history_of_india_for_compitative_exam.pdf

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For the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination Second Edition

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H

NDIAN rilSTORY

* For the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination

Second Edition

K krishna reddy Director, Krishna Reddy's IAS Study Point New Delhi

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI

McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogot* Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto

Tata McGraw-Hill

© 2003, 1999 Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

Fourth reprint 2004 RAZCRRBIRYRAY

No part of this publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

ISBN 0-07-048369-8

Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset at Gopsons e-p division, A-14, Sector 60, NOIDA, U.P. and printed at Sai Printo Pack (P) Ltd., Y-56, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi 110 020

Cover printer: De Unique Cover design: K. Anoop

McGraw-Hill

To

Late DrY Gopal Reddy who has been a constant source of inspiration throughout my teaching career

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The latest revision of the syllabus of Indian History by the UPSC should be viewed as a much needed and timely measure. This step by the UPSC has made the syllabus not only more balanced and comprehensive but also very relevant for the Civil Services. After all, the worth of any subject should be judged by its utility and relevancy. Therefore, it gives me great pleasure to bring out this thoroughly revised and updated second edition of the book. Indian history as an optional subject for the Civil Services Preliminary Examination has always attracted a lot of attention. It has continued to be among the most preferred optional papers. In fact, it is a very stable optional in this otherwise highly unpredictable examination and is thus considered by many as "safe". However, there are a few misconceptions about the subject as an optional paper, which I am addressing below. The misconception is two-fold--(1) the notion that the syllabus is vast and (2) dry because there is nothing else but facts and facts. I disagree very strongly. Those who think in the lines mentioned above, I am afraid, have not understood the true nature of the subject. If approached with the right attitude and a proper perspective, history can be a manageable, intelligible and, above all, a very captivating subject. To begin with, history has a great amount of continuity with certain crucial changes taking place in a gradual fashion. It links various phenomena and changes that took place (and are still taking place) at various points in time, in subtle manner. Further, the changes are almost always minimal and not sweeping. So, the basic task here is to comprehend well what is changing and why the changes are taking place. In other words, each historical phase has its undercurrents and logic, which have to be fully grasped. The lengthiness or vastness of the history syllabus is, therefore, more of a myth than a reality. Next, the nature of the subject is misunderstood. History is not a mere collection of facts in the form of dates and names--interpretations and explanations are the main pillars of history. So, factual information can be effectively utilized in developing conceptual clarity. The one and only way this can be done is by acquiring a proper perspective and understanding of the history of different periods. Therefore I strongly urge you to read the book with the objective of developing a proper understanding of the subject, which would aid you to interpret many historical events with meaning and purpose. It would not be out of place to point out its well-known merits and natural advantages. First of all, history is such a subject that a graduate from any discipline--be it arts or sciences--can get a reasonable command in the subject in a limited time with minimum, but systematic effort. Secondly, it covers a major part of the General Studies paper, both in the preliminary and the main examinations. Hence, it saves precious time and energy of the candidates who can pay more attention to the other portions of the General

Studies. Finally, it enables candidates to write their Essay Paper with a historical perspective, which is invaluable and indispensable in essay writing.

New Delhi 18/02/2003 kunam krishna reddy

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This thoroughly revised book deals with the Indian History Syllabus for the Civil Services Preliminary Examination in a comprehensive manner and even enables the candidates to prepare for the Main Examination. The real novelty of this book lies in the treatment of the detailed study material and the questions that follow for each chapter. Like the sutra literature, the study material is presented in condensed prose style, intended for easy grasp and quick memorisation. Further, each question that you find in this book is in tune with the latest Preliminary Examination trend. In writing this book my first-hand experience in coaching students for the civil services examinations during the past one and half decade has been of great help. In fact, it is what makes this book almost indispensable for candidates appearing for the highest examination of the country. I have made every effort to ensure that the contents of the book are factually correct as well as representative of the majority opinion among historians. Yet, there is always the possibility of some errors creeping through and certain mistakes going undetected. Hence, I would be highly grateful to all those who can point them out for rectification and make further suggestions for the improvement of this book. In a book of this nature, covering the entire spread of Indian History, I obviously cannot claim any originality either with regard to the factual information or in the matter of interpretation. But what I can certainly claim to be my own is the method of presentation of the study material and the framing of the questions. I am extremely grateful to Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited for publishing this book. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to a number of my well-wishers who have helped me in different ways. I am particularly thankful to Sri A V Koti Reddy, Sri P S Ravindran and Dr Nadeem Hasnain.

kunam krishna reddy

1

STRATEGY POR SUCCESS

To succeed in any competitive examination, more so in the Civil Services Preliminary Examination wherein about two lakh candidates appear, a well-planned strategy is necessary. The strategy for success in the Civil Services Preliminary Examination with History as the optional should be a two-pronged one, viz. extensive preparation followed by intensive preparation. Extensive preparation aims at enabling the candidate to acquire all the necessary information, while intensive preparation is meant to give him a proper understanding of the subject. In other words, the candidate acquires knowledge of all the details by the former and analysis as well as perspective by the latter. This two-pronged strategy is essential for the Preliminary Examination which is of the objective type and which calls for detailed information as well as basic understanding and clarity. Hence the candidate requires to collect as much information as possible on each topic and assimilate it. Here we have to bear in mind that though the Indian History Syllabus for the Prelims is very simple and brief, at least on paper, the question-setters often go beyond the scope of the syllabus. As an integral element of the strategy, the candidate should equip himself with as much examination-oriented information as possible by a careful reading of as many standard textbooks as possible and preparing notes. In order to ensure that the candidate has assimilated the collected information and is capable of using it, he should practice as many objective-type tests as possible on all topics.

kunam krishna reddy

NEW SYLLABUS

chapter-wise Analysis of the 2.001 and 2.002 Papers

Section A 1. 2. 3.

Prehistoric Cultures in India Indus Civilisation Pastoral and Farming Communities Outside the Indus Region

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Vedic Society Pre-Maurya Period The Mauryan Empire Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AD 300 The Guptas and their Successors (ad 300-750)

Total for Section A

Section B 9.

Early Medieval India

10. Cultural Trends 750-1200 11&12. Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 13. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries 14&15. The Mughal Empire (1556-1707) 16.

Decline of The Mughal Empire (1707-61)

Total for Section B

Section C 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

British Expansion Economic Impact of the British Raj Cultural Encounter and Social Changes Resistance to British Rule Indian Freedom Struggle--The First Phase Gandhi and his Thought

23. 24.

Separatist Trends in Indian Nationalist Politics India Independent to 1964 Total for Section C Grand Total

No. of Questions in 2001 Paper 2002 Paper 2 2

1 4 6 7 9 9

4 3

3 4 4 6 13 4

~4T 40 3 4 14 8 10 1

"40~

8 4 6 9 16 2

~40~ 4 4 6 6 7 10 1 1 ~^9~ 120

8 3 6 4 3 9 2 5 ~40~ 120

OLD SYLLABUS

chapter-wise Analysis of the 1993--2.000 Papers

Section A 93

94

95

96

97

98

99

1.

Foundations 01 Indian Culture (Indus, Vedic and

2.

Sangam Periods) 14 15 14 14 16 12 14 11 Religious Movements (Buddhism, Jainism,

3.

4.

5.

6.

4 1.

2000

Bhagavatism and Brahmanism) 17 12 15 11 15 9 5 11 Maurya Empire 6 8 8 5 9 4 6 6 Trade and Commerce in pre-Gupta and Gupta periods 4 7 4 7 7 6 6 5 Agrarian Structure in post-Gupta period 4 7 4 7 3 6 4 3 Changes in social structure of ancient India 6 6 4 5 4 3 4 5 Total 51 55 49 46 5 40 39 41 Section B Political and social conditions (800-1200): The Cholas

2.

3.

4. 5.

5 2 10 13 5 8 7 Delhi Sultanate: Administration and agrarian conditions 6 5 7 4 6 6 8 Provincial Dynasties: Vijayanagar Empire 6 4 3 5 4 4 6 4 Indo-Islamic Culture: Religious Movements 3 5 3 4 2 3 4 Mughal Empire: Polity, agrarian relations, art,

architecture and culture 9 11 13 12 14 18 12 15 6. Beginning of European Commerce 5 3 2 5 2 3 2 0 7. Maratha kingdom and confederacy 2 4 2 1 2 5 4 36 34 40 44 35 47 43. Section C 1. Decline of Mughal Empire: Autonomous States

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

3

(Bengal, Mysore and Punjab) 7 6 4 3 3 5 7 5 East India Company and Bengal Nawabs 6 7 2 3 3 5 4 6 British Economic Impact in India 4 4 3 3 4 4 3 Revolt of 1857 and other popular movements 3 5 4 2 3 2 5 Social and cultural awakening: Lower caste, trade union and peasant movements 6 4 6 6 4 Freedom Struggle 7 5 12 13 14 11 9 13 Total 3 31 31 30 31 33 38 40 Total number of questions 120

6

7

5

2 Total 3 9

4 4

6

10

8

120

120

120

120

120

120

120

\

CONTENTS

Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition viii Strategy for Success ix New Syllabus x Old Syllabus xi

Section A Ancient India

Chronology of Events--Ancient India A3

1 Prehistoric Cultures in India AS 1.1 1.2 1.3

Periodization of Indian Prehistory A5 Prehistoric Cultures A6 Early Iron Age: Beginning of Historical Phase A8

1.4

Glossary of Archaeological Terms A10 Questions A14

Answers A16

2

Indus Civilisation A17

2.1

Place of Indus Civilisation in History A17

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Origins A18 Mature Phase A22 Economy A28 Culture and Society A30 Problems of Decline A34 Questions A3 7 Answers A52

3

Pastoral and Farming Communities Outside the Indus Region A53

3.1 Introduction .453 3.2 Geographical Distribution and Characteristics of Pastoral and Farming Communities (2000-500 bc) A54 Questions A61 Answers A63

Vedic Society A64 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Original Home of Aryans A64 Features of Aryan Culture A66 Vedic Texts A69 Changes from Rigvedic to Later Vedic Phases A72

4.5 4.6

Economic Conditions A74 Political Organisation and Evolution of Monarchy A 75

4.7

Social Organisation and Varna System A77

4.8

Religion and Upanishadic Thought A80 Questions A86

Answers A101

Pre-Maurya Period A102 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Early Historical Phase A102 State Formation and Urbanization A104 Political History A107 Buddhism ,4777 Jainism A114 Questions All 8 Answers A132

The Mauryan Empire A133 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Chandragupta and Bindusara A133 Megasthenes A134 Asoka and His Successors A136 Asoka's Inscriptions and Sites A139 Asoka's Dhamma A143 Mauryan Administration, Economy, Society and Art A144

6.7

The Arthasastra ,4752

xiv Contents

Questions A158 Answers A174

7

Post-Mauryan India (bc 200-AD 300) A175

7.1 7.2 7.3

Society: Evolution of Jatis ,4775 Sangam Texts and Society A195 Satavahanas and Other Indigenous Dynasties A203

7.4 7.5

Foreign Dynasties A209 Commercial Contacts with the Outside World A217

7.6

Religion: Hinayana and Mahay ana Buddhism ,4225

7.7 Schools of Art ,4267 Questions-I A267 Answers-I A277 Questions-II A278 Answers-II A292 Questions-Ill A293 Answers-Ill A306 Questions-IV A307 Answers-IV A323

8

The Guptas and Their Successors (ad 300-750) A324

8.1 8.2

Gupta Empire ,4324 Political and Cultural History of Their Successors A341

8.3 Socio-Economic History of Their Successors A349 Questions-I A367 Answers-I A378 Questions-II A379 Answers-II A393

Section B Medieval India

Chronology of Events--Medieval India B3

9

Early Medieval India B7

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

Major Dynasties of North India B7 The Rajaputras B14 Feudalism B21 Cholas and Others of South India B24 Questions B43

Answers B49 10

Cultural Trends, 750-1200 B50

10.1 10.2

Growth of Regional Cultures B50 Religious Conditions and Importance of Temples B51

10.3 10.4 10.5

Shankaracharya and Hinduism B51 Languages and Literature B54 Islamic History B55 Questions B59 Answers B66

11

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries B67

11.1 11.2

Ghorian Invasions B67 Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Sultans B68

11.3

Ala-ud-din Khalji: Measures and Conquests 570

11.4

Muhammad Tughluq's Innovations 572

11.5

Firoz Tughluq and Decline of Delhi Sultanate B73

11.6 11.7 11.8

Administration 575 Agrarian Structure and Relations 575 Growth of Commerce and Urbanization 579

11.9 Technological Changes B80 11.10 Evolution of Indo-Persian Culture B81 Questions B88 Answers B103

12

The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries B104

12.1 12.2 12.3

Vijayanagar Empire B104 Other Provincial Dynasties 5/77 TheLodis(1451-1526) 5720

12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

First Phase of the Mughal Empire 5727 The Sur Empire (1540-55) 5722 The Portuguese 5723 Monotheistic Movements 5724 Growth of Regional Literatures 5726 Questions 5730

Answers B142

13

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707) B143

13.1 13.2

Akbar( 1556-1605) 5743 Other Great Mughals 5750

Contents xv

13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7

Sivaji and His Successors B154 Economy B156 Mughal Culture B166 Religious Thought: Abul Fazl B171 Social Stratification and Status of Women B173

Questions B178 Answers B198

14 Decline of Mughal Empire (1707-61) B199 14.1

Later Mughals: Causes behind Decline 5199

14.2

Maratha Power under the Peshwas B200

14.3

Regional States: Bengal (1717-72) B201

14.4 14.5

The Afghans B208 Sawai Jai Singh, the Astronomer 5209

14.6

Rise of Urdu Language B210 Questions B217

Answers B232

Section C Modern India

Chronology of Events--Modern India C3

15

British Expansion Cll

15.1 15.2 15.3

Carnatic Wars Cll Conquest of Bengal C12 Mysore and Its Resistance to British Expansion C14

15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8

Anglo-Maratha Wars and Treaties C16 Anglo-Sikh Wars C20 Annexation of Sind( 1843) C21 Structure of British Raj C22 Governors-General and Viceroys C24

15.9

Constitutional Developments C29 Questions C37

Answers C48

16

Economic Impact of the British Raj C49

16.1 16.2

Three Stages of Colonialism C49 Drain of Wealth (Tribute) C50

16.3 16.4 16.5

Land Revenue Settlements C51 Railways C53 Commercialization of Agriculture C55

16.6

Rural Indebtedness and Growth of Landless Labour C56

16.7 16.8

Deindustrialization C57 Growth of Modern Industries C57 Questions C61

'

Answers C67

17

Cultural Encounter and Social Changes C68

17.1

Introduction of Western Education and Modern Ideas C68

17.2

Indian Renaissance: Social and Religious Reform Movements C72

17.3 17.4 17.5

Growth of Indian Middle Class C84 The Press and Its Impact C85 Rise of Modern Literature in Indian Languages C87

17.6 Social Reform Measures Before 1857 C91 Questions C93 Answers C102

18

Resistance to British Rule C103

18.1

Early Uprisings against British Rule C103

18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5

The 1857 Revolt C110 Caste Movements Cll4 Peasant Movements Cll 7 Trade Union Movement Cll9 Questions C123

Answers C144

19

Indian Freedom Struggle--The First Phase C145

19.1

Growth of National Consciousness C145

19.2 19.3

Formation of Associations C147 Establishment of the Indian National Congress C147

19.4 19.5

Moderate Phase (1885-1905) C147 Growth of Extremism (1906-1918) C149

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SECTION

ANCIENT INDIA

A1

Chronology of events-Anctonthda

bc

321-184

6000

Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan 305-303

4000-3000 Settlements in the Indus valley 3000-1500 Broad period of Indus civilisation

272-268

3000-2500 Beginning/Early phase of Indus civil isation seals found at Kish in 260 Mesopotamia 257 2500-1750 Mature phase of Indus civilisation;

268-232 2700 Date of Indus

civilisation of the great cities in the 250 Indus valley (Mohenjodaro and Harappa), in the Punjab (Kalibangan) and Gujarat (Lothal). 248 1750-1500 Later phase/Decline of Indus civilisa-232-184 tion; Immigration of the Vedic Aryans 184-75 1500-1000 Early/Rig Vedic Period; Settlement of the Aryans in the Punjab and the west-182 ern Ganga-Yamuna Doab 1000

Iron in India

166-150

1000-600 Later Vedic Period; Settlement of the Aryans in the central and eastern 141 Gangetic plains; emergence of j'ana-94 padas or territorial kingdoms; Painted Grey Ware (PGW) in the areas of 75-28 Aryan settlement 817 Traditional date of the birth of 58 Parsvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara 600 Beginning of Second Urbanisation in India (eastern Gangetic valley); Rise 50 of 16 mahajanapadas 563^83 Hitherto accepted date of Buddha 542-413 Haryankas of Magadha 2 540-468 Hitherto accepted date of Mahavira 518 Gandhara and Sind satrapies of the Persian empire; Behistun inscription ad of Darius I 20-46 413-364 Sisunagas of Magadha 364-321 Nandas of Magadha

327-325 Alexander's Invasion of India 326

45

Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and

defeat of Porus (Purushottam) by Alexander Maurya Empire Chandragupta Maurya's war with Seleucus Nikator War of succession between Asoka and his brothers Asoka's reign Asoka's conquest of Kalinga Asoka's conversion to Buddhism by Upagupta Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra; Buddhist missions in South Asia and the Hellenistic World Independence of the Greeks in Bactria Later Mauryas Sungas (Pushyamitra-founder, Devabhumi-last Sunga) Foundation of the Indo-Greek empire by Demetrius Menander, the most important of the Indo-Greeks Sakas conquer Bactria Maues, Saka king in northwestern India Kanvas (Vasudeva--founder, Suser-man--last Kanva) Beginning of Vikrama samvat (era) by Vikramaditya of Ujjain; Azes I, the second Saka ruler in north-western India Emergence of Satavahanas in Deccan; King Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription) Despatch of Buddhist missionaries from the Bactrian court to the Chinese emperor.

Gondophernes, the greatest IndoParthian king in Taxila; St Thomas in India Invasion of north-western India by the Yuechis under Kujula Kadphises, who united the Yuechi tribes and established the Kushan emoire

Indian History: Ancient India

46

Discovery of monsoon winds by 455-467

Hippalus, a Greek sailor 64 Chinese emperor Mingti sent agents 467-540 to India for Buddhist texts 66

500-527

Arrival of Indian Buddhist monks,

Kasyapa Matanga and Gobharana, in 527 China 543-755 77

Pliny's Natural History

78

Commencement of the Saka era by 547 Kanishka

78-110 Reign of Kanishka; Heyday of the 560-903 Kushana empire 606-647 80-128 Resurgence of Satavahanas under 622 Gautamiputra Satakarni and Vasishti-625 putra Pulamayi 130-150 Rudradaman I, the greatest Saka 630 satrap in western India 226

Establishment of Sassanian dynasty in 630-643

Persia 630-1070 250

Disintegration of the Satavahana 634

kingdom 320 I

642

Beginning of Gupta era by Chandra gupta 643

320-335 Reign of Chandragupta I 335-375 Reign of Samudragupta, known as 648 Indian Napoleon for his military conquests 360 Ceylonese embassy to Samudra gupta's court 675-685

375-413 Reign of Chandragupta II, westward 700-728 expansion of the Guptas and peak of Sanskrit literature 405-411 Fahien in India

712

413-455 Reign of Kumaragupta 1; foundation 743-789 of the Nalanda University Reign of Skandagupta; first at! the Hunas Decline of the Gupta dynasty Rule of the Hunas over north under Toramana and Mihirakula Defeat of Mihirakula by Yasodha Chalukyas of Badami (Early yas) Indikopleustes of Kosmas (Ind pleustes of Cosmas) Great Pallavas of Kanchipuram Harshavardhana's reign Commencement ofhijra (Muslim) < The embassy of Pulakesin II to Persian king, Khusrau II Marsha's clash with Pulakesin II the banks of the Narmada Hiuen Tsang in India Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II Conquest of Badami by Narasir varman I of Kanchi Harsha's quinquennial assembly Prayag Bhaskaravarman (king of Kamarupa) I helped Wang Hiuen Tse (Chinese} ambassador) in restoring the successor of Harsha on the throne of Kanauj Itsing at Nalanda University Reign of Narasimhavarman II of! Kanchi; peak of prosperity and cultural activities Arab conquest of Sind Santarakshita and Padmasambhava (Buddhist monks) in Tibet.

chagter i

PREHISTORIC CULTURES IN INDIA

1.1 PERIODIZATION OF INDIAN PREHISTORY

Basis for Periodization

The earliest traces of human existence in India, so far discovered, go back to the period between 3,00,000 and 2,00,000 bc. A large number of primitive stone tools found in the Soan Valley and South India suggests this. The modern human being (homo sapiens) first appeared around 36,000 bc. Primitive man in the Paleolithic Age, which lasted till 8000 bc, used tools and implements of rough stone. Initially man was essentially a food gatherer and depended on nature for food. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living. From 8000 bc, the Mesolithic Age began and continued up to 4000 bc in India. During this time sharp and pointed tools were used for killing fast-moving animals. Chotanagpur plateau, central India and south of the river Krishna are some of the various Mesolithic sites. Almost all Neolithic settlements in the Indian subcontinent are not older than 4000 bc. Man began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants, settling down in villages to form farming communities. The wheel was an important discovery. Towards the end of the Neolithic period metals like copper and bronze began to be used. This was the Chalcolithic phase (1800 BC-1000 bc). Chalcolithic cultures extended from the Chotanagpur plateau to the upper Gangetic basin.

Periodization

Paleolithic Age To begin with the Paleolithic Age, also called the Old Stone Age, covered the long period from the time the first ancestors of modem human beings

started living in the Indian subcontinent, i.e., from roughly 3 lakh bc, to 8000 or eighth millennium bc. Archeologists divide it into three phases--the Lower or Early, the Middle and the Upper Paleolithic Ages--according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people.

Mesolithic Age Then came the Mesolithic Age, also known as the Late Stone Age, which broadly covered the period from the eighth to fourth millennium bc. It is the intermediate or transitional stage between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The tools of this age are called microliths (very small tools).

Neolithic Age Third in the sequence is the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age that covered the period roughly from 4000 to 1800 bc and was marked by the use of polished stone tools.

Chalcolithic Age Next is the Chalcolithic Age or Stone-Copper Age, which generally covered the period from 1800 to 1000 or 800 bc. This period was marked by the use of copper (the first metal to be used in India) as well as stone.

AS

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Prehistoric Cultures in India A7

Srinagar Valley in Kashmir to Karnataka and Andhra in the south. In these regional cultures lay the roots of the future formation of Indian village communities because their total cultural assemblage was certainly extremely significant in the context of the early historical settlements of the Iron Age.

Food-gathering Communities: Early Man of the Stone Ages

Lithic records of man's activities in India, beginning at least 250,000 years ago from now, have been studied by prehistorians against the drastic climatic changes of the Pleistocene epoch, and the search for the elusive fossil of the earliest man in India and his habitat continues. Meanwhile, Early Stone Age tools have been found in different areas of the subcontinent, the most notable among which are the Potwar plain bisected by the Soan river in northwestern Punjab; the Beas and Banganga valleys; Nevasa in the valley of Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari; Gudalur in Gundlakamma basin in Andhra Pradesh; Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna valley, a string of sites (Vadamadurai, Attirampakkam, etc.) in the coastal plain near Madras, and the districts along the north bank of the Mahanadi in Orissa. In fact, if our knowledge of the earliest man is limited to his crude tools, one thing is certain, and that is that there must have been an undeniable attraction for these early men in the hills and valleys of the subcontinent, for every survey produces their implements and underlines the ubiquity of their presence. Recent research suggests that not earlier than 35,000 years from now a new technology, possibly deriving from that of the Early Stone Age, emerged in India. Not only were the tools different, being made out of flakes or flake-like nodules from such fine-grained material as flint, jasper, chalcedony, etc., the environment of the Middle Stone Age man seems to have been different too, being less wet than in the Early Stone Age. In regions such as Maharashtra, remains of the contemporary fauna have also been found.

The Middle Stone Age cultures were, however, not of similar antiquity or duration in different parts of the country; the known dates range from about 33,000 bc to about 16,500 bc. There are, besides, indications that in some regions like Western Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh the flake-making technique was of a more improved variety than in others. These regional variations in dates and the total cultural assemblage became more prominent in the Late Stone Age heralded by the use of smaller tools, the microliths. In Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and several other areas, a long time span of 8500 BC-1700 bc has been suggested for these cultures. Microliths, being compound tools, suggest a substantial technological change; being hafted in bone, wood or bamboo they foreshadowed the forms and functions of later-day metallic implements. And there appeared, at least in a few areas, along with the microliths the technique of pot-making--a technique of great significance in human history as it came to be closely associated with food production and settled life, which the Indian Late Stone Age anticipated in several ways. Langhnaj in Gujarat and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh testify to the presence of domesticated animals; there is evidence too of the exchange of commodities between different areas and communities.

Food-producing Men: Neolithic-Chalcolithic Cultures

Settled life, based on food production, first began in the northwest. Here, man progressed from incipient food production to the foundation of Neolithic-Chalcolithic village cultures. Elsewhere, food-producing cultures slowly evolved, from about the beginning of the second millennium bc, in the individual contexts of distinct regions. If food-production does not characterise the Neolithic economy of the Burzahom people of the Srinagar valley around 2400 bc (as they were still in the hunting stage) it does so in the copper age economy of Ahar in the Banas valley of Rajasthan, the Chalcolithic economy of MaheshwarNavdatoli

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more advanced technology than copper-bronze was a precondition for the full realisation of cultural potentialities. Throughout the subcontinent iron led slowly but perceptibly to the transition from the pre and proto-historical to the historical culture.

Iron Age Sites and Cultures

Regardless of the fact that Indian iron technology may be the result of some diffusion from the west, the early history of iron in India can be examined in terms of different regional contexts, through the study of the various iron-using areas of the subcontinent. The chronology of iron differs from one area to another, but between the period 1000 bc and 500 bc its use may be said to have spread to all major areas:

The upper Ganges valley and its peripheries Malwa plateau and the Tapti valley South and Central Indian megalithic areas Baluchistan plains Middle and lower Ganges valleys Northwest, mainly Peshawar region

From the evidence available at present, the earliest presence of iron may be said to be in the first three major regions listed above. In the upper Ganges valley and the IndoGangetic divide iron is first found associated,, around 800 bc, with a culture known as Painted Grey Ware (PGW) (after its characteristic pottery). Its use was sparse in the beginning, but by the middle of the sixth century bc it had become fairly common, and was associated with the new Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture. During this period its horizon expanded to

include the central and lower Ganges valley, where it marked a significant break from the earlier cultures. In the Malwa region and Tapti valley too, at sites such as Nagda, Eran and Prakash, iron brought in an element of change in the earlier Chalcolithic cultures, and it is possible that the use of iron was slightly earlier in this region (1000 bc) than in the Ganges valley. Similarly, at Hallur in north Karnataka iron appears to overlap the Neolithic implements of 900 bc. Furthermore, even if this date is not applicable to the other Iron Age sites of southern India, a definite cultural departure from the earlier Neolithic period is seen in the iron age megaliths of this region.

Impact of Iron

In all the regions mentioned above iron brought in a change of economy, the characteristic feature of which was a more advanced type of agriculture. In the Ganges valley and in the Malwa region iron also led to the rise of urban centers. Both Brahmanical and Buddhist texts are replete with reference to cities during the middle of the first millennium bc and it is precisely at such cities-- Ahichhatra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti and Ujjayini to name only a Tew--that archaeological evidence of Iron Age urbanisation is available. Archaeology of the Iron Age phases of the Ganges valley settlements is certainly much better known than that of the preceding phase; and there is a hint of their being larger in size. By the middle of the sixth century bc some of these settlements had reached the proportions of urban centres. This suggests that for the first time, since the decline of the Harappan civilisation, a substantial agricultural surplus, which could sustain such urban centres, had emerged. The use of silver and copper coins, in large numbers, during this period implies considerable trade and commerce. < Some of the urban centers were also seats of political power, as suggested by elaborate defense arrangements in some of them. Thus a political system with definable territorial units as its bases had also developed by this time. Although urbanisation is not evidenced in the south till a few centuries later, some important elements of south Indian social organisation had evolved in the megalithic phase and continued into the early historical times; and at least for the extreme south such elements came to be preserved in the corpus of Sangam literature.

A10 Indian History: Ancient India

1.4 GLOSSARY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL TERMS

Ahar Culture Named after the type-site Ahar in Rajasthan. Also known as the Banas Culture, after the river of the same name. Ash-Mound Mounds formed by cycles of accumulation and conflagration of dung and stockade in cattle-pens, associated with the Southern Neolithic Culture (about 20001000 bc).

Awl Pointed tool of stone, bone or metal, used for piercing holes in leather, wood, etc. It is also known as borer. Black-and-Red Ware Pottery whose interior and the top pan of the exterior are black and, the lower part of the exterior is red. In India, such pottery appeared as early as 2000 bc and continued, with modifications, up to the beginning of the Christian era. Black-on-Red Ware Pottery of red color with paintings in black. Burin Tool usually made with a stone blade by flaking its sides at one end, so that it forms a narrow chisel-edge at the meeting point. Used for engraving. Burnisher Tool of varying material used for providing lustrous finish to pottery. Carbon-14 Dating A method of dating the past. It is based on the fact that Carbon-14, a radioactive form of carbon, is being continuously produced in the atmosphere and becomes a part of all living organisms. A living organism contains radioactive carbon (Carbon-14) and normal carbon (Carbon-12) atoms in a fixed proportion. Once an organism is dead, it does not receive any fresh supply of Carbon-14. On the other hand, the Carbon-14 content of the material begins to diminish with time, according to known radioactive disintegration laws. The known rate of decay of Carbon-14, combined with the facts that all living matter contains Carbon-14 and Carbon-12 in a fixed proportion and that the latter does not decay, forms the basis of the method of radiocarbon dating. Celt Axe of stone, bronze or iron. The one in stone is a type-tool of the Neolithic times. Used either

by holding it directly in the hand or by haftingj to a wooden handle. Chopper An Early Stone Age tool made with ] bles by flaking a part of the periphery on upper face. Used for cutting or scraping. Cleaver An Early Stone Age tool having a wid chisel-edge formed by the intersection of large flake-scars. Copper Hoards Name given, for convenience, to t characteristic group of copper objects, found mostly in hoards. They comprise flat, shoulde and bar-like celts, rings, harpoons, antennaef swords, anthropomorphic figures, etc. Distribution: mainly Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa 1 and Madhya Pradesh, but extending up to Gujarat' and Mysore. Date: about 1900-1300 bc. Handaxe Almond or pear-shaped tool made by removing flakes usually from both upper and lower faces. Mostly found in Early Stone Age context. Harpoon Missile of bone, antler or metal, comprising a barbed, pointed head and a barbed shaft. Used for capturing under-water mammals and fish. Holocene Geological period following the Pleistocene and extending up to the present. It began about 10,000 years ago. Jorwe Ware Named after site of the same name in Maharashtra. Red pottery, often with matt surface, bearing paintings in black. It forms a characteristic industry of the Northern Deccan Chalcolithic Culture. Date: about 1600-1000 bc. Kharoshthi A script prevalent in the northwestern parts of the subcontinent from the third century bc to the third century ad. In the neighboring countries, it seems to have persisted all even later. It was written from right to left. Madrasian Early Stone Age culture of southern India, characterised by bifacial handaxes and cleavers. So called due to the first discovery of such tools near Madras. Malwa Ware Named after the region, Malwa (southwestern part of Madhya Pradesh), where

Prehistoric Cultures in India All

this typical pottery is found. It has a pale-brown to red surface and is painted with designs in black-or chocolate color. It forms a characteristic industry of the Central Indian Chalcolithic Culture. Date: about 1700-1000 BC. Megaliths Funerary or commemorative monuments characterised by the use of large stones in their make-up. They are of various types. For example, dolmens, dolmenoid cists, pit-burials, urn or sacrophagus-burials, menhir, etc. Many of them are superficially demarcated by the circle or circles of stone. While the cultural association of megaliths in eastern and northeastern India has yet to be worked out, those in the south are associated with iron implements and Black-and-Red pottery and are datable approximately to 1000 BC-100 AD. Microliths Tiny tools made on fine-grained stones. On the basis of shape, these are classified into two categories: non-geometric (comprising lades, borers, points, etc.) and geometric (marked out by trapezes and triangles). Available evidence indicates that the former category might be earlier, going back to about 6000 bc. Middle Stone Age Part of the Stone Age falling between the Early and the Late. It is characterised by medium-sized tools made of fine-grained stones, and comprising points, borers, a variety of scrapers and occasional blades and burins. Nasta'liq A decorative style of the Arabic script. It came into being in the fourteenth century ad, having evolved from the Naskh and To. 'liq styles. The letters in it are more round than those in the Naskh. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) A distinctive pottery with a highly lustrous surface, usually black but sometimes steel-grey, silvery or golden. It is wheel-made, normally thin-sectioned and well-fired, giving a metallic ring. The more common shapes are bowls and dishes, . though lids, etc., also occur. Distribution: main concentration in northern India but found as far away as Afghanistan, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. Date: about 600-200 bc. Ochre Colour Ware Orange to deep-red pottery, found so far mostly in a worn-out condition--to the extent that the surface rubs off by mere handling, leaving an ochre colour on the fingers.

Hence the name. Distribution: upper Ganga Valley. Date: prior to 1200 bc. Painted Grey Ware Pottery of the grey colour painted with linear and dotted patterns in black. It is wheel-made, thin-sectioned and well-fired, the more common shapes being bowls and dishes. Distribution: mainly Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and northern Rajasthan. Date: about 1100-600 bc. PGW Culture Named, for convenience, after the ware. Distinctive cultural traits and the Painted Grey Ware; copper in early stages, but soon supplemented by iron; wattle-anddaub houses; rice and horses. Distribution: mainly Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and northern Rajasthan. Date: about 1100600 bc. Pleistocene Geological period immediately preceding the present (Holocene). It was in the earlier part of this period that man appeared. This period is also marked by the appearance of the true ox, true elephant and true horse. Polished Stone Tool Stone tool having a sharp, usually convex, cutting edge and pointed butt. Made by chipping, pecking and grinding, the last-named process giving the tool a smooth (polished) surface. Characteristic tool of the Neolithic times. Post-cremation Burial Burial of charred human bones after cremation. Proto-historic Period Literally, the first or earliest period of history. In India the term is vaguely but usually applied to the period falling between the end of the Late Stone Age (which itself is not a well-defined point but might be around 4000 bc) and the beginning of regular history with the Mahajanapadas in the sixth century bc. Thus, it included not only the Indus Civilisation, in which the art of writing (leading to documentation) was known, but also other


cultures, though materially less advanced, which preceded the historical period. Punch-marked Coins Squarish or oblong coins of silver or popper characterised by a series of punched symbols. Date: 600-200 bc. Rock-shelters Places sheltered by overhanging rocks, including natural large-sized cavities in rock-faces, used as dwelling by pre-historic man. Rouletted Ware Pottery characterised by concentric dotted bands produced with the help of a roulette (a toothed wheel). The characteristic shape is a dish with an incurved rim, the rouletted pattern occurring on the interior of the base. This Ware is wheel-made, fine-grained, and grey to black in colour. It is well-fired, often giving a metallic ring. The rouletted design was probably copied from its counterpart on contemporary Mediterranean wares. Distribution', mainly south India, but examples found along the coast up to West Bengal. Date: from about the beginning of the Ch era to ad 200. Russetcoated Painted Ware Pottery bavin linear or curvilinear designs in lime over i coating of russet-coloured ochre was The main shapes are bowls and dishes. Distribution: mainly south India. Date: about 50-200 ad. Scraper Implement of stone, bone or metal 1 a specially prepared sCraping-edge. Us scraping hides, smoothening wood, etc.. Slip Liquid clay of the creamy consistency ap as a coating on pottery before firing. Henc term slipped pottery. Teri-sites Sites associated with dunes of i

sand, located in the coastal district of Tinne Tamil Nadu. On the dunes microliths of the 1 Stone Age were found. Terracotta The term connotes statuettes and I urines made of baked clay.


CHALCOUTHIC SITES OF INDIA

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QUESTIONS

1.

Which of the following terms does not indicate a tool tradition?

(a) Mousterian (b) Acheulian (c) Groutian 2.

(d) Oldowan

Microliths are typical of:

(a) Paleolithic Age (b) Mesolithic Age (c) Neolithic Age (d) Chalcolithic Age 3.

Which of the following is not a principal tool of the Early Stone Age?

(a) Scrapper

(b) Handaxe

(c) Cleaver

(d) Chopper

4. Pot-making, a technique of great significance in human history, appeared first at least in a few areas during: (a) Early Stone Age (b) Middle Stone Age (c) Upper Stone Age (d) Late Stone Age 5.

Which one of the following pairs of Paleolithic sites and areas is not correct?

(a)

6.

Didwana--Western Rajasthan (b) Sanganakallu--Karnataka (c) Uttarabaini--Jammu area (d) Riwat--Pakistani Punjab Which one of the following pairs is not proper ly matched?

(a) Burzahom Culture--Jhelum Valley (b) Ganeshwar Culture--N. E. Rajasthan (c) Jorwe Culture--Maharashtra (d) Ahar Culture--Madhya Pradesh 7. Which one of the following Chalcolithic sites of the Malwa Culture has yielded evidence of fire-altars, bull worship and phallus worship? (a) Eran

(b) Dangwada

(c) Kayatha

(d) Navdatoli

8. lists:

Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below the

List I List II Chalcolithic Cultures Type Sites (I) (II)

Banas Culture (A) Ghaligai Gandhara Culture (B) Inamgaon

(III) (IV)

Malwa Culture Savalda Culture

(C) Gilund (D) Navdatoli Codes: 1 (a) A B (b) C A (c) A C (d) C A III

IV

C

D

B

D

D

B

D

B

II

9. Which Chalcolithic site of eastern India ha revealed the most impressive evidence crops? (a) Senuar

(b) Chirand

(c) Taradih

(d) Pandu Rajar Dhib

10.

Which site does not show evidence of the OCF (ochre-colored pottery) Culture?

(a) Atranjikhera

(b) Lai Qila

(c) Saipai 11.

(d) Mahagara

Which one of the following sites does not havef evidence of pit-dwellings?

(a) Burzahom (b) Sarai Khola (c) Jalilpur 12. at:

(d) Gufkral

Ash-mounds, which mystified archeologists for J so long, have been discovered

(i) Mahagara (ii) Pallavoy (iii) Kupgal

(iv) Chirand

(v) Utnur

(vi) Kodekal

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)

i, ii, iii and iv ii, iii, iv and v iii, iv, v and vi ii, iii, v and vi

13. The earliest evidence of man in India is found in: (a) Nilgiris Hills (c) Siwalik Hills (d) Narmada Valley

(b) Nallamala

14. Where do we find the three phases, viz. Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures in sequence? (a) Kashmir Valley (b) Godavari Valley (c) Belan Valley (d) Krishna Valley

A14


15.

The earliest evidence of settled agriculture in the subcontinent comes from:

(a) Kalibangan (b) Amri (c) Mehrgarh (d) Inamgarh 16.

Pick the wrong pair from the following:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 17.

Belan Valley--Uttar Pradesh Pravara Valley--Rajasthan Soan Valley--Madhya Pradesh Hiran Valley--Saurashtra Which of the following do not belong to the same category?

(a) Lunates

(b) Rhomboids

(c) Trapezes

(d) Triangles

18.

Excellent cave paintings of Mesolithic Age are found at:

(a) Bhimbetka (b) Atranjikhera (c) Mahishadal

(d) Barudih

19.

Which one of the pairs is incorrect?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 20.

Adamgarh--Madhya Pradesh Bagor--Rajasthan SarahNahar Rai--Uttar Pradesh Baghor--Bihar The OCP Culture is found mainly in:

(a) Eastern UP (b) Western UP (c) Bihar 21.

(d) Bengal

In the upper Ganga valley iron is first found associated with:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 22.

Black-and-Red Ware Ochre Colored Ware Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Megaliths of south India are mainly associated with:

(a) Mesolithic Age (b) Neolithic Age (c) Chalcolithic Age (d) Iron Age 23.

'Awl' is also known as:

(a) Borer

(b) Burin

(c) Cleaver

(d) Chopper

24.

The half-life of Carbon-14 is:

(a) 3750 years (b) 5730 years (c) 7350 years (d) 9530 years List II Pottery (A) Blackon-Red (B) Brownish-red (C) Grey (D) Red (D) Burnished-grey E V I V V 25.

Match the following: List I

Cultures (I) (II)

Malwa Eastern Neolithic

(III)

Burzahom

(IV) (V)

Jorwe Southern Neolithic Codes: A B C D

(a) (b) (c) (d)

III II IV I IV V II III II III IV I I II III IV

A16 ANSWERS

l.(c) 11. (c) 21. (c) 2.(b) 12. (d) 22. (d) 3. (a) 13. (d) 23. (a) 4.(d) 14. (c) 24. (b) 5.(b) 15. (c) 25. (d) 6.(d) 16. (b) 7.(b) 17. (a) 8.(d) 18. (a) 9. (a) 19. (d) 10. (d] 20. (b]

chapter 2

INDUS CIVILISATION

2.1 PLACE OF INDUS CIVILISATION IN HISTORY

Four Earliest Civilisations of the World

About 5000 years ago human civilisation came off age when, in four separate areas of intense agricultural activity, a number of dispersed farming villages evolved first into towns, and then into cities. From these centres eventually arose the first civilisations of the world, all of them located in broad river valleys-- the Tigris and the Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in India and the Hwang Ho (Yellow river) in China. Around 3500 BC the first cities developed in Mesopotamia, followed shortly afterwards by similar developments in Egypt and India, and a little later in China. Each of these urban literate civilisations was centred on a major river valley which had the agricultural potential needed to support a dense population. The special environment of the river flood-plains enabled these ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Indians and Chinese to construct societies rich enough to free a few persons from the task of producing their own food. These 'free' individuals gradually became specialists and developed a substantial range of new skills such as writing, bronzemaking, seal-making, " large-scale building, and the like. These civilisations undoubtedly developed independently of one another; and yet the similarities between them are both numerous and striking, marking all of them off from the farming communities out of which they sprang. One of their most obvious common features was the large cities. They were far larger than anything that had gone before and larger than many that came after. Thus, the 'Urban Revolution' of the fourth millennium bc marks the beginning of a new phase of human existence.

Its Place in Indian History

The name 'India' is derived from the river 'Indus', for India means the country of the Indus. The earliest literary evidence, however, shows that the first Aryan settlers in India called the Indus, the 'Sindhu' (a huge; sheet of water). The Aryans in their long trek through Iran into India could never before have encountered; a river of such magnitude as the Indus. In 518 bc Darius I, the Persian emperor, conquered the country around the Indus and converted it into a Persian Satrapy (province). The Persians, because of their own difficulty in pronouncing the initial 'S' turned 'Sindhu' into 'Hindu'. Later, passing through the hands of the Greeks, 'Hindu' became 'Indus'. Thus, to the Greeks and Romans India came to mean the country of the Indus. With the Arab conquest of Sind, however, the old Persian name returned in the form of 'Hindustan' (Land of the Hindu); the people who inhabited the land came to be called 'Hindus'; and their religion was described as 'Hinduism'.

A17


The name 'India', thus, goes back to the earliest civilisation in India, the Indus civilisation, though no one had heard of such a civilisation till the third decade of the twentieth century. However, in the 1920s, two ancient sites in the Indus valley-Harappa and Mohenjodaro--were excavated. These cities brought to light a civilisation, which was at first called the Indus Valley civilisation', but later termed as the Indus civilisation' due to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the actual river valley. Alternatively it has also come to be called the 'Harappan civilisation'after the name of its first discovered site. This discovery of India's first and earliest civilisation posed a historical puzzle. It seemed to have suddenly appeared on the stage of history, full grown and fully equipped. All civilisations known to history till then have started from small beginnings and have taken hundreds of years to reach their prime. But the Harappan civilisation till recently showed no definite signs of such birth and growth. However, the puzzle could largely be solved after the extensive excavation work conducted at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan between 1973 and 1980 by two French archaeologists (Jean Francoise Jarrige and Richard H Meadow). Mehrgarh, according to these researchers, gives us an archaeological record with a sequence of occupations. The sequence clearly shows a process of continuing elaboration that affected cereal cultivation, animal husbandry, crafts, architecture and even ideology, And one can easily witness the stage being gradually set for the development of the complex cultural patterns that became manifest in the great cities of the Indus civilisation in the middle of the third millennium bc.

2.2 ORIGINS

Beginning of Cultures

Approximately around 8000 BC, climatic conditions more or less similar to those of today were established in South Asia. This provided the setting for man to make a number of important advances in his efforts to control his environment, and by 4000 BC a series of events was set in train, which led ultimately to the appearance of the first urban societies in this

region. Perhaps the most fundamental advance i was the domestication of several breeds of anin and plants. The domestication of various species of aniiri) produced the specialised pastoralists. On the hand, the domestication of various wild plants ; duced the shift towards sedentary settlement, latter adaptation came to dominate the subsequ economic and cultural developments. When started to cultivate crops and to herd his own don ticated animals, an increased interest in fertility: in magical means of promoting it appears to havi become an almost universal aspect of culture. Also associated with permanent settlement we a series of new crafts involving important tech logical discoveries. Among these were the manufacture and use pottery, the discovery of the smelting of copper i its alloys, and their use in the manufacture of tooli and weapons.

Indus System

In the Indus plains, the picture that we see today was! probably the same in many respects at the time of I the earliest settlements on the edge of the plain. The main channel of the Indus flows through a wide alluvial floodplain which is of great fertility. Once the agricultural potentials of the new alluvium were realised, and means were discovered of overcoming the problems of protecting settlements on the floodplain from inundation, an entirely new type of life became possible. Evidently, this development took place in several stages, reaching its culmination around the opening of the third millennium bc. The first and most important site for consideration is at Mehrgarh. Its geographical position is essentially one of transition between the upland valleys of the eastern Iranian plateau and the beginning of the plains of the Indus system. The transitional nature of its position is fully demonstrated in the cultural remains found here. Out of the six mounds found here, the oldest mound shows a large Neolithic village which, according to radiocarbon dating, belongs 'to the sixth millennium bc. The most important finds were traces of grain and innumerable flint blades used as


sickles. These clearly establish that cultivation prevailed in Baluchistan even at that early age. The early transition from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled agriculture and animal husbandry is documented also by a large number of animal bones which were found in this mound. Next to this oldest mound there is another one which contained Chalcolithic settlements showing the transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. This part of Mehrgarh dates from the fifth millennium bc. Ceramics as well as a copper ring and a copper bead were found here. The rise of handicrafts is clearly in evidence at this stage. In the third phase of the settlement at Mehrgarh, belonging to the fourth millenium bc, skills were obviously much improved and the potter's wheel was introduced to manufacture large amounts of fine ceramics. Other important finds were a drill for drilling holes into beads and a crucible for the melting of copper. In the fourth phase, belonging to about 3500 bc, ceramics attained major importance. The potters produced large jars decorated with geometric patterns as well as smaller receptacles for daily use. Small female figurines made of terracotta were found here, and terracotta seals (the earliest precursors of the seals found in the Indus valley) were also found. The fifth phase of the settlement at Mehrgarh started around 3200 BC. The characteristic features of this phase had also been noted in sites in eastern Iran and Central Asia. Long-distance trade no doubt contributed to the exchange of cultural achievements in this early period. The final phase (3000-2600 bc) shows increasing wealth and urbanisation. A new type of seal with animal symbols, and terracotta figurines of men and women with elaborately dressed hair seem to reflect a new life style. Artifacts such as the realistic sculpture of a man's head and several delicately designed figurines foreshadow the later style of Harappan art. The top most strata of settlements at this site are crowded with twostoried buildings. But sometime around the middle of the third millennium bc the flourishing town of Mehrgarh was abandoned for unknown reasons. In the Indus valley, however, the third millennium bc was a period of great expansion of settle ments.

Apparently, population was pressing heavily on land and new colonies had to be founded in far off places. In the western valley settlements radiated from Mehrgarh to eastern Iran and southern Turkmenistan on the one side and to south Baluchistan on the other. In the eastern-valley cities like Harappar Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Surkotada and Lothal were founded. Thus, by the middle of the third millennium bc, Indus civilisation had established itself on both sides of the Indus. Another settlement of considerable antiquity, though not as ancient as Mehrgarh, in the Indus system is Gumla. The location of this site is in some ways similar to Mehrgarh. Gumla lies on the right bank of the Indus, and on the alluvial plains of its tributary, Gomal river. It is a small mound, and was excavated in 1971. A sequence of six periods was discovered here. A third early settlement is at Sarai Khola, some 3 km southwest of Taxila. This site is located on the high alluvial plateau which marks the northern border of me Indus plains in this area. It was excavated in 1968-71. Of the four periods only the first concerns us here. This may be described as a Neolithic occupation on account of the material culture. Investigations have revealed the presence of several pit-dwellings in this period. The fourth early settlement of the Indus system is at Jalilpur in south-western Punjab, some 65 km south-west of Harappa, standing near the left bank of the Ravi river.lt was excavated in 1971. Here too the early period may be called Neolithic, in that no copper or bronze has been reported.

Baluchistan

In this arid mountainous region, in the isolated valleys, there are many traces of early settlement. In the north these are particularly common in the Quetta valley, and to the east in the valleys of the Loralai and Zhob rivers. Kili Ghul Muhammad is'a small mound lying about two miles from the modern city of Quetta. The radiocarbon samples derived from Period I, the lowest of the four cultural phases revealed at the site, have been dated at 4400-4100 bc. The data collected indicate that the inhabitants had domestic sheep, goats and oxen, and were probably nomadic initially. There


followed two further periods, II and III, the earlier yielding crude handmade and basketmarked pottery. These levels contained further house walls of mud-brick. The predominant pottery had a red or yellowred surface. In period III copper was also found, along with distinctive pottery, both wheel-thrown and handmade, decorated with black or red painted designs including simple geometric motifs. There are several sites in north and central Baluchistan which may be associated with Kili Ghul Muhammad II and III. In the Loralai valley the mound of Rana Ghundai revealed extensive sequences on excavation. Further evidence of the character of the earliest settlements in this region comes from southeast Afghanistan. At Mundigak, the initial occupation does not reveal any structures. Thus here too, the first settlers seem to have been semi-nomadic. Then followed a level containing tiny oblong cells with walls of pressed earth. In the following layer larger houses appear, which have several rooms, built of sun-dried bricks. From the prestructural phase onwards, pottery is present, including wheel-made painted ware. Stone blades, beads in steatite, lapis lazuli and frit make their first appearance during this period. Objects of copper also are seen for the first time. This evidence suggests that in the western borderlands, the earliest settlements grew out of what were originally pastoral nomadic campsites, and that there may have been a considerable period during which the change to permanent settlements and settled agriculture took place. This earliest period in Baluchistan may be inferred to have come to an end by the first half of the fourth millennium bc.

Evolution and Stages

Archaeological research over the past seven decades has established a continuous sequence of strata, showing the gradual development to the high standard of the fullfledged Indus civilisation. These strata have been named Pre-Harappan, Early Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan phases or stages. The most important consequence of this research is the clear proof of the long-term indigenous evolution of this civilisation which

obviously began on the periphery of the Indus valley j in the hills of eastern Baluchistan and then extende into the plains. There were certainly connection with Mesopotamia, but the earlier hypothesis the Indus civilisation was merely an extension of Mesopotamian civilisation, or that the former was a| direct imitation of the latter, had to be rejected. The different stages of the indigenous evolution ; of the Indus civilisation can be documented by an analysis of four sites which have been excavated in recent years: Mehrgarh, Amri, Kalibangan and Lothal. These four sites reflect the sequence of the four important stages or phases in the prehistory and proto-history of the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent. The sequence begins with the transition of nomadic herdsmen to settled agriculturists in eastern Baluchistan (first stage), continues with the growth of large villages and the rise of towns in the Indus valley (second stage), leads to the emergence of the great cities (third stage) and, finally, ends with their decline (fourth stage). Each of these stages is exemplified by each of the four sites mentioned above: the first by Mehrgarh, the second by Amri, the third by Kalibangan and the fourth by Lothal.

First Stage: Mehrgarh

Located at the foot of the Bolan pass, it is about 150 miles to the north-west of Mohenjodaro. Although it is administratively part of Baluchistan, it is hydrologically a part of the Indus system. Excavations here provide us with the earliest evidence yet available for settled agriculture in the Indian subcontinent. The site of Mehrgarh is about 1000 yards in diameter and contains, as seen already, six mounds with different strata of early settlements.

Second Stage: Amri

The transition from the Pre-Harappan to the Mature Harappan culture is best evidenced at Amri. It seems that the people of Amri wanted to keep in touch with the early cultures of Baluchistan and considered it as something of a daring venture to settle in the great


plains near the Indus. This new venture was started only around 4000 bc, that is, 2000 years after the early cultures of Baluchistan appeared in places like Mehrgarh. But Amri and similar sites in the tower Indus valley (like Kot Diji) were inhabited throughout the millennia of the Indus civilisation and, therefore, provide interesting evidence of the cultural evolution in the valley. The excavations at Amri were conducted between 1959 and 1969. The four stages of the Indus civilisation are clearly exhibited here at Amri: Pre-Harappan, Early Harappan (which is a phase of transition), Mature Harappan and Late Harappan (also known as Jhangar culture in its regional variety) cultures.

Third Stage: Kalibangan

Kalibangan was next only to Harappa and Mohenjodaro in size. But what is really interesting about it was the excellent preservation of its Pre-Harappan strata, rather than its mere size. This makes Kalibangan an eminent witness of the circumstances which accompanied the transition from Pre-Harappan and Early Harappan to Mature Harappan phases. The old Kalibangan was founded around 2400 bc and included some features then which later became standard for the cities of the Indus civilisation. For instance, it was a planned city of rectangular shape, about 75&feel long and following a northsouth axis. The city was fortified and the houses were constructed with dried bricks of 10 x 20 x 30 cm. The sewage system was constructed with burnt bricks. Its ceramics produced on the potter's wheel were of excellent quality and nicely decorated, their patterns being clearly different from those of the subsequent period. Sometime around 2250 bc when the expansion of the Harappan culture started, the old Kalibangan was abandoned for reasons which are not yet known. It was rebuilt only 50 or 100 years later and its new pattern reflected the design of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Now for the first time there was a clear distinction in Kalibangan between a citadel and a separate lower town. The citadel or the acropolis was built on the ruins of old Kalibangan, and the lower town was set up at a distance of about 120 feet from the citadel. The lower town, which was about 4 tunes larger than the

old Kalibangan, was planned on the same regular pattern as the lower towns of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. In the new Kalibangan, standards were quite rigid; the various streets of the city had a width of 12, 18 or 24 feet according to their relative importance. The bricks, which had been made to strict specifications even in old Kalibangan, were now fashioned according to the uniform measure of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. A special feature of new Kalibangan was a third smaller natural mound at a distance of about 240 metres from the lower city. This mound contained only remnants of fire altars. It was probably a religious centre for the people of the lower city, whereas the two platforms with fire altars found within the citadel were reserved for its inhabitants only. Besides, the absence of mother goddess figurines in Kalibangan is peculiar, since these goddesses were quite common in all other centres of the Indus civilisation.

Fourth Stage: Lothal

Lothal was founded much later than the above three settlements. Construction began here around 2100 bc during the Mature Harappan period. It had all the features typical of the cities of the Indus civilisation. Its citadel was built on a high platform, about 150 x 120 feet, and its brick wall surrounded both the citadel and the lower town. The pattern of streets and alleys was the same as that of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The most unique feature of Lothal was its dock-- a large basin, measuring 770 X 120 x 15 feet in length, width and depth respectively. Situated east of the city, its walls were made of hard bricks and had two openings which are believed to have been sluice gates. Four large round stones with holes in their middle were found at the bottom of the basin. They might have served as anchors for ships which used this basin as a dock. A raised platform between the basin and the city also seems to indicate that this was


the dock of-a major port, an emporium of trade between the Indus civilisation and Mesopotamia. Many tools, stone beads and seals were found in Lothal, among them the famous 'Persian Gulf seal'. Probably, Lothal not only served long-distance trade but also supplied the cities on the Indus with raw material such as cotton from Gujarat and copper from Rajasthan. This would explain why Lothal was founded at a rather late stage when the demand for these raw materials was at its height in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Mohenjodaro, the most important site, is affected by ground water which covers the strata. The original foundations of Mohenjodaro i now approximately 24 feet below the ground' level. The rising of the ground water level was j ably one of the reasons for the decline of that citj and it also makes it impossible to unravel the se of its birth. That is why, it is necessary to excavatt parallel strata in other sites of the Indus civilisatio which are more accessible and whose age can found out by means of radiocarbon dating.

Prospects and Problems

The recent excavations at Mehrgarh show that in this area of Baluchistan there was a continuous cultural evolution from the sixth millennium bc throughout the subsequent four millennia. The discovery of several Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan, including the oldest mound at Mehrgarh, has led to the conclusion that the Indus civilisation was the outcome of an indigenous evolution which started in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. The many settlements of the fourth millennium bc which have been excavated in recent years provide added evidence for this new hypothesis. The excavations at Amri demonstrate that the most crucial step towards the establishment of settlements in the Indus valley was made in the fourth millennium bc and that it was an extension of indigenous developments and not a mere transfer of a cultural pattern by migrants from Mesopotamia, Iran or Central Asia.

The rise of indigenous crafts obviously led to an increase in long-distance trade with western and Central Asia, but this trade did not have the unilateral effect of cultural borrowing as an earlier generation of scholars had thought. Those scholars did«o, for they were naturally puzzled by the discovery of a mature civilisation which did not seem to have any local antecedents. At present, though we do have a much clearer idea of the indigenous roots of the Indus civilisation, unfortunately not milch is known to us about the rise of the specific Mature Harappan culture. The exact date of its rise is still a matter of debate. Moreover, 2.3 MATURE PHASE

Chronology

The first estimate of the duration of the occupation at Mohenjodaro was made by Sir John Marshall in 1931. His estimate, based upon general concordances with Mesopotamia, was from 3250 to 2750 bc. In the following years C J Gadd published a paper listing a number of Indus, or Indus-like, seals discovered at Mesopotamian sites, particularly Ur. He also discussed their ages. Majority of seals found might be expected to indicate active trade contracts between 2350 and 1770 bc. Since then Piggot (1950) and Wheeler (1946, 1960, etc.) have reviewed the evidence, including cross-dates and other categories of objects apparently imported into Mesopotamia. There has been general agreement upon an overall span of 2500-1500 bc. In the past thirty five years little additional evidence has come to light to change this view, so far as archaeological cross-datings are concerned. The advent of radiocarbon dating has provided a welcome new source of information of what must otherwise have remained a very vague position, and may well necessitate a revision of the earlier views. Walter Fairservis, by 1956 had seen in the radiocarbon dates of his excavations in the Quetta valley a need to bring down the dating of the Harappan culture to between 2000 and 1500 bc. In 1964 D P Agarwal was able to plot some two dozen dates, including those for KotDiji, Kalibangan and Lothal. He concluded that the total


Span of the culture should be between 2300 and 1750BC. Thus, the use of the MASCA* calibration for radiocarbon dates removes one part of the difficulty formerly felt in relating the Indus chronology to that of Mesopotamia. It must be admitted that there is still plenty of room for uncertainty particularly regarding the late dates and the final stages of the Mature Indus civilisation.

Extent

Indus civilisation belongs to the bronze age. Hence, it is older but surprisingly more developed than the Chalcolithic cultures in the subcontinent. It was the largest cultural zone of the period--the area covered by it (about 1.3 million sq.km.) being much greater than that of either the Mesopotamian or the Egyptian civilisation. Over 1000 sites have been discovered so far. It extends from Ropar (Punjab) in the north to Bhagatrav (Gujarat) in the south (1100 km), and from Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran border) in the west to Alamgirpur (UP) in the east (1600 km). But, according to the latest excavations, the northernmost site is Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) and the southernmost, Daimabad (Maharashtra). Recent excavations in Rajasthan (1994-95) have revealed a 4000-year-old village settlement of the Chalcolithic Age at Balathal, near Udaipur. Strong cultural affinities between Balathal and the late Indus or Harappan settlements are evident in the large and complex structures made of stone and mud-brick; fabrics, shapes and designs of ceramics; copper and bronze tools, and ornamental beads. These affinities suggest that the inspiration for founding the Balathal settlement came from the Harappan people of Gujarat and that some of the early settlers may have been migrants from that region. According to the available radiocarbon dates, the oldest known agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent is Mehrgarh, while the oldest known village settlement in India outside the zone of the Indus civilisation is Balathal.

* Magazine of Applied Sciences and Centre for Archaeology, Philadelphia State University, US.

Major Cities and their Characteristic Features

Major Cities

Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank of the Indus. Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) is located on the left bank of the Ravi. Chanhudaro (Sind) lies on the left bank of the Indus, about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro. Kalibangan (Rajasthan) was on the banks of the river Ghaggar which dried up centuries ago. Lothal (Gujarat) is at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of the now extinct Sarasvati river. Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann of Kutch. Dholavira (Gujarat), the latest city to be excavat ed, is in the Kutch district.

Common Characteristic Features

The foremost feature is the systematic town planning on the lines of the 'grid system', that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles, thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks (unknown in Egypt and Mesopotamia). The uniformity is nowhere clearer than in town planning. At Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan, this consists of two distinct elements: on the west a 'citadel' mound built on a high podium of mud-brick, with a long axis running north to south, and to the east a lower town consisting of what must have been the main residential areas. Indus civilisation was characterised by the large scale use of standardised burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and total absence of stone buildings. The width of each brick was twice as much as the height, and its length twice as large as its width (7.5 x 15 x 30 cm or 10 x 20 x 40 cm). The bricks were mainly made in an open mould, but for special purposes, such as bathrooms, sawn bricks were invariably used, and wells constructed with wedgeshaped moulded bricks. Worked stone was


rarely employed structurally, and the true arch was not used, but the corbelled arch in brick is frequent. Hammerdressed limestone slabs are occasionally found covering brick drains. Timber was used for the flat roofs. In certain rare instances timber also seems to have formed a semistructural frame or lacing-for brickwork. Another remarkable and unique feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered with either bricks or stone slabs and equipped with manholes. The citadel housed public buildings such as the religious buildings, granaries, residences of the members of the ruling class, and the like. Below the citadel is the lower town, consisting of the houses of the commoners. Houses generally had side entrances and there were no windows even facing the main streets. A distinctive feature of the construction was thus that the road-ward side of a block presented a plain blank face broken only where drainage chutes discharged.

Special Features

Mohenjodaro It is the largest ,of all the Indus cities and has all the above mentioned common features. Its population has been estimated to have been between 41,000 and 35,000. The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length) x 23 feet (breadth) x 8 feet (depth). Located at the centre of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brick work. Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as a ritual bathing site. The Great Granary found here is the largest building, measuring 150 feet (length) x 50 feet (breadth). It is located within the citadel, and next to the Great Bath. Its presence implies the existence of a centralised tax collecting agency. There is also present an oblong multipillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building which must have served administrative purposes.

In the lower town a particular building, identified by Wheeler as "the temple, has a monumental entrance and twin stairways leading to a raised platform on which was found one of the rare i sculptures of a seated figure. Within the lower town there are some like groups of single-roomed tenements Mohenjodaro which recall the rows of tene beside the granary at Harappa. Evidence of the use of horse comes from a sup< ficial level. A fragment of a woven cloth was discovered.

Harappa It was the first Indus site to be dis ered and excavated in 1921. The Indus civilisatiS was originally called Harappan civilisation this site. The vast mounds at Harappa were first repo by Masson in 1826, and visited by Cunningham i 1853 and 1873. Their rediscovery some sixty ye later led to the excavations between 1921 and 193 under the direction of M S Vats. The granaries here are located outside the cit but immediately next to it in the west. They are i series of brick platforms forming the basis of I rows of six granaries, each measuring 50 x 20 fei These are the nearest buildings to the river and, thu could easily be supplied by river transport. Working floors, consisting of rows of circula brick platforms, lay to the south of the granaries i were meant for threshing grain. Barracks or rows of single-roomed tenements ( situated just below the walls of the citadel. The probably housed labourers.

Chanhudaro It was the only Indus city without i citadel. Like Mohenjodaro, it was also flooded mo than once. A small pot was discovered here, which wa probably an ink pot. But there is no conclusive proof about it. Archaeologists have also discovered here metal! workers', shell-ornament makers' and bead-makers' j shops (Metals used were gold, silver, tin, copper, | etc.).

Kalibangan It is one of the two Indus cities which; have both proto-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases. In its proto-Harappan phase the fields were ploughed. But in the Harappan phase, they were not ploughed, but dug up.


Traces of the remains of massive brick walls around both the citadel and the lower town have been discovered here. Archaeologists discovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practice of the cult of sacrifice.

Lothal It was the only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people. It was nearly rectangular, with the longer axis running from north to south. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection. Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 bc). The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad. Metal-workers', shell-ornament makers' and beadmaker's shops have been discovered here also. Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found. Evidence for the use of horse comes from a doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse. Impressions of cloth are noticeable on some of the sealings found here (impressions of cloth on a trough come from another site, Alamgirpur).

Banawali It has evidence of having both protoHarappan and Harappan cultural phases. It shares almost all the common features of Indus cities, such as town planning, grid system, drainage system, and the like.

Surkotada It is the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been found. It was surrounded by a stone rubble fortification with square bastions at the corners and in the longer sides.

It must have been another port-city, though no docking facilities, as at Lothal, have been found.

Dholavira Situated in Gujarat, it is the latest Indus city discovered in India and also one of the largest sites of the Indus civilisation. Though it was first noticed by Dr J P Joshi, extensive excavation work at the site was conducted by R S Bisht and his team in 1990-91. It shares almost all the common features of the Indus cities, such as town planning, grid pattern, drainage system and elaborate fortification. The most unique feature of the site is its division into, not two parts as in other cities, but three sections. Two of these parts were protected by strong rectangular fortifications. There are two inner enclosures--the first one hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority) and the second one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the ruler(s) and the other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.

Distribution and Size of Indus Cities

Only three areas may be considered relevant to the growth of the Indus civilisation with a clear sequence of village-growth: the Kirthar piedmont and Kohistan to the westsouthwest of the Indus flood-plain in Sind; the Cholistan area; and the Gomal valley where the ancient sites are located not so much on the banks of the Gomal as on an old terrace of the Indus. Of these three areas only Cholistan can boast of a dense and wellintegrated distribution of the early Harappan sites to be followed by more dense and equally integrated Mature Harappan sites (174 in number, as compared to 138 in Rajasthan-HaryanaPunjab and 101 in Gujarat). There is more than an even chance that it was in the Ghaggar-Hakra system in Cholistan that the transition from the early Harappan 'culture' to the mature Harappan 'civilisation' was achieved.

Cholistan (Ghaggar-Hakra System)

The former princely state of Bahawalpur was divided lengthwise into three great strips. Of these the first is a part of the Great Indian Desert and is known as the Rohi or Cholistan. The central portion also is chiefly desert. It is only along the Sutlej that the tract of the area is fertile. Our concern here is with the course of the Hakra which

separates the Cholistan desert from the central part of Bahawalpur. The Cholistan desert thus lies to the south and east of the Hakra depression. The lower course of the Hakra joins the Indus and flows into, or in the vicinity of,


the Rann of Kutch. On the Indian side the river is known as the Ghaggar and is identified with Sarasvati of early literature. Regarding the Ghaggar system, the following points may be noted:

1. The ancient Ghaggar bed seems to bifurcate and both the channels come to an abrupt end. These two terminal channels of the Ghaggar seem to disappear into a depression. There is no indica tion of any palaeochannel connecting the ancient Ghaggar with the Indus or the Luni rivers. 2. The palaeochannels of the ancient Yamuna show that it changed its course three times in the past. The first channel flowed into the old bed of the Ghaggar; the second channel flowed through a channel which includes the present day Chautang (ancient Drishadvati) and met the Ghaggar, and the third time it went south ward and joined the Ganga through the Chambal.

To conclude, the Ghaggar is basically a descendant of the original Sarasvati. Due to neotectonic upheavals, its two main tributaries--the palaeoSutlej and the PalaeoYamuna--were pirated by the Indus and the Ganga respectively, leaving the Sarasvati (the present day Ghaggar) high and dry. This drying up of the major river of the IndoGanga divide, had catastrophic consequences for the human settlements, as can be seen by the early man's constant pursuit of the changing courses of these channels. In Cholistan or Bahawalpur, out of a total of 414 sites discovered along 300 miles of the Hakra river bed, 174 are Mature Harappan. Areas exclusively earmarked for kilns and other mass production activities are recognized at 79 sites. Some of these sites were involved in copper smelting. Rajasthan copper must have been among the primary metals smelted in this area. Towards the Indian border in the east, the distribution of the mature Harappan sites is distinctly thinner, and thus the mature Harappan sites in Rajasthan and beyond may be considered to belong to a separate distribution area. Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab

Beyond Cholistan the Harappan sites spread j first comparatively thinly and then densely, in northeastern direction towards Rajasthan, Ha Punjab and the upper part of the GangaYaml Doab in UP. The average size of settlements here was! more than a few acres, going up to about 40 and 60 acres respectively for Banawali a Rakhigarhi. But a great complexity has been i to the Harappan distribution situation in this regsj by the report of twenty-one sites in an area approximately 50 x 25 km. Five of these sites,; with 'pre-Harappan and Mature Harappan' potl are Dhalewan, Gurni Kalan, Hasanpur, Baglian I Theh and Lakhmirwala. These sites are said to 1 situated at a distance of 3 to 5 km from each otl Besides, they were regular and massive settlements with the first four of them being in the category i Harappa and the last one being as large Mohenjodaro. Harappa was undoubtedly a major manufac centre, for there is sufficient evidence of the use o| several raw materials. As far as the sites in Siwalik piedmont of Punjab are concerned, Kotl Nihang Khan near Ropar measures about 2.6 hectares (ha). Large sites are absent in the Doab] region, their average size being about 3 ha. These} sites mostly occupy the small tributary valleys of the | Yamuna in Saharanpur and Meerut districts.

Sind

The Harappan sites in Sind Kohistan and the Kirthar j piedmont are generally near the local perennial springs and probably served the dual purpose of] agriculture and resource procurement. Located in the Larkana area of Sind, Mohenjodaro undoubtedly enjoys an agricultural advantage, but it also served as the main mercantile centre in relation to the overland trade stretching across to Iran and Central Asia. An old trade route went north from Karachi to Thano Bula Khan and entered the Larkana district of today. This route was undoubtedly significant considering the cluster of sites all along it from Ahladino, Amri, Ghazi


Shah, Ali Murad and Lohumjodaro to Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district. In fact, the special craft-activity areas of Mohenjodaro hint at the possibility of its role as a manufacturing and redistribution centre linked to both caravan trade in the western regions and riverine trade with other inland areas. In terms of its expanse Mohenjodaro, about 240-250 acres (latest estimate is 500 acres), is about three times the size of the nearest large Harappan settlement in Sind, which is Nam Waro Dharo (roughly 86 acres). Chanhudaro is on the smaller side--about 16 acres--whereas the bottom end of the scale is indicated by sites like Ahladino which is not more than 2 acres.

Gujarat

The Harappan settlements in Kutch constituted a fullblown culture and lived almost a full life before their culture declined and fragmented causing large scale migration from Kutch to the hinterland of Gujarat and perhaps also to Saurashtra. Further, the Harappan sites in Kutch were unlikely to have been based only on agriculture, because Kutch is by no means agriculturally prosperous. But at the same time Kutch has potential for the cultivation of cotton and possesses in any case good grazing land. It could also be an area of resource procurement, in addition to being a major area of animal breeding and cotton cultivation. For instance, at Khandaria there is sufficient evidence of the extraction of chert, camelian, agate and jasper. Although they are semi-arid areas like Kutch, both the Saurashtra peninsula and mainland Gujarat have a much better soil cover and more flowing streams, in addition to having a better rainfall and some major raw materials--semi-precious stones, marine shells, copper, steatite, ivory, amazonite, gold, different types of ordinary stones, etc. Besides, Gujarat has good potential for the cultivation of cotton. In.both, the Saurashtra peninsula and mainland Gujarat cattlefarming was a major component of the Harappan economy. That some of the Harappan sites in the region were geared to the procurement of raw materials has been documented at

such sites as Nageshwar which was apparently devoted to the collection of those varieties of shell which were used for bangles, conch-shells, etc. Another site, Nagwada, is believed to have been a major manufacturing centre of semiprecious stone objects.

Makran Coast

The three Harappan sites on the Makran coast-- Sutkagendor, Sotka-koh and Khairia Kot--have been generally considered to have been ports in the maritime links with the Gulf and Mesopotamia, and with the discovery of an Omani sherd at Sutkagendor the hypothesis has gained strength. At the same time, this may not have been the only or the primary function of these settlements.

Baluchistan

The hills of south Baluchistan do not seem to contain evidence of distinct Harappan settlements. But Dabarkot in north Baluchistan seems to possess a distinct Harappan level. Considering the accessibility of Afghanistan from this area, Dabarkot may be a trading or resource-procuring settlement.

Afghanistan

The mature Harappan settlement of Shortughai in north-east Afghanistan is a small (2.5 ha) and isolated site believed to have been a trading colony. Trade in this context could be based, on the Harappan side, on the lapis lazuli and rubies of Badakhshan and tin of central Asia and Afghanistan.

Generalisations

On the whole, it is clearly indicated that the basic character of the Indus settlements was conditioned by factors such as local agricultural geography, distribution of raw materials and the alignment of inland trade routes. The Indus civilisation covered not merely a large geographical territory but also a large segment of time. It began in the Cholistan tract on the bank of the Ghaggar-Hakra course. A short


time after this took place, the civilisation spread across the Hakra-Indus doab towards Mohenjodaro and other places in Sind. Radiocarbon evidence indicates that this expansion, as also the expansion towards Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab, took place after the phase of expansion towards the lower Sind, sometime around 2500 bc. Along with the movement towards the lower Sind there was in all probability another movement towards Kutch which was then likely to have been an island and lay virtually at th? mouth of the combined Hakra-Indus flow. In fact, if one takes into consideration the Rajasthan-Punjab-Haryana sites, the distribution of the Indus civilisation sites shows the most dense concentration along the Ghaggar-Hakra course at three points--in Cholistan, along the Sirhind nala which is a part of the Ghaggar-Sarasvati system in the Bhatinda area, and in Kutch in the estuary of the combined Ghaggar/Hakra-Indus flow. The movement towards the Saurashtra peninsula and mainland Gujarat took place from Kutch, possibly in a somewhat later period.

2.4 ECONOMY

Agriculture

Main crops were wheat and barley. Evidence for the cultivation of rice comes only from Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat). Two varieties of wheat are believed to have been cultivated--the club wheat and the Indian dwarf wheat. Barley, of a small-seeded, sixrowed variety, is also found, both at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. No excavation has yet revealed evidence of sugarcane, though it is considered to have been in cultivation. Other crops included dates, mustard, sesamum, cotton and varieties of leguminous plants such as field peas. (Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world.)

Method of Cultivation The main crops (wheat and barley) were cultivated as Rabi (winter) crops, that is, sown at the end of the inundation of land by the rivers and reaped in March or April. Other crops

were cultivated as Kharif (summer) corps, that| sown at the beginning of inundation and harvest) its close. Fields were not ploughed but dug up' a light toothed instrument. There is some very interesting evidence Kalibangan where a field surface was uncove which had been covered by builder's debris at' opening of the Mature Indus period. This su still retained the marks of furrows laid out in directions at right angles to each other. The suggest that a wooden plough was employed.

