was then then styl styled ed an

In contrast,the supplemen supplementary tarymater material ial broughtto broughttogethe getherin rin the successivevolumes of The The History be viewed viewed as the the equiva equivalen lentt

of Middle-earth Middle-earthmust

of a geologist’s field notes -

and woul would d aulacoge aulacogen n and

now now be rega regard rde ed

as a

rift valley.

Reynol Reynolds ds viewed viewed the boundi bounding ng faults faults as being being transf transform orm

faults, faults, i.e. faults along which movementhad been essentially

unrevi unrevised sed and not to be trusted; trusted; so this discoun unte ted. d. this must must be disco

late lateral ral butoccurringat butoccurringat dif erent erent times in contrarydirection contrarydirections. s.

additionall geological information to be (In any case, the additiona found found thereinis thereinis quiteremarkably meagre.)Moreover, though it is possible to determine determine the sequence of tectonic events events,,

He cons consid ider ered ed the the regi region on south south

of theline of the the White White

lack

ancient ancient rocks - a craton.

of informat ionconcemingfossils concemi ngfossils precludes any precise ofthe determination sequence of strata strataand geochronology.

of the t he Emyn Emyn Muil andnorth

Mountains Mountains to be a tectonic tectonic basin, basin, the

Ninda Nindalf lf Basin, Basin, while while Rohan Rohan consti constitut tuteda eda stable stable block block

lt is

Reynol Reynolds' ds'

of 

work wor k that that forms the basis basis for my own

THE THE GEO GEOLO LOGY GY

OF MIDDLE-EARTH

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knowledge of plate tectonics has grown, and and the the con conce cept pts s have changed greatly, since Reynolds’ wor work k was published.”

Moreover, in my view he pays toosmall a regardt regardto o thenorth thenorth the andnorth-westof Middle-earth Middle-earthand and to many many majo majorr faul faults, ts, most of them them normal faults faults with a trend from south-west south-westto to north-east usually, indeed, from west-south-westto t o east east-

Basi Basin n

-itincorporate incorporates s the Dead Marshes, Marshes, the Wetwan Wetwang g

and

the many many mouths mouths of the Entwash - indicates indicates that this basin once once contai contained neda a lake, lake, since siltedup. Howe Howeve ver, r, the the comp comple lex x inte intera racti ction on of  the plates has also also three thr ee horsts hor sts elevated blocks) blocks) produced (fault-bounded, elevated Emyn with within in the the rift. Two of  these - the Emyn Muil and Emyn

north-east-that controlso much of Middle-earth Middle-earthgeography. Amon - respectivelydeterminethe northemand southem southem My modifiedconcepts(Figure 2) recogn limitsof the Nindalf Basin; they control the Anduin’ recognise ise not four, four, but Anduin’s s course course six plates (or in modern modern termin terminolo ology, gy, as applied applied to Americ American an

Cordilleran tectonics, tectonics, six terrans) terrans) as bein being g invol involve ved d in the shaping of  Middle-earthgeography. The most most ancien ancientt of  these are the Forlindon Plate Plate and the Eriado Eriadorr Plate, Plate, whose whose

collision collision causedthe causedthe orogeny orogeny-themountain-building

-

phase that produced the Ered Ered Luin Luin or Blue Mounta Mountains ins.. Sinc Since e that that time, time, the Forlin Forlindon don Plate Plate has been been largel largely y subsum subsumed; ed; that that is, drawn down down into into a subd subduc ucti tion on zone zone at the the cont contine inent ntal al margin, margin, its materials reincorpora reincorporatedinto tedinto the earth’s earth’s mant mantle le.. Indeed, Indeed, only two blocks west of the the Ered Ered Luin - the region regions s of  Forlindon Forlindon and Harlindon Harlindon still persist. Mor Moreov eover, er, both

and charac character ter,, producing such such dramat dramatic ic features as Tol “grey of  stone (Tolkien, 1954a, p. Bran Brandi dir, r, with with its faces"

rift’s island island of 

412) 412) and the Rauros Rauros Falls. Falls. The third occurs at the southw southweste estemm mmost ost end, end, forming forming the mounta mountaino inous us