Domesticated and Wild Animals

In addition to sheep and goats, there is repeated evil dence of the predominant role of Indian humped cat-j tie. One strain of these is depicted on the Harappan j seals (along with the humpless bull). Another species whose bones are of frequent 1 occurrence at more than one site is the Indian boar. The buffalo is another such species, but its bones are j less common. Camel bones are reported only at < Kalibangan. A single instance of the Indian rhinoceros comes from the seals found at Amri. With the present state of evidence it would be unwise to conclude that there is any proof of the regular use of the horse in Pre-Harappan or Harappan times. A number of other animals were hunted for food. They include sambar deer, spotted deer and the hog deer, and several varieties of tortoise.

Craft Production and Technology

There is enough evidence to suggest the presence of specialised groups of artisans such as bronze-smiths, goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers (of both cotton and wool cloth), boat-builders, terracotta manufacturers, and others. Some of these crafts such as brick making must have been state-controlled crafts. Nearly all the basic tool types--flat axes, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads, small saws, and the like--could have been made by simple casting, and or chiselling and hammering.


Bronze appears to have been present from the lowest levels at Mohenjodaro, but it is noticeably more common in the upper levels. The splendid copper and bronze vessels are among the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal workers' craft. Such special objects as the cast bronze figures of people or animals, or the little model carts for which identical examples come from Harappa and Chanhudaro were the products of specialists' workshops. Panning or washing of gold dust were probably the principal means employed to obtain gold. Objects of gold are reasonably common, though by no means prolific. Gold occurs in the form of beads, pendants, amulets, brooches, needles, and other small personal ornaments. Silver makes its earliest appearance in India to date in the Indus civilisation. That it was relatively more common than gold is indicated by the nunlber of large vessels made of silver, and by the frequency of other finds. The Indus cities also provide testimony that lead was imported in ingot form, and occasionally used for manufacturing objects such as vases. In spite of the common use of metals, stone was not abandoned, and chert blades, supplied from great factories such as that it Sukkur, were prepared at the settlements. From the limestone hills at Rehri and Sukkur came nodules of fine flint and finished flint blades which were worked at vast factory sites nearby. Thence they were imported by river, wherever possible, to form a uniform item of equipment at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, Rangpur, Kot Diji and Kalibangan. Balakot of Baluchistan, Lothal and Chanhudaro were centres for shell-working and bangle-making; Lothal and Chanhudaro were also centres for the manufacture of beads of cernelian, and the like. Mature Harappan pottery represents a blend of the ceramic traditions of Baluchistan, on the one hand, and those of India, east of the Indus, on the other. Although this matureperiod pottery shares the wheel, kiln and firing patterns with Baluchistan, it developed a somewhat stolid character of its own. The majority of the pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red

slip, and black-painted decoration. Polychrome pottery is rare. Natural motifs such as birds, fish, animals, plants, trees and pipal leaves, however, are not infrequent. Comparatively few examples of ivory carving have been found. They include combs, carved cylinders, small sticks and pins. Working on, and inlaying shells was another well developed craft in the Indus cultures. Extensive craft centres for the manufacture of shell objects are known from Chanhudaro, Lothal and Balakot. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones brought to the Indus valley from different regions. Bead makers' shops, along with their equipment were discovered in Chanhudaro and Lothal. An important semi-precious stone utilized for bead making was carnelian. Long barrel beads of this material rank among the technical achievements of the Harappans. Beads may well have been among the items of export to Mesopotamia. The seals were made of steatite and cut to shape with a saw. Steatite was used for a wide variety of other objects, such as beads, bracelets, buttons, vessels, and the like.

Trade and Commerce

Inter-regional trade was carried on with Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, south India, parts of western Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (modern Iraq) and Bahrain. Main imports consisted of precious metals like gold (from Afghanistan, Persia and south India), copper (Rajasthan, Baluchistan and Arabia) and tin (from Afghanistan and Bihar) and several semiprecious stones like lapis lazuli (Afghanistan), turquoise (Persia), amethyst (Maharashtra), agate (Saurashtra), jade (Central Asia) and conchshells (Saurashtra and Deccan). Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barley, peas, oil seeds, and a variety of finished products such as cotton goods, pottery,

L


carnelian beads, shell and bone inlays, terracotta statues, ivory products, and the like. There is ample literary as well as archaeological evidence of trade links between the Sumerian and Indus people. The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with 'Meluha' which was the ancient name given to the Indus region, and they also speak of two intermediate stations called 'Dilmun' (identified with Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Discovery of many Indus seals in Mesopotamia and evidence of imitation by the Harappans of some cosmetics used by the Sumerians suggest that some of the Harappan merchants must have visited and resided in Mesopotamia. About two dozen Indus type seals were also discovered from different cities of Mesopotamia like Ur, Kish, Susa, Lagash and Tell Asmar. Reciprocal evidence comes from the Indus cities also-discovery of three cylinder seals of Mesopotamian type, a number of metal objects of Mesopotamian origin and the pot-stone fragment of a hut-pot at Mohenjodaro; discovery of a circular button seal (which belongs to a class of 'Persian Gulf seals'), several bunshaped copper ingots of Mesopotamian origin and the 'reserved slip ware' of the Mesopotamian type at Lothal; discovery of the 'reserved slip ware' at Harappa also---all these provide conclusive proof of trade links between the two people. There is absolutely no idea about their currency. All exchanges were probably carried on through barter. Trade was carried on by overland as well as overseas transport. Bullock carts (evident from terracotta models) and pack-oxen were employed for land transport. There is evidence of sea and river transport by ships and boats in several seals and terracotta models, apart from the dockyard at Lothal. Several representations of ships are found on seals of Harappa and Mohenjodaro and a terracotta model of a ship, with a stickimpresse'd socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging, comes from Lothal. Of the inland travel on the plains there is plentiful evidence from terracotta models of bullock-carts. From Harappa and Chanhudaro come copper or bronze models of carts with seated driv ers and also nearly identical models of little i the modern ikka or ekka type, still common m\ Punjab. These have a framed canopy over the 1 in which the passenger sits. For longer journeys ( through rougher and more wooded country the ch means of transport would have been by carava pack-oxen.

2.5 CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Polity

There is no clear-cut evidence about the nature i the polity. According to D D Kosambi the prie constituted the ruling class, but according to R' Sharma the merchants were the rulers. Whatevd might be the nature of political organisation, it evident that the Harappans had a very efficient; well-organised administrative machinery.

Religion

From the seals, seal impressions, amulets and per tablets, we may derive a series of items which| must belong to the religious iconography of the Harappans. The chief male deity was the Pasupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four! animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo, each! facing a different direction), and two deer appear at I his feet. The chief female deity was Mother] Goddess (Goddess of Earth), represented in terracotta figurines. There is sufficient evidence for the ' prevalence of phallic (lingam) worship which came to be closely associated with Siva in later times. Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus, have been discovered. Indus people also worshipped gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc.) and animals (humpless bull, etc.). Further, they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. One of the seals found depicts cobras accompanying the yogi figure. A recurrent theme is that of a


treespirit, of indeterminate sex, shown in a pipal or some other tree, with a tiger or other animal standing before it. Another theme shows a row of seven figures, also of uncertain sex, standing before a pipal tree, with a homed figure standing in it. These seven figures have been variously identified with the seven rishis (or seers) and with the seven 'Mothers' of later times. Some scenes are strongly suggestive of Mesopotamian mythology. For example, a man grappling with a pair of tigers recalls the Gilgamesh (Sumerian king and epic hero) motif. From Chanhudaro comes another remarkable seal, which shows a bull bison standing over and fecundating a supine human figure, from whose head emerges a sprouting plant. Even abstract symbols and motifs seem to anticipate those of later Indian religion. Among these are the mazelike closed patterns which recall the auspicious riceflour designs made by housewives upon thresholds or in courtyards, the 'Svastika' in several variant forms, and the pipal leaf or tree.

Script and Language

Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish, varieties of the human form, etc. The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be between 400 and 600 hundred, of which about 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The variants are formed by adding different accents, inflexions or other letters to the former. The language of the Harappans is at present still unknown and must remain so until the Harappan script is read. There are two main arguments as to the nature of the language: that it belongs to the Indo-European or even Indo-Aryan family, or that it belongs to the Dravidian family. The task of decipherment of the corpus of Harappan inscriptions (now in the region of 3500) remains problematic and the shortness of the inscriptions, nearly all of which are on seals or amulet tablets, renders it difficult. No two attempts have so far been in agreement. Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues proceeded with a hypothesis that the language was

Dravidian and that the script relied upon homophones. A group of Soviet scholars have also concluded that the language is closer to Dravidian than to any other known language. An Indian scholar, Mahadevan, has also published an impressive computer concordance. There appear to be areas of agreement between all these attempts in accepting the Dravidian hypothesis. A rather different approach is to be found in the recent attempt to read the contents of the inscriptions in terms of analogies between Harappan and Sumerian signs. This approach have chiefly been followed by Kinnier-Wilson. S R Rao has produced a quite different attempt to read the script as containing a preIndo-Aryan language of the Indo-European family. This attempt has so far not been supported by many researchers. The latest attempt in this direction has been made by Narwar Jha a palaeographist and Vedic scholar. He has developed his own methodology for reading the script and has written a monograph, Vedic Glossary on Indus Seals (1997). According to Jha, the script is syllabic, that is, no vowels are written. Semitic languages like Phoenician and Arabic use the syllabic system. Since no word in these languages begins with a vowel, the writing does not create any problems in comprehension. Even modern newspaper in Hebrew and Arabic also uses this system and any one familiar with the spoken language faces no problem in reading the papers. Jha claims to have deciphered about 3,500 inscriptions on seals. According to Rajaram, the script is both pictorial and alphabetic; alphabets are, however, favoured to the pictures in the later stages. He also finds close connection between the Brahmi and^he Indus script. Surprisingly, most of the writing is from left to right and not the other way as was earlier thought. However, right to left writing is not unknown, and a few long seals also follow the 'boustrophedon' method, i.e. writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines. Yet another significant point made by him is that many ancient scripts like Phoenician, various Aramaics and Hemiaretic are connected to, or even derived from, Harappan. This is contrary to


the currently held view that all alphabetic writing descended from Phoenician in the late second millenium bc.

Seals

They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people. Made invariably of steatite (soft stone), they range in size from half an inch to just over two-and-half inches. The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white lustre was a unique invention of the Harappans. Though there are different types of seals (such as the square, rectangular, button, cubical, cylinder and round types), only two of them are the main types--the square type with a carved animal and inscription on it, and the rectangular type with an inscription only. Each seal had a different emblem and name or a brief inscription. Emblems generally depicted animals or what appear to be scenes from religious legends. The animal most frequently encountered on the seals is a humpless bull, shown in profile with its horns superimposed on each other and pointing forward. Owing to this feature it has generally been called a unicorn (ekasringa). The animal interests us for two reasons: first because it would appear to be a relation of Bos primigenius rather than of Bos indicus', second because it may be that the Indus unicorn was a mythical rather than a real beast. The less common representations of Indian humped cattle in terracotta must indicate that these were the main breed in the region. The Bos indicus is never accorded the honour of a 'standard', suggesting that sacred status was given only to the humpless breed. In front of the beast stands a short decorated post (variously interpreted as a standard, banner, manger or even an incense burner), which consists of three distinct parts, viz. (1) a round tapering shaft, (2) a bow-like top, and (3) a square or round platform (vedikd). Other animals on the seals having a standard or manger are the elephant, tiger^ bison and rhino. The purpose of seals was probably to mark ownership of property (hence every important citizen

must have possessed one), for an interest^ text is established for their use in applyjjj sealings to bales of merchandise. Impres cords or matting are frequently found on thtj of such sealings. Further proof of this :.jj derived from the discovery of several such i lying among ashes in the ventilation shafts! brick platform of what is considered to havej granary or warehouse beside the docky Lothal.

Terracotta Figurines

A great number of the terracotta figurines su either as toys or cult objects, or more prob both. Most of them are hand-modelled, howe few pieces are certainly made in single mould The main corpus includes a range of bir animals, including monkeys, dogs, sheep and ( Both humped and humpless bulls are found pride of place seemingly going to the great hu bulls. Both male and female human figurines are fa] the latter being more common. Some of the fa figurines are heavily ornamented and have exa ated, features, while others have elaborate dresses and dress or ornaments on their Seated women and mother and child groups-] often among the most vividly modelled. Of special interest is a group of heads with i horns or horn-like appendages. These app both male and female torsos, and may be associjj with the horned figures on seals. We may them as deities. Another group of figurines i notice; these are models of carts made of ter and must have been used as toys.

Images

A few specimens of images made of both stone i metal have been discovered. A number of sculptures have been discovered--11 pieces? Mohenjodaro, two at Harappa, one at Dabarkot i one at Mundigak (Afghanistan). The best specin


among the stone sculptures of Mohenjodaro is the steatite image of a bearded man wearing an ornamented robe. Out of the two sculptures at Harappa one is a tiny (four inches in height) nude male torso of red sandstone, and the other is also a small nude dancing figure made of a grey stone. Majority of these sculptures are, thus, made of soft stone like steatite, limestone or alabaster. A few bronze sculptures have also been discovered at Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Daimabad. The best specimen is the little figure (4.5 inches in height) of a nude dancing girl, with right hand on hips, arms loaded with bangles, head slightly tilted and covered with curly hair, the eyes large and half closed. A second figure, of comparable size, also comes from Mohenjodaro. Other good examples of the skill in casting and bronze-working are the little models of bullock-carts and ikkas from Harappa and Chanhudaro. Four unique bronzes (elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo and chariot, each weighing 60 kgs) from the recently excavated site of Daimabad have thrown further light on the bronze-work of the Harappans.

Pottery

The Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and uniformly sturdy and well baked. It consists chiefly of wheel made wares, both plain and painted. The plain pottery is more common than the painted ware. The plain ware is usually of red clay with or without a fine red slip. The painted pottery is of red and black colours. Several devices were employed by the people for the decoration of pottery. Geometrical patterns, circles, squares and triangles, and figures of animals, birds, snakes or fish are frequent motifs found in Harappan pottery. Another favourite device is the tree pattern. Plants, trees and pipal leaves are found on pottery. A hunting scene showing two antelopes with the hunter is noticed on a pot-sherd from cemetery 'H'. Ajar found at Lothal depicts a scene in which two birds are seen perched on a tree, each holding a fish in its beak. Below it is an animal with a short thick tail which according to S R Rao is a fox. He also refers to the presence of a few fish on the ground. If this identification be correct, we have the kernel of the story narrated in the Panchatantra of the cunning fox who flattered the crow and managed to pinch away the morsel from its mouth.

Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised, perforated, and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world. Polychrome pottery -is rare and mainly comprised small vases decorated with geometric patterns, mostly in red, black and green and less frequently in white and yellow. Incised ware is rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans. Perforated pottery has a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall and was probably used for straining liquor. Knobbed pottery was ornamented on the outside with knobs. The Harappan pottery ware includes goblets, dishes, basins, flasks, narrow necked vases, cylindrical bottles, tumblers, corn measures, spouted vases and a special type of dish on a stand, which must have been an offering stand or an incense-burner. Big storage jars were also discovered. On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.

Weights and Measures

Harappans used weights and measures for commercial as well as building purposes. Numerous articles used as weights have been discovered. The weights proceeded in a series, first doubling, from 1,2,4,8 to 64. etc. and then in decimal multiples of 16. Several sticks inscribed with measure marks (one such is made of bronze) have been discovered. Harappans were the authors of a linear system of measurement with a unit equal to one angula of the

.


Arthasastra which was used in India till recently. The measures of length were based upon a foot of 37.6 cm and a cubit of from 51.8 to 53.6 cm.

Burial Practices

Archaeologists have excavated cemeteries at several Indus sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Ropar. Generally located around the perimeter of the settlements, these cemeteries throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans. Three forms of burials are found at Mohenjodaro, viz. complete burials, fractional burials (burial of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts and birds) and postcremation burials. But the general practice was extended inhumation, the body lying on its back, with the head generally to the north. A number of graves took the form of brick chambers or cists as in the case of those found at Kalibangan. At Lothal, in one case, the pit was lined with mudbricks, which suggests that shrouds or coffins,were probably in vogue. At Harappa traces of a wooden coffin and bodies covered by a reed-shroud were found. From Surkotada comes the evidence of the practice of pot-burial. From the Lothal cemetery comes evidence of another burial type with several examples of pairs of skeletons, one male and one female in each case, interred in a single grave. Though these may not necessarily indicate the practice of sati, they do suggest some sort of ceremonial burial of the wife or servant or dependents after the husband or the master.

2.6 PROBLEMS OF DECLINE

Theory of Sudden Death

According to this theory the Aryan invasion was the chief reason behind the decline of the Harappan civilisation. We hear of the destruction efforts by Aryans in the Rig Veda as well as the Taittiriya Brahmana. The 'H' cemetery at Harappa, it is assumed, could have been I Aryans. The discovery of human skele died together at Mohenjodaro, belonging I phase, indicate that it was probably inv foreigners. We also have evidence of si strengthening of defenses at Harappa in period and of an

alien culture immediate!; taking the Indus one at some places su Harappa and Chanhudaro.

Theory of Gradual Death

Natural calamities like recurring (Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro), drying up < (Kalibangan and Banawali), decreasing fe: to excessive exploitation, deforestation (d incessant consumption of firewood) leading I extension of desert, occasional have been held to be more responsible fa decline than the Aryan invasion. Suicidal weaknesses of the Harappans lack of plasticity (flexibility) of mind as seen uf non-changing successive layers of the cities| nonadoption of the technological advances off Sumerians (such as iron technology), limited i script as compared to that of the Sumerians! Egyptians, ignoring of defence as suggested 1 paucity of sharp-edged effective weaponry, like, are said to have further contributed to; decline. According to some scholars, the decline oft particularly oceanic trade with the Sumerians, i have contributed partly to the decline of the civilisation. Switch-over from wheat cultivation to rice < vation could have also caused the final disap ance of Indus civilisation, for the area occupied I was essentially a wheat growing area (Sind, and Gujarat). Thus, the currently available data suggest instead of coming to an abrupt end, the Indus civ sation merged into the main flow of Indian cult development. There is a clear movement of


from the Indo-Gangetic divide to the nga-Yamuna doab and there are also suggestions I of their branching out in the directions of Malwa and i'Maharashtra from Gujarat. However, the form with | which the Indus civilisation merged into the later i pattern of neolithic-chalcolithic growth in inner India was not its urban form. The urban traits could have lingered on at sites such as Rojdi and Bet Dwaraka in Gujarat and Kudwala in Cholistan, but the residual impression is that of a large number of smaller settlements with a more diversified agricultural economy.


^ x\\\\N\\\\\\\\\^ \v\\v X \ > hindus urban sites

ARABIAN SEA

Present external boundry of India shown thus.

Indus urban site*

© Government of India Copyright 1998

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission cf the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

QUESTIONS

1.

Which of the following were the earliest precur sors of the Harappan seals?

(a) Terracotta seals found at Mehrgarh (b) Stone seals found at Amri (c) Clay tablets found at Kalibangan (d) Copper tablets found at Kot Diji 2. At only one of the Indus sites have archaeolo gists discovered a middle town, as distinct from the citadel and the lower town. Identify the site from among the following: (a) Surkotada (b) Daimabad (c) Dholavira (d) Lothal 3.

Which of the following statements about Harappan measurements are true?

i. The Harappans seem to have used both the foot and the cubit systems simultaneously, ii. Their foot system ranged from 16 to 32 cm and cubit from 48 to 64 cm. iii. At Mohenjodaro, a slip of shell seems to be part of a linear system. iv. At Harappa, a fragmentary bronze rod, bro ken at both ends seems to have been based on the standard cubit. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) i.iii and iv (d) i and iv 4. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists. List II (A) (B) (C)

Alamgirpur Mohenjodaro Lothal

(D)

Harappa (b) i-A, ii-D, iii-C (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B

List I i. Impressions of cloth on sealings

ii. Impressions of cloth on a trough iii. Fragment of a woven cloth

(a) i-C, H-A, iii-B (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-D 5. The maximum concentration of Harappan sites is in the (a) uplands of Baluchistan (b) marshy lands of the Rann of Kutch (c) plains of the Indus and its tributaries (d) foothills of the Himalayas. 6. Among recent discoveries the most remark able Harappan site, which was probably a trad ing outpost meant for procuring lapis lazuli in particular, is located at (a) Shortughai in northeast Afghanistan (b) Musa Khel in North-West Frontier Province (c) Mundigak in south Afghanistan (d) Damb Sadat in northeast Baluchistan. 7. While Lothal is the only Indus city whose citadel and lower town are together surround ed by its city brick walls, one another Indus city has the distinction of having its lower town also being surrounded by a separate massive brick wall. Pick it out from among the following (a) Sutkagendor

(b) Banawali

(c) Chanhudaro

(d) Kalibangan

8. Which one of the following Harappan sites has a stone fortification with square bastions at the corners and in the centre of the longer sides? (a) Amri

(b) Surkotada

(c) Mehrgarh (d) Sutkagendor 9.

The Harappan bricks were mainly

(a) sawn with the help of a saw-like instrument (b) made in an open mould (c) hand-made (d) cut with the help of a chisel. 10. Assertion (A): A distinctive feature of the house construction of the Harappans was that the roadward side of a block presented a plain blank facade. Reason (R): The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which were set at right angles to the main streets.

A37

A38

Indian History: Ancfcnt India

In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct?

(a)

Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) (d)

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. 11. Consider List I and List II:

List || Sindhu Hindu Indus List I (i) Indo-Aryans (ii) Greeks and Romans (iii) Persians and Arabs Indus Which of the above is/are incorrectly matched? Select the answer from the codes below: (a) Only! (b) iandii (c) ii and iii

(d) i, ii and iii

12. Potter's wheel, a major technological innovation, was introduced at Mehrgarh, the earliest agrarian settlement in the subcontinent, around--millennium bc. (a)

5th

(b) 4th (c) 3rd (d) 6th

13. Where did the excavators discover a third small mound, distinct from the citadel and the lower town, containing only remnants of fire altars?

(a)Lothal

(b) Harappa

(c) Dholavira (d) Kalfbangan 14. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists

List I List II (Harappan sites) (Burial customs) (i) Harappa (ii) Lothal

(A) Brick chamber or cist

(B) Coffin burial

(iii) Kalibangan (C) Potbun'al (iv)Surkotada (D) Double burial Codes: (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D

15. Granaries or warehouses have been excavated at

(i) Mohenjodaro

(ii) Harappa

(iii) Chanhudaro

(iv) Kalibangan

(v) Lothal

(vi) Banawali

Choose the correct answer given below

(a) All of them (b) i, ii.iiij (c)i, iiandv

(d) i, iianl

16. Which one of the following is thej city discovered in India? (a)Manda (b) Dholav (c) Daimabad (d) Ranc

17. Assertion (A): The Indus humple 'unicorn' because it is shown in | with its horns superimposed on eac pointing forward, was probably rather than a real beast. Reason (R): The Indian humped < commonly represented than the I tie both on the seals and in the ten In the context of the above two which one of the following is correcr (a)

Both A and R are true and R Is I explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is i rect explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 18. Match List I with List II and select I using codes given below the lists. List I List II (i) Mahadevan (A) Language dian and i upon homcr.. (ii) S R Rao

(B) Language is v~

Dravidian than] other language.] (iii) Kinnier-Wilson (C) Accepted Dravi

hypothesis an lished an in computer conu/ (iv) Parpola

(D) Attempt to read t

tents of the insc in terms of ar between Harapp* Sumerian signs. (v) Soviet scholars (E) Attempt to rea script as contaii pre-lndo-Aryan age of the Ir peah family.


Codes: (a) (b) (c)

i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, vB i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C, we i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, v-B : , (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC

19. A nude male dancing figure in greystone with twisting shoulders and one raised leg, reminis cent of Lord Nataraja of the later times comes from (a) Mohenjodaro (c) Lothal

(b) Harappa

(d) Chanhudaro

20.

Majority of the Indus terracotta figurines were

(a) (b) (c) (d) 21.

hand-modelled made in single moulds cut with a saw sculptured with a chisel The religious iconography of Indus people con sists of

(i) Seals and Sealings (ii) Images and Statues (Hi) Terracotta figurines (iv) Amulets and Tablets Choose the answer from the codes given below (a)iandii

(b) i,ii and iii

(c) i.iii and iv (d) All of them

22. Which one of the following places has revealed the actual remains of a rhinoceros, though it is frequently represented on the seals discovered from various Indus sites? (a)Amri

(b) KotDiji

(c) Surkotada (d) Banawali 23. Which one of the following metals made its earliest appearance in India before any other place in the world? , (a) Copper

(b) Gold

(c)Tin (d) Silver 24.

The majority of the Harappan pottery was

(a) Polychrome pottery (b) Black-painted pottery (c) Red-painted pottery (d) Plain pottery 25. Bones of camel are discovered at: (a) Kalibangan (b) Lothal (c) Harappa

(d) Mohenjodaro

26. For which one of the following crops there is no evidence of cultivation from any ons of the Indus sites? (a) Barley

(b) Sugarcane

(c) Rice

(d) Field peas

27. Which one of the following processes was used in the manufacture of Harappan seals? (a) Pinching (b) Moulding (c) Cutting

(d) Casting

28. What is the so-called 'English Bond', said to have been originally introduced by the Harappans? (a) (b)

The system of firing bricks in kilns. The system of laying bricks in alternate headers and stretchers.

(c)

The system of dividing the city into rectangular blocks.

(d)

The system of separating common dwellings from public buildings.

29.

Which of the following were the most stan dardised products of the Harappans?

(a) Pottery

(b) Terracottas

(c) Bricks

(d) Statues

30. Which one of the following Indus cities has houses with doors on the main streets? (a) Lothal

(b) Surkotada

(c) Chanhudaro 31.

(d) Banawali

The whole area of Harappan culture repre sents a

(a) circular area

(b) square area

(c) zigzag formation (d) triangle area 32.

Which has the earliest ploughed field in the world?

(a) Harappa

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Ropar

(d) Rangpur

33.

The ruins of Harappa were first noticed by (a) Charles Mason (b) Sahni

(c) M Wheeler (d) MS Vats 34.

The Dockyard at Lothal, is well connected through a channel to the river

(a) Narmada

(b) Bhima

(c) Bhogava

(d) Tapti

35.

The most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculptures are

(i) Hard sandstone (ii) Soft limestone (iii) White marble (iv) Steatite


Choose the correct answer from the codes given below (a) ii and iv

(b) i and iii

(c) i, ii and iii (d) All the four 36.

Stone symbols of female sex organs have come from

(a)Harappa

(b) Lothal

(c) Chanhudaro

(d) Kalibangan

37. The Harappan pottery was decorated with sev eral devices. Which one of the following was not one such device? (a) Human Figurines (b) Figures of animals, birds, snakes and fish (c) Geometrical patterns (d) Pictures of carts, boats, etc. 38 The Harappan culture as a whole gives the pic ture of a changeless, stagnant society. But this can be disproved by the changes in the (a) pottery (b) images (c) forms of worship (d) town planning 39. Which of the following amply reveals the importance given by the Harappans to child care? (a) (b) (c) (d) 40. the

Seals with the depiction of children Numerous terracotta toys Play grounds All the above To produce sufficient foodgrains the Harappan villages were mostly situated in

(a) coastal areas (b) non-flood plains (c) flood plains (d) arid zones 41.

Of the all Harappan sites, which has the most impressive drainage system?

(a) Harappa

(b) Banawali

(c) Dholavira (d) Mohenjodaro 42. Who propounded the theory of ecological degradation as the cause for the decline of Harappan culture? (a) Walter Fairservis (b) HTLambrick (c) George F Dales (d) Robert Raikes 43.

Which of the fallowings were the features of the Harappan houses?

(i) Rectangular houses (ii) Widespread use of wood (iii) Brick-dried bathrooms and wells (iv) Outside stair cases (v) Entrances at the centre of the houses Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, ii, v only (b) i, ii, iii only 1 (c) i, iii, iv only

(d) ii, iii, iv only,

44. Which of the following places gives i with regard to the transition from Harappan to the mature Harappan cultun (a) Banawali (b) Chanhudaro (c) Harappa (d) Amri 45. The reason for the spread of Harappan < and settlement of new colonies in far off [ was

(a) to meet their religious obligations (b) their desire to colonise (c) the population expansion (d) to safeguard their security concerns. 46. Which one of the following places had a ture, called Jhangar culture, in its la Harappan phase? (a) Kalibangan (c) Chanhudaro

(b) Mohenjodaro (d) Amri

47.

Match List I with List II and choose the ans from the codes given below

List I List II (A) (B)

Copper rhinoceros (i) Chanhudaro Serpent Goddess (ii) Lothal and Kalibangan

(C)

Medical beliefs

(D)

Bronze models of (iv) Daimabad bulled-carts and ikkas

(iii) Gumla and surgical skills

Codes: (a A-iv, B-iii, C-ii, Di (b) (c) (d) 48.

A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, Di A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii Which one of the following Indus sites was destroyed by fire?

(a) Lothal

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Kot Diji

(d) Amri

49.

The cemeteries of the Harappan cities were generally located

(a) (b) (c) (d)

around the perimeter of the settlements within the citadels at the heart of the cities near the residences


,50. At which one of the following Harappan sites do we find pot-stone fragment of a hut-pot of Mesopotamian origin? (a)Harappa (b) Lothal (c) Mohenjodaro 51.

(d) Chanhudaro

Which one of the following sites does not have evidence of pit-dwellings?

(a) Burzahom (b) Sarai Khola (c) Jalilpur 52.

(d) Gufkral

Ash-mounds, which mystified archaeologists for so long, have been discovered at

(i) Mahagara (ii) Pallavoy (iii) Kupgal

(iv) Chirand

(v) Utnur

(vi) Kodekal

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iii, iv and v

(c) iii, iv, v and vi

(d) ii, iii, v and vi

53. Which are the two Neolithic sites, having evi dence of rice cultivation, which may possibly be the oldest evidence of rice in any part of the world, if their early dating is clearly estab lished? (I) Amri

(ii) Koldihwa

(iii) Mahagara (iv) Gumla Select the answer from the codes given below:

(a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

54.

Which one of the following Indus cities is not located in the state of Gujarat?

(a) Sutkagendor

(b) Surkotada

(c) Dholavira (d) Lothal 55.

The corpus of Harappan inscriptions is now put in the region of

(a) 2000

(b) 2500

(c) 3000

(d) 3500

56. The practice of placing domestic dogs in graves along with their masters, which was for eign to the Indian tradition, has been found to be in use at (a) Mehrgarh (b) Burzahom (c) Lothal

(d) Kalibangan

57. What is the ascending order of the following Harappan cities in terms of their population? (i) Harappa (ii) Mohenjodaro (iii) Lothal

(iv) Kalibangan

Choose the answer from the codes given below (a) i, iii, iv and ii (b) ii, iv, iii and i (c) iii, iv, i and ii 58.

(d) iv, iii, ii and i

Which one of the following is not located out side the citadel of Harappa?

(a) Granaries (b) Working Floors (c) Barracks

(d) 'H' cemetery

59. Which of the following Indus sites have shown sufficient evidence of direct trade contacts with Mesopotamia? (i) Lothal

(ii) Sutkagendor

(iii) Banawali (iv) Mohenjodaro (v) Harappa

(vi) Chanhudaro

Select the answer from the codes given below (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and v (c) i, iv and v (d) ii, iv and v 60. Which of the following animals are generally accorded the honour of a standard or manger in seals? (i) Humped cattle (ii) Humpless cattle (iii) Tiger (iv) Elephant (v) Rhinoceros (vi) Buffalo Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, iv and vi (c) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (d) All of them 61. Which one of the following types of Harappan pottery is said to be the earliest example of its kind in the world? (a) Polychrome (c) Knobbed 62.

(b) Glazed

(d) Perforated

Bone tools, which are not indigenous to India, are found in large numbers at

(i) Chirand

(ii) Gufkral

(iii) Mehrgarh (iv) Burzahom Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i and iii

(d) ii and iv

63.

The most beautiful brick-work of the Harappans is found in the

(a) (b) (c) (d)

fire altars dockyard temple-like structure great bath

64. Which of the following animals are not repre sented either in the seals or in the terracottas? (i) Cow (ii) Horse (iii) Lion

(iv) Tiger


Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv 65. Which one of the following Indus sites has revealed evidence of a violent death met by some people? (a) Lothal

(b) Harappa

(c) Mohenjodaro 66.

(d) Kalibangan

Turquoise, an important semiprecious stone, was acquired by the Harappans from

(a) Badakshan (b) Central Asia (c) Arabia

(d) Persia

67. Which one of the following Vedic texts, apart from the Rig Veda Samhita, cites Indra as the destroyer of the Indus civilisation? (a) Atharva Veda Samhita (b) Taittiriya Brahmana (c) Aitareya Brahmana (d) Satapatha Brahmana 68. What has been the latest source for determin ing the period of the Indus civilisation? (a)

Discovery of Harappan goods in Mesopotamia

(b)

Discovery of Mesopotamian goods in Indus cities

(c)

Identification of Meluha of the Sumerian texts with the Indus region

(d) 69.

Radiocarbon dating The burnt bricks of the Indus people are partic ularly significant for their

(a) technical excellence (b) aesthetic sense (c) utilitarian value (d) standardisation 70. Which one of the Harappan cities is marked by the conspicuous absence of the terracotta fig urines of the Mother Goddess? (a) Kalibangan (b) Mohenjodaro (c) Harappa (d) Surkotada 71. The Indus wheels are essentially solid wheels. However, an exception to this general rule is found in one of the terracotta toy vehicles, have ing spoked wheels, discovered at one of the Indus sites. Pick it out from the following: (a) Harappa (b) Kalibangan (c) Dholavira (d) Mohenjodaro 72. Which of the following Harapp revealed structures supposed to I but whose identity is not clearly i (i) Kalibangan (ii) (iii) Amri

(iv)

(v) Surkotada (vi) Choose the answer from below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii andf (c) iii, iv and v (d) ii, iv and* 73. Which present day tribe of Pakistan I identified by scholars to be the desc the Harappan people? (a) Valmikis (b) Brahuis (c) Pakthas

(d) Pathans

74. At which one of the following late sites have archaeologists discovert excellent bronze images?

(a) Lothal

(b) Dholavira

(c) Bhagatrav (d) Daimabad 75.

Majority of the Indus beads meant for < Mesopotamia were made of

(a) Steatite

(b) Terracotta

(c) Carnelian (d) Jade 76.

What is Epigraphy?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Study of coins Study of old writing used in inscriptk Study of inscriptions Study of material remains of the past

77. Mark out the oldest age from the following: | (a) Bronze Age Age (c) Mesolithic Age (d) Palaeolithic / 78.

(b) Neolithic

Which of the following cultures cannot be < sidered a proto-Harappan culture?

(a) Amri culture

(b) Zhob culture

(c) Sothi culture

(d) Kot Dijian cultun

79.

Indus civilisation belongs to which of the lowing periods?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 80.

Historical period Prehistorical period Post-Historical period Proto-Historical period According to the latest excavations, Manda is} the--site of the Indus civilisation?

(a) Northernmost (b) Southernmost (c) Easternmost (d) Westernmost


81. Which is the biggest building at Mohenjodaro? (a) Great Bath (b) Great Granary (c) Assembly Hall (d) Rectangular Building 82. Which of the following is used in the floor of the Great Bath, besides burnt bricks and mortar? (a) Stone (b) Terracotta (c) Steatite

(d) Gypsum

83. How many granaries are there in Harappa? (a) Two (b) Four (c) Six (d) Eight 84. At which of the following Indus cities was a small pot supposed to have been an inkwell discovered? (a) Mohenjodaro (c) Harappa

(b) Chanhudaro

(d) Lothal

85. Which of the following animals is not to be found in the seals representing Pasupati Mahadeva? (a) Elephant

(b) Tiger

(c) Lion

(d) Buffalo

86.

Which of the following materials was mainly used in the manufacture of seals?

(a) Limestone (b) Terracotta (c) Silver

(d) Steatite

87. At which of the following Indus sites did the his torians discover human skeletons huddled together, indicating their violent death? (a) Sutkagendor

(b) Surkotada

(c) Mohenjodaro

(d) Harappa

88. Who among the following named the Indus civilisation as the 'Harappan civilisation' after the name of the Indus site of Harappa? (a) Sir M E M Wheeler (b) Dr S R Rao (c) Sir John Marshall (d) DrSankhalia 89. Which of the following domesticated animals was conspicuous by its absence in the terra cottas of the Indus civilisation? (a) Sheep

(b) Cow

(c) Buffalo

(d) Pig

90. Concrete evidence of the use of cotton clothes by the Harappans comes which of the following Indus sites? (a) Kalibangan (b) Rangpur (c) Sutkagendor

(d) Mohenjodaro

91. The houses of all the Indus cities, except one, had side entrances. Pick out the particular city in which houses had entrances on the main street? (a) Chanhudaro (c) Lothal

(b) Mohenjodaro

(d) Kalibangan

92. Archaeological excavations reveal that the Indus people used different types of weapons. But which one of the following pairs was defi nitely not in their possession? (a) (b) (c) (d) 93.

Sword and body armour Dagger and mace Bow and arrow Spear and axe Which of the following birds was worshiped by the Harappan people?

(a) Eagle

(b) Pigeon

(c) Crow

(d) Peacock

94. The Indus people probably followed different methods of disposal of the dead, but the most common (a) Cremation (b) Inhumation or complete burial (c) Immersion in river water (d) Exposure to the natural elements 95. Who among the following archaeologists has been claiming that he has successfully deci phered the Indus script, though others have not accepted his claim? (a) (b) (c) (d) 96. Indus

M E M Wheeler Gordon Childe K M Srivastava S R Rao Which of the following animal figures is fre quently represented in most of the seals?

(a) Elephant

(b) Humped bull

(c) Unicorn

(d) Rhinoceros

97. One of the Indus sites has the uniqueness of having double burials, i.e. the practice of burying a male and a female together in a single grave. Pick it out from among the following (a) Lothal

(b) Surkotada

(c) Ropar

(d) Banawali

98. Which of the following races were found to be as the builders of the Indus civilisation after


anthropological studies of the skeletons found at various Indus sites? (i) Alpine (ii) Mediterranean (iii) Mongoloid

(iv) ProtoAustroloid

(v) Semite Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) i, iii, iv and v

99. In almost all the Indus cities, except a few, the lower town was not fortified. Pick out from the following the cities where the lower town together with the citadel was also fortified by a brick wall. (a) Harappa

(b) Mohenjodaro

(c) Kalibangan (d) Lothal 100.

Excavations at Lothal reveal (i) an artificial brick dockyard

(ii) fire altars proving the existence of fire-cult (iii) a bronze rod or stick with measure marks (iv) rice husk indicating the earliest use of rice (v) the embossment of a ship on a seal and a terracotta model of a ship Select the answer from the codes given as follows (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) ii, iii, iv and v

101. Which of the following can definitely be said to be the beliefs and practices of the Indus people? (i) Phallic and Yoni worship as evident from

the discovery of stone symbols (ii) Worship of trees, animals and birds (iii) Worship of idols of different gods (iv) Belief in ghosts and evil spirits (v) Belief in life hereafter as suggested by the burial practices of the rich. Select the answer from the codes given below (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v 102.

(d) All of them

Arrange the following periods or ages in a chronological order

(i) Neolithic period (ii) Iron Age (iii) Bronze Age (iv) Palaeolithic period (v) Chalcolithic period (vi) Mesolithic period Select the answer from the cod below: (a) (b) (c) (d) 103.

iv, i, v, vi, iii and ii vi, ii, iii, i, v and iv ii, iii, iv, i, vi and v iv, vi, i, v, iii and ii Which of the following sites are siti modern Gujarat?

(i) Harappa

(ii) Lothal

(iii) Rangpur (iv) Banawali (v) Bhagatrav (vi) Ropar Choose the answer from the codes I (a) ii, iv and vi (b) i, iii, iv ancM (c) ii, iii and v (d) ii, iii, iv an 104. Which of the following places have < ploughing in the proto-Harappan peric (i) Mohenjodaro (ii) Kalibangan I (iii) Lothal (iv) Banawali (v) Chanhudaro Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i and ii (b) ii and iv (c) iii and iv

(d) iv and v

105. Which of the following are found at Han (i) Granaries (ii) Fire altars (iii) Working floors (iv) Multipillared t (v) Single room barracks Choose the answer from the codes

below (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and v (c) ii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v 106.

Which of the following crops were cultivati rabi crops by the Indus people?

(i) Wheat

(ii) Rice

(iii) Cotton

(iv) Barley

(v) Mustard Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iv and v (c) i and iv 107.

(d) iii and iv

Which of the following were the main items J export of the Indus people?

(i) Gold and Silver (ii) Cotton goods (iii) Terracottas

(iv) Seals

(v) Pottery Select the answer from the codes below (a) ii, iii and v (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) All of them


[106. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below: List!

List II

(i) Lothal

(A) Indus

(ii) Ropar

(B) Sarasvati

(Hi) Chanhudaro

(C) Bhogava

(iv) Banawali (D) Sutlej (a) (b) (c) (d) 109.

i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B Match the following

List I List II (i) Kalibangan (A) Punjab (ii) Mohenjodaro

(B) Rajasthan

(iii) Harappa (C) Gujrat (iv) Surkotada (D) Sind (a) (b) (c) (d) 110.

i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C Make pairs of the following Indus sites with their special features:

(i) Harappa (ii) Chanhudaro (iii) Mohenjodaro (iv) Rangpur

(A)

The largest Indus site

(B)

Discovery of rice husk

(C)

The first Indus site to be discovered

(D)

The only Indus city without a citadel

111 (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A Match the following

List II (A) M G Majumder List I (i) Harappa (1921) (D) Daya Ram Sahni (ii) Mohenjodaro (1931) (B) R D Banerjee (iii) Chanhudaro (1935) (C) Ghurey (iv)KotDiji(1935) (a) (b) (c) (d) 112. below

i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given

List I List II (i) Kalibangan (1953) (A) Y D Sharma (ii) Ropar (1953) (B) R S Bist (iii) Lothal (1954)

(C) A Ghosh

(iv) Surkotada (1964) (D) S R Rao (v) Banawali (1973) (E) Jagapati Joshi (a)

i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we

(b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vB i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, we i-D, ii-B, iii-E, iv-C, v-A

113.

Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Ropar

Eastermost site

(ii) Bhagatrav Southermost site (iii) Alamgirpur

Northernmost site

(iv) Sutkagendor

Westernmost site

Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

114.

Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 115.

Harappa--Dockyard Lothan--Temple-like structure Surkotada--Horse remains Mohenjodaro--'H' Cemetery Match the following imports of Indus people with their sources:

(i) Copper

(A) Rajasthan

(ii) Tin (B) Bihar (iii) Lapis-lazuli

(C) Central Asia

(iv) Turquoise (D) Persia (v) Jade

(E) Afghanistan

Select the answer from the codes below (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D, vC i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD i-A, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, vD i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vC

Assertion and Reason

Instructions

Mark (a) if only 'Assertion' (A) is correct. Mark (b) if only 'Reason' (R) is correct.


Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct and 'R' justifies or explains 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain or justify 'A. 116.

Assertion: Indus people were known for their plasticity of mind.

Reason: Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and other sites reveal that the Indus people imitated some cosmetics used by the Sumerians. 117. Assertion: The Indus people had a strong and efficient centralised administration. Reason: The Indus civilisation is known for standardisation of burnt bricks used in various constructions, weights and measures, etc. 118.

Assertion: The Indus people are generally said to have been utilitarian in nature.

Reason: In the Indus civilisation terracotta figurines were mainly used by the common people. 119. Assertion: In comparison to the Egyptians and Sumerians, Indus people made limited use of their script and language. Reason: The 'pictographic' script of the Indus people is derived partly from the 'cuneiform' writing of the Sumerians and partly from the 'hieroglyphics' of the Egyptians. 120.

Assertion: The Indus people believed in ghosts and evil spirits.

Reason: Excavations at several Indus sites reveal that Indus people used amulets. 121. Assertion: There is no conclusive proof of the presence of temples or public places of wor ship in the Indus civilisation. Reason: To the Harappans, religion was perhaps more a personal and a private matter than a public affair. 122. Assertion: The earliest representation of the practice of yoga comes from the seal of Pasupati Mahadeva at Mohenjodaro. Reason: The origin of the 'swastika' symbol or motif can be traced to the Indus civilisation.

123. 'On circumstantial evidence Indra stands accused.' Who is the author of this statement and what is Indra accused of? (a)

Sir John Marshall--Indra is accused of cheating the Indus people.

(b)

Sir M E M Wheeler--Indra is accused of causing the decline of Indus civilisation.

(c)

Dr S R Rao---Indra is accused < a rebellion of the Indus people..

(d)

Dr Sankhalia--Indra is accused! ing his own people.

124. The enemy of the Harappans Indra and the barbarian hordes are < ed.' Who made this statement and i meaning of 'nature' here? (a)

Sir Cunningham--it means the character of the Indus people.

(b)

K M Srivastava--it means the Aryan invaders.

(c) (d)

G F Dales--it means natural cala A Ghosh--it means the heten composition of the Indus people.

125. Who said, The Indus civilisation peris result of internal decay accelerated;: shock of barbarian raids.' (a) Gordon Childe (b) MEM' (c) Daya Ram Sahni (d) R S Bist 126. What is the correct chronological order] discovery of the following Indus sites? (i) Ropar (ii) Mohenjoda (iii Kot Diji (iv) Banawali (v) Surkotada Choose the answer from the codes belc (a) ii, i, iii, iv and v (b) iv, ii, iii, i and v (c) iii, iv, v, i and ii (d) ii, iii, i, v and iv 127. Which of the following has been invaluab fixing the time of the Indus civilisation? (a)

Indus seals discovered in Indus cities.

(b)

Indus seals discovered in Mesopotan cities.

(c)

Mesopotamian pottery discovered in I cities.

(d)

Harappan pottery discovered in I cities.

128.

Harappan stone sculptures are usually of

(i) Steatite

(ii) Hard sandstone!

(iii) Soft limestone (iv) White marble Select the correct answer from the below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) ii and iii

(d) i and iv

mting Btray iture. lerat-5 the e or fe of

6. ous

129.


List I (sites)

List II (discoveries)

(i) Lothal

(A) Pasupati Mahadeva

Seal (ii) Chanhudaro (B) Bronze stick inscribed with measure marks (iii) Mohenjodaro (C) Bronze models of bullock-carts and ikkas (iv) Harappa (D) Stone symbols of female sex organs Choose the correct answer from the codes below: (a) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D 130. Which of the following crops were cultivated as kharif (summer) crops by the Indus people? (i) Cotton (ii) Barley (iii) Field peas (iv) Wheat (v) Mustard

(vi) Dates

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, v and vi


(d) i, iii, v and vi

131. At which of the following Indus cities do we find evidence of further strengthening of the defences at a later phase? (a) Harappa

(b) Mohenjodaro

(c) Chanhudaro 132.

(d) Kalibangan

The Indus people achieved maximum amount of standardisation in

(a) seals

(b) pottery

(c) sculpture (d) bricks 133. The earliest evidence of man in India is found in (a) Nilgiris Hills (c) Siwalik Hills (d) Narmada Valley

(b) Nallamala

134. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below List I List II Early Palaeolithic (A) Microliths Middle Palaeolithic (B) Scraper and flakes (iii) Upper Palaeolithic (C) Hand axes and cleavers (iv) Mesolithic (D) Blades and burins (a) (b)

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A

A47 Indus Civilisation

(c) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C 135. Where do we find the three phases, viz. Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures in sequence? (a) Kashmir Valley (b) Siwalik Hills (c) Belan Valley (d) Krishna Valley

136.

Consider the following statements:

(i) Neolithic settlements in the Indian subcontinent are not older than 6000 bc. (ii) The people of Neolithic age used tools of polished stone. (iii) The people of Neolithic age knew fishing. (iv) Neolithic people cultivated wheat and barley. (v) They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. Of these: (a) Only ii, iii and v are true (b) i; ii, iii and iv are true (c) i, iii, iv and v are true (d) All are true 137. The earliest evidence yet available for settled agriculture in the subcontinent comes from (a) Kalibangan (b) Amri (c) Mehrgarh (d) Imamgarh 138. At which of the following Indus cities do we find a massive fortification wall of semi-undressed stones? (a) Lothal

(b) Banawali

(c) Sutkagendor 139.

(d) Surkotada


List I List II (i) John Marshall Named Indus civilisation as Harappan civilisation (ii) S R Rao The enemy of the Harappans was nature (iii) MEM Wheeler On circumstantial evi dence, Indra stands accused (iv) G F Dales Claimed to have deciphered the Harappan script.

Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes below (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) land iii

(d) ii and iv


140.

The pre-Harappan culture at Kot Diji was destroyed by

(a) earthquake (b) floods (c) fire (d) none of the above 141. The beginnings of the Harappan script can be traced back to the potter's marks found at (a) (b) (c) (d) 142.

Mundigak and Damb Sadat Kalibangan and Gumla Amri and Gumla Kot Diji and Kalibangan Which of the following is not correct?

(a)

The citadel at Harappa is in the form of a parallelogram in plan.

(b)

At Harappa, there are indications of gateways in the north and the south.

(c)

Buildings of Harappan period were built on high raised platforms.

(d)

Harappans used bitumen extensively in the construction of houses.

143.

Consider the following statements

(i) Doors were generally placed at the end of the walls rather than in middle. (ii) Ordinary houses generally had windows on all sides. (iii) An outside staircase suggests that the floors were occupied by different families. (iv) There are evidences of wooden posts being provided at the junction of the walls. Of these: (a) (b) (c)

All are correct i, ii and iii are correct i, iii and iv are correct

(d) ii, iii and iv are correct 144. Where do we have the evidence of flooring paved with tiles and bearing typical intersect ing design of circles? (a) Banawali (b) Lothal (c) Kalibangan (d) Mohenjodaro 145. Arrange the following classes from numerically the least to the highest as is found at Mohenjodaro excavations (i) Administrators and merchants (ii) Common people and slaves (iii) Artisans

(b) i, ii, iii (d) ii, iii, i^ places have yielded surgery of skull--of the! Choose the correct answer from below: (a) iii, i, ii (c) i, iii, ii 146.

Which two beliefs--and people?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 147.

Harappa and Amri Kalibangan and Banawali Lothal and Kalibangan Lothal and Banawali Consider the following statements:

(i) The general burial practice was ex inhumation, (ii) Evidence of double burial comes Lothal. (iii) Fractional burial was not known to the[ pie of Mohenjodaro. (iv) Traces of a wooden coffin were four Harappa by Mortimer Wheeler. Of these: (a) (b) (c) (d) 148.

i, ii and iii are true ii, iii and iv are true i, ii and iv are true All are true Which of the following statements Harappan script is not correct?

(a) The number of signs of the Harap script is known to be between 400 600, of which about 40 or 60 are basic i the rest are their variants. (b) The variants are formed by adding diffen accents, inflexions or other letters to former. (c) S R Rao has claimed to have deciphe Harappan script which is accepted majority of the historians. (d) Harappan script is regarded as pictograp ic since its signs generally represent bin fish, varieties of the human form, etc. 149. A striking oblong sealing--representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing her womb on the obverse, and a man with i knife in hand and a woman with raised hands! who is to be sacrificed on the reverse--was} found at (a) Mohenjodaro (c) Harappa

(b) Lothal

(d) Kalibangan


'Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below List I (i) Bearded man (ii) Fire Altars (iii) Sandstone torso (iv) Serpent Goddess o! <

List I List II

(A) Gumla (B) Lothal (C) Harappa (D) Mohenjodaro (E) Surkotada « (a) i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C (b)

i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B I'-' (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E

(d) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A 151. A small terracotta human head with receding forehead, long oval eyes, straight pointed nose, rather thick lower lips and firm chin is found at (a) Harappa (b) Mohenjodaro (c)

Surkotada

(d) Kalibangan

152.

From which of the following places did we not get any terracotta female figures?

(a) Lothal and Kalibangan (b) Amri and Kot Diji (c) Surkotada and Banawali (d) Harappa and Amri 153. A painting on a jar resembling the story of the cunning fox narrated in the Panchatantra comes from (a) Kalibangan (b) Harappan (c) Lothal

(d) Sutkagendor

154.

Which of the following types of pottery were used by the Harappans?

(i) Glazed

(ii) Polychrome

(iii) Perforated (iv) Incised (v) Knobbed Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii and iv only (b) i, iii and iv only (c) i, ii, iii and iv only (d) All the above 155. A hunting scene showing two antelopes and the hunter is noticed on a pot-shred from ceme tery 'H'. From which place was this excavated? (a) Lothal (b) Kalibangan (c) Harappa (d) Surkotada 156. From where do we get the evidence of a Harappan game similar to the game of chess? (a) Harappa (b) Kalibangan (c) Mohenjodaro 157.

Pieces of black coal discovered in Indus sites are identified with

(a) silajata

(b) die piece

(c) writing pencil 158. (a) lead

(d) Lothal

(d) cosmetics

The earliest known occurrence of metal trade was done in (b) copper

(c) tin (d) silver 159.

What is the estimated population of Mohenjodaro?

(a) 35,000-41,000 (b) 50,000-70,000 (c) 15,000-30,000 (d) 70,000-90,000 160. Where do we have a structure which compris es a monumental entrance and double stair way, leading to a raised platform on which was found one of the rare stone sculptures of a seated figure?

(a) Harappa (b) Lothal (c) Kalibangan (d) Mohenjodaro 161. A terracotta model of a ship, with a stick-impressed socket for the mast and eye holes for fixing rigging, comes from (a) Lothal

(b) Mohenjodaro

(c) Surkotada (d) Chanhudaro 162.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below

List I List II (i) Red Sandstone (A) Harappa male torso Terracotta cart (B) Mohenjodaro Polychrome goblet (D) Mehrgarh (iv) Copper rhinoceros (E) Daimabad (a) (b) (c) (d) 163.

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C Which of the following is not found at Daimabad?

(a) Copper rhinoceros (b) Copper tiger (c) Copper chariot (d) Copper elephant 164. Pakistani archaeologists identified the descen dants of Mohenjodaro people with a present day tribe of fishermen. Who are they? (a) Pathans

(b) Mohanas

(c) Brahuis

(d) Vahikas


165.

Which one of the following is not true about the people of Harappa?

(a) Standardisation (b) Care for sanitation (c) Love for arts and games (d) Desire to emulate others 166. Mohenjodaro means the 'mound of the dead'. Which other Harappan site's name gives the same meaning? (a) Harappa

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Amri

(d) Lothal

167.

Kalibangan:

(i) means black bangles. (ii) has evidence of furrow marks in its proto Harappan levels. (iii) has evidence of regular use of horse, (iv) has evidence of the practice of fire-cult. Of these: (a) (b) (c) (d) 168.

i, ii and iii are true ii, iii and iv are true i, ii and iv are true All are true Which of the following indicates the care taken by the Harappans for sanitation?

(i) Street drains

(ii) Rubbish chute

(iii) Great Bath

(iv) Dustbins

Select the answer from the codes given below (a) ii and iii

(b) iand iv

(c) i, ii and iv (d) All the above

169.

The Harappans extensively used burnt bricks because

(i) they provided defence against frequent floods, (ii) they provided security to their wealth from robbers. (iii) stone was not readily available, (iv) mud bricks are not strong in damp and rainy conditions. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) All the above 170.

Which of the following is true of the Harappans?

(a), They did not use stone in their constructions. (b)

Some houses were provided with soakage pits.

(c)

They knew the true arch an used it in large constructions,

(d)

Every city was provided with arf worship the idols of Pasupati.


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'A and 'R' are true and 1 correct explanation for 'A. Mark (b) if both 'A and 'R' are true and" the correct explanation for 'A. Mark (c) if 'A is true but 'R' is false. Mark (d) if 'A is false but 'R' true. 171.

Assertion: Some Harappan sites are notf vicinity of rivers.

Reason: Harappans learnt the art of wells for the supply of water. 172.

Assertion: Harappans extensively folk grid system in town planning.

Reason: There are evidences of the radial! tern in some Harappan sites.

173.

Assertion: Harappans exported a numb seals to Mesopotamia.

Reason: A member of Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia. 174.

Assertion: Mohenjodaro was rebuilt sev times.

Reason: Harappans had plasticity of mind. 175.

Assertion: There are more female terrac figurines than the male ones.

Reason: Women enjoyed a superior position I the Harappan age. 176. Assertion: Indus women were kept in seclu Reason: There were no windows facing road to the Harappan houses. 177.

Assertion: Harappans did not use metallic! coins.

Reason: They did not have the technology to| make metallic coins. 178.

Assertion: Harappans exported raw cotton to] Mesopotamia.

Reason: Harappans were the first to grow cotton. 179.

Assertion: Harappans were not aware of the true arch.

Reason: Harappans used carbelled arch for covering drains.


180.

Assertion: Harappan society was divided into different classes.

Reason: Different people used different kind of materials to decorate their houses. 181. Assertion: The end of the Indus cities may have been precipitated by the major incursions of indo-Aryan speaking people. Reason: A number of Indus cities were already decaying due to the interplay of several natural calamities and inherent shortcomings. 182. Assertion: The practice of committing sati can be traced back to the Indus civilisation. Reason: At Lothal excavations have revealed a joint burial in which a female was buried along with a male.

ANSWERS

2.(c) 12. (b) 22â) 32. (b) 42. (c) 52. (d) 62. (a) 72. (a) 82. (d) 92. (a) 102. (d) 112, (b) 122. (d) 132. (d) 142. (d) 152. (a) 162. (a) 172. (b) 182. (d) 3-(c) 13. (d) 23. (d) 33-(a) 43. (c) 53. (b) 63. (d) 73. (b) 83. (c) 93. (b) 103. (c) 113. (c) 123. (b) 133. (c) 143. (b) 153. (c) 163. (b) 173. (d) 4. (a) 14. (C) 24. (d) 34. (c) 44. (d) 54. (a) 64. (b) 74. (d) 84. (b) 94. (b) 104. (b) 114. (c) 124. (c) 134. (b) 144. (c) 154. (d) 164. (c) 174. (c) 5-(c) 15. (c) 25. (a) 35. (a) 45. (c) 55. (b) 65. (c) 75. (c) 85. (c) 95. (d) 105. (d) 115. (a) 125. (a) 135. (c) 145. (c) 155. (c) 165. (d) 175.(c) 7. (d) 17. (b) 27. (c) 37. (d) 47. (a) 57. (c) 67. (b) 77. (d) 87. (C) 97-(a) 107. (a) 117. (c) 127. (b) 137. (C) 147. (C) 157. (a) 167. (C) 177.(C) 8.(b) 18. (c) 28. (b) 38. (a) 48. (c) 58. (d) 68. (d) 78. (b) 88. (c) 98. (b) 108. (b) 118. (d) 128. (a) 138. (d) 148. (c) 158. (b) 168. (c) 178. (d) 9.(b) 19. (d) 29. (c) 39. (b) 49. (a) 59. (c) 69. (d) 79. (d) 89. (b) 99. (d) 109. (d) 119. (a) 129. (c) 139. (c) 149. (a) 159. (a) 169. (c) 179. (b) 50 60, 70. 80. 90. 100. 110. j 120.J 130.1 140.1 150. (J 160. (J 170.i 180. d 1.(a) 11. (c) 21. (d) 31. (d) 41. (d) 51. (C) 61. (b) 71. (C) 81. (b) 91. (C) 101. (c) 111. (a) 121. (c) 131. (a) 141. (a) 151. (d) 161. (a) 171. (a) 181. (a)

6. (a) 16. (b) 26. (b) 36. (a) 46. (d) 56. (b) 66. (d) 76. (c) 86. (d) 96. (c) 106. (c) 116. (b) 126. (d) 136. (d) 146. (c) 156. (d) 166. (d) 176. (d)

A52

chapter 3 PASTORAL AND FARMING COMMUNITIES OUTSIDE THE INDUS REGION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Neolithic Phase

The Neolithic transition involved less a technological revolution than one in land use. If hunting and gathering flourished for thousands of years, what made people become farmers and herders? That is, why and how did the relation of people to certain plant and animal species change so radically that these species were biologically transformed? Only an ecological approach can provide the answers. After millennia of success as hunters and food-gatherers people settled down to village life as fanners or stockbreeders. It cannot be coincidental that this process of settling down and tending to wheat, barley, cattle, sheep and goat--species whose wild ancestors had a wide though discontinuous distribution through the uplands of Asia from Turkey to Afghanistan--is first attested in South Asia at a site in a frontier region, Mehrgarh (from 6000 bc). There was no particular period in South Asia when hunters and gatherers took to agriculture and animal-rearing. The Neolithic stage appeared in different regions at different times, in each case with a unique stone and ceramic technology and range of domesticates. Clearly not all Neolithic economies were based on species locally domesticated. Neolithic cultures in the Jhelum valley and in the Garo and North Cachar Hills exhibit a frontier character, with arte-factual links with cultures outside the subcontinent. On the other hand, in Orissa we may have mingling of traditions from the northeast and the Deccan plateau. Detailed characterisations of the different cultures, howeyer, cannot be made as in some cases we rely on undated surface finds and in some instances we lack faunal and botanical evidence on the nature of economy.

Like the Kachhi plain, the region comprising the Belan valley at the edge of the Vindhya plateau and the adjoining Ganga plain around Allahabad is an important zone. For here we have a sequence of sites from the terminal Paleolithic to the Mesolithic and early Neolithic, and there is evidence of the local domestication of rice and humped cattle. The dates of the transition are however controversial.

Chalcolithic Phase

After the Harappan civilization we have a sequence of Chalcolithic cultures, which span the second millennium bc and extend geographically from the

A53


Banas and Berach basins northeast of Udaipur, through Malwa, and into western Maharashtra up to the Bhima valley. Stratigraphy at key sites such as Dangwada and Kayatha near Ujjain, and Daimabad on the Pravara, shows that the Kayatha culture was succeeded by the Banas, Malwa and Jorwe cultures in turn. These cultures exhibit some similarities in subsistence economies, house form, flaked stone tool kits, the paucity of ground stone axes, and the limited use of copper (although at Ahar a heavy reliance on copper and evidence of rice make the Banas culture here somewhat distinct from the rest). The ceramics however are distinct. Thus, it is possible to consider a process of cultural development and transmission of ideas for about a millennium along the important marshland of west-central India, which gave access to the productive basins of the Krishna and Tungabhadra where settlements of the 'southern Neolithic' flourished.

Earl/ Iron Phase

Just as the emergence of settled village life took different forms in different parts of the country, so also the introduction of iron occurred at different times in different contexts. A survey conducted to examine the evidence from six regions of South Asia on the antiquity of the use of iron showed that there was no cause to impute its origins to the immigration of the Aryans. The survey of the location of iron ores (suitable for smelting with simple techniques) highlighted their abundance and wide occurrence. On the basis of available radiocarbon dates it was suggested that iron working might have begun in Malwa around 1100 bc. This was based on the argument that there was continuity between Chalcolithic and Iron Age material cultures at sites in Malwa, and the dates for the terminal phases of the Chalcolithic period here were around 1300 bc. It may be pointless to search for the first site or region producing iron, as there are too few radiocarbon dates and as there may not, in any case, have

been one center of origin. But it is fairly} within a stretch of a few centuries manyi ties began to use iron. It is also clear that with the coming of I was such an unprecedented growth in the i sites in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab that densities were much higher than, for ex Mature Harappan period. Also, the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala and thei republics emerged in the context of the la Age in the Ganga plain. Since 1963, when D.D. Kosambi made t tion that extensive forest clearance and ag tlement would not have been possible in thef plains without the use of iron, archaeologis been exploring the connection between the in tion of iron technology, settlement patte political development in northern India.

3.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PASTORAL FARMING COMMUNITIES (2000-5001

Northwest Frontier and Kashmir

This region falls into at least three major areas:| stretch between Peshawar and Taxila comprisir Peshawar valley and the Potwar plateau; the between Swat and Chitral; and finally, the valley| Kashmir. The Neolithic levels of Saraikhola in the Pot' plateau gave way to a Kot Diji related horizon,) in some way this region as a whole was within I trading network of the contemporary Indus plain In the Swat-Chitral region the large number i sites that have been excavated show the use of ( ferent metals, stone and other objects among whic! are shell, coral and ivory--which must have reac this region from the Indus plains. The rock shelti site of Ghaligai, which perhaps goes back to 3C bc, provides the baseline in Swat-Chitral. The 'proto-historic graveyards' of the region are J dated between the second quarter of the second millennium BC and the late centuries BC. The evidence of such graveyards and associated settlements has

ii

Pastoral and Farming Communities Outside the Indus Region ASS

been categorised as the 'Gandhara Grave Culture'. These Copper Age graves are marked by in-flexed burials and urn burials after cremation. Grave sites and associated settlements have been investigated at a large number of sites including Loebanr, Aligrama, Birkot Ghundai, Kherari, Lalbatai, Timargarha, Balambat, Kalako-Deray and Zarif Karuna located in the valleys of Chitral, Swat, Dir, Buner, etc. In Kashmir more than thirty Neolithic sites have been found scattered but most of them are in the Baramula, Anantnag and Srinagar regions. This distribution points out that this was not a culture isolated from the plains. Archaeologically, of course, this fact is well understood because the occurrence of a spiral-headed copper 'hairpin' at Gufkral and a Kot Diji-type '-horned deity design' on a globular pot at Burzahom underline, among other things, the interaction of Kashmir with the Indus plains during this period. The aceramic phase at Gufkral showed large and small dwelling pits. Shallow and large pits are said to be more common in its earlier phase. There are examples of pits with two chambers in the later phase. Handmade grey pottery with a mat-impressed base is a distinguishing feature of the ceramic phase of the Kashmir Neolithic at both its excavated sites --Gufkral and Burzahom. The Neolithic phase in Kashmir merged into a megalithic phase around the middle of the second millennium bc.

Ladakh and Almora

The data from both Ladakh and Almorah are uncertain, mainly because the dates are both limited in number and inconsistent. However, they cannot be ignored altogether and apparently suggest a movement on both sides of the Karakoram and the Himalayas in protohistory, rather similar to the links we have seen in the context of the Northwestern Frontier and Kashmir. The handmade red pottery excavated at Kiari in Ladakh has been compared with similar pottery of the Burzahom Neolithic Period II. Four hearths

occur in three successive phases and there are domestic cattle, sheep and goat. Its date is 1000 bc. Giak, a similar site at a distance of less than 10 km and located in the same geographical situation, yielded a single radiocarbon date which goes back to the sixth millennium bc. In the UP Himalayas, near Almora, megalithic burials (dolmenoids, cairns, menhirs and cist-burials) have been noticed and the upper filling of a cist yielded a date of third millennium bc. The cist-burials of this area show 'horse burials' and red, grey and black pots. Uleri, an iron-smelting site near Almora shows a date range of 1022-826 bc.

Northeast Rajasthan

It was Jodhpura, a large mound on the bank of the non-perennial Sabi or Sahibi River, which first yielded evidence of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture belonging to the fourth and third millennia bc. Subsequently, the diagnostic pottery--wheelmade, orange to deep-red color, decorated with incised designs and possessing shapes including dish-onstand--was found at Ganeshwar in a small Aravalli valley on the Delhi-Jaipur railway line. Attention was focused on this culture after a large number of copper artefacts, including a distinct type of arrowhead, were found in the Ganeshwar excavations. Ganeshwar has been re-excavated and a large number of sites of this type (totally 83) have been located in various parts of northeast Rajasthan, especially in Sikar, Jaipur and Churu districts. The significance of northeast Rajasthan as a copper mining and working area should be obvious. Ganeshwar, which is not more than 3 or 4 acres, has already yielded about 2000 copper objects. When one remembers that there are more than eighty such sites, the possible scale of this copper mining and working strikes us forcefully.

Southeast Rajasthan

Of the Chacolithic group in southeast Rajasthan, a plain drained by the Banas, Berach and their tributaries, only three sites (Ahar, Gilund and Balathal)


have been properly excavated so far. Sites that belong to the Ahar or Banas culture, which now number more than ninety, occur in the districts of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Bhilwara, Ajmer, Jaipur and Tonk in Rajasthan and Mandasore in Madhya Pradesh. The general movement of the culture was from southwest to northeast up the course of the Berach and the Banas. The Ahar sites were located along rivers, ranged in size from a couple of acres to over 10 acres and were frequently sited within five to ten miles of each other. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Ahar culture is its effective knowledge of copper metallurgy. The occurrence of etched carnelian beads, a single bead of lapis lazuli and the Rangpur-type lustrous red ware in Ahar all underline an element of connection with the Harappans in Gujarat. On the other hand, this culture expanded towards Malwa with some links as far south as the Deccan (e.g. the Jorwe ware of Maharashtra at Ahar). The two sites of Ahar and Gilund were excavated much earlier (Ahar in 1953-54 and Gilund in 1959-60), but it is the recent work at Balathal (1994-98) that has provided more convincing evidence. The early historic period at the site followed its protohistoric habitation after a long gap. The pro-tohistoric chronology of Balathal has added a new, if not revolutionary, dimension to our understanding of the Ahar culture. There should not be any doubt about the beginning of protohistoric occupation at Balathal towards the closing centuries of the fourth millennium bc. Metallurgically, and from the point of view of its contribution to craft specialisation as a major factor leading to the growth of the mature Indus civilisation, the growth in northeastern Rajasthan has a very distinct character of its own. It also highlights the role played by the Aravalli region as a whole in protohistoric India.

Malwa

The protohistoric archaeology of Madhya Pradesh is dominated by that of the Malwa region which is a large fertile plateau drained by the Chambal, Kali

Sindh, Narmada, Sipra, Betwa and other j has some trunk routes from the north to I and west India passing through it. The i with Chalcolithic sites but there is no sive study of their location and distribu many sites excavated, full reports are avail! on Nagda, Kayatha and Navdatoli. Among them Navdatoli provides the in are more than 100 Chalcolithic sites in Ma evidence suggests that Navdatoli was a settlement. A somewhat different picture i tlement conies from Eran. Surrounded on t by the river Bina, Eran was defended qn i side by a rampart and a ditch. Construe 'middle' of the Chalcolithic phase, the ; two phases. No evidence of a rampart obtained at any other Malwa Chalcolithic situ The dominant pottery type was a Black-} Ware associated with other types like the Bla red Ware. The implements used were pri^ microlithic blades. Evidence of copper is although Navdatoli possesses copper flat,| Beads occur profusely and were made of i material. A number of crops were grov Navdatoli. The Malwa culture, as dati Navdatoli, falls broadly in the first half of the s millennium BC. Malwa was closely linked with Rajasthan i one hand and the Deccan on the other. But wb equally, if not more, interesting is the pr the late Harappans in Malwa. Among the interesting developments in the study of' Chalcolithic cultures in Malwa is the evideno fire-altars and perhaps temples at Dangwada,' has also yielded evidence of bull worship andplj lus worship in its Chalcolithic stage.

Maharashtra

The first excavations in the Maharash Chalcolithic region took place at Jorwe (near Nasil which were followed by work at Nevasa. But recent reports are invaluable for their compreh sive study of Daimabad and Inamgaon. The initi settlement zone, as represented by the distribution* the Savalda culture sites, is between the Tapti


the Godavari in north Maharashtra. It could be dated around the end of the third and the beginning of the second millennia bc. On the basis of work at Kaothe, the Savalda culture has been interpreted as being that of a semi-nomadic community. This interpretation is partially based on the similarity between the excavated house types at the site and those of the local semi-nomadic Dhangar community. At Daimabad the area occupied by the Savalda culture measured about 3 ha, but the impression of semi-nomadism, as deduced at Kaothe, is offset here by the presence of rectangular mud houses, copper, a microlithic blade industry, miscellaneous bone and stone objects, a limited number of beads and a large variety of grains. The basic locale of the late Harappans in Maharashtra was in the region occupied by the Savalda culture. The presence of the Indus script (two terra cotta button^shaped seals and four potshards, all with the Indus script) at Daimabad has clinched the issue of its identification. At Daimabad evidence appears in the second phase of the site and occupies an area as large as 20 ha. A grave made of mud-bricks conforming to the standard Harappan ratio of 4:2:1 was found within the habitation area. A rich chert blade industry, extensive use of copper, beads, miscellaneous stone objects, etc. were among the other major components of this cultural level at Daimabad. An outstanding find of this period at Daimabad is a hoard of four heavy solid-cast copper objects (weighing 60 kg in all) showing a man driving a chariot, a buffalo on a fourlegged platform attached to four solid wheels, an elephant on a similar platform but with its axles and wheels missing, and finally, a rhino shown standing on the axles of four solid wheels. The third period at Daimabad is represented by the 'Daimabad culture', which covered an area of about 20 ha and had, as its diagnostic trait, ill fired, Black-painted Red Ware. The Malwa cultural phase constitutes the fourth period of the Daimabad sequence. There is extensive structural evidence belonging to this phase. A number of structures have been identified as religious, mainly on the basis of the occurrence of firealtars in them. This is also the general period when one notes the beginning of

Chalcolithic settlements in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The settlement data of the succeeding Jorwe phase in Maharashtra have been closely studied. At Daimabad the settlement size increased to 30 ha. Among the 200odd reported Jorwe settlements, a vast majority were villages ranging from 1 to 3 ha. What is singularly interesting is that in the early Jorwe phase at Inamgaon there is evidence of an irrigation channel and an embankment to the west of the main habitation area. Both hand ploughs and seed drills were used in agriculture. Pottery kilns, gold ornaments, copper, crucibles, terracotta figurines, some signs of animal and fire worship etc. complete the picture of Chalcolithic village life we have in the Jorwe phase in Maharashtra. This phase is supposed to have come to an end around 1000 bc or later. By the Jorwe period, however, Maharashtra became more southward oriented with Jorwe ceramic elements found as far as Andhra Pradesh and southern Mysore.

South India

This area is broadly known as the 'Southern Neolithic Culture', with geographical variations in each of the three component 'states'. It consists of the Kamataka plateau, the plateau region of northwestern part of Tamil Nadu, and the tract of Telengana and Rayalseema in Andhra Pradesh. The focus here is on 'South Indian Neolithic Culture', which has a long research history and is dominated by the issue of Neolithic ash-mounds and the location of Neolithic settlements on the flat-topped hills of the region. A major component of this region from the present point of view is the two Doabs: the Raichur Doab between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra and the Shorapur Doab between the Bhima and the Krishna. Sites occur to the east of the Tungabhadra too. Neolithic sites abound in the region; around Tekkalakota alone there are nineteen of them. The flat-topped granitic hills of the region and the river


banks seem to have provided a suitable occupation ground for the neolithic settlers. Their principal excavated sites now include Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Utnur, Kupgal, Hallur, Nagarjunakonda, Veerapuram, Ramapuram, Hemmige, Sanganakallu, Pallavoy, Paiyampalli, Tekkalakota, Kodekal and Banahalli. For a more recently studied sequence of the southern Neolithic one may perhaps turn to Watgal, not far from the classic excavated sites of Piklihal and Maski in the Raichur Doab. If Watgal has provided a recent sequence of the south Indian neolith stratigraphy, Budihal in the Shorapur Doab has provided more of the general Neolithic cultural picture. A full-fledged Chalcolithic complex occurs in Andhra. Among a large number of sites discovered in the Kurnool area, Singanapalli is a single culture site yielding a profuse quantity of painted pottery, stone blades, etc. The Andhra Neolithic element is no doubt part of the same complex in Tamil Nadu and Kamataka, the latter region standing in more close relationship with Maharashtra from where the Jorwe ware came to this region and persisted till a much later period. The area between the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra and the tip of the southern peninsula constitutes the major zone of the burial style denoted by various types of megaliths. This burial style continued well into the historical period in its main distribution area and is characterised by a host of megalithic structures such as cairncircles, dolmen, menhirs, etc. and their extensive variations and combinations.