Tolfalas, beyond beyond thedepressionmarkedby thedepressionmarkedby the many mouths of theAnduin. theAnduin. Though Though no doubt doubt there there was much much volca volcanic nic activity during the the earlie earlierr orogen orogenie ies, s, the the only only rece recent ntly ly active active region region was of  the Mordo Mordorr Plat Plate e afte afterr asso associ ciat ated ed with with the the cru crump mpli ling ng collis collision ion,, causing causing fissure fissure vulcan vulcanism ism and some some explos explosive ive landscape ape that that so activi activity ty arou aroundi ndits ts rims. rims. The spoil spoiling ingofthelandsc

have mo move ved d nort north, h, producing the the many many stri strike ke-s -sli lip p dist distre ress ssed ed Frod Frodo o and Sam Sam was, was, I susp suspec ect, t, larg largel ely y a plates have westward-flowing faul faults ts that that have have fumi fumish shed ed cour course ses s for consequence of theinitial theinitial vulcanism andnot just of the the spoilspoilrivers. by mining min ing. . solfatara fields around heaps produced (The solfatara The collision collision of the the Eriador Eriador Plate with with two other other plates, the the Nama Namafj fjal all, l, Icel Icelan and, d, af ord ord just as grim a prospect.)It is likely

Rhov Rhovan anio ion n Plat Plate e to east eastwa ward rd and and the the Hara Harad d Plat Plate e to

two further orog orogen enie ies s that, that, no doubt, doubt, overlappe overlapped d in time. Between Between the the Eri Eriad ador or and and Rho Rhova vani nion on Plates Plates,, there there arose arose the Misty Mountains and and betw betwee een n the the

enor enormo mous us crat crater er,, a calde caldera ra,, the the product of a cataclysmic Krakatoain 1883. (Reynolds’ altemative erup erupti tion on like that of Krakatoa

Eriador Eriador and Harad Harad Plates Plates,, the Whit White e Mounta Mountains ins,, the three three

less probable

forming g a triple  junction agai agains nstt the the sta stable ble base baseme ment nt plates formin rocks ofthe Rohan Craton. A second second triple junction was formed formed by the collis collision ion of the

the the only only volc volcan ano o rece recent ntly ly active in this this regi region on is Mount Mount Doom Mount Orodruin Orodruin whic which, h, by its its great height height in to its basal bas al diameter diamet er 1977), must have been proportion (cal.,

Eriado Eriadorr and Rhovanio Rhovanion n Plates Plates with with the Forod Forodwai waith th Plate. Plate. The consequent consequent orogeny orogeny produced the Ered Ered Mithrin, the the

built built up rapidly rapidly by basic basic lava, lava, scor scoria ia and and ash. ash. four isolatedvolcanoes,each Moun Mountt Doom Doom is inde indeed ed one one of four

southward,

caused

Grey Grey Mounta Mountains ins,, togeth together er with their their westwa westward rd extens extension ion through the region Angmar Angm ar toward towar d of  the Ice-Ba Ice-Bay y of  region Forochel; Forochel; Mount Gundabad Gundabad surely surely repres represent entsa sa rotate rotatedblo dblock ck of  erosion-resistant rock the rocks s at the the exac exactt position of  the

 junction. Unfortunately, we know too littleof the geology of  these mountains to s sp peculate further. The mostrecent major tectonic tectonic eventhas been the collision collision

I

“hotspot” representing a at some some dist distan ance ce fro from m a plate of  margin and them associated with evil-doing and all all evil-doing - Dol Goldur Goldur in Mirkwo Mirkwood, od, Orthan Orthanc c in Isengard Isengard and and Ereb Erebor, or, the Lonely Mountain. Isengard, with with its its black black rock rocks s (Tolkien, 1954b, pp. 159-16 159-160), 0), was certainl certainly y a vast vast volcan volcanic ic crater crater,, while Orthanc itself (cal., 1977)musthave beenan aiguille aiguille -

solidifiedlava thrust thrustup up from the vent in a last of solidifiedlava of  an enlption within the crater of Isengard, to be

a column

spasm

Plate. Plate. The Mor Mordor dor Plate Plate is bounded bounded on north and and south south by

after afterwa ward rd shaped shaped by huma human n han hand d or magic. magic. (The so-called “spine” Mont the eruption eruption of Mont produced in the last phases of the

transformfaults,their motion at first westwa westward rd and then, then,

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it is an independentsmall plate, seems much in view of its positionand shape.) shape.) However, However,

sugg sugges esti tion on,, that that

of the the rapidly rapidly movingMo movingMordor rdor Plate Plate with the northem northempart of 

the the Hara Harad d Plat Plate e and and the the southemmostpart of the t he Rho Rhova vani nion on

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that that the the Udri Udrin n Basi Basin n of  northwestemmost Mord Mordor or is an

more prolongedly, eastward.A eastward.A major consequen consequence cehas been the formation formation of  the Anduin Rift Valley, caus caused ed by the the resultant tearing-apart of  the crust. Despite the the claim claims s of Reynolds (1974), this riftis bounde bounded dnotby transf transform ormbutby butby normalfaults. At its southem southem end, it has buck buckle led d agai agains nstt the stable Harondor Harondor Craton Craton and has been tumed westward. westward. Essentially Essentially this rift is, of course, a region of  subsid subsidenc ence, e, most markedly in its northem portion -the Basi Basin” n” - and in the triangle Reynolds Muil, triangle between between the Emyn Emyn of  the the White White Moun Mounta tain ins s and and the Ephel Ephel Dria Driath th - the Nindalf 

“Gladden

Basin. As As Reynolds Reynolds noted,the marshy marshy natureof the Nindalf

Pelée, Pelée, Marti Martiniq nique, ue, is is comparable. comparable.)) The Lonely Mountain, Mountain, “grey s”(Tolkien, fromits shape and withits and silent clif s” 1951 951, p. 215) within a landscape “bleak and barr barren” en”,, was

cert certai ainly nly a volc volcan ano o (see cal., 1977); there are many present volcan volcanoes oes of  clos closel ely y simi simila larr outl outlin ine, e, e.g. e.g. La Tung Tungar ar,, Arge Argent ntin ina. a. The The huge huge cave cave in whic which h the the drag dragon on piled his

ill-

within the Lonely Lonely Mounta Mountain in was surely surely a lavagotten gains within tube ere the dwarves dwarves resh reshape aped d it, and so must have have been the

smal smalle lerr tunn tunnel eldown which Bilbo unwillingly unwillingly went to seek the dragon. dragon. (A comparable comparable structu structure re is the Thurston Thurston lava tube

of Kilauea Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii.) these recent recent volcanoes, volcanoes, only Mount Yet of these

Doom was still

THE THE GEOL GEOLOG OGY Y

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TOLKIEN TOLKIEN CENTEN CENTENARY ARY CONFERENCE

Frodo. Mor Moreov eover, er, the only only active in the time ofBilbo and Frodo.

gravel-covered pediplaned surface (Tolkien, l954b, p. the lowlands lowlands in in 232) 232).. Exten Extensi sive ve piedmont glaciation of the from theirlatitude, theirlatit ude, valley unlikely but the so south seems the Whit White e Moun Mounta tain ins s has has been been very very glaciation in the

“seismic even events ts”” rec recor orde ded d in the the chro chroni nicle cles s are are thos those e caus caused ed

Gandalf’s Gandalf’s throwing-do throwing-down wnof the the balrog balrog(Tolkien, 1954b)and

into the tires tires Gollum’s fall with the ring into

of Mount Doom

Of othe otherr eart earthq hqua uake kes, s,we we have have no reco record rd.. of  this this time time must must have have been one unusual tectonic

impo import rtan ant. t. Over Over-d -dee eepe pene ned dglacial troughs abound -

(Tolkien, 1955).

all, All in all,

Morgul Morgul Valley Valley (Tolkien, 1954b, p. 319), Morthond Vale

quiescence. However However,, in the present topography of Middle-earth, th the of  ef ects ects earlier tectonic events are patent. Rivendell, for example, example, is positioned where where the Misty Mounta ntain foothills Gwathlo Fault. Fault. The entryto entryto the are intersected intersected by the greatGwathlo the valley (see cal., 1977) is through a canyon canyon reminisc reminiscent ent of the Black Black Canyon Canyon of  the Gunnison River, Colorado, Colorado, but but the valley broadens broadens beyond beyond (cals., 1973, 1977). Helm Helm''s De Deep 977) must must also also be a cany canyon on,, with within in a terrain (cal., 1977

(Tolkien,

overflow channels channels(Tarlang’s Neck; 1955,p. 64); with overflow

Tolkien, 1955, p. 63) from one trough to another, and arétes es and features such as arét other classical glacial features