Till recently, megaliths were wrongly supposed to have formed an independent cultural entity in this region. However, it is now clear that it is nothing more than a burial style which emerged in the context of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic of its distribution area and formed part of its cultural milieu for a long time. Generally, it is associated with iron but there is also a possibility of its beginning in the pre-iron stage. At sites such as Hallur and Kumaranahalli, its first iron associated phase falls around 1300 BC. Eastern India

Extending over Bengal, Orissa and graphically eastern India is not a homoge Neolithic celts have been picked up fromj from almost the entire area except for ' valleys and deltas. The collection has enough to warrant divisions and subdiv the basis of typological studies it has also 1 sible to speak of two neolithic culture proviti comprising

Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and j| Assam, itself with a number of subareas ' Apart from inferences based on typology, 1 tie positive evidence of the beginning off this wide area. In Orissa, Kuchai has yielded handmade ] along with a few ground stone axes and sandstone. In Orissa again, the site of Golbaij has yielded Neolithic celts, bone tools in i with a number of wheelmade pottery types,| assemblage is likely to belong to the second i nium bc. '^-^ The entire northeastern regioft has yielded i haul of polished Neolithic tools but no consolicl picture of a Neolithic level has yet erne Assam, two Neolithic sites--Daojali Hading iij] north Kachhar hills and Sarutaru on the between Assam and Meghalaya-were excav some years ago. More recently, several pli Nagaland have yielded both handmade Grey and Neolithic tools but these sites are still vated. However, the mere existence of Neolii tools and handmade Grey Ware does not mean tj these sites are early in date. It is possible to argue in favour of the exis an early village level at several sites in West ] and Bihar, notably at Pandu Rajar Dhibi Bengal), Chirand, Taradih and Senuar (all in Bit

The relevant cultural material in Pandu Dhibi consists of microlithic blades and hu impressions of rice in the core of pottery. Similar but more extensive evidence occurs^ Chirand in the middle Ganges valley in no Bihar. This level at the site has yielded a nu of pottery types, a terracotta industry, bone I beads and remains of wheat, barley and rice.


i, physioJgeneous unit, the surface the alluvial been large livisions. On so been posrovinces, one nd the other 88 within it. ', there is lit-f farming in

s pottery flakes of Sasan elation This I millen i a rich olidated In ;in the border ted in 'Ware xcaolithic i that

:of gal Vest t). liar

At Senuar in the Kaimur foothills three principal ceramic types were found. In addition to a rich microlithic industry there are bone tools, beads and miscellaneous stone objects, rice, barley and some millets. Rice is said to have been the principal crop. Not much is known about the Neolithic level at Taradih except that this has two phases; compris ing primarily handmade red pottery in the first phase.

The Chalcolithic phase in the archaeological sequence of eastern India covers a very large number of sites in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa. Its hallmark is an assemblage characterised principally by a plain and painted Black-and-Red Ware. This level is found to possess copper, a microlithic industry, bone tools and worked antler pieces, semi-precious stone beads, reed and mud houses, rice as the principal crop,

miscellaneous terracotta and stone objects. In Orissa this level has not yet been extensively excavated, but in Bihar and West Bengal there are very large number of sites.

There are 70-odd reported Chalcolithic and Iron Age Black-and-Red Ware sites in West Bengal. What is interesting is that, with the exception of Bangarh in the Barind plain of the northern part of the state, which shows only a piece of this pot tery on the surface, they are distributed mostly in the area to the west of the Bhagirathi. The most impressive evidence of crops has occurred in the Chalcolithic context at Senuar-- rice, barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, peas, lentil, sesamum and linseed. On the whole, the Neolithic-Chalcolithic assemblage of the Gangetic plains of Bihar is remarkably interesting. From approximately the middle of the third millennium bc there were fully agricultural and pre-metallic villages with a wide range of crops, on the river banks of a substantial area of Bihar.

Utter Pradesh

In eastern UP the proto-historic evidence in the northeastern segment of the trans-Sarayu plain which touches the area of ancient Kapilavastu is not particularly clear except that the PiprahwaGanwaria excavations have isolated a deposit of Black-Slipped and Grey Wares. Another fixed point of the proto-historic archaeological sequence of the trans-Sarayu plain has been obtained at Imlidih, Narhan and Sohgaura in the southern segment of the region. Narhan lies straight on the northern bank of the Sarayu; Imlidih is on the bank of the Kuwana whereas Sohgaura lies at the junction of the Ami and the Rapti. In western UP village life begins with the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) level and the 'late Harappans', if not with the end phase of the mature Harappan itself. The easternmost occurrence of the OCP level is at Sringaverapura near Allahabad, whereas the late Harappan distribution area does not seem to extend below the DelhiMeerutBulandshahr zone. On the other hand, the OCP level goes up to the SaharanpurHaridwar area beyond this zone, and thus its distribution partly overlaps with the late Harappan distribution. It is not easy to determine which began earlier, although one can be certain of a chronological overlap. A more serious problem is determining if the OCP itself is a variant of the late Harappan phenomenon. At sites like Ambkheri and Bargaon both these elements are found mixed, whereas there are other OCP sites where the late Harappan pottery element is absent. According to one school of thought the OCP complex grew out of a dispersal of early premature Harappans to the Doab. On the whole, there is little doubt that the late

Harappans and the OCP complex are closely intertwined, even if we cannot be sure of the details. No other site gives a better idea of the transformation of the Harappans in the Doab than Hulas, a 5 ha site on the bank of the eastern Yamuna canal, which may represent an old drainage line. Here 43 structures, of different phases of Harappan occupation, have been excavated. The most significant range of evidence comes from Saipai and Atranjikhera. Saipai has yielded a sword and a harpoon from this level. At Atranjikhera the Red-Slipped pottery was associated with the evidence of wattle-and-daub houses


supported by wooden posts. Evidence office, barley, gram and cattle bones with cut marks indicates the diet of the people. Black-and-Red Ware, copper objects, beads, wheat, rice and barley mark the next phase at the site. This phase was followed by the iron-using, Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW). Another contemporary site in the same region is Lai Qila, which is found to possess a number of mud floor levels. Copper objects, terracotta objects, beads, bone arrowheads and points were found here. Barley, rice and pulses have also been found in this context. An important aspect of the OCP complex in this region is its association with 'copper hoards'. The OCP horizon and the associated finds of 'copper hoards' give way in the upper Ganga valley to the Black-and-Red Ware level, the most systematic evidence of which comes from Atranjikhera and Jakhera. At both these sites the Black-and-Red Ware (mostly unpainted) was accompanied by Black-Slipped and Red Wares. In western UP, the Black-and-Red was succeeded by the Painted Grey This phase is distributed widely not i erri UP or the Ganga-Yamuna Doab but i IndoGangetic divide as a whole. In Haryana and Indian Punjab the sitt phase are many, with some extensions Bhagawanpura near Kurukshetra in Dadheri and Katpalon in Jalandhar the ] Ware level has been found to overlap witi Harappan level of these sites. In western] Painted Grey Ware phase has been divided atl into 'proto-PGW' and 'mature PGW' stages.! A general idea of the settlement patternl proto-historic upper Ganga plain has emerge! a close settlement survey of Kanpur district! shows evidence of 9 Black-and-Red Ware i ments and 46 Painted Grey Ware settleme next phase in the Ganga plain is mark Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) this begins the early historical period.

QUESTIONS

1.

Ten sites, associated with dunes of reddened sand, are found in:

(a) Assam

(b) Madhya Pradesh

(c) Tamil Nadu 2.

(d) Andhra Pradesh

Loebanr and Kalako Deray in northwestern India have revealed:

(a) Pit-dwellings

(b) Fire-altars

(c) Bone tools (d) Iron implements 3.

Which one of the following is not a megalithic burial?

(a) Dolmenoid (b) Intrado (c) Menhir

(d) Cairn

4. Neolithic sites of Giak and Kiari are in: (a) Nagaland (c) Orissa (d) Ladakh 5.

(b) Almora

'Horse burials' are reported from:

(a) Gufkral in Kashmir (b) Ghaligai in the northwest (c) Uleri in Almora s (d) Balathal in Rajasthan 6. At which one of the sites of Malwa Culture was evidence of a rampart along with a ditch found? (a) Navdatoli (b) Eran (c) Nagda

(d) Kayatha

7. Which Chalcolithic site of Maharashtra has shown evidence of an irrigation canal and an embankment? (a) Daimabad (b) Inamgaon (c) Jorwe 8.

(d) Sonegaon

Elaborate gold ear-ornaments comes from: (a) Nagarjunakonda (b) Maski

(c) Paiyampalli 9.

(d) Tekkalakota

Kuchai and Golbai Sasan are Neolithic sites from:

(a) Kerala

(b) Gujarat

(c) Orissa

(d) Assam

10. Which site is not in Bihar? (a) Taradih

(b) Sarutaru

(c) Chirand

(d) Senuar

11.

Ochre Coloured Pottery is closely connected with:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Aryans Early Harappans Late Harappans Mature Harappans


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'A' and 'R' are true and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A and 'R' are true and 'R' is not correct explanation for 'A. Mark (c) if 'A is true but 'R' is false. Mark (d) if 'A is false but 'R' is true. 12. Assertion: The genesis of settled, village-based societies generally goes back to the Neolithic period. Reason: For the Neolithic people of Kashmir valley life continued to center around hunting.

13. Assertion: There was an undeniable attraction for the early men in the hills of the subconti nent. Reason: Hills provided sustenance to them directly. 14. Assertion: Microliths foreshadowed the forms and functions of later-day metallic implements. Reason: Microliths, being compound tools, marked an advance in technology. 15. Assertion: The lithic assemblage of the Pabbi hills to the east of Jhelum seems to be pre-Acheulian. Reason: This assemblage does not show any handaxe or cleaver. 16. Assertion: The chalcolithic settlers could not found villages far away from the hills. Reason: The earliest agricultural settlements in the subcontinent were located west of the Indus system.

A61


17. Assertion: Balathal in southeast Rajasthan shows evidence of protohistoric occupation from the closing centuries of the 4th millennium bc. Reason: The beginning of GaneshwarJodhpura culture of northeast Rajasthan is also as early as this. 18. Assertion: None of the neolithic-chalcolithic peasant groups developed in complete isolation. Reason: There is evidence of a lot of inter change of raw materials of different types between different areas. 19. Assertion: Prehistoric stages involved constant adjustments with nature and its resources, as did other stages of human life. Reason: The material remains of early man speak comprehensively about his life. 20. Assertion: The Paleolithic cultures in different parts of India displayed absolute uniformity in all their features. Reason: In a broad cultural sense all Stone Ages in India represent the stage of hunting and gathering. 21. Assertion: Throughout the subcontinent iron led slowly but perceptibly to the transition from the pre and protohistorical to the historical phases. Reason: The earliest occurrence of iron may said to have been in more than one region of the Indian subcontinent, simultaneously. 22. Assertion: The transition from the Mes the Neolithic was less a technological tion than one in land use. Reason: There was little change in basic I or economic structures between the and the Chalcolithic stages. 23. Assertion: Detailed characterisations oft ferent pastoral and farming communities] not be made accurately.

Reason: In some cases we rely on un surface finds and in others we lack and botanical evidence on the natun economy. 24. Assertion: With the coming of iron an unp dented number of sites appeared in Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Reason: The population densities in the I even during the early iron phase were lower than those in the Harappan civilisati 25. Assertion: The area between Vidarbha and t southern tip of the Indian peninsula constiti a separate cultural zone denoted by van types of megaliths. Reason: Megaliths were no more than a I style of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic phase of I area and formed a part of its cultural milieu 1 a long time.

almost

Jlithic to I revolu-: social Jlithic

hhedifi can-dated aunal of

1.(c) 2. (a) 11. (c) 12. (b) 21. (b) 22. (b)

ANSWERS

3. (b) 4.(d) 5. 13-(c) 14. (a) 15. 23. (a) 24. (c) 25.

A63

(c) (a) (d)

6. 16.

(b) (d)

7. 17.

(b) (b)

8. 18.

(d) (a)

9.(c) 10. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)

4

VEDIC SOCIETY

4.1 ORIGINAL HOME OF ARYANS

The identification of the original home of the Aryans (the word aryan literally means of high birth, but generally refers to language though some use it as race) has been a very difficult riddle to solve with claims and counter-claims being made by several scholars. Different sources, such as philology, literature, archaeology and anthropology, have been taken into consideration by scholars which has led to divergent views on the issue. So, the issue still remains open to debate and all attempts at arriving at a consensus have not been all that fruitful.

Philological Studies

The problem was brought into focus in the late 16th century when Filippo Sasetti, a Florentine (Italian), made a comparative study of many ancient languages. He discovered close affinities between Sanskrit and some of the principal languages of Europe such as Greek, Latin, Gothic (Teutonic or Germanic) and Celtic (English), and also Persian. Some important words of common use show the striking similarities between these languages. For example, 'mother' in English is known as matr in Sanskrit, mater in Persian, metor in Greek, mater in Latin, and mutter in German. These similar words could have been used in the families only when their ancestors must have lived together for a sufficiently long time. But it was Sir William Jones who in 11 gested that these striking similarities and could not be accidental but rather must hayj nated from a mother language unknown to j speakers of that mother language are now < Indo-Europeans', and the languages of their | sors the Indo-European languages'. Max Mueller called these languages 'i stressed clearly that the word 'Aryan' me guage, and not race. However, Penka, German scholar, identified language with i ting off an unending controversy whether 'J should refer to language alone, or to race alo both. It is now held by many that the term i language only, though a few still use it in i of a race.

Linguistic Studies

Scholars have often made use of ancient liter trace the original home of the Aryans. The | Aryans in due course of time orally cor Rig Veda Samhita which on linguistic grou dated between 1500 and 1000 bc. The lang the Zend Avesta (old Persian) is also very sin the Rig Vedic Sanskrit. In fact the Vedic cult close affinities with the ancient Aryan culti Iran, and both of them seem to have derived) one and the same Indo-lranian culture.

A64

Vedic Society A65

in 1786 sugi and affinities : have origii to us. The ow called the f their succes-I 'Aryan', but means lan-another i race, set-'Aryan' Hone, or to i refers to I the sense

ature to Indo-the is age of to :has of fcfrom I Studies

lhave also been able to bring into light some [(archaeological evidence from West Asia The excavations and the Boghaz Kui jf) inscriptions in the script of Babylonian i yield information about the oldest known 'Aryans, the Hittites who moved into Asia ^before 1950 bc. One of the Boghaz Kui itions gives the copy of a peace treaty of about BC, between the Hittites and the Maryanni of the Mitanni, in which the names of the gods-Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasaryas-- been invoked, evidently from the side of the Another inscription from the same place i that the language of Maryanni rulers of the (inhabiting north Mesopotamia) was dis-' a form of archaic Indo-lranian, for the numerin their language are distinctly Indo-lranian in e, viz. aika, tera, panza, satta, etc. On the evi-; of Indian archaeological objects, it is assumed .' Aryans were the authors of the Painted Grey 5 Culture (1100-600 bc) with its epicentre locat-Fin the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

al Studies

Finally, attempts have also been made by some holars to identify the original home of the Aryans the help of anthropology. The Aryans as ribed in the Vedas as a race of tall people, hav-[ white skin, radiant complexion and fair hair. But skeletal remains have so far been identified posively with the Aryans of ancient times. These yans gradually mixed with the local people of the ces where they settled. They could not, therefore, we their distinct individuality anywhere in the d. Hence, it is not easy to delineate their racial ristics, and on this basis, it is not feasible to .locate their original home.

Different Theories

Different scholars have identified different regions such as the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia as the original home of the Aryans. The theory of southern Russia or Eurasia being the original home of the Aryans seems to be more plausible than the others. From this region, they moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. The main tribes known among the Aryan speaking people are the Hittites, Indo-Aryans, Iranians, Kassites, Mitannis and Greeks. While Hittites migrated to Cappadocia (Asia Minor) in about 1950 bc, the Indo-lranians came to the Pamirs and the Oxus and Jaxartes valleys in about 2000 bc. Then the Iranians went to Iran and the Indo-Aryans entered India in about 1500 bc, but not earlier than 2000 bc. Kassites occupied Babylonia in about 1760 bc, while the Mitannis migrated to northern parts of Mesopotamia around 1500 bc. Finally, the Greek Aryans went to Greece around 1200 bc.

The Concept of Arya or Aryan

In the discussion of the Indo-European problem, several terms are used. The IndoEuropeans are called Aryans although the term arya is found mainly in the eastern IndoEuropean languages. This term may indicate the culture shared by the Avesta and the Rig Veda. The two terms 'Indolranian' and 'Indo-Aryan' are frequently employed. The term 'Indo-lranian* is used to signify the undifferentiated language which was spoken by the Aryans comprising the Indians and Iranians before their separation. The term 'IndoAryan' means the speech and its speakers who appear in India; sometimes, the term 'Proto-Indian' is used to denote the same. The term arya occurs in both the Rig Veda and the Avesta. The term 'Iran' itself is connected with the term arya. Since Afghanistan was occupied by the Indo-Aryans and the Iranian Aryans for some time, a part of this country came to be known as 'Araiya' or 'Haraiva'. In the sixth century bc, king Darius I of Persia called himself an Aryan. In the Rig Veda, the term arya connotes a cultural community. Speakers of both the IndoAryan and the Indolranian languages are called Aryans. The Avesta mentions the country of the Aryans where Zoroastrianism began. This might indicate the

A66 I Indian History: Ancient India

'Aria' or 'Ariana' mentioned by classical writers. It covered a large area including Afghanistan and a part of Persia. It also included parts of Bactria and Sogdia to its north. Megasthenes speaks of 'Arianois' as one of the three peoples inhabiting the countries adjacent to India. In Indo-European society, those who possessed horses and chariots enjoyed social hegemony, but it would be incorrect to infer that in all situations the term arya means 'master' or 'person of aristocratic class'. In the Rig Veda, the worshippers of Indra were called arya. When this text speaks of the struggle between the Aryans on the one hand and the dasas and the dasyus on the other, it does not consider the former to be indigenous and the latter to be foreigners. The struggle takes place between two cultures, one observing the vrata and the other violating it. At that stage there is no perception of India as a country or a nation, and therefore the labels of'indigenous' and 'foreigner' do not arise. On the basis of the colour of the skin some hymns of the Rig Veda show the Aryans to be a separate community. Their enemies are described as black-skinned. The Aryans are called manusi praja, who worshipped Agni Vaisvanara and who sometimes set fire to the houses of black-skinned people. It is also stated that the Aryan god Soma killed black people. In such references the Aryans and their enemies are identified by the colour of their skin. But Bailey argues that all the references to the term arya in the Rig Veda cannot be taken in the sense of race or caste. This term is derived from the root ar, which means 'to obtain'. The term arya means master or a person of noble birth in theAvesta, and this meaning suits several references in the Rig Veda. Therefore, those leaders of the Vedic tribes who are lauded in the Rig Veda under the appellation of arya were either prosperous or high-born. Clearly, in a cattle rearing society, they owed their prosperity to cattle wealth which could be better accumulated and preserved by the horse-based aristocracy. In later Vedic and post-Vedic times, the term arya came to cover people of the three higher varnas who were also called dvija. The Sudras were never placed in the rank of the Aryans. The Aryans were considered to be free. The Sudras, on the other hand,

were not free. According to Kautilya, the < sudra could not be reduced to the status i because the element of aryatvam was in him. Aryatvam, therefore, indicated a freedom. It meant that Sudras who we Aryan parents were considered free. Theirf was not large until Gupta times, but even i quent times when they did gain in strength f cally, they continued to be regarded as no by the Brahmins and other members of orders.

4.2 FEATURES OF ARYAN CULTURE

Use of Horse and Chariot

Textual References to Horse The horse crucial role in the life of the Indo-Europeans f therefore, regarded as an important indie their presence. The term asva and its cog found in Sanskrit, the Avestan language, Greek and other Indo-European languages, ancient Indo-European texts many personal i are horse-centred. This is particularly true oij Vedic and Avestan texts. In its various fo term asva is mentioned 215 times in the Rig \ while the term go is similarly mentioned 176 tiij The horse is praised in two complete hymns of Rig Veda and its importance is evident from i other references. The Asyins are two horse-rid who occupy high positions in the Vedic pant) Almost all the Vedic gods are associated with I horse, and this is particularly true of Indra and 1 fighting companions, the Maruts. The horse sy bolises strength and is generally employed as| metaphor for might. The Vedic people prayed : horses in addition to praja andpasu.

Linguistic References to Chariot The Ind Europeans are distinguished by horse-drawn ch ots which are amply attested to by Vedic, Ave and Homeric texts. The chariot race prescribed : the vajapeya sacrifice of the later Vedic texts also a Greek practice, and is fully described Homer. It is held that the chariot originated in we ern Asia in the fourth millennium bc, reaching

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Vedic Society A67

south Russia in the same millennium. : be proved true because the chariot does in the steppes until 3000 bc or so. vet, it is significant that the ProtoIndo-' Europeans were very well acquainted with the wheeled wagon.

Archaeological Evidence The Indian subcontinent does not show a profusion of horse remains. Richard Meadow, who has made a thorough study of the remains, argues that until 2000 bc there is no clear osteological evidence of the presence of the horse in the Indian subcontinent. In his opinion, the Pirak complex in Baluchistan provides the earliest evidence for the existence of the true horse in South Asia, and this may not be earlier than the seventeenth century bc. The life of the Indo-Europeans was horse-centred, but this does not apply to the mature Harappan cul-e. Whatever evidence we have belongs mainly to : period ascribable to later Harappan times. A ter-otta figure of a saddle horse appears in Gumla in iluchistan after the end of the Harappan phase. : importantly, evidence of horse riding appears in Kachi plains of Baluchistan between 1800 and 1300 bc and later. The remains of the horse and horse ries of about the second millennium bc appear i the burials of the Gandhara Grave culture in the at valley in Pakistan. The same valley provides ; for the presence of the horse at a place called [Ghaligai. The presence of the horse in the Kachi plains of 1 Baluchistan can be linked to not only its presence in I (he Swat valley in the north but also to that in 'Surkotada, where its bones have been reported from | the lowest strata belonging to about 2100 to 1700 f.BC. The Surkotada horse may have been contempo raneous with the Pirak horse. The presence of the horse is attested to in Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Ropar and Lothal, but is restricted to the later phase of the Harappan culture. So far, horse remains or terracotta figurines have been reported neither from recent excavations at Harappa (1980-93) nor from those at Dholavira. Terracotta figurines of the horse are found in Rangpur. The presence of the horse in Lothal is exaggerated, though this site shows a cul ture of the transitional phase which develops into the late Harappan culture. Clearly, there is hardly any evidence for the presence of the horse in the Mature Harappan culture. The instances that have come to light belong to late Harappan times, i.e. 1600 to 1000 bc, when the Vedic people had settled in the north-west part of the subcontinent.

The discovery of horse bones in the Swat valley, including the Gandhara and Ghaligai graves, as also in Bhagawanpura in Haryana is relevant to the spread of the horse in northern India. Bhagawanpura, situated in Kurukshetra district has revealed a culture in which the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase overlaps with the late Harappan phase. Horse bones have been found in layers belonging to this overlap culture dated to 13001200 bc. In the context of time and place, these finds can be related to those from Gandhara. Horse bones also appear in the PGW stratum of Hastinapur around the middle of the first millennium bc. Several places in northern India reveal terracotta figurines of horses and bulls in the layers of the PGW phase. There is no doubt that the use of the horse and chariot contributed to the spread of the Aryans. Wheeled wagons appear in the Harappan culture from about 2500 bc, but there is no indication of the use of spoked wheels by the Harappans. However, spokes are depicted on the wheel of a toy vehicle. Spokes or similar designs painted on a terracotta wheel from Dholavira belong to Phase 5' or late Harappan times. The spokes probably appeared in the Harappatt culture when it came into contact with the Vedic people.

Significance of the Use of the Horse The advent of the domesticated horse marked a watershed in die history of humankind. It transformed modes of subsistence, transport and warfare. Excavations in the area from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea show that horseflesh was used on a large-scale. Further, horse riding enabled the people to hunt in a large area and made hunting far more effective. Hence the horse itself served as source of food and also enlarged other sources of food supply. It dramatically increased the availability of the exploitative resources by expanding the area of operation.


The use of the horse revolutionised the means of transport. Horses could be used for travelling long distances and for carrying goods as pack animals in much less time. The great speed and physical strength of the horse enormously increased the war potential of its users. Whatever be the equipment of the non-horse users in the late Neolithic or Bronze Ages, they could be easily overcome by the horse users. Since the IndoEuropeans were great horse users, they spread rapidly in the late third and second millennia bc. The possession of the horse and chariot gave rise to a horse-centred aristocracy which provided leadership to the community. Thus, the introduction of the horse initiated the process of social differentiation in previously egalitarian communities.

Animal Sacrifice

Animal sacrifice may have been more important in the initial stage of stockbreeding. So long as the cattle rearers do not use dairy products and employ animals in agriculture and transport, they continue to eat the meat of their domesticated animals. The cattle rearers offered meat to their gods and in return asked for cattle wealth so that their practice of sacrificing cattle and eating meat might continue. The cattle sacrifice of the Vedic period was called pasubandha. There is provision for the sacrifice of cattle, horse, sheep and even pigs in Vedic literature. The Satapatha Brahmana contains all these instances. The same text also lists certain categories of human beings and animals considered unfit for sacrifice. This list includes impotent persons, gaura (a kind of buffalo), aranya (wild animal), ustra (camel) and sarabha (elephant). In the Indian subcontinent, buffalo sacrifice started in subsequent times, but there is no provision for it in Vedic texts. S R Rao, excavator of Lothal, states that animal sacrifice prevailed in Lothal, but there is really no evidence to prove this. What have been found in Lothal are some burnt pieces of the body of a bovine animal. The find indicates the practice of eating meat and not the performance of animal sacrifice. In Vedic times, the king or the chief performed the asvamedha to assert his suzerainty. A horse was set free and the territory trave it and the warriors of the chie to have fallen under the sway <

On its return, the horse was ; dismembered. The king's favo down with the dead horse, under covers. There is no evid rifice in pre-Vedic India. The ' either independently or together f in the area between the Black This practice was perhaps times into the asvamedha which i rately in later Vedic texts.

Fire Cult and Fire Attar

The cult of fire is the most signiff Avesta, but although Agni is an in Rig Veda, fire was not independ Vedic times. Fire was treated in intermediary who carried the lib him to the gods. Though the fire , mentioned in the Rig Veda, it is disi detail in later Vedic texts. Fire was f the fire altar, which also served as anf food was prepared for the gods. It cannot be asserted that the fire f of the Harappan people. Fire altars! found in the main sites of Harappa and I However, there is mention of one Baluchistan. While its identity is qu has yet to be determined. Several gular structures in Lothal have been te by Rao. But Rao rightly suspects that I treated as ovens. Since most structures ( to around 1500 bc, even if they are co altars, the influence of Vedic contacts ( out. Seven structures found in Kalibang fire altars because a more suitable term il able. However their excavator, B B express this opinion clearly. Further, have appeared towards the end of the Ha tlement in Kalibangan around 1650 bc, ' presence is also attributed to Vedic Whatever their origin, the fire altars Kalibangan and Lothal are still open to:

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Vedic Society A69

I by sidered rificer. |its body I to lie f with it I sac-Heed als Seas. Vedic Mabo i the tin the lin i an to r'y at in Soma Cult

The cult ofsoma, called haoma in Avestan language, was typical of both the Vedic and Iranian people. It occupies an important place in Vedic rituals, because having drunk soma, Indra is thought to have performed extraordinary feats. The identification of the plant has been a a subject of long debate. Recent archaeological discoveries show that the earliest evidence of the soma cult occurs in Turkmenia. The haoma or soma seems to have appeared around 1800 BC. Soma clearly appears in the form of haoma in the ZendAvesta, but its cult or the drink ofsoma does not appear in the western branch of IndoEuropean communities. It is possible that the practice started among the pre-Zoroaster people from whom the Avestan people adopted it. The cult of this drink obviously came to India via Iran.

Cremation

The Harappan and pre-Vedic people generally buried their dead. Cemetery 'H' (2000 to 1400 bc) in Harappa shows the burial of only a part of the dead body, a practice attributed to newcomers. Recent horizontal excavations in Harappa (1986-93) do not indicate cremation so far. The practice first appears in Swat valley of the Indian subcontinent. After the end of the Harappan culture at Gumla in Baluchistan, we have

clear evidence of post-cremation burials in which animals were sacrificed and buried along with the cremated human body. Cremation is amply attested to by later Vedic texts (1000-500 bc), though so far it is not supported archaeologically in the upper Gangetic plains. However several pits, stupas and burial mounds found in the middle Gangetic plains clearly show post-cremation burials dating to the period between 600 and 300 bc. The Vedic texts speak of burying the bones after ;.cremation. The Srauta Sutras and the Grihya Sutras provide for the collection of the bones, and the Satapatha Brahmana prescribes the burial of bones and erection ofasmasana or tumulus on it. Both Rig Veda and Atharva Veda show that animals were commonly burnt with the dead bodies of human beings. The funeral rite of the Rig Veda shows that a goat was burnt along with the dead body. According to the Atharva Veda a working ox was burnt with the dead person. The texts on funeral rites do not prescribe the slaughter of birds and animals in order to provide the dead with food in their graves. However, the Apastamba Dharmasutra indicates that the Brahmins must be fed with meat and fish which will satisfy the pitaras or fathers. Though this text cannot be placed earlier than 500 bc, it contains some information on the Vedic practice. The Apastamba is reminiscent of the age when people relied to a great extent on animal food.

Male dominance

Male dominance is an important trait of Indo-European society. Anthropologists attribute patriarchy to the masculine qualities needed in plough cultivation and to the control of female sexuality. But since horse riding a^so required masculine qualities, it may equally, together with ploughing, have led to male dominance. That the society was phalio-centric is attested to by early Indo-European terms and laws. The Indo-European tradition of authority over the wife was strengthened by the brahmanical law. Manu declares that the wife, the son, and the slave are unpropertied; whatever they earn is the property of those to whom they belong. The ancient Indian law givers hold that a woman is never independent. Male dominance is clearly indicated by early Avestan and Greek texts also.

4.3 VEDIC TEXTS

Meaning

The word veda is derived from the root vid, which means to know, signifying 'knowledge par excellence'. It is specifically applied to a branch of literature which is declared to be sacred knowledge or divine revelation, that is sruti. Though the hymns of the sruti are attributed to several rishis (sages), tradition maintains that these hymns were merely revealed to the sages and not composed by them.

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lived the mantra by sight direct-this sacrifice. It is called the book of chants, and I origins of Indian music are traced to it. The Yajur Veda (veda ofyq/us or formulae) co sists of various mantras (hymns) for the purpose < recitation and rules to be observed at the time of sao| rifice. It is primarily a guide for the use of ly from the Supreme Creator. Composition The Vedic literature consists of two parts; Samhitas aodBrahmanas. The latter itself is divided into three adhvaryu priest who performed the manual part of parts: Brahmanas pure and simple, the Aranyakas, the ritual. The two royal ceremonies ofrajasuya and J vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this! veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse I entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. It is divided into two parts: Krishna Yajur Veda and j and finally the Upanishads. Samhitas They are collections of hymns sung in the praise of Sukla Yajur Veda. The former (Black) is the older of VanOUS gods. They are the most essential part of the Vedic literature. They are four in number: Rig Veda Samhita, Sama Veda Samhita, Yajur Veda Samhita, and Atharva Veda Samhita. The Rig Veda (veda of praise) consists of 1017 hymns (suktas) and supplemented by 11 others called valakhilyos. It is divided into 10 books or mandalas. The oldest hymns are

contained in mandalas II to VII (which are also known as the 'Family Books' on account of their composition being ascribed to certain families of sages, viz. Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja and Vasishtha), and the latest in mandalas I and X. The Rig Veda is the oldest as well as the most important of all the Samhitas. Its hymns represent compositions of different periods by priestly poets, of various families. It is purely a religious work, and most of the hymns are all invocations to the gods. Some hymns specially concerned with the danastutis or 'praises of liberality' throw light also on the political, social and economic aspects of the early Vedic period. It represents a stage of development of the human mind in which natural phenomena were personified into gods. As a work of art too, it deserves a prominent, place in world literature. In mandala III, composed by Visvamitra, we find the famous Gayatri mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri. The Sama Veda (the name is derived from saman, a song or melody) consists of 1810, or 1549 if one omits the repetitions, stanzas except 75, taken from, the eighth and ninth mandalas of the Rig Veda and the two, and contains not only the hymns.but also prose commentaries. The latter (White) contains only the hymns. The former consists of four samhitas (the Kathaka, Kapishthala-Katha, Maitrayani and Taittiriya Samhitas), but the latter has only the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The Atharva Veda (veda of the atharvans or the knowledge of magic formulas) contains charms and spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. It was closely connected with the warrior class and two of its hymns are dedicated to the war drum. Believed to be the work of non-Aryans, its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the nonAryans. It is divided into two parts: Paippalada and Saunaka. The former is not fully known, while the latter consists of 731 (or 760) hymns divided into 20 books.

Brahmanas

Belonging to the second great class of the Vedas, they are treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. Their subject matter is ritual and language is prose. In short, they deal with the science of sacrifice. The important Brahmanas are: (1) Aitareya, (2) Kausitaki, (3) Tandyamaha, (4) Jaiminiya, (5) Taittiriya, (6) Satapatha and (7) Gopatha Brahmanas. Aitareya and Kausitaki are related to the Rig Veda, Tandyamaha and Jaiminiya to the Sama Veda, Taittiriya and Satapatha to the Yajur Veda and Gopatha to the Atharva Veda. The third one, the

Vedic Society A71

i Brahmana, is one of the oldest and con' legends, and includes the vratyastoma, a ^through which people of non-Aryan stock lined into the Aryan fold. But the most tas well as the most voluminous of all the is the sixth one, the Satapatha a. It provides us information about not only i and ceremonies but also theology, philosoners and customs of the later Vedic period, i of the Rig Veda are intended for the fthe invoking priest (hotri), those of the Yajur if for the officiating priest (adhvaryu) and those > Sama Veda for the chanting priest (udgatri).

akas

forest books deal with mysticism and sym-of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. The nyakas contain transitional material between the hology and ritual of the Samhitas and lianas, on the one hand, and the philosophical illations of the Upanishads, on the other. The I is given a symbolic meaning, and knowledge 'this meaning becomes more important than the formance of the ritual itself. This principle then fjbecomes the starting point of Upanishadic specula-I'tion. Two Aranyakas, the Aitareya and the i Kausitaki, are attached to the Rig Veda. The Kausitaki Aranyaka expounds the pranagnihotra (the fire oblation through breath) as a substitute for the basic rite. This idea of the inner and mental offering as distinguished from the outer and formal sacrifice is an important element in the transition from the Brahmanas to the Upanishads.

Upanishads

They are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the Universal Soul, the Absolute, the individual self, the origin of the world, the mysteries of nature, and so on. They mark the culmination of Indian thought in the Vedic period. They criticise the rituals and lay stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. Of the several Upanishads, only 12 are very important. They are: (1) Aitareya, (2) Kausitaki, (3) Chandogya, (4) Kena, (5) Taittiriya, (6) Katha, (7) Svetasvatara, (8) Brihadaranyaka, (9) Isa, (10) Mundaka, (11) Prasna and (12) Mandukya. (1 and 2 belong to the Rig Veda, 3 and 4 to the Sama Veda, 5 to 9 to the Yajur Veda and finally 10 to 12 to the Atharva Veda.)

According to the Upanishads, there are two kinds of knowledge: the higher and the lower. The higher knowledge helps us to know the imperishable Brahman, while the lower can be gathered from the four Vedas as well as the six Vedangas (Limbs of Vedas). The Mundaka Upanishad is chiefly notable for the clear distinction it makes between the higher knowledge of the supreme Brahman and the lower knowledge of the empirical world. The Upanishads cannot be regarded as presenting a consistent, homogeneous, or unified philosophical system, though there are certain doctrines held in common. Divergences of method, opinion, and conclusion are everywhere apparent even within a single Upanishad. It is for this reason that the Upanishads are considered speculative treatises. Another significant feature of the Upanishads, particularly the older ones, is that practically every basic idea expounded has its antecedent in earlier Vedic texts. What distinguishes the Upanishads is not so much their originality as their probing for new interpretations of the earlier Vedic concepts to obtain a more coherent view of the universe and man. Here the link between man and the cosmos is, as we have said, no longer the ritual act, but a knowledge of the forces symbolically represented in the ritual. The idea of rebirth as such appears first in a supplementary section of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and also in a slightly fuller form in the Chandogya Upanishad, the two oldest Upanishads. Besides, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad presents the view that repeated death (mrityu)--a concept first appearing in the Brahmanas--is something which the possessor of certain kinds of knowledge can ward off. The doctrine of the cosmic self (vaisvanara atman) is taught in several stories in the Chandogya Upanishad. One of them tells us of five householders who, along with the great philosopher Uddakala Arum, go to the philosopher-king, Asvapati of

A72 § Indian History: Ancient India

Kekaya, seeking knowledge of the self. But the most important episode in the Chandogya is the one in which Uddakala teaches his son, Svetaketu, the truth of the non-difference of the individual soul from the Brahman.

Vedangas and Sutra Literature

There are six Vedangas: (1) Siksha (Phonetics), (2) Kalpa. (Rituals), (3) Vyakarna (Grammar), (4) Nirukta (Etymology), (5) Chandas (Metrics) and (6) Jyotisha (Astronomy). In contrast to the Vedic literature proper, which is considered sruti or divine rev elation, the Vedangas are called smriti or literature handed down by tradition because they are of human origin. The Vedangas are written in the form of sutras, i.e. condensed prose style intended for memorisation. The sutra literature, though not forming a part of the Vedic literature proper, helps us in the study of the Vedic literature. Of all the sutra texts, only Kalpa Sutras have come down to us, and these are again divided into three classes: (1) Srauta Sutras, (2) Grihya Sutras and (3) Dharma Sutras. The first one deals with the rituals of the great sacrifices of Agni, Soma and animal; the second with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be performed by the house-holder; and the third with the laws, manners and customs of people in general. It is the third one with which historians are mainly concerned, for it constitutes the foundation of the Dharmasastras such as the Laws of Manu. Attached to the Srauta Sutras are the Sulva Sutras, the oldest books on Indian geometry containing instructions for the measurement and construction of the complex Vedic fire altars and the laying out of the sacrificial area.

4.4 CHANGE FROM RIGVEDIC TO LATER VEDIC PHASES

Rig Vedic or Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 bc)

The Rig Veda is the only source to give us an idea of the geographical expanse of the Early Vedic Period. Aryans were confined to the area which came to be known as the 'Saptasindhu' or 'Saptasiq (land of the seven rivers) comprising the t day eastern Afghanistan, Punjab (both Indij Pakistani), and parts of western UP. Accon Max Mueller, these seven rivers are the five ri the Punjab along with the Indus and the Sara)

The Rig Veda mentions the following Kubha (Kabul in the modern times), (Kurram), Gomati (Gumal), Sindhu (Indus), t five tributaries [(a) Vitase or Jhelum, (b) Asi Chenab, (c) Parushni or Ravi, (d) Vipas or Be (e) Sutudri or Sutlej] Ganga, Yamuna, Sar Ghaggar (Drishadvati), Sarayu and some other It also mentions the word samudra, which; bly meant only a collection of water and not this period. The 'Himavant' or Himalaya moi were well known to the Rig Vedic sages, ai peak, that of 'Mujavant', is referred to as the of soma. The Dasarajna or the battle of ten kings important historical event, and many of the : tant tribes and principalities figured in this Sudas was a Bharata king of Tritsu family. A Visvamitra was the priest of Sudas, but Vis\ was dismissed by Sudas who appointed Vasisl his priest. In revenge, Visvamitra led a tribi federacy of ten kings against the Bharatas, ti eration consisting of the five well-known ti Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu and Druhyu--alor five of little note, viz. Alina, Paktha, Bhalana and Vishanin. In the struggle on the Parushni the Bharatas emerged victorious. Anothei which sparked off the conflict was the divii the waters of the Parushni. There was another battle that Sudas had 1 in which the three non-Aryan tribes--Ajas, and Yakshus--had united under long Bhe< these new associations also met with the sai with the great slaughter on the Yamuna. The position and extent of the tribal settl referred to in the Rig Veda may be dete roughly as follows:

1. The extreme north-west was occupied Gandharis, Pakthas, Alinas, Bhalanas' Vishanins.

Vedic Society A73

2. In upper Sind and the Punjab were settled the Sivas, Parsus, Kekayas, Vrichivants, Yadus, Anus, Turvasas and Druhyus. 3. Further east (western UP) were the settlements of the Tritsus, Bharatas, Purus and Sirinjayas, the eastern most part being in the occupation of Kikatas. 4. The Matsyas and Chedis were settled towards the south of the Punjab in the region of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

Later Vedic Period (1000-600 uc)

This period was marked by further expansion of the Aryans to parts of eastern Rajasthan, eastern UP and northern Bihar. The Satapatha Brahmana throws light on this expansion to the eastern Gangetic plains. It reports the founding of a realm called 'Videha' by a prince, Videgha Madhava. The prince, according to the text, started from the river Sarasvati in the company of the fire god, Agni, who had gained fame already as a great coloniser. Videgha followed Agrii until they came to the river Sadanira (modern Gandak) and stopped. Several more tribes and kingdoms find mention in the later Vedic literature. The Purus and the Bharatas were amalgamated to form the Kurus. The Kuru kingdom corresponds to modern Thanesvar, Delhi and the upper Gangetic Doab. The Atharva Veda speaks of the Kuru king Parikshit in whose reign this kingdom flourished. His descendant, Janmejaya, who performed an asvamedha, was a great conqueror. The Panchalas were also a composite class, as this name, derived from pancha (five), shows. According to the Satapatha Brahmana, they were formerly called Krivis, who may have been one of the constituent tribes. Perhaps, the earlier Anus, Druhyus and Turvasas that disappeared at this period also comprised the confederation. The Upanishads mention Pravahana Jaivali, a patron of learning who used to hold intellectual tournaments at his court. The territory of this tribe roughly corresponds to the Bareilly, Badaun, Farukhabad and adjoining districts of today. After the downfall of the Kurus and the Panchalas; Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence in later Vedic age. Kosala was the first to be influenced by the Vedic civilisation. It was under the domination of the house of Ikshavakus. Its early capital,

Ayodhya, was later replaced by Sravasti. This kingdom roughly corresponds to Oudh. Its most famous ruler was Para. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. The twenty-third Jaina tirthankara Parsvanatha, who died 250 years before Mahavira, was the son of King Asvasena of Kasi. Videha, with its capital at Mithila is identical with modern Tirhut. The most notable ruler was Janaka, the royal scholar and philosopher of the Upanishads. His court was adorned by Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the eastern most tribes. Magadha corresponds roughly to southern Bihar. Angas set up their settlements on the rivers Son and the Ganges. Vangas appear to be the residents of eastern Bengal. The Magadhas are also associated with the Vratyas. The Yajur Veda includes Magadha in the list of victims of purushamedha. Northern tribes were the Uttarakurus, the Uttaramadras, Gandharis, Kesins, Kekayas, and Kambojas. In south India there were tribes like Satvantas, Vidarbhas, Nishadas and Kuntis. Some non-Aryan tribes of the later Vedic period are referred to in the Aitareya Brahmana which mentions the Andhras, Pundras, Sabaras, Pulindas and Mutibs. The later Vedic texts mention more rivers such as Narmada, Gandak, Chambal, etc. With regard to the seas, the Satapatha Brahmana mentions the Eastern and Western Seas (Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea). While Vindhyas ('Southern Mountains') are prominently mentioned, places like Kampila (modern Kampil in western UP), Panchakra (a Panchala town near Kampil), Kosala (in eastern UP), Videha (in northern Bihar), etc. are also highlighted. The texts also have references to the territorial divisions of India. The three later Vedas give three broad divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India), and Dakshinapatha (southern India). But Aitareya Brahmana divides the whole country into five parts, viz. (a) eastern, (b) western, (c) northern, (d) central and (e) southern.


4.5 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Animals

In the early Vedic period, the Aryans were still dependent mainly on a pastoral economy, though they practised agriculture, trade and industry to a limited extent. So, in this period their main occupation was cattle-breeding (cattle being their main form of wealth). The animals they domesticated were cattle (for meat, dairy products and agricultural purpose), horse (for drawing chariots and as mounts in war), sheep and goats (for meat), dog (for hunting, guarding and tracking cattle and for night watch) and ass (as beast of burden). Wild animals known were lion, elephant, and bear. The importance of pastoralism in the early Vedic economy is evident both from direct references to cattle as well as from prayers forpasu, a term which included goats, sheep, horses, and man, apart from cattle. Further, the word used to denote a wealthy man, gomat, literally means a man who possesses cattle. Many words for battle, such as gavisti, also imply a search for cattle. The importance of cattle is also evident from references to the chief as gopati or lord of cattle, as well as from references to the daughter as duhitri or she who milks cattle.

Agriculture

In the early Vedic period, agriculture was practised to a limited extent. References to several stages of agricultural operations are found. There is mention of the use of bulls to draw the plough (sird), of the sowing of seeds in the furrows (sita) thus made, of the cutting of the corn with the sickle (datra), the laying of it in bundles on the threshing floor, and the threshing and final sifting either by a sieve (titau) or a winnowing fan (surpa). The mention of artificial waterways such as kulya and khanitrima apah shows that the use of irrigation was known. Wheat (godhuma) was the main staple diet. Other crops were barley (yava), beans, sesamum (tild), and cotton. In the later Vedic period, agriculture witnessed several improvements and became the main occupation. One of the prominent developments was the

improvement of the plough which became large i heavy. Knowledge of manure was another impn ment. Apart from the crops mentioned above, i (known as vrihi) was also extensively cultival now (rice was probably known to the early Ar but not cultivated extensively). The later Vedic ] pie produced the rainy season crop of rice, calledj sastiha, which ripens in sixty days. Though the 1 plasuka (literally meaning transplantation) is us the Satapatha Brahmana, the practice of transpfl tation was probably not known to the later V< people or at least it was not practised by them < large scale. The practice, however, becomes c< mon from the post-Vedic period onwards. ' Satapatha Brahmana describes the various stage agriculture such as ploughing, sowing, reaping threshing. In addition to barley and rice, sev other kinds of grain like wheat, beans and sesam were cultivated in their due seasons. Indivi< property or individual ownership in land for the ] pose of cultivation was recognised. The Taitth Samhita has the famous episode of Manu's divisj of property among his sons.

Industry

Some of the basic crafts, such as carpentry, me working, tanning, weaving, pottery, and the I were practised since the Rig Vedic times. The sin who produced objects of ayas, was called karnu There were carpenters (takshari) who made char (rathas), wagons (anas), and boats (nau). Tl were also goldsmiths (hiranyakara), potti grinders of corn, barbers (vaptri), tanners (ch mamna) and physicians. Further specialisation took place in the li Vedic period with several new occupations com into existence, for instance chariotmakers, dyi washermen, hide-dressers, makers of bows i arrows, embroiderers, basketmakers, fire-range etc. Later Vedic period was also marked by! advance in metallurgy. This period knows of U (sisa), tin (trapu), silver (rajata), gold (hirany ayas (copper) and 'dark' or syama ayas (iron). Ii was also known to the people in the Rig Vedic tim but it became common gradually towards the ei| or seventh century bc.

Vedic Society A75

83»'£ractised since the Rig Vedic period, if! a? 'very limited scale. It was carried on i barter. Wealth of the Vedic Indians i'of cows which also served as the media of if-Cows were undoubtedly inconvenient as f exchange. Though nishkas, hiranyapindas p had become well-known pieces of recog-right and value, they cannot be called gold i Panis formed the great trading class both I and foreign trade. These Panis have been Bned in several texts for their greed and hard s. Bullocks and pack-horses were used transport. Water transport was also

fine later Vedic period, trade increased to an ; necessitating organisation. Merchants organ-bemselves into guilds, known as ganas (called rin the post-Vedic period). Vaishyas (sreshtins) 1 on trade and commerce. The haggling of the t had now become such a pronounced feature nerce that a whole hymn of the Atharva Veda k at procuring success in trade.through clever fining. Money lending also began to be prac-I by some people. Kusidin was a designation of er in the Satapatha Brahmana. Satamana ikrishnala, beside nishka, came to be used as I of value. In the Satapatha Brahmana, the gold e, named satamana, is frequently mentioned in tion with the honorarium to be paid to the sts. Another type of gold piece, named suvarna also been mentioned by in it. The daranyaka Upanishad mentions pada. But all : were gold ornaments or pieces and did not repent coins.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION AND EVOLUTION OF MONARCHY

i of Polity

i the Rig Vedic period, the following units of the elitical organisation can be identified. The family fjW kula was the basic unit of political organisation, Ifitnd was headed by the kulapa or grihapati. The next unit, grama or village, was headed by the gramani. The vis or a group of villages was headed by the vis-pati. The highest \mit,jana or tribe, which consisted of a group of vis was headed by the rajan or tribal chief. In the Rig Veda the term jana (which corresponds to the Greek genos and the Roman gens which

means a group of families claiming descent from a common ancestor and united by a common name and common ancestral religious rites) is referred to as many as 275 times, while the vis is mentioned 171 times and the grama only 13 times. The term kula is not mentioned independently even once, but the word kulapa is mentioned once. In the later Vedic period, many tribes (Janas) were amalgamated to form rashtras or janapadas (territorial kingdoms), thus replacing tribal authority by territorial authority.

Rajan or Tribal Chief

There is reference to kingship being hereditary among the Purus for four generations, and among the Srinjayas for ten generations. Kingship during the early Vedic period was a human institution and the doctrine of divinity was unknown in the Rig Veda. Only one king, Purukutsa, has been described as ardhadeva (semi-divine). Though the chief's post was hereditary in most cases, he did not exercise unlimited powers and had to reckon with the tribal assemblies in the Rig Vedic period. There were even some instances of election by the samiti (tribal assembly). His functions included protecting the tribe's cattle, fighting its wars, praying to gods on its behalf, and the like. In the later Vedic period, royal power increased due to the amalgamation of tribes and increase in the size of kingdoms. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They included rajasuya, (consecration ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king), asvamedha (horse sacrifice which was meant to establish his supremacy over his neighbours) and vajapeya (chariot race which was meant to re-establish his supremacy over his own people within the kingdom). The Aitareya and Satapatha Brahmanas mention the names of some monarchs, who performed the asvamedha sacrifice such as Para of Kosala, Satanika Satrajita and Purukutsa Aikshvaku.


The rajasuya sacrifice consists of five major rituals or ceremonies: (a) the ratnahavimsi (which is the most important ritual throwing light on the political organisation of the later Vedic period and in which the different ratnins or jewel-holders/royal officials invoke different gods or goddesses), (b) the devasuhavimsi (making offerings to divinities), (c) the abhisechaniyam (sprinkling ceremony), (d) the 'investiture', and (e) the 'beating' ceremonies. In the vajapeya or chariot race, normally seventeen charioteers, including the rajan, participated. Later Vedic literature contains discussions on the origins of kingship. Various possibilities are explored. These include a suggestion that kingship originated out of the need for a leader in warfare. Other theories emphasised the divine origin of kingship. These theories were reinforced by attempts to confer divinity on the raja through his participation in sacrifices such as the asvamedha. The growing power of the king is attributed to divinity by the Atharva Veda and the Satapatha Brahmana. In the former, the king Parikshit is described as a god among men, and the latter describes the king as the visible symbol of god Prajapati himself. Certain other theories emphasised contractual elements, suggesting that the raja was chosen by his people who hoped for specific material gains in return. The existence of these theories suggests that the nature of political power was changing and simultaneously, efforts were being made to understand and justify these changes. The king could give grants of land, but it implied transfer ,of privileges regarding revenue without any ownership of the cultivators. Similarly, the king granted to his favourites his royal prerogatives over villages in fiscal matters. That a gift of land in the sense of 'the conferring of ownership' was looked upon as a wrong custom may be inferred from the story in the Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas that when king Visvakarman offered the earth (probably a piece of land) to his officiating priest, the earth refused to be given. Such gifts of land probably constituted a violation of customary law. However, the conception of the absolute royal ownership of all land does not seem to have arisen during this period. Republics

Gana, the technical word for the republic, is found at forty-six places in the Rig Veda. References indicate that gana also served as a sort of religious and cultural (dancing and drinking) assembly.

The first and nearest attempt at the classification of the types of government is found in the Aitareya Brahmana, which talks about ten forms of government. The terms svarajya and vairajya were used in this text in the sense of the republican constitutions. Two trans-Himalayan tribes, Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras, have been described as having a vairajya form of government.

Tribal Assemblies

In the Rig Vedic period, the vidata seems to be a more popular assembly than either sabha or samiti. The vidata was an assembly in which both men and women participated. It also functioned as a centre for settling disputes. There is also evidence to suggest that it undertook the task of redistribution. Further, this assembly also provided a place for performing sacrifices, the people who assembled often feasting together and dancing on the occasion. The vidata was probably the parent folk-assembly from which the sabha and samiti differentiated. The sabha is called narishta which meant a 'resolution of many1 that cannot be broken. It performed the executive functions. The samiti seems to be the general assembly of the whole people. The most important function of the samiti was the election of the king. In the later Vedic period they lost their importance due to the rise of royal power. The vidata and gana completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti, though present, came to be dominated by the nobles and Brahmins. Their place was gradually taken by the mantriparishad and official machinery.

Officials

The purohita (priest), senani (commander), vrajapati (in charge of pasture lands), spasa (spy), jivagribha (police official), madhyamasi (mediator in


The rajasuya sacrifice consists of five major rituals or ceremonies: (a) the ratnahavimsi (which is the most important ritual throwing light on the political organisation of the later Vedic period and in which the different ratnins or jewel-holders/royal officials invoke different gods or goddesses), (b) the devasuhavimsi (making offerings to divinities), (c) the abhisechaniyam (sprinkling ceremony), (d) the 'investiture', and (e) the 'beating' ceremonies. In the vajapeya or chariot race, normally seventeen charioteers, including the rajan, participated. Later Vedic literature contains discussions on the origins of kingship. Various possibilities are explored. These include a suggestion that kingship originated out of the need for a leader in warfare. Other theories emphasised the divine origin of kingship. These theories were reinforced by attempts to confer divinity on the raja through his participation in sacrifices such as the asvamedha. The growing power of the king is attributed to divinity by the Atharva Veda and the Satapatha Brahmana. In the former, the king Parikshit is described as a god among men, and the latter describes the king as the visible symbol of god Prajapati himself. Certain other theories emphasised contractual elements, suggesting that the raja was chosen by his people who hoped for specific material gains in return. The existence of these theories suggests that the nature of political power was changing and simultaneously, efforts were being made to understand and justify .these changes. The king could give grants of land, but it implied transfer ,of privileges regarding revenue without any ownership of the cultivators. Similarly, the king granted to his favourites his royal prerogatives over villages in fiscal matters. That a gift of land in the sense of 'the conferring of ownership' was looked upon as a wrong custom may be inferred from the story in the Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas that when king Visvakarman offered the earth (probably a piece of land) to his officiating priest, the earth refused to be given. Such gifts of land probably constituted a violation of customary law. However, the conception of the absolute royal ownership of all land does not seem to have arisen during this period. Republics

Gana, the technical word for the republic, is fou at forty-six places in the Rig Veda. References in cate that gana also served as a sort of religious i cultural (dancing and drinking) assembly.

The first and nearest attempt at the classificatio of the types of government is found in the Aitar Brahmana, which talks about ten forms of gove ment. The terms svarajya and vairajya were used id this text in the sense of the republican constitutions Two transHimalayan tribes, Uttarakurus Uttaramadras, have been described as having vairajya form of government.

Tribal Assemblies

In the Rig Vedic period, the vidata seems to be a] more popular assembly than either sabha or samiti.l The vidata was an assembly in which both men and! women participated. It also functioned as a centre} for settling disputes. There is also evidence to sugJ gest that it undertook the task of redistribution. ] Further, this assembly also provided a place for per-] forming sacrifices, the people who assembled often j feasting together and dancing on the occasion. The vidata was probably the parent folk-assembly from which the sabha and samiti differentiated, j The sabha is called narishta which meant a 'resolu-'! tion of many' that cannot be broken. It performed j the executive functions. The samiti seems to be the i general assembly of the whole people. The most; important function of the samiti was the election of j the king. In the later Vedic period they lost their importance due to the rise of royal power. The vidata and gana completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti, though present, came to be dominated by the nobles and Brahmins. Their place was gradually taken by the mantriparishad and official machinery.

Officials

The purohita (priest), senani (commander), vrajapati (in charge of pasture lands), spasa (spy), jivagribha (police official), madhyamasi (mediator in

Vedic Society A77

disputes), gramani (head of the village), dampati or kulapa (head of family), and others were the main officials. In the Rig Vedic period, there was no official connected with the collection of taxes and hence no regular taxation was possible. Only voluntary offerings, viz. ball, from the people and also spoils of war formed the occassional income of the chief. hi the later Vedic period, the government became more complex because of the necessity of appointing a large number of new officers. We know this from the ratnahavimsi ceremony of the rajasuya coronation. In addition to the above officials, some more officials came into existence due to economic changes. Two of them were bhagadugha (collector of taxes) and sangrahitri (treasurer). Thus, collection of taxes and tributes became common. Other officials of this period were mahishi (chief queen), suta (court minstrel or chronicler; who also served as a charioteer originally), kshata (chamberlain, in charge of the royal household), akshavapa (originally dice-thrower; later accountant), govikartana (keeper of games and forests), takshan (carpenter), rathakara (chariot maker), and palagala (messenger). In the ratnahavimsi ceremony, each of the above officials, known in this context as the ratnins (jewel-holders), invokes a different god or goddess. While the rajan himself invokes Indra, others do as follows: mahishi--Aditi; purohita--Brihaspati; senani--Agni; bhagadugha--Pusan; Sangrahitri-- Asvins; suta--Varuna; kshata--Savitri; govikartana -Rudra; and gramani--Maruts. In both the periods there were no separate officials for administering justice which was mainly done by the village assemblies. The king did not possess a standing army due to financial limitations. Instead, tribal units were mustered in times of war.

Political Transformation

In the Rig Vedic period it was mainly a tribal system of government. In the later Vedic period a rudimentary system of administration emerged due to the increasing importance of agriculture and beginning of settled life. Thus, the political pattern changed form tribal polity to monarchy in most cases and to republics in the case of a few.

4.7 SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND VARNA SYSTEM

Kula or Family

Kula was the foundation of the social structure in Vedic society. The master of the house was called variously as grihapati or dampati or kulapati. The gift or sale of a son was not regarded as beyond the power of the father. The sale of a son is illustrated by the story of Sunahsepa whom king Harischandra bought from his father Ajigartha for the completion of a certain sacrifice. The frequent epithet of Agni, viz. athithi, indicates that great affection and respect was generally shown to a guest. It was elevated to the rank of a religious duty as it was one of the five great daily sacrifices (pancha mahayajnas). In the later Vedic period, there was an increase in the powers of the father over the family members. It was also marked by the beginning of the practices of 'primogeniture' (the eldest son succeeding the father), worship of male ancestors, and the like.

Varna System and Social Division

During the Rig Vedic period, castes were not founded separately on the basis of birth, but a person used to choose it at his own will. This is clear from several instances. In the mandala IX of the Rig Veda, a poet exclaims: 'I am a reciter of hymns. My father is a physician and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions.' In the mandala III the same poet wistfully asks Indra: 'O, Indra! fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people or would you make me a king. Would you make me a sage that has drunk of soma, would you impart to me endless wealth.' This shows that the same man could be a rishi or a noble or a king. There were no definite restrictions on intermarriages between the different classes of the Aryan race. Mixed marriages were known for instance, the marriage between Yayati, a Kshatriya king and Devayani, the daughter of a Brahmin. The term varna literally means colour. Though the colour of the skin played a considerable role in the rise of social divisions, it was mainly due to the conquest of indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans. The


dasas are described as avrata (not obeying the ordinances of the gods), akratu (who perform no sacrifices), mridhravachah (whose speech is indistinct) and anasah (snubnosed). The dasas conquered by the Aryans were gradually transformed into the Sudras. Initially the tribal society (Rig Vedic) was divided into three groups--warriors, priests and the commoners --on the basis of occupation. The fourth division, viz. Sudras, appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period only as mentioned in the 1 Oth mcmdala of the Rig Veda. The Purushasukta in this book clearly mentions the four-fold division of the society. The Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya, and the Sudra are said to have sprung from the face, arms, thighs and feet of the supreme Purusha respectively. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Mahabharata and the Manu Smriti also, the origin of the caste system has been repeated in a similar manner. Even in the Purushasukta where the words Brahmin, Rajanya, Vaishya and Sudra occur, the word varna is not used. The word 'Brahmin' occurs several times in the Rig Veda, but it was not used in the sense of the caste. The word 'Rajanya' occurs only in the Purushasukta, but at other places of the Rig Veda Kshatriya is used. Though the word 'Vaishya' occurs in the Rig Veda only in the Purushasukta, the word vis is very frequently employed in it. The vis cannot mean Vaishya in almost all hymns of the Rig Veda, but means the 'people' who followed animal breeding. Significant changes took place in the varna system during the later Vedic period. There was an increase in the privileges of the two higher classes (Brahmins and Kshatriyas) at the cost of the two lower classes (Vaishyas and Sudras). The system of four vamas had taken such deep roots that it extended even to the gods: Agni and Brihaspati being the Brahmins among gods; Indra, Varuna, Soma and Yama being the Kshatriyas; Vasus, Rudra and Maruts being the Vaishyas and Pushan being the Sudra. In the later Vedic society, a Brahmin occupied higher position than a Kshatriya. But sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status and also paid scant respect to Brahmins. The Aitareya Brahmana points out that the nation does not take kindly to a Brahmin. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, there is a passage where we are told

that there is none higher than the Kshatriya. It is j clear from the Upanishadic literature that some of j the kings of the age were not only the patrons of] philosophers but were themselves well versed in j the profound philosophical speculations of their] times. Even the Brahmins came to them as pupils j to satisfy their intellectual thirst. For example,! Yajnavalkya learnt from Janaka, Balaki Gargya j from Ajatasatru (King of Kasi), and Svetaketu j Aruneya from Pravahana Jaivali. Some scholars! are of the opinion that the deep thought of the' Upanishads did not proceed from the Brahmanical ] but the Kshatriya circles. Several functional groups appeared as distinct j castes and the social status of some of them, such as i tanners, hide-cleaners, and the like, declined. The I professions and crafts which became separate castes' were vapta (barber), toshta (carpenter), bhishaka (medicine man), karmara (ironsmitii), charmamnal (tanner), rathakara (maker of chariots), kulala (potter), ishukrit (maker of arrows), dhanvakrit (maker' of bows), mrigaya (hunter), and others. Two groups of people, viz. the Vratyas and the' Nishadas, existed outside the varna system. The former were Aryans but outside the pale of Brahmanism \ (or more specifically the Vedic religion) and hence < did not practice brahmanical rules. The latter were non-Aryans and had their own rules.

Asramas or Stages of Life

The asrama system is found mentioned first in the Aitareya Brahmana. A much clearer reference to the three asramas occurs in the Chandogya Upanishad. 1 In the Jabala Upanishad, Yajnavalkya expounds the'f four asramas. Hence they belonged to the later Vedic j period. Meant mainly for regulating the life of the j male members of the higher castes, they consisted of.| four stages: (a) brahmacharin or student life, (b) gri! hastha or life of the householder, (c) vanaprastha ori| partial retirement and (d) sannyasin (yati) or com>; plete retirement (ascetic life). Full recognition of thefj fourth stage was done only in the post-Vedic period.^ The Satapatha Brahmana gives a detailed descripij tion of the upanayana as an important sacrament?] (samskara).

Vedic Society A79

Institution of Gotra

Literally meaning cowpen, it came to signify descent from a common ancestor. It appeared only in the later Vedic period, for it is mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. This period also witnessed the beginning of the practice of gotra exogamy. In other words marriage between persons belonging to the same gotra was prohibited. The notion of gotra appears to have been particularly important for Brahmins during this period. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the sociopolitical ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. been regarded as an indication of matrilineal influence, and the Vamsavalis or genealogies of teachers attached to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in which many seers bear metronymics, would also possibly indicate a similar development. Further, references to sages such as Gargi and Maitreyi would probably mark a certain continuity with the tradition of early Vedic women seers. Nevertheless, clear attempts to establish a gender hierarchy by differentiating between men and women and ensuring the subordination of the latter to the former, are also discernible in the ritual context, and would suggest a growing tendency to stratify society along gender lines.

Position of Women

Monogamy (a man having one wife) was very common. Polygamy (a man having more than one wife), though known, was not common. Polyandry (a woman having more than one husband), though known, was very rare. Levirate or niyoga (a dead man's brother or next of kin marrying the widow) was practised by some. Remarriage of widows was permitted. Child marriages were unknown. Women participated in religious ceremonies and tribal assemblies (sabha and vidatd). There was no evidence of seclusion of women from domestic and social affairs but they were dependent (in the eyes of law) on their male relations throughout their lives. The system of sati existed among the Aryans in the

Indo-European period. By the time they entered India, it had, however, gone out of vogue, but it might have survived in the shape of a formal custom. Though it is not referred to in the hymns of the Rig Veda, the Atharva Veda shows that it was still customary for the widow to lie symbolically by the side of her husband's corpse on the funeral pyre. In the later Vedic period, women lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages also came into vogue. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, a daughter has been described as a source of misery. The Atharva Veda also deplores the birth of daughters. Yet certain matrilineal elements are discernible in this period also. The importance assigned to the wives of the raj an in the rajasuya has Institution of Slavery

It was prevalent since the Rig Vedic times. There were mainly women slaves, employed for domestic purposes and not in any producing activity such as agriculture or industry. Treatment of slaves was decent and they even enjoyed certain rights. Hence, ancient Indian slavery (including that of the Vedic period) was essentially different from the ancient Greek or Roman slavery.

Education

Rig Vedic Aryans lacked the art of writing and reading. However it is possible that the later Vedic Aryans started using script from 700 bc onwards. (Though the earliest evidence for the use of a script in India, besides the pictographic script of the Harappans, comes from the Mauryan period in the form of Asokan edicts.) An effective oral instruction and a highly systematic method of memorising were developed by the Rig Vedic people. Education was permitted only to the higher castes and the teaching of the Vedas was generally restricted to the Brahmins. The main subjects of study were arithmetics, and grammar. The word samana frequently occurs in the Rig Veda. The Vedic samanas appear to have been popular institutions as they attracted poets, artists, archers and skillful riders of horses who competed with one another.


4.8 RELIGION AND UPANISHADIC THOUGHT

Place of Upanishads

The word Upanishad consists of three words--upa meaning 'near', ni meaning 'down' and shad meaning 'be seated'. So, Upanishad means, 'be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teaching.' The Upanishads constitute the Vedanta (Veda-anta or the end of the Vedas), not merely because they constitute the last part of them, but more importantly because the Vedas are their ultimate teaching, reaching out to the highest metaphysical state, beyond which is only the realm of silence. The earliest Upanishads are also a part of the Vedas, and are therefore a part of the Shruti. They constitute the fundamentals of Vedic philosophy. This repository of knowledge contains within it an exposition of the origin \of the Universe, the nature of Brahman and tfiejivatman, the relation between mind and matter, etc. Therefore, the main topic of the Upanishads is the ultimate knowledge--the identity of the Brahman and the jivatman--Tat tvam asi or 'You are That' (Chandgogya Upanishad) and the quest for unity in diversity (Mundaka Upanishad). The Upanishads are the first scriptures where the law of Karma appeared as taught by Yajnavalkya (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad). The characteristics of the Upanishads are their universality and the total absence of any dogmatism. They are the highest philosophy ever conceived by the human mind. Totally there are 108 Upanishads, though only the first 12 are part of the Vedic literature.

1.

Twelve major Upanishads

(i) Aitareya and the Kauhsitaki which belong to Rig Veda (ii) Chandgogya and Kena to Sama Veda (iii) Taittiriya, Katha, Shvetashvatara, Brihadaranyaka and Isha to Yajur Veda

(iv) Prashna, Mundaka and Mandukya to Atharva Veda 2. 3. 4. 5.

Twenty three Samanayayuvedanta Upanishads Twenty Yoga Upanishads Seventeen Samnyasa Upanishads Fourteen Vaishnava Upanishads

6. 7.

Fourteen Shaiva Upanishads Eight Shakta Upanishads.

Nature of Upanishadic Thought

The Upanishads represent spiritual teachings and investigations which are a common reference point for all subsequent Indian philosophy, including the thinkers ofnastika sects who reject the scriptural status of the Vedas. The great philosopher Sankara wrote commentaries on eleven of the Upanishads, and these have acquired a special status shared by few. The Upanishadic tradition though rooted in mystical experience, seeks rational and intelligible expression and encourages testing of its conclusions. Upanishadic sages belonged to the Vedic tradition, not only in the obvious sense that their teachings are preserved in texts which are part of Vedic literature, but also in the much more important sense that they stand within the living tradition of orthodoxy. They were frequently critical of elements in the priestly tradition, and some denied the efficacy of rites and sacrifices as a means to liberation. They still remain, however, within the same tradition as sacrificing priests, and intact even made use of sacrificial imagery to interpret human life or to depict the structure of the cosmos. Despite belonging to the orthodox tradition, the Upanishadic sages represent a style of religious practice and thought far removed from what we find in the other Vedic texts. A significant shift in religious consciousness is evident. The Upanishads represent a radical reconstruction of religious concerns. The sages consciously linked themselves to earlier traditions in a variety of ways, for e.g. they continued the tradition of interpreting sacrificial rites, though they were concerned with the symbolism of the rites and not with the rites themselves. The distance the sages experienced between themselves and the priestly ritualists is expressed in the Upanishads in a variety of ways, as when Svetaketu's father dismisses his son's priestly learning; or through the image the Chandogya offers of a procession of dogs, the tail of one in the mouth of the other, solemnly chanting 'Aum, let us eat! Aum let us drink!' Sometimes the sages merely sought to relativise the importance of the sacrificial

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cult and its priestly ministers but sometimes they addressed it with hostility. The Upanishads mark a major turning point in the development of Indian thought. They placed meditation, mystical experience and the philosophical interpretation of the latter's significance at the heart of the religious quest. They were not concerned merely with an intellectual quest for the Self or realily, the quest which the sages were set was experiential. There are passages of sophisticated philosophical analysis and argument in the Upanishads, but in the end it is not intellectual conviction but experience and the resultant knowledge or realisation that is the aim of Upanishadic teaching. Given their focus on the experience of meditation and on the disclosure of Being that it offers, it is no surprise that the Upanishads were used as a sourcebook and reference point not only by orthodox thinkers throughout religious history, but also by nosfc'faz^dissidents. Buddhist texts, for example, are rich with material drawn from the early Upanishads. The Upanishadic tradition did not go unchallenged. While the earliest Upanishads predate the Buddha, many of the later Upanishads are from his period and later. Even before the major attack on orthodoxy^was mounted by Buddhists and Jains, other teachers were promulgating dissident doctrines which denied the truth of Upanishadic teachings. We need to see the Upanishads not as the products of a serene, self-confident, unchallenged spiritual tradition, but as those belonging to an early age, presenting the spiritual manifesto of orthodoxy under siege. In which case the position of the sages seems all the more interesting in that they then represent not aXdefensive rearguard action, but rather seems to have a critical response to their own tradition while still being loyal to it. Like the nastikas they could oppose the priestly evaluation of rituals and rites, but unlike them remained a loyal part of the Vedic community.

Nature of Vedic Religion

Vedic religion was what we today term as Henotheism or Kathenostheism, pertaining to a belief in one god, supreme or specially venerated as the god of one's household, tribe and the like, but not the only god--a stage between polytheism arid monotheism. Henotheism or Kathenotheism, i.e. a belief in single gods, each in turn standing out as

the highest. The failure of the Aryans to understand and explain the various natural phenomena made them personify the natural forces, attributing to them human or animal qualities.

Important Divinities

Rig Vedic Period In this period the gods are usually stated to be thirty three in number, divided into three groups, corresponding to the three divisions of the universe, namely terrestrial (prithvisthana), atmospheric or intermediate (aniarikshasthana or madhyamasthand) and celestial (dyusthana). Prithvi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and the rivers belong to the first order. Indra, Rudra, Vayu, Vata, Parajanya and Matarisvan belong to the second order and Dyaus, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, the Adityas, Usha's and the Asvins to the third order. This division is overlapping and not clear-cut as Agni and Prithvi are assigned to all the three spheres; Ushas to the terrestrial as well as the aerial spheres; and Varuna, Yama and Savitri to the aerial as well as the celestial ones. The devasura sangrama (fight between the gods and the asuras) is the most important story in the Satapatha Brahmana. According to it, the gods were initially divided into four factions: Maruts were led by Indra, Vasus by Agni, Rudras by Soma and Adityas by Varuna. To overcome the asuras, all gods accepted Indra as their leader. Indra or Purandhara was the most important god of the Rig Vedic period (250 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him). He plays the role of the warlord and is also considered to be the rain god. He is a warrior and king, through whose exploits the world has been ordered and who continues to be invoked to battle all those forces, both human and supernatural, that prevent Aryan prosperity. A hymn tells of his most significant victory, his triumph over the demon Vritra and the release of the waters. Vritra was a


gigantic serpent who lay coiled around a mountain within which all the world's waters were entrapped. After a ferocious battle, Indra kills Vritra with his mace, the vajra, breaks open the mountain, and lets the waters pour out. Vritra's name means 'obstacle', and this victory over the 'obstacle' is paradigmatic for Indra's conquest of all obstacles. Agni was the second most important god (200 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him). He is the fire god and is considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people. The god Agni is the personification and deification especially of the sacrificial fire. He is the priest of the gods and the god of the priests. In the Rig Veda he is second only to Indra in prominence. He has three forms: terrestrial as fire, atmospheric as lightning, and celestial as the sun. Thus, his function as the sacrificial fire of the priests serves as a kind of liaison between man and the gods carrying to the gods the oblations that the Brahmin priests pour into the fire. The correct propitiation ofAgni in the Vedic ritual was thus of considerable importance to the Aryans. Varuna personified water and was supposed to uphold the Rta or natural order. As the administrator of the cosmic law (Rta), he regulates all activities in this world. It is he who has spread out the earth and set the sun in motion, and who pours out the rain but sees to it that one ocean is not overflowed by many rivers. He is, therefore, rightly called the world sovereign. This upholder of cosmic order is also regarded as the lord of human morality. It is the function of Varuna to ensure that there occurs no transgression of law, cosmic or human. He is the very image of the king as ruler and judge of his people and, as such, is the counterpart to Indra, the image of the king as warrior. Soma was the god of plants. An intoxicating drink was named after him. On the basis of the number of hymns addressed to him, Soma is the third most important deity in the Rig Veda, after Indra and Agni. The soma sacrifice is the main feature of the ritual of the Rig Veda, and this is reflected by the fact that all but 6 of the 120 hymns to Soma have been collected in one book (mandala IX) whereas the hymns to the other gods are scattered throughout the other nine books of the Rig Veda. The word soma refers to the plant, to the juice extracted from the plant, and to the deification of both of these. As the plant and/or the juice are always present in the poet's mind, Soma is much less anthropomorphised than, for example, Indra. No one knows what the soma plant was, various substitutes for it

having been used from late Vedic times to the present, but in 1968 an amateur mycologist, R G Wasson, in his book Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality, put forward the theory that soma was a mushroom, Amanita muscaria. Whatever the soma plant was, it produced an intoxicating drink that was, however, distinguished from sura, wine. The most important application of its intoxicating power in the Rig Veda is to fortify Indra, the pre-eminent soma-drinker, for his battles against Vritra and other demons. In the hymns to the Surya (Sun), as in those to Dawn, Night, Thunderstorm, and the other gods of nature, the poets' attention is always on the visible phenomenon itself. The Sun is invoked in descriptions of its light and movement and by allusions to its mythology. Through these descriptions, the poets not only recapitulate its manifest power; they also communicate its meaning for human life and behaviour, hi a hymn, the Sun appears in the poet's imagination as the eye of the gods, which watches over human affairs, and as the visible sign of the presence of the gods. The hymns to Ushas (Dawn) are among the most attractive in the Rig Veda for their elegant, and even sensuous, evocation of the beauty of the dawn. Here Dawn is a lovely woman, driving her chariot across the skies to usher in the new day, and a young girl, stripping away her garment to reveal her naked radiance. But these hymns show more than the poets' sensitivity to nature and appreciation of its beauty. The poets also turn to Dawn for their prosperity and they see in her progress the reassertion of the divine order. Her praises mark the beginning of the sacrificial day and accompany the priests' hope for the success of their worship. Other prominent female divinities were Aditi (the goddess of eternity), Aranyani (goddess of the forest), Nirrti (goddess of decay and death), and the like.