Irensaga; ga; Tolkie Tolkien, n, pyrami pyramidal dal peaks peaks (Starkhom and Irensa 68). Perigla P eriglacial cial conditions condit ions are suggestedin sugge stedin the 1955,p. lowlands and mounta mountain in fringe fringes s from unconsolidated materials incorporating coarse regolith (Tolkien, 1954b, Northwards, glacial glacial processes processes become more p. 258). Northwards, Piedmont severe. glaciers fed from the Misty Mountainsstrippedlarge areas of Eriador, Eriador, producingits

essentially of limestones;its limestones;its situationand situationand fortificati fortifications ons are Aigle, Switzerland. Switzerl and.The comparable to those of the the castle of Aigle, are a bloc lock of  resistant rocks troll-hauntedEttenmoors are

bleak ill-drainedandstoney landscape(Tolkien, 1954a, pp. 294,313)with ungradedtumblingstreams(Tolkien,

displacedbetween displacedbetween the Evendim Evendim and Minhiriath Minhiriath Faults. The Moria, with with their theirpricelessmithril,were rich mineral mineral veins of Moria, developed developed where the Tharbad Tharbad and Hollin Faults intersected intersected the Misty Misty Mounta Mountains ins.. (Mithril itself, itself, crystallizingout crystallizingout at so high a temperature temperature that that it is only only foun found d in vein veins s at great depths, may may well be a naturally-occur naturally-occurring ring alloy alloy of platinum The almost almostequ equall ally y and another metal, metal, perhaps palladium.) rich mineraliza mineralization tion of the Mor Mordor dor Plate Plate result resulted ed from from the the fault movements along its rims, while the much less rich mineral deposits of the the Iron Iron Hills, worked by by Dain Dain and his dwar dwarve ves, s, are are asso associ ciat atedw edwit ith h the the Nort North h Rhii Rhiin n Faul Fault. t. Else Elsewh wher ere, e, econ econom omic ic depo deposi sits ts are are not not comm common on.. Ther There e is

(Tolkien, 1955, p. 62), Harrowdale

1954a, pp. 295, 295, 299). Caradh Caradhras ras is a fine pyramidal U-trough ofa whose snows still feed peak at the head stream, m, and the lake lake Mirr Mirror orrn rner ere e is an iceicean icy strea scoopedhollow (Tolkien, 1954a,p. 296) . _ .

Reynol Reynolds ds noted noted also also that the Long Long Lake Lake on the River River 194),, Lak Lake e Even Evendim dim and and the Runni Running ng (Tolkien, 1951, p. 194)

hollow hollow occupi occupied edby theMidgewater Marshes are probably

of 

extensive tluvio-glaci tluvio-glacial al glacialorigin.He considered that the extensive

of the

Sarjea Sarjeant, nt, 1993, 1993, p. 64); 64); limestone limestone to be quarried for the

Shire (Tolkien, 1955, p. 296 and conditions and cal. cal.,, 1973 1973)) were were depo deposi site ted d under periglacial conditions with with loca locali lise sed d lowe loweri ring ng of  groundwater base-level, Baranduin conseque consequent nt upon erosion erosion by the Gwathlé and Baranduin thevalleys on valley valley ice-to ice-tongu ngues. es.The The eros erosion ional al deepeni deepening ng of thevalleys

Amor, Hollin and many other regions. regions. (As other kinds in Amor,

70):

iron iron in the Ered Luin; coal coal somewh somewherein erein the Shire Shire (see

buildings of Gondorin Gondorin the Whit White e Mount Mountai ains ns,cha ,chalk lk to be had had in the the Shire’s White White Downs Downs and good building stones of 

Gimli said (Tolkien, 1954b, p. 137): “This country has tough bones.”) Of the the occurrences of precious stones, we have no details; perhaps the dwarves dwarves have have kept kept that that inform informati ation on to themselves! The shaping shaping of  the landscape is, of course, course, dependent dependent on the interplay of  structureand rock type with erosion. It is shaped the the nort northe hem m mo mountai ntain ns an and glacial erosionthat has sha

the highestmountains of the the south.The south.The varied varied rocks rocks of the Gandalf,Bilbo o and the dwarves dwarves Misty Mountains, as seen seen by Gandalf,Bilb

sands sands and gravels

the the chal chalk k dow downs nsof the the Shire Shire (Tolkien, 1954a,pp. 126, 147) was another another consequence. consequence. In addition, as he remark remarked ed (p.

eustatic changes have have af ected e cted the whole whole Post-glacial eustatic coast, creating rias and small fiords and flooding lowlying basins (Belfalas) although although delta delta formation formation by the Alluviation by the kept pace with this. Alluviation Anduin has kept rivers rivers has also occurr occurred; ed; the peats and clays of  the being famo famous us fortumipsbutespecially Baranduin _ _ . being also is the mush ushroo rooms (Tolkien, 1954a, p. 100), as also

Marish (Tolkien, 1954a,p. 112).

In the north, lithologicallycontrolledhigh north, areas of lithologically

from the eagles eagles'' eyrie eyrie (cals., 197 1973, 1977) 977),, are are str strikin ikingl gly y

reli relief ef

comparable comparable to the Nepal Himalayas Himalayas

211-21 212) 2) occu occupi pied ed by bogs bogs (Tolkien, 1954a, pp. 211-

of today. today. The volcanic volcanic

Ephel Dtiath, theAsh Mountains, as seen seen fromnear Shelob's Lair Lair by Frodo Frodo and Sam (cal., 1977), 1977), have also been reshaped; reshaped; the result result is quite comp compar arab able le to the Gran Grand d Tetons of  Wyoming, Wyoming, even though thei theirr rock rocks s are are diss dissim imil ilar ar.. More Moreov over er,, the ef ects ects of glaciation have have also also modifie modified d the lowlan lowlands.As ds.As

Reynolds (1974,p. 70) pointedout: . . . lar large areas of Rhovanion Rhovanion eastof the Anduin . . . ,

have have

been been

scul sculpt ptur ured ed

by

these

processes

for

considerable periods: the Iron Iron Hills may be monadnock monadnock of a fomierhigher remnants ofa higher land land surfac surface, e, as may also also be the the hills hills near the Sea of Rhiin. Rhiin. Dagorl Dagorlad, ad, from from its of  regolith, regoli th, could be a foss fossil ilis ised ed veneer quartzitic

occur ccur

(Midgewater

abut abutti ting ng glacially Marshe Marshes; s; Tolkie Tolkien, n,

strippe stripped d

lowlan lowlands ds

1954a, 1954a, p. 194) 194) and

mis-titstreams streams in glacially enlarged enlarged valleys valleys (Tolkien,

Weather Hills (Tolkien, 1954a, p. 1954a, p. 212). The Weather

escarpmen mentt and the Trolls Trollshaw haws s 197) 197) are are a rugged escarp

dissected upland (Tolkien, 195421, p. 213) a deeply dissected of  which includes rocks probably red-bed facies (Tolkien, 1954a, p. 225).

The Carrock,by Carrock,by whichBeom once dwelt dwelt (Tolkien, 1951, 125),, is sure surely ly an espec especia iall lly y p. 125)

mass massiv ive e erra errati tic c block block

transp transport orted edto its presentpositionby a since-vanis since-vanished hedglacier Elsewh Elsewhere ere,, river riverine ine erosio erosion n has predominated. Subsurface ero erosion sion has has produced the the trol trolll-ho hole le in the the Trol Trolls lsha haws ws

' ‘ .-

THE THE GEOL GEOLOG OGY Y (Tolkien,

OF MID MIDDL DLEE-EA EART RTH H

1951, p. 53), the “goblin-holes” in the the Misty

Mountains wher where e Gand Gandal alff, Bilb Bilbo o and and the the dwa dwarves rves encounteredtrouble (Tolkien, 1951, p. 70), 70), and and the the cave cave that that serves as palace for the King of the Wood-elves (Tolkien,

339

the surface by earth movement movements s and exposed exposed by erosio erosion. n. of  Great Gre at Whin Sill Sil l northem northe m England Engla nd is an example.) (The The The stai stairc rcas ase e below below the the East East Gate Gate (cal., 1973) surely traverses a series of beds dipping dipping westward westward at a low angle angle

1951, p. 178). Striking products are are the unde underg rgro roun und d lake lake once haunted haunted by Gollum Gollum (Tolkien, 1951, p. 82), 82), very very lik like e that underl underlyin ying g Austral Australia’ ia’s s Nullar Nullarbor bor Plain Plain today, today, and and the

like like steps, producing the Stair Stair Falls (Tolkien, 1954a, p. 314). “tall Bree Bree-h -hil ill, l, and brown” (Tolkien, 1954a, p. 193), and

Gimlii delighted delighted Giml

with withina ina landscape reduced by prolonged river action almost

Glittering Glittering Caves

of Aglarondthat so much

152-154)and 4)and would would put even (Tolkien, 1954b, pp. 152-15 even the the

Carlsbad Cavems to shame.