Later Vedic Period New gods like Prajapati (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver and protector of the people) and Rudra (god of animals) emerged and

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their importance grew at the cost of Indra and Agni (Rig Vedic gods). The cult of Rudra evolved from a Harappan cult (Pasupati Mahadeva) and hence it was a non-Aryan influence. Special deities emerged for some of the social classes, for example Pushan (protector of cattle) for the Sudras. There was a clear-cut male domination even in the divine pantheon during both the periods.

Monotheism and Monism

The former is a doctrine which admits of only one god and the latter is a doctrine which seeks to explain varied phenomena by a single principle. There was a tendency towards both doctrines among certain small groups since the Rig Vedic period onwards.

Life after Death

The Rig Vedic period did not produce any consistent theory about it. The idea of metempsychosis (souls being reborn in human, animal and plant form) was not yet developed. In the later Vedic period life after death was envisaged in terms of punishment for sin and reward for virtue. There was evidence of metempsychosis in the later Vedic hymns. Idea of transmigration of souls was not clear in the Vedas, though Upanishads expound the belief in the passage of human soul from life to life according to one's conduct in the previous life. The theory of karma evolved from the above belief. The karma concept is not actually stated in the Rig Veda, but it does mention that a person's conduct in this world determines his life after death. But it is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad which clearly mentions the concept and states that as a man lives, so he becomes.

Mode of Worship

The Rig Vedic period was marked by recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices both at the individual and collective levels. The offerings (such as grain, vegetables, flesh,

ghee, and so on) were not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial formulae, because magical power of the word (mantra) was not yet considered very important. In the later Vedic period there was a change in the mode of worship. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large scale and were accompanied by formulae meant to be pronounced carefully by the sacrificer. In both periods people worshiped gods for material benefits and not for spiritual upliftment. In addition to the simplest form of soma sacrifice, grand sacrifices, called sattras, were performed. These grand sacrifices were elaborately developed and systematised, and for this, a regular science of sacrifice has now been evolved. Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary one. Theyajamana (sacrificer) had practically nothing to do but to give liberal fees to these priests. A formidable array of priests, divided into four groups headed by four chief priests, was required for the correct performance of the extremely complicated and elaborate ritual. The chief priests were hotri (the invoker), udgatri (the chanter), adhvaryu (the performer) and brahmin (the supervisor). There was a lot of emphasis on rituals and sacrifices. This type of excessive ritualism produced a natural reaction in the form of Sramana religion, which protested against the divine origin of the Vedas and efficacy of the sacrifices. The origin of Sramana religion seems to have influenced the authors of the Aranyakas and the Upanishads who turned away from the useless ritual to true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation. These Sramanas were recruited from all people irrespective of caste and creed. Their teachers were anti-Vedic and anti-Brahmanic and they challenged Vedic learning and Vedic rituals. Yajnavalkya is known to be the first thinker to have called attention to Sramanas (recluses). These were also known as titthiyas or tirthankaras. They led a celibate life, and are said to have possessed paranormal powers. Even the Ajivikas were known as Sramanas. Before Gosala there were two Ajivika leaders namely, Nandavachchha and Kisasankichchha who were also regarded as tirthankars. The Sramana movement seems to have opened the eyes of some of the Vedic thinkers who felt the great necessity of reforming the Vedic religion. They adopted the good aspects of the Sramana religion


and at the same time tried to remove the evils of sacrifices, rituals, casteism, and the like, from the Vedic religion. This reformed Vedic religion is known from the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Aranyakas stressed the efficacy of the inner or mental sacrifice as distinguished from the outer or formal sacrifice. They, thus, helped to bridge the gulf between the karmamarga whic was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and thflj jnanamarga which the Upanishads advocated.' Brihadaranyaka Upanishad in a passage spe about the fortunes of the soul and develops th doctrine of the transmigration of soul and, in clo connection with it, the doctrine of karma also.

Vedic Society MS

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QUESTIONS

1. Rig Veda refers to Mujavant, one of the peaks of the Himavant or the Himalayan mountains, as the source of (a) soma drink (b) sura drink (c) camphor

(d) madhu or honey

2.

What was Dasara/na?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Ten incarnations of Vishnu A former slave turned into a ruler Battle of the ten kings Ten sacrifices to be performed by the son of a slave mother

3. lists.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (Regions)

(Rig Vedic Tribes)

(i) North-west India (A) Bharatas, Purus and Sirinjayas (ii) Sind and Punjab (B) Matsyas and Chedis (iii) Haryana and (C) Alinas, Bhalanases, western UP Gandharis, Pakthas and Vishanins (iv) Bihar and (D) Anus, Druhyus, eastern UP

Kekayas, Sivas,

Turvasas and Yadus (E) Chandalas, Kikatas, Kiratas,

Parnakas and Simyus Codes: (a) (b) (c) (d) 4.

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B, we i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C, we i-E, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, vB Consider the following:

'I am a reciter of hymns, my father is a physician and my mother grinds corn with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions.' This verse, illustrating the occupational ra than birth-based division of society, is foun which mandate of the Rig Veda? (a) I (b) X (c) II (d) IX 5. After the battle of ten kings, Sudas of Bharatas had to fight again against a combin tion of three non-Aryan tribes led by Bheda on the banks of the Yamuna, were the three tribes? (i) Ajas

(ii) Kikatas

(iii) Sigrus

(iv) Kiratas

(v) Yakshus

(vi) Simyus

Select the answer from the codes given belc (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and v (d) ii, iv and vi 6. Given below are two statements--one labelle as Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R): Assertion (A): During the Rig Vedic period \ doctrine of divine kingship was unknown. Reason (R): The Rig Veda describes kin Purukutsa of Purus as ardhadeva or sen divine. In the context of the above two stati ments, which one of the following is correct? I (a)

Both A and R are true and R is the con explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not the < reel explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 7. Which was probably the most popular assen bly in which even women enjoyed an equal! tus with men in the early Vedic period?

(a) Sabha

(b) Samiti

(c) Gana

(d) Vidata

8. in th

When Yayati, a Kshatriya king, married ayani, the daughter of a priest, it resulted

(a) (b)

pratiloma marriage anuloma marriage

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11

12.

13, savama marriage (d) niyoga marriage While Purushasukta of the Rig Veda mentions the origin of the chaturvarna system for the first time, another Vedic text repeats the same theory. Which was that text? (a) Atharva Veda (b) Satapatha Brahmana (c) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (d) Chandogya Upanishad .The tribal confederacy of ten kings formed against the Bharatas consisted of rulers of five well-known tribes, besides those of five lesser. known tribes. Identify the five wellknown tribes from among the following: (i) Puru (ii) Yadu (iii) Turvasa

(iv) Anu

(v) Druhyu

(vi) Alina

(vii) Paktha

(viii) Bhalanas

(ix) Siva

(x) Vishanin

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c)

i, ii, iii, iv and v ii, iii, iv, vi and viii i, iv, vi, ix and x

(d) i, iii, iv, viii and ix Which priest was responsible for the organisation of the confederacy of ten kings when he was dismissed by Sudas, the Tritsu ruler of the Bharata tribe? (a) Vasishtha (b). Visvamitra (c) Yajnavalkya

(d) Uddalaka Aruni

Which one of the following assemblies was also called narishta meaning a resolution of many that cannot be broken? (a) Gana (b) Vidata (c) Sabha

(d) Samfti

Consider the following verse from mandala III of the Rig Veda: '0, Indra! fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people or would you make me a king. Would you make me a sage that had drunk of soma, would you impart to me endless wealth'. This shows the (a) (b) (c) (d) 14.

occupational preferences of the people. objectives behind worship of the gods. uncertainly of people in choosing professions. social mobility prevalent among the people. The Rig Vedic samanas were probably

(a)

religious gatherings discussing various metaphysical aspects.

(b)

popular institutions conducting different types of tournaments.

(c)

ascetics renouncing worldly pursuits and highlighting other worldliness.

(d)

skirmishes taking place among the various Aryan tribes.

15. How many times is the word varna used in the Rig Veda in the sense of a birthbased social division? (a) Ten (b) Five (c) Once 16.

(d) Nil

Consider the following lists:

List I List II (i) Brahmin

Face

(ii) Kshatriya Arms (iii) Vaishya

Feet

(iv) Sudra

Thighs

(v) SunMind (vi) Moon

Eyes

Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) iii, iv, v and vi (c) ii, iii and vi (d) iii and iv only 17. The dasas are described by the Rig Veda as (i) avrafa, those who did not obey the ordi nances of the gods. (ii) akratu, those who did not perform sacrifices. (iii) mridhravachah, those whose speech was indistinct or those who were evil tongued. (iv) anasah, those who were flat-nosed. (v) krishnatvach, those who were dark-skinned. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iv and v (d) All of them 18. Which one of the following Rig Vedic gods was frequently referred to by the epithet of athithi lit erally meaning a guest? (a) Agni

(b) Indra

(c) Varuna

(d) Soma


19.


(i) The word 'Brahmin' occurs several times in the Rig Veda, but it was not used in the sense of a varna. (ii) The word 'Rajanya' occurs only in the Purushasukta, but at other places of the Rig Veda the word 'Kshatriya' is used. (iii) Though the word Vaishya' occurs only in the Purushasukta of the Rig Veda, the word vis is frequently employed in this Veda. (iv) In almost all hymns of the Rig Veda the word vis means 'Vaishya', though occasionally it also means the 'people' who practised cattle breeding. (v) The word 'Sudra' occurs not only in the Purushasukta but also in several other parts of the Rig Veda. Of these (a) i, ii and iii are true (b) ii, iii and iv are true (c) i, ii, iii and iv are true (d) all are true. 20. Given below are two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): The gift or sale of a son was not regarded as beyond the power of the father dur ing the Vedic age, both early and later periods. Reason (R): According to a story of mandala I of the Rig Veda, king Harischandra purchased one, Sunahsepa, from his father Ajigartha for the completion of a certain sacrifice. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c)

A is true but R is false.

(d) 21.

A is false but R is true. The Rig Vedic word kulya meant

(a) (b) (c) (d) 22. lists:

a threshing machine a particular type of dress an iron sword an irrigation canal. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Karmara (A) Barber (ii) Takshan or Tashta (B) Carpenter (iii) Vapta or Vaptri (C) Blacksmith (iv) Charmamna (D) Goldsmith (v) Hiranyakara

(E) Tanner

Codes: (a) (b) (c) (d) 23.

i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, vD i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vD i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C, we The hiranyapindas and manas of the Rig We were

(a) (b)

offerings made to the departed souls. gold pieces or ornaments of fixed valuej used as media of exchange.

(c)

officials in charge of sacrificial ceremo-J nies.

(d) religious oblations to expiate the sins. 24. Which one of the following Rig Vedic deities is| assigned to all the three spheres of the celes-1 tial, atmospheric and terrestrial? (a) Tvashtri

(b) Vishnu

(c) Varuna

(d) Dyaus

25. Parsvanatha, considered to be the twenty-third tirthankara by the Jaina tradition, belonged to the ruling family of (a) Magadha (b) Videha

(c) Kosala

(d) Kasi

26. Which of the following non-Aryan tribes men tioned by the Aitareya Brahmana belonged to south India? (i) Andhras

(ii) Pundhras

(iii) Pulindas (iv) Sabaras (v) Mutibs Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i. ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) i, iv and v 27. Which one of the following Vedic goddesses personified decay, destruction and death? (a) Aditi

(b) Nirrti

(c) Savitri

(d) Aranyani

28. lists:

Match list I with list II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I (Brahmanas of Samhitas) (i) Aitareya and Kausitaki of Rig Veda List II (Types of priests who used them) (A) Brahmin or Supervisor

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(B)

Adhvaryuor performer

(C)

Horti or invoker (ii) Tandyamaha and

Jainminiya of Sama Veda (iii) Taittiriya and Satapatha of (D) Udgatrior Chanter Yajur Veda (iv) Gopatha of Atharva Veda Codes: i-B, ii-C, iii-O, iv-A i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C (b) (d) (a) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (c) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B 29. Which of the following form the earliest group of Upanishads, belonging probably to the eighth century bc? (ii) Chandogya (iv) Taittiriya (vi) Mandukya (i) Brihadaranyaka (iii) Aitareya (v) Kausitaki (vii Maitri Choose the answer from the codes given

below: i, ii, iii, iv, v and vi iii, iv, v, vi and vii (b) (d) (a) All of them (c) i, ii, iii, iv and v 30.

What were the brahmodyas of the later Vedic period?

(a)

Brahmin movements to protect their interests.

(b)

Matrimonial alliances among different classes of priests.

(c)

Penances performed to attain spiritual powers.

(d)

Debates organised by rulers like king Janaka.

31 Match list I with list II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists: List I (Vamas) (i) Brahmins (ii) Kshatriyas (iii) Vaishyas (iv) Sudras List II (Gods) (A)

Indra, Varuna, Soma and Yama

(B)

Rudra, Maruts and Vasus

(C)

Agniand Brihaspati

(D)

Aditi, Savitri and Usha

Codes: (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E (c) i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B

(E)

Pushan

(b) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A (d) i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A 32.

What were the sattras of the later Vedic period?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 33.

Intellectual debates Hermitages Grand sacrifices Domestic ceremonies Consider the following.

'Man is formed entirely out of desire, and according to his desire is his resolve, and according to his resolve he performs the actions, and according to the performance of the action is his destiny.' The above passage, found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, deals with the (a) doctrine of rebirth (b) moksha (c) enlightenment (d) karma 34.

The mrityu (death) theme appears first in the

(a) Aitareya Brahmana (b) Satapatha Brahmana (c) Chandogya Upanishad (d) Prasna Upanishad 35. Which one of the following texts shows us that symbolic sati was practised by the Aryans? (a) Rig Veda (b) Yajur Veda (c) Atharva Veda (d) Aitareya Brahmana 36.

Which one of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?

(a) Sira--plough

(b) Sita--furrows

(c) Datra--sickle

(d) Surpa--axe

37. Which one of the following deals with the doc trine of the transmigration of soul in a system atic manner for the first time? (a) Aitareya Upanishad (b) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c) Chandogya Upanishad (d) Kena Upanishad 38. The anti-Vedic and anti-Brahmanic religious teachers of the later Vedic period were known as:

(a) yajamanas (b) sreshtins (c) atharvans (d) sramanas 39. lists:


List I List II (i) Diti (A) Mother of the cattle herds (ii) Aranyani (B) Mother of the Daityas, who were native tribes opposed to Vedic religion


(iii) Ha (C) Personification of the world of spirits (iv) Asuniti

(D) The elusive goddess

of forests and wild creatures Codes: (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (b) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D (d) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B 40. Which one of the following Vedic texts expounds the pranagnihotra, the fire oblation through breath, as a substitute for the basic rite? (a) (b) (c) (d) 41.

Kausltaki Aranyaka Aitareya Aranyaka Chandogya Upanishad Brihadaranyaka Upanishad According to the Rig Veda, Panis were indulged in

(a) cultivation (b) trade and commerce (c) handicrafts (d) hunting and gathering. 42.


List I List II (i) Dyusthana Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Pushan, Vishnu, Asvins, Aditi, Savitri, Ushas, etc. (ii) Antarikshasthana Indra, Rudra, or MadhyamasMaruts, Vayu, Vata, thana Parajana, etc.

(iii) Prithvisthana Prithvi, etc.

Agni, Soma, Brihas pati,

Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes below: îandii (b) ii and iii ^\ and w

(d) Molta

43. The later Vedic terms svarajya and vairajya were used in the sense of (a) monarchical form of government (b) tribal form of government (c) republican form of government (d) autocratic form of government. 44. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I UstH (i) Earliest mention of (A) Aitareya the asrama system Brahmana (ii) First clear reference (B) Satapatha Brahmana to three asramas (iii) First clear reference (C) Jabala to four asramas Upanishad (D) Chandogya Upanishad Codes: (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A

(b) i-C, ii-A, iii-D

(c) i-A, ii-D, iii-C

(d) i-D, ii-B, iii-C

45.

The word kusidin used in the Satepafl Brahmana was a designation for the

(a) usurer

(b) bard

(c) perfume-maker (d) outeaste 46.

Match List I with List II and select the using the codes given below the lists:

List I List II

(Later Vedic Kingdoms) (Rulers) (i) Gandhara (A) Asvapati (ii) Kekaya

(B) Aupamanyav

(iii) Kamboja (C) Bhima (iv) Vidarbha (D) Nagnajit (v) Nishada

(E) Nala

Codes: (a) (b) (c) (d) 47. class!)

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vB i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-E, v-A i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C, we Which one of the following Vedic texts mak the first and nearest attempt at the tion of the types of governments of the Vedic period?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Aitareya Brahmana Satapatha Brahmana Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Kausitaki Upanishad 48, Consider the following lists:

List! (i) Bhishaka (ii) Rathakara (iii) Ku/a/a (iv) Ishukrit (v) Dhamvakrit LlstU Medicine man Chariot marker Potter Maker of bows Maker of arrows Which of the above are not correctly mati Select the answer from the codes below? Codes. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii an (c) ivandv

(d) i, iiandv€

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49. Which one of the following Vedic texts gives a detailed description of the upanayana samskara or sacrament? (a) (b) (c) (d) 50.

Satapatha Brahmana Atharva Veda YajurVeda Aitareya Brahmana Match List I with List II:

List I List II (Later Vedic kingdoms) (Rulers) (i) Kuru (A) Asvasena (II) Panchala (B) Dhavasana Dvaitavana (ill) Matsya

(C) Janaka

(iv) Kasi

(D) Parikshit

(v) Videha

(E) Pravahana Jaivali

Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i-D, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vB (b) i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vC (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, we (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-A, vC 51. Given below are two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reasons (R). Assertion: A gift of land in the sense of the conferring of 'ownership' was looked upon as a wrong custom.

Reason: The Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas tell us that when king Visvakarman offered earth to his officiating priest, the earth refused to be given. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) (d) 52.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Which one of the following is incorrectly matched?

(a) (b) (c)

Suta--Court minstrel Akshavapa--Accounts officer Govikartana--Keeper of games and forests

(d) Kshata--Treasurer 53. Which one of the following rishis or seers can not be credited with the composition of any part of the Rig Veda Samhita? (a) Visvamitra (b) Vasista (c) Valmiki 54.

(d) Bharadwaj

How many times does the term jana in the sense of a tribe occur in the Rig Veda?

(a) 250 (b) 275 (c) 300 (d) 325 55.


List I List II (Parts of Rig Veda) (Period of Composition) (i) Mandalas I and X (A) Earliest (ii) Mandalas II to VII (B) Middle (iii) Mandalas VIII (C) Latest and IX Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-A

(b) i-A, ii-C, iii-B

(c) i-A, ii-B, iii-C

(d) i-C, ii-A, iii-B

56. Which one of the following can be considered as the most numerous varna of the Vedic society? (a) Sudras

(b) Vaishyas

(c) Kshatriyas (d) Mlechchhas 57. Which one of the following tribal assemblies was normally involved in the election of the tribal chief? (a) Samiti

(b) Sabha

(c) Gana

(d) Vidata

58.

The Sulva Sutras, attached to the Srauta Sutras, were the oldest books on

(a) astronomy (b) chemistry (c) geometry (d) medicine 59.

The Rig, Yajur and Sama Vedas are together known as

(a) Samhitas (b) Sruti (c) Trijnana

(d) TrayiVeda

60.

Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

(a)

Sama Veda Samhita--Origins of Indian music

(b)

Atharva Veda Samhita--Origins of Indian medicine

(c) (d)

Rig Veda Samhita--Earliest Prose Yajur Veda Samhita--Origins of rituals


61. Which one of the following post-Vedic Upanishads was the first to deal with the con cept of Trimurti? (a) Kena Upanishad (b) Maitrayana Upanishad (c) Svetasvatara Upanishad (d) Mundaka Upanishad 62. Which one of the following Samhitas refers to the king as visam atta, meaning eater of peas ants? (a) Atharva Veda

(b) Sama Veda

(c) Ya/urVeda (d) Rig Veda 63. Who among the following artisan classes were entitled to wear the sacred thread in the Vedic period? (a) Chariot-makers (b) Fire-rangers (c) Weavers (d) Goldsmiths 64. The marriage of Maruts with Rodasi resulted in (a) polygamy (b) (evirate (c) monogamy (d) polyandry 65. The Supa Sasfra is a text on the science of (a) agriculture (b) horticulture (c)

cooking

(d) metallurgy

66. Which one of the following tribal assemblies probably had the redistributive functions? (a) Sabha

(b) Samiti

(c) Gana

(d) Vidata

67. Which one of the following Vedic texts deals with the ploughing rituals at length? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Yajur Veda Samhita Satapatha Brahmana Kausitaki Upanishad Atharva Veda Samhita

68. Which one of the following Brahmanas describes the Brahmin as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will? (a) Tandyamaha (b) Aitareya (c) Satapatha (d) Gopatha 69. Who was the first to discover close affinities between Sanskrit and some of the principal languages of Europe? (a) Max Mueller (c) Penka 70.

(b) Sir William Jones

(d) Filippo Sasetti

Which one of the following is the oldest known group of the Aryans?

(a) Hittites

(b) Mitanis

(c) Kassites

(d) Greeks

71.

The term 'Araiya' or 'Haraiya' referred to

(a) (b) (c) (d) 72.

Kinsmen noblemen a part of Afghanistan the Gangetic valley Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Rig Praise (ii) Saman

Melody

(iii) Yaju

Magical formula

(iv) Atharvan Ritualistic formula Which of the above are incorrectly matche Select the answer from the codes below:

(a) All of them (b) I, ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

73. How many times are the terms asva and respectively mentioned in the Rig Veda? (a) 375 and 250 (b) 215 and 176 (c) 175 and 125 (d) 150 and 115 74.

Horse bones have been discovered in PGW levels of

(i) Atranjikhera

(ii) Bhagawanpura

(iii) Hastinapur

(iv) Mathura

Choose the answer from the codes given I (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, Hand iii (d) All of them 75. the

Certain categories of human beings and an mals are listed as unfit for sacrifice in

(a) Aitareya Brahmana (b) Kausitaki Brahmana (c) Taittiriya Brahmana (d) Satapatha Brahmana 76. Which one of the following texts prescribes I Brahmins must be fed with meat and fish to| satisfy the pitaras or fathers? (a) (b) (c) (d) 77. lists:

Grihya Sutras Apastamba Dharmasutras Atharva Veda Gopatha Brahmana Match List I with List II and select the answer] using the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Aranya

(A) Buffalo

(ii) Gaura

(B) Camel

(iii) Sarabha

(C) Elephant

(iv) Usfra

(D) Wild animal

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(a) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (b) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (d) i-A, ii-D, iiiC, iv-B 78. Which one of the following texts prescribes the burial of bones and erection of a smasana or tumulus on it? (a) (b) (c) (d) 79.

Rig Veda Safapafna Brahmana Atharva Veda Aitareya Brahmana Which one of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?

(a) Asikni---Chenab (b) Sutudri--Sutlej (c) Vipas--Jhelum (d) Parushni--Ravi 80.

The ratnahavimshi ceremony was carried out as part of the

(a) soma sacrifice (b) asvamedha sacrifice (c) va/apeya sacrifice (d) rajasuya sacrifice 81. The origin of Indian music can be traced to which of the following Vedic Samh/fas? (a) Rig Veda (b) Sama Veda (c) Yajur Veda(d) Atharva Veda 82.

Which of the following Vedic Samhitas is partly in verse and partly in prose?

(a) Rig Veda (b) Sama Veda (c) Yajur Veda(d) Atharva Veda 83.

Which of the following does not come under sruti literature?

(a) Brahmanas (b) Vedangas

(c) Aranyakas (d) Upanishads 84. Which of the following Brahmanas mentions the eastern and the western seas for the first time? (a) (b) (c)

Satapafha Brahmana Aitareya Brahmana Kausitaki Brahmana tin (d) Ta/ttiriya Brahmana

|5. With which of the following Sutras is the histo rian mainly concerned? (a) Nirukta Sutras (b) Grihya Sutras (c) Sraufa Sutras (d) Dharma Sutras Which of the following animals was probably not known to the Vedic people? (a) Elephant (b) Lion (c) Tiger

(d) Horse

87. Which of the following was not a unit of value used by the merchants and traders of the later Vedic period? (a) Gana

(b) Nishka

(c) Krishna/a (d) Satemana 88. Which manda/a or book of the Rig Veda Samhita mentions Sudras for the first time? (a) First (b) Fifth (c) Tenth

(d) Fifteenth

89. Which of the following social practices was only symbolic in the Rig Vedic period? (a) Child marriage (b) Purdah system (c) SaW (d) Dowry system 90. Which of the following Rig Vedic gods is said to be the upholder of the Rfa or cosmic order? (a) Indra (b) Agni (c) Varuna

(d) Soma

91. Which of the following later Vedic gods is said to have evolved from the Harappan cult of Pasupati Mahadeva? (a) Prajapati

(b) Rudra

(c) Vishnu

(d) Pushan

92. The belief in the passage of human soul from life to life Is contained in which part of the Vedic literature? (a) Samh/fas (b) Brahmanas (c) Aranyakas (d) Upanishads 93. The division of India into five parts is to be found In which of the following Brahmanas? (a) Aitareya (b) Tandyamaha (c) Jaiminiya (d) Kausitaki 94. Which of the following contains the famous Gayatri mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri? (a) Chandogya Upanishad (b) Taittiriya Brahmana (c) Rig Veda Samhita (d) Yajur Veda Samhita 95. Which of the following varnas was the most numerous one comprising the common people in the Vedic period? (a) Sudras

(b) Vaishyas

(c) Kshatriyas (d) Brahmins 96.

Which of the following mentions the word gofra for the first time?

(a) Rig Veda (b) Yajur Veda (c) Sama Veda (d) Atharva Veda


97.

Which one of the following tribal assemblies is considered as the oldest of all?

(a) Sabha

(b) Samiti

(c) Vidata

(d) Gana

98. Which of the following works was the earliest to deal with the origin of kingship in the form of a legend? (a) (b) (c) (d) 99.

Rig Veda Aitareya Brahmana Chandogya Upanishad DhanurVeda Pick out the earliest tax from the following:

(a) Bhaga or spoils of war (b) Bali or voluntary offerings (c) Visti or forced labour (d) Kara or customary share of grain 100. Which of the following mention the royal sacri fices of rajasuya, asvamedha and vajapeya for the first time? (a) Samhitas (b) Brahmanas (c) Aranyakas (d) Upanishads 101. How many gods were worshipped by the Aryans in the Rig Vedic or early Vedic period? (a) 3 only (b) 12 (c) 24 (d) 33 102. Which mandalas or books of the Rig Veda Samhlta are considered as the latest based on the style of their composition as well as the nature of the material culture revealed by them? (a) I and II (b) II and IX

(c) landX

(d) IX and X

103. The 'Great Flood' is said to have occurred dur ing the time of which Manu from whose son the two great Solar and Lunar dynasties took birth? (a) first Manu (b) second Manu (c) fifth Manu (d) seventh Manu 104. Which mandate of the Rig Veda Samhita is wholly devoted to the intoxicating drink of Soma and the god who is named after the drink? (a) X (b) IX (c) I

(d) VI

105. Which of the four Vedic Samhitas is considered as the least useful for the purpose of recon struction of the history of the Aryans? (a) Rig Veda (b) Sama Veda (c) Yajur Veda(d) Atharva Veda 106. Philological studies of different langua established that Aryans were directly i the ancestors of some other groups of [ Pick them out from among the following: (i) Persians (ii) Chinese (iii) Greeks (iv) Latins (v) Teutons

(vi) Celts

Select the answer from the codes given I (a) All of them(b) i, ii, iii and v (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) ii, iii, iv, v and < 107. The later Vedic period witnessed growing i cialisation of crafts and treatment of artisan the order of importance. From among the I lowing pick out the artisans who occupied I first and second places respectively: (i) Weavers

(ii) Potters

(iii) Carpenters (v) Tanners

(iv) Embroiders

(vi) Metal-Workers

Choose the answer from the codes given I (a) iii and vi (b) vi and iii

(c) i and iv 108.

(d) ii and iii

Which of the following statements about 'Battle of Ten Kings' are true?

(i) It was fought between the Bharatas and I Purus on the banks of the river Parushni. | (ii) Bharatas were headed by Purukutsa, while the Purus were fed by Sudas. (iii) Bharatas emerged victorious despite the I given to the Purus by several other tribes, (iv) The victorious Bharatas and the vanquis Purus later combined to form the Kurus. (v) The battle is mentioned in the mandala I of the Rig Veda Samhita. Select the answer from the codes given below: J (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 109.

Which of the following statements about thej marriages are incorrect?

(i) Anuloma marriage is the marriage of a high-] er vama man with a lower varna woman. (ii) Pratiloma marriage is the marriage of a! lower varna man with a higher varnal woman. (iii) Anuloma marriage is the marriage of a lower I vama man with a higher varna woman. (iv) Pratiloma marriage is the marriage of a higher vama man with a lower vama woman.

Vedic Society A95

117.

;t{«»^,,,

V'T, 110.

111

N13. , Choose the answer from the codes given ..below: (a) i and ii

(b) Hi and iv

(c) i and iii

(d) ii and iv

Which of the following statements about the children before and after birth are true? (i) Before the birth of a child three domestic ceremonies are performed, viz. garbhadhana (to promote conception), pumsayama (to procure a male child) and simontonnayama (to ensure the safety of the child in the womb). (ii) Jatakarma or birth ceremony was performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord, (iii) Culakarma or tonsure was performed for only boys in their third year, (iv) Upanayana or the great rite of initiation to dvija status marking the second birth was normally performed for only the boys of the higher vamas in their eight year. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii and iv Which of the following are the I/pa Vedas? (i) Shiksha

(ii) Jyotisha

(iii) Gandharva (v) Ayur

(iv) Shilpa

(vi) Dhanur

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv, v and vi


Which of the following were used by the later Vedic people as media of exchange in trade and commerce though they did not represent coins as such? (i) Nishka

(ii) Krishnala

(iii) Satamana (iv) Gana (v) Sreni Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, ivandv (d) All of them Arrange the following units of political organi sation of Vedic period in the descending order: (i) Vis (ii) Gana (iii) Grama

(iv) Rashtra

(v) Kula Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, i, iii and v (b) ii, iii, i, v and iv (c) v, ii, i, iii and iv (d) iii, ii, iv, i and v 114.

Which of the following statements about Indra of the Rig Vedic period are true?

(i) About 250 Rig Vedic hymns are devoted to him. (ii) He played the role of warlord, (iii) He was the intermediary between gods and people.

(iv) He was considered to be the rain god. Choose the answer from the following codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, ii and iv (d) ii, iii and iv 115. Who among the following were the most impor tant gods of the later Vedic period? (i) Indra

(ii) Prajapati

(iii) Agni

(iv) Vishnu

(v) Rudra

(vi) Varuna

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and v (c) ii, iv and vi 116. Match the following: List I (i) Henotheism (b) (d) ii, iii, v and vi ii, iv and v

List II (ii) Monism Monotheism (A)

Belief in only one god

(B)

Theory of souls being reborn in plants

(C)

Belief in single gods, each in turn standing as the highest

(iv) Metempsychosis (D) Doctrine seeking to explain varied phenomena by a single principle

Select the answer using the codes below: (a) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (b) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, ivB (c) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (d) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below: List I List II (i) Maruts

(A) Protector of cattle

(ii) Ushas

(B) Gods of storm

(iii) Pushan

(C) Goddess of Eternity

(iv) Aditi

(D) Goddesses of Dawn


(a) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D 118. Match the following scholars in List I with their opinions about the original homeland of the Aryans in List II and choose the answer using the codes given below: List I List II (i) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (A) Central Asia (ii) Dayanand Saraswati (B) Arctic Region (iii) Max Mueller (C) Germany (iv) Me Donell(D) Austro-Hungary Region (v) Penka

(E) Tibet

(a) i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vC (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD (c) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we (d) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, we 119. Make correct pairing of the following two lists and select the answer from the codes given below. List I List II (i) Duhitri

(A) Not to be killed, refer ring a cow

(ii) Goghna

(B) Barber

(iii) Aghanya (C) Milker of the cow, referring to a daughter (iv) Vapfa

(D) Charioteer

(v) Sufa

(E) Cow-killer, referring to

a guest (a) (b) (c) (d) 120.

i-E, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A, vD i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vB i-A, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, vB i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vD Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Suturdi

Sutlej

(ii) Vipas

Chenab

(iii) Parushni Ravi (iv) Asikni

Beas

(v) Vitase

Jhelum

Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and v (d) iii, iv and v 121.

Which of the following pairs are correctly t

(i) Daiva--Giving the girl to the priest hjt in lieu of his fees (ii) Brahma--Giving the girl to a man with a c (iii) Pra/apalya--Giving the girl to a man i out demanding a bride-price (iv) Arsa--Giving the girl to a man after i ing a bride-price Choose the answer from the codes given 1 (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv 122.

Match List I with List II and select the an from the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Samkhya

(A) Badarayana

(ii) Vaisesika (B) Jaimini (iii) Nyaya

(C) Patanjali

(iv) Yoga

(D) Gautama

(v) Mimamsa (E) Kanda (vi) Vedanta (F) Kapila (a) (b) (c) (d) 123.

i-F, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, v-B, vi-A i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-F, v-E, vi-B i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, v-E, vi-F i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-F, v-A, vi-B Match List I with List II and choose the ans from the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Shiksha

(A) Metrics

(ii) Ka/pa

(B) Grammar

(iii) Vyakarna (C) Phonetics (iv) Nirukta

(D) Astronomy

(v) Chandas

(E) Rituals

(vi) Jyotisha

(F) Etymology

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, v-D, vi-F i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-F, v-E, vi-D i-E, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A, v-F, vi-D i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-F, v-A, vi-D


Instructions Mark (a) if only 'Assertion' (A) is correct.. Mark (b) if only 'Reason' (R) is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and' justifies or explains 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R'J not the correct explanation or justification for '/I

Vedic Society A97

124. Assertion: The central theme of Upanishads is Tat-tvam-asi, i.e. Brahman is Atman and Atman is Brahman. Reason: Upanishads reflect a strong reaction against cults, rituals and priestly domination of later Vedic age. 125. 1 126. Assertion: Aryans were literate people even before their arrival in India. Reason: Aryans probably started using a script only from 700 bc onwards. Assertion: Atharva Veda Samhita is said to be the work of non-Aryans. Reason: Its contents deal with philosophical topics like the Universal Soul, the Absolute, and the like. 127. Assertion: In the Rig Vedic period the main sources of income for the tribal chief were ball and spoils of war. 129. Reason: In the Rig Vedic period the tribal chief had immense wealth and power. I 128. Assertion: Iron technology played a crucial role in the expansion of the Aryans into the middle and lower Gangetic valley. Reason: The middle and lower Gangetic valley had thick vegetation which could be cleared only by implements of strong metal. Assertion: Sudras emerged as a separate vama only towards the end of the later Vedic period. Reason: The Purushasukta of the Rig Veda Samhita clearly mentions the four-fold division of society.

I.1P-m. Assertion: Asramas or stages of life, meant to regulate the life of the male members of the higher varnas mainly, came into existence towards the close of the later Vedic

period. Reason: Asramas are mentioned for the first time in the Chandogya Upanishad. The word 'Aryan' is borrowed from arya in Sanskrit or airyan in Zend, which means (a) of white man (b) of superior man 1132. (c) of good family (d) of wealthy family The word vama is used in the Rig Veda with reference only to the colour difference between ' V. (a) (b) (c) (d) 133.

Arya and Dasa Dasyu and Arya Brahmin and Kshatriya Vaishya and Kshatriya Read the following statements:

(i) The tenth mandate of the Rig Veda gives information about the four fold division of society. (ii) It is the Purushasukta which mentioned the mythical origin of Brahmin, Rajanya, Vaishya and Sudra respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Cosmic man. (iii) Purushasukta is said to be a later interpolation in the Rig Veda. (iv) The word 'Sudra' is mentioned several times in the Rig Veda. Of these (a) (b) (c) (d) 134.

All are true i, ii and iii are true i and ii only are true iii and iv only are true Which of the following shows the ascending order of the political units?

(a) Kula, Jana, Vis, Grama, Rashtra (b) Kula, Jana, Grama, Vis, Rashtra (c) Kula, Grama, Vis, Jana, Rashtra (d) Kula, Grama, Jana, Vis, Rashtra 135. While Chandogya Upanishad is the earliest to mention the first three asramas, the earliest clear reference to the four asramas of the stu dent, house-holder, forest-hermit and recluse is found in: (a) (b)

Jabala Upanishad Mundaka Upanishad

(c) (d) 136.

Kausitaki Upanishad Svetasvatara Upanishad The first elaborate description of upanayana is found in the:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 137.

Aitareya Brahmana Taittiriya Brahmana Tandyamaha Brahmana Satapatha Brahmana Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Ratnins

(A) Chamberlain

(ii) Mahishi

(B) Chief judge

(iii) Kshattr

(C) Charioteer

(iv) Suta

(D) Crowned queen

(E) Advisers


(a) i-D, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C (b) i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (c) i-A, ii-E, iii-B, iv-D (d) i-E, ii-D, iiiA, iv-C 138. Who among the following women is not men tioned to have attained the rank of a rishi in Rig Veda? (a) Viswavara (b) Apala (c) Arundhati (d) Ghosha 139.

Consider the following statements: In the Rig Vedic age

(i) there was no purdah system, (ii) women often performed sati. (iii) girls were given in marriage only after puberty, (iv) girls some times had on their own chosen their husbands. Of these (a) (b) (c) (d) 140. named

i and ii only are true ii and iii only are true i, ii and iii are true i, iii and iv are true Which one of the following narrates the Aryanisatiori of eastern India by a king Videgha Madhava?

(a) Aitareya Brahmana (b) Tandyamaha Brahmana (c) Jaiminiya Brahmana (d) Satapatha Brahmana 141. Whose story gives that the leg that was cut off in a battle was replaced with an iron one, which indicates some progress in surgery? (a) Manu

(b) Vispata

(c) Purukutsa (d) Sudas

142. 'Let those whose deity is phallus not penetrate our sanctuary.' This statement is recorded in which mandala of the Rig Veda? (a) Mandala X (b) Mandala V\\ (c) Mandala I (d) Mandala V 143. Mandala IX of the Rig Veda contains 114 hymns and all are addressed to one god. Who is that? (a) Soma

(b) Agni

(c) Indra

(d) Varuna

144. In which of the following Upanishads was the doctrine of Trimurti found, which is probably also the last of all the Upanishads? (a) Maitrayani (b) Svetasvatara (c) Chandogya (d) Mundaka 145.

Which of the following is incorrectly i

(a) Grihya Sutras--Domestic ceren (b) Sulva Sutras--Geometry (c) Srauta Sutras--Roya sacrifices (d) Dharma Sutras--Manners and cus 146. Which of the following clearly states^ the duty of the sufas or bards preservation of the genealogies of kin rishis? (a) Vishnu Parana (b) Vayu Pun (c) Matsya Purana (d) Skanda Pu 147. How many Puranas are there at present' (a) Eighteen (c) Fifteen (d) Sixteen

(b) Thirteen

148. Who is said to have crossed the Vindh become the torchbearer of Aryan culture t south of Vindhyas? (a) Yayati

(b) Sudas

(c) Agastya

(d) Viswamitra

149. The Aryans were active and optimistic | who prayed to their gods for granting the following, except one. What is that? (a)

Long life

(b) (c) (d) 150.

Worldly prosperity Brave sons Beautiful daughters Which of the following is not correct ancient society?

(a) The later Smritis state that the son off Aryan priest and a Sudra mother wouldj of the rank of a nisada. (b)

The son of a Sudra father and an mother would be a chandala.

(c) The Sudras enjoyed a relatively position in society during the early period than any later period. (d) There was the practice of untouchabilit Vedic age which discredited the Hii society. 151.

Who is the most anthropomorphically sented god in the Vedic pantheon?

(a) Varuna

(b) Indra

(c) Agni

(d) Vishnu

152.

Which part of the Rig Veda gives an account^ the origin of the Universe?

(a) Mandala II (b) Mandala V (c) /Wanda/a VII

/

(d) Mandate X

Vedic Society A99

[that the land

land 3 the

Shout

an jfce

die

pity in Hindu

ntof 153. The information regarding the conflict between Aryans and Dasas figures prominently in the (a) Atharva Veda (b) Yajur Veda (c) Rig Veda (d) Sama Veda 154.

Read the following statements:

(i) Rig Vedic women were allowed to study

the Vedas. (ii) Some of them composed Vedic hymns, (iii) They were allowed to attend sabha and vidata. (iv) They practised purdah system. Of these (a) All are false (b) i and ii are false (c) iii and iv are false (d) Only iv is false 155. What difficulty is being faced by historians to comment on the Aryan expansion in India? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Paucity of archaeological remains Lack of literary evidence Lack of numismatic evidence to corroborate Inaccessibility of the places of their habitation

156. Arrange the following professionals from the most important to the least with respect to social status: (i) Tanner

(ii) Chariot-maker

(iii) Carpenter (iv) Metal worker Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, iii and i (b) iv, ii, iii and i (c) iii, iv, i and ii 157.

(d) ii, i, iii and iv

Aryans cleared the forests in the initial stages with the help of

(a) iron axe

(b) fire

(c) animals

(d) copper axe

158.

The Dasyus were probably

(a) aborigines (b) untouchables (c) a group of Aryans (d) Harappans 159.

Which of the following is not correct about early Vedic period?

(a) (b)

The cow was held sacred. Rig Vedic Aryans fought for cows and these fights were known as gavisti.

(c)

Beef was offered to the guests as delicious food.

(d) 160.

The early Aryan led the life of a hunter-gatherer. In ancient India a boy was considered an ani mal till he underwent

(a) (b) (c) (d) 161.

upanayana samskara vidhyarambba samskara jatakarma samskara parinaya samskara Based on--evidence, Eurasia is regarded as the original home of Aryans.

(a) Racial

(b) Philological

(c) Archaeological (d) Anthropological 162.

Which of the following was not a distinguished tribe of early Vedic age?

(a) Kurus

(b) Matsyas

(c) Bharatas

(d) Krivis

163.

In the Rig Vedic age Aryans could

(a) (b) (c) (d) 164.

read write read and write neither read nor write Which of the following regions are not known to even the later Vedic people?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 165.

The two seas The entire Gangetic valley The Kaveri delta The Vindhyas and its immediate south The Brahmanas are

(a)

commentaries on Aranyakas dealing with philosophical speculation.

(b) (c) (d) 166.

manuals relating to ceremonies and sacrifices. manuals in poetry in praise of gods. original texts otSamhitas. Which of the following crimes is/are not men tioned in the Rig Veda?

(i) Incest

(ii) Conjugal Infidelity (iii) Theft (iv) Abortion (v) Kidnapping for ransom Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) iii, iv and v (c) only i 167. (a) (b) (c) (d)

(d) only v

Which of the following is not a reason for Aryan victory over aboriginals? Disunity among the natives Superior military equipment of Aryans Superior culture of Aryans Superior organisational methods of Aryans


168. Which of the following distinguish Aryans from the Indus people? (i) Love for martial arts (i\) Cultivation of land (ill) Domestication of animals (iv) Use of Iron Select the answer from the codes below, (a) iandii (b) i and iii (c) iandiv 169.

(d) All the above

Which of the following is not compulsory to every Vedic Aryan?

(a) Tapa

(b) Dana

(c) Adhyayana (d) Yajna 170.

The upanayana ceremony does not achieve

(a) (b) (c) (d) 171.

dvija status overcoming the animal stage entering the grihastha asrama entering the brahmacharya asrama Which point enabled the Brahmins to gain ascendancy in the later Vedic age?

(a)

They were able to overshadow the 16 classes of priests.

(b)

They performed sacrifices and ceremonies for the kings.

(c)

By the end of the period they received the land grants.

(d) They devised rites and rituals for every occasion of religious, social, economic and political importance.


Instructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is true, but 'Reason' (R) is false. Mark (b) if 'A' is false, but 'R' Is true. Mark (c) if both 'A and 'R' true, but 'R' does not explain 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R' are true, and 'R' explains 'A. 172.

Assertion: The birth of a daughter is not wished during the Rig Vedic period.

Reason: The position of woman was pathetic in the Rig Vedic age. 173.

Assertion: The rudiments of geometry | found in the Ya/ur Veda.

Reason: The Ya/ur Veda gives rules i lations to construct the sacrificial other geometrical structures. 174.

Assertion: The Sama Veda is invalu historians.

Reason: But for 75 hymns, the mostly contains the hymns from the I 175. Assert/on: The later Vedic people know more and more about pi-structure of animals. Reason: The Aranyakas give us de flora and fauna of the forests. 176. Assert/on: By the end of later Vedic | king's autocracy was in most cases only 1 by the power of the Brahmins. Reason: This period was materially advanced and complex rituals and i performed by the king improved his | 177. Assertion: The vajapeya sacrifice formed by the kings in the later Vedic | Reason: This was a coronation bestow divinity on the king. 178. Assertion: We can see genesis of the i trative system towards the end of the Vedic period. Reason: Agricultural surplus and taxation system helped kings to lay thei dation of administrative apparatus. 179. Assert/on: In the Rig Vedic period there \ difference between the three classes the Aryans with regard to heredity or siveness.

Reason: In the Rig Veda there are ir of not only Brahmins marrying Ra women, but also Brahmins going to the I field and Rajanyas performing sacrifices! others. 180. men.

Assert/on: In the early Vedic period seem to have enjoyed an almost equal; with

Reason: In this period upanayana was formed for girls also and they received i tion and observed brahmacharya like boys.

ANSWERS

1.(a) 2. (c) 11. (b) 12. (c) 21. (d) 22. (c) 31. (a) 32. (c) 41. (b) 42. (d) 51. (a) 52. (d) 61. (b) 62. (a) 71. (c) 72. (c) 81. (b) 82. (c) 91. (b) 92. (d) (b) 101. (d) 102. 107. (a) 111. (c) 112. 117. (c) 121. (a) 122. 127. (a) 131. (c) 132. 137. (d) 141. (b) 142. 147. (a) 151. (b) 152. 157. (b) 161. (b) 162. 167. (c) 171. (d) 172. 177. (a) A101

3. 13. 23. 33. 43. 53. 63. 73. 83. 93.

(b) (d) (b) (d) (c) (c) (a) (b) (b) (a)

(c) 103. 108. (d) (a) 113. 118. (a) (a) 123. 128. (c) (a) 133. 138. (c) (b) 143. 148. (c) (d) 153. 158. (c) (a) 163. 168. (c) (a) 173. 178. (d)

4.(d) 14. (b) 24. (a) 34. (b) 44. (c) 54. (b) 64. (d) 74. (c) 84. (a) 94. (c)

5.(c) 15. (d) 25. (d) 35. (c) 45. (a) 55. (d) 65. (c) 75. (d) 85. (d) 95. (b)

6. (b) 16. (b) 26. (c) 36. (d) 46. (d) 56. (b) 66. (c) 76. (b) 86. (c) 96. (d)

7.(d) 17. (d) 27. (b) 37. (b) 47. (a) 57. (a) 67. (b) 77. (a) 87. (a) 97. (c)

8. (a) 18. (a) 28. (a) 38. (d) 48. (c) 58. (c) 68. (b) 78. (b) 88. (c) 98. (b)

(d) 104.(b) 105. (b) 109. (b) 110. (a) (a) 114. (c) 115. (d) 119. (d) 120. (c) (d) 124. (d) 125. (b) 129. (b) 130. (c) (b) 134. (c) 135. (a) 139. (d) 140. (d) (a) 144. (a) 145. (c) 149. (d) 150. (d) (c) 154. (d) 155. (a) 159. (d) 160. (a) (d) 164. (c) 165. (b) 169. (a) 170. (c) (d) 174. (b) 175. (a) 179. (d) 180. (d)

9.(c) 19. (a) 29. (c) 39. (b) 49. (a) 59. (d) 69. (d) 79. (c) 89. (c) 99. (a)

10. (a) 20. (a) 30. (d) 40. (a) 50. (b) 60. (c) 70. (a) 80. (d) 90. (c) TOO.

106. (c) 116. (b) 126. (a) 136. (d) 146. (b) 156. (a) 166. (d) 176. (d)

chapter MHHB 5

PRE-MAURYA PERIOD

5.1 EARLY HISTORICAL PHASE

Between the 7th and the 5th centuries bc the intellectual life of India was in a state of ferment. This period was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole world, for it witnessed the emeregence of the early philosophers of Greece, the great Hebrew prophets, Confucius in China, and Zoroaster in Persia. In India this crucial period in history was marked on the one hand by the teaching of the Upanishadic sages, who admitted the inspiration of the Vedas, and on the other hand by the appearance of teachers who were less orthodox and rejected the Vedas entirely. It was at this time that Jainism and Buddhism arose, the most successful of a large number of heterodox systems, each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation. The social background of this great development of heterodoxy cannot be traced clearly from the traditions of Jainism and Buddhism, which have partly been worked over by thinkers of later centuries. But it would appear that heterodoxy flourished most strongly in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Here the arrival of Aryan civilisation and Brahmanical religion seems to have been comparatively recent at the time. The people were probably little affected by the Aryan class system, and the influence of the Brahmin was by no means complete. Quite as much attention was devoted to local gods such as yaksas and) worshipped at sacred mounds (chaityas) and gii as to the deities of the Aryan pantheon. Cine arisen, where a class of well-to-do merchants liv| comparative opulence, while the peasants enjo reasonable standard of living. The old tribal structure was disintegrating, i number of monarchical kingdoms had together with ganarajyas (republics), which] served more of the tribal structure. Most of I republics were of little importance politically,! were dependent on the largest of the kingd Kosala (eastern Uttar Pradesh); one such ga was that of the Sakyas in the Himalayan fo The most important of these republics was| Vajjian confederacy, of which the largest ele was the tribe of the Lichchhavis. This confa controlled northern Bihar,

and was governed chief who derived his power from a large asse of tribesmen, and ruled with the aid of a council of lesser chiefs. Southern Bihar formed kingdom of Magadha. Magadha soon absor Vajjis and Kosala, and her growth continued i Pataliputra became the capital of the whole subcontinent except the southern tip. The development of organised states and advance of material culture were accompanied \ the rapid spread of new religious ideas which' soon to become central to ancient Indian thous

Pre-Maurya Period A103

is remarkable that in the Vedas and the earlier Brahmana literature the doctrine of transmigration of soul is not clearly mentioned. It first appears, in a rather primitive form, in the early Upanishads as a . rare and new doctrine. In the Jaina and Buddhist scriptures, however, the doctrine of transmigration has evidently become almost universal and is taken for granted. It is not easy to account for the rapid spread of the belief in transmigration throughout the whole of northern India; it may be that the humbler strata of society have always believed in some form of transmigration, but only now did it begin to affect the upper classes. It is equally difficult to explain the growth of a sense of dissatisfaction with the world and of a desire to escape from it. Several reasons have been suggested to account for this great wave of pessimism, occurring as it did in an expanding society, and in a culture that was rapidly developing both intellectually and materially. It has been suggested that the change in outlook was due to the break-up of old tribes and their replacement by kingdoms wherein ethnic ties and the sense of security associated with them were lost or weakened, thus leading to a deep-seated psychological unease affecting all sections of the people. Another suggested cause of the change in outlook is the revolt of the most intelligent people of the times against the sacrificial cults of the Brahmins. No explanation is wholly satisfactory, as we have only an incomplete knowledge of the factors that led to this great change in the direction of religious Bought. .' Both the sages of Upanishads and the founders of tine unorthodox schools taught the way of knowledge (jnanamarga), as opposed to the way of works fjkarmamarga). Their primary aim was to achieve Salvation from the cycle of birth and death, and to fetal others to achieve it. Most of them maintained tiiat salvation could only be obtained after a long course of physical and mental discipline, often cul-jmnating in extreme asceticism. The basic truths of the various schools differed widely. In many passages of the Buddhist scriptures we read of six unorthodox teachers, each of whom was the leader of an important body of ascetics and lay followers. In one passage of the Digha Nikaya short paragraphs are quoted that purport to give the basic tenets of their

systems. A glance at these will give some impression of the diversity of the doctrines that were propagated by the ascetic groups of the time. The first of the teachers mentioned, Purana Kassapa, was an 'antinomian' who believed that virtuous conduct had no effect on a man's karma. The second heretic, Makhali Gosala (Gosala Maskariputra), was the leader of the sect ofAjivikas, which survived for some two thousand years after the death of its founder. He agreed with Purana that good deeds did not affect transmigration, which proceeds according to a rigid pattern controlled by an all powerful cosmic principle, which he called niyati (fate). The third heterodox teacher, Ajita Kesakambalin, was a materialist. The passage in which his views are given is one of the earliest expressions of complete unbelief in immaterial categories in the history of world thought. Pakudha Kathyayana, the fourth of the six, was an atomist, a predecessor of the Hindu Vaisesika school, putting forward his theories probably a century or more before Democritus in Greece developed a similar doctrine of eternal atoms. The fifth teacher, Nigantha Nataputta (Nirgrantha Jnataputra), was none other than Vardhamana Mahavira, the leader of the sect of Jainas. The sixth and last, Sanjaya Balatthipura, was a sceptic, who denied the possibility of certain knowledge altogether. The salvation promised by these teachers, and by others like them, was not dependent on the mere acceptance of the doctrine or on belief in it on a logical basis. To achieve release from transmigration it was necessary that the fundamental doctrine should be realised in the inmost being of the individual, and such a realisation could only be achieved by the mystical and ascetic practices generally known as yoga. Each group, even that of the materialists who followed Ajita, had its special system of meditation and mental or spiritual exercises, and each had its organised body of followers, usually ascetics.


5.2 STATE FORMATION AND URBANIZATION

Sources

Literary sources The Satapatha Brahmana describes the migration from the Sarasvati to the middle Ganga valley in the story of Videgha Mathava who travels east but pauses at the river Sadanira (Gandak). The middle Ganga valley comes into historical focus with the migration and settlement of people along two routes. The northern route followed the foothills of the Himalayas and appears to be the one taken by Videgha Mathava; the second followed the south bank of the Yamuna and the Ganga at the base of the Vindhyan outcrops. Vedic literature has less to say about the middle Ganga valley. Much of the evidence for events in this area comes from Buddhist literature. Some comparative data, particularly on the functioning of the gana-sangha chiefships, is available in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, which often corroborates statements from Buddhist sources, even though Panini was referring to gana-sanghas in various parts of northern India and less specifically to the middle Ganga valley. However there is a distinction between the types of gana-sanghas described in the two sources. Those referred to by Panini as spread over northern and western India such as the Madra, AndhakaVrishni, Kshudraka and Malava, appear to be chiefships well before the emergence of the state whereas those of the middle Ganga valley such as the Vrijjis (Vajjis) contain the rudiments of what were to become the essential characteristics of the state. Among the latter gana-sanghas some were single clan units such as the Sakyas, Koliyas and Mallas, located on the edge of the Himalayan terai. Others were confederacies of clans among which the pre-eminent was the Vrijji confederacies, within which of whom the Licchavis were the most important clan. Monarchy with all its paraphernalia was first established in Kosala and Magadha, although other areas such as Gandhara, Kasi (Varanasi district) and Kausambi (Allahabad district) also provide indications of the evolution of monarchical systems.

Archaeological sources The Neolithic ments point to an earlier population, prior i the arrival of the Black-and-Red Ware pec probably migrated along the southern route| western and central India. Painted Grey Ware occurs at Sarasvati Maheth, a part of Kosala in eastern UP), in links with the western Ganga valley, along the^j em route as well as at Kausambi and the Yamuna confluence, indicating settlement alo Vindhyan outcrops. The main culture prior to urbanization ij of the Black-and-Red Ware pottery, the sin which seem to follow the route of mij towards the south and then spread northwa the middle Ganga valley. They are located i rivers and more frequently near inter-f confluences which were optimum catch areas. The pottery ranges from crude to refine could be related to Black-and-Red Ware fromii areas then its provenance would be western", with an extension eastwards, south of the Yai and through central India. Its occurrence in the^ die Ganga valley would be later in time and < the first half of the first millennium bc. That it is a precondition to urbanisation is gested by the fact that it registers a demog increase, shows an acquaintance with iron logy in its late phases and provides evidence of'4 rice cultivation. If ceramic industries can be taken as an in tion of cultural variation then the Black-and Ware people were culturally different, althou entirely unrelated to those who dominated;! western Ganga valley. The Northern Black Polished Ware datii about the sixth century bc marks a qualiti change. Its provenance is associated with the ( on both sides of the Ganga between Varanasi i Patna, which was also an area of concent for the preceding Black-and-Red Ware cult| Northern Black Polished Ware is indicative more complex and sophisticated culture with i characteristics of urban living, as the important i

Pre-Maurya Period AT05

we located at places which, from the literary sources, are known to have been urban centres.

State Formation

Socio-economic background The middle Ganga valley was a comparatively new ecological situation for the settlers, whether those of the Painted Grey Ware or of the Black-and-Red Ware cultures, particularly with rice cultivation becoming the major agricultural activity. The yield of rice is higher per acre than that of wheat; rice cultivation could therefore have supported a larger number of people. The demographic rise in the Northern Black Polished Ware period, suggested by the increase in the size of settlements and their frequency, would have required bigger yields to feed the growth in the population. Where land, labour and irrigation were made available the production of surplus was feasible and this could support a larger population or intensify the social base of stratification. There are references to the dasa-karmakaras (slaves and labourers) in the fields of the raja-kulas (the land-owning kshatriya clans) and there is evidence of economic disparity among social strata. This dual stratification of ganasanghas into dasa-karmakaras employed by the raja-kulas, with an absence ofgrihapatis (orgahapdtisas they are called in Pali texts), is prior to private ownership. Gahapatis are occasionally mentioned in the sources related to the gana-sanghas, but rarely as agriculturalists. Gahapatis are more evident in the monarchies of the middle Ganga valley. hi the middle Ganga valley, in contrast to the western Ganga valley, the use of land and irrigation in itself required not only intensive labour but also the organization of labour on the lines of cooperative interaction. Furthers contrast between the two areas an indicate differences in the social structure of the gana-sangha chiefdoms and the kingdoms in the middle Ganga valley. The preconditions were similar, and yet the state system evolved more clearly under the aegis of a monarchical form.

A comparison between the gana-sanghas and the monarchies may serve to indicate the features which were crucial to the establishment of the state and which seem to relate to the control of economic resources and the form of political authority.

Nature and course of state formation

The middle Ganga valley had no uniform political system, since some janapadas supported kings and others retained the gana-sangha system. The ganasangha system, variously rendered by modern historians as republics and oligarchies, can perhaps be more precisely described by the term chiefship or chiefdom. Here the ruling clans were differentiated from non-kshatriyas but this members were also referred to as rajas, rajakulas or consecrated kshatriyas. Thus the Mallas had five hundred rajas, the Vrijji confederacy boasted of seven thousand seven hundred and seven, and the Chedis had sixty thousand. Chiefdoms were characterised by a central leadership legitimised on the basis of birth. Genealogies, whether actual or fictionalised, are therefore of considerable importance and ancestry becomes crucial. The difference between the rulers and the ruled was initially that between certain descent groups having access to power and others who were excluded and among whom were the non-kin groups, generally providers of labour. This last category may have consisted of indigenous people conquered by the lineages who settle on their land or captives or labouring groups brought from elsewhere. Theyana name was to apply only to those who were descen-dents of the ruling kshatriya lineage and not to the dasa-bhritaka (the slaves and hired labourers). The chief had a retinue of followers, often the younger members of the family, who performed the functions of a rudimentary administration. The administration of the Licchavis which was more than rudimentary was looked upon with admiration by the Buddha. There were said to be 7707 rajas resident at Vaisali, the capital of the Vrijji confederacy. These were the heads of the raja-kula families who were eligible to sit in the

/


Vrijji assembly which met in the assembly hall (santhagara). The figure is exaggerated but the Vrijji assembly would in any case have been large since it was a confederacy of eight clans. In the gana-sanghas of the Ganga valley power still lay with the lineage as also the ownership of essential wealth. There is a notable absence of tax collection by a superordinate agency. Such a system may be regarded as being crucial in the process of state formation, in an incipient state. Where the distinction between the non-state and the state is presented along a continuum rather than in absolute terms, the gana-sangha system of the Vrijjis would be a turning point being, closer to state formation than, for example, the gana-sangha system of the Vrishnis of western India.

Urbanisation

Socio-economic background Varna, in Buddhist sources, differs hierarchically with khattiya (kshatriya) being the highest followed by bahamanna (brahmana), vessa (vaishya), sudda (sudrd) and chandala appears frequently as a synonym for untouchable. Equally often the order is khattiya, bahamanna and gahapati, which seems to be a more realistic organisation of socioeconomic groups rather than that of ritual rank. Varna as a system of social status and organisation seems to be absent in the ganasangha areas. The lineage system in such areas is different from that in the western Ganga valley. Sacrificial rituals on a large scale played no role, whether religious or economic, and this made the brahman varna redundant and altered the nature of the economy and pattern of control. The emphasis was more on the availability and organisation of labour and these societies were characterised by two broad well demercated groups, those who owned land and those who worked on the land. The recognition of this demarcation made the sudra varna unnecessary since the dasa-karmakara were in effect performing the functions of the sudra. References to brahmans in Buddhist sources occur more frequently in the context of kingdoms

(particularly in Kosala and Magadha) rather thani gana-sanghas, perhaps because Vedic ritual generally absent in the latter. The substitution of gahapati by vaishya poin to the final disintegration of the original vis. gahapati is not only the head of the household 1 is also often the landowner. References to gahap include men of wealth who may be associated wit) professions such as carpentry and medicine, have links with land and property; or else have changed from agriculture to diverse more lucrativ professions. Associated with the status of the gahapai were the kutumbika and the gamini. The kutumbi\ ka was again the head of a family and a man property who, in Jataka literature, is associate either with a rich landowner who is often said I be collecting his dues, or with commerce an^ usuary. An element of moneylending, in rur areas, is also associated with kutumbika but prob ably this again refers to a later period. Gamini\ derived from the gramani of the earlier perio refers to the head of a band or professional grou or the head of a village. The section of Buddhis texts pertaining to gaminis includes profession such as soldiers, elephant and horse-trainers, and stage managers. In the village authority wa sometimes vested in the gamini who was also on| occasion associated with the nigama, a larger set-i tlement, having some degree of exchange market functions.

Role of iron technology Among other factors] associated with wider social and economicf changes, some of which led towards urbanisation,! the gradual utilisation of iron can be cited as an| increasingly noticeable technological change. As a 1 technology it was recorded in the early half of the! first millennium bc (with sporadic occurrences! earlier) but the quantity of artefacts found andl their function in non-military activities remained | small initially. The extensive use of iron would j have had to wait until metal workers could tap*) these resources. The importance of iron technology is not merely that it introduced a change in the use of metals but'


that when the use of iron artefacts became more widespread the pace of change, accelerated as compared to other metal technologies. Its major significance at that time lay in its impact on the middle Ganga valley. Even if direct evidence of the extensive use of iron at an early date is-not very substantial, indirect evidence would suggest that it had some impact. Northern Black Polished Ware may have resulted from a high firing temperature which was made possible by the higher temperatures required for smelting iron as compared to copper. The provenance of this particular pottery, in the area between Patna and Varanasi, is in the vicinity of the iron mines of south Bihar and local haematite bearing soils. ..There is sporadic evidence of iron work in south Bihar and it is likely that initially the technology ijps in the hands of itinerant smith. The routes of the itinerant smiths may have built up a circuit of trade connecting local levels of production.

Nature and course of urbanisation The origin of sbine of the nigamas may also be traced to villages specialising in particular craftsmen such as potters, carpenters and salt makers, which may have become spall specialized markets and later more general aiarket centres. A corroboration of the nigama as a \ pjarket town is available from numismatic evidence Ijvhere a series of early coins carry the legend 'negajj* suggesting that they were issued by a nigama. Pit the context of very large cities the word has also ien interpreted as the ward or section of a city Jtyhere professionals working in a particular craft lôuld live and work, again indicating some com tnercial connections. [ îThe existence of nigama may also have provided a i base to some rising towns. A distinction has to be ifaade between the city as a political centre and one Which combined both political and commercial func i IliboSi There is a difference in the ethos of towns which

i%ere primarily political centres such as Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Ahicchatra and Ayodhya and those ? 'ijvhich combine political with commercial functions, such as Saravasti, Kausambi, Vaisali and Rajagrha. The growth of urban centres may also have been . quicker in the middle Ganga valley since the nuclei of the gana-sanghas were the settlements occupied by members of the raja-kula. As they lived in nucleated groups rather than on their own lands, there was greater potential for the transition of such settlements into towns. The termpura was often employed for towns and originally meant a fortified settlement or a locality. Fortifications were associated with political centres which were either the residence of the raja and his entourage or of the families of the raja-kulas in the ganasangha system. The fortification enclosed the urban settlement and separated it from the surrounding areas, thus demarcating the urban from the rural. But this separation was by no means absolute since the links between the two remained strong. Nagara was the common term for a town and mahanagara used more frequently in the middle Ganga valley was the city. Myths of Buddhist origin describing the emergence ofthejanapadas associate the earliest phase not only with the settlement of a lineage segment but also an urban centre. Whereas in brahmanical sources, names of cities are often said to derive from names of kings, in Buddhist literature their names are associated with rishis, plants and animals, as in Kapilavastu and Koliyanagara.

5.3 POLITICAL HISTORY

Mahajanapadas and Magadhan Imperialism

In the pre-Maurya period the entire northern territory was divided into sixteen states or sodasha mahajanapadas. The states had either monarchical or republican form of government. The Buddhist literature, particularly the Anguttara Nikaya, lists the following states. (1) Anga, (2) Magadha, (3) Kasi, (4) Kosala, (5) Vajji, (6) Malla, (7) Chedi, (8) Vatsa, (9) Kuru, (10) Panchala, (11) Matsya, (12) Surasena, (13) Assake, (14) Avanti, (15) Gandhara, and (16) Kambhoja. The small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally during the life time of Buddha, only four Kingdoms-- (1) Vatsa, (2) Avanti, (3) Kosala and (4) Magadha--survived.


Vatsa

The Vatsa or Vamsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the Jamuna river. Its capital Kausambi was located near modem Allahabad. Udayana strengthened his political supremacy by entering into matrimonial alliances with the powerful rulers of Avanti, Magadha and Anga. Udayana's son and successor, Bedhi Kumara, was a weak and an imbecile ruler. He was unable to defend the kingdom. Later, during the reign of Palaka, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

Avanti

Avanti is identified with modern Malwa, Nimar and part of Madhya Pradesh. The river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and south. Territorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or modem Ujjain. During the lifetime of Buddha, Chanda Pradyota Mahasena was ruling Avanti. He made himself very powerful by marrying Vasavadatta, daughter of Udayana. Pradyota's might was a constant source of threat to other kingdoms. He became one of the pivots of Buddhism and his capital flourished with numerous Buddhist activities. The successors of Pradyota were weak and worthless. Nothing much is known about them. However, the decaying empire was grabbed by the rulers of Magadha during the fourth century bc.

Kosala

This kingdom, by and large, corresponded to modern Oudh and its capital was Ayodhya. Its other prominent towns were Saketa and Sravasti. King Prasenjit of Kosala was Buddha's contemporary. He was highly educated and received education in Taxila. Prasenjit further elevated his status and position by a matrimonial alliance with Magadha. In fact, his sister was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha, and Kasi was given to her as dowry. However, a dispute with Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara through another wife, soon led to discord. Ajatasatru put his father to death whose wife, sister of Prasenjit, died due to grief. Prasenjit, in

retaliation, confiscated Kasi. A war broke i varying results in favour of both sides. Ha the conflict finally ended and a reconciliatiq place. Prasenjit's daughter Vajjira was Ajatasatru and Kasi was again given as gil bride. Though Prasenjit did not embrace 1 he was a great admirer of the Buddha;| gospels. One of the Bharhut sculptures hij cordiality between Prasenjit and the Bu Prasenjit, his son Vidudabha succe Kosala finally became a part of the kingdom.

Magadha

Of all the political powers, Magadha was 1 powerful and prosperous kingdom in no from the sixth century bc to the forth The founders of the kingdom were Ja Brihadratha. However, its real found Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. Rajagriha was 1 of the kingdom. During their reign, ric prosperity of the kingdom reached its:

Haryankas Bimbisara (547^95 bc) his power and influence by matrimonial His principal queen was Kosaladevi, the Prasenjit of Kosala. The second que Chellana, the daughter of the famous Lie chief, Chetaka of Vaisali. Khema, daughter < of the Punjab, was his third queen. His Kc brought Kasi as a dowry-gift. However, he < took several military expeditions and addedi| territories to his empire. He defeated Br the ruler of Anga, and annexed the latter's king He maintained a friendly relationship with ] of Avanti. He sent his personal physician, Jiv cure Pradyota who was suffering from jail Nothing definite can be resolved whether he follower of Jainism or Buddhism. However, religions claim him as their supporter and devoti He died a tragic death. From one source, it is le that he was starved to death by his son Ajatas The other source reveals that due to the acrimonio relationship with his son, he consumed poison ; killed himself.


Ajatasatru (495-462 bc) embarked upon a policy of conquest. He declared war against his maternal uncle Prasenjit of Kosala. His success against a powerful confederacy of 36 kingdoms and republican states under the leadership of Lichchhavis of Vaisali, is indeed, remarkable. The conflict continued for about 15 years and finally he succeeded in subduing the opponents including the Lichchhavis. It is not clearly known whether he was a follower of either Jainism or Buddhism. It is generally believed that in the beginning, he was a follower of Jainism, but subsequently, he changed his mind and embraced Buddhism. It is said that he interviewed Lord Buddha and confessed killing his father Bimbisara. In fact, his meeting with Gautama Buddha is indicated in one of the sculptures of Bharhut. According to the Jaina and Buddhist texts, several successors of Ajatasatru ruled Magadha for about 166 years. Unfortunately, most of them were nonentities. However, among them we come to know about one ruler named Udayin.

Sisunagas Sisunaga defeated Pradyota (one of the successors of Chanda Pradyota) and annexed Avanti to Magadha. After Sisunaga, the mighty empire collapsed like a house of cards. Kalasoka, successor of Sisunaga, was murdered by the founder of the Nanda dynasty.

Nandas (345-322 BC) Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler. He enlarged his kingdom by conquest. It is said that he uprooted the Kshatriya ruling dynasties of northern India and annexed their territories to his kingdom. In fact, states like Kurus, Panchalas, Ikshvakus, Asmakas and Surasenas, became the exploits of the new dynasty. An inscription found in the famous Hathigumpha of Kharavela refers to the conquest of Kalinga by a ruler of the Nanda dynasty. There is good reason to feel that the conqueror was none but Mahapadma Nanda. Many historians believe that a sizable portion of the Deccan formed a part of Mahapadma Nanda's kingdom. The greatness and vastness of the Nanda dynasty is confirmed by several Greek writers who visited India during the invasion of Alexander the Great. According to Buddhist sources Mahapadma Nanda reigned for about ten years and was succeed ed by his eight sons. However, no comprehensive account of their reign is available. In 326 bc when Alexander invaded India the last of the Nandas, Dhana Nanda, was ruling Magadha.

Ancient Indian Republics (650-325 bc)

The study of the Jaina, Buddhist and Brahmanical texts reveals the existence of several flourishing republics and autonomous clans in northern India. Pali records indicate the names of about ten republics, which existed in northern India during the lifetime of the Buddha. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Mallas of Kusinagar and Pava and the Lichchhavis of Vaisali were the prominent republics of the period. It appears that the country of Sakyas was situated on the borders of India and Nepal. King Virudhaka, son of Prasenjit, attacked the republic and annexed it to Kosala kingdom. During this political upheaval, a large number of Sakyas were cruelly annihilated.. The Mallas were divided into two branches. The first branch ruled Pava and the other ruled from Kusinagar. Incidentally, Mahavira breathed his last in Pava. The second place also became famous as Lord Buddha achieved parinirvana there. The republic of the Mallas prospered till it was annexed to the Magadhan empire during the reign of Ajatasatru. The Lichchhavis of Vaisali proved to be the most powerful and flourishing republic in an age of all-round conquest wars and invasions. They were dauntless and war-loving people. Their martial ardour kept the neighbouring states under good check. The states encircling the republic dared not offend the Lichchhavis. Ajatasatru's lust for territo^ rial gain ultimately resulted in the loss of their freedom. However, the contest continued for fifteen years and Ajatasatru had to pay heavily in terms of men and materials before overpowering them and annexing the territory. The names of the republics are appended below: (1) the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, (2) the Lichchhavis of. Vaisali, (3) the Mallas of Pava, (4) the Mallas of Kusinagar, (5) the Kolliyas of Ramagrama, (6) the Bhaggas of Sumsumasa, (7) the Moriyas of


Pippalivahana, (8) the Kalamas of Kesaputta, (9) the Videhas of Mithila, and (10) the Nayas (Jnatrikas) of Kundalagrama near Vaisali.

Persian and Greek Invasions Persian Invasion

1. Cyrus (588-530 bc) of Persia was the greatest conqueror in the history of the ancient Orient. He was the first foreign conqueror who led an expe dition and penetrated well into India. He also conquered Anatolia and Babylonia and advanced as far as the frontiers of Egypt. All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus right up to the Kabul region submitted to Cyrus and paid him tribute. According to some records, he destroyed the city of Capisa, located somewhere north of Kabul. 2. Cambyses (530-522 bc) undertook the policy of conquest but did not follow the progressive poli cy adopted by his father. 3. Darius I (522-486 bc), the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in 518 bc. Herodotus states that India was the twentieth satrapy of Darius. He mentions that Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus. Sind and a portion of the Punjab lying east of the Indus formed a part of his Indian conquest. Incidentally, this portion continued to be a part of the Indian possession of Xerxes, the emperor of Persia, in the subsequent period. 4. Xerxes (465-456 bc) fully utilised his Indian provinces to build formidable contingents. The Indian contingents were deployed in Greece to fight his opponents. Herodotus mentions about Indian soldiers. 5. Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers and sent them to fight Alexander. It is evident that the control of the Persians slackened on the even of Alexander's invasion of Asia.

Alexander's Invasion of India

After the Persians, the Greeks were the second invaders who invaded India in the fourth century bc. Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 bc. By 329 BC he conquered the whole of Persia stretching Asia Minor to Afghanistan. He crossed

Hindukush in May 327 bc and spent the rest of t year in subduing the wild tribes. Alexander Hephaestian and Perdiccas in advance with the 1 of his army to invade India. They crossed Khy pass in December 327 bc or January 326 bc built a bridge over the Indus. Meanwhile, Alex was busy in consolidating his position in the ne conquered territories. On the eve of Alexander's invasion, several \ chiefs and independent tribes were ruling the : and north-west India. They had been wasting ene and resources in internecine quarrels and dome feuds. Animosity between the rulers of Taxila ; Paurava provoked the former to send his son Amb to Bactria to assure support to Alexander against t other rulers of India. Alexander crossed the ie with the help of a bridge of boats built at Und ( Ohind, about ten miles upstream of Attack. He < courteously received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxi| who had succeeded his father in the meantime. He Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit, refused and prepared for a showdown.

Battle of Hydapses Alexander arrived with troops at the banks of Hydapses (Jhelum). The riv was already in spate and therefore, a halt had to 1 made for several weeks. Finally he crossed the riv in dark and took Porus by surprise. A fierce bat! was fought on the plains of the Karsi. Porus hir displayed unprecedented courage, but he lost the 1 tie. About twelve thousand soldiers were killed ; six thousand were taken prisoners. The won Porus was persuaded to surrender. The conq admired Porus' independent spirit. He not on granted Porus his own kingdom but also enlarged i by adding a state of larger dimension. Alexander advanced eastwards crossing th Jhelum. He defeated the Glansai or Glankanikoi i proceeded further. He crossed the Akesic (Chenab) and the Hydraotes (Ravi) and annexe Sangala, the capital of the Kathaioi (Kathas) storm. King Sanbhuti had no option but to submit t Alexander. Then he advanced towards the bank the Beas with a view to annexing the Maga empire. But here his fatigued soldiers refused


cross the river. Hardship of prolonged campaigns and isolation from homes had certainly made them keen to return to their homeland. Simultaneously, they learnt that beyond the Beas was a strong state which might not be subdued so easily. Hence, Alexander failed to persuade his soldiers to take up the new venture. Consequently Alexander ordered retreat making adequate arrangements to look after the newly acquired possessions. He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under the overall charge of governors. Some part of the Macedonian army was left behind to assist the governors to maintain law and order. The retreat began in October 326 bc down the Jhelum and the Indus. However, the return journey of Alexander was not free from ordeals. Many republican clans inhabiting southern Punjab attacked and harassed the tired and retreating columns. Beating back and destroying the upstarts, Alexander reached Patala at the head of the Indus delta. He divided his army into two. One portion was dispatched by sea under the command of Nearchus. The other was kept under his own command. In September 325 bc Alexander left the periphery of modern Karachi by land route. After reaching Babylon (modem Baghdad), he fell seriously ill and died in June 323 bc at the age of thirty-three only.

5.4 BUDDHISM

Gautama Buddha's Life

Gautama or Siddhartha, founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 bc in Lumbini (now in Nepal) in the Sakya Kshatriya clan of Kapilavastu. His mother was Maya, a princess of the neighbouring clan of the Koliyas. The site of his nativity is marked by the celebrated Rummindei Pillar of Asoka. As Maya died in child-birth, Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and step-mother, Prajapati Gautami. His other relatives were Suddhodhana (father), Yasodhara (wife), Rahula (son) and Devadatta (cousin). The sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic intensified Siddhartha's deep hatred for the world and made him realise the hollowness

of worldly pleasures. After the birth of his son, he left home at the age of twenty nine in search of the Truth. This departure is knows as the 'Great \, Renunciation' (mahabhinishkramana). For six continuous years he lived as a homeless ascetic, seeking instruction under two Brahmin religious teachers (the first was Alara Kalama who taught him the technique of meditation at Vaisali, and the second was Uddaka or Ramaputta who taught him at Rajagriha) and visiting many places. Finding no satisfaction there he practised the severest penances, the most rigid austerities and made fruitless efforts to find the. Truth. He then gave up penances, took a bath in river Niranjana (modern Lilajan) and sat under a pipal tree at modern Bodh Gaya. Here at the age of 35, he attained unto supreme knowledge and insight. Revelation came to him that the Great Peace was within his own heart and he must seek it there. This is known as the Enlightenment (nirvana) and since then he became known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One) or tathagat (one who attained the Truth). Then he proceeded to the deer park near Sarnath in the vicinity of Banaras where he gave his first religious discourse (dharmachakrapravartand) as a result of which five disciples joined him. After preaching for the next 45 years, he passed away in 483 bc under a sal tree at Kusinagar in UP. Shortly before his death Buddha lived in Pavapuri in the hut of a poor smith named Chanda (Kanda), where he ate bad mushrooms and pork, which allegedly caused his death. Buddha's last teaching was heard by Subhadra, a wandering ascetic, and Ananda, his favourite disciple. His last words were: 'Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly to work out your own salvation.' The most renowned among the early converts to his teaching were Sariputta and Moggallana, ascetics of Rajagriha, who were converted by Assaji, one of the five original disciples. More famous among his followers were Ananda (his cousin and chief disciple), Kassapa or Kasyapa (his most learned disciple), Upali (the barber), and the rich youth Yasa. Kings like Prasenjit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples.


rhim is a ional outle icial than k of practic ?>/& of"

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the

s ;world a man will inevitably I in one form or another, and as (nature of things, be obtained, he lând probably make others suffer also, her cardinal teaching of Buddha was his doc s concerning the atta or atman (soul or ego). He t that the soul does not exist, in other words he ulated for man a condition ofanatta or anatman (non-soulness). What is called the soul is in reality a physical and mental aggregate of five anitya or impermanent conditions called khanda or skandha. Thus, all things in the universe may also be classified into five skandhas (components) or are composed of a mixture of them: form and matter » (rupa), sensations or feelings (vedana), perceptions or understanding (sanna), psychic disposition or will (samkhard), and consciousness (yinnand). The first consists of the objects of sense and various other elements of less importance. Sensations of the actual feelings arising as a result of the exercise of the six senses (mind being the sixth) upon sense-objects, and perceptions are the cognition of such sensations. The psychic dispositions include all the various psychological states, propensities, faculties, and conditions of the individual, and the fifth component, conscience thought, arises from the interplay of the other psychic constituents. The individual is made up of a combination of the five components, which are never the same from one moment to the next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant flux. The process by which life continues and one Aing leads to another is explained by the chain of causation (patichchha-samuppada or pratityasamutpadd), literally meaning dependent origination). The root cause of the process of birth and death and rebirth is ignorance, the fundamental illusion that individuality and permanence exist, when in fact they do not. Hence there arise in the organism various psychic phenomena,

including desire, followed by an attempt to appropriate things to itself. This is typified especially by sexual craving and sexual intercourse, which are the actual causes of the next links in the chain, which concludes with age and death, only to be repeated again and again

indefinitely. Therefore, rebirth--according to the law of Karma--takes place. The Buddhist Karma is not essentially different from that of Hinduism, though it is explained rather differently.

Buddhist Sangha

The Buddha had two kinds of disciples--monks (bfrikshus) and lay worshippers (tipasikas), the former were organised into the Sangha or congregation, the number of which swelled with the spread of Buddhism. The membership of the Sangha or the Religious Order was open to all persons, male or female, above fifteen years of age, and who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infectious diseases. Persons who were in the service of the king or an individual, or who were in debt or had been branded as robbers or criminals were refused admission into the Sangha. But exceptions were made in the case of convicts, slaves or persons with bodily deformities. There were no caste restrictions, on membership. Monasteries were constructed to give suitable accommodation to the monks and the nuns for carrying on their studies and meditation. Gradually, monasteries developed into academic centres for producing the right type of men, well-grounded in religion and philosophy, to propagate the teachings of Buddhism. During the three or four months of rains, beginning from the day next to the full moon day Ashadha, the monks were required to take up a fixed abode and depend for their subsistence on the neighbouring households. During this period they preached Buddhism to the people in the evening just like the katha system (narration of stories) of the present-day. At the close of the retreat (vasa), the monks met together to confess their offences, if any, committed during their stay in the rainy season. This ceremony was called pavarana (also known as uposatha or upavasathd). There was a special code of rules for the nuns, it contained certain extra restrictions relating to movements, residence and general supervision of the nuns by monks.


Monks living within a definite boundary were to hold a fortnightly assembly, were to elect their president (sanghathera or sanghaparinayaka) and to select two speakers, one on dhamma and the other on vinaya. In the assembly meetings, there were the systems of formal moving of resolutions (Jnapati), ballot voting by means of wooden sticks (salaka), formation of subcommittees, for different kinds of religious acts like punishment for an offence, admission or readmission of a monk into the Sangha, restoration of the privileges of a monk, etc. The minimum number of members required to form the panels was fixed. The ceremony of initiation into the Sangha was simple and plain. Whenever a new person, desired to join the Order, he or she had to have his or her head shaved, put on a yellow robe and before the president of the local Sangha take the oaths of fidelity to the triratna, viz. the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. Next he was to repeat the ten commandments (sila) of the Buddha. He was required to attach himself to a monk for certain preliminary training after which he was to present him to an assembly of monks and make a formal proposal for admitting him to the Sangha. When permission was given, he would be ordained as a monk. Henceforth, he was required to observe the discipline of the Sangha and abide by its rules. The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. It also had power to punish the erring members. Whenever a meeting of the Sangha was held, the members or monks took their seats according to their seniority. No assembly was valid unless at least ten monks were present, though in border countries the quorum could, in exceptional cases, be reduced to five. Novices and women were not entitled to vote or to constitute the quorum. The life of the monk and the nun was strictly governed by the laws and the ten commandments. The monks were forbidden the use of garlands, scents and other articles of personal decoration. The regulations for the nuns were stricter. It was feared that if equality was promised to them it might lead to indiscipline and immorality. Gautama Buddha was not in favour of ordaining women as nuns, but he did so reluctantly at the repeated requests of his disciple, Ananda.

5.5 JAINISM

Origin of Jainism

The origin of Jainism is shrouded in mystery. In 1 Rig Vedic hymns there are clear references Rishabha and Arishtanemi, two of the Jauj tirthankaras. The story of Rishabha also occurs j the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana where 1 figures as an avatara (incarnation of Narayan). The Jainas believe that their religious system! the outcome of the teachings of the twenty fa tirthankaras, all Kshatriyas, coming one after other. The first twenty two tirthankaras are so 1 endary in character that it is hardly possible to i anything about them. The twenty-third tirtha named Parsvanatha, who lived 250 years befra Vardhamana Mahavira, seems to have been a historical personage. He was the son of Asvasena of Banaras. Parsvanatha seems to have 1 a well-formed organisation behind him. The pa of Vardhamana Mahavira and the members of 1 family were the followers of Parsvanatha's on The next and the last tirthankara was Yard Mahavira himself. Tirthankara (ford-finder) is the title of Jain ] archs of the highest order, so called because show men the passage through the dark waters i life. They are also known as jina, 'conqueror| Though there are said to be twenty-four tirthankar, of the present cycle, most of them are known by their names and symbols. Tirthankara (name) with symbols.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Rishabha--bull Ajita--elephant Sambhava--horse Abhinandana--ape Sumati--heron Padmaprabha--red lotus Suparsva--swastika Chandraprahba--moon Suvidhi--dolphin Sitala--breast


11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Sreyamsa--rhinoceros Vasupujya--buffalo Vimala--hog. Ananta--hawk or porcupine Dharma--thunderbolt Santi (king of Hastinapura)--antelope Kunthu--goat Ara--fish Malli (daughter of the ruler of Mithila)--jar Suvrata--tortoise Nami--blue lotus Arishtanemi or Nemi (cousin of Krishna)-- conch

23. 24.

Parsva--hooded serpent, and Mahavira--lion.

Mahavira's Life and Preachings

Vardhamana, who later became mahavira (Great Hero) or jina (Conqueror), was born as the second son in 540 bc at Kundagram near Vaisali. His father -Siddhartha was the head of a Kshatriya clan called the Jnatrikas; and his mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka, the most famous of the Lichchhavi princes and ruler of Vaisali. As king Bimbisara of Magadha had married Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka, Mahavira was related to the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha. He was married to Yasoda, by whom he had a daughter, Anojja. He became an ascetic at the age of 30 after the death of his parents. For two years he was a member of an order founded by Parsvanatha, but left it later and roamed for the next 10 years. He spent the first six years of his wandering with Gosala Maskariputra (founder of the Ajivika sect). After attaining kaivalya (Perfect Knowledge) under a sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42, he preached for 30 years and died at the age of 72 in 468 bc at Pavapuri near Rajagriha. He became the head of a sect, called nirgranthas (Free from Fetters), who later came to be known as 'Jinas'.

Five Cardinal Principles

The five cardinal principles of Jainism are--no violence (ahimsa), no lies (satya), no stealing (asteya), no property (aparigraha) and observing continence (brahmacharya). Only the last principle was added by Mahavira, the other four being the teachings of his predecessors. The five principles or vows when observed by a monk strictly are called mahavratas, and when observed by a lay follower in a less rigorous manner are called anuvratas.

Ratnatraya (Three Gems)

Full knowledge Action Liberation

Main Teachings of Mahavira

Mahavira believed in dualistic philosophy (Syadvadd) and held that matter and soul are the only two existing elements. The former is perishable, while the latter eternal and evolutionary. According to him, on account of karma (the accumulated effect of the actions done in the past lives), the soul is in a state of bondage created by passions and desires collected through several previous births. It is by means of continued efforts through several lives that the Karmik forces binding the soul can be counteracted and the soul itself is rendered passionless. The disintegration of the Karmik forces constitutes the final liberation of the soul (jiva). Side by side with this decay of the karmas the intrinsic qualities of the soul get expressed more and more and the soul shines in full luminosity which represents final liberation and then the soul becomes paramatman. A certain ethical code is assigned both for a house-holder and the homeless monk. Since the aim of life is to attain salvation, one has to avoid evil karmas, then gradually prevent all kinds of fresh karmas and destroy the existing ones. For this purpose a house-holder is to observe five vows. Then he has to follow two more principles--Right Faith and Right Knowledge--the former means a belief in thejinas and the latter means the knowledge of eventual liberation and of life in all existing things. More severe than this is the code laid down for a monk.


Mahavira regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain on the infliction of injuries. He rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals and the Brahmin supremacy. He advocated, as noted above,! a very holy, ethical and elevating code of life and! severe asceticism and extreme penance for the! attainment of the moksha or the highest spiritual { state.

Pre-Maurya Period MM All7

0 Government of India Copyright 1998

Based upon Suiwy of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India The resporwWfcy for foe correctness of internal details rests with the pubfaher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial voters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical mites measured from the appropriate base one.

QUESTIONS

1. Which one of the four Vecfas makes a clear ref erence to Rishabha and Arishtanemi, the Jaina tirihankaras? (a) Rig Veda (b) Sama Veda (c) Yajur Veda(d) Atharva Veda 2.

What is Theravali?

(a) (b)

A subsect of Jainism which avoided idol-worship The code of conduct prescribed for the Jaina monks

(c) The second section of the Jaina Kalpasutra containing a list of schools (ganas) and their heads (d)

The prayer book of the Jainas

3. Jinasena and Gunabhadra, authors of Mahapurana, lived at the court of the Rashtrakuta king (a) Dantidurga (b) Amoghavarsha I (c) Krishna I (d) Indra III 4.

Tathagat in Buddhism meant

(a) one who renounced worldly life (b) one who overcame desires (c) one who followed the Middle Path (d) one who attained the Truth 5. Who was the famous dancer of Vaisali whose hospitality was accepted by Buddha in prefer ence to that of the Lichchhavi prince? (a) Trisala

(b) Chellana

(c) Amrapali (d) Mahamaya 6.

Shariputraprakarana, the oldest extant drama in Sanskrit, was written by

(a) Asvaghosha

(b) Dignaga

(c) Vasumitra (d) Asanga 7. Who among the following Jaina tirthankaras figures as an avatara of Narayana in Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas?

(a) Mahavira (b) Parsvanatha (c) Rishabhanatha (d) Arishtanemi 8.

Jaina philosophy is known as

(a) Pudgala

(b) Samkhya

(c) Samachari (d) Syadvada 9. The famous Jaina scholar, Hemachandra,' patronised by (a) Siddharaja (b) Kumarapala (c) Tejpala 10.

(d) Vimala

Who among.the following was not a disciple < the Buddha?

(a) Chetaka of Vaisali (b) Prasenjit of Kosala (c) Bimbisara of Magadha (d) Ajatasatni of Magadha 11. Consider the following two statements--on labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelle as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Buddhism teaches the doctrin of inaction, i.e. cessation of activity, desiring < doing little. Reason (R): Nirvana in Buddhism literal^ means 'blowing out' or extinction of craving ( the desire (trishna) for existence in all it! forms and the consequent cessation of suf| fering. In the context of the above two statements,'! which one of the following is correct?

(a)

Both A and R are true and R is the con explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a con explanation of A.

(c) (d) 12.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Match List I with List II and select the answer* using codes given below the lists

List I List II (Personalities) (Relationship with Mahavira) (i) Chetaka, the

(A) Father

Lichchhavi ruler of Vaisali (ii) Siddhartha, the head of the Jnatrika clan

A118

(B) Mother

Pre-Maurya Period All 9

(C) Wife (Hi) Chellana, the Lichchhavi (D) Maternal uncle princess (iv) Trisala, another Lichchhavi princess (E) Niece ii D A A A in B B C E IV E C B B Codes: i

(a) A (b) D (c) E (d) D Which one of the six traditional schools of Hindu philosophy closely resembles the Jaina philosophy? (a) Nyaya

(b) Samkhya

(c) Mimamsa (d) Vaiseslka 14. Who among the following Brahmanical gods . have been included by the later day Jainas in the list of 63 Solaka Purushas or eminent personalities who influence the history of the world in different ways? . (i) Indra

(ii) Vasudeva Krishna

(iii) Balarama (iv) Agni Select the answer from the codes below: 0 (a) All of them (c) ii and iii

(b) i and ii

(d) iii and iv

?15. Which one of the following events of Buddha's Jf life did not take place on a full moon day? (a) Birth (b) Death (c) Enlightenment (d) Renunciation ^16. Who was the first thera, i.e. head of the Jaina Church, after the death of Mahavira? (a) Jambu (b) Sambhutavijaya k (c) Sthulabahu

(d) Sudharman

17. Which one of the following four Agnikula fami lies was known for its patronage of Jainism. (a) Chauhans (b) Solankis (c) Pawars 18.

(d) Pariharas

Mahavira preached in the

(a) Magadhi

(b) ArdhaMagadhi

, (c) Suraseni (d) Apabhramsa ; 19. What is Mahabhinishkramana? (a) The renunciation of worldly life by Mahavira (b) The 'Great Going Forth' by Mahavira (c) The renunciation of worldly life by Buddha (d) The delivery of the first sermon by Buddha 20. The Buddhist doctrine of patichchasamuppa-da or dependent origination is contained in which of the four Noble Truths? (a) First

(b) Second

(c) Third

(d) Fourth

21. The Sailendra rulers of Sri Vijaya empire established two monasteries in India. Where were they located? (i) Bodh Gaya (ii) Nalanda (iii) Nagapattinam (iv) Sarnath Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) i and iii

(c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

22. Who is the author of the Jaina Kalpasutra, an invaluable source for the early history of Jainism? (a) (b) (c)

Sthulabahu Bhadrabahu Sambhutavijaya

(d) 23. lists.

Devardhi Kshamasramana Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (Four Noble Sentiments (Meanings) of Jainism)

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Equanimity Concentration Compassion Universal love

iii B C D A 24.

iv C A B B Upaslkas were

(a) (b) (c) (d) 25.

monks and nuns of Jainism monks and nuns of Buddhism lay members of Buddhism lay members of Jainism Which of the following is incorrectly paired?

(a)

Kanda--The smith who served the last meal to Buddha

(b) (c)

Udraka--The First disciple of Buddha Alara Kalama--The first teacher of Buddha

(d)

Ananda--The chief disciple of Buddha


26. Which one of the following stupas in Andhra Pradesh is a mahastupa enshrining the mortal remains of the Buddha? (a)

27.

Bhattiprolu stupa (b) Amaravati stupa (c) Jaggayapeta stupa (d) Nagarjunakonda stupa Consider the following statements: Mahavira:

(i) believed that God had created this world and exercises control over it. (ii) regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of consciousness, (iii) rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals and Brahmin supremacy, (iv) advocated severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of the highest spiritual state. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 28.

Which one of the following dynasties never patronised Jainism?

(a) Rashtrakutas

(b) Kadambas

(c) Western Gangas (d) Cholas 29. Which one of the following was not a disquali fication for seeking admission into the Buddhist Sangrta? (a)

Affliction by infectious diseases like leprosy, consumption, etc.

(b) (c)

Retirement from the public service Conviction as a criminal

(d) Inability to pay back a debt 30. Visuddhinagga, the first systematic and philo sophical treatise on Buddhist doctrine, was written by (a) Buddhaghosha (b) Asvaghosha (c) Vasumitra (d) Dignaga 31. Who were the five monks who listened to the first sermon of the Buddha in the Deer Park at Sarnath? (i) Upali

(ii) Kondana

(iii) Vappa

(iv) Bhadiya

(v) Mahanama (vi) Assaji Select the answer from the codes belo (a) i, ii, iii, iv and v (b) i, iii, iv, v < (c) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, iii, v an 32. Who among the following Magadha1^ were not only contemporaries of Maha also honoured him highly? (i) Bimbisara (ii) Ajatasatru (iii) Udayin

(iv) Sisunaga "*!

below: (a) i and ii (c) iii and iv Choose the answer from the codes

(b) ii and iii (d) ii and iv 33.

Nandas, the rulers of Magadha, were | patrons of

(a) Brahmanism (c) Jainism

(b) Buddhism

(d) Ajivikas

34.

What is the correct sequence of the fours that changed the life of Buddha?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 35.

Old age, sickness, death and asc Sickness, old age, death and ascetic Death, asceticism, sickness and old ; Asceticism, death, old age and sick Match List I with List II and select the ans using the codes given below the lists.

List I

(i) Chivara

(ii) Vasa (iii) Jnapti List II (iv) Salaka (A)

President of Budhist order

(B) (C)

Formal resoluti Three tradil garments of monk

(D)

Ballot Voting means of sticks

(E)

Retreatment monks

Codes: i II in IV (a) D B A C (b) C E B D (c) E D B A (d) B C A E 36. Which place in western India has the Ian Buddhist establishment, containing as many j 130 caves? (a) Karle

(b) Kahheri

(c) Ajanta

(d) Junnar


Bhadrabahu, the contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya was the--thera of the Jaina Church. i_jt: (a) Third (b) Fourth (c) Fifth

(d) Sixth

38. Who among the following rulers was not a patron of Jainism? (a) Udayin

(b) Kalasoka

(c) Kharavela (d) Chandragupta Maurya i$®. Rummindei pillar of Asoka is put up to mark Buddha's (a) birth

(b) enlightenment

(c) first sermon

(d) death

40. What is the pavarana ceremony in Buddhism? (a)

The initiation ceremony for admission into the Sangha

(b)

The ceremony for expelling members of the Sangha on disciplinary grounds

(c) their

The get-together of monks to confess their f^ offences, if any, committed during

stay at a fixed abode in the rainy season (d) The daily ceremony performed by the monks for affirming their faith in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. Which Buddhist work pleads for the protection of cattle, declaring them to be givers of annada (food), vannada (beauty) and sukhada (happiness)?

(a) Milinda-Panho (b) Mahavastu (c) Sutta Pitaka

(d) Buddhacharita

The earliest extant Buddhist stupa comes from (a) Sanchi

(b) Sarnath

(c) Bodh Gaya (d) Amaravati The Buddha can best be described as an (a) atheist (b) theist (c) materialist (d) agnostic Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Dignaga--Sutralankara Asvaghosha--Buddhacharita Nagarjuna--Madhyamikakarika Nagasena--Milinda-Panho Consider the following statements: Mahayanists:

(i) deviated from the original teachings of the Buddha. (ii) sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. (iii) believed in the heavenliness of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas and worshipped their images. (iv) developed two chief philosophical systems, the Madhyamika and the Yogachara. Of these (a) i. ii and iii are true (b) ii, iii and iv are true (c) i, iii and iv are true (d) i, ii and iv are true 46. The teachings of Nagarjuna, known as Sunyavada, are said to have influenced a prominent philosophy of the latter day Hinduism. What was it? (a) Suddhavaita of Vallabha (b) Advaita of Sankara (c) Dvaita of Madhva (d) Visishtadvaita of Ramanuja 47. Which one of the following Buddhist universi ties was the last one to be founded in India? (a) (b) (c)

Nalanda University Taxila University Nagarjunakonda University

(d) 48.

Vikramsila University Who is said to have destroyed the original p/pa/ tree at Bodh Gaya?

(a) Bakhtiyar Khalji (b) Pushyamitra Sunga (c) Sasanka (d) Mihirakula Consider List I and List II: 49 List I (i) Birth (ii) Renunciation (iii) Enlightenment (iv) First Sermon (v) Death List II Horse Bull Bodhi Tree Eight-spoked wheel Stupa Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) iii, iv and v 50. What is the chronological order of the five Buddhas of Mahayanism? (i) Gautama Buddha (ii) Kanakamuni (iii) Maitreya (iv) Krakuchand (v) Kasyapa


Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, v, i and iii (b) v, iv, ii, iii and i (c) ii, iii, iv, v and i (d) iii, iv, v, i and ii 51. The 7th to the 5th centuries before the Christian era witnessed an intellectual ferment all over the world, including India. Which one of the following preachers did not belong to that period? (a) Greek philosophers (b) Roman philosophers (c) Confucius in China (d) Zoroaster in Persia 52. Which unorthodox teacher of the sixth century bc opined that transmigration proceeded according to a rigid pattern controlled by an all powerful cosmic principle, called niyati or fate? (a) Sanjaya Belathipura (b) Ajita Kesakambalin (c) Gosala Makhali (d) Purana Kassapa 53. Gautama took a bath in the stream of the river Niranjana before beginning his meditation at Bodh Gaya. What is the modem name of this river? (a) Gandak (b) Son (c) Sarayu

(d) Lilajan

54. Which one of the following is not included in the three-fold characterisation of the nature of the world and all that it contains according to Buddhism? (a) Permanent (b) Sorrowful (c) Transient (d) Soulless 55. Which one of the following heterodox teachers of the post-Vedic period is considered as a predecessor of the Vaisesika school of philos ophy? (a) (b)

Pakudha Katyayana Gautama

(c) (d) 56.

Nigantha Nataputta Ajita Kesakambalin The trident-shaped symbol of Buddhism does not represent

(a) Nirvana

(b) Sangha

(c) Buddha

(d) Dhamma

57. lists.


List I List II (i) Rupa

(A) Perceptions

(ii) Vedana

(B) Consciousness

(iii) Sanna (iv) Samkhara (v) Vinnana

Codes: i

ii

(a) (b) (c) (d)

B C D C

A D E D

(C) (D) (E)

Form and t Sensations1! Psychic tions

iii iv v ECD AEB BAG EBA 58. Who among the following does not < the category of 'Perfected Beings'? (a) Arhant (b) Buddha (c) Pratyeka Buddha (d) Bodhisatl 59. Consider the following lists: List I List II (i) Dharmakaya

Body of Essencd j

(ii) Sambhogakaya Body of Bliss (iii) Nirmanakaya Body of Magic Transformation Which of the above are correctly Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i and iii

(d) All of them

60. Who among the following was the brother of Asanga, the famous philosop logician of the Vijnanavadin school? (a) Vasumitra (b) Vasugupta (c) Vasubandhu (d) Dignaga 61.

The famous Om mani padme hum was

(a) (b) (c)

a sacred text of the Vajrayana school.] an initiation ceremony of Vajrayanis, the most important mantra of;] Vajrayana ritual

(d)

the most complicated yantra\ Vajrayanism

62.

Which one of the following pairs is not < matched?

(a) Amitabha--Book (b) Avalokitesvara--Lotus (c) Manjusri--Sword (d) Vajrapani--Thunder bolt 63. Which one of the following texts of Ma Buddhism propounded all the major do of the sect and is considered as the important of all? ' (a) Lalitavistara (b) Saddharmapu (c) Sukhavativyuha (d) Karandavyuha

Wto»»f8to»A VL \\*&

I matter us disposi t come under] U'7 dha hisattva

ssence (Bliss rtagic Jtion tly paired"! given below:;

younger! her and!

of the; of'-Icorrectly "tines most

arika

esWho among the following Chinese travellers to India was the first to report that certain Buddhist monastic communities in India were given to magical practices? (a) Wang Hiuen Tse (b) Itsing H>;(c) Fahien (d) Hiuen Tsang hich one of the following was the last dhist text produced in India? 1., Vajrachedika (b) Divyavadana

^tfohakosa

(d) Vamsathapakasini

I was the original name given to the fol-; of Mahavira? Jalnas (b) Arhants anthas (d) Kevalins i one of the following does not belong to firee ratnas of Jainism? [knowledge (b) Meditation tion (d) Liberation at is the chronological order of the following 'f of Jaina Sangha? ^Sambhutavijaya (ii) Sudharman Bhadrabahu (iv) Jambu the answer from the codes given

ii, iv, iii and i (b) iv, ii, i and iii B) ii, i, iv and Hi

(d) ii, iv, i and iii

i one of the following doctrines does not I to Jainism? I) Sunyavada (b) Anekantavada !&) Nayavada (d) Syadvada dha in Jainism meant penances by Jainas to confess their sins, if any, at the end of the year f'fasting by Jaina lay members on full and new moon days ||^c) initiation ceremony for admitting new members P'i(d) punishments given to violators of the code of conduct hari, which deals with the rules for the Jaina monks, is found in the fa> OtBuGavnte (c) Kalpasutra (d) Nandisutra

fat J&i&szete

In the Jaina classification of all living things (jiva), ants are put in the

sensed category

(a) five (b) four (c) three

73.

(d) two

Pudga/a in Jainism meant

(a) soul

(b) matter

(c) space

(d) virtue

74. In the Jaina classification of the one-sensed beings, the vegetable, earth, water, wind and fire bodies have only the sense of: (a) sight

(b) taste

(c) smell

(d) touch

75. What is the avasarpini or descending order of the following six periods of the Jaina cosmic cycle? (i) Duhsama

(ii) Susama

(iii) Duhsama-Susama (iv) SusamaDuhsama (v) Duhsama-Duhsama(v\) SusamaSusama Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)

v, i, iii, iv, ii and vi iii, iv, ii, i, v and vi ii, vi, iv, v, i and iii vi, ii, iv, iii, i and v

76. Which one of the following Rashtrakuta rulers is supposed to have committed sallekhana? (a) Indra IV (b) Amoghavarsha I (c) Krishna III (d) Dantidurga 77. Who is the daughter of Rishabhadeva credited with inventing the numerous alphabets of India?

(a) Vimala

(b) Bharati

(c) Brahmi

(d) Sushma

78. In which period of the present Jaina cosmic cycle did Rishabhadeva found Jainism after making his son Bharata the first chakravartin? (a) First (b) Third (c) Fourth 79.

(d) Second

Match List I with List II and select the answer from the given codes below.

Listl (i) Angas (ii) Prakirnaka (iii) Chedasutra SA$> Afa&tss<0& List II (A) Four (B) Six (C) Ten /Zf Tins/re Codes: / if iii (a) DAB (b) DEC (c) D C B (d) D A C IV C A A B


80. Chamundaraya, who put up the famous statue of Bahubali or Gomantesvara at Sravana Belgola in ad 982 was a minister in the court of (a) Rachamalla--a western Ganga ruler (b) Vishnuvardhan--a Hoyasala ruler (c) Kakutsavarman--a Kadamba ruler (d) Bijjalaraya--a western Chalukya ruler 81. Consider the following statements Ramayana is: (i) considerably larger than the Mahabharata. (ii) consisting of seven books, the first and seventh being the latest, (iii) written, according to tradition, by sage Valmiki. (iv) historically older than Mahabharata. Of these (a) All are true (b) i, ii and iii are true (c) ii and iii are true (d) iii and iv are true 82. Which one of the following goddesses is sup posed to dwell in garlands, worn to ensure prosperity, good fortune and victory? (a) Sarasvati (b) Sri (c) Parvati (d) Aditi 83. Who was the founder of the Pancharatra cult of Vaishnavism? (a) Sandilya (b) Kasyapa (c) Kaundinya (d) Matanga 84. Vadagalai and Tengalai were (a) the sacred texts of the Alvars and Nayanars. (b) the legendary sages of Vaikhanasa cult. (c) the founders of the Kapallka and Kalamukha sects. (d) the northern and southern branches of the Srivaishnavas. 85. Which one of the following Saiva cults was the earliest? (a) Kapalikas (b) Kalamukhas (c) Pasupatas (d) Kanphatas 86. The followers of Gorakhnath of east Bengal are also known as (a) Aghoris (b) Kanphatas (c) Suddhasaivas (d) Agamantins 87. The Sahajiyas who regard only sunya (void) as one's true nature were a sect of (a) Tantrism (b) Saktism (c) Saivism (d) Vaishnavism 88. Which one of the following goddesses' a local deity of Bengal? (a) Syama (b) Manasa (c) Sitala (d) Chandi 89. Consider the following lists: List I List II (i) Hatha yoga--Reintegration thn strength (ii) Mantra yoga--Based on inherent po sound (iii) Laya yoga--Reintegration through -gence with the Universal

Being (iv) Kundalini yoga--Reintegration by awak ing cosmic energy (v) Tantric yoga-Based on the use of i to overcome the nature Which of the above are correctly match Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v (d) All of them 90. The earliest epigraphic reference to Vasud Krishna is found in the (a) Junagarh Rock Inscription (b) Allahabad Pillar Inscription (c) Besnagar Pillar Inscription (d) Barabar Cave Inscription 91. What was the most important tenet of Pancharatra cult? (a) Avatara or incarnatory theory (b) Vyuha or emanatory theory (c) Karma or right action theory (d) Bhakti or devotion theory 92. The authoritative texts of Saiva Siddhanta i Agamanta Saivism consist of the (i) four Vedas (ii) 28 Saiva Agamas (iii) 12 Timurai (iv) 14 Sa;Va Siddhanta Sastras Select the answer from the codes giv below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 93. Who among the following did not belong Kashmiri Saivism? (a) Somananda (b) Vasugupla (c) Lakulisa (d) Abhinava Gup


iwasi

andi

throu t power < 3h me Jbyawaken-1 I of nature I 'I

matched?1 f below: l iv

sudeva

of the

liven

to history of the Suryavamsi and Chandra-/ (Solar and Lunar dynasties) is found in the

} Epics (b) Smritis j&) Puranas

(d) Itihasas

hich one of the following do not belong to the i category? |a) Apsaras

(b) Yoginis

c) Sakinis

(d) Dakinis

hich of the following Puranas are related to gavatism? (i) Vishnu Purana (ii) Garuda Purana [(ii) Bhagavata Purana (iv) Skanda Purana Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

Who were the four ancient sages who dissem inated the teachings of legendary Vikhanas, the founder of Vaikhanasa cult? (i) Atri (ii) Bhrigu (iii) Sandilya (iv) Kasyapa (v) Kamanda (vi) Marici Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, iii, iv and vi (b) ii, iii, iv and v (c) iii, iv, v and vi

(d) i, ii, iv and vi

Siva's five faces, personified as the rulers of five directions, are (i) Isana

(ii) Tatpurusha

(iii) Aghora

(iv) Mahadeva

(v) Vamadeva (vi) Sadyojata Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and v (b) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (c) i, ii, iii, v and vi (d) i, iii, iv, v and vi What were yantras? (a)

The rituals performed by the followers of Saktism.

(b) (c)

The sacred texts of the Tantrists. The geometric symbolic patterns employed in worship by the Tantrists.

(d)

The highly powerful words recited by the SaWas.

100. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists. List II (A) (B) (C) (D) List)

Golden age Silver age Copper age Iron age

(i) Kaliyuga (ii) Dvaparayuga (iii) Tretayuga (iv) Kritayuga

(a) (b) (c) (d) 101.

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A The first systematic exposition of Yoga is attributed to

(a) Patanjali

(b) Jaimini

(c) Kanada

(d) Gautama

102.

When did the incarnatory and emanatory theo ries develop?

(a) second century bc (b) first century ad (c) third century ad (d) fifth century ad 103.

Which of the following statements about Aghoris are true?

(i) They were the successors of the Kapalikas. (ii) They consisted of two branches--the suddhas (pure) and the malins (dirty). (iii) They did not believe in idol-worship and caste or religious distinctions. (iv) They practised cannibalism, animal sacrifices and other cruel rites. (v) They ate all kinds of refuse, including excrement. (vi) Their dead were buried and not cremated.

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii, iv and v (c) i, iii, iv and vi

(d) All of them

104.

The concept of the Trimurti (triad) was promul gated during the

(a) (b) (c) (d) 105. Siva?

Maurya period post-Maurya period Gupta period post-Gupta period Which of the following are regarded as the ter ror inspiring attendants of Rudra or

(a) Asuras

(b) Bhairavas

(c) Nagas

(d) Vetalas

106. Which one of the following Vaishnava cults was closely associated with Bhagavatism? (a) Vaikhanasa cult (b) Ramavat cult (c) Nimavat cult

(d) Pancharatra cult

107.

Which one of the following philosophies is also known as Bhedebheda?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Dvaitavada Advaitavada Visishtadvaitavada Dvaitadvaitavada

A126


117. The Sunyasamp text of (a) Kanphatas (c) Lingayats i 118. Which one of the-! virtues was not ex Bhagavad Gita? (a) Asceticism (c) Militarism 119. Which one of the folta (a) (b)

Pretas--Ethereal fc Pisachas--Those* have been perform

(c) (d)

Pitrus--Long died a Bhutas--Malevolen ghosts

120. Andal, for whom a m built at her birth place i Nadu, was a/an (a) (b) (c) (d)

famous poetess prominent Sanskrit i Alvar Nayanar

Vaikhanasa five-fold cone sists of

(i) brahman

(ii);

(In) prakriti

(iv);

(v) achyuta

(vi)

Select the answer (a) (b) (c) (d)

from below:

i, ii, iii, iv and v ii, iii, iv, v and vi i, iii, iv, v and vi i, ii, iv, v and vi

I

122. Nayanars of south India well as (a) Adiyars

(b)

(c) Aghoris

(d)

123. Who were Jangamas?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Followers of Kashmiri Saiv Priests of Virasaivism The female members of KapA The dancing girls attached to I 124. The followers of which Saiva sect (

the posture of meditation and v called samadh?

(a) Pasupatas (b) Kap (c) Gorakhnathis (d) Kalan 121. List II (A) (B) (C)

Nyaya Mimamsa Yoga (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-C

,-, . ~, -«, iii-B (d) i-C, ii-B, iii-A 114. What is the chronological order of the following cosmic emanations or uyuhas? (i) Aniruddha (ii) Vasudeva Krishna (iii) Pradyumna

(iv) Sankarshana

Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) ii, iii, iv, i (b) iv, ii, i, iii (c) iii, iv, ii, i (d) ii, iv, iii, i

115. Which one of the following regions never had the Saiva sect of Pasupatas? (a) Southern India (b) Western India (c) Northern India (d) Orissa 116. Who was the author of Sivajnanabodham, the first systematic work on the teachings of Saiva Siddhanta?

(a) Appar

(b) Meykantar

(c) Sambandar (d) Sundarar

A3(

car sta j vt W til s *

':*$**!

108. Which one of the following Saiva cults is the only one to link liberation with the attainment of supernatural powers? (a) Pasupata (b) Vlrasaiva (c) Agamanta (d) Aghori 109. The members of which Saiva sect are buried in a sitting position facing north? (a) Lingayat (b) Pasupata (c) Gorakhnathi

110.

(d) Aghori

Saktism is closely associated with which sect of Brahmanism?

(a) Bhagavatism (c) Saivism

(b) Vaishnavism

(d) None of the above

111. Durga-Kali was later identified with (a) Lakshmi (b) Parvati (c) Sarasvati (d) Savitri 112. Arrange the following yugas (ages) in the cor rect chronological order, (i) Dvapara (ii) Krita (iii) Kali

(iv) Treta

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) iv, i, ii, iii (b) ii, iv, i, iii (c) ii, i, iv, iii (d) i, iv, iii, ii List I (') Samkhya (») Vaisesika ('i') Vedanta (a) i-B, jj-c, fii-A (c) i-C, jj-A, jjjB 113. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists. List I


I main scriptural! ilikas

ncient Indian J nded by the?

i system i incorrect? »newly dead erary rites I

It-wandering f | temple was ur in Tamil

nnu con es given

known

nples I in 5 are

Which one of the following Puranas is perhaps s,the oldest? (a) Vishnu Purana (b) Vayu Parana r (c) Matsya Purana (d) Agni Purana Match List I with List II and select the answer ;using the codes given below the lists. List I List II

|jj;(i) Samkhya (A) Logical view based on dialectics ft \n) Yoga

(B) Experimental view based

on sensorial experience (iii) Vaisesika (C) Ritualistic view based on sacred texts (iv) Nyaya (D) Dualistic view based on intellectual knowledge (v) Vedanta (E) Theistic view based on control of the senses and inner faculties (vi) Mimamsa (F) Speculative view based on metaphysics (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-E, iii-C, iv-D, v-B, vi-F . i-C, ii-F, iii-B, iv-A, v-E, vi-D i-B, ii-A, iii-F, iv-C, v-D, vi-E i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, v-F, vi-C Consider the following lists:

List I List II (i) Aniruddha ahamkara or self-consciousness (ii) Pradyumna

manas or mind

(iii) Sankarshana

prakriti or primal

matter Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i and ii (c) ii and iii

(d) j and iii

128. The Sanskrit term darsana meant (a) sight

(b) philosophy

(c) rationalism (d) ritual ; $9. Which one of the following Saiva sects never existed in Karnataka? (a) Kapalikas (b) Kalamukhas

(c) Kanphatas (d) Virasaivas 1.130. Which of the following statements about the Mahabharata are true? (i) It is attributed to Krishna Ovaipayana, also known as Vyasa. (ii) It consists of over 90,000 stanzas, divided into eithteen books or sections.

(iii) It includes the Harivamsa, but which is a much later addition and in style resembles the popular works called Puranas. (iv) It also includes the Bhagavad Gita, which is however a later day interpolation. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 131. The mysterious beings called yaksas are com mon to all the following religions, except one. Find out the exception. (a) Brahmanism

(b) Bhagavatism

(c) Buddhism (d) Jainism 132.

How many spokes are there in the Sudarsanachakra of Lord Vishnu?

(a) Eight

(b) Tweleve

(c) Six (d) Twenty four 133.

Which one of the following Vaishnava cults was a strongly ritualistic cult?

(a) Vaikhanasa

(b) Srivaishnava

(c) Pancharatra

(d) Bhagavata

134.

Which one of the following cults was an off shoot of the Pancharatra cult?

(a) Madhvacult -(b) Vitthala cult (c) Srivaishnava cult (d) Vallabha cult 135.

The vamachara (left-hand) and dakshinachara (right-hand) were

(a) (b)

two major rites of Saktism two main divisions of Tantrism

(c) (d) 136.

male and female members of Virasaivism priests of Gorakhnathis The gentle forms of Siva's consort are

(i) Padma

(ii) Parvati

(iii) Durga

(iv) Uma

(v) Gauri

(vi) Bhairavi

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, iii, v and vi (b) i, ii, iv and v (c) ii, iv, v and vi (d) iii, iv, v, and vi 137. Brahmasutra or Vedantasutra, the basic text of Vedanta philosophy composed between 200 and 450 ad, is attributed to (a) Bhatruhari (b) Kapila (c) Badarayana

(d) Patanjali

138. Consider the following two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R):


Assertion (A): The worship of the three emanations of Sankarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha declined from the Gupta period. Reason (R): The concept of Vishnu's incarnations became popular and dominated Vaishnavism during the Gupta age. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) (d) 139.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Which one of the following forms of Siva was not worshipped by the Kapalikas?

(a) Mahakala (b) Kapalabhrit (c) Bhairava

(d) Nataraja

140. Abhiras were the worshippers of (a) Sakti (c) Surya (d) Siva

(b) Krishna

141. Which of the following mahajanapadas of the Gangetic valley finally survived during the lifetime of the Buddha? (i) Anga

(ii) Lichchavi

(iii) Magadha (iv) Kasi (v) Kosala

(vi) Vatsa

(vii)Avanti

(viii) Malta

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, iv and v

(b) ii, iii, iv and vii


(d) iii, v, vi and vii

142. Who among the following was not a queen of Bimbisara of Magadha? (a) Kosaladevi of Kosala (b) Khema of Madra (c) Prabhavati of Vatsa (d) Chellana of Vaisali 143. What was the name of the princess of Kosala given in marriage to Ajatasatru of Magadha? (a) Vajjira (b) Yasoda (c) Arundhati (d) Trisala 144.

Which one of the following is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 145.

Prasenjit--Magadha Pradyota~Kosala Kalasoka--Avanti Udayana--Vatsa Who was Jivaka of the!

(a)

The talented and Ajatasatru.

(b)

Bimbisara's persona cure the Avanti ruler t

(c)

The ruler of Anga Bimbisara.

(d)

The prime minister Magadha.

146. Who among the following if the founder of the mahaja (a) Brahmadatta Jarasandha (d) 147.

The ganarajya of Mallas Magadhan empire by

(a) Bimbisara (b) (c) Sisunaga 148.

(d)

Avanti was annexed by Ma time of

(a) Mahapadma Nanda (b) (c) Kalasoka (d) 149.

Which of the following pairs is c

(a)

Mallas--Sumsumasa

(b): (c)

(b) Kolliyas--Ramagrama (c) Bhaggas--Kesaputta (d) Kalamas--Pava 150. Who was the first Persian i part of India, which became his t (a) Darius I (b) (c) Darius II 151.

(d) Xe

Where did Alexander cross the I to India?

(a) Taxila

(b) Lah

(c) Und

(d)

152.

The first Indian soldiers to fight i Europe belonged to

(a) Alexander (b) Dariu (c) Darius III ' (d) Xerxe 153. On his return journey, Alexander', his army by sea under the comma (a) Hephaestian (b) Perdic (c) Nearchus (d) Seleuc 154. Consider List I and List II: List I List II 1. 2. 3. 4.

Moriyas Pippalivaha Videhas Mithila Nayas Vaisali Mallas Kapilavastu


1 century bc? eming minist

Physician jaundice, was defeat?

!Dhana Nanc

> considered to! »of Mage alaka ahasena 1 annexed to asatru ana Nanda dha during

asatru sunaga /rnati

I to conquer a ) satrapy?

i to come

[the soil of

N part of

Nikator

lifte above are correctly matched? k answer from the codes given below:

(b) 1,2 and 3 14 (d) I, 2 and 4 'Une following pairs is not correctly

Ravi 3henab Jhelum us--Indus between 600 bc and 300 bc is I by several names. Which of the follow-U»t one of them? tt-Vedic period 'Age of the Buddha shod of Second Urbanisation Il^st-Mauryan period i of the following marks is not found on (punch-marked coins of the period between I bc and 300 bc? |) Hills (b) Trees Fish

(d) Horseman

t is the other name for the Lichchavis? I) Vajjis (b) Sakyas |(C) Jnatris

(d) Mallas

|Who was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty? £) Ajatasatru (b) Bindusara r'(c) Bimbisara (d) Kalasoka Which Magadhan ruler is said to have shifted the capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra? (a) Udayin (b) Kakavarin (c) Chandragupta Maurya (d) Bimbisara , Which Magadhan ruler is said to have fallen in love with Amrapali, a famous dancer of Vaisali? (a) Bindusara (b) Mahapadma

(c) Ajatasatru (d) Sisunaga Who was the last Nanda ruler? (a) Mahapadma Nanda (b) Dhana Nanda (c) Sisu Nanda (d) Aghora Nanda "163. Which of the following Magadha rulers is said to have committed parricide? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Darsaka Bimbisara Ajatasatru Mahapadma Nanda

164.

Arrange the following Magadha dynasties in the chronological order

(i) Nandas

(ii) Sisunagas

(iii) Mauryas (iv) Haryankas Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, i, iv and iii

(b) iv, ii, iii and i

(c) iii, i, iv and ii

(d) iv, ii, i and iii

165.

Which of the following kingdoms was annexed by Bimbisara of Magadha?

(a) Anga

(b) Avanti

(c) Lichchhavi (d) Kosala 166.

Which of the following statements about Bimbisara are true?

(i) His original name was Srenika. (ii) He entered into matrimonial relations with the royal families of Kosala and Vaisali. (iii) Both Buddha and Mahavira were his contemporaries. (iv) He founded the city of Pataliputra. Select the answer from the codes given below:

(a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) Only ii 167.

Which of the following statements about Ajatasatru are true?

(i) He is also known as Kunika. (ii) He annexed the kingdom of the Lichchhavis. (iii) He was the last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty, (iv) The first Buddhist council was held at Rajgir during his reign. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 168.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Magadha

(A) Mahishmati

(ii) Kosala

(B) Girivraja

(iii) Avanti

(C) Vaisali

(iv) Vatsa

(D) Sravasti

(v) Lichchhavi (E) Kausambi (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B, we i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-A, vD i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D, we i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC


169. Match the following: List I (i) Suddhodhana (ii) Siddhartha

List II (iii) Alara Kalama (A) (B)

Buddha's cousin The sage who taught meditation to Buddha

(C)

Buddha's original name

(iv) Devadatta (v) Rahula (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-E, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A, vD i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-E, vB i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A, vD i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, v-A 170. Consider List I and List II:

List I (i) Sujata (ii) Yasodhara (iii) Kanthaka (iv) Channa (v) Mahamaya (D) (E) Buddha's son Buddha's father

List II Buddha's mother

Buddha's wife Buddha's horse Buddha's charioteer The girl who offered rnilk-rice to Buddha after his enlightenment Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v 171. Which of the following is not one of the four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha? (a) (b) (c)

The world is full of sorrows. Desires cause all sorrows. If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be eliminated.

(d)

The only way this can be done is by following the ten-fold path.

172.

Which of the following is not one of the Three Jewels' of Buddhism?

(a) Buddha

(b) Ahimsa

(c) Dhamma

(d) Sangha

173.


(a) (b)

Sarnath--Buddha's birth place Lumbini--The place where Buddha got enlightenment

(c)

Bodh Gaya--The place where he taught his first sermon

(d) 174.

Kusinagar--Buddha's death place Match List I with List II and i from the codes given below: ^

List I (Buddhist councils) (i) First (A) (ii) Second

(B)

(iii) Third

(C)

(iv) Fourth

(D)

(a) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A (b) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (c) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C 175. Which of the following terms is t priate to describe the Buddha? (a) Theist (b) (c) Agnostic 176.

(d)

Arrange the following Buddhist] chronological order

(i) Nagasena (ii) Ana (iii) Asvaghosha

(iv)

(v) Moggaliputta Tissa Select the answer from the codes j (a) ii, v, i, iii and iv (b) i, iii, iv, ii and v (c) iii, ii, i, v and iv (d) iv, ii, v, i and iii 177. Which of the following dynasties!] Buddhism? (a) Sungas (b) Kar (c) Indo-Greeks 178.

(d) Sat;

Which of the following statements! first Buddhist council are true?

(i) It was held during the lifeti Buddha, (ii) Its purpose was to maintain Buddha's teachings, (iii) Ananda and Upali laid down Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka resp (iv) Its proceedings were conducted iff j Choose the answer from the below: (a) All of them (b) i, Hand iii i (c) ii and iv 179.

(d) ii and

Arrange the following Buddhist wori chronological order:

(i) Milinda Panho (ii) Sutralan (iii) Tripitakas

(iv) Mahav


t the ans

»most appro]

ist irialist nks in the

i below:

[patronised

as \ about the of the > purity of

he Sutta ively. H Sanskrit, given jMthe answer from the codes below: , iUiiandiv (b) Hi, i, iv and ii , Hi, iv and i (d) iv, ii, i and iii of the following statements about the I Buddhist council is/are not true? I was held in the fourth century bc. Its purpose was to decide the controversy between the Vajji monks and their oppo-Mt resulted in the first division of the ; Buddhists into Sthaviravadins and , Mahasanghikas.

j It started the practice of sending mission\ aries to different parts of the world to prop-jk agate Buddhism. t the answer from the codes given below: Y i and ii (b) ii and iii ijiiandiv

(d) Onlyiv

of the following statements about the I Buddhist council is/are true? It was held under the patronage of Asoka. Its purpose was to settle the disputes arist',\ ing out of rival claims to authority. p(pj It resulted in the final compilation of the Trip/takes. ' (iy) Its proceedings were conducted in Pali. i-Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv , (c) Only iii

(d) All of them

182. Which of the following statements about the fourth Buddhist council is/are incorrect? (i) It was held under the patronage of Marsha, (ii) Its purpose was to settle the differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism, (iii) It resulted in the division of the Buddhism into Hinayanism and Mahayanism. (iv) Its proceedings were conducted in Sanskrit. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) Onlyi 183.

(d) Onlyiv

Who was the chairman of the third Buddhist council?

(a) Mahakassapa (b) Ananda (c) Moggaliputta Tissa (d) Vasumitra 184. At which of the following councils was the Abhidhamma Pitaka written for the first time? (a) Vaisali council (b) Pataliputra council (c) Kashmir council (d) Rajgir council 185.


List I List II

(i) Buddhacharita (A) Nagasena (ii) Sutralankara (B) Asvaghosha (iii) Milinda Panho

(C) Nagarjuna

(iv) Madhyamika Karika (D) Asanga (a) (b) (c) (d)

in the

i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C

ANSWERS

1.(a) 2. 11. (d) 12. 101 21. (c) 22. 29fl 31. (c) 32. 39.1 41. (c) 42. 51. (b) 52. 61. (c) 62. 69.1 71. (c) 72. 79,1 81. (c) 82. 89,1 91. (b) 92. 99.1 101. (a) 107. 111. (b) 117. 121.(d) 127. 131. (b) 137. 141. (d) 147. 151.(c) 157. 161. (c) 167. 171.(d) 177. 181. (d) A132

(c) (d)

3-(b) 4.(d) 5.(c) 6. 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16.

(a) (d)

7. 17.

(c) (b)

8. 18.

(d) m (b)

(b)

23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26.

(a)

27.

(c)

28.

(d)

(a)

33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36.

(d)

37.

(d)

38.

(b)

(b) (c) (a)

43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (c) 46. 53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (c) 66.

(b) (a) (c)

47. 57. 67.

(d) (b) (b)

48. 58. 68.

(c) 4?f (d) 59i (d)

(c)

73. (b) 74. (d) 75. (d) 76.

(a)

77.

(c)

78.

(b)

(b)

83. (a) 84. (d) 85. (c) 86.

(b)

87.

(a)

88.

(a)

(a)

93. (c) 94. (c) 95. (a) 96.

(b)

97.

(d)

98.

(c)

102. (d) 112. (c) 122. (a) 132. (c) 142. (b) 152. (d) 162. (c) 172. (c) 182.

(b) 108. (b) 118. (a) 128. (c) 138. (c) 148. (d) 158. (b) 168. (b) 178. (c)

103. (d) (a) 109.1 113. (c) (a) 119.1 123. (b) (b) 129.J 133. (a) (a) 139.J 143. (a) (d) 149. fl 153. (c) (a) 159J 163. (c) (d) 169.(i 173. (d) (d) 179. (I 183. (c)

104. (c)

105. (b)

106.

(d)

114. (d)

115. (a)

116.

(b)

124. (c)

125. (b)

126.

(d)

134. (c)

135. (b)

136.

(b)

144. (d)

145. (b)

146.

(c)

154. (b)

155. (d)

156.

(d)

164. (d)

165. (a)

166.

(b)

174. (d)

175. (c)

176.

(a)

184. (b)

185. (d)

chapter

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE 10. (a) 20. (b) 30. (a) 40. (c) 50. (a) 60. (c) 70. (b) 80. (a) 90. (c) [100. (d) ^110. (c) [120. (c) 130. (d) 140. (b) 150. (a) *60. (b) J70. (b) 180. (d)

DRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA

(321-297 BC) Chandragupta, at og age of 25, dethroned the last Nanda ruler ananda) and occupied Pataliputra in 321 bc |sthe help of Kautilya, also known as Chanakya nugupta. Once the Ganges valley was under ntrol, Chandragupta moved to the northwest. Koreas of the north-west fell to him rapidly until ched the Indus. There he stopped, and mov-|back to central India he occupied the region i of the Narmada river by 312 bc. But, 305 bc him moving to the north-west again, in the aign against Seleucus Nikator (Alexander's al who gained control of most Asiatic vinces of the Macedonian empire), with the i of 303 bc concluding the war in favour of the s. By the treaty, Chandragupta (known as cottus' to the Greeks) made a gift of 500 phants to Seleucus and obtained the trans-indus ôn (the territory across the Indus). The two also into a marriage alliance, though it is not clear as to who married whose daughter, ucus's ambassador, Megasthenes, lived at iliputra for many years and travelled in India, illy leaving an excellent account of contempo-' India. |, According to the Jaina tradition (Parisistaparvari), agupta embraced Jainism towards the end of |Ms life and stepped down from the throne in favour of

his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu and several other Jaina monks, he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion (sallekhana).

Bindusara (297-272 BC) Bindusara, known to the Greeks as 'Amitrochates' (derived from the Sanskrit word 'Amitraghata' or slayer of foes), is said to have carried his arms to the Deccan, extending Mauryan control in the peninsular region of India as far south as Mysore. According to Taranatha, the Tibetan Buddhist monk who visited India in the 16th century, Bindusara conquered 16 states, comprising 'the land between the two seas', presumably the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Early Tamil texts also mention the Mauryan invasion of the far south (Tamil Nadu and Kerala). But, on this basis it is unjustified to assume that Bindusara was able to annex the southernmost part of India to the Mauryan empire. But, we are fully justified in saying that the Mauryan empire under Bindusara extended up to Mysore in the south (besides the literary evidence, the discovery of Asokan inscriptions in the south up to Mysore and the fact that Asokan inscriptions do not mention any campaign in south India support our view), and that the far south probably recognised the Mauryan suzerainty, though did not actually form a part of it.

A133


Bindusara had contacts with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria whose ambassador, Deimachus, was said to have been at the Mauryan court, Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist to be sent to the Mauryan court. The latter sent all but the sophist, explaining that Greek law would not permit a sophist to be sent. In the religious sphere, Bindusara was more interested in the Ajivika sect than in other heterodox sects. In fact, there was an Ajivika fortuneteller, Pingalavatsa, at Bindusara's court, who, when Asoka was born, prophesied that he would become king. The Asokavadana informs us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara, when the citizens objected to the oppression of the higher officials. Bindusara sent Asoka to put an end to the revolt, which he did successfully. Since most Buddhist accounts speak of Asoka going directly from Ujjain to Pataliputra to capture the throne after his father's death, it would appear that his stay at Taxila was prior to his appointment as viceroy at Ujjain, and that his appointment to the post of viceroy at Ujjain was in recognition of his good work at Taxila.

6.2 MEGASTHENES Background

Seleucus Nikator sent an ambassador, named Megasthenes, to the court of Chandragupta. Travelling along Kabul and the Punjab, Megasthenes reached Pataliputra, the capital of the Maurya empire. Evidently he knew that part of the country through which he travelled and for his knowledge of the rest of India he depended on report. Although there are obvious limitations in his work as he was ignorant of the language and customs of the country, yet he is a reliable witness concerning matters which came under his close scrutiny. His Indica has been lost, but the fragments that still survive in the writings of Strabo, Arrian, Diodoros and others, throw a flood of light on Chandragupta's civil and military government, the country's soil, climate, animals, pU ners of the people.

Capital City and Imperial

The Greek writers referred to the i from the north-west frontier to Pa ing about 1,840 kilometres (1,150 mile of this road was marked by all the by-roads and distances.' Thef empire was at Palimbothra or Patalifi the confluence of the two rivers,' Son. This was a large city, nine-a length and eleven miles in breadth. The imperial palace constructed < her, probably stood close to the ; Kumrahar and was in keeping will and regalia. The palace stood in an i full of shady groves, a multitude off trees. The gilded pillars of the palace^ with golden vines and silver birds.' tame peacocks and pheasants were he The king usually remained in the j the protection of female bodyguards i in public at the time of war, to sit as ai court, to offer sacrifice and to set out| excursions. Hunting was the principal i ment and the king was usually attend female guards.

Central Administration

The king was at the pivot of the superstructure. Megasthenes represents t conscientious and industrious person, in the court throughout the whole day will for his personal comforts. The onerous burden of administi shared between the king and his con writers refer to its members as Counc Assessors, who advised the king in the ma of public affairs. The king employed a la spies, called overseers by Megasthenes,' mitted secret and confidential reports to i The overseers in turn employed courtes collaborators.

The Mauryon Empire A135

plants and the i

|royal road le diputra, me JSO miles). 'Ev »stone indie capital of '"tra, situate. JGangaandL d-half milesj

I chiefly of ti| Hern village^ ' all grandei I extensive pi ifish-ponds i B were ador . In the

r*. Ipalace une Nd > judge in for huntir froyal amus Iby linistrativea -'king as a I remained ut caring

ption was pl. Greek Hlors and lagement ebody of ' ) trans-he king. (fas their Âdministration

i also gives details of Mauryan military ttion which was considered vital for the of the newly established empire, upta had at his disposal a formidable army Jffijg about 6,00,000 men. It was controlled by rfeffice consisting of thirty members, divided K boards of five each. The respective Boards |ta charge of different departments, e.g., ilty, Infantry, Cavalry, War-chariots, fcnts and Commissariat and Transport. iing to Megasthenes soldiers formed the class in the society. They were not iilitia or a contingent as they received regular the state which also supplied them with "and equipment. The equipment of the army quate. The chariots usually drawn by four-Each chariot had at least two warriors in to the driver. The infantry carried the word as their principal weapon. Javelins, i and arrows were additional arms.

al and Local Administration

Iragupta's municipal organization for his al capital was based on wise and sound sysMegasthenes calls the town officials oi. The Municipal Commission, consisting members, was divided into six Boards or littees of five members each.

v:The first Board looked after everything relating ,#> industrial arts-regulating wages, enforcing the Use of pure and sound materials and exacting full , work in exchange for fair wages. Artisans were i regarded as sacrosanct and any interference with ,;their work was visited with capital punishment. ;The second Board was required to look after the comforts of foreigners, to keep them under observation and in case of sickness or death provide ', for the treatment or burial of the stranger, whose property they were obliged to protect. The third Board was responsible for the systematic registration of births and deaths, designed both to facilitate taxation and for government records.

Trade and commerce was under the fourth Board, which regulated sales and enforced the use of stamped weights and measures. Merchants paid a license tax. The fifth Board controlled manufactured articles. Old goods were separated from new ones and they were sold separately. A fine was imposed on the violation of rules. The sixth Board collected the tithe on the prices of goods sold and evasion of this tax was punish able with death.

The district administration, according to Megasthenes, was under the supervision of officials called the agronomoi. They supervised irrigation, measured the land, enforced the forest laws and looked after agriculture, mining, carpentry and metal industries. They also collected taxes, maintained the roads and set up mile-stones to indicate distances.

Society and People

Megasthenes described the castes of Indian society according to their professions often mingling caste with occupation. According to him there were seven classes in India.

The philosophers comprising brahmanas and ascetics comprised the first class and they were the highest in rank, though numerically the smallest. The agriculturists or cultivators who formed the majority of the Indian people were considered as the second class. They paid a quarter of their pro duce as rent to the landlord. The third class, shepherds and hunters, lived a nomadic life hi forests. They made the land hab itable after exterminating the wild beasts, received an allowance of corn from the king for the service and paid him tribute in cattle. The fourth class, artisans were not only exempt ed from paying taxes, but even received mainte nance grant from the royal exchequer. The fifth class, warriors, less numerous only than the cultivators, were maintained at the expense of the State.


The sixth and seventh classes included both the officials (superintendents or overseers and councillors and assessors) employed for the supervision of the work of different departments and the numerous spies who were engaged in transmitting secret information to the king.

The general honesty of the people was well attested by the fact that theft was a rare occurrence. The code of punishment was severe-mutilation for giving false evidence and death for injuring the royal artisan. In other cases of bodily injury the offender had to suffer corresponding mutilation in addition to the amputation of his hand. Megasthenes account is testimony to the peace and tranquility that prevailed throughout the empire. The richness of the soil and abundance of mineral sources combined with the soil of hardworking and jungle people as well as good governance were all factors that contributed to the quality of life. It was a wine of plenty and scarcity and famine were unknown to Indians. On the other hand Megasthenes' observation that all Indians were free and that not one of them was a slave was an idealistic picture wholly inconsistent with reality. Slavery did exist in India but here its abject form as prevalent in Europe, where slaves were considered as chattels of their masters, was absent.

6.3 ASOKA AND HIS SUCCESSORS

Asoka (268-232 BC) Till the beginning of the 20th century, Asoka was just one of the Mauryan kings mentioned in the Puranas. In 1837 James Prinsep deciphered an inscription written in Brahmi script referring to a king called 'Devanampiya Piyadassi' (beloved of the gods). Later, many more similar inscriptions were discovered. Initially these records could not be attributed to Asoka. However, in 1915 was discovered another inscription, the Maski Edict, which speaks of Asoka Piyadassi. This, corroborated by the Geylonese Chronicle Mahavamsa, established that Asoka used 'Piyadassi', as his second name in the inscriptions. It appears from the available evidence (Buddhist literature mainly) that there was a struggle for the throne among the princ Bindusara or a little prior Asoka, who had to remove 1 were opposing him but

Buddhist sources would Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa: tured power after killing his i including his elder brother Su the viceroy at Taxila when According to these Cylone youngest brother, Tissa, according to Taranatha, Asoka 1 brothers. Evidently, six brothers i the truth than ninety nine. Mo Rock Edict V, Asoka mentions among their other functions the.* the welfare of the families of his I other relatives. This war of succ the interregnum of four years (2 only after securing his position ont had himself formally crowned in'. After ascending the throne, Taranatha spent several years in suits and was consequently called "I was followed by a period of ext which earned him the name of Finally, his conversion to Buddhism j quent piety led The most important event ofAsok to have been his victorious war withj bc), the horrors of which were desc himself: 'A hundred and fifty thous and many times that number perished..^ viously held that he was dramatically 1 Buddhism immediately after the Kalir this was not so, and as one of his ins Bhabra inscription, states it was only of more than two years that he beca supporter of Buddhism under the infill Buddhist monk, Upagupta. In this edict 1 acceptance of the Buddhist creed, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. was written specifically for the local Bu gy and not for the population at large. He himself as the 'King of Magadha', a title' uses only on this occasion.

The Mauryan Empire A137

deatb f | this involve S brothers wj t some of to beliey : Asoka | nine brotta ) was eart t took place! «s only i unhurt. Jy six of 1 ) be closer i [in the Majfi| i who havi întending is, sisters; | accounts fo 68 bc), ne, Asoi

ording to] We puTs oka'. This rickedness,! soka'. I his subse :ign seems nga (260 (by Asoka I killed, t was pre-Bverted to I'war. But, viz. \ a period ardent of a ates his in the edict ist clerefers to ch he

r-Third Buddhist Council was held in 250 bc utra with Moggaliputta Tissa presiding. ijavada (doctrine of Theravadin school) claimed as the true faith. But strangely /Asoka makes no mention of this event in |his inscriptions. Of all the events mentioned Narious Buddhist sources the only one that 5 to be corroborated by the inscriptions of i that of the purge of the Sangha. (conclusion of the Third Buddhist Council, ; monks of some

repute were selected and j missionaries to various regions. Among Iwere Majjhantika (who was sent to Kashmir ^Gandhara), Mahadeva (Mahisamandala), lita (Vanavasi), Yona Dhammarakkihita a), Mahadhammarakkhita (Maharatha), tiita (Yona), Majjhima (the Himalayan a), Sona and Uttara (Suvarnabhumi), and i (Lanka). word yona (generally used to indicate a k) preceding the name of Dhammarakkhita sugia non-Indian monk, possibly Greek or Persian. frfit seems strange that he should be sent to Dtaka on the western coast of India, while lita was sent to the Yona area. Yona s to refer to the Indo-Greek settlements of the h-west, though it would seem, from the refer-t to Tusaspa (Asoka's governor) in the Junagarh ption of Rudradaman, that there might have i a foreign settlement of Persians or Greeks in i India. |Asokan inscriptions, particularly Major Rock II, refer to the southernmost kingdoms, viz. olas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras, as i prachamta (border) states, and clearly distinfcish them from the vijita or raja-vishaya (imperial nions). So, these states probably continued to outside the Mauryan territory, but main-l friendly relations with the Mauryas. r According to tradition (Kalhana's Rajatarangini), was a part of the Mauryan empire and oka built the city of Srinagar. Khotan in Central If Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan Isway, and the Tibetan sources even refer to Asoka's I visit to the region. Even if Khotan did not actually i form a part of the Mauryan empire, friendly relations

between the two cannot be discounted. The Mauryas had close connections with the area of modern Nepal, since the Himalayan foothills were within the Mauryan empire. One of Asoka's daughters is said to have married a noble from Nepal. The Ceylonese tradition furnishes ample indication of the extremely close relationship existing between the Mauryas and Ceylon, whose ruler, Tissa, appears to have modelled himself on Asoka. The Mauryan emperor sent his son (Mahendra) and daughter (Sanghamitra) as Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon, besides sending a branch of the original pipal tree under which the Buddha had received enlightenment (it is claimed to be surviving till today in Ceylon, though the parent tree in India was destroyed in the seventh century ad supposedly by Sasanka of Gauda). Asoka, in his Major Rock Edict XIII, mentions many of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with whom he exchanged missions, diplomatic and otherwise. The five kings are Antiyoka, Turamaya, Antikini, Maka and Alikasudara. These have been identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria (grandson of Seleucus Nikator), Ptolemy II Philadelpus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus. Some members of Asoka's immediate family are mentioned in the various sources. Definite indications as to the identity of Asoka's mother are given in some of the

Buddhist sources like Vamsathapakasini, Divyavadana and Asokavadana. The last source in particular mentions her as Subhadrangi and describes her as the daughter of a Brahmin of Champa. Asoka's chief queen for most of his reign was Asandhimitta who is well spoken of in the Mahavamsa. On the death of Asandhimitta, Tissarakkha was raised to the rank of chief queen. Comments on the latter in Buddhist sources are not complimentary, since she was responsible for injuring the bodhi tree. Another queen, Karuvaki, is mentioned in the Queen's Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of the prince Tivara, the only one to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions. It has been suggested that Karuvaki was in fact the real name of the


queen Tissarakkha, and that she assumed the latter name on becoming chief queen. One more queen referred to in the Divyavadana as a third wife of Asoka was Padmavati. Although Padmavati was never a chief queen, she was all the same the mother of the crown prince Kunala, also called Dharmavivardhana. The Rajatarangini mentions Jalauka as another son of Asoka, but his mother's name is not given. Two of Asoka's daughters are known to uss. One was Sanghamitra of the Ceylonese chronicles. The other was Charumati, and is said to have married Devapala, a Kshatriya of Nepal. Of the grandsons of Asoka, the two most frequently mentioned are Samprati (the son of Kunala) and Dasaratha. The following events concerning the last years of Asoka are related by the Mahavamsa. In the 29th year of his reign, his chief queen Asandhimitta died. In the fourth' year after this, in 237 BC he raised Tissarakkha to the rank of chief queen. Two years later, she, being jealous of the king's devotion to the bodhi tree, injured the tree by piercing it with a poisonous thorn, thereby causing it to whither away. Asoka, being extremely upset at this, managed to nurture what little part of the tree remained alive with great care, and thus was able to save the tree. The same story was repeated by Fahien, although he does not mention the name of the queen.

Later Mauryas (232-184 bc)

The evidence for the later Mauryas is very meagre, and whatever is there is in a confused and uncertain form rendering the reconstruction of their history very difficult. The Puranas, besides Buddhist and Jaina literature, do provide us with some information on the later Mauryas, but there is no agreement among them. Even among the Puranas, there is a lot of variance between one Purana and another. But, the one point on which all the Puranas are in agreement is that the Mauryan dynasty lasted 137 years. So, giving 90 years for the three Mauryas, we are left with 47 years for the later Mauryas. Asoka's death was followed by the division of the Mauryan empire into two parts-western and eastern. The western part came to be ruled by Kunala (one of the sons of Asoka) and then i by Samprati. It was later threatened \ Greeks in the north-west and by the! others in the northern Deccan. The i the empire, with Pataliputra as the i be ruled by Dasaratha (probably oneJ| sons of Asoka). Dasaratha, apart from being Matsya Purana, is also known to us 1 in the Nagarjuni Hills, which he Ajivikas. Three inscriptions ordered Devanampriya state that the caves immediately on his accession.

Samprati, also mentioned in the Ma is referred to in both the Buddhist and I erature as the son of Kunala. According) dition he was a grandson of Asoka and I Jainism. He is said to have been co Jainism by Suhastin, after which he gave t both his active support as a ruler, and i ment in other ways. The western part including the no province, Gandhara, and Kashmir was Kunala. It is possible that Kunala gradually^ his territory to include the western prov empire. According to the Puranas, Dasaratha i eight years. This would suggest that he > out an heir old enough to come to the out necessitating a regency of some sort.' sources speak of Kunala ruling for eight ye must have died at about the same Dasaratha, so that Samprati now ruling in I may have successfully regained the Pataliputra, thus uniting the empire ag event occurred in 223 bc. However, the empire had probably already! to disintegrate. Jaina sources mention that! ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. This won gest that the capital of the western part of the < was moved from the north to Ujjain. The i lowing was to see the conflict between Antic of Syria and Euthydemus of Bactria, with Ba emerging as a strong power, ready to threaten i western India. It is quite likely that a numb principalities in the trans-indus region broke ;


1 for a she Ibythe. 'Satava 1 eastern ".capital, 1 of the

tioned (from the j licated by Das jK'ere dedica

'atsya Pura I the Jaina i 5 to Jaina i I a patron, converted ' the religio 1 encourage

oith-west verned P extended, !of the

ned for ped with! with-'sarne s. He time as iwest ne at This

of way Awhile Samprati was occupied in at Pataliputra. Gradually the âttention moved to Magadha and 'the Mauryan dynasty lived out its

, unable to prevent or control the the empire in the more distant reign of nine years Samprati was i who ruled for thirteen years, of Salisuka, mentioned as r-Devavarman, ruled for seven years. | kings of the Mauryan dynasty were f;iwho is said to have ruled for eight illy Brihadratha, who ruled for seven i assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.