Many Many other other deductio deductions ns are possible. The The West West Gate Gate

of

Moria appear Moria appears, s, from from the illustration (cals., 1973, 1977), to througha massivevolcanic have been cut through massivevolcanic sill - a sheet of 

lava intnidedbetweenstrata underground,to be brou brough ghtt to

bleak bleak Weat Weathe hert rtop op appea appearr to be mo mona nadno dnock cks, s, isola isolated ted hill hills s Bree-hill is lower and formed formed to thecon thecondi diti tion onofa peneplain. Bree-hill

probably

of  sandstone,Weather sandstone,Weathertop top much higher higher and formed formed

ofmore   ancient induratedrocks, induratedrocks, perhapsslates. All in all, in geological terms, terms, Tolkien’s Tolkien’s description descriptions s and of a wor Middle-earthare ofa world ld that, that,geologicallyat pictures of Middle-earth leas least, t, is very very like like our own.

Acknowledgements I am deeplyindebtedto my colleague colleagueDr. Mel R. Stauf er er(University of Saskatchewan) for his ideas on the applicati application on of plate tectonics of Saskatchewan) Saskatchewan) and an anonymous anonymous participantin theTolkien CentenaryConf CentenaryConference erence at Keble College,Oxford, College,Oxford, made helpful suggestion suggestions s conceming conceming the probable nature of mithril. mithril.

to Middle-earthgeology. Dr. John Senior Senior (University

References Reference References s to Tolkien’s Tolkien’s illustrations, illustrations, appearinginitiall appearinginitially y in calendar calendars, s, are cited as publishedelsewhere.

“cal., 1973" 1973" or “cal., 1977"; all have been been subsequently

cal. 1973.The 1973.The JRR. Tolkien Tolkien Calendar Calendar 1973.New 1973.New York: Ballantine Ballantine Books, 1972. 1972. cal. 1977.The 1977.The Lord

of the the Rings Rings 1977Calendar, 1977Calendar, illustrationsby illustrationsby J .R.R. .R.R. Tolkien. London: London: GeorgeAllen GeorgeAllen & Unwin, Unwin, 1976. 1976.

“The Elder Ages Howes, Margaret M. 1967. Ages andthe later later glaciations of the Pleistocene Epoch" in Tolkien Tolkien Journal, Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 3-15, figs. 1-6. Mclntosh, Pat. 1973. “The geology of Middle-earth"in Middle-earth"in Mallorn, no.7, pp. 3-7, 3-7, 1 fig. “Geographical McLaren,Duncan. 1985. observati observationsonNtimeno onsonNtimenor" r" in Anor, Anor, no. 7, pp. 2-4. Percival, Percival, Mike. 1985. 1985. “On Niimenor" in Anor, no. no. 8, pp. 4-6,figs. l-2. Reynolds, Robert C. 1974. “The geomorphologyof Middle-ea|1h"in Middle-ea|1h"in The Swansea Geographer, vol. 11,pp. 67-71, 67-71, 1map. Sarjeant, William A. S. 1992. “Where did the dwarves MythloreVol. 19 No. 1 (Winter 1993), pp. 43,64. dwarves come from?"in MythloreVol. Tolkien, Tolkien, J . R. R. 1951. 1951.The Hobbit: Hobbit: or, There and Back Again, Again, secondedition. secondedition. London: London: Allen Allen & Unwin. Unwin. Tolkien, Tolkien, J. R. R. l954a. l954a. The Fellows Fellowship hip ofthe Ring. London: London: Allen & Unwin. Unwin. Tolkien, Tolkien, J. R. R. l954b. The Two Tower. Tower. London: Allen Allen & Unwin. Unwin. Tolkien, J . R. R. 1955.The 1955.The Return Return ofthe ofthe King. King. London: London: Allen Allen & Unwin. Unwin.