VS INSCRIPTIONS AND SITES

I Edicts

ice came to be appreciated only after cipherment by James Prinsep of the EICO in also the identification of Asoka as the dof these edicts in the beginning of the 20th Majority of them are in the nature of ft's proclamations to the public at large, and â small group of them describe his own accept-of Buddhism and his relationship with the a. The Asokan edicts and inscriptions inform t only about Asoka's personality but also about t events of his reign. : Asokan inscriptions are in (a) the Prakrit lan-5 (which varies according to zonal requirements) fl the Brahmi script, (b) North-Western Prakrit and SiJCharvshti script, (c) the Greek language and , and (d) the Aramaic language and script. ^:|he Edicts are classified according to the surfaces tiich they have been inscribed--rocks, pillars, 4;;caves. These different surfaces, however, were I to different purposes, and therefore the loca5 and the contents of the kinds of Edicts follow a i pattern. The Major Rock Edicts are placed along the ders of the empire, including the two Kalinga NMicts in the newly conquered territory on the Bay Of Bengal. The Fourteen Major RockJidicts cover a very large scope, opening with two edicts on

specific provisions concerning the slaughtering of animals and the provision of medical and welfare services; then proceeding to the consideration of broader applications of dhamma in morality and the administration of justice, the nature of dhamma, and its effects in tolerance, ritual, and charity; and closing with the history of the Kalinga war and its effects. The two Kalinga Edicts (sometimes called Edicts XV and XVI) substitute for three Edicts (XI on charity and the kinship of mankind, XII on religious tolerance, and XIII on the Kalinga war and the 'change of heart') two edicts addressed to the officials administering the conquered territory concerning the problems of morality, the

administration of justice, and the problem of reducing the apprehensions of neighbouring peoples and promoting international peace. The Major Pillar Edicts were erected in important cities and along roads within the empire. Three of the pillars are found on the road from Pataliputra to the Buddhist holy places at the foot of the Himalayas. The pattern of their contents is simpler; they open with two edicts on the nature of dhamma, proceed to three which apply dhamma to the control of sin and passion, the promulgation of morality and justice, and the regulation of feasts and animal slaughter, and close with an edict (or two edicts in the case of the Topra column) on means of promulgating morality. The Minor Rock Edicts are for the most part concentrated in the south and central parts of the empire. They are concerned with Asoka's activity as a Buddhist lay disciple, with a practical code of ethics, and finally--in the only edict addressed to the Buddhist clergy, Minor Rock Edict III--with Buddhist texts on dhamma. Two of the three Minor Pillar Edicts and the two Pillar Inscriptions (in Nepal) are concerned with Buddhism. The Cave Inscriptions, found in the Barabar Hills, are brief dedications of shelter for monks during the rainy season. Fourteen Major Rock Edicts have been found in different recensions at ten sites (Kalsi, Qirnar, Sopara, Dhauli, Jaugada, Yerragudi, Sannati, Shahbazgarhi, Manshera and Kandahar). Of these,


seven recensions are in Prakrit and Brahmi, two are in Prakrit and Kharoshti and one in Greek. Not all of them now contain all the fourteen edicts. In two places (Dhauli and Jaugada) Rock Edicts XI, XII and XIII were replaced by two separate Kalinga Edicts. These two edicts have been found also at another site (Sannati). Three minor rock edicts of Asoka, written in Prakrit and Brahmi are known to us. Of these the first Minor Rock Edict, written in Prakrit and Brahmi, has been discovered at seventeen places (Sahasram, Rupanath, Gujarra, Pangudariya, Ahraura, Bahapur near Delhi, Bairat, Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Jatinga-Ramesvar, Maski, Gavimath, Palkigundu, Nittur, Udegolam, Yerragudi and Rajula Mandagiri). Again, of these localities, seven (Brahmagiri, Siddapur, Jatinga-Ramesvar, Nittur, Udegolam, Yerragudi and Rajula Mandagiri) have yielded the second Minor Rock Edict along with the first Minor Rock Edict. In addition, another edict, known as the third Minor Rock Edict, has been found at Bairat. It is interesting to note that the name 'Asoka' is explicitly mentioned in only three recensions of the first Minor Rock Edict (at Maski, Gujarra and Nittur) and two versions of the second minor rock edict (at Nittur and Udegolam). In the majority of these editions the emperor is also mentioned as Priyadarsi and/or Devanampriya. Either or both of these epithets apear in the rest of his epigraphs. The Major Pillar Edicts are a series of six edicts inscribed on monolithic pillars which have been found in five places--at Meerut (transported to Delhi in the fourteenth century) and Kausambi (transported to Allahabad at an unknown date) in Uttar Pradesh and at Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh, and Rampurva in Bihar. A sixth pillar, inscribed with a seventh edict as well as those found on the other pillars, was erected at Topra in east Punjab and was transported to Delhi in the 14th century. The texts of the first six edicts are almost identical. The Allahabad Pillar, which was originally erected at Kausambi (modern Kosam), is inscribed with two additional edicts. The first, which is called Minor Pillar Edict I, is also found at Sanchi near Bhopal and at Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. The inscription is not well-preserved in all the three places, considerable variation in the texts. The ( is inscribed with a further edict, which is c Pillar Edict II. The second additional Allahabad-Kosam Pillar, sometimes Pillar Edict III, commemorates a gift

Asoka's queens, and it is therefore mo known as the Queen's Edict. Finally, inscriptions have been found in Nepal, > temple of Rummindei, the birthplace oft the other near a large tank called Nig Nigliva where the remains of Kana counted among the former Buddhas, are i Asoka also erected many uninscribed pilli in the case of the edict pillars, only a i has survived. The Asokan Cave Edicts are found in ( four caves carved in the granite of the ] in Bihar; the fourth contains an inscription 1 fifth century ad. Two of the three Asokan^ tions dedicate the caves as dwelling place monks of the Ajivika sect. Three other another part of the Barabar Hills Nagarjuni Hill, also contain inscriptions. They too dedicate the caves to the Ajivik in the name of a monarch who calls 'Beloved of the Gods', but these dedicatio made by Asoka's grandson Dasaratha. Fragments of the Greek recensions off Rock Edicts XII and XIII have been notic area of Kandahar. A bilingual edict, in. Greek, has been found at Shari-Ku Kandahar. Inscriptions in Aramaic have brought to light at Taxila, Kandahar and' Darunta and in the Lamghan valley. In this1^ two recensions of one edict have been discov Of the above noted inscriptions, those wh in Prakrit language and Kharoshti script have discovered in the territory now in Pakistan. Aramaic (both language and script) inscriptio has been unearthed at Taxila and five in Afghanistan. The two Greek (both lang script) inscriptions belong to the same regie inscriptions in Prakrit language and Brahmi i have been reported from different localities in i and peninsular India.


and ' The Sarnath : lich is called] edict called f gift from more gene ally, two al, one near* 5 of the Bt f Nigali Sag nuni, whe p are ensr 1 pillars, but, fa small numb

1 in three of L b Barabar Mil rtion from wkan inscrir. I places for the caves, known as i.

i.

tjivika monk* f I himself the" tions were

of Major Weed in the aicand Kuna near ave been |and Puli-valley overed. hich are ave been Of the long one t eastern ,; ige and n. The |i script i north ots of all these records were presumi Asoka's empire. Their provenances t in determining its limits. Of the Asokan in Kharoshti or Brahmi have been 1 over a long time. But, the importance Sând Aramaic records has been realised t decades.

nma tours were inaugurated about 260 r Rock Edicts I and II (and possibly III) I the same year. These were the first of I; The Kalinga Edicts (Rock Edicts XV and have been published in 259 bc but the [Rock Edicts were issued and two of the the Barabar Hills were dedicated about $1 bc. The two commemorative pillars in s erected about 250 bc. The Pillar Edicts l erected in 243-242 bc.

|fbf Asokan Edicts

Located in north-eastern Madhya b, it is the site of Asokan Minor Rock Edict 1.

bad-Kosam (Pillar Edicts I-VI, the n's Edict, and the Kausambi Edict or Schism ^: The site is the same as modern Kosam on f left bank of the Yamuna, twenty eight miles hwest of Allahabad. The Asokan pillar was ^bed on, at later periods by various rulers Hiding Samudragupta and Jahangir. It would from Samudragupta's inscription that the was still at Kausambi during the Gupta peri-Probably Jahangir was responsible for its oval to the fort at Allahabad, which he did in ation of Firuz Shah, who had brought similar i from Topra and Meerut to Delhi.

Located near Delhi, it is the site of Minor : Edict 1.

(Minor Rock Edict I and the Bhabra Edict): t is located in Rajashtan, forty two miles north-t of Jaipur. It has been identified with Virata the pital of the Matsya state. The presence of the bra Edict addressed specifically to the Sangha is |%*plained by the fact that the remains of two monasteries have been discovered. Barabar Hill Caves (Donatory inscriptions to the Ajivika sect): The inscriptions in these caves are donatory, and therefore their significance does not rest in the particular importance of their site. The caves were in a group of hills girdling the city of Rajagriha.

Brahmagiri (Minor Rock Edicts I and II): Excavations have revealed evidence pointing to Brahmagiri having been an important centre in south India even well before the Mauryan period.

Delhi-Meerut and Delhi-Topra (Pillar Edicts I-VI and I-VII respectively): The DelhiMeerut and the Delhi-Topra pillars are so called because they were transported to Delhi by Firoz Shah from their original sites at Meerut and Topra.

Dhauli (Major Rock Edicts): The Dhauli inscription has been cut high on a rock. The site has been identified with Tosali which is mentioned by Ptolemy as a metropolis. Gavimath is situ-Gavimath (Minor Rock Edict 1): ated in modern Karnataka.

Gimar (Major Rock Edicts): It is situated one mile to the east of Junagarh in Kathiawar. A number of major inscriptions are found here, including, apart from those of Asoka, those of Rudradaman and Skanda"gupta. Its importance was increased by the fact that during the reign of Chandragupta a dam was constructed on the Sudarsana lake in the neighbourhood of Girnar. The Rudradaman inscription informs us that the lake was originally built by Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupta. Subsequently conduits were worked from it by Tusaspa in the reign of Asoka. It appears from the inscription of Skandagupta that the lake continued to supply water to the surrounding area until well into the Gupta period.

Gujarra (Minor Rock Edict 1): Gujarra is located near Jhansi in the Datia district of MP.

Jatinga-Ramesvar (Minor Rock Edicts I and II): This site lies about three miles from Brahmagiri and the inscription belongs to the Mysore group.

Jaugada (Major Rock Edicts, similar to the Dhauli version): The inclusion of the two separate Edicts among the Jaugada series would point to its being


within Kalinga. The two separate Edicts are addressed to the mahamattas of Samapa, which was probably the name of the town in the Mauryan period.

Kalsi (Major Rock Edicts): The town of Kalsi lies at the junction of the Tons and Yamuna rivers in north-western UP.

Kandahar (Minor Rock Edicts, Bilingual Greek-Aramaic Inscription): The site of the bilingual inscription is Shar-i-Kuna, the old city of Kandahar in southern Afghanistan. The presence of a sizeable Greek-speaking population is attested to by the fact that the edict is in Greek as well as Aramaic.

Lampaka (Aramaic inscription): The Lampaka Aramaic Inscription, now in the Kabul museum, was found at the site of Lampaka or Lambaka generally identified with the modern Lamghan on the northern bank of the Kabul river near Jalalabad. The inscription has been connected with the Asokan period on the basis of the text referring to the setting up of a pillar inscription by Devanampriya.

Lauriya-Araraj (Pillar Edicts I-VI): The pillar is situated at this site in northern Bihar.

Lauriya-Nandangarb (Pillar Edicts I-VI): This site is also in northern Bihar close to the village of Nandangarh and to the above site.

Mahasthan (Pre-Asokan Mauryan Inscription): The inscription was found at Mahasthangarh in the Bogra district of Bangladesh. The site was probably the headquarters of the local administrator (of the eastern section of the empire), its name during that period having been Pundranagara, as is mentioned in the inscription. The mahamatta of Pundranagara is described as being in charge of measures for famine relief.

Manshera (Major Rock Edicts inscribed in Kharosthi): The site is that of a village in the Hazara district of the north-west province of Pakistan.

Mask! (Minor Rock Edict 1): Maski is located in the Raichur district of Karnataka. Nigali-Sagar (Pillar Inscription): erecting a pillar at Nigali-Sagar is ^ inscription. It was originally situati of Buddha Konakamana to record, ] ment of the stupa and later Asoka's i It is now near Rummindei, in Nepal, j

Nfttlir Located in the Bellary distric? it is the site of Minor Rock Edicts 11

Palkigundu (Minor Rock Edict 1): tance of four miles from Gavimath.

Pangudariya It is the site of the Min 1. It is located in the Shehore district (

Rajula-Mandagiri (Minor Rock Edic This site is included in the southern j tions not far from Yerragudi in AP.

Rampurva (Pillar Edicts I-VI): Ran ed thirty two miles north of Bettia Bihar.

Rummindei (Pillar Inscription): The"! Pillar stands near the shrine of across the border of Nepal. The pillan Asoka to commemorate the birthp| Buddha, the Lumbini grove.

Rupanath (Minor Rock Edict 1): located on the Kaimur hills near Madhya Pradesh. The route fron (Prayaga) to Broach must certainly havi Rupanath.

Sahasram (Minor Rock Edict 1): It is i Shahabad district of Bihar ninety mile ofPatna.

Sannati Located in Karnataka, it is j the fourteen Major Rock Edicts as' separate Kalinga Edicts.

Sanchi (Schism Edict): The mo

Sanchi was given to the site at a con period, since it was known as the Buddhist period to that of the ( ed near Bhopal, a few miles from Bhili be the ancient Vidisa.


The pu ms clear from* I near the sti (Gist the enla fs visit to the s|

tofKarnati III. a

lies at

r Rock ec |ofMP.

and II) ) ofinscrif

va is locat-« I in northern!

Rummindeil nindei justf i erected by I ce of the]

panath is nabad in Ullahabad | passed via

ated in the uth-west

«te of all i the two

ae of ively late from {is locatvedto (Pillar Inscription, Schism Edict to the mahamattas): The location of L.is three and a half miles from Banaras.

arhi (Major rock edicts, inscribed in if): The position of this site is near Mardan ufzai area of Peshawar.

Located in Karnataka, it is the site of ck Edicts I and II.

(Copper plate Inscription of the Mauryan Sohgaura is located in the Gorakhpur disFUttar Pradesh.

(Major rock edict, Fragment of the eight Sopara situated in the Thane district of ai is the site of an ancient seaport and town, cient name was Supparaka.

Located in Karnataka, it is the site of r Rock Edicts I and II.

(Major rock edicts and minor rock edict I i Jl}: Yerragudi is situated eight miles from (.on the southern border of the Kurnool district, i eighty miles north-east of Siddapur.

ASOKA'S DHAMMA

ning of Dhamma

a's dhamma was neither a new religion nor a Apolitical philosophy. Rather, it was a way of , a code of conduct and a set of principles to be pted and practised by the people at large. Its nts were so broad and humanitarian that no group or religious sect could object to its ation by Asoka. Though the concept of used in the sense of law and social order i not new to the ancient Indians, Asoka gave a w meaning and significance to the concept by ising it. jt is generally accepted that dhamma was Asoka's invention. It may have been influenced by hist and Hindu thought, but it was in essence an pt on the part of the king to suggest a way of j which was both practical and convenient, as well as highly moral. If his policy of dhamma had been merely a recording of Buddhist principles, Asoka would have stated so quite openly, since he never sought to hide his support for Buddhism. In connection with the religious aspect of the edicts, the mention in them that attainment of heaven (svarga) is the reward of moral life in no way proves that he was concerned with the religious aspect of the attainment of heaven. Asoka was merely trying to relate the degree of reward to a known and valued symbol in the mind of the average person.

Main Features or Contents of the Dhamma

The edicts gave Asoka the opportunity to expound his dhamma. While different major rock edicts talk about different aspects of the dhamma, the Major Rock Edict XI contains an elaborate explanation of the dhamma, apart from dealing with charity and kinship of humanity. It clearly indicates that dhamma was a secular thing. From this major rock edict as well as the other major rock edicts we can mention the following as the main features of the dhamma:

1. Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings (MRE I), and avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies and rituals (MRE IX). 2. Efficient organisation of administration (MRE VI) in the direction of social welfare (MRE II). 3. Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations (MRE IV) and liberality to Brahmins, Sramanas, etc. (MRE III). 4. Humane treatment of servants by masters and of prisoners by the government officials (MRE V; it also mentions the appointment of dhammamahamattas). 5. Tolerance among all the sects (MRE VII and XII).

6. Replacement of bherighosa (sound of war drums) by dhammaghosa (sound of peace), i.e., conquest through dhamma instead of through war (MRE XIII). 7. Maintenance of constant contact with the rural people through the system of dhammayatras (MRE III).


An Estimate of Asoka's Dhamma

Asoka's status at first was that of a lay worshipper but later he had a close relationship with the Sangha, and consequently he became more zealous in his belief. He calls upon his subjects to be zealous as this will lead to progress. However he does not equate dhamma with Buddhist teachings; Buddhism remains his personal belief. The Yerragudi Minor Rock Edict makes it even more certain that he wishes dhamma to permeate through all social levels. In 250 bc the Third Buddhist Council was held under Asoka's patronage. Yet his avoidance of narrow sectarianism is proved by the fact that even at this stage when the council was busy weeding out dissident elements and attacking other sects, Asoka in his 12th regnal year donated a cave to the Ajivikas in the Barabar Hills. In the later years of his reign Asoka issued a number of minor pillar edicts. Some of them are associated with his purely Buddhist activities, while others are concerned with his general activities. He is satisfied with the progress of dhamma, but he appears to be obsessed by the idea that everyone must practice dhamma. The germ of fanaticism begins to show as is apparent in the Minor Pillar Edict 1. This was a most unfortunate tendency. There is a strong hint in these later edicts that he was becoming involved in a puritanical fantasy of sin and virtue.

6.6 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND ART


Saptanga Theory Kautilya explains the saptanga theory or the theory of the seven elements of the state. According to him the state is constituted by the following elements: (1) svamin (king), (2) amatya (minister or high official), (3) janapada (territory and population), (4) durga (fort), (5) kosa (treasury), (6) bala (army) and (7) mitra (ally).

King Svamin or king is the soul among all the seven elements of the state. Kautilya deals with various qualities that a king has to possess or cultivate, and the training he has to receive. He advises the king to find his happiness in the go Mauryas, who were paternal mon advice and regarded the subjects' ests as very important. Asoka, in Edict VI, says: 'Sawe munissepaja« are my children), which shows his ] rude towards the people. The edict i importance of efficient administratiof the major sources prescribe an schedule for the king.

Ministry Ministry forms an imp body politic. According to Kautilya, it] able to expect an administration to ciently with king alone unaided by aj expect a chariot to move on one whed^ Mantrins were the ministers and highest grade whose advice had to be! king in all administrative matters, about their qualifications and the tests] pass. Mantriparishad, together with the / stituted the Mauryan ministry. There is i about its strength. Its important memb purohita, mahamantri, senapati, _ Asokan edicts confirm its existence. Kautilya clearly distinguishes mant members of the mantriparishad on the I pay and functions.

Amatyas Amatyas were some sort of i tive personnel or civil servants who filled ( est administrative and judicial appoint pay scales, service rules and method of j were clearly laid down. Kautilya refers to those who had come < cessfully in religious tests (dharmopadh and were employed in administering ju civil and criminal); those who had stood < of monetary test (arthopadhasuddhtf employed as revenue officials; those who i fied by love test {kamopadhasuddha) were to| intend the pleasure grounds; and those immu fear (bhayopadhasuddha) were apointed to < requiring immediate attention. Only those whose character had been testi all kinds of allurements and not just one kind\


f ;to the still higher position, viz. that of r advisers to the king. Though their qualimethod of selection were given by $| is doubtful whether they were strictly in practice. Their role and functions ortant, for all governmental work pro-ithem. |'s amatyas were similar to the magis-1 councillors of the Greek historians; the of Asokan edicts; the ICS officers of and the IAS officers of independent

i Department

He was in charge of collection of all i of the empire and looked after income and I by supervising the work of the akshapsha (Accountant General), nues came from land, irrigation, customs, s, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines, pas| crown-lands, fees from craftsmen, gambling |,#tc. Kautilya refers to some other kinds of : also such as pindakara, a fixed commuted ntributed by the villages from time to time, \rsenabhaktam, the punitive tax imposed by the ron the region through which it passed.

ate: This chief treasury officer, cooperated i the samharta. He stored the treasure in careful-Uilt strong buildings, kwown as kosagriha and itagara.

Department The Mauryan army, accord! to Pliny, consisted of 6 lakh infantry, 30 thou-1 cavalry, 9 thousand elephants and 8 thousand riots. It was under the control of the senapati, whom there were several adhyakshas or dents of different wings and units of the j such as those of infantry (padadhyakshd), cavIfiry (asvadhyaksha), war elephants (hastyadhyak\Sha), chariots (rathadhyakshd), navy (navadhyaksha), and armoury (ayudhagaradhyakshd). Kautilya refers to different types of warriors, such as the hereditary ones (mauld), the mercenaries (bhritakas), soldiers supplied by forest tribes (atavivala), and those furnished by the allies (mitravala). Kautilya also talks about the salaries of different ranks of military commanders. The senapati received a salary of 48,000 panas per annum, followed by 24,000 for prasasta,

12,000 for nayaka, 8,000 for mukhya, 4,000 for adhyaksha, and 500 for ordinary trained soldier. The salaries were paid in cash.

Department of Commerce and Industry It controlled retail and wholesale prices of goods, and tried to ensure their steady supply through its adhyakshas or market superintendents. It also controlled weights and measures; levied customs duties; regulated foreign trade and prevented smuggling. A separate set of officials called amtamahamattas are mentioned by Asoka in his edicts. These were the officers who worked among the frontier peoples and the less civilised tribes. These may have been the equivalent of the amta-palas of the Arthasastra. These were the superintendents of tolls. No doubt, each province had its own amta-palas and possibly in some provinces tolls had to be paid even while exchanging goods in various districts. But toll houses must have existed along the borders of the empire. It is quite likely that the duties of amtamahamattas included the collection of revenue from the toll dues. They would thus supervise the work of the toll collectors and superintendent of tolls would also be responsible to them.

Judicial and Police Departments Kautilya refers to the existence of two kinds of courts-dharmasthiyas and kantakasodhanas or civil and criminal courts. The supreme court at the capital was presided over by the chief justice, called dharmadhikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals, divisions and districts under amatyas and pradeshtris. Four sources of law are mentioned by Kautilya. They are dharma (sacred law), vyavahara (usage), charitam (customs and precedents) and rajasasana (royal proclamations). Mention is also made of different kinds of punishments such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death (the last one is noticed in Asokan edicts also). In the chapter on vakta-karmanuyoga, Kautilya refers to the examination of evidence, recorded by the lekhaka.


Police headquarters were found in all principal centres. There was a sthaniya in the midst of 800 villages, a dronamukha in 400 villages, a kharvatika in 200 villages and a sangrahana in 10 villages. The jail proper bandhanagara was different from the police lock-up called charaka. Severe penalty was prescribed by Kautilya for the dereliction of duty by the bandha-nagaradhyaksha (jail suprintendent). Asokan edicts also deal with jails and jail officials. The dhamma-mahamattas were also required, apart from their other duties, to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences and jail deliveries are also mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. Asoka in fact speaks of 25 jail deliveries in the course of the first 26 years of his reign.

Espionage Department It was manned by gudhapurushas (secret agents) under the control of mahamatyapasarpa. Both stationary (smasthd) and touring (sanchard) officials formed the personnel of this cadre. Different types of agents, from recluses and students to householders and 'poisonous' girls (vishakanyas), were employed. They correspond to the 'overseers' of Megasthenes and the pativedakas and pulisanis of Asokan edicts.

Department of Foreign Affairs Different types of ambassadors and their functions are mentioned by Kautilya. Full-fledged ambassador was kwown as nisrishtartha-duta, while one who could not go beyond his instructions in negotiations was called parimitarthaduta. Sasanhara-duta was only a special messenger.

Palace Department It was under a controller who looked after the royal household. He had to pay special attention to the kitchen to see that no poisoning was done. There was also a dauvarika or warden of the palace to control entrance and exit.

Settlement and Planning Department It organised villages into different types of units, kwown as sangrahana (10 villages), kharvatika (200), dronamukha (400) and sthaniya (800). Several rural development activities were undertaken by the state. They included construction of roads for traffic (vahikpathd), waterways and routes, and markets for commodities (panyapattana). PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADR

Provinces No worthwhile infor on this aspect from Kautilya; particularly Brahmagiri Minor To talk about local adminstration. divided into four provinces, each i council. The four provinces were 1 tal--Taxila), Avantiratha (Ujjain),'! (Suvarnagiri) and Kalinga (Tosali viceroy was responsible for the i and order, and collection of taxes for| neither Kautilya nor Asokan edic amount of autonomy enjoyed by the j all they had any. The council of ministers at the acted as a check on the local governor.^ ent from two events before and du Asoka. The revolt in Taxila during^ Bindusara was against the local minis cers and not against the prince or gov seem that the ministers had assumed) than the situation demanded. The seco was the story of the blinding of Kunala| of Asoka. The story suggests that dir the king to the ministers, without the' ing about them, was a regular occu ministers were not surprised at the princ in ignorance of the king's order. Further, there were divisions in pradeshtris (Kautilya) or pradesik edicts) who had no advisory councils, tions included executive, revenue, judicia all supervision. They were directly the samharta.

Districts The district was under the ch rajuka (Asokan edicts), whose position tions are similar to those of a modem dis tor. He was assisted byyuktas (Kautilya: subordinate officials doing secretarial accounting.

Intermediate Level This unit, consisting < ten villages, was under gopa and sthanika. mer maintained proper records and account! latter collected taxes.


MNISTBAT

tion is avail Asokan : Edicts I râ empire r a vie apatha (c Dakshina for Dhauli)' nee of 3 r the centre, disclose ovinces, if

wincial le | This is ap ', the reign (the reign ' and offi« nor. It won | more pov 1 indicatic NtheorderaJ I orders from} oy know, since the I being kept

feharge of (Asokan eir func f and over-sible to

I of the functcollec oka), and

(ffive to :for-Ithe under the charge of the gramani, t council of elders in the administration

Kautilya devotes a full s role of the nagarika or city superiniiphief duty was maintenance of law and I also discharged some other duties. He I by two officials, gopa and sthanika.

lauryan State

t kingdom was more or less a welfare |it considered itself a trustee of the people in I tried to harmonise the conflicting inter-j different classes. Control of the employer relations, protection of the consumer, [lent to the trader, help to the agriculturist, i of the destitute and the disabled, attention t hygiene, measures against epidemics, and ntal and moral welfare of all its subjects-- I within the purview of the State, ^/significance of the Mauryan administration ûshering in a new form of government, that of centralised government, which marks the [successful experiment in imperial government Indians. The Mauryan organisation left its ' for the Mughals and the British also.

3MY

culture

of Land Ownership There is the possi-of five forms of land ownership in the yan state:

Mvators--but there is no hint of it hi the sources. Community ownership--however, it was a much pater development. |fc Large scale land owners--there is evidence of the | existence of a class of entrepreneurs (gahapatis), but they acted mainly as financiers to the cultivators rather than a class of landowners. fc4. King--statement of Megasthenes that all the land was owned by the king himself is open to debate; and

5. State--there is no distinction between the king and the state in the Mauryan period.

Hence the king besides having some personal lands, also received taxes of the state lands. Therefore, Megasthenes got the impression that the king was the owner of all the lands. Despite this theoretical land ownership of the state/king, the cultivators enjoyed certain hereditary or customary rights of cultivation in practice.

Land Revenue It was the main source of income for the State, but varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce. It was directly collected by the king's officials from the individual cultivators without bringing in intermediaries. Tax exemption or reduction was done by the king whenever necessary. The revenue being assessed at one-fourth was perhaps a general estimate or was applicable only in very fertile areas, such as the region around Pataliputra with which Megasthenes was most familar. The precise amount must have varied according to local conditions. An example of such a variation in tax occurs in the Arthasastra, where the type of irrigation provided changes the amount of tax on the water, this ranging from one-fifth to one-third. The same must undoubtedly have been the case with land tax, but with possibly a smaller degree of variation, one-fourth of the produce is more than the normal amount suggested by most Indian texts, which is one-sixth. The Arthasastra advises that in a period of emergency, the tax may be raised to one-third or one-fourth, but only in fertile areas having irrigation facilities. Admittedly one-fourth as a regular tax was high, but the later centuries saw even one-third as the regular amount in tax. The Rummindei inscription is the only Asokan inscription which makes a precise reference to taxation. We are told that because the village of Lumbini was the birthplace of the Buddha, the king exempted it from taxes, and it was asked to pay only one-eighth share of the produce. It is clear that in the Mauryan period the state officials such as the revenue collectors made a direct assessment of the land under cultivation. The assessment was based not on the combined lands of


the village as a whole, but considered the details regarding each cultivator and member of the village. The first step in the process of assessment was the subdivision of the lands of the village into categories of high, middle and low quality. The village was then listed under one of the following heads: villages that were exempted from taxation (pariharaka), those that supplied soldiers (ayudhiya); those that paid their taxes in the form of grain, cattle, gold or raw material (kupya), and those that supplied free services and dairy produce in lieu of taxes. It is thus amply clear that the administration took into consideration all local features before any assessment was made.

Extension and Intensification of Agriculture Mauryan state made serious efforts to establish new agricultural settlements. There is reference in the Arthasastra to deportation of large bodies of Sudras from overpopulated areas to new settlements. Reference is also made in the Asokan edicts to deportation of 1.5. lakh prisoners of war from Kalinga to clear wasteland and establish new settlements. The State made provision of irrigation facilities by constructing and maintaining reservoirs, tanks, canals and wells.

Industrial Crafts

T. Metallurgy: There was a growing knoledge of mining of various metals like iron, copper, tin, gold, silver, etc. These were used to manufacture various articles. There was also a large scale increase in the use of iron implements in particular.

2. Textile Manufacturing: It was particularly common in Mathura, Kasi, Pataliputra, Vanga, Mahisa, and the like. There is a lot of literary and archaeological evidence.

3. Pottery: Several pots and potshreds (NBPW) have been discovered at the Mauryan sites.

4.

Woodwork: It is evident from the excavations (at Pataliputra) and literature.

5. Stone Cutting: Best evidence of this is found in Asokan architecture, primarily the pillars. Artisan Guilds The system i ing since the early Buddhistj( bilised under the Mauryas.j crafts and extension of trade,! They developed into fairijf tions. Kautilya talks about i rights by individual memb wages according to both the < of work; severe penalties and I fraudulent work, and the life strengthening of guilds due to t hereditary nature of occupatio Guilds had to employ hired 1 of two categories, the karmaha who were regarded as free lab regular wage, and the dasas who i refers to both categories in his edic of the bhatakas and the dasas.

State Monopolies The Maurya have exercised monopoly over activities like mining, armour and' brewing of liquor, shipbuilding, etc. 1 breweries were under the state cc sion was done through the suradhya

Trade and Commerce

Internal Trade There was a brisk among different parts, in various Internal exchange of northern produ skins, etc.) with southern products I pearls, diamonds, conchshells, gold, etc! the important trades.

External Trade External trade was < foreign countries, particularly with (Greek) world and Burma to some exfc exports were different spices (pepper,! cinnamon, turmeric, etc.), pearls, dia textiles, ivory works, conch shells, sic etc. The main imports consisted of J glass, linen, etc. Balance of trade was ' favour of India.

Transport and Communications Inte routes followed the main highways and!


tilds, though < veloped the grov

' scale orgatl nt of ce linatioti] Ithequ |for inferior; ' was a ation and I

[This consis | the bhrita (working for] fslaves. Asoli these

seems industria on-makingjf nple, all I I supervii

trade, of goods, |(blankets, i stones, i one of

\ on with Hellenic 'main om, i cotton ets, gold, ch in

| trade able 1 trade routes were mainly along the I land routes. Frequent mention is made of Bharukachchha (Broach in Gujarat), ntion was given by the Mauryas to the maintenance of roads through special I agranomoi by Megasthenes. Kalinga împortance, because of

its strategic locating north and south during those days, nt internal trade routes were (1) South-(from Sravasti to Pratishthana); (2) ; Route (from Sravasti to Rajagriha); (3) i Route (from Taxila to Pataliputra, follow-r course of the Ganga and the Yamuna), ver, the most important route was the royal from the north-west (in the region of »Pataliputra. It has continued to be impori the centuries as the Grand Trunk Road. , an extension eastwards which is said to ched as far as Tamluk or even farther to the |$>f the Ganges. Before the development of sea was the chief trade route with the West, fcfceing the point of exchange. Even for inland t was frequently used since there was consid-exchange of goods between the Ganges land the northwest.

Regulation of Trade The State taxed all goods as well as imported goods. S tax was onefifth of the total value of the corn-Severe punishments were awarded for tax There was strict supervision of the sale of chandise and fixation of the percentage of (5% on local goods and 10% on imported jdls) to the merchant by specialised boards.

r Economy and Currency Large scale agri-besides providing the fiscal base of the e, also provided surplus for capital formation, i in turn was facilitated by the large scale use illic currency in the form of punch-marked r and copper coins.

or Moneylending Megasthenes' view of absence of usury in India is not true. For hist literature as well as Arthasastra provide cient evidence of its existence. Rate of interest ried from 15% to 60% per annum. There was a possibility of the state controlling the interest rate and hence Megasthenes' failure to notice it.

Urbanisation It is a natural adjunct to the growth of trade and crafts. There were several important cities and trade centres like Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Rajagriha, Pataliputra, Ujjain, etc. Important ports were Bharukachchha, Tamralipti, Supara etc.

SOCIETY

Changes in the Varna System

The economic changes of the period did not allow the Vedic four-fold system to function smoothly. There was a reduction of the gap between the Vaishyas (most of whom were now concentrating on trade though others continued cultivation) and the Sudras (quite a

few of whom were now agriculturists others being artisans). There was improvement in their economic position, but no simultaneous improvement in their social status, which caused social tensions finally leading to the growth in the popularity of heterodox sects. The initial reaction of the Brahmins was to make the varna system more rigid. It is because of these social tensions that Asoka placed so much of emphasis on social harmony, and his dhamma was intended to infuse social responsibility and stability.

Position of Women

Brahmanical literature was particularly severe in the treatment of women and assigned to them a very low status in the society. Buddhist texts, on the other hand, were much more considerate in treating them. Megasthenes testifies to the growing practice of polygamy; employment of women as palace guards, bodyguards to the king, spies, etc; permission of widow remarriage and divorce. Thus, the position of women, though inferior to that of men and witnessing a downtrend, was not as bad as it came to be in the later periods such as the Gupta period. Owing to the suppressed condition of women in the society of his time, it is possible that Asoka may have felt the need to appoint a special group of


mahamattas who would be concerned mainly with the welfare of women. The term used for these officers was ithijhakha-mahamattas, literally, the officers who were the superintendents of women. A connection has been suggested between these officers and the ganikadhyakshas or superintendents of prostitutes.

Slaves and Hired Labour

Megasthenes' opinion about the absence of slaves in India is not correct. He was probably unable to recognise the system in India because of its marked difference from the Western system (Greek and Roman). But there is clear evidence of its existence in India in both Buddhist texts (especially Jatakas) and the Arthasastra. Indian slaves (dasas) were treated very humanely and were employed mainly for domestic work. Hired labour occupied socially a better position than slaves, but their economic position was worse than that of the slaves. Hired labour was different from forced labour or visti, which probably did not exist in this period.

Outcastes

The social and economic position of outcastes was worse than that of slaves as well as hired labourers. These outcastes or hinajah were considered impure because of the nature of their occupations such as hide-cleaning, tanning, etc. This was the main reason for their ostracism.

MAURYAN ART

The pre-Asokan monuments were mostly made of wood or some other perishable medium and the general use of stone started from the time of Asoka. The replacement of wood by stone may have been partly due to the influence of contact with Achaemenid Persia (where stone was extensively used) and partly due to the denudation of the forests in the Ganges plains.

The artistic remains of the Mauryan period may be seen under the following heads: (1) pillars and sculpture, (2) stupas, (3) i terracotta objects.

Pillars and Sculpture

The pillars set up by remains of the Mauryan Asokan edicts inscribed on I in sacred enclosures or in the' The pillars are made of two t spotted red and white sandsti Mathura, and (2) the buff colon sandstone usually with small bli Chunar near Banaras. It would! transported from Mathura and < sites where the pillars have been i stone was cut and carved by cr bly came from Taxila and had dling stone. Each pillar has three parts: foundation, the shaft or the coin The prop is buried in the ground.' a single piece of sandstone, su made of another single piece of i round and slightly tapering shaft isi and very graceful in its proportio which is the third part of the pillar,! some finely executed animal figures,! or the elephant, (b) the sacred dh 24 spokes) symbol engraved with i in relief, and (c) the inverted or bell-! The capital of the Sarnath Pillar is the most magnificent and the best pie The wonderful life-like figures of standing back to back, and the smalle stately figures of four animals (liongph and bull) in relief on the abacus, and i lotus--all indicate a highly advanced ; (The Indian government adopted this some modifications as its state emblem),1! The sculpture of the Mauryan periq sented by figures such as: (1) the yaksi o| (MP), (2) theâfaa of Parkham (near 1 the chauri-beareT from Didarganj (BiharJ the stone elephant from Dhauli (Orissa).


) palaces,,

nish the «se pillars, ,3 were placed C, ?uty of towns, s of stone: (1) i the regie he-grained \ ots quarrie % that stone r to the vane 1 and here I a, who pr rience in

1 under i the capit haft, made i the capit Istone. This Wypolishe 'The capitakj isists of (off hasthelioijo ra(with ((sculptures i lotus. rtedly f the series, four lions efiiland nt, horse 1 inverted i of art. pital with

is repreFBesnagar hura), (3) I), and (4) ' these figures do not appear to belong tradition as the animal capitals. They Wy carved by local craftsmen and not by ^craftsmen who were responsible for the

f solid domical structure of brick or stone, i round base. It is surmounted by a shaft ella, the symbol of spiritual sovereignty. ; a stupa was surrounded by a plain or stone railing running all round having i gateways, which were often decorated Jl^culptures. The main purpose of building a Sto enshrine some relics of Buddha or some hist monk, or to commemorate some I

sacred place.

is credited with building 84,000 stupas tot-India and Afghanistan. Hiuen Tsang, durJi visit to India (seventh century ad), is said

seen a considerable number of these 9, but majority of them have not come down hiHowever, a few, enclosed and enlarged the people and the princes alike, have I. I best example of these is the famous stupa at (near Bhopal) with massive dimensions 121.5 ft, height 77.5 ft, height of stone-II ft). The original brick stupa built by [ was probably of not more than half the pres ; dimensions which were subsequently enlarged ; the addition of a stone-casing laced with cone. Besides, the present railing was a subsequent cement for the older and smaller railing of

her important heritage of the Mauryas are the cut out of hard and refractory rocks. Their rior walls are so well-polished that they shine : mirrors. These were meant to be residences for (viharas) and also served the purpose of ches and assembly halls (chaityas). Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha got several such cave-dwellings built in the Barabar Hills near Bodh Gaya, and donated them to the monks of Buddhism and the Ajivika sect. The details of two famous Barabar Caves (Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves) show a clear influence of wooden architecture on rock-cut architecture. Thus, the Barabar Caves are the earliest examples of the rock-cut method, and mark the beginning of a great tradition which would span the next 1,000 years in the history of Indian art.

Palaces

Contemporary Greek writers refer to the magnificent palaces and halls in the capital city of Pataliputra and regard them as the finest and the grandest in the world. Even Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the fourth century ad, was wonderstruck by the Mauryan edifices. All of them have perished, but in recent times excavations have laid bare their ruins, the most wonderful being those of the hundred-pillared hall.

Terracotta Objects

Terracotta objects of various sizes have been found at Mauryan sites. The tradition of making mother-goddesses in clay, which goes back to the prehistoric period, is revealed by the discovery of these objects at Mauryan levels at Ahichchhatra.

They are also found commonly at sites extending from Pataliputra to Taxila. Many of them have stylised forms and are technically the most accomplished in the sense that they have a well-defined shape and clear ornamentation. Some of them appear to have been made from moulds, but there is little duplication. Terracottas of Mauryan period consist of primitive idols or images, votive reliefs with deities, toys, dice, ornaments and beads. Toys were mostly wheeled animals, the elephant being a favourite. Among the ornaments were round medallions, which were meant to act as a protection against the evil spirits.


6.7 THE ARTHASASTRA

Historical Background

From a number of quotations and references in later works, we know that there were at least four distinct schools and thirteen individual teachers of Arthasastra before Kautilya. Unfortunately, all the earlier works are lost and Kautilya's is the earliest text that has come down to us. The study of economics, the art of government and foreign policy is thus very old; the development of the science in India, according to some scholars, may have started around 650 bc. One reason for the disappearance of the extensive early literature could well be that Kautilya's masterly treatise superseded them and made them redundant. Who was this Kautilya, who could write a definitive treatise on political economy, at a time when large parts of the world were steeped in intellectual darkness? All sources of Indian tradition-Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina-agree that Kautilya (also referred to as Vishnugupta in a stanza traditionally included at the end of the work) destroyed the Nanda dynasty and installed Chandragupta Maurya on the throne of Magadha. The name 'Kautilya' denotes that he is of the kuti-la gotra; 'Chanakya' shows him to be the son of Chanaka and 'Vishnugupta' was his personal name.

Contents

Kautilya's Arthasastra had never been forgotten in India and is often mentioned in later literature. But the text itself was not available in modern times until, dramatically, a full text on palm leaf in the grantha script, along with a fragment of an old commentary by Bhattasvamin, came into the hands of Dr. R. Shamasastry of Mysore in 1904. He published the text (1909) and an English translation (1915). Subsequently another original manuscript and some fragments, in a variety of scripts, were discovered as well as old commentaries of the text. Dr. R. P. Kangle of the University of Bombay devoted many years to comparing the various texts and translations.

The text contains fifteen adhik The first chapter of Book 1 is a < tents and in one verse, states that i chapters, ISOprakaranas and six 1 all. A prakarana is a section devo topic; the number of chapters is nott number of sections because some deals with more than one topic topic is spread over more than on Arthasastra is mainly in prose of I with only 380 shlokas. It may be brief indication of the contents of| books. Book 1 begins with a brief introduc Arthasastra in the context of i then goes on to deal with the King-3 the appointment of ministers and < the state, the daily routine to be fofl ruler and his safety and security. Book 2 describes the duties of the tive officers of the state and gives a i state activities in agriculture, mtt activities and so on. Book 3, which is concerned with administration of justice, reprodu code of law. Book 4 deals with the suppression includes sections on detection of i over merchants and artisans, tortured punishment. Book 5 is a miscellaneous collectio including the salary scales of officials! Book 6 is very short, containing only 1 but both are important, since they seU oretical basis for the whole work.' ter sets out the theory of the constitue of a state and the second the theory i policy. Book 7 contains an exhaustive discus way in which each of the six methods I policy may be used in various situatio likely to arise in the conduct of foreign^ Book 8 is concerned with vyasanas, lated as calamities, which may adve the efficient functioning of the va stituent elements.


at all times wherever dharma is held to be preeminent. Because it is instructional, its basis is the practice of government. We will not find in it a theoretical discussion about why there should be a state at all or, if there is to be one, what kind of state is the best. For Kautilya, the existence of the state and the king are axioms. Kautilya offers two special contributions to the theoretical analysis of the functioning of a state. These are: (i) analysis of aspects of internal administration in terms of the seven constituent elements of the state and (ii) analysis of the relations between states in terms of the theory of the circle of states. The two chapters of Book 6 are used to set out these theoretical concepts and define the terms used in their development. The rest of the treatise is a manual of instruction for kings and officers of the state. TABLE 1: LIST OF ADHYAKSHAS anas or I table of c 1 text has ad we I to a |thesameasi a ct t sometime ^chapter. Isutra fo 111 to have diffe

i, setting i (sciences, s trainirii fofficersi ired by

execu f picture of leisurfl

and thdj I complete}

and . control t capital

topics

ithelchap nents foreign

the eign are

Jtrans larTect con-with preparations for war and i topics such as: different kinds of troops be mobilized, proper conditions for {an expedition and dangers to be guarded | before starting. , concerned with fighting and describes battle camp, types of battle arrays and t modes of fighting. t has only one chapter and describes how a should tackle oligarchies governed by > of chiefs instead of a single king, shows how a weak king, when threatened t stronger king, should frustrate the latter's i and ultimately overcome him. j(J is concerned with the conquest of the yr's fort by subterfuge or by fighting. It also iSbes how the conquered territories should be

1 14 deals with secret and occult practices. [ 15 describes the methodology and the logical ndques used in the work. Though the placet of some books and some chapters may not i strictly logical, it can be said that, by and the first five books deal with internal ninistration and the last eight on a state's relai with its neighbours.

i and Significance

tilya's precepts are of universal applicability, (counsels on the relationship between the ruler I the ruled, on the role of the state in maintaining \ wealth of the nation and the welfare of the peo-on relations between neighbouring states, on nces and on the conduct of foreign policy based t the relative strengths of the participants are as plicable today as they were in his day. If we are to comprehend clearly Kautilya's teach-and apply them judiciously to the modern orld, we also have to be aware of the essential cteristics of the work. The treatise is about an I state--not that such a state actually ever exist|ed or is even likely to exist now or in the future. The Arthasastra is essentially a treatise on the art of government and is, by nature, instructional. It seeks to instruct all kings and is meant to be useful

SI. Nomenclature 1.

Akaradhyaksha

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Akshapataladhyaksha Asvadhyaksha Ayudhagaradhyaksha Bandanagradhyaksha Devatadhyaksha

1. Dhyutadhyksha 8. 9.

Ganikadhyaksha Go-adhyaksha

10.

Hastyadhyaksha

11. 12.

Khanyadhyaksha Kosashadhyaksha

13.

Koshtagaradhyaksha

14.

Kupyadhyaksha

State Office chief Controller of Mining & Metallurgy Controller of Accounts

Commander of Cavalry of Ordnance Superintendent of Jails Superintendent of Temples Controller of Gambling Controller of Entertainers Superintendent of Crown Herds Commander of Elephant Crops Superintendent of Mines Superintendent of the Treasury Superintendent of Warehouses Superintendent of Forest Produce

A154


11.

Panyadhishtatharah

12.

Parikarmika

13.

Rupadarshaka

14.

Saimika

15.

Samkhyayaka

16.

Tajjata

17. 18. 19. 20. 11.

Tatpurusha (Lekhaka) Vanacharika Vanapala Upayukta Prakriya

12.

Pratikara

13.

Pravesya

14.

Senabhaktham

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Shadbhaga Sulka Vaidharana Variant Vishti Vyaji OFFICIALS

State Office Catcher of thieves

Head of Prostitutes Mahout Accounts officer Works officer River guard Elephant forest ranger Ledger keeper Store keeper Tetherer TABLE 4: TIME

The basic unit of time is a nalika, defined as,. it takes for one odhoka (1.87 kg or litres) ofy flow out of a pot through a hole of the same I as that of a wire 4 angulas long made out off of gold. This would be a hole approx' diameter (23 or 24 gauge wire). 15.

Lakshanadhyaksha

16.

Lavanadhyaksha

17.

Lohadhyaksha

18.

Manadhyaksha

19.

Madradhyaksha

20.

Nagavcyiadhyaksha

21.

Navadhyaksha

22.

Panyadhyaksha

23.

Pattanadhyaksha

24.

Pattyadhyaksha

25.

Pauthavadhyaksha

26.

Rathadhyaksha

27.

Samsthadhyaksha

28.

Sitadhyaksha

29.

Sulkadhyaksha

30.

Sunadhyaksha

31.

Suradhyaksha

32. 33.

Sutradhyaksha Suvarnadhyaksha

34. Vivitadhyaksha

TABLE 2: SUBORDINATE

SI. Nomenclature 1.

Chorarqjju

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ganika Hastipaka Karanika Karmic Nadipala Nagavanapala Nibandhaka Nidhayaka (Nivigraha) 10. Padapasika

Master of the Mint Salt Commissioner Superintendent of Metals Surveyor and time keeper Passport Officer Elephant Forester Controller of Shipping Controller of State Trading

Controller of Ports and Harbours Commander of Infantry Controller of Weights & Measures

Commander of Chariot Crops

Controller of Private Trade

Superintendent of Crown Lands

Controller of Customs and Octroi Protector of Animals and Controller of Animal Slaughter Controller of Alcoholic Beverages Textile Commissioner Superintendent

of

Precious Metals and Jewellery

Controller of Pasture Lands

TABLE 3: TAXES

SI. Tax 1.

Ayudhiya

2.

Bhaga

3.

Dwarabahirikadeya

4.

Gulma

5. 6.

Kara Manavyaji

7. 8. 9.

Nishkramya Parigha Parsvam 10. Plndakara

Retail ou Attendant Examiner t Border i Accounts Experts in j uers) Clerk Tracker Forest guai Subordinate!

Source Supply of s Share off Octroi and ( A tax payablij stations Tax in cash Transaction 1 goods Export duty Monopoly taxi Surcharges Taxes paid in 1 lages Royalty Taxes in kind Import duty Army mainti One-sixth sh«v, Customs duty 'I Countervailing/ Road cess Labour Transaction tax^


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ayaskara Charmakara Karmara Kuttaka Medaka Napita Rajaka Rajjuvartaka Shilpi

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Suvarnakara Tantuvaya Tunnavaya Vardhaki Varmakara

II. Entertainers

1. 2. 3.

Charana Ganika Guyana lions of the Nalika

tutu = 1 lava = 1 nimesha = 1 kashta = \kala = 1 nalika

=16/100thsofasecond =12/100 ths of a second =24/100ths of a second =1.2 seconds =36 seconds =24 minutes = 1 muhurta =48 minutes 5 = a day or night =12 hours

i of Days and Nigths

I night of equal length (15 muhurtas each) l the month of Chaitra (vernal equinox) and ya (autumnal equinox). I increase and decrease of daytime is as follows: i the vernal equinox daytime increases for 3 i to summer solstice (the longest day--18 -14 hrs 24 minutes). i the summer solstice daytime decreases for onths to autumnal equinox (equal day of 15 hurtas, 12 hours). the autumnal equinox, daytime further i for 3 months to the winter solstice (the st day-12 muhurtas--9 hrs 36 minutes), i the winter solstice, daytime increases for 3 nths to the vernal equinox.

asuring Time

5 the day, time was measured by a sundial with i (central rod casting the shadow) of length H angulas (9 in.). No shadow indicated noon i of the shadow of 27 in, 9 in, 3 in before and r mid-day, divided the day into eight parts. pn the month of Asadha, the gnomon does not \ a shadow at mid-day. From then on, the shadow ay increases by 2 angulas (1 1/2 in) a month ; the six monthly period Sravana to Pausha. Magha to Ashada, the mid-day shadow es by 2 angulas each month. ; Calendar

15 days (and nights)

Sukla fortnight (waning moon) Bakula fortnight (waxing moon)

2 fortnights = 1 month 2 months = 1 season 3 seasons = 1 ayana 2 ayanas = 1 year years = 1 yuga V. Note on Seasons

A.

Uttarayana

1.

Sisira (frosty)--Magha (Jan/Feb) and Phalguna (Feb/Mar)

2.

Vasantha (spring)--Chaitra (Mar/Apr) and Vaishaka (Apr/May)

3.

Grishma (summer)--Jyeshtamulya (May/Jun) and Ashada (Jun/Jul)

B.

Dakshinayana

1.

Varsha (rainy)--Sravana (Jul/Aug) and Praushtapada (Aug/Sep)

2.

Sharat (autumn)--Asvayuja (Sep/Oct) and Kartika (Oct/Nov)

3.

Hemanta (winter)--Marghasirsha (Nov/Dec) and Pausha (Dec/Jan)

TABLE 5: PROFESSIONS

1. Artisans and Professional Services

Potter Leather worker Smith/blacksmith Carpenter Basket maker Barber Washerman Rope maker Artist/sculptor Goldsmith

Weaver Tailor Engineers Maker of straps and bindings

Wandering minstrel Prostitute/courtesan Singer


12. Vagjivana (Kathavaka) Story teller

II. Agrarian and Other classes 4. 5. 6.

Kuhaka Nartaka Nata 1. Pauranika

8. 9.

Plavaka Sutamagadha

10. 11.

Turyakara Vadaka

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Dohaka Gopalaka Karshaka Lubdhaka Manthaka Matsyabandhaka 1. Muktagrahinah

8. 9.

Pindaraka Shandapala 10. Vatapala

IV. Jewellers

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Dhamayaka Kanchanakaru Prishtakaru Tapaniyakaru Tvashtrakaru Juggler/clown Dancer Actor/actress Reciter of Puranas Acrobat

Bard/Praise singer Trumpeter Musician

Milker Cowherd Farmer Hunter guard Churner Fishermen Pearl fishermen Buffalo herdsman Garden watchman Orchard watchman

Blowers Gemsetters Beadmakers Enamellers Gilders, platers V. Others

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ashvabandhaka Ashvavaha Audanika Charaka Chikitsaka Dharaka Hastipaka Kalpaka Karmaka

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Kartantika Lekhaka Lubhaka Marjaka Mayaka/mapaka Nagavanapala Naimittika Paricharaka Prasathaka Rathika Sankhyayaka Sarpagraha Soundika Sudaralika Sutika Udakaparicharaka Yantrika

saddler Stable sup Rice vendor Cleaner

Physician Weighman Mahout Barber Labourer Soothsayer Clerk Hunter Sweeper Measurers Elephant forest j Reader of c Cook Valet Charioteer Accountant Snake catcher Wine seller Waiter Midwife Water bearer Technician


Sites of Asokan Edicts

Piwwvt xttrnd bouncby of India ahown thus EAN

C OowniflMnt of Indto Copyright 1966

t upon Sunny of India imp v* the pwrnteion of km Swveyor Genml of India. I mpoflilbfllty fof tho oofwcftms of Intttml dstote mte
QUESTIONS

1.

The earliest epigraphic reference to Chandragupta Maurya is to be found in the:

(a) (b)

Barabar Hill Cave Inscription of Asoka. Nagarjuni Hill Cave Inscription of Dasaratha.

(c) (d)

Junagarh Rock Edict of Asoka. Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudrada-man I.

2.

Consider the following statement:

'We shall send you figs and the wine, but in Greece the laws forbid a sophist to be sold.' Who wrote this to whom? (a) (b) (c) (d) 3.

Seleucus Nikator to Chandragupta Maurya Antiochus I to Bindusara Antigonus Gonatus to Asoka Alexander to Bindusara Which of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) Kalinga--Jaugada (b) Dakshinapatha--Suvarnagiri (c) Avantirattha--Ujjain (d) Uttarapatha--Taxila 4. In which Major Rock Edict did Asoka counsel for public generosity to Brahmins and Sramanas? (a) V (b) IX (c) III (d) IV 5.

The Arthasastra deals with the:

(i) administration of tests of loyalty to the ministers. (ii) appointment of adhyakshas for different industries and markets. (iii) assignments of lands to officers for their services. (iv) appointment of an adhyaksha for agriculture. (v) assignment of different duties to various provincial officials. Of these:

(a) (b)

all are true. i, ii, iii and iv are true.

A158

(c) i, ii and iv are true. (d) i, iii and iv are true. 6. Consider the following part < Asoka: 'Conquest of the won by His Sacred Majes neighbours as far as 600 king of the Greeks named and beyond... the four Antigonus, Magas and Alexan In which Major Rock Edict is (a) IV (b) VI v| (c) IX (d) XIII 7.

Which one of the following pla copies of the Major as well Edicts?

(a) Sanchi

(b) Alia

(c) Sarnath

(d) Rumri

8.

The fourteen Major Rock Edic located at Shahbazgarhi and Ma in

(a) Kharoshti script (b) Aran (c) Greek script (d) Bra/in 9.

Where is Dasaratha's Nagarjuni Inscription located?

(a) Junagarh

(b) Nagarju

(c) Barabar

(d) Rajagri

10.

Who among the following kings is| have conquered 'the land between' seas'?

(a) Asoka

(b) Chandn

Maurya (c) Bindusara (d) Ajatasatru 11.

The colour of the pennants of the chariots was

(a) white

(b) blue

(c) red (d) green

12. Who was responsible for building aj across a river near Girnar in western In (a) Radhagupta (b) Pushyaguptal (c) Vishnugupta (d) Upagupta '"


I inscription off na has been] among all his; where the hus dwells, gs Ptolemy,

Wound?

have the i Minor. Pillar

abaci liich of the following is/are not correct | regarding the trade and commerce in the i Mauryan empire? | (i) lax was exempted on some of the manufactured goods, (ii) Date was, stamped on the manufactured goods in order to distinguish the old and new. (iii) A trade tax was fixed at one-fifth of the value and in addition there was a toll tax of one-fifth of the trade tax. v) Prices were controlled to prevent too great a profit on the part of the merchants. I (v) Money lending was not approved by all the contemporary texts. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) iand ii (b) iii and iv (c) I and v

(d) iii and v

JWhich of the following castes were prevalent in pf» Mauryan society according to Megasthenes? (i) Philosophers

(ii) Slaves

r(iii) Magistrates

(iv) Councillors

,tSelect the answer from the codes below: a) All of them except i ^^BôsustsgCV Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) i and iv (d) All of the above 18. Sanchi stupa was said to be originally built by the following king of Mauryan empire (a) Dasaratha (b) Samprati (c) Asoka 19.

(d) Bindusara

Which of the following about the Arthasastra is/are incorrect?

(i) It is divided into 15 pan/as. (ii) It was originally written in Prakrit language. (iii) It is a treatise on Mauryan political economy and administration. (iv) It's evidence is not corroborated by any other source. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii and iii (c) ii and iv 20.

(d) i and iv

Which of the following about the Mauryan coinage are correct?

"^ marked coins.

Wk

cS?^

C^FS °Ufe

"""""ft* ""ts/c inciua "ZSZTZ?"**; "" >*. «*»,

^fteV^î Vcc&

-|5a£S3!S»3S '*3s, 5^r«^.

*^si^**fr£,***S*£ !*«««

^^^^ au*o^;ê3^p°™ --* 3 6°"'"7'"a>csu^p«s0j


the following is/are not correct the trade and commerce in the i empire? i was exempted on some of the manu-I goods. was stamped on the manufactured > in order to distinguish the old and new. i'trade tax was fixed at one-fifth of the I and in addition there was a toll tax of i of the trade tax. i were controlled to prevent too great t profit on the part of the merchants. ey lending was not approved by all the ntemporary texts. t the answer from the codes below: i and ii (b) iii and iv t\ and v(d) iii and v i of the following castes were prevalent in an society according to Megasthenes? ' Philosophers (ii) Slaves (Magistrates (iv) Councillors t the answer from the codes below: All of them except i j|) All of them except ii All of them except iii j|0 All of them except iv hich one of the following literary works refers i a famine in Magadha lasting for 12 years? Ra) Vamsathapakasini |(b) Parisistaparvan |(fc) Divyavadana (d) Kalpasutra Vamsathapakasini, written in the tenth century ad, was a commentary on the: (a) (b) (c)

Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka Mahavamsa '(d) Dipavamsa

Which of the following statements according to Megasthenes, are correct regarding the status

of women in the Mauryan society? (i) Growing practice of polygamy among ruling class. (ii) Employment of women as palace guards and body guards to the king. (iii) Permission of widow marriage. (iv) Permission to divorce. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) i and iv (d) All of the above 18. Sanchi stupa was said to be originally built by the following king of Mauryan empire (a) Dasaratha (b) Samprati (c) Asoka 19.

(d) Bindusara

Which of the following about the Arthasastra is/are incorrect?

(i) It is divided into 15 pan/as. (ii) It was originally written in Prakrit language. (iii) It is a treatise on Mauryan political economy and administration. (iv) It's evidence is not corroborated by any other source. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii and iii (c) iiandiv 20.

(d) i and iv

Which of the following about the Mauryan coinage are correct?

(i) Mauryas issued a good number of punch-marked coins. (ii) The coins of Asoka were more than that of any other Mauryan ruler. (iii) They enable us to know about the economic conditions of the Mauryan period.

(iv) The symbols of the Mauryan coins are definitely official markings. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) i and ii

(c) ii and iii

(d) i, iii and iv

21.

Which of the following southern kingdoms were contemporaries of Asoka?

(i) Keralaputras

(ii) Cholas

(iii) Pallavas (iv) Pandyas (v) Satyaputras Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) i, ii, iv and v (c) iii, iv and v (d) All of these 22.

In the ladder of Mauryan administration who were just below the Pradesikas?

(a) Rajukas

(b) Sthanikas

(c) Samhartas (d) Yuktas


23. The state emblem of the Government of India has the words satyameva jayate inscribed in the Devanagari script below the abacus. From which one of the following sources was it taken? (a) (b) (c) (d) 24.

Rig Veda Matsya Parana Mundaka Upanishad Aitareya Brahmana Didarganj in Bihar is known for:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 25.

stone figure of yakshi stone figure of yaksha stone figure of chaur/'-bearer stone elephant Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

(a)

Jatakas--Socio-economic conditions of the Mauryas

(b)

Puranas--Mauryas belonged to the Vaishya varna

(c)

Dipavamsa--Asoka's efforts to spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka

(d)

Digha Nikaya--Influence of Buddhist ideas on Mauryan polity

26.

Which one of the following Buddhist sources mentions Asoka's dhammayatrasl

(a) Divyavadana

(b) Mahavamsa

(c) Vamsathapakasini (d) Culavamsa 27. Which one of the following Major Rock Edicts talks about the ban on animal sacrifices and festive gatherings? (a) IV (b) VI (c) I

(d) VII

28. Which of the following inscriptions refer to the famine relief measures of the Mauryan period? (i) Taxila Inscription (ii) Mahasthan Inscription

(iii) Lampaka Inscription (iv) Sohgaura Inscription Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iv

(b) ii and iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iv only

29. Who was the Persian that was appointed by Asoka to administer the western province? (a) Tusaspa (b) Justine (c) Plutarch 30.

(d) Sunasepah

Which of the officials outnumber 1 Mauryan period?

(a) Judicial

(b) Milil

(c) Welfare

(d) Rev

31.

Which one of the following Gri not a contemporary of Asoka?

(a) Antigonus Gonatus (b) Ptolemy III Philadelphus (c) Antiochus I (d) Antiochus II Theos 32. In which edict or inscription did i his faith in Buddha, Dhamma and i called Buddha as Bhagavat? (a) (b) (c) (d) 33.

Maski Minor Rock Edict Rummindei Minor Pillar Edict Samath Pillar Edict Bhabra Minor Rock Edict Which of the following statements are J (i) Chandragupta Maurya belong!

Maurya tribe, (ii) Chandragupta was known to as 'Amitrochates' or the destroy (iii) Chandragupta and his folio superior in arms to Dhana Nan soldiers, (iv) Chandragupta is said to have di<

starvation in south India. Select the answer from the codes I (a) i and iii (b) ii and iv (c) iii and iv 34.

(d) ii and i

Which one of the following routes is i the royal road to Nepal?

(a) PataliputraVaisaliChamparanN (b) PataliputraKapilavastuKasiNep (c) PataliputraKasiVaisali-Nepal (d) PataliputraKasiChamparanNepaljJ 35. Which of the following symbols can on the royal punch-marked silver coin Mauryan period? (a) (b) (c) (d) 36.

Lion-Hill Crescent Peacock-Hill Crescent Stupa-Lion Peacock Tiger-Peacock Hill The name of the currency which was i lation in the Mauryan empire is:

(a) pana

(b) tola

(c) kakini

(d) dinar


43. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists. |ei.37, Upagupta, the Buddhist monk who was |8S, responsible for converting Asoka to Buddhism Ifj,, was probably the same as (a) Mahakassapa (b) Sabakami (c) Moggaliputta Tissa (d) Vasumitra 38. Instructions: Mark (a) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct, and if (R) is the correct explanation

*",,<*
(b) Hiuen Tsang

(cj Fahlen

(d) Wang Hiuen Tse

' ;:

Which of the following statements on Asoka in futile Context oiPuranas are incorrect? |^0f-(f)' They mention him as one among the many kings.

!iffi) They mention him as a Buddhist king. (iii) They do riot mention his name. Îv) They give him prominence. 'Chbose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii and iv (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, iiandiv (d) i, Hand iii Consider the following statement: 'Sovereignty ein be carried on only with assistance. A single wheel does not move, hence the king should employ the ministers and hear their, advice.' This has been attributed to i) Asoka (b) Kautilya Megasthenes (d) Manu akshapataladhyaksha of the Mauryan was the Superintendent of Mines . itroHer of the Royal Household Âccountant General Chief of the Royal Bodyguards

List! (i) Kalsi (ii Sopara (iii) Manshera (iv) Shahbazgarhi List II (A) Pakistan (B) (Jttar Pradesh (C) Afghanistan (D) Maharashtra (E) Bihar Codes: (a) (b) (c) (d) 44.

i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C i-B, ji-A, iii-C, iv-D i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C Rupadarsaka in the Mauryan administration was the

(a) manager of stage (b) examiner of gold, silver and copper (c) examiner of punch-marked coins (d) superintendent of courtesans 45. While Asoka used four different scripts in his inscriptions the language used in almost all of them, except a few, was invariably Prakrit and that too one particular form of it. Which was the form? (a) Magadhi

(b) ArdhaMagadhi

(c) Suraseni (d) Maharashtra 46. Nagaravyoharika-mahamattas of Asokan Edicts were: (a) Judicial officials (b) Revenue officials (c)

Census officials (d) Military officials

47.

Which one of the following pairs is not cor rect?

(a) (b)

Dharmopadhasuddha--Judicial officials ArthQpadhasuddha--Revenue officials (cj Kamopadhasuddha--Welfare officials

(d)

Bhayopadhasuddha--Military officials

48.

What was senabhaktam of the Mauryan period?

(a)

Armoury to store the war materials and weapons

(b)

A fixed commuted tax contributed by the villages

(c)

Payment made to the hired Soldiers by the state

(d) A punitive tax imposed on the people of a region by the army when it passes through the region ;


56. At Jaugada and Dhauli in Orissa, I edicts, known as the Kalinga three of the fourteen Major Rock f are the missing edicts? (a) (b) (c) (d) 57.

MREs I, II and III MREs IV, V and VI MREs XI, XII and XIII MREs VII, VIII and IX Which one of the following Asok known as the Queen's Edict?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 58.

Major Pillar Edict V Minor Pillar Edict III Minor Pillar Edict I Major Pillar Edict II Markets for commodities in the I were known as

(a) kharavatika (c) pradesa 59.

(b) vahU (d) party

Match List I with List II and self using the codes given below the I

49. Consider the following lists: List I List II (I) Asvadhyaksha Cavalry (II) Ayudhagaradhyaksha Armoury (III) Hastyadhyaksha Infantry (IV) Padadhyaksha Elephant corps (V) Rathadhyaksha Navy Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) I, II, III and IV (c) II, III and V 50.

(d) I and II

The hereditary soldiers of the Mauryan period were known as

(a) bhritakas (b) maula (c) vardhaki

(d) atav/va/a

51. What is the descending order of the following military officials of the Mauryan period? (i) Adhyaksha (ii) Mukhya (iii) Nayaka

(iv) Prasasta

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, iii, ii and i (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c~) ii, iv, \ and iii

(d} i, iii, iv and ii

52. Kantakasodhanas crt Xhe Mauryan period were (a) royal treasuries (b) civil courts (c) criminal courts (d) police stations 53.

Which one crt \he fo\\owr\cj was uoX a source o1

Vati \sv'tofii\K'S!>K^«\ ^fiftotfl (a) Dharma (b) Prajavakya (c) Rajasasana (d) Vyavahara 54. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists: List I (I) (II) (III)

Dronamukha Kharavatika Sangrahana (N)Sthaniya Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) List II

I-D, IIC, I-C, II-A, I I-A, II-C, I I-B, II-C, I

(A) (B) (C)

800 villages 400 villages 200 villages

(D)

10 villages

II-A, IV-B II-D, IV-B II-D, IV-B II-D, IV-A 55. Dauvarika of the Mauryan period was the (a) (b) (c) (d) List I

Warden of the Palace Controller of ttoyal Household Jail Superintendent Head of the Department of Foreign Affairs List II

(\) Antiyoka (A) Aiexar\der| (\\) Antitarii

(B) AorAioclnusf

(III) Alikasudara

Ûsfoa (V) Turamaya Syria (C) AntigonuSjjj Ma ^ VfcMsa
I-E, II-B, III-C, IV-D, VA I-A, II-E, III-C, IV-D, VB I-B, II-C, III-A, IV-D, WE I-C, II-A, III-B, IV-D, WE Asokan Edicts refer to the Ban

(a) (b) (c) (d) 61.

Khalatika Hills Priyadarsi Hills Nagarjuni Hills Chandasoka Hills In which edict did Asoka 'Asokaraja'?

(a) (b)

Minor Rock Edict I at Mask Minor Rock Edict I at Guji

(c)

Mirer Rock Edict II at Karnataka

(d)

Minor Rock Edict II at Ye


okan Edicts

I*' ttv. ''Which of the following sources describe Mauryas as sudraprayastadharmikah? (a) Jatakas (b) Dharmasastras (c) Puranas (d) Vamsathapakasini What is the name of the Ajivika fortuneteller residing at Bindusara's court, who when Asoka was born prophesied that he would become king? (a) Satadhanvan

(b) Sauryavarman

(c) Pippalivahana (d) Pingalavatsa Who among the following has been identified as the mother of Asoka by the Asokavadana, an important Buddhist source? (a) Subhadrangi (b) Kosaladevi (c) Yashodhara

(d) Janapada Kalyani

Who was the eldest son of Bindusara who failed to suppress a revolt in Taxila and hence was superseded by his younger brother Asoka? (a) Tissa

(b) Susima

(c) Nemita

(d) Sariputta

In which major rock edict did Asoka mention officers who have amongst their other func tions the superintending of welfare of the fami lies of his brothers, sisters and other relations? (a) II (b) III (c) V (d) VII

Who among the sons of Asoka was the only one to be mentioned by name in the edicts? (a) Mahendra (b) Tivara (c) Kunala

(d) Jalauka

Who is the queen of Asoka, mentioned in the Queen's Edict, as making religious and charitable donations? (a) Asandhimitta

(b) Padmavati

(c) Vidisamahadevi (d) Karuvaki Charumati, one of the daughter's of Asoka, married Devapala, a Kshatriya of (a) Ceylon (b) Nepal (c) Vanga

(d) Kamarupa

In which edict did Asoka refer to himself as the King of Magadha', a title which he used only on one occasion? (a) Bhabra Edict

(b) Mask! Edict

(c) Barabar Cave Edict (d) Gujarra Edict 71. Of all the events of Buddhism mentioned in the Buddhist sources, the only one that appears to be corroborated by the inscriptions of Asoka is that of the: (a) (b)

holding of the Third Buddhist Council sending of Buddhist missionaries to different parts of the world

(c) purge of the Buddhist Sangha (d) compilation of the Abhidhamma Pitaka 72. Which one of the following places does not have the famous Schism Edict of Asoka, in which he speaks emphatically of the continued unity of the Buddhist Sangha and the expulsion of dissident monks and nuns? (a) Allahabad (b) Sanchi (c) Sarnath

(d) Sahasram

73.

Which one of the following pairs is not correct?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Aparantaka--Yona Dhammarakhita Yona--Maharakkhita Suvarnabhumi--Sona and Uttara Lanka--Mahadeva

74. Which one of the following is the only Asokan inscription which makes a clear reference to taxation? (a) Major Rock Edict VI (b) Rummindei Pillar Inscription (c) Kalinga Edicts (d) Brahmagiri Minor Rock Edict I 75. Who among the following queens of Asoka, according to the Mahavamsa, injured the bodhi tree by piercing it with a poisonous thorn? (a) Asandhimitta

(b) Padmavati

(c) Tissarakkha

(d) Gautami

76.

In the Mauryan period, pariharaka meant vil lages that

(a) (b) (c) (d)

were exempted from taxation supplied soldiers paid their taxes in kind supplied services and dairy produce in lieu of taxes

77. In the Mauryan period, the free labourers working for a regular wage in the guilds were known as (i) bhritakas or bhatakas (ii) kupyas (iii) karamkaras

(iv) jethakas

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and Hi (c) iii and iv

(d) iii only


78. The digging of wells at every eight kos (which is a distance of about nine miles) is stated by Asoka in the (a) (b) (c) (d) 79.

Major Rock Edict II : Major Rock Edict VI Kalinga Edicts Major Pillar Edict VII Consider List I and List II

List I List II (I) Voharikamahamatta Judicial Officer (II) Senahayakamatiarhatta Military Officer (III) Sabbatihakarriahamatia Chief Minister (IV) Doriamapakamahamatia Assessment ;';':'';'' ' '" :!;':"' 'officer Which of the above correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, Hand iii (d) All of them 80. The amta-maharnattas of the Asbkan Edicts who were the equivalents of the amtapalas of the Arthasastra were the superintendents of '. '.

..

(a) commerce (b) weaving (c) tolls

(d) slaughterhouses

81. Who among the following was not a Greek ambassador staying at the Mauryart court? (a) Megasthenes (b) Diodorus (c) Deimachus (d) Dtonysius 82.

Which one of the following sources states that Srinagar was built by Asoka?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 83.

Kalhana's Rajatarangini Divyavadana Taranatha's History of Tibet Mahavamsa Which one of the following pairs is not cor rect?

(a) (b)

A/aga/awyoha/a/ca---City Magistrates Ganikadhyaksha--Superintendent of Prostitutes

(c)

Ithijhakhamahamatta--Superintendent of Women of the Harem

(d)

Suradhyaksha--Superintendent of Agriculture

84. Asoka's statement--Sawe Imun/sse pa/a mama-^~ is found in the Major Rock Edict: (a) III (b) VI (c) VIII

(d) IX

85. Samprati, the son of Kunala, \ Jainism by (d) ;\Sfl 86.

f:j (a) Harisena (b) Ji (c) Suhastin ,

Which one of the following Bu us information about the origin ,i

,(a) Jatakas

(b) /

(c) Vamsatbapakasini (d) 87.

Which of the following Jaina \ the conversion of Chandragu Jainism?

(a)

Purvas , (b), (c) Angas ;, (d)

88. When and by whom were. the / tions deciphered for the first tin (a).1787---John Tower i id (b) (c) (d) 89.

1810-rHarry Smith 1825--Charles Metcalfe 1837--James Prinsep ; of, Which of the following inscrip Dasaratha, one of the later Mauri

(a) (b) (c)

Priyadarsi Inscription at Tax Sohgaura Copper Plate I Nagarjuni Hill Cave Ins

(d) 90.

Junagarr* Rock Inscription > Which of the following sourceS'il Mauryas as belonging to the

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Puranas Jatakas Purvas European Classical Writers ' °'^

91. Who among the following credits! conquering the 'land between thel (a) Megasthenes (b) Tairand (c) Kautitya (d) Visa 92. Who among the following Maiir entered into a marriage alliance v Nikator, the Greek ruler of West i

(a) Chandragupta Maurya (b) Asoka (c) BindUsara (d) Dasaratha 93: Who among the following wasn! ambassador of Antiochus I of Syria1! court of Bindusara? (a) Megasthenes (b) Dfc (c) Deîmachus

(d) Antij

The Mauryan Empire AT65

t was converted; t

ife ;.. ; : .. aipala , kVimala dhist works giv (J of the Mauryas? tia Nikaya avadana i talks at upta Maurya

ifj$/stepan/an ngas ?,, (Asokan inscrip 6?

belongs as?

describe tti i vama?

dusara \ S*f»o seas'? athfc khadatta efnperor i Seleucua a?

1 the Gr i'sent to i

i?Hn 1915 an Inscription, which showed that Asoka used 'Piyadassi' as his second name, was discovered. This epkjfaphic evidence was corroborated by a literary evidence. Pick it out from the following: ; (a) Divyavadana

(b) Dipavamsa

yiB(o) 'Gulavamsa

(d) Mahavamsa

Who was the minister to help Asoka in the war , of succession against his brothers? I? (s)! Vlshnugupta (b) Radhagupta } -VasOgupta (d) Upagupta [KWftfch Ceylonese ruler is said to h&ve-modi Celled himself on the lines of Asoka?
(d) Ranasinghe

Fjotlnder the influence of which Buddhist monk did Asoka become an ardent supporter of Buddhism? Ki) Upagupta (b) Upali <{e)f Radhagupta

(d) Nagasena

cAfter Asoka the Mauryan empire came to be :{. divided into western and eastern parts. During the reign of which later Mauryan ruler was there a reunification of the two parts? 9â);,Dasaratha (b) Salisuka (c) Brihadratha

(d) Samprati

Which major rock edict of Asoka clearly the importance of efficient organisa tion of administration? (a) .First, ; (b) Fourth '(c) Sixth

(d) Eight

3 Which of the following Mauryan officials can be equated with the modem day collector of a district? I (a) Samharta (b) Sthanika f{c) Rajuka

(d) Gopa

i among the following looked after judicial tinistration in the urban areas? L{a) Mahmatras

(b) Nagarikas

t$ Ytiktas

(d) Rajukas

I'Which of the following classes is conspicuous t elJy its absence in the list of seven classes given by Megasthenes for India? : Cultivators

(b) Traders

^'Philosophers (d) Artisans | Which major rock edict contains a summary as I as Sn explanation of Asoka's dhamma? |
(d) Eleventh

104. How many spokes are there in the dharnmachakra symbol adopted frorri the capital of the Sarnath Pillar of Asoka by the Indian Government as part of its state emblem and also as the chakfa of the national flag? (a) Fifteen

(b) Twenty

(c) Twenty-four

(d) Thirty-six

105. Which of the following Buddhist stupas is said to have been originally built in brick by Asoka? (a) (b) (c) (d) 106.

Sanchi stupa Bharhut stupa Amaravati stupa Nalanda stupa Which of the following religions was patronised by Bindusara?

(a) (b) (c)

Buddhism JainiSm Brahmanism (d)Ajivlkasetit

107.

Which of the following statements about Arthasastra are true?

(I) It is a treatise on Mauryan political economy and administration. (ii) It is divided into 15 adhikaranas or books. (ill) Its date and authorship is a fully established fact beyond any controversy.

(iv) Its evidence is unfortunately hot corroborated by any other source. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii and iii (d) i and ii 108. Which of the following statements about the Indica of Megasthenes is/are incorrect? (i) It is available in its original. (ii) It gives a detailed account of the town and military administration of the Mauryas. (iii) It divides the Mauryan society into seven classes, (iv) It attests to the prevalence of slavery and usury in India during the Mauryan period. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) only i (b) i and ii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv


109.

Which of the following statements about Asokan edicts are true?

(i) Majority of them describe his relationship with Buddhism and the Sangha. (ii) All of them are written in the Prakrit language. (iii) Brahmi was the script used in all of them. (iv) Their evidence is corroborated by that of several literary sources. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) ii and iv (c) i and iii 110.

(d) iii and iv

Which of the following statements about Mauryan coinage is/are incorrect?

(i) Mauryas issued a number of silver and copper punch-marked coins and also some silver bar coins. (ii) They can be easily ascribed to particular Mauryan kings. (iii) They enable us to know the economic conditions of the Mauryan period. (iv) The symbols on the Mauryan coins are definitely official markings. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) only i

(b) only ii

(c) ii and iii

(d) ii and iv

111. Asoka's death was followed by the division of the Maurya empire into two parts under sepa rate rulers. Pick the correct answer from among the following. (i) Devavarman in the eastern part

(ii) Dasaratha in the eastern part (iii) Kunala in the western part (iv) Salissuka in the eastern part Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iv

(b) i and ii

(c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

112.

Arrange the following later Mauryas in chrono logical order.

(i) Devavarman

(ii) Satadhanvan

(iii) Brihadratha

(iv) Dasaratha

(v) Samprati ' (vi) Salisuka Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, v, vi, i, ii, iii

(b) ii, iii, iv, v, i, vi

(c) iii, iv, i, v, vi, ii

(d) v, ii, i, iii, vi, iv

113.

Which of the following areas by Chandragupta Maurya? (i) Ganges valley

(ii) North-western India (iii) Central India up to Narmada (iv) Deccan Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii i (c) i, ii, iii and iv 114.

(d) All oft

Which of the following southern clearly mentioned in the Asokan in

(i) Cholas (ii) Pallav (iii) Pandyas (iv) Keralap (v) Satyaputras (vi) Vishnu Select the answer from the codes giv (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) i, iii, ivi (c) ii, iii, iv and v (d) iii, iv, v aH 115.

Which of the following tribal specifically mentioned in the Artha

(i) Kambojas (ii) Sakyas« (iii) Vrijis x

(iv) Pancha

(v) Shahiyas Select the answer from the codes gi\ (a) i, Hand iii (b) ii, iii and I (c) i, iii and iv (d) iii, iv an 116.

Arrange the following Mauryan cials in the ascending order:

(i) Pradesika (ii) Sthanika^ (iii) Samharta (iv) Rajuka I* Choose the answer from the code below: (a) iv, i, iii, ii (b) i, iii, iv, ii (c) iii, i, ii, iv (d) ii, iv, i, iii 117.

Which of the following statements guilds of the artisans of the Mauryan | true?

(i) They came into existence for the 1 during the Mauryan period, (ii) Their members enjoyed certain performed certain duties as well. /| (iii) Wages of their members were deb according to both the quality and I tity of work, (iv) Fines and penalties were given for.| or fraudulent work.


123. 124. e conquered .! Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and lii (b) II, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them Which of the following animals are represented on the abacus of the capitals of the Sarnath pillar of Asoka? (i) Elephant

(ii) Tiger

(iii) Horse

(iv) Bull

(v) Rhinoceros (vi) Lion |l Select the answer from the codes given below: t.(a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, iv and v te(c) i, iii, iv and vi

(d) iii, iv, v and vi

Which of the following statements about the Bi; capital of the Sarnath pillar of Asoka are true? (I) It consists of four lions standing back to back, four different animals with four chakras in between them on the abacus, and the bell-shaped lotus, (ii) It has been adopted by the Government of India as its state emblem, ^(iii) The state emblem shows only three lions (the fourth being hidden from view) and one chakra in between a bull and a horse on the abacus with the outlines of two more chakras being shown on the extreme sides. ; (iv) The inverted or the bell-shaped lotus present in the original pillar capital is omitted in the state emblem, (v) The state emblem also has the words satyameva jayate from the Mundaka Uanishad inscribed in the Devanagari script below the abacus.

the answer from the codes given

['(«) All of them

(b) i, ii, iii and iv

c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, iii and v

i List I with List II and choose the answer i using the codes given below: List I (Mauryan art) Yaksi II) Yaksa I) Chauri-bearer

Iv) Elephant List II (Places) (A) (B) (C)

Dhauli in Orissa Besnagar in MP Parkham near Mathura

(D) Didarganj in Bihar Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (b) i-B, ii-C, iiiD, iv-A (c) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (d) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C 121.

Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?

(a)

Jatakas--Mauryan chronology and genealogy

(b)

Puranas--Asoka's efforts to spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka

(c)

Dipavamsa--Socio-economic conditions of Mauryan period

(d)

Digha Nikaya--Influence of Buddhist ideas on Mauryan polity

122.


List I (i) Fourteen major rock edicts

(ii) Several minor rock edicts (iii) Seven major pillar edicts

(iv) Four minor pillar edicts List II (A)

Personal history of Asoka

(B)

Various principles of Asoka's dhamma

(C)

Signs of Asoka's fanaticism to dhamma

(D)

Anti-brahmanical measures of Asoka

(E)

Appendixes to rock edicts

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D (b) i-E, ii-A, iiiC, iv-D (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-E Which of the following pairs is correctly matched? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Dhammamahamattas--Major Rock Edict III Dhammayatras--Major Rock Edict V Yuktas--Major Rock Edict VIII Rajukas--Major Pillar Edict IV Consider List I and List I!:

List I (i) Samharta

(ii) Sannidhata (iii) Yuktas

(iv) Rajukas List II Chief collector of revenue at the centre Chief treasurer of the centre In charge of the revenue administration of a division Subordinate officials doing clerical work at the district level


(v) Pradesikas District officials doing surveying and assessing of land and dispensing justice in rural areas Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iand ii (b) Hand iii (c) i, Hi and v (d) iii, iv and v 125. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List I (i) Gopas (ii) Sthanikas (iii) Nagarikas (iv) Pulisanisand (v) Gahapatis List II (A)

Heads of the cities

(B)

Spies and secret agents

(C) (D)

Revenue collectors' at the inter mediate level Accountants at the intermediate Pativedakas level

(E)

Entrepreneurs who acted as finan ciers to cultiva tors

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-E, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, vC i-D, ii-C, Hi-A, iv-B, we i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vB i-B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-C, v-D 126. Match the .following:

Listl (Major Rock Edicts) (i) First List II (Contents) (ii) Second (iii) Third (iv) Fourth (A)

Courtesy to relation and elders, consid eration for animals

(B)

Respect to Brahmins

(C)

Measures of social welfare

(D)

Relationship between servants and masters & proper treatment of pris oners

(v) Fifth (E)

Prohibition of ani mal sacrifices and festive gatherings

Select the ariswer from the i (a) (b) we

HD,ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vC i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B, v-A (C) HE, H-C, lii-B, iv-A, vD (d) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D,

127. Match the following: List! (Major Rock Edicts) | (i) Sixth

(ii) Seventh (B)C6fi
war' (C) (iv) Ninth

(A)S^

add (D) Atl tessi and i V(E) Neetf3 (v) Thirteenth

'' '..:.':. sects Select the answer from the below: ''" (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, v-B I i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vC t-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C, we i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A, vD


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion' (A) (R) are correct, and if (R) is the i nation or justification for (A). Mark (b) if both (A) and (R) are < is not the correct explanation or just| "(A). "' '.;;/;,,.: :.,....: Mark (c) if only (A) is correct. Mark (d) if only (R) is correct, 128. Assertion; Archaeological sources, ally more reliable than literary souri Reason: There is less scope for tan interpolation in the archaeologici than in the literary sources. 129.

Assertion: Mauryas are said to from a region which was full of peac


Reason: There is unanimity among all the sources about the Kshatriya origin of the Mauryas. Assertion: Under Bindusara the Mauryan empire came to consist of even the southernmost parts of India. Reason: The early Tamil texts mention the Mauryan invasion of the far south, including Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Assertion: Asoka was converted to Buddhism ^ immediately after the Kalinga war in about 260 BC. Reason: One of the Asokan edicts, namely the Bhabra inscription, clearly states that Asoka was converted to Buddhism two and half years after the Kalinga war. Assertion: A branch of the original pipal tree under which the Buddha had attained nirvana is said to be surviving till today in Sri Lanka. Reason: The parent bodhi tree in India was destroyed a long time back. Assertion: Under Asoka, Mauryan monarchy became paternal despotism. Reason: Major Rock Edict VI shows Asoka

remarking, 'All men are my children.' Assertion: During the Mauryan period even the kings faced a great amount of insecurity. Reason: According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta Maurya did not sleep for two nights successively in the same bed room. Assertion: Asoka made repeated reference to the concept of svarga and styled himself as the 'Devanampiya'. Reason: Asoka's dhamma was nothing but reformed Brahmanism. Which from of Prakrit was uniformly used by Asoka in almost all his inscriptions? (a) Magadhi

(b) ArdhaMagadhi

(c) Suraseni

(d) Maharashtri

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List II Manshera (A) (B) List I (i) Shahbazgarhi and Brahmi script

Greek and Aramaic scripts (C) Kharosthi script (ii) Dhauliand Jaugada (iii) Jalalabad and Kandahar Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C (b) i-B, ii-C, iii-A (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-A

(d) iC,iiA,iiiB

138. Which one of the following Asokan edicts is also known as the Bhabra Inscription? (a) Bairat Minor Rock Edict III (b) Brahmagiri Minor Rock Edict I (c) Kaisi Major Rock Edict IV (d) Mask! Minor Rock Edict I 139. How many cave inscriptions of Asoka have been found in the caves of the Barabar Hills? (a) Two (b) Three (c) Four 140.

(d) Six

Who is the Maurya known to us exclusively from the Barabar Cave Inscriptions?

(a) Bindusara (b) Kunala (c) Dasaratha (d) Brihadratha 141. Who was the brother-in-law of Chandragupta Maurya according to the Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I? (a) Vainyagupta

(b) Pushyagupta

(c) Purugupta (d) Radhagupta 142.

Copies of the three Minor Pillar Edicts have been found at:

(i) Sanchi

(ii) Sarnath

(iii) Rummindei

(iv) Nigliva

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i and ii (c) ii and iii 143.

(d) i, ii and iv

Which of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) Maski version of Minor Rock Edict I--Asoka's reference to himself as a 'BuddhaSakya' (b) Bhabra Minor Rock Edict II--His confession of faith in and reference to the Buddhist Trinity (c) Sarnath Minor Pillar Edicts--His anxiety for the maintenance of the integrity of the Bliddhist Sangha (d)

Two Kalinga Major Rock Edicts--His dedication of shelter for monks

144.

Consider the following statement of Asoka: 'Sawe munisha pa/a mama.'

This is found in (a) (b) (c) (d)

Major Rock Edict V Major Rock Edict IX Major Rock Edict VI Major Rock Edict XIII


145.

Which of the following statements about Chandragupta Maurya is incorrect?

(a) He belonged to the Moriya tribe. (b) He is said to have dethroned the last Nanda ruler, Dhana Nanda, and occupied Pataliputra. (c) Chandragupta and his followers are superior in arms to Dhana Nanda and his soldiers. (d)

Once Gangetic valley came under Chandragupta he moved on to the northwest.

146.

Which of the following statements is incorrect?

(a)

Kautilya was Chandragupta's guide and mentor.

(b)

Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara.

(c) Chandragupta was known to the Greeks as 'Amitrochates', the destroyer of foes. (d) Chandragupta is said to have died of slow starvation in south India. 147.

According to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Asoka's favourite deity was

(a) Siva

(b) Vishnu

(c)

Vasudeva

(d) Buddha

148.

Which of the following statements is incorrect about Kautilya?

(a)

Kautilya has advocated the use of torture for extorting confessions.

(b) Kautilya refers to 18 different kinds of torture including seven varieties of whipping. (c) In certain cases the victims were 'subjected to one or all of the 18 kinds of tortures'. (d)

The torture of women is opposed by Kautilya.

149. Which of the following gives information that Kalinga is the only conquest of Asoka and after that he stood for dhammavijaya? (a)

Major Pillar Edict II

(b) (c) (d) 150.

Major Rock Edict XIII Minor Rock Edict II Major Rock Edict XI Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below:

List I (i) Mahadevi (ii) Sanghamitra (iii) Subhadrangi (iv) Susima List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Asoka's mother Asoka's wife Asoka's daughter Asoka's brother

(a) (b) (c) (d) 151.

i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A It is said that when Bindusara died! tured the throne with the help f headed by

(a) Radhagupta

(b) Vis

(c) Vishnugopa

(d) Tis

152.

In which edict or inscription,

his faith in Buddha, Dhamma andl called the Buddha a Bhagavat? (a) Kalinga Edicts (b) Rummindei Minor Pillar Edict (c) Maski Minor Rock Edict I (d) Bhabra Minor Rock Edict 153. 'Just as for my children, I desin should enjoy all happiness and pn in this world and the next. So desire the like happiness and is stated in (a) (b) (c) (d) 154.

Barabar Cave Inscriptions Minor Rock Edicts Tarai Pillars Kalinga Inscriptions Who among the following started use of stone for monuments?

(a)

Chandragupta Maurya

(b) (c) (d) 155.

Bimbisara Bindusara Asoka Which of the following statements^ rect?

(a)

Prices were controlled to prev a profit on the part of the men

(b) (c)

The percentage of profit is ge There was a well-developed tern.

(d)

The rate of interest on bori varied between fifteen and sixty?) per annum.

156.

Tamil poets speak of Mauryan dering across the land, their penna

in the sunshine. What was the colou pennants? (a) White

(b) Blue

(c) Saffron

(d) Yellow


ira died,, help of

Vishnugup ; Tishya k Asoka landSar,

esire that ' prosperity] for a/I specify.'

I the ger

is inc

nt too gr nt. "y fixedii "king sys-|

moneyj 1 per cent;

thuni brilliant of the 9ns various contemporaries in one Options with whom he exchanged "diplomatic and otherwise. Which of I is not one of them? hius II Theos tiemes

' III Philadelphus rius Gonatus Itene of the following statements is incor-as, and Buddhist and Jaina literature i information about Mauryas. i is a lot of disagreement in the infer-on about Mauryas in different sources. I All the Puranas do not agree even on a sin| gle point about Mauryas. I The evidence for the later Mauryas is very meagre. was the queen that opposed the dinary generosity of Asoka to the dhists? I) Tissarakkha b) Asandhimitta Padmavati |d) Divyatejita lich book states Bindusara as an anointed iKshatriya? â) Mahabhashya (b) Divyavadana tt) Mahavamsa ^(d) Maghadutam 'We neither oppose the prince, nor the king, but the wicked ministers who oppress us.' these words were stated by (a) the people of Ujjain (b) the people of Taxila (c) the Mahamattas (d) the Rajukas Asoka says: The people who behaved well would attain --.' (a)

siddha sila

(b) moksha (c) nirvana (d) svarga

J63. The mantriparishad played a very important fo., role in the Mauryan period. Which one of the f 8< following is incorrect about its functions? i, (a) To decide matters in the absence of the king (b)

To keep a watch on the conduct of war

(c)

To implement the decisions taken by the king and the parishad

(d) To keep a vigil on the entire administration 164. Which material was extensively used in the construction work during the Mauryan Age? (a) Wood (b) Burnt bricks (c) Stone

(d) Sun-dried bricks

165.

Which of the following helped in the spread of material culture under Mauryas?

(i) Administrators (ii) Traders (iii) Jaina monks (iv) Buddhist monks Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

166. 'It is not possible to record with accuracy the number of Mauryan cities on account of their multiplicity.' Who stated this? (a) Arrian (b) Justin (c) Heliokles (d) Megasthenes 167. The Mauryas appointed a number of officials for different duties. But one section of officials outnumbered the rest. Identify that section, (a) Welfare (b) Military (c) Justice (d) Revenue 168. According to Kautilya's Arthasastra, amatyas and other higher officials are to be appointed only after subjecting them to some tests. Which of the following is not one of them? (a) (b) (c) (d) 169.

Greed for money Weakness for women Spiritual level Test of courage Asoka's dhamma can be best described as:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 170.

corrupt Buddhist dhamma a religious approach to social problems socioethical code of conduct modified form of Dharmasastras Who was the Persian that was appointed by Asoka to administer Saurashtra?

(a) Justin

(b) Plutarch

(c) Deimachus (d) Tusaspa

A172 I Indian History: Ancient India

171. Which of the following statements are correct? (i) The use of burnt bricks was a boon as it lead to the flowering of towns, (ii) Logs of wood were used as defence line against flood and foreign invasion, (iii) The ring-wells which first appeared during the Mauryan period helped in founding settlements away from river banks, (iv) The ring wells also served as soakage pits in congested settlements. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) i, Hand iii (d) All of them 172. Who was the Bactrian king that invaded India in about 182 bc and wrested a considerable part of the northwest? (a) Demetrius (b) Antigonus (c) Philadelphia

(d) Gondophemes

173. Which one of the following statements is incor rect about administration under Asoka? (a)

Asoka appointed all his officials from the Sudra varna.

(b) He appointed dhammamahamattas for the temporal and spiritual welfare of his subjects. (c) Asoka granted independence to the rajukas in the award of honours and pun ishments to discharge their duties confi dently and fearlessly. (d)

He allowed pativedakas to inform him about urgent public matters at all times.

174.

Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Apachiti

(A) Gentleness

(ii) Mardavan (B) Self-control

(iii) Samyama (C) Respect to pupils (iv) Apabhahdata and gurus (D) Savings Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (b) i-C, ii-B, iiiA, iv-D (c) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (d) i-C. ii-B, iii-D, iv-A 175. The Asokan inscriptions mention the nagalaviyohalaka (nagaravyoharika) mahamattas and refer to them largely as (a) trade officials

(b) judicial officials

(c) military officials (d) census officials 176. Who was the Delhi Sultan who 1 Asokan pillars, originally located i Topra, to Delhi? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Muhammad bin Tughluq Firuz Shah Tughluq SherShah Alauddin Khalji

177. Asoka was stationed as viceroy i the time of Bindusara's death at (a) Taxila (b) Suvan (c) Ujjain (d) Tosali ,| 178.

Which one of the following has noti tioned as asineva in Asokan i

(a) Greed and passion (b) Cruelty and anger (c) Pride and fury (d) Envy and revenge 179. The use of currency became a fair feature of the Mauryan Age. Which i following is not a field where money i extensively? (a) Trade

(b) Taxes

(c) Payment of salaries (d) Don


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion' (A) and (R) are correct, and if (R) is the con nation or justification for (A). Mark (b) if both (A) and (R) are correct,] is not the correct explanation or justific (A). Mark (c) if only (A) is correct. Mark (d) if only (R) is correct. 180.

Assertion: Foreigners were welc Pataliputra.

Reason: The municipality in the city I cial committee to look after the welfare*! eigners. 181.

Assertion: The slaughter of the Asoka is a silly fiction.

Reason: Asoka refers to the harems brothers in his fifth Rock Edict, which | issued not earlier than the fourteenth year.

L*-


..Assertion: Kautilya shared the popular superstitions of his time. Reason: Kautilya advises the king to avert eight specific kinds of providential visitations, viz. fire, flood, pestilences, famine, rats, snakes, tigers and demons. Assertion: Asoka was consecrated four years after his accession to the throne. Reason: Coronation was delayed for some four years as priests advised him not to celebrate the coronation. 184. Assertion: Rate of usury for loans involving long sea voyages was as high as sixty per cent. Reason: Long sea voyages were not consid ered secure. 185.

Assertion: The city of Taxila revolted twice during the Mauryan period.

Reason: The Mauryan emperors were despots.

ANSWERS

i.(d) 2.(b) 5. (c) ^^H

3.

(a)

4.

6. ™-(d) Mb) 8. (a) 9.(cl 11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. 21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. 31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (d) 34. (a}1 41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. 51. (a) 52. (c) 53. (b) 54. (c)1 61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. 71. (c) 72. (d) 73. (d) 74. 81. (b) 82. (a) 83. (d) 84. 91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (c) 94. 101. (a) 102. (b) 103. 107. (d) 108. (d) 111. (c) 112. (a) 113. 117. (b) 118. (c) 121. (d) 122. (c) 123. 127. (a) 128. (a) 131. (d) 132. (b) 133. 137. (d) 138. (a) 141. (b) 142. (a) 143. 147. (a) 148. (d) 151. (a) 152. (d) 153. 157. (b) 158. (c) 161.(b) 162. (d) 163. 167. (d) 168. (c) 171. (d) 172. (a) 173. 177. (c) 178. (a) 181. (a) 182. (a) 183. A174

(c)

--

(b) (c) (a)

15. (b) 16. 25. (b) 26. 35. (b) 36.

(c) (a) (a)

17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (8| 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (al 37. (c) 38. (c) 39.

(c) (d)

45. (b) 46. 55. (a) 56.

(a) (c)

47. (c) 48. (d) 49. (d)| 57. (b) 58. (d) 59.

(a) 65. (b) (b) 75. (c) (b) 85. (c) (d) 95. (b) (d) 104. 109. (b) (a) 114. 119. (a) (d) 124. 129. (c) (a) 134. 139. (b) (d) 144. 149. (b) (d) 154. 159. (a) (b) 164. 169. (c) (a) 174. 179. (b) (c) 184.

66. 76. 86. 96. (c)

(c) 67. (b) (a) 77. (b) (c) 87. (b) (c) 97. (a) 105. (a)

68. (d) 78. (d) 88. (d) 98. (d) 106.

69. (b) 79. (d) 89. (c) 99. (c) (d)

(b)

115. (c)

116.

(d)

(d)

125. (b)

126.

(c)

(a)

135. (c)

136.

(b)

(c)

145. (c)

146.

(c)

(d)

155. (c)

156.

(a)

(a)

165. (a)

166.

(a)

(c)

175. (b)

176.

(b)

(a)

185. (b)

7 POST-MAURYAN INDIA (BC 2.OO--AD 300)

10. (c) 20. (d) 30. (d) 40. (a) 50. (b) 60. (a) 70. (a) 80. (c) 90. (a) 100. (c) 110. (b) 120. (b) 130. (d) 140. (c) 150. (c) 160. (b) 170. (d) 180. (a)

,-f!

ontrast to the Mauryan period the period 200 bc and 300 ad was an age of small many of them foreign in origin. Hence orthodox historians consider it as the 'Dark But modern historians consider it as the ntile Age of India', because of the thriving s that was carried on during this period. In fact 5 is the factor which lends to this period of seemjconfusion, a consistency and continuity, and this > called 'Dark Age' was in fact one of considerable lie prosperity and cultural synthesis.

SOCIETY: EVOLUTION OF JATIS

faction

\ large number of historians in the past had unques-ningly accepted two assumptions in their studies f ancient Indian society. Firstly, they assumed that ; ancient Indian society remained in a more or less itic state throughout the period, registering only a liarginal

change. Secondly, they took the varna sys'"" to be an actual description of the social funcIpbijing and having a rigidly structured society based Ion a hierarchy of status as one of its essentials. But forth these assumptions have now been questioned. |Areexamination of the evidence suggests periods of f economic change which influenced social institu-' fions as well as other aspects of life.

Certain broad phases of economic change in ancient India can be recognised.

The earliest Vedic literature comes from a back ground of pastoralism giving way gradually to agricultural settlements. Early Buddhist literature suggests a more settled agrarian economy and an emergent commercial urban economy. The post-Maurya period witnessed a series of small kingdoms ruling in various parts of the sub continent and at the* same time a tremendous expansion in both internal and external trade. The Gupta and post-Gupta periods witnessed the beginning of a major change in the agrarian sys term with the assignment of land grants and rev enue grants to both religious and secular assignees resulting in a new politico-economic structure in many parts of the subcontinent.

The changing character of the economic sturcture inhibits any attempt at uniform generalisation about society for the entire period of early India. While the causes which arise from within: a society and which provide a more meaningful picture of social change are less obvious, foreign invasions and migrations are most obviously behind the changes at the level of the elite groups.

The migration of the Aryan-speaking peoples brought in the new Aryan elite.

A175


Though the brief campaign of Alexander did not seriously disturb the centres of powers in the Punjab and Sind, the invasions of the Indo-Greeks, Sakas and Kushanas for two centuries definitely affected Indian society in the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. The impact of the Huna invasions in the 5th century ad was felt as far as the heartland of the Ganges. The migrations of people from Central Asia to northern and western India in the postGupta period produced a even greater impact.

VARNA SYSTEM

Meaning and Features

Ancient Indian society is said to have consisted of four orders (chatur-varna); a fifth order was included later. The first four were the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Sudra, of which the first three were regarded as dvija or twice-born. The fifth order (panchamavarnd) was later identified with the untouchables. According to the Purusasukta in the mandala X of the Rig Veda, the four orders were divinely created and arose out of the great god Prajapati. This imbued the scheme with sanctity and authenticity. The concept ofvarna was closely associated with the concept of dharma in the sense of a universal law. Thus, the varnadharma was the attempt to establish a social law or a systematic functioning of society which would ensure its well-being. To these was added the concept of the asramas or stages of life, giving rise to the notion of varnasramadharma which was sought to be justified and perpetuated with the help of the theory of karma. In the later Vedic and post-Vedic periods we hear of the four-fold division of life into brahmacharin (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (partial retirement) and sannyasin (complete retirement or ascetic life). But this concept of asramas was essentially applicable to the members of the first two,varnas, or at the most to those of the dvija. The whole life of an individual was divided into a series of

samskaras or sacraments. Hisj death are elaborately prescrib for each occasion are clearly 1 The concept of varna characteristic features--status 1 cal ordering of social units and i and ritual purity. Theoretically his varna status in his lifetime.. and numerous castes which other varna are arranged in ranking. Members of a varna can i side their varna nor accept foodl who is of a lower varna. This notio is obviously linked up with birth f Theoretically there were only 1 of improving status. The first was 1 society and becoming an ascetic.' ensuring rebirth in a higher social next life. However, mobility excluded from the scheme of the' mobility was quite easy. Upward more difficult and not open to the could be rendered possible neve group, through a period of time ands facilitated by a change in habitation or | location. It was the concern with ritual status i the theory of varnasamkara (mixed are looked down upon as ritually impu dard Dharmasastra such as that of Manuf castes were occasionally occupational generally those tribes which obviously i ily assimilated into the Aryan society. In these tribal names continue to occur with! identities right up to the early medieval j evident from a comparison of the lists Swn'n' with those of the ethnic groups : the later Puranas. Thus, we are infor Brahmin marrying a Vaishya woman pn dren who are categorised as the Ambastha; t Puranas refer to the Ambastha tribe as deriv origin from the Anava Kshatriyas, the tribal i| remaining intadt. Similarly a Brahmin Sudra woman resulted in a Nisada, which appears to have been an aboriginal tribe. Ev the tribes which were not assimilated had

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AD 300 A177

birth to nonies

I following | hierarchiogamy ichange r varnas ne or the ' of ritual /out-Isomebody h and low lity. bus means |n'ng out of 1 was by i in one's lot totally ownward ' was far vidual. It via the further aphical

lich led to s) which i. In a stan-I the mixed but snoteasstingly > separate f period, as I in Manu itioned in that a i chil-; the later living its 1 identity ring a i in fact-[Evidently to be given a ritual status in the system and thus the theory of mixed castes was worked out.

Origin--Different Theories

According to the first theory all human beings are said to be divided into four categories on the basis of their natural aptitudes and endowments. Some possess high spiritual and intellectual qualities, others fighting qualities, still others producing qualities, and accordingly they are placed in various categories. The varna system is, therefore, based on natural and inherent attributes found in the mankind. But to consider natural qualities of human beings without taking into account the social and material environment in which they are born and nurtured would be highly improper. Such a theory of the ori| gin of the varna system obviously serves the interests of those who want to perpetuate this system. The second theory accounts for the origin of the i varna system in terms of the division of labour. It is | -held that the need for occupational division leading hto more

production and economic efficiency gave I to varnas andjatis. Though there is some truth i this theory, it completely ignores the, hereditary of the varna system. According to the third theory, the varna system is |4ased on notions of purity and impurity. The ritual king of the varnas and Jatis is based on their rels purity. But the exponents of this theory do not : that notions of purity and impurity found in litive and ancient societies outside India did not rily give rise to the varna system. & The fourth theory tries to explain the origin of the i as a legacy from the aboriginal tribal commui of India. According to it every tribe is divided > a number of clans, and members of a clan marry the tribe but outside the clan. But tribes 1 into marriage relations with one another as a t of war and trade. Insistence on marriage within \varna, on the other hand, began because of the of maintaining the privileges of the upper , which automatically barred the lower orders i having social intercourse with the upper castes, ding to the fifth theory, which has gained rity in recent times, the origin and growth of the varna system can be better appreciated if we bear in mind that varna is a form of social differentiation. Since social differentiation arises out of social conflicts and unequal distribution of resources and produce, the origin and growth of the varna cannot be understood without a study of social processes which again are intimately connected with changes in material life.


The society of the Rig Vedic Aryans was essentially tribal, pastoral and almost egalitarian. Spoils of war and cattle constituted the main forms of wealth, and in the absence of a strong food-producing economy they could not create such priests and warriors as would live primarily and permanently on the surplus provided by others. Though inequalities were present, there were still no deep-seated social classes based on the institutionalised unequal distribution of surplus, resources and means of production. Even in the later Vedic period agriculture was not developed enough to enable the peasants to produce much more than then-own needs. Towards the end of Vedic times, however, with more agriculture and the mixing of the Aryans and pre-Aryans, there appeared seventeen kinds of priests to take care of different rituals in public sacrifices, the Brahmin being only one of them. Gradually he superseded all the other types and became the sole representative of the priestly order. Yet social differentiation could not be sharpened in later Vedic period. For, on account of their primitive agriculture, peasants could not produce much for consumption and accumulation by non-producers.

But in the age of the Buddha, with the beginning of the large-scale use of iron tools for crafts and cultivation, conditions were created for the transformation of the tribal, pastoral, almost egalitarian Vedic society into a full-fledged agricultural and class divided social order. Once the forested areas of the middle Ganga basin were cleared with the help of the iron axe, one of the most fertile areas of the world was opened to settlement and agriculture. Peasants produced a good deal more than what they could consume. Agricultural production was

Ai 78 Indian History: Ancient India

supplemented by craft production which not only provided the peasants with tools, and clothing, but also supplied weapons and luxury articles to the rulers and the priests. Members of the three higher varnas were distinguished ritually from those of the fourth varna, who were meant to serve the higher orders as slaves and hired labourers. Thus, the three higher varnas who were 'the twice-born' can be called citizens and the Sudras noncitizens. There also grew distinctions between citizen and citizen. Within the dvija, the First two higher varnas developed contempt for manual work. The Vaishyas, though members of the dvija group, worked as peasants, herdsmen and artisans, and later as traders. More importantly they were the principal tax payers on whose taxes and tributes lived the Kshatriyas and Brahmins. Since both Brahmins and Kshatriyas lived on the taxes, tributes, tithes and labour supplied by the Vaishyas and Sudras, there were occasional conflicts between the top two varnas for the sharing of the social savings. These conflicts were, however, made up in face of the opposition of the lower orders. The ancient texts repeatedly emphasise the need for mutual help and cooperation between the two higher varnas. Around the third century ad a deep social crisis upset the Vaishya-Sudra social formation in particular and the varna system in general. The crisis is clearly reflected in the descriptions of the kali age in those portions of the Puranas which belong to the third and fourth centuries ad. Emphasis on the importance of danda (coercive mechanism) in the Santi Parva and the description of arajaka (anarchy) in the epics possibly belong to the same age and point to the same crisis. Vaishyas and Sudras either refused to stick to the production functions assigned to them or else the Vaishya peasants declined to pay taxes and* the Sudras refused to make their labour available. This made the functioning of the society and state difficult, if not impossible..'" In order to overcome the crisis the practice of land grants was adopted by the rulers on a large scale. Priests and officials were granted land revenues which relieved the state of the responsibility of tax collection and eventually also< nance of law and order in several; dom. The practice was extended to 1 backward areas. These land grants le of material culture and thus incr agricultural production.

In the process land grants Brahmanical fold a large number of a ants who came to be ranked as Sudras.! fore, began to be called peasants and ag late ancient and early medieval texts. skaras (domestic rituals), vratas (relij and thirthas (places of pilgrimage) ca scribed for the Sudras so that ordinary ] even priests of a lower category could) on every occasion. The Sudras could i to the recitation of the epics and the j The castes (jatis) proliferated at a i Gupta and post-Gupta periods. For, mo land grants were made in tribal areas, i was absorbed into the Hindu system as a S We find as many as 61 castes mentioned is Smriti, and more than 100 castes in Bra Parana. Though most of them were trib converted into castes, the Brahmanical explained their origins as a result of mixti the varnas and called them varnasan castes. Similarly the tribal chiefs and rulers were absorbed as second class Brahmanical society, and in the post-i they came to be known as Rajputs. Again in the Gupta and post-Gupta ] liferation of castes took place in Increasing land grants were connected decline of trade and of towns. Since lo were met locally, artisans and traders lost i As a result occupations became hereditary i to be converted into artisanal castes. Thus in!) ancient period there came into existence fa^j conditions for the growth of the Jati or castef

Practice of Varna System

The concept of varna has been held by a | her of scholars to have been largely a model and never an actual description of \

Post-Mauryan India BC 200-AD 300 A179

ation on the varna concept comes largely i ancient Indian Brahmanical law books stras), and the description of it in these fcnot always corroborated, in fact it is occai?en contradicted, by other sources, ninology used for the varnas has its own PThe terms 'Brahmin' and 'Vaishya' are in the sense of people with particular But the terms 'Rajanya' (and later a) and 'Sudras' are either tribal names or alifying a category of tribes. The existence ajanya tribe is attested by both literary (for Panini'sAshtadhyayi) and numismatic l«f the ancient period. The occupational term a', meaning a member of the royal family or I, may be an extended meaning of the original rived from the tribe with an oligarchic sys-fowever, identification of the Sudras with a i no problem whatsoever. For it is explicl in a variety of literary sources, such as the arata, Indica of Megasthenes, Patanjali's shya and several Puranas. The varna cate-N»F Sudras may have originated from the low 6 of this tribe vis-a-vis aryan society. The fact I status of the Sudras was low is clearly indil*by their association with the Nisada, the i and the Malla. at the listing of varna occupations in the Manu W was largely theoretical is suggested by the number of instances provided by non-sastra sources of occupations directly con; with those legitimised by the varna theory. ^Survival of caste is, therefore, partly because of ntinuance of marriage and kinship rules and because the economic relationships are also tetegral part of this structure. distinctions between the four main varnas I the other permutations and combinations like S'mixed castes would have remained very clear I distinct, if the varna system had functioned as a nposed hierarchical layer of social groups, vever, curiously enough, while the identity of the and the panchamavarna (untouchable) is lly clear, references in the Dharmasastras to întermediate groups often appear to be some-t confused, if not contradictory altogether. However, the Buddhist Pali texts provide us with a clear definition of these intermediate groups. Here the four-fold division ofkhattiya, bahamanna, vessa and sudda is recognised in terms of social categories, but not always as actual social units. The first two groups can be identified with actual social units, but the last two are left vague. However, on the basis of this literature, it can be stated that a two-fold division of society into upper and lower categories ukkatthajati and hinajati) constituting the varna had been more commonly in use. The upper category is frequently described as consisting of the khattiya, bahamanna and gahapati. The term khattiya is generally used

for the ruling families of the oligarchies, such as those of the Sakyas, Mallas, and Lichchhavis. The term bahamanna is clearly identified with Brahmin. The term gahapati can also be identified in precise social terms as the affluent householder, though not a member of an actual social unit. It was clear that aspiration to political power could not be strictly limited to the Kshatriya varna, and therefore a concession had to be made. The concession appears to have been that a king of non-Kshatriya origin had to seek validation and be proclaimed of Kshatriya origin and be given an appropriate genealogy. Thus, although in theory kingship was the prerogative of the Kshatriya alone, in practice the office was frequently held by non-Kshatriyas. By seeking validation the ritual status in the Brahmin-Kshatriya relationship was preserved. But this working arrangement took several centuries to evolve and did not come into practice in any significant manner until about the Gupta age. The validation of Kshatriya status was essentially an attempt to acquire the appropriate and legitimate lineage. The first major example of validation occurs in the Puranas. The Vishnu Purana, composed in the Gupta period, lists in its section on dynastic chronicles the various dynasties and kings who were believed to have ruled in northern India from a period of mythological beginning to the coming of the Hunas. The earlier dynasties are all neatly classified into two categories--the Suryavamsi (Sun-Family) and the Chandravamsi (Moon-Family), both


having as their common ancestor the hermaphrodite son of Manu, the primeval man. It is evident from the above discussion that, of the three dvija castes, the Brahmin is the most easily identifiable as a concrete social group. The Kshatriyas as the khattiyas of Buddhist literature had a distinct identity at the time of the Buddha, but later their actual identity becomes vague. The same is true of the last of the dvija castes, the Vaishyas. Although theoretically widely known, it is difficult to find groups which actually recognise themselves as Vaishyas. Nevertheless, there is a large range of castes and occupations which could be included within the theoretical functions of the Vaishya caste. Thus the examination of the changes in the social structure of ancient India involves primarily a consideration of the factors which led to the evolution of a varna based society. But the theoretical model of the varna system could not be rigidly enforced in practice, since it would require a static society for proper functioning.

ASRAMAS

Meaning and Scope

The asramas are four life stages with a graduated course of duties calculated to lead an individual, step by step, towards a realisation of the supreme spiritual ideal. They are stages through which, by intensive exertion and effort of the body and the mind, by acts of religious exercise and austerity, by self-denial and self-discipline, one may bring one's whole self under subjection. The first stage is that of the brahmacharin (the student) who has to study the Vedas so that he may be acquainted with the high standard of spiritual perfection that it should be the ambition of his life to reach, and to pass through a course of rigorous discipline; chastity and continence are specially associated with the brahmacharin. The next stage of life is that of the grihastha or householder, the mainstay of the whole social structure, and his most imperative duties are to set up a family, to beget offspring, and to progress towards the ideal by sacrifice, worship, charity, and renunciation.

Placed, as he is, in an envir unfavourable to spiritual growth, the

In the Rig Veda, the ovrama-stages are tioned as such, but the institutions of the


r and ascetic are already there. In the ear; we find the same state of things, but r them the asramas taking a more definite i not yet fully developed, stem of life-stages developed in the is found in full operation at the time Vedic Kalpasutras were composed. It t the fourth stage of the ascetic, as afford-aities for reaching the highest state, was i popularity in spite of its rigour, and it t many persons were embracing it, without ough the regular sequence prescribed for s. In fact, according to some social leg-pj'.'on the completion of the duties of stu-one is declared free to enter any of the » at one's pleasure. Thus a student has the iof staying in his own asrama up to the last phis life as a perpetual and professed student brahmachariri), or he may become a alder, a hermit in the forest, or an ascetic. indiscriminate admission of men into the B;order from any of the other orders, without gradation through the preceding stages, ely to draw into that order many undesirables I their imperfect discipline were not yet fitted ijthere, and the social legislators felt that this l of immature persons into the order of home-jpwanderers would tend to produce a general ation in the health of the society, and , to disturb the economic foundation of the social structure. They, therefore, insisted t people passing from one order to the next in sequence, sought to press it home that the older was the basis and support that held up I entire social frame, laid down severe punish-i by way of penances for those who failed to »up the standard of purity of the three orders of acharin, vanaprastha, and sannyasin, and t pointed out that it was not indispensable for îndividual to enter formally into the ascetic order, tthat the highest realisation was possible to a per-i who stayed at home, but detached himself from lly pursuits. Manu goes further than the Dharmasutras by Blaring, 'When the householder has paid, accord; to the law, his debts to the great sages, to the manes, and to the gods, let him make over everything to his son and dwell in his house, not caring for any worldly concerns. Let him constantly mediate alone in solitude on that which is salutary for his soul; for he who mediates in solitude attains supreme bliss.' Manu also proclaims distinctly that one who seeks salvation without discharging his

debt to his fathers by begetting children, tumbles down the ladder of life--marches farther off from the goal instead of getting nearer.

SAMSKARAS

The samskaras or sacraments form an important section of the karma-kanda, because they are believed to reform and sanctify the person for whom they are performed, marking various occasions of his life from conception in the mother's womb to the cremation of the body at death; they have influence even beyond death, as they determine the course of the soul.

Meaning of Samskara

The nearest English word by which the term 5am-skara may be translated is sacrament. The common word ceremony does not give the full and precise meaning; for samskara does not mean merely 'an outward rite or observance which is religious or held sacred'. It has been defined as 'a peculiar excellence accruing from the performance of the rites ordained (by the sastras)--an excellence residing either in the soul or in the body'. Thus it may be seen that the Hindu sacraments aimed at not only the formal purification of the body but also at sanctifying, impressing, refining, and perfecting the entire individuality of the recipient, producing a special merit in him.

Scope and Number of Samskaras

The first systematic attempt at describing the samskaras is found in the Grihyasutras. But they do not use the term samskara in its proper and peculiar sense, as they include the samskara proper in the list of the domestic sacrifices. In these Sutras there


seems to be no clear distinction drawn between sacrifices in general and the samskaras performed to sanctify the body and perfect the personality. It is in the Vaikhanasasutras that a clear distinction between the samskaras relating to the body and sacrifices in general is met. The twenty two sacrifices separately mentioned are also included there in the list of the bodily samskaras, but which are, really speaking, daily and occasional sacrifices. The Grihyasutras generally deal with the bodily samskaras beginning with vivaha (marriage) and ending in samavartana (graduation). The majority of them omit antyesti (funeral), perhaps because of impurity and inauspiciousness attached to the dead body; the Grihyasutras of Paraskara, Asvalayana, and Baudhayana have sections dealing with it. The number of samskaras in the Grihyasutras fluctuate between twelve and eighteen. In course of time sixteen became the classical number comprising the following:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Garbhadhana (conception), Pumsavana (engendering a male issue), Simantonnayana (parting the hair), Jatakarman (natal rites), Namakarana (naming), Nishkramana (first outing), Annaprasana (first feeding with boiled rice), Chudakarana (tonsure), Karnavedha (piercing the ear lobes),

10.

Vidyarambha or akshararambha (learning the alphabet),

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Upanayana (holy thread ceremony), Vedarambha (first study of the Vedas), Kesanta (cutting the hair), Samavartana (graduation), Vivaha (marriage), and Antyesti (funeral).

Purpose of Samskaras

The samskaras are first of all based on the simple unquestioned faith of the unsophisticated mind; and so they have a popular import. The Hindus of early times believed that they were i human influences, good or evil;: remove the evil influences by the \ devised for the purpose, and they i ficial ones for affording them the means adopted for the removal < the first was propitiation. When power was propitiated, it turned aV ing the person purified by the samsk means was deception. The evil diverted either by hiding the person < or by offering his substitute. The 1 resort to threat and direct attack=-two methods failed--either by the ] by any one officiating or adminis The gods were also invoked to preve ences reaching the recipient of the i Just as hostile influences were sh pie, favourable influences were < for their benefit. It was believed that < a man's life was presided over by a < fore, whenever occasion arose, invoked to confer boons and blessii concerned. In the next place, samskaras have ( pose governing the evolution of the i they comprehend sacrifices and rites 1 their aim domestic felicity resulting 1 cattle, progeny, long life, wealtl strength, and intellectual vigour. Thou the common run of men, the priest1 the masses, further introduced consid ment in the customs and rites of the i ous ways. He always welcomed and3| material aspirations of the hous attempted to sanctify the members oft and help them in their spiritual growth, J Thirdly, the performance of the samsh the purpose of self-expression. The hou not for ever a terror-stricken beggar ] gods for favours. He performed the sa for expressing his own joys, felicitatio sorrows (as, for instance, the death < various events of life. Apart from the popular and cult served by the samskaras, according to!

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AO 300 A183

|; they helped also in imparting to life a pous sanctity. Impurity associated with i body-real or imaginary--is removed nee of the samskaras. The whole ed and made a fit dwelling place

is still current that a man is born a omes a twice-born (dvija) by the per-Sjf samskaras, by acquiring the Vedic lore 5 a vipra (an inspired poet); and by attain-i he becomes a Brahmin. However, the ' were never regarded as ends by them' were performed to help the growth and Of moral virtues. Gautama, while empha-necessity of undergoing the samskaras, oints out that the samskaras are by them-al in leading man to the ultimate goal e, unless the virtues of the soul (atma-also developed. So the various sam-* performed at different stages of life are !%ith appropriate rules of conduct prescribed

I Samskaras

fe'of a person does not start with his birth; it her back, as it is conditioned by parentage, and environment. Its reformation must : start with conception. The very first sacra-efore is known as garbhadhana, which literally means placing the seed in the womb. I duty of the married couple to approach r in the proper time for the sake of progeny, t the race might continue. Procreation of chil-: regarded as necessary for paying off the ts to the forefathers, and failure to comply with tion of the scripture in this regard was cona sin. Fulfilment of this sacred duty, how-£' entailed physical fitness and psychological ss of the couple, selection of a suitable $ proper regard to the eligibility of the parents, sense of their duty to the race. This sam: is therefore very important from the cultural t of view. 1 the conception is ascertained, the child in Pwomb is consecrated by the second samskara called pumsavana. It was thought necessary that through the treatment of. the pregnant mother the child in the womb should be influenced; and so medical and mental treatment of the mother was prescribed. Pumsavana is performed in the third or fourth month of pregnancy or even later on a day when the moon is in a male constellation,

particularly the tisya-nakshatra. The mother is required to fast on the day, and in the night the sprouts of the banyan tree are pounded, and the juice is dropped into her right nostril with the verses beginning with hiranyagarbhah. The significance of the samskara consists in this: the conjunction of the moon with a male constellation is a symbolic of a male or virile child; hence the term literally means 'male procreation through the stimulation of the foetus'. The third sacrament is called simantonnayana, in which the hairs of a pregnant woman are ceremoniously parted. The purpose of this samskara is symbolic as well as practical. When a woman is in her pregnancy, it is believed, she is attacked by evil spirits, and for her protection proper rites should be performed. The religious intention behind the performance of the samskara is to bring prosperity to the mother and long life to the unborn child. The physiological knowledge of the Hindus was also responsible for instituting this samskara. From the fifth month of pregnancy the mental formation of the child starts. So the pregnant woman is required to take the utmost care to facilitate it by avoiding physical or mental shock to the foetus. Under this samskara detailed rules of eugenics and hygiene are prescribed for the pregnant woman and her husband. One of these rules relates to dohada, which means fulfilling the wishes of the pregnant wife.

Samskaras of Childhood

The second phase in the life of the child starts when it is delivered by the mother, and assumes an independent existence. This occasion is celebrated, and the newborn in consecrated with apt ceremonies. There are a number of accessory rites performed for the safety of the child and the mother. The jatakarman ceremony is made up of several items and is generally performed before the severing


of the navel string. The first item is medhajanana (the generation of the talent), which is performed repeating some formulae. The formulas are repeated while the child is fed with ghee and honey with a thin gold strip--these substances are symbolic of strength and intelligence. This speaks of the high concern of the Hindus for the intellectual wellbeing of the child, which they regarded as their first duty to the child. The second item is ayusya (longevity). All possible instances of long life, such as rishis (seers), pitrus (the manes), Agni (fire), and Soma (moon) are cited before the child, and by this association of thought and through these utterances, it is believed that the life of the baby will be lengthened. The third item relates to sakti (strength). The father dramatically tells the babe, 'Thou indeed art the self called son; live though a hundred years.' Next the umbilical cord is severed, and the child is washed and given an opportunity of sucking the breast of the mother. The name-giving ceremony, namakarana, comes next. The choice of a name for the child is often connected with religious ideas, though there are also other considerations. The Grihyasutras discuss the composition of the name. According to the Paraskara Grihyasutra, the name should be of two or four syllables beginning with a sonant, with a semivowel in it, and a long vowel or visarga at the end. Other Grihyasutras give varying suggestions. The name of a girl should contain an uneven number of syllables and it should end with the sound of 'a'. Fourfold naming is suggested--first, according to the constellation under which the child is born; secondly, according to the deity of the month; third, according to the family deity; and fourth, according to popular calling. The selection of the last one depends on the culture and education of the family. It is desired to be auspicious and significant. But in the case of a child whose birth is belated, or who is born after the parents had sustained the loss of many children, an awkward or repulsive name is given in order to frighten away disease and death. Namakarana is ordinarily performed on the tenth or twelfth day after the birth of the child. Nishkramana is the name given to the taking of the child for the first time out of the house. In the beginning the child is confined to the 1 her and then to the house in which it 1 within a month or two even the house is;| too small a world for the growing chik faction of its curiosities and the move limbs require a wider field, and so it is j| to the world outside with the nishkramana. Life outside the house, not free from natural and supernati

Therefore a number of precautionary j physical and religious, are adopted to« safety of the child. The sacrament is sig recognises a vital need of the growing < face to face with the sublime splendour \ verse. Annaprasana is the first feeding oft solid food; it is primarily connected wit] cal necessity of the child. This fact is Susruta, who prescribes the weaning oft the sixth month and feeding it with the 1 suitable to growth. Food sustains life;,] believed that there is something mysterio tual about it, and that life emanated front| day of the feeding ceremony, the sacrame prepared out of cleaned materials, while^ appropriate Vedic hymns. Chudakarana (tonsure) is the eighth I the purpose of which is the achievement^ and beauty for its recipient. Life is prolong sure and shortened without it; therefore itjj performed by all means. That tonsure i long life and beauty is endorsed by Su Charaka. It is the opinion of some that t had originally a dedicative purpose: that is cut off and offered to a deity as a gift; 1 icative purpose is unknown to the Grihy the Smritis. No doubt, the sacrament is : performed in the temple of a deity; this-,;! done only in the case of those children \ either after long disappointment or after t previous children. As a rule, there is no i between tonsure and the dedication of I hair to a deity. According to the Grihyasutras, the ch ceremony should take place at the end i year or before the expiry of the third ;

Post-Mtiuryan India bc 2004AD 300 A185

jrjfjes extend the age to the seventh year, [d|stjnguishing feature of this sacrament is ijent of the hair tuft (sikha or chyda), as lie of the samskara suggests. In course of Jb,developed as a universal symbol of i*|fld Us removal came to be regarded as a

dha is the sacrament connected with the j; of the ear, performed between the first and i year of the child. The piercing of the ears i undoubtedly ornamental in its;origin; but ; \yas believed also to be useful from the fjvjew of health, and in order to emphasise ace it might have been given a religious it The type of needle--gold for Kshatriya, fqt Brahmin and Vaishya--with which the s to be pierced is also prescribed. When kar-a, assumed a religious importance, it became qry like the keeping of the sikha. Devala, a $J:Smriti writer, warns that all accumulated should disappear at the sight of a Brahmin "Vwhpse earholes the rays of the sun do not

Samskaras

(fmbha is the tenth sacrament, and it marks ginning of study, or the learning of the alphaF^hen the mind of the child has developed and :. ready to receive education, the first thing jjjfMq be done is to teach it the alphabet;--to hani most advanced medium of education. This at is also known as akshararambha and rqlekhana, and these names suggest that it j^ have originated at an advanced stage of culwhen the alphabet was evolved and used for 'purposes. This samskara is performed in the ^year of the child; but according to Visvamitra, |may be extended up to the seventh. Some author-i prescribe that it should take place just after the hudakarana. Ûpanayana, or the sacrament of initiation, stands r taking the child to a teacher for education. From BfCultural point of view it is the most important |«8crament. Vidyarambha may be regarded as the ginning of primary education; upanayana marks the beginning of secondary education. The most striking feature of the upanayana lies in the belief that by its.performance the initiate is given a cultural and spiritual rebirth. The physical birth of a child is crude, as it is associated with animality: but rebirth through discipline and learning is considered exalted and holy.

The meaning and purpose of the upanayana has changed in the course of time. In the Atharva Veda the term upanayana is used in the sense of 'taking charge of a student', while later it meant the initiation of a child by a teacher into sacred lore. It had the Vedic connotation in the Brahmana and the Sutra periods also; but when its mystic significance increased, the idea of the second birth through religious ceremonies overshadowed the original idea of initiation for education. Thus originally, education was the main purpose of this samskara, and ritual was an ancillary item. But in course of time the performance of the ritual and the vratadesa or the undertaking of the vow became the chief object and education secondary. The first thing,connected with^this sacrament is the age of the recipient; and it is decided on the basis of the social status and the professipnal requirements of the child. A Brahmin is to be initiated at the age of eight, a Kshatriya at eleven, apd a Vaishya at twelve. The last permitted limit of age for the performance of the upanayana of a Brahmin is sixteen, of a Kshatriya twenty-two, and of a Vaishya twenty-four. Investiture of the student yajnopavita (sacred thread) has become, in course of time, the most important item of this sacrament. The teacher performs this ceremony with an appropriate mantra, asking for the recipient's long life, purity, strength, and illumination, while the latter remains looking towards the sun. The constant wearing of the yajnopavita suggests that the life of the twice-born is a continuous sacrifice necessitated by the socio-religious duties. Similarly, ajina (deer skin) and danda (staff) are also presented to the student, who has to lead, a strict life of discipline almost like an ascetic. Vedarambtfa (beginning of Vedic study) forms, the thirteenth samskara in the list. This sacrament as also


the next one are not mentioned in the earliest lists of the samskaras preserved in the Dharmasutras. It seems that though the upanayana marked the beginning of secondary education, it did not synchronise with Vedic study, when the non-Vedic studies grew in extent. Therefore a separate samskara was felt necessary to initiate Vedic study independently; the vedarambha-samskara thus came into existence. Every student has to master his own branch of the Vedas as settled by his parentage, and in consequence this sacrament is performed differently in the case of different types of students. The kesanta, as the name suggests, is a sacrament connected with the first shaving of the student's beard, when his age is about sixteen years. As the consciousness of manhood dawns upon him, he is required to exercise greater watchfulness over his youthful impulses; and so by this sacrament he is once more reminded of his vows of brahmacharya. The procedure of this sacrament is almost the same as that of the chudakarana. Kesanta was also called godana (the gift of a cow), the reason being that at the end of the ceremony the student offered a cow to the teacher. Samavartana 3.3 the sacrament performed when the student returns from the home of the preceptor after completing the studies. It is also called snana (bath). The period of brahmacharya being regarded as a great sacrifice, an avabhritha snana or ritual bath is taken, as it is customary on the completion of all sacrifices. Figuratively, an erudite scholar is called a nisnata or snana, because he is considered to have crossed the ocean of learning and discipline. Completion of learning and return home is a very momentous event in a student's life, because he is either prepared to marry and plunge into the busy life of the world, or he has acquired the Vedic knowledge that may give him the power to keep off from the turmoil of the world in order to lead a life of physical and mental detachment. Those students who choose the first path are called upakurvana and those pupils who choose the second path are known as naisthika. The majority of students follow the first course and a few the second. In every case the permission (anujna) of the teacher is regarded as necessary. The permission is preceded by the students' giving the proper fee to the preceptor. The s pay anything to the acharya except i study is complete; but when he leave that he should honour him with an i according to his means, even thou rendered by the teacher are of a highe

Marriage

Of all the Hindu sacraments, vivaha^ the most central one. The Grihyasufi describe the samskaras as beginning \ it is the source of all domestic sacrifil monies, and also because, in the view! of these sutras, every man normally '\ and run a home. The eight forms of marriage mentj Smritis are paisacha, raksasa, gandfa prajapatya, arsa, daiva, and brahma^ ascending order of merit. The sacrame attempts to bless and consecrate every ] of human union. Nuptial ceremonies are! impart sanctity to the marital relation. First of all, the determination and sel^ couple control and shape the institutio mental marriage. Normally a person shoi| the same varna but outside the same, and pinda (consanguinity). Anuloma which the wife is of an inferior caste)i but not encouraged; pratiloma marriag the husband is of an inferior caste), the early, was later on discouraged Restrictions regarding sagotra and sa riages have been invariably observed; 1 regarded as incest and is legally forbid A marriage sacrament consists of it< ing to the premarital, marital, and posti The most important of these are as folio

1. 2.

Vagdana (betrothal), Vara-varana (formal acceptance of jl groom),

3.

Kanya-dana (gift of the bride to groom by the legitimate guardian),

4.

Vivaha-homa (marriage offerings),

:


Panigrahana (clasping the hand), Hridaya-sparsa (touching the heart), Saptapadi (seven steps symbolic of prosperity and felicity), Asmarohana (mounting the stone, symbolic of ^.'Stability), \Suryavalokana (looking at the sun, as a witness fTto the sacrament), Ifihruva-darsana (looking at the Pole Star, a symbol of constancy), Vfriratra-vrata (three nights' continence), iChaturthi-karma (fourth day ceremony or the formal unification of the couple.

i Hindu marriage which the nuptials symbol-inot a social contract in the modern sense of the I but a religious institution, a sacrament, i the two parties to a marriage--the bride and om--there is a third party, that is or their joint religious duty as a married I through which they are united. Such a mar-jj'therefore regarded as indissoluble; and if any Vanses between the wedded couple, it is the y, namely dharma, that mediates and unites na would not allow them to separate.

sacrament in the life of a Hindu is the i A Hindu consecrates his entire life through nance of various sacraments at suitable 1 at his death the survivors consecrate the y death rites for his future good and spiritual ough performed after a man's death, this is not the less important, because for a te value of the next world is higher than that "" nt. 1 of the dead by cremation was treated j and became the prevalent mode, though ceases, burial and water burial also were ; whole life of a Hindu is looked upon as i sacrifice, and death is celebrated as the pial act of his earthly existence. I the disposal of the dead fall under the ||eads. Approach of death: The person whose death is near bids farewell to his assembled relatives and the world; alms and gifts are distributed for his future happiness.

Pre-disposal ceremony: Oblations are offered into the sacrificial fire maintained by him. It has become customary now to drop Ganga water and tulasi leaves into the mouth of the dying. The bier: A special oblong frame is prepared to remove the dead body to the place of cremation, and the body is formally laid on it. Removal of the corpse: In ancient times the bier was put on a bullock cart. Now the bier is carried by men--the nearest relatives and friends of the deceased--as an act of honour to him. The funeral procession: The chief mourner, usually the eldest son of the dead person, is followed by relatives and friends, as he proceeds to the place of cremation. Anustarani (the accompanying cow): She is believed to be helpful in crossing the ocean of mortality. She is given away as gift and let off. The cremation (burning of the corpse): The preliminaries to it include abhiseka (washing the corpse) and the piling of the pyre. Next, fire is applied to the pyre with the Vedic hymns. Udakakarma (offering of water): It is supposed that it cools the dead after the body undergoes cremation. Consoling the mourners: The disconsolate survivors are soothed in their distress by an expert quoting a number of stories showing the transitory nature of life. Asoucha (impurity): Social segregation. Asthisanchayana (collecting the bones). Santikarma (pacificatory rite). Smaraka (raising a mound over the remains of the dead). Sraddha (offerings to the dead). Sapindakarana (affiliation of the dead with the manes). This last sacrament takes into account the sentiments and requirements of the dead and the surviving, who are,faced with the inevitable event of life, namely, death.


MARRIAGE FORMS

Most of the Dharmasastras mention eight forms of marriage, of which the first four are approved forms and the last four unapproved forms. The first four approved forms are brahma, prajapatya, daiva and arsa.

The distinction between the brahma and prajap atya forms of marriage is not all that clear. For in both these forms, marriage was performed according to the prescribed religious ceremonies. In the daiva form the bride was given in marriage to a priest, who officiated at a sacrifice. In the arsa forrn the marriage ceremony was duly performed, but a part of the ceremony was the presentation of a bull and a cow by the bride groom to the pride's parents. This form was con sidered inferior to the first three approved forms, because it contained elements of the 'bride*price'.

The last four unapproved forms of marriage are asura, paisacha, rakshasa and gandharva.

Asura vivaha was marriage by purchase. In the paisacha form of marriage the bride was abducted in an unfair manner. Rakshasa vivaha was marriage by capture. Gandharva vivaha was love marriage.

The four approved forms of vivahas were generally meant for members of the first two varnas especially for the Brahmins. These four forms are dharmya. According to

Kautilya, the fact of their being dharmya signifies that the patriarchal element is supreme in them and not in the unapproved forms of marriage which requires the sanction of both the father and the mother. Seemingly, the dharmya character of these marriages imposes upon all varnas the obligation to observe them. But since the Brahmins and Kshatriyas were charged with the responsibility of upholding the social Order (dharma), it is necessary that they should observe these approved forms of marriage. The four unapproved forms of ti erally meant for the three' lo KshatriyaSj Vajshya and Sudra// rakshasa and gandharva forms ,| especially for the Kshatriyas, ..,, ,L Asura vivaha is considered to ancient times. But it is cpnd Dharmasastras in strong terms, pr its connection with the lower varnas*. Paisacha vivdha is the worst of Baudhayana prescribes it for the'1 Sudras. Manu also corroborates it.!1 tions were probably intended to riage practices of those tribes who i two lower varnas in ancient society. The rakshasa form is prescribed by 1 Kshatriyas. But by the third century's more approved even by the Kshatriyas. | Gandharva vivaha, confined by! Kshatriyas, was probably followed women of the other varnas as well.'* inferred from the rules laid dpi Dharmasastras as well as numerous < in the general literary works.

MARRIAGE PRACTICES

Divorce and Dissolution of Marriage

', "'

''

:

''

' ' : ':')]

Divorce is more or less unilateral to be i; the husband on grounds of adultery, 1 obedience, and the like. But Kautilya i mit divorce in the case of the first four i forms of marriage, which shows that 'It ^ place in the unapproved forms. The regulations regarding the dissolutio riage were evidently influenced by varna(' tions. Dissolution can take place for esse reasons:

As endogamy is a vital requisite for i moment a person loses his caste, his dons him and can take another husband; "i

In the case of absence of the husband i time, Kautilya as well as severalBr lawmakers permit the wife a number bfl


remarriage and levirate. Kautilya lays that a Brahmin wife without children | wait for four years, a Kshatriya for three, iishya for two, and a Sudra for one, in case the nd goes out on journey and does not return ne as promised. If the wife is with children he has been provided with means of liveli-the period of waiting is extended but the between the various varnas main-The early Dharmasastras also prescribe if periods of waiting in such cases. But the law-givers raise the extent of the waiting for all varnas, the highest being eight i for the Brahmin wife with child.

r Remarriage and Niyoga

I (here is neither literary nor epigraphic evif«about the practice of widow remarriage in t Jndia, it was probably practised particularly £ flower varnas, A passage of Manu states that Dt take place among the Brahmins, which f tliat it can take place among the three other

r;j~:;-' ' '". oga (levirate) was certainly practised by the yn, the early centuries of the Christian era, |,|act strengthens our presumption about the of widow remarriage among the lower j. In the Vedic and the epic ages we do not py regulation confining niyoga to any partieBflj although most examples of this practice t;/ these periods relate to the Kshatriya es and occasionally to the Brahmins. In later 8, however, the Smritis restrict the practice to ipnly. .

ny and Monogamy

pf wives assigned to a person is deter-l|y,,his varna. While polygamy seems to have valent among members of the upper varnas, ay is generally practised by those of trie varnas. tor example, Vishnu permits a S'te' take four wives, a Kshatriya three, and a ; only. Thus, polygamy of the upper varnas tJfoe in line with their larger share in the social surplus, just as the monogamy of the lower orders is an index of their inability to maintain a large family.

Intercaste Marriage

Though there are some examples of intercaste marriage in the Vedic and epic literature, all these are in the anuloma order (a higher caste man marrying a lower caste women) rather then the pratiloma order (a lower caste man marrying a higher caste woman). Besides, the majority of instances relates to the marriage between the two higher varnas-the Brahmin bridegroom and the Kshatriya bride. The practice of matrimonial alliance between members of the two higher varnas continues into later times. Famous traditions report that such sages as Kanva, Vatsa and Satyakamajavala were sons of slave women (dasiputras) and that Santanu was the son of a fishwife. But in the pre-Gupta and Gupta periods such examples are rare. Inspite of the permission to take wives from the lower varnas, these wives do not enjoy the same position as those from the upper orders. Not only are different ceremonies prescribed for wives belonging to different varnas, but even the modes of greetings meant for wishing them vary according to their varna. Again, children born from wives of lower varnas are condemned to a lower status. Several irregular or mixed castes are represented in the Dharmasastras as coming into existence as a result of the anuloma and pratlioma connections, especially the later. Some of the latter type of castes are branded as the antyaja or lowest castes. The later Vedic literature, mentions about eight mixed castes besides the four regular varnas, Vasistha raises their number to ten, Baudhayana to fifteen, Gautama to eighteen, Manu to about sixty, but the same mixed origin is not given to the same caste in all the texts. The Brahmavaivarta Parana, a work of the early medieval period, raises the number of the mixed castes to over one hundred. However, the above theory explains the proliferation of castes (jatis) only partly. Instead it seems to be an after thought to provide place for the numerous tribal peoples in the fourfold drder. It is obvious that the Nisadas, Ambasthas, and Pulkasas, were


originally tribal communities, but once they were From Kshatriya By wives of the Jhall^H admitted into the Brahmanical society ingenious Vratyas same caste but Maltt^l origins within the framework of the varna system not performing Lich^H were suggested for them, and here the fiction of sacred rites Nata^J mixed castes or varnasamkara came in for handy Kara« KhasiH use. The following is a list mixed and lowest castes _ ., . . „ . *^ «fa!I^B ,.,,,.,, , l j_ ji Prom Vaishya By wives of the SudraH according to Manu. Some begotten by the first three gs same caste but AchaB castes on wives of the next lower castes were considered not oerformina KarusM similar to their fathers, and did not form new castes. sacred rites VijanijH MaitraH JFathw ~"(\ Satvafl 1 "V * » ^^»^^^"ffi^s^î^^^TO^^^^^'^S^^^w^^^rai^ Ambastha m

IB Brahmin Vaishya

As if this list of non-Aryan races wlB Brahmin Sudra Nisada Kshatriya Sudra Urga Kshatriya Brahmin Suta Vaishya Brahmin Vaideha Vaishya Kshatriya Magadha Sudra Vaishya Ayogava ciently long, the great legislator tries to fl sweeping rule all the known races of th|H Paundrakas (North Bengal men), the Ud« the Dravidas (South Indians), the'fl (Kabulis), the Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks|B Sudra Kshatriya Kshattri the Paradas, the Pahlavas (Persians),

Sudra Brahmin Chandala (Chinese), and the Kiratas (hill men). TM Brahmin Ugra Avrita and Khasas are said to have been KshatrM Brahmin Ambastha Abhira but to have 'gradually sunk in this world* Brahmin Ayogava Dhigvana dition of Sudras', through omission of Nisada Sudra Pukkusa rites, and for 'not consulting Brahmins^: 1 Sudra Nisada Kukkutaka Thus, the preceding discussion of tbfl Kshattri Ugra Svapaka marriage forms and practices helps us << Vaidehika Ambastha Vena following conclusions: 1 Dasyu Ayogava Sairindhra Vaideha Ayogava Maitreyaka 1 Certain forms of unapproved marriagq Nisada Ayogava Margava or larly the asura form which was the mi Kaivarta Nisada Vaideha Karavara Vaidehika Karavara Andhra prevalent and in which woman enjdj freedom and deserved consideration, | Vaidehika Nisada Meda ommended for the lower varnas. 1 Chandala Vaideha Pandusopaka Dissolution of the marriage tie was genii Nisada Vaideha Ahindika missible for lower varna women, for ij Chandala Pukkasa Sopaka period of husband's absence whichj Chandala Nisada Antyavasayin desertion on the part of the wife was ofi First three By wives of the Vratyas quence; thus the shortest duration of wa castes same caste, but recommended for the wives of the Sudi not performing sacred rites

/ Widow remarriage was generally confii; From Brahmin By wives of the Bhrijjakantaka lower varnas throughout the ancient Indii Vratyas same caste, but Avantya Niyoga, which in Vedic age was practise not performing Vatadhan by the Brahmins and Kshatriyas, came | sacred rites Pushpadha fined to the Sudras from the early centui Saikha Christian era onwards.

Post-Mauryon India bc 200-AD 300 A191

ny was quite popular among the higher s, while monogamy was prevalent mostly I the lower varnas. ttces of intercaste marriage mainly con-I men of higher and women of lower var-^ and were chiefly limited to the union i the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. 'fivarnasamkara theory was meant mainly to nodate foreign and indigenous tribes in jrcaste hierarchy.

I OF WOMEN

; study of a nation means really a study of its I ideals, of the means adopted and the paths , rather than its actual successes and failures. Fis why a real understanding of Indian woman| essentially depends on that of its ideals in their aspects. It is true that four aims of life argas) are spoken of in Indian literature, viz. , artha, kama, and moksha: moral behaviour, , worldly pleasure, and salvation. But it is at the j|time unanimously and unambiguously asserted 'sha is by far the highest ideal of man.

i of Indian Womanhood

dia, two great classes of persons have been gen-recognised: ascetics and householders. For i also India has recognised two main ideals, that of a brahmavadini and that of a sadyu. A brahmavadini is of an ascetic type striv-; for the highest philosophical knowledge: thus r ideal of life is spiritual well-being. A sadyhu, on the other hand, is of a domestic type, ng herself to the welfare of her family, and ding her time mostly in daily domestic duties of ([ordinary kind. Each was great in her own place. I there is no real opposition between the status [ti brahmavadini and that of a sadyovadhu. That i why it was by no means obligatory ibr a brahdini to take the vow of celibacy, renounce the frld, and carry on meditations in a far off, secluded buntain cave. On the contrary, quite a number of

navadinis who came to be blessed with the Ilisation of Brahman were married women. In the same manner, sadyovadhus were also of a high, spiritual nature, and even in the midst of their multifarious domestic duties, they strove for spiritual perfection and attained realisation. Thus, whether a woman was married or unmarried was not the main thing to count; the main thing was to consider her inner inclinations and ingrained ideals.

Women in Vedic Literature

The very high standard of learning, culture and all-round progress reached by Indian women during the Vedic age is a well-known fact. The best proof of this is the fact that the Rig Veda, the oldest known literature in the whole world, contains hymns by as many as twenty seven women, called brahmavadinis or women seers. Saunaka in his Brihaddevata (5th century bc), a work on the Rig Veda, has mentioned the names of these twenty seven women seers. The wellknown Vedic commentator Sayana has mentioned the names of two more of such seers in addition to the above twenty seven. During the Vedic age domestic life was not in any way conceived to be inconsistent with spiritual life, and brahmavadinis were not ascetics roaming in forests or squatting in caves after renouncing the world, as ordinarily understood. On the contrary, apart from many brahmavadinis who did not give up family life, even amongst the above twenty seven more celebrated brahmavadinis, many were married or desired to be married. In the Upanishads, we meet with the brightest example of a brahmavadini as well as a sadyovadhu. The brahmavadini is Gargi of immortal fame, whose highly learned, philosophical discussions with the great sage Yajnavalkya have been recorded twice in the old and celebrated Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The glorious example of a sadyovadhu too is found in the same Upanishad. When Yajnavalkya on the eve of his retirement from the world desired to divide his property between his two wives Maitreyi and Katyayani, Maitreyi refused to have it with the profound utterance, 'What should I do with that through which I cannot be immortal?' Accordingly, she was given the choicest gift of knowledge by her husband in a most illuminating discourse on the unity of the Self.


Women in Grammatical Literature

The age of Panmi (fifth century bc) continued the Vedic tradition of culture and education. Those brahmavadinis who themselves taught were reverentially called upadhyaya or upadhyayi and acharya, while the sadyovadhus who were wives of teachers were called upadhyayani and acharyani. Both Panini and Patanjali refer to the high Vedic knowledge acquired by the brahmavadinis during the Vedic age necessitating special names for them. Thus, women scholars of the Katha School were called 'Kami':; of the Rig Veda, 'Bahavircha'. Brahmin women scholars of the Grammar of Apisali were called 'Apisali', and of the Mimamsa School of Kasakritsna, 'Kasakritsna' (Patanjali). Pupils of the woman scholar and teacher Audamedhya were called'Audamedha'.

Women in Epics and Puranas

In the Ramayana and the Mahabharatq too, we find many instances of the above two types of Indian women, ascetic and domestic. A magnificent example of a brahmavadini in the Ramayana is Ariasuya, wife of the Sage Atri. Another celebrated woman ascetic of the Ramayana is Sramani Sabari, a low-caste woman. She was the disciple of the great sage Matanga and had her hermitage on the bank of the lake Pampa. On the other hand, the highest manifestation of domestic perfection in the Ramayana, is found in the inimitable personality of Sita, the idol of Itidian womanhood. The Mahabharata too is resplendent with a galaxy of great women fulfilling their destinies for instance Sulbha who was a great scholar. For want of a suitable bridegroom, she became an ascetic for life, and roamed about alone from place to place in search of knowledge. Other Celebrated brahmavadinis of the Mahabharata are the daughter of Sandilya described as a Brahmahi and Siva who has mastered the Vedas. Far more numerous are ths instances of women who led dedicated lives at home. Mention need be made only of Gahdhari, Kuriti, and braupadi; One of the most celebrated women of the Puranas is Madalasa, the consort'' of King

Ritadhvaja. She was at once a greats woman and a dutiful housewife,
Women in Smritis

The position of women in India rated as the golden Vedic ideals of unit ity began to fade off through the During the period of the Smritis, womenl eted with the Sudras, and were denietf1 J study the Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras,j form Vedic rites. Hence, during such an age, it was expected that women would Continue toj Old privilege of choosing a life of q asceticism. On the other hand, marriage c life became compulsory for women, tioning devotion to, and self-effacing se bands their only duty. To quote the well-k turn of Manu: 'A wonian is protected feyfl during childhood, by her husband during,ji by her sons during old age. She is never jj dorp.' ,

Economic Position

Since women and property are bracketed t several references in the epics, Smritis an

nts made to her. Manu declares that the wife, and the slave are unpropertied, whatever |earn is the property of those to whom they

I sort of social philosophy took strong roots in i and post-Gupta periods, although the institu-|of monogamous family and private property i developed much earlier.

(Position

are several references of the position of along with that of Sudras, in the meal texts of the pre-Gupta and Gupta times. Bhagavad Gita they (women and Sudras) ; with Vaishyas are relegated to a low status. nen, along with Sudras, were held in derision peveral authors of the Dharmasastras and s. Socially they were regarded as the most e. Manu discriminates between the males of the ton the one hand, and the Sudras as well as i of all the varnas. According to his law the for-p&an obtain bodily purity by sipping water three , while the latter can obtain it by sipping it only | In the case of food, it was thought to be sinful t the leavings of the woman and Sudra, and in prohibitory rule was transgressed the sin 1 be expiated by drinking barley for seven days.

i Position

as the later Vedic period women were la low religious position. The Satapatha a, for instance, warns that while teaching i the teacher should not look at the woman \ others (Sudra, dog and black bird) because I untruth. same position recurs in the Paraskara utra, according to which after the samavarj>|eremony one should avoid seeing women, , dead bodies, blackbirds and dogs, and also ild not take to such beings, also states that during the period of the ana vow it is not proper on any account to a woman, a Sudra and an outcaste. The Parana, a work of the Gupta period, lays

down that members of the first three varnas should perform the ceremonies of bathing and muttering of prayers according to the Vedic methods, but women and Sudras cannot perform these ceremonies accordingly.

Conduct of Women

The practice of using veils by women, particularly in well-to-do families, was in vogue. Prabhakaravardhana's daughter Rajyasri put on a veil when she met her husband, the Maukhari Grahavarman of Kanauj, for the first time. In the Kadambari, Patralekha is described as wearing a veil of red cloth. This was, however, not the general custom. Dhoyi, the author of the 12th century poetical work, the Pavanaduta, relates that the women of Vijayapura (in Bengal) did not observe the purdah system. Harshavardhana's mother Yasomati is found giving instructions to the ministers of the state before her death. The contemporary lawbooks and the Puranas give us pictures of the ideal wife. She was the mainstay of the domestic life, and was a source of happiness. Troubles and calamities were averted by her. She took care of the family deity and entertained the guests. She rose before the others, paid reverence to the elders of the family, and prepared food and condiments. She was absolutely devoted to her husband. She did not utter his name, since this action was believed to shorten his longevity. When the husband went abroad, the wife removed her ornaments from her body. She avoided decorating herself, as well as dancing, singing, and witnessing public festivals. Women would participate in the religious activities of their husbands, but they could not take to religious fast, perform vrata (a particular form of religious rite), or go on pilgrimage without the consent of their husbands.

Legal Protection

As regards the general treatment of women, Brihaspati says that a woman must be watched day and night by her mother-in-law and other women of the family. The same authority lays down that if a


man violates an unwilling woman, his property is to be confiscated, and he shall be paraded on an ass. The Smriti writers do not advocate the abandoning of the wife by the husband for adultery, but on the contrary allow her to regain all her normal rights after performance of the appropriate penance. The woman was to be abandoned only if she had conceived as the result of the adultery. Some Smritis and Puranas condemn women .for their moral lapses. But other authorities give us a different picture of the moral life of women. Women in general, says Varahamihira, are pure and blameless; they deserve the highest honour and respect. The same author castigates some writers for dilating only on the vices of women instead of their virtues. This picture of the character of women is reflected in the works of Kalidasa, Bana, Bhavabhuti, and other classical writers of the age.

Sati and Austerities

The Smriti writers lay down that a woman after the death of her husband may become a sati or may lead a virtuous life according to the injunction of the Sastras. It is true that some Smritis and Puranas encourage the performance of the sati rite, as when Brihaspati says that a woman is declared devoted to her husband when she is his companion in his weal and woe, and she dies when he dies, or when the Brihaddharma Purana declares that a widow who follows her husband on the funeral pyre, though she commits a great sin, does good to the departed soul. The authorities, however, prohibit those wives who have not attained the age of puberty, are pregnant, or have very young children, from becoming a sati. But the widow, particularly of either Brahmin or Kshatriya varna, sometimes preferred to burning herself to ill treatment by her relations. The practice of the sati rite can be traced with the help of historical records throughout the late ancient period. The-wife of Goparaja, the general of the Gupta king Bhanugupta, is known to have ascended the funeral pyre of her husband in ad 510. The existence of a large number of sati memorial tablets proves that the practice was popular in central India-and in the Deccan during this period. King Harshavardhana's mother Yasomati bu ashes as soon as it became definite that 1 would be passing away within a short tin! However, the practice of performing i was evidently not universal. Many ladies of this period, such as PrabhavatiJ Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan) did OJ this rite and at the same time were highl; for their devotion to their husbands. Under the rules of the Smritis a wid lead an austere life. She slept on the flo not allowed to use a cot. She did not put < and dyed garments, and did not use colly eyes and yellow pigment on the face nor < scent. She took only one meal a day. Harshacharita refers to

the tying of the I by the widows. On the other hand, Purana advocates the tonsuring of widov that this practice did not come into use j llth century. The remarriage of widows is not advp the Smriti writers and the Puranas. The $i niyoga or levirate is advocated by Narada j the early Smriti writers. But later on the) discouraged. As Brihaspati remarks, 'On i the successive deterioration of the four i world, it must not be practised by mortals.*] During this period the independent women was not recognised. She was her father before her marriage, on her hu the marriage, and on her son after the husband. In the absence of a son she was < on the nearest relation. On the other hand,) of the sonless widow to the property of her if husband was admitted.

Recreations of Women

A word may be said about the recreations of In ancient Indian houses the young girls < sang with great skill. The statement of ] that a woman must avoid dancing when herij is abroad, shows the popularity of this art, j the festivities at the birth of Harshava ing by women of all ranks formed a promiii ture, as described by Bana.


| girls known as devadasis were engaged (services. Four hundred of them were tthe great temple of Tanjore during the ; Chola, Rajaraja I. These girls are gener-as living an immortal life. Giving a of the life and character of the ^however, Marco Polo states that parents |; consecrated their daughters to the temJ6 gods for whom they had great devotion. ; girls are also known to have enacted sionally.

I TEXTS AND SOCIETY i Literature

A college (sangam) of Tamil poets flour-^*a time under royal patronage in Madurai. irliest account of it is enveloped in legend. | to three sangams which lasted, at long inter*9,990 wears altogether and included 8,598 'eluding a few gods of the Saiva sect) as i and 197 Pandyan kings as patrons. Some nes of the kings and poets, such as on and Ugrapperuvalludi, are found in and other authentic records, showing I facts have got mixed up with much fiction. )| believed that the first sangam was attended I and legendary sages, but all its works have The second, attended by several poets, a large mass of literature, but only pfyam (the early Tamil grammar) has sur-he third, attended by several poets, had also I vast literature, but only a fraction of it has It is this fraction which constitutes the ' of Sangam literature.

Sangam literature consists of the I Tamil works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the »' (Eight Anthologies), the Pattuppattu (Ten the Padinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor |), and the three epics.

Tamil Works Tolkappiyam, acknowlji.as tfye earliest surviving Tamil literary work, lly written by Tolkappiyar (one of the 12 i of saint Agastya), is a work on Tamil gram mar of the aham or agam (love) and puram (war, government, etc.), orthography, construction, prosody, figures of speech, social practices, literary conventions, and the like. It is divided into three sections, each consisting of nine iyals (subchapters) and has a total of 1,612 sutras.

Other earliest Tamil works were the Agattiyam (a work on grammar of letters and life) by saint Agattiyar, Pannirupadalam (a grammatical work on puram literature) by the 12 disciples of saint Agastya and the Kakkipadiniyam (a work on prosody) by an unknown writer; but all these are practically extinct today.

Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) The eight anthologies comprising the Ettutogai are as under:

Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudahir Kilar, con sists of 500 erotic poems. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists of 400 love lyrics of varying length. Kurunttogai has 400 love poems. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of kings. Kalittogai comprises 150 love poems. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods. Padirrupattu is a short collection of 8 poems in praise of the Chera kings.

Together they constitute a very large body of poetic literature, containing 2,282 poems, ascribed to more than 200 authors.

Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls)

Murugarruppadai (by Nakkirar), Sirupanarruppadai (by Nattattanar), Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanji (by Mangudi Marudam), Pattinappalai (by Kannan), and other works, come in this category. While the first one is revered by the devotees of Murugan, the rest are cherished by the historians for the historical information they contain. These are longer poems than those of the anthologies. The poetry in the Eight Anthologies as well as the Ten Idylls was divided into two main groups. Agam

ysj


(love) which dealt with the internal and puram (everything except love) which dealt with the external. A further division according to the five regions (tinai) of Tamil land is as follows: (a) kurinji (hills), (b) palai (dry lands), (c) mullai (jungle and woodland), (d) marudam (cultivated plains), and (e) neydal (coast). Each region was associated with some special aspect of love (agam) or war (puram) and every poem was classified into one of the five sections.

Padinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works)

These works are called 'minor works' not because their significance is minor, but because the poems in these are shorter in form than those in the Eight Anthologies or the Ten Idylls. These are mostly preceptive and moralising in character. The most important among these are the Tirukkural (known as the 'Bible of Tamil land') by Tiruvalluvar (a series of brief metrical proverbs on many aspects of life and religion), the Palamoli by Munrurai Araiyar (adopts the novel method of exemplifying morals by proverbs), the Naladiyar (contains verses of much merit and high ethical conduct), and the Acharakkovai (prescribes the daily routine for an orthodox Hindu). All these works clearly show the growing influence of the Aryan religious ideas and practices over the Tamil people.

The Epics

Silappadigaram (The Jeweled Anklet) It was the earliest and greatest of the epics of the Sangam Age. Supposedly written by Illango Vadigal (grandson of Karikala, the great Chola king) in the second century ad, it is the tragic story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar who falls in love with a dancer, Madhavi, neglecting his own wife, Kannagi, who in the end revenges the death of her husband at the hands of the Pandyan king and becomes a goddess. It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult orpattini cult, that is worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. It contains a great deal of social and historical information about the Sangam age.

Manimegalai Supposedly writ of Madurai, it is a sort of Buddhist ij Silappadigaram. It is the story of j daughter of Kovalan and epic)--how she preserves her Udaya Kumaran and becomes a preach its doctrines. Besides conti of social and historical informatiti important ancient work which give development of the fine arts in the!

Sivaga Sindamani Written by Tie Jaina, it is the story of Sivaga or Jrv who excels in every field and wins i his harem with every feat, only to 1 monk in the end. The three epics show the gradu Aryan influence into the Tan Silappadigaram, being the earliest, is: ferent from Sanskrit poetry, Sindamani, the latest of the Sangam« dominance of the Sanskrit style overt style. Besides, the Tamil we Mahabharata was composed by Pe ing this age.

Period of Sangam Literature

Excavations reveal that Tamils knew { ing before the beginning of the Chris since the second century bc. The i the Tamils used was the Brahmi scrip later, that is, from the late ancient and < period, that they started evolving a script, called the Grantha script. The i alphabet is derived from this angular s the contents of the Sangam literature, rated by the writings of some Greek,! classical writers of the first and second\ (Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder, Strabo and 1 author of the Periplus), leading us to : of Sangam age roughly between third < third century ad. So most of the Sa also must have been produced duringl though it was finally compiled in the found today during the forth and fifth ce

Post-Mauryan India BC 200-AO 300 A197

Sttenbypoet! |ust suppleme [of Manimeg Hhavi of the chastity from a Buddhist ntaining a gc (rtion, it is th* ives glimpses i he Sangam ag

' Tiruttakka |Jivaka, a sup us a new br [to become a

al penetratiq amil land. , is still we while Si* i epics, show " the indige ersion of ndevanar<

I the art of i i era, i iiest script^ . It was |early medi< new anj ^modern Ta ript. Sc (are cor : and Re I centuries, canon) |ix the periq ntury bc i lit | this perk i as it uries at>| .HISTORY

|\yere the first south Indian kingdom to be by Megasthenes (the first literary evi-: the south Indian kingdoms). There is ition of the three kingdoms--Pandyas, Cheras--as neighbours in the Asokan S, particularly the Major Rock Edict II. li-gumpha inscription of Kharavela con-lônly early epigraphic reference to the king! Tamil country after the

Asokan inscripavela is said to have destroyed a confedP Tamil states--'Tramiradesa sanghatam'. rthe primary source for the Sangam period literature, which refers primarily to though it also contains information IjCJholas and the Cheras. One of the Sangam nulanar, even makes a reference to the I Mauryas in the Purananuru, one of the

yas ruled over an area consisting of the ' southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was pearlier Ten-Madurai and then Kapatapuram fttheir capitals). Nedunjeliyan, distinguished $tle 'He who won the battle at Talaiyalanikiuled around ad 210. This ruler was cele-two great poets, Mangudi Marudan and t each contributing a poem on the monarch ppattu. |4he Maduraikkanji of Mangudi Marudan where we learn something about three of Cyan's predecessors on the Pandyan throne, is an almost mythical figure called The next is Palsalai Mudukudumi. The mentioned in the Maduraikkanji was pNedunjeliyan. The tragedy of Kovalan's Madurai occurred in his reign, which ; to the Silappadigaram caused the king to i heart. ajeliyan of Talaiyalanganam came to the t a youth and soon after his accession he proved himself more than equal to a hostile combination of his two neighbouring monarchs and five minor chieftains. When his enemies invaded the kingdom, Nedunjeliyan inflicted a crushing defeat on them at Talaiyalanganam, about eight miles north-west of Tiruvallur in the Tanjore district. By this victory Nedunjeliyan not only made himself secure on his ancestral throne, but gained a primacy over the entire state system of the Tamil country. The Maduraikkanji contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandyan country under Nedunjeliyan's rule. Its author also refers to the battle of Alanganam, calls his patron lord of Korkai and the warlord of the southern paradavar, hinting that the people of the pearl-fishing coast formed an important section of his army. A thorough change in the political map of south India and the definite close of an epoch seem to be clearly implied in the Sirupanarruppadi by Nattattanar, one of the Pattuppattu. The poem has Nalliyakkodan for its hero and he may be taken to stand right at the end of the Sangam age. He ruled a territory which included all places in the South Arcot district. We may assign to him a date about ad 275 and in his day the poet says that charity had dried up in the capitals of three Tamil kingdoms. There may well be some exaggeration here; but clearly Vanji, Uraiyur and Madurai must have passed the meridian of their prosperity and entered on a period of decline.

Cholas

They ruled over the present day northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was located first at Uraiyur and later shifted to Puhar (identified as Kaveripattinam). Elara was the first important Chola king (middle of the second century bc). His importance lies in his conquest of Sri Lanka. But Karikala (190 ad) was the most prominent among them. Karikala's father was llanjetcenni. Karikala means "The man with the charred leg.' Early in life he was deposed and imprisoned. The Way in which he escaped and re-established himself on the throne is well portrayed by the author of Pattinappalai, a long poem on the Chola capital


Kaveripattinam in the Pattuppattu. One of his early achievements was the victory at Venni, 15 miles to the east of Tanjore. The battle is referred to in many poems by different authors. Venni, thus, marked a turning point in the career of Karikala; his victory meant the breakup of the widespread confederacy that had been formed against him. Another important battle he fought was at Vahaipparandali, where nine minor enemy chieftains had to submit. Karikala's wars, thus, resulted in his establishing a sort or hegemony among the kings of the Tamil country and in some extension of the territory under his direct rule. The description of Kaveripattinam and its foreshore, which takes up so much of the Pattinappalai, gives a vivid idea of the state of industry and commerce at this time. Karikala also prompted the reclamation and settlement of forest land, and added to the prosperity of kingdom by multiplying its irrigation tanks. As a follower of the Vedic religion, he performed sacrifices. In later times Karikala became the centre of many legends found in the Silappadigaram. They attribute to him the construction, with the aid of his feudatories, of the flood banks of the Kaveri. Two other Chola rulers are worth mention, llanjetcenni of Neydalanganal captured two fortresses from the Cheras. Senganan, the Chola monarch famed in legend for his devotion to Siva, figures as the victor in the battle of For, against the Chera Kanaiklcal Irumporai. This monarch, who built 70 fine temples of Siva, lived in the fourth or fifth century ad.

Cheras

The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji or Karur. It is only for the Chera line of rulers that we can construct something like a continuous genealogy and this shows the existence of two lines of rulers. In all other instances we only have unrelated names which render a regular history of the period impossible. An inscription on the Arnattamalai hill, Pugalur, assignable to the first century of the Christian era, refers to three generations of Chera rulers--Ko Adancellrumporai, his son Pe son llamakadungo. Two royal poets f line--Perumkadungo and llamakadu in the Sangam works. The Pe llamakadungo of the inscription are id the royal poets of the same names in {

The poems of the Sangam attest tof all Sangam rulers to connect the events of the Mahabharata war. monarch we hear of, Udiyanjeral (ad 1 have fed sumptuously both thei'J Kurukshetra. The son of Udiyanjeral was Ne who won a naval victory against somef on the Malabar coast, and took caff Yavana traders. He won victories crowned kings, and thus reached the siifij the adhiraja. He was called Imayava who had the Himalayas as his bounda a war with the contemporary Chola 1 both the monarchs lost their lives and I performed sati. Adan's younger brother was extended the Chera power. Adan had I different queens. One of them was Chera with the fibre crown'. He too wasl The other son of Adan was Seng brated in song by Paranar, one of the i poets of the Sangam age. He was a wore a garland of seven crowns as adhin adept in besieging fortresses. Pattini < worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife,' him. The stone for making the image ( divine chaste wife, was obtained after a i Aryan chieftain and bathed in the being brought to the Chera country. Alii are narrated with numerous embellis epic detail in the Silappadigaram. \ the lead in organising this cult of] supported in his effort by the contemp the Pandya and Chola countries and < Silappadigaram says. Altogether five monarchs of Udiyanjeral belonging to three generatio tioned in the Padirruppattu. The numb they are said to have ruled totals 201,'


I monarchs of the collateral line are said to have 1 for a further 58 years. 'The last Chera prince mentioned in the extant of the Pattuppattu is Kudakko llanjeral pnporai (ad 190). He is said to have fought a bat-jfogainst two big kings (Pandya and Chola) and to I brought to the ancient city of Vanji much booty these campaigns. Karuvur was in fact Vanji. I discovery of Chera inscriptions near Karur, and housands of Roman coins in Karur and its neigh-and Ptolemy's statements that the inland f of Korura was the Chera capital also point to the conclusion. Another Chera prince deserving ttion is Mandaranjeral Irumporai (ad 210). He captured by his Pandya contemporary njeliyan, in a battle between the two.

AND ADMINISTRATION

ure of Polity

hereditary monarchy was the prevailing i of government, disputed successions and civil i were not unknown. The king was in all essen-I respects an autocrat whose autocracy, however, i tempered by the maxims of the wise and the sional intercession of a minister, a poet or a nd. He held a daily court (nalavai) at which he I and set right all complaints. **The ideal of the 'Conquering king' (vijigishu) accepted and acted on. Victory against seven meant a superior status, which the victor ed by wearing a garland made out of the' of the seven vanquished rulers. The most ill kings were expected to undertake a digvi-a, which was a conquering expedition in a clock* direction over the whole of India. idea of a chakravarti, whose digvijaya was I by the march of a mysterious wheel of gold and through the area, is mentioned in one of the in the Purananuru. Another poem in the i collection mentions the companions of a king committed suicide when the king died--an t anticipation of what later became a widespread ution under such names as velaikkarar, garufysahavasis, apattudavigal and so on.

Kings assumed several titles. For example, Cheras had tittles like vanavar, villavar, kuddavar, etc.; Cholas called themselves sennis, valavan, killi, etc.; and Pandyas preferred minavar, panchvar, ten-nar, etc. The king was at the apex of administration and wielded enormous powers. Annual celebration of his birthday, known as perunal (the great day), was an important event. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem--carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras. The imperial court (avai) was attended by a number of chiefs as well as several officials. The sabha or manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The elders are said to have laid aside their personal quarrels when they attended the sabha to help in the adjudication of disputes. The Kural regards the sabha as a general assembly dealing with all affairs. Even less specialised, and more entangled in the social and religious complex of village life, was the manram. Each village had its common place of meeting generally under the shade of a big tree, where men, women and children met for all the common activities of the village, including sports and pastimes. There may also have been a political side to these rural gatherings.

Officials The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into Five assemblies or councils. They were: (a) amaichchar or ministers, (b) purohitar or priests, (c) senapatiyar or military commanders, (d) dutar or envoys and (e) orrar or spies.

Provincial and Local Administration Kingdom (mandalam) was divided into nadus (provinces) which consisted of small and big villages (sirur and perur) as well as towns (urs). The administration of nadus was generally carried on by hereditary chiefs, and that of the villages and towns by local assemblies, called manrams.

Revenue Administration Land and trade were the chief sources of the royal revenue. The ma and veli as measures of land and kalam as measure of grain were already known, but the king's share of the produce of agriculture (karai or land revenue) is nowhere precisely stated. Foreign trade was important and customs revenue (sungam) occupied a high


place on the receipts side of the budget; the Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the activity of customs officials in Puhar (Kaveripattinam). Internal transit duties on merchandise moving from place to place were another source of revenue, and the roads were guarded night and day by soldiers to prevent smuggling. Booty captured in war (irai) constituted a considerable part of royal resources. The Cholas are said to have had a strongly guarded treasury at Kumbakonam in the Sangam age.

Military Administration The rulers maintained a regular army consisting of chariots (drawn by oxen), cavalry, infantry and elephants. Elephants played an important role in warfare. The institution of virakkal or nadukal (i.e. hero-stone), which was a practice of erecting monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them, was quite predominant. Also in vogue was the institution ofkavalaram or kadimaram (i.e. tutelary tree) according to which each ruler had a great tree in his palace as symbol of power.

Judicial Administration The slaughter of a cow, the killing of a foetus, and the killing of a Brahmin were considered as heinous offences; though in gratitude, according to the established code, was held to be even worse.

SOCIETY

Social Classes

Sangam period witnessed the appearance of the Brahmins as a regular varna as also their growing influence. They were patronised (in the role of priests and poets) by the kings. Another fact worth to be noted is the consumption of meat and wine by the Tamil Brahmins during this period. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were absent as regular varnas at this time, but warriors and merchants were to be found as separate classes. The fourth class or caste was that of the agriculturists, called vallalas. They held the bulk of the land. The rich among them held civil as well as military posts. The military commanders were given the title of enadi, while the ministers were given the title of kavidi. The ruling class was called the arasar, and it could emerge from any of the existing classes as long as it had the i means and the drive.

Besides, there were some minor class the kadaisiyar (agricultural labourers), (robbers), eyinar (hunters) and pulaiya makers) and several outcastes and forest t[ ing in extreme poverty. Thus, sharp socialj ties did exist, though caste distinctions we all that clear. One poem in the Purananuru affirms i are only four castes (kudi), viz. tudiyan paraiyan and kadamban and only one god \ being worshipped, namely the hero-stone* the fall of a brave warrior in battle. These ( this worship were of very great antiquity,| survivals from pre-Aryan times.

Religion

Brahmanism began to make its inroads India with kings performing Vedic sacrifices! higher classes adopting Vedic gods. Buddhijjj Jainism also began spreading, though Br occupied the centre-stage. At the same time: and worship of various indigenous gods < among the common people and the tribes.' god of the Sangam age was Muruj Subramaniya (also known as Skanda or 1 Seyon). Other gods known were the three i (Siva), Indra, Varuna, Kubera, Yama, Tin Balaram, etc. Devavrinda was a term describe a group of five gods, viz. Murug Krishna, Balaram and Indra. Apart from pe different rituals, the people also built seve pies (kq.il) for different gods. Asceticism was honoured and tridandi staff) ascetics are particularly mentioned, ship of Murugan was of ancient origin and < ied some indigenous features like the vel ascetic dance in his honour. The epic post-Sangam period show that music and d were intertwined with religious rites fromj times; the worship of Korravai by the kalvar( avar (warriors), of Krishna by the kurumbarA herds) and of Murugan by the kuruvar being the most striking instances of this. A1


fhe necess

Isses such |rs), malavQ pans (rop tst tribes li> fial inequ rere not

is that 'an, panan^ i worthy o| ie, recalling;| 'castes aiuff ty, perhaps!

[into south, pes and the ihism and ahmanism 6 animism continued The chief ugan or-;yaor fed god firumala, iiised to Siva, forming al term-(triple I wor* od-al, an f of the cing early rmar i(shepnters) pie of

is mentioned in the Manimegalai which (hides to the Kapalikas, as an austere class of cedes. ' in reincarnation, the effects of karma in we births and the power of fate was the basis It religion in India and this was generally I in the Tamil country also. There was much i omens and astrology. A woman with dishevffhair was a bad omen. There were fortune-i who plied a busy trade. Children were pro-fcwith amulets for warding off evil; and rites |
on of Women

I the growing Aryan influence, the position of i suffered. Remarriage of widows was generally cured. The lot of widows was a hard one; they > cut off their hair, discard all ornaments, and eat \ the plainest food. No wonder that some wives pre-i to die with their husbands and earn fame as satis. I tonsure of widows, like the tying of the tali at the i ceremony was obviously a pre-Aryan Tamil i taken over and perpetuated into later times. I Tolkappiyam, said to have been modelled on fSanskrit grammar of the Aindra school, states ely that marriage as a sacrament attended with was established in the Tamil country by the us. The earliest Dharmasastras mention eight i of marriage. These eight forms are mentioned I Tolkappiyam and other works, and much inge-is spent in appropriating them into Tamil . The Tamils had also names for unilateral love b'/ai") and improper love (perandinai).

(Arts

music and dancing were quite popular 0bng the Sangam people. The poets were men

and women drawn from all classes of society; and were often rewarded generously. The courts were also enlivened by roving bands of musicians followed by women who danced to the accompaniment of music. Prominent among these were the panar and viraliyar who moved about the country in companies carrying with them all sorts of quaint instruments. They seem to have been the representatives of primitive tribal groups who preserved the folk-songs and dance of an earlier age. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types are described and included many kinds of yal (a stringed instrument like the lute) and varieties of drums. Viralis sometimes danced at night by torchlight and particular danceposes of the hands are mentioned by names as in the Natyasastra of Bharata. A conscious and systematic attempt was made to bring together and synthesise the indigenous pre-Aryan modes (desi) with those that came from the North (marga), the result of which is reflected fully in the Silappadigaram. The dancing-girl was often a serious rival to the wife, and the whole plot of the celebrated story of Kovalan and Kannagi turns on this rivalry. Like Vatsyayana's Kamasutra, the Manimegalai indicates that hetaerae underwent a regular course of instruction extending over a number of years and comprised court dances, popular dances, singing, playing on the lute and flute, cookery, perfumery, painting, flower-work and many other fine arts.

Burial Practices

No single method was adopted for the disposal of the dead; both cremation and inhumation with or without urns are freely mentioned. A widow offered a riceball to her dead husband on a blade of grass (darbha) and the pulaiyan had a part to play in this funeral ritual. Sati was fairly common, though by no means universal. The heroism and devotion of the sati were doubtless applauded by public opinion, but the practice was certainly not encouraged, much less enforced.


ECONOMY

Agriculture

Agriculture was the main occupation. The chief crop was rice, while other crops included cotton, ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cinnamon, different varieties of fruits, etc. Construction of embankments and canals for irrigation was undertaken by the state itself. Chera country was noted for its jack-fruit, pepper and turmeric. In the Chola country a veil of land yielded around thousand kalams of paddy. Many rural activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane, the making of sugar from the cane, and the harvesting and drying of grain are described in the Sangam poems in a vivid and realistic manner.

Handicrafts

Weaving, shipbuilding, metal working, carpentry, rope-making, ornament-making, making of ivory products, tanning, etc., were widely practised. The large demand, both internal and external, for these manufactured goods gave these professions a further boost. Spinning and weaving of cotton, and perhaps also of silk, had attained a high degree of perfection. Spinning was then, as always, the part-time occupation of women. The weaving of complex patterns on cloth and silk is often mentioned in literature and, according to the Periplus, Uraiyur was a great centre of cotton trade. The poems mention cotton cloth as thin as the slough of the snake or a cloud of steam, so finely woven that the eye could not follow the course of the thread. Scissors and needles were known and employed in cutting hair and in dressmaking; a kind of hair pomade (tagaram) is also mentioned. The making of rope charpoys by pulaiyans and the use of animal skins as mats for lying on deserve to be noted. The Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of the life of the fisherfolk of Puhar, the paradavar, including some of their holiday amusements.

Trade and Commerce

Trade, both inland and foreign, was well organized and briskly carried on throughout the period; Tamil poems, classical authors and archaeok south India all speak with one voice < Internal trade was brisk, caravans \ with carts and pack-animals carried 1 dise from place to place and from was an important commodity of trade J chants moved with their families in < with spare axles against conting played a large part in all transactio roots, for example, were exchanged.1 toddy, and sugarcane and aval (rki arrack, while in Muziris fish was sold External trade was carried on India and Hellenistic (Greek) and Arabia as well as the Malay : the fall of the Greeks and the conq the Romans (first century ad), Romamf very important. The great port cities were the < trade. Big ships, entered the port poured out on the beach precious^ brought from overseas. The family merchants of this city was carried i floors, while the lower ones were set! ness. Saliyur in the Pandya country i Chera are counted among the most & in the poems. The author of the Periplus (75 ad) J valuable information about this trade! and the Roman empire. He mentio Naura (Cannanore), Tyndis (the Tond identified with Ponnani) and Mu Cranganore), and Nelcynda (near '. leading importance on the west abounded in ships sent there withal Arabia and by the Greeks. This volume after Hippalus, an Egyptia showed the possibility of large ships i monsoon straight across the ocean in vessels bugging the coast arid exp to many risks. Other ports of south ] by the author are Balita (Varkalai), i (Korkai where the pearl fisheries of kingdom were worked by conde Camara (Kaveripattinam), Poduca(/ Pondicherry) and Sopatma (Ma


: were three types of crafts used on the east liips of the country coasting along the shore; ge vessels made of single logs bound called sangara, and very large vessels, Icolandia which made voyages to chryse and nges. author of the Periplus mentions Argaru ir) as the place to which were sent all the Fgathered on the coast and from which were I muslins called argaritic. He notes further P'great quantity of muslins was made in the i of Masalia (Andhra country) and that ivory I special product of the country further north, I (i.e. Dasarana, Orissa). large quantities of gold and silver coins ; by all the Roman emperors down to Nero I AD)*found in the interior of the Tamil land to the extent of the trade, the presence of 0 settlers in the Tamil country, and the periods rise, zenith and decay of this active comLbeginnings may be traced to the reign of i as a phenomenally large number of coins I his stamp (and that of Tiberius) have been In that reign, despite 'embassies' from the ruler, this commerce was by no means |ive or economically important. However, it new and unexpected proportions and |.to be a mere trade in luxuries. the death of Nero, the traffic was not so \^confined to the Tamil land as before but ' more evenly along the Indian coasts, and was by barter rather than with money--the > subsequent to Nero not being so well rep-I in the coin finds. the end of the second century ad the sgtrade between the Egyptian Greeks of the êmpire and India declined, the traffic pass-Dfthe hands of the Arabians and still more, the Bites of East Africa. A new era commenced I rise of Constantinople in the fourth century coins reappeared in south India, and pies were received by Constantine from the |
drained the Roman empire of much of its treasure and evoked protests from the financiers of the empire as well as its moralists. The trade of the early Roman empire had wide ramifications and was bound up with much exploration and colonisation on the part of Graeco-Romans and Indians. Main exports of the Sangam age were cotton goods, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, rice, ivory products, pearls, precious stones, and the like. Main imports included horses, gold, and the like.

End of the Age

A long historical night ensues after the close of the Sangam age. We know little of the period of more than three centuries that followed. When the curtain rises again towards the close of the sixth century ad, we find that a mysterious and ubiquitous enemy of civilisation, the evil rulers called 'Kalabhras' (Kalappalar) have come and upset the established political order which was restored only by their defeat at the hands of the Pandyas and Pallavas as well as the Chalukyas of Badami.

7.3 SATAVAHANAS AND OTHER INDIGENOUS DYNASTIES

According to the Puranas various dynasties like the Sungas, the Kanvas and the Andhras emerged to fill up the vacuum caused by the fall of the Mauryas. The kingdom of Kalinga declared its independence and the Tamil kingdoms of the south were no longer considered as subservient to the north but participated in the prosperous maritime commerce of the Indian Ocean and in the movement of the colonisation in Southeast Asia. The North-west India had to pass through several waves of foreign invasions-Greeks; ParthoScythians and Yuehchis or Kushanas--who founded kingdoms in India and left ineffaceable memories on India's social and political life. The Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhara was born out of the mingling of the Greeks with the Hindus and produced far-reaching effects in India and outside.


REGIONAL SPECIALITIES OF SANGAM AGE

1. Kurinji (Hills) Premarital love Cattle raiding Kuruvar (Hunters)

2. 3. 4. 5.

Pa/a/ Long separation Burning the (Dry lands) of lovers countryside Mullai Brief separation Raiding (Jugles) of lovers expeditions Marudam Post-marital Seige Ulavar (Plains) love (Ploughmen) Neydal Parting of Pitched (Coast) fishermen's wives battles

Maravar (Warriors) Kurumbar (Shepherds)

Paradavar (Fishermen) from husbands

Buddhism underwent a profound transformation and the Mahoyana doctrine radiated to China by way of Turkestan.

SUNGAS

The Gargi Samhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana furnish many details about the sungas. The later Sunga history is brightened by inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisa (modern Bhilsa) and Bharhut and the coins found at Kausambi (modern Kosam), Ayodhya, Ahichchhatra and Mathura. The success of Pushyamitra's coup d'etat was due, in large measure, to popular disaffection which enfeebled the last of the Mauryas (Brihadhata) when he could not protect the empire against the Greek onslaught. According to the Yuga Parana of Gargi Samhita the Greeks overran several parts of north India and reached Pataliputra. This invasion might have taken place under Demetrius when Pushyamitra was yet a general of the Mauryas. The Sungas are usually regarded as Brahmins belonging to the Bharadvaja clan.

Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son I He is the hero of Kalidasa's Malavil Agnimitra was succeeded by Sujyeshtha.1 with Jethamitra of the coins. After Agnimitra's son, Vasumitra, who was sooni by Muladeva of Kosala. Vasumitra was succeeded by Vajr unimportant reign was followed by \ Bhagavata, who is identical with king Bh of the Besnagar Pillar Inscription. It was tof that Heliodorous was deputed as an amb the Greek king Antialcidas. It not only the Sungas maintained a close friendship * Indo-Greek kings, but also demonstrates I of the Indian culture when Heliodorus su the Bhagavata religion. Bhagavata enjoyd| reign and was succeeded by Devabhuti, however overthrown by his Brahmin 1 Vasudeva. This brought about the downfi Sunga dynasty. The Sunga period witnessed the Brahmanism and the growing importanc Bhagavata religion. The great gran Patanjali, born at Gonarda in central In contemporary of Pushyamitra. The Sungaf


Murugan Subrams Skanda, ;J Kartikeya,, Seyon Korravai, Durga Krishna, Tirumala Mayon Indra, Senon Varuna, Kadalon

s son Agnir alavikagnimii teshtha, ident ifter him is soon murd

Vajramitra. by that ; Bhagabs iras to his i | ambassador ily shows dship with es the vitalf 5 succumbed 1

Wjoyed a k iuti, who nin minist bwnfall of

revival nee of Igrammaria flndia, was nga perk a new form of art which is clearly ptfifom Mauryan art. The reliefs of Bharhut are [ commentary on contemporary Indian life : towards the mundane world. The Sunga |jiinore popular in character and more colleci aim and origin. The Sunga art is the first i of the organised and integrated art activity | Indian people as a whole and is thus the i of the court art of the Mauryas.

lister Vasudeva, who usurped the throne after ; his Sunga master Devabhuti, founded a yal dynasty known as the Kanvas or in Magadha. The kingdom of the first I'was limited in extent, perhaps confined to t alone. litra, successor of Vasudeva, was foll%y his son Narayana. He has been identified with Vishnumitra of the coins. Narayana ded by his son Susarman who was the of the Kanvas when the latter was sup-l by the Andhras in 27 bc.

I DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA

der crossed the Indus and occupied the i as far as the river Ravi. The Greek success ildened the provincial governors to assert their nee and numerous independent principalif Came into existence in Ayodhya, Kausambi, and Ahichchhatra. To the south-west of lay the tribal republic of the Arjunayanas i territory extended from Agra in the east to in the west. With the fall of the Sungas, the Kshatriya tribes [ between the Ravi and the Jamuna reappeared ndent political powers. The Audumbaras, coins have been found with their presiding ' Mahadeva (Siva), occupied the land between i: upper courses of the Ravi and the Beas. The om of the Kunindas comprised the territory the upper courses of the Beas and the Their coins also show their presiding deity svara (Siva). A part of Punjab was occupied

by the warrior people of Trigarta. The Yaudheyas held the territory between the Sutlej and the Yamuna. They issued several coins in the name of their presiding deity Kartikeya, also called Brahmanya.

SATAVAHANAS

Origin

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas appeared as the successors of the Mauryas and ruled in unbroken continuity for 460 years. Historians are often confronted with the baffling problem of the original home of the Satavahanas, the meaning of their dynastic name and the title Satakarni. The kings represented in epigraphic records are mentioned in the Puranas as Andhras, Andhrajatiyah and Andhrabhrityah. Andhra is both a tribal and a territorial name. While the Andhras as a people are mentioned as early as the 5th century bc, the Aitareya Brahmana speaks of them as the degenerate sons of Visvamitra. Pliny the Elder, refers to the Andhras as a powerful race which supplied the king with an army of 1,00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. In the Asokan inscriptions the Andhras are mentioned along with the Parindas as border people. The argument that the early records of the Satavahanas have been discovered in Maharashtra alone no longer holds good. Only two inscriptions (Nanaghat and Nasik) and a few coins of doubtful authenticity were discovered in Maharashtra. But recent excavations in the Telangana districts of AP resulted in the discovery of a large number of Satavahana coins and seals. At Kotilingala several coins of Simukha, the founder of the Satavahana dynasty, and those of other early rulers like Kanha and Satakarni I were found. Similarly at Kondapur. Peddabankur and Dhulikatta, several seals, coins and terracotta objects were discovered. These discoveries testify to the fact Telangana was the nucleus of the Satavahana empire. Further, the description of Satakarni I as 'Dakshinapathapathi' in the Nanaghat inscription proves that the Satavahana dominion was not confined to western Deccan alone, but included other areas of the Deccan and beyond.


The connotation of Satavahana and Satakarni is the subject matter of great debate. Satavahana is connected by some with Satiyaputras. Others say that Satavahana is a Prakrit form of saptavahana which means the solar origin of the dynasty as the Sun's chariot is believed to be drawn by seven horses. Satakarni is the surname borne by the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas were looked upon by some as Brahmins, while others represent them as of mixed Brahmin and Naga origin. In the Nasik inscription of Balasri, Gautamiputra Satakarni is called 'Ekabrahmana"which means either 'unrivalled Brahmin' or 'the only protector of the Brahmins'.

Early Satavahanas

The First ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Simuka, was the immediate successor of Asoka. He built many Buddhist and Jaina temples apparently to ingratiate these powerful communities. Simuka's successor was his younger brother Kanha (Krishna) who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in the west. The third king Sri Satakarni I was Simuka's son. He conquered western Malwa, Anupa (the Narmada Valley) and Vidarbha (Berar). He performed some Vedic sacrifices including asvamedha and rajasuya and gave away to officiating priests large sums and thousands of cows and horses. The sixth king of the line was Satakarni II who wrested eastern Malwa from the Sungas. Madhya Pradesh might have felt the might of his power as a coin of one of his successors Apilaka has been found in the eastern half of that state. Satakarni II's successor was Lambodara who was followed by his son Apilaka, the eighth king of the line. From Apilaka to Hala, the seventeenth king of the line, is a period of unrelieved darkness with only cryptic references to Kuntala-Satakarni. Hala's reign of five years was a period of great prosperity. Hala himself composed Gathasaptasati (also called the Sattasi), an anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharashtri or Paisachi Prakrit. The Satavahanas suffered a temporary eclipse when the foreigners (western Saka satraps) invaded the empire from all directions. This was also the

period of Kushana advance in northe four immediate successors of Hala succession for a brief period of 12; tion that presaged the troubled times, j greatest ruler of the western safi sion of Gujarat, Kathiawar. northe»| well as some portions of southern I

Later Satavahanas

After half a century of political.] Satavahana power suddenly leapt in under the reign of Gautamiputra Sab est of the Satavahanas. His achie recorded in glowing terms in the Na his mother, Gautami Balasri. After 1 resources, Gautamiputra overthrew N(J recovered northern Maharashtra, Narmada valley, Saurashtra, besides-! western Rajputana. He ruled over at extending from the Krishna in the and Saurashtra in the north and from J to the Konkan in the west. To the Bu munificent donations. His patronage off is revealed by the epithet 'Ekabrahmana'., Vasishtiputra Pulamayi I, Gautamip sor, extended the Satavahana power up I of the Krishna and conquered the Bell This has been proved by his special 'ship with double mast' found in the coast which also demonstrate the sp paid by the Satavahanas to naval power^ itime trade. Pulamayi's allusion in the 1 her of Satavahana inscriptions and the bution and variety of his coins indicate 1 of a vast empire and great economic During his reign, the old stupa at repaired, enlarged and encased in richly / marble slabs. The closing years of Pul; marked a revival of satrap power under ( Pulamayi's successor was Vasishtl Satakarni. Perhaps to checkmate the sa married the daughter of mahasatrapa But the Saka-Satavahana conflict began a£ reign of the next king Siva Sri Pulu stated in an inscription that Rudrad

Post-Maurycm India bc 200-ad 300 A207

Mthern India, lla ruled in qu 2 years, an ir les. Nahapana,| tps was in pos rn Maharasht [Maharashtra.

liputra's suet ) to the mot iellary dist I type of coi| : Coromane cial attentic ver and s largest nu : wide dist p the existen« prosperitjrl avati wa ' sculpt nayi's rei£ (Chashtana., hiputra Sal fytrapas, hffl

sh in the j yi II. It is defeated!

and reconquered Aparanta (north I and Anupa (the Narmada valley). Hast great ruler of the Satavahana dynasty ijna Sri Satakami. Inscriptions at Nasik, M and Guntur testify that he ruled over both JP-and western Deccan. He regained much of l which had been lost to the western satrapas silver coins in imitation of the western l coinage. The numerous coins issued by him ous denominations and are widely distrib-5 minting of coins in large numbers was due cial prosperity and successful termination thties with the Sakas. But during the closing I Yajna Sri's reign, the Abhiras impaired the , unity of the Deccan by appropriating the around Nasik. The last Satavahana of the I was Pulamayi IV.

ore of Satavahanas

sible to trace the history of the fall of the empire on the basis of their coins and s. The empire was partitioned among five sties. The northern provinces came under is of a collateral branch of the Satavahanas. !%est the Abhiras established themselves sik; the Ikshvakus carved out for them-l kingdom in the eastern (Krishna-Guntur) i Chutus controlled the far-flung areas of t-western parts and extended their power in land east, and the Pallavas filled the politim in the south-eastern tracts.

I Administration

records along with a few Buddhist I an interesting glimpse of Satavahana chy was throughout hereditary. Without (their Divine Right, the Satavahanas were ttwith the simple title of rajan. Wielding I power in theory, the administration of the t kings, in practice, was checked by cus-the Sastric injunctions. The princes were ; and appointed as provincial viceroys, i of different grades were the pivot in aistrative machinery of the Satavahanas.

The highest class consisted of petty princes styled as raja who struck coins in their own names. Next in rank came the maharathis and mahabhojas, titles which were hereditary and restricted to a few families in Thane and Kolaba districts of Maharashtra and north Mysore. The maharathis enjoyed certain privileges and could grant in their own names villages with fiscal immunities attached to them. According to Nanaghat and Kanheri inscriptions, the maharathis had matrimonial relations with the ruling family. Two more feudatory titles--mahase-napati and mahatalavara--vtere created to meet the growing demands of an extended empire. The empire was divided mtojanapadas and aharas. An ahara corresponds to a vishaya (district). Gama was the division below that of ahara. The aharas were put in charge of amachas. Gamika supervised the gama. The other functionaries were mahatarakas (Great chamberlains), bhandagarikas (Storekeepers), heranikas (Treasurers), nibamdhakaras (Officers in charge of registration of documents), dutakas and pratiharas.

Social Conditions

In the social hierarchy there were at least four classes. The mahabhojas, the maharathis and the mahasenapati were the cream of the society. The officials like the amatyas, mahamatras, and the bhandagarikas and non-officials like naigama (merchant), sarthavaha (head of the traders), and the sresthin (chief of the trade guild) comprised the second class. While the third class consisted of the vaidya (physician), lekhaka (scribe), suvarnakara (goldsmith), gandhika (perfumer), halakiya (cultivator), the fourth class embracing the malakara (gardener), vardhaki (carpenter), dasaka (fisherman), lohavanja (blacksmith), etc. was the lowest rung of the society.

Economic Conditions

The Satavahana period witnessed commercial intercourse with and the colonisation of the Far East. The entire coastal tract from Kaveripattinam to Tamralipti was the centre of commercial activity. In the second century ad, Ptolemy mentions many


places in Malaya and Indo-China as well as many ports in eastern Deccan and the Chola territory. The important ports in the eastern Deccan were Kantakossyla (Kantakasela). Koddura (modern Gudur) and Allosynge. At Chinna Ganjam (Prakasam district) near the sea-shore was found a pillar inscription of the time of Yajna Sri Satakami. In Kollitippa, a few miles to the north of Chinna Ganjam, was found another fragment of a stupa pillar. Motupalli was another port, situated three miles to the north-east of Chinna Ganjam. The greatest port in Satavahana western Deccan was Kalyana, the Calliena of the Periplus, near Bombay. Barygaza and Sopara were other important ports on the western coast.

Religious Developments

The Satavahanas patronised Buddhism and Brahmanism. The excellent Karle chaitya caves belong to the first century bc. But what constituted the most glorious epoch of Buddhism in the Deccan was the period of Satavahana recovery spanning 90-180 ad. In western Deccan the Kshaharatas and their rivals, the Satavahans emulated each other in building chaityas and viharas and in making grants of villages and lands to the monks at Nasik and Karle. The Satavahanas also paid attention to Amaravati and other stupa complexes in the eastern Deccan which were either built or enlarged during this period. Various sects sprang up in the Buddhist church without any animosity towards each other. The Bhadayaniyas flourished at Nasik and Kanheri, the Dhammattoriyas at Sopara, and the Mahasanghikas at Karle and its vicinity. The Chetikiya, Pubbaseliya, Avaraseliya, Utayipabhahi and Mahavinaseliya were the chief sects in the eastern Deccan.

CHETAS

Kalinga at the time of Kharavela included the districts of Puri and Cuttack and possibly a portion of the Visakhapatnam district, besides Ganjam. The Hathigumpha inscription in the Udayagiri hill, three miles from Bhuvanesvar in the Puri district,

describes the achievements of 1 dent of the Mahameghavahana, founder of the royal house of Che difficult to unravel the exact reli Kharavela and Mahameghavahana i to determine the number of between them. The Hathigumpha in undated and badly mutilated has 1 much speculation. The inscription which only four are legible records 1 of the reign of Kharavela. Kharavela's accession to the Kalinga's aggressive designs on ne tories. In his second regnal year he \ army to the west with contemptuous^ for the might of the Satakarni rate) army advanced up to the river 1 fied with modern Krishna and threat* Musikanagara, a city near the ju Krishna and Musi at the border of Nalge The next year Kharavela marched^ Bhojakas and defeated the ruling chie the Rathikas of the adjoining Marathii tricts of east Khandesh and Ahmad In the eighth year KharaveUI Gorathagiri, a hill fortress in the Barab Gaya district and laid seize to the city i The successes of Kharavela overawed si general who beat a hasty retreat to Yavana ruler, whose identification is i probably a later Indo-Greek ruler of i Punjab ^nd not Demetrius. In the Kharavela again invaded Bharatav Gangetic valley) without achieving any < cess. In the eleventh year, he sacked Pithuda, the capital of a king of the region in AP and overran the Tamil south as the Pandya kingdom. In the twe again led his army into the northern pli the king of Magadha and carried awa booty to Kalinga. It is said that Kharav magnificent temple at Bhuvanesvar out of mous wealth acquired from Magadha. Kharavela was a warrior king but. he i time to devote to works of piety and He was an ardent follower of Jainism


visions for the maintenance of Jaina jjget up residential chambers on the top of giri hill and set up magnificent columns in ill for the congregation of Jaina monks. i by no means a bigot and showed equal I all sects. Although there is perhaps some i in the account of his achievements as Ithe Hathigumpha inscription, it cannot be t Kharavela was a military leader of rare I under him Kalinga reached a pinnacle of i it failed to regain for several centuries

SN DYNASTIES

EKS

(id-third century bc, Bactria and Parthia \'fyom the Seleucidian empire and became nt kingdoms. But before that in 293 bc I became joint king with his father Bactria being placed in his charge. Two is he became sole king. His son II came to be associated with him as a in 266 bc and became the sole king a few yards. According to Justin, Parthia against the Seleucidian rule and became nt under Arsaces. About the same time s, the governor of Bactria, rebelled and pro-himself king. Before he became king, i must have served as a governor of Bactria. cording to Justin, Diodotus was not on lly terms with Arsaces of Parthia. Diodotus liMcceeded by his son of the same name who the anti-Parthian policy of his father and himself with Parthia, the enemy of the cids. He met a violent death at the hands of an named Euthydemus who took the crown elf.

i of Euthydemus

i story of independent Bactria is essentially that ' Euthydemus and his eldest son Demetrius. The nee of Euthydemus' coins seems to suggest at he had a fairly long reign over an expanding kingdom. His silver coins have been found in large numbers in Babkh (Bactria) and Bokhara (Sogdiana), to the north of the Hindukush, but they are less common in Kabul, Kandahar and Seistan where bronze issues are in abundance. He extended his sway over southern Afghanistan and the adjoining area of Iran and also over parts of north-western India. Demetrius was perhaps the first foreign king after Alexander who carried Greek arms into the interior of India. Placing his eldest son Euthydemus II as king to look after Bactria-Sogdiana during his absence, Demetrius took to India with him his second son Demetrius II, and also his general Menander. Demetrius took Gandhara, crossed the Indus, and occupied Taxila and made it his advance base. He left his son Demetrius II to govern the country between the Hindukush and the Indus. Demetrius made elaborate plans for advance into the Indian interior. He sent one section of his army south-eastward along the great road across the Punjab and by the Delhi passage to the Ganges and the Mauryan capital Pataliputra, and the other section southward down the Indus. The Mahabhashya of Patanjali and the Yuga Parana of Gargi Samhita mention that the Greeks overran the Panchala country, besieged Madhyamika (Nagari, Chittor) and Saketa (Ayodhya) and even threatened Pataliputra. Menander was placed in Pataliputra and Apollodotus at Ujjain and himself in occupation of Taxila Demetrius held the three cardinal points of his Indian empire, the three centres of administration. The Indian conquest of Demetrius must have imperilled his authority in Bactria which soon after revolted in 171 bc under an ambitious leader Eucratides. Perhaps Demetrius lost his life in an unsuccessful bid to overthrow the usurper. The success of Eucratides depended to some extent also upon disaffected elements. But Eucratides' success in India proved to be ephemeral as he had to contend with several princes of Euthydemian house who maintained their hold over several parts of India. Upon the unsettled conditions of the time appeared a man of remarkable ability, who was destined to become the most famous of the Bactrian kings in India; he was Menander, the Milinda of Indian tradition. He is mentioned by the classical


writers in association with Apollodotus with reference to Indian conquests. But the exact relationship between the two is not known. It is beyond doubt that Menander was not a Euthydemid. Menander's kingdom shows Indo-Greek power at its height. He ruled from the Kabul valley in the west to the Ravi in the east, and from the Swat valley in the north to northern Arachosia in the south. It is probable that encouraged by his success in India, Menander planned to recover Bactria but died in the course of his march to the west. But the greatest testimony to Menander's legendary fame is the Pali work Milinda Panho (Questions of Milinda) which is in the form of a dialogue between Milinda, the King of Sakala (Sialkot in the Punjab) and Nagasena, an erudite Buddhist monk. Of all the IndoGreek rulers it was Menander who captivates the imagination of Indian scholars, for Kshemendra (llth century ad) makes a respectful mention of him in his Avadanakalpalata.

House of Eucratides

Heliocles was the last Greek king to rule over Bactria and India. After Heliocles, Bactria was overwhelmed by the Saka deluge from the steppes of Central Asia. Antialcidas is the next king who immediately followed Heliocles. A Brahmi inscription engraved on a Garuda pillar found at Besnagar near Bhilsa records that Antialcidas sent an ambassador, named Heliodorous, to the court of Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, identified with the last but one Sunga, Bhagavata. It is noteworthy that Antialcidas had his headquarters at Taxila which was the home of his ambassador, described as a Bhagavata (worshipper of Krishna). Epigraphic and numismatic evidence points to his undoubted sway over Taxila, KapisaGandhara and the Paropamisadae (Kabul region). Amyntas was another Greek king who followed Antialcidas on the throne after a short interval. It has been suggested that Amyntas was probably the father of Hermaeus. Hermaeus was the last Indd-Greek ruler who had to maintain his precarious hold against the advancing menace of the Sakas, Parthians and the Yuehchis. He made a futile bid to stem the tide of advancing foes by uniting the two rival houses. But dangers were overwh he finally succumbed to the Parthii Pahlavas of the Kandahar region.

Effects of Greek Invasion

The second Greek conquest of India important than Alexander's. The ex Demetrius, Eucratides and Menander we invasions of the ordinary kind; they j into the Indian territory with the obvious ] setting up an empire. The establishment* rule in the Punjab and adjacent territorie Indo-Greek rulers of Bactria lasted for .1 tury and a half. The provincial organisation of the kingdom--the Greek satrapies with their; and meridarchs--was so firmly entrench country that the Sakas adopted it with littles! cation. The Greek coins which in point of s execution can vie with the finest coins oft served as models for the indigenous Similarly, some silver coins of Indo show definite evidence of the adaptation'1 indigenous methods of India. The bilingual < with legends in Greek and Kharosthi, was < by Sakas, Parthians and the earlier Kush Kharosthi legends were first discontinll Kanishka. The Greek calendar which Demetrius India with him gave birth to many other < idea of reckoning time from a date fixed once I came to India with the Greeks. Sakas and Ku copied so closely that nothing differed but the! year--they kept the same subdivision,^ Macedonian months. A considerable volume of trade between^ and the West came into existence as a result ( Greek conquest. The new outburst of pros Seleuceia which coincided almost exactly will great period of Greek rule in India from De to Menander is a sure proof of this growing i Seleuceia was the hub of the commercial which passed the goods overland to Syria" Phoenician ports. In the first century bc the i in India imported for themselves silk and other i

Post-Mauiyan India bc 200-AD 300 A211

, A regular trade route also existed i and Barygaza. jf of literature, a few Greek words found t\i' j>. Sanskrit. The Sanskrit words for pen, que and book are all derived from l all evidence is lost, we can still get atilre written by the Greeks in India, i of astronomy Indians were certainly ^the Greeks. According to the Gargi i yavanas are barbarians yet the scinorny originated with them and for this I revered like gods.' It is commonly held I value of zero was invented in India, nevertheless be recalled that 'both p notation and zero symbol are in ordinary bylonia and in Greek astronomy. The ation consists only in transferring this 1*8 number system with decimal order. The £the Zodiac and planets in Aryabhatta and him are certainly of Greek origin, [ifae realm of religion, the constant flow of i the two countries produced far-reachuences and the conversion of Heliodorous atism and of Menander to Buddhism show eks could not segregate themselves from I influence of Indian religions. o-Greeks influenced to a certain extent elopment of Indian art and architecture. The i art extending all over the north-west was Hellenistic in the beginning, but as time |the style became more and more Indian and less Greek. The idea of representing the of Buddhism as a man originated not with flans but with the Greeks. It was the one great vhich the Greeks set upon India; and they did [accident. Thus the Greeks did, to some extent Indians while they were in India and were po some extent affected by them.

Ithe second century bc there was a gigantic aval in Central Asia which resulted in momeni movements of nomadic tribes. In 176 bc the Hiungnu defeated the Yuehchi and the latter went' westwards and drove another people called Sai-v Wang, that is, the Sakas, out of their country, but were subsequently driven out by the Wu-Sun. Before their entry into India, the Sakas lived for a considerable period of time in the Sakastan under Parthian rulers. After crossing the Hindukush, the Sakas outflanked the Greek pocket of resistance and passing through Aria, Arachosia

and Gedrosia entered into the Indus valley through the Bolan Pass avoiding the usual highway, the Khyber Pass. Patanjali's Mahabhashya refers to them as ani-ravasita (clean) Sudras. The Ramayana places the settlement of the Sakas along with those of the Kambojas and the Yavanas in the extreme north, while the Mahabharata locates them in the extreme north-west beyond Sakala. According to the testimony of the Harivamsa the Sakas used to shave half of their heads. The Sakas were so closely associated with the Parthians in their rule over the middle and lower Indus valley, Drangiana and Arachosia that it was very difficult to distinguish between them. For the sake of convenience the princes of the family of Maues who invaded the lower Indus valley are known as Sakas and those of the family of Vonones, who ruled over Drangiana and Arachosia as Pahlavas or Parthians.

Sakas of Taxila

The earliest Saka ruler of India appears to have been Maues or Moga. Maues issued a large number of coins mostly in copper, and a few in silver. Maues adopted the title maharaja mahatma, the great king of kings, an exact Prakrit translation of the title basileos megalou adopted by several Indo-Greek kings. His rule extended on both sides of the Indus, from Pushkalavati on the west to Taxila on the east. The obverse side of the Maues' coins do not usually bear his figure but instead a large number of deities, mostly Greeks and a few non-Greeks. Among the latter can be found one or two Indian deities such as Siva and the Buddha. Numismatic evidence suggests that Maues was succeeded by Azes I. Azes I issued some coins


jointly with another king named Azilises in which the former's name appears in Greek on the obverse and the latter's in Kharosthi on the reverse. Thus Azilises who was probably the son of Azes ruled cojointly with the latter for some time before he came to the throne. Then again we have another group of coins on which the name in Greek is Azilises and in Kharosthi Azes. This Azes, according to most scholars, was a second ruler of that name who ruled cojointly with his predecessor Azilises and was probably his son and successor. Azilises continued most of the devices followed by his predecessors on the coins but introduced some strikingly original ones. One of them is the typically Indian deity, Abhishekha-Lakshmi. The much debased silver and copper coins and the paucity of varieties of Azes II's coins indicate that his dominion was shrunken. After Azes II the Saka territory passed under the sway of Gondophernes.

Satrapal System and Western Satrapas

The Achaemenid conquerors of north-western India were the first to introduce the satrapal system of government in the country. The title satrap or kshatrapa is the Hellenised form of the old Persian kshathrapavan which means 'protector of the kingdom'. The office of the strategos, a Greek word, means general; but during the Saka-Pahlava rule in India the word strategos must have signified the position of a subordinate ruler. The satrapal form of government received a fresh impetus during the Scythian rule in India, the chief feature of which was the system of joint rule of a mahakshatrapa and a satrapa, that is, the joint rule of the rajan and the yuvaraja in ancient Indian administration. In the early centuries of the Christian era certain regions of western and central India remained under the sway of the satrapas and mahakshatrapas, though it was not until the Kushana ascendency that this system of government was well-established here. Among the host of names found in the inscriptions and coins two principal groups of satraps are known--the earlier group consisting of two persons only, Bhumaka and Nahapana belonging to the Kshaharata race while the latter group comprises a large number of satraps known to have from Chashtana.

The Kshaharatas The first sati Kshaharata family was Bhumaka who i entrusted with the task of administerin western part of the empire of the Kush and fabric of his coins as well as the legei prove incontestably that Bhuma Nahapana but their exact relationship is j The use of both Kharoshthi and Brahn Bhumaka's coins points to the fact that \ territories not only comprised such Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra where . in vogue but also some regions of westi and Sind where Kharoshthi was prevale Bhumaka's successor Nahapana is only from his silver and copper coins, 1 several inscriptions. Several schola Nahapana with Mambarus of the Per capital was Minnagara in Ariake. Minnag tified with modern Mandasor and Aparanta. The inscriptions of his son-in-law Ushavadata, discovered at Pandulena (n Junnar and Karle (Poona district) Nahapana was master of a large part off Not only did southern Gujarat, northern] and the Nasik and Poona districts form ; dominions but Saurashtra (Kathiawar), region in the south of Rajputana), Malwa) and Avanti (western Malwa) Pushkar in Ajmer were incorporated in his 1 It appears from the Nasik inscription Jogalthembi hoard of coins in the Nasik < the power of Nahapana was crushed Satavahana ruler, Gautamiputra Sat annexed the southern provinces of the dominions. The Kshaharata family seems to hav»f peared with Nahapana's death. In the south-! satrapy of the Kushana empire the Ksha succeeded by the Saka family of the Ka

The Kardamakas The original home Kardamakas is not known, but Chashtana i been ruling in Sind region as a feudatory;


After Nahapana's death, Chastana was I by the Kushanas the viceroy of the south-l province of their empire with instructions to I the lost satrapal possessions. He might have sisted in this onerous undertaking by his son and his grandson Rudradaman. predeceased him while holding the fflsatrapa under his father; but Rudradaman, on, was associated with him as satrapa for e. Chashtana was the only member of his i used the three scripts--Greek, Kharoshthi hmi in his coin legends. l established a royal line which contin-ut intermission up to the beginning of the ' ad. Each successor of Chashtana was I of a prince who had ruled before him either kakshatrapa or satrapa. The duration of I's rule cannot be determined with cert the end must have been between ad 140 I as is proved by the reference to Tiastenes a) and his capital Ozene (Ujjain) in fs Geography. htana was succeeded by his grandson According to the Junagarh Rock he won for himself the title of mahak-The Junagarh inscription testifies that han twice defeated Satakarni, lord of the i but spared him out of filial regard for him. itity of this defeated ruler is a subject of ation. He has been identified by some utamiputra, by others with his son hiputra Pulamayi. But the more probable i that the vanquished ruler was Vasishthiputra himself, the son of Gautamiputra and a f and predecessor of Pulamayi. nan conquered Malwa, Saurashtra, the northern Konkanand Mahishmati. His es also comprised other places such as I (Cutch), Svabhra (Sabarmati valley), Mara region), Sindhu-Sauvira (lower Indus valhd Nishada (the region near the western i and the Aravalli hills). He also humbled the !'Yaudheyas who inhabited southern Punjab P adjoining regions. He had his capital at Ujjain. i was not only a great conqueror but i patron of learning. He earned great fame by the study of various sciences like grammar, polity, music and logic and was reputed for the excellence of his compositions in Sanskrit, both in prose and verse. His love for the Sanskrit language is apparent from the fact that while the inscriptions of many other Saka rulers are in Prakrit mixed with Sanskrit, the famous inscription of Rudradaman is in pure and elegant Sanskrit. He was a benevolent ruler, repaired the Sudarsana embankment and reconstructed the lake by drawing money from his own exchequer without levying extra taxes on the people.

A group of highly qualified ministers who were divided into two classes--matisachiva (Counsellors) and karmasachiva (Executive officers)--helped the king in his work of administration. According to the Junagarh inscription Rudradaman married a number of princesses. These matrimonial alliances of the Kardamakas with the Satavahanas of the Deccan, the Ikshavakus of Andhra and the Lichchhavis of Vaisali point to the gradual assimilation of the Scythians into Indian society. Like Nahapana, he seems to have enjoyed a long reign. Rudradaman I was succeeded by Damaghsada I, Rudrasimha I, Jivadaman, Rudrasena I, Sanghadaman and Damasena in that order. The last known ruler Rudrasimha III, who ruled up to ad 388, has been mentioned in Bana's Harshacharita as having been killed by the Gupta monarch, Chandragupta II. The Guptas then annexed the Saka territories and issued coins in imitation of the satrapa type.

PARTHIANS

The first member of this line was Vonones, who attained power in Arachosia and Seistan. Gondophernes was however the greatest IndoParthian monarch, the period of his reign (ad 19-45) being definitely fixed with the famous TakhtiBhai Inscription. Gondophernes is credited with the conquest of an extensive dominion. He overthrew Hermaeus, the last Greek king of the upper Kabul valley, in spite of the help the latter received from his Kushana ally, Kujula Kadphises. But Gondophernes' success


against the Sakas in India was far more conspicuous. That he supplanted Azes II in some territories seems evident from the coins of Aspavarman, who was at first the latter's stmtegos but later acknowledged Gondopherenes as his overlord. The legend connecting St Thomas, the Apostle, with Gondophernes appears for the first time in the original Syrian text of the Acts of St Thomas. St Thomas might have thus visited Gondophernes' dominion in the course of his apostolic career and then travelled to south India. After the death of Gondophernes, the Parthian empire was split up into petty principalities. The Kushanas were quick to take advantage of the distressing situation and supplanted the Parthian rule in Afghanistan, Punjab and Sind.

Importance of Scytho-Parthian Rule ,» The Scythian penetration was too deep and covered a wide region embracing within its fold extreme north, north-west, parts of the Punjab, Mathura and the adjoining regions, north-western Deccan and western India. The Sakas and the Parthians used to govern many of their Indian possessions through strategoi and satraps. They maintained the system of administering districts and other smaller units of the country with the help of such officials as meridarkhs and others--a system introduced by the Indo-Greeks. The Sakas did not strike gold, their coins being mostly in silver and copper: the Pahlavas restricted themselves to issuing copper and in rare instances silver money. The economic and social life of the country was well organised through guilds and the state guaranteed the existence of these institutions by affording them necessary assistance. According to one Nasik cave inscription, a donation of 3,000 karshapanas by Ushavadatta, son-in-law of Nahapana, was a perpetual endowment for the benefit of the Buddhist monks of any sect dwelling in the cave. Another Nasik cave inscription records a similar endowment with the guilds at Govardhana to provide medicines for the sick of the Sangha of monks of any sect. KUSHANAS

Origin

The name Kushana originally me ily of the Yuehchi people. By the f first century bc the Yuehchis gave i habits and divided themselves intoH principalities. Nearly a century af Kujula Kadphises I (the king of one < cipalities) attacked and subjugated^ principalities. This led to the esti large empire in India and the Indian 1

Kadphises

Numismatic evidence suggests Kadphises was the colleague or ally i the successor of Hermaeus, the last ( the Kabul valley. Kadphises I extir rule from both the Kabul and Kandahar i a short time. He added Gandhara and ' other conquests which might have beeni his son Vima Kadphises, during his lifelj^ Kadphises I probably coined no gql< copper. His coinage shows unmist! influence--a direct imitation from the-| Augustus, Tiberius or Claudius. The dhramathida (dharmasthita) and sachadh (satyadharmasthita) meaning 'steadfast iij faith' suggest that Kujula was either a Bu Saiva by creed. The reign of Kadphises assigned roughly to the period ad 15-64. Vima Kadphises (ad 64-78) succeeded 1 a fairly mature age. His comparatively was spent in expanding the Kushana powerj interior of India. Taxila and the Punjab only annexed to his empire but a far distant;! Mathura was perhaps added to the orbit i Kushana empire. The nameless king off Megas' coins was most probably the appointed by Vima Kadphises to govern dominion which extended over the territorie between the Indus and the Ganges. Vima Kadphises was one of the few early 1 rulers who became a zealous adherent of an '.


, the Pasupata. All his coins, whether in gold show unmistakable signs of his Saiva ition. The reverse device of his coins consists with his long trident, sometimes accompa his bull and sometimes not, or of a trident xe; the obverse gives a new life-like reprei of the monarch, either seated on a couch or sacrificing at an altar, or even riding in a t drawn by two horses. : abundance of gold and copper coins issued . Kadphises indicated the prosperity of the empire. During his time a brisk trade in f spices, gems and other articles was carried on India and China and the Roman empire, nan gold coins that flowed into India influ-the gold coinage of the imperial Kushanas. ka is usually regarded as a successor of Vima es, though the exact relationships between iro is not known.

i ruled in the first century ad and was the 1 of the Saka era of ad 78. The continuous ning of the kings of the Kanishka group shows nishka was the founder of an era, and there is i except this, the well-known Sakabda. Again, i era began to be described as the Sakakala a-nripa-kala (the era of the Saka kings) either I Kanishka was plausibly held to be Saka, or fcis more likely, because the era was in continus throughout the reigns of the Saka satrapas i India. was the greatest king of his dynasty, hie records prove his control over Uttar , Punjab, NWFP and the Bahawalpur region j|of Sind. The discovery of a large number of I's records at Mathura and the Sanchi i inscription seem to suggest that Rajputana, and Saurashtra also formed part of a's dominions. From the Si-yu-ki and the ngini, it is clear that Kashmir was also a fef-his kingdom. A tradition recorded by Alt points to Kanishka's rule over Afghanistan adjoining parts of Central Asia. The i and Tibetan writers record the tradition of his conflict with the rulers of Saketa and Pataliputra in eastern India, whence he carried off the celebrated Buddhist monk Asvaghosha. According to Hiuen Tsang, Kanishka ruled his vast empire from his capital Purushapura or Peshawar. Kanishka fought against the Parthians on the west and crossing the Pamirs subjugated the rulers of Khotan, Yarkand and Kashgar. Kanishka secured the Chinese royal princes as hostages whom he treated with kindness. In the latter part of his reign, Kanishka suffered reverses in the north and northeast because of the victories of Pan-Chao, a

famous general of the Chinese emperor Ho-ti. His empire outside India, thus, suffered diminution, although his extensive empire in India remained intact during his lifetime. Kanishka's name is usually associated with .Buddhism and in the latter part of his career he became an active patron of the Buddhist Church. Puzzled by the conflicting doctrines of the Buddhist Church, Kanishka, on the advice of Parsva, convened the momentous fourth council of the Buddhists in the Kundalavana vihara in Kashmir. Despite his professed attachment to Buddhism, Kanishka was catholic enough to worship a medley of Zoroastrian, Greek and Mithraic Gods to which Indian deities were added. Among these may be mentioned, Oesho (Siva), Sakaymo Boddo (Sakyamuni Buddha), the wind God (Persian Vado, Indian Vata), the fire-god Athsho (Persian Atash), the moon-god Mao, the Sun-god Micro (Persian Mihr; Indian Mitra), the fireGod Pharro (Persian Fa'rr), the Greek Sun-god Helios, and so on. This strange conglomeration of different deities, worshipped in various parts of the empire, certainly reflects Kanishka's remarkable toleration towards other religions. Kanishna was a great patron of arts and letters. The age of Kanishka witnessed the execution of the best work in Gandhara style. The great tower at Peshawar, chiefly made of wood, and over 400 feet high and constructed under the supervision of a Greek engineer Agesilaos elicited the admiration of Chinese and Muslim travellers. Kanishka built a tower near Taxila and the city of Kanishkapura in Kashmir probably owed its foundation to him


m Mathura was also adorned with numerous Fine buildings. The eminent Buddhist writers Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra flourished at the court of Kanishka. Nagarjuna was the great exponent ofMahayana doctrine and Asvaghosha, a multifaceted personality, was known as a poet, musician, scholar, and zealous Buddhist monk. Charaka, the most celebrated authority on Ayurveda was the court physician of Kanishka and Mathara, a politician of rare merit, was his minister.

Successors

Kanishka's immediate successor was Vasishka who had a short reign. Vasishka was succeeded by Huvishka whose reign marks another bright period of Kushana history. Inscriptions and coins are suggestive of an extensive empire which he inherited from his father and which he certainly preserved. According to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Huvishka ruled simultaneously with Vasishka II or Vajheska and with the latter's son Kanishka II. Kanishka II assumed the title kaisara, that is, Caesar, and seems to have died before Huvishka. Huvishka's abundant coinage, which is more varied than that of Kanishka, presents fine portraits of the king. The varied reverse devices of his coins, like Kanishka's coins, contain the figures of different deities. Thus we have the figures of Indian divinities like Skandakumara, Visakha, Mahasena and Uma, the Alexandrian Serapis (Serapo), personified Rome (Rion-Roma), the Greek Heracles and several Zoroastrian deities. The Buddha is conspicuous by his absence on his coins. It appears that Huvishka was welldisposed towards Brahmanism. The last great Kushana king was Vasudeva, a purely Indian name pointing to the gradual Indianisation of the foreigners. As most of his inscriptions have been found at or near Mathura, it can be presumed that he might have lost his hold over the northern or northwestern parts of India. Most of his coins exhibit on the reverse the figure of the Indian god Siva, attended by his bull Nandi. After ruling for a period of about 25 years, Vasudeva's reign ended in or about ad 220.

The history of the Kushanas after' shrouded in obscurity in the absence i ary and archaeological evidence. The i ment of the mighty Kushana empire' by the Persian invasions. The rising? power undoubtedly dealt a fatal bk Kushana power in the northern and of India. One of the causes of the downf Kushanas was the rise of independent i the Yaudheyas, Kunindas and Malavas in { ning of third century ad who partitio themselves territories formerly held^ Kushanas. The Kushana rule in parts of the j valley was supplanted by that of the Nag ter holding sway over Padmavati, Mathura I other places in central India. In the latter part of the fourth cent! Kushanas came to acquire a new designatio and these Ktdara-Kushanas ruled in parts]} Punjab, north-western India and Kash impossible to arrange the names of their^ chronologically, to ascertain the exact their rule and the extent of the territories owe they ruled. But they had to and they did i the suzerainty of the Sassanids.

Importance of Kushana Rule

The age of the Kushanas is an important ep Indian history. The Kushanas built up an which embraced not only the whole of nortk| but also territories far beyond the Indian bori Their vast empire comprised a variety of natifl ties. The Kushanas succumbed to the cultural 4 ence of the Hellenistic Greek and of the This interaction fostered the development of schools of art in India, one in Gandhara other at Mathura. Inheriting the Hellenistic monetary techniqu Kushana coinage initiated the Roman style and < cution and became influenced by Indian art < dition. The Kushana coinage not only influenc Gupta coinage but also those of the Yaudhe Chedis, Gahadavalas and some other Indian i ties as well. The familiar devices of such Kus

Post-Mouryan India bc 200-AD 300 A217

ifter Vasude :nce of any The dismet ire was hast rising Sassa »1 blow to'fi nd western

lownfall of &nt republics 1 vas in the be^l ttitioned an t held by 8 of the Ya i Nagas, the tfhura and a 1

century ad gnation, Kid m parts of Kashmir. It of their rule! Act periods ies over whic did rule unt!

nt epoch an empi F north Inc i borderland |ofnationalij iltural infh he India nt of and

nique, the tie and exe4f| :and tra*; encedthei âudheyas/* i dynast = i Kushana* !rseated goddess' and 'Siva and the bull' > be imitated by the Indian rulers. age was a period of great literary svaghosha was the author of a, Saundarananda and Sariputrapra-also a period of intense religious witnessed the development of of Buddhism, the cults of Siva, i Krishna and saw the introduction of China by Kasyapa Matanga

i also fostered trade and commerce world and especially with the i who, in view of their hostile relas Parthians, leaned heavily towards the : Roman coins were current through-k India and were initiated by the Kushana f tent an embassy to the Roman emperor,

tfe seemed to have been happy econom-of the dedications at Mathura were ordinary men and women. The trade 1 stability and confidence. It is not cerliWhat extent Indian traders contributed in silk trade between China and Rome through the extreme northwestern Kushana empire. The initiation of the urei by the Kushana rulers-especially hises (in design and weight)--was very facilitating trade.

HAL CONTACTS WITH SIDE WORLD

i an extraordinary expansion and elaborag activities and corresponding increase s of exports and imports, opening up of elaboration of urban settlements and i improvements in the level of prosperity. 1 was also marked by the opening up of j parts of the country and the discovery of i of communication. The discovery by r of the monsoon searoute to India from and the establishment of the silkroute from China to Europe through India and the searoute to Southeast Asia from India were the main developments in this field. The trade organisation was also improved because of the increasing organisation of trade through guilds, increased monetisation of trade with the growth in the number of coins, and the like. Trade seems to have been conducted primarily in luxury items and not in essential items. India was obviously enjoying a favourable balance of trade as evident from the complaints of Roman writers like Pliny that bullion was flowing out of their country to India.

Role of Trade

The role of trade in an economy and the consequent effects depend upon the degree to which it dominates the economic network in a particular region at a certain time. Where the major revenue was from trade, as for instance along the west coast, it must have played the same role as land revenue in other areas. The effect of trade on the economy and society would also vary according to the nature of the role played by various regions. It has been pointed out that while most of north India was involved in 'transit trade', in the south there was greater predominance of'territorial trade'. At Arikamedu even a few months of excavations have revealed a considerable mass of Mediterranean artifacts, while many years of excavations at Taxila reveal only a few pieces. This is perhaps one of the reasons why the economic impact of external trade, especially Roman trade is more evident in the south than north.

External Trade

Indo-E0yptian Trade Regular maritime contact between India and Egypt began after 23 bc, though the Ptolemaic rulers tried to promote direct trade by sea between the two countries even earlier by constructing ports like Berenice and MyosHormus. However, the all-sea route had not become very popular up to 23 bc. According to Strabo, in the time of Ptolemy scarcely anyone would venture on this


voyage for commerce with the Indies. It is only after 23 bc that Indian traders sailed directly to the Somali ports and appeared in Egypt. An inscription found at Redesiya mentions an Indian merchant, Sophon, travelling over the Caravan route to Coptos. Towards the close of the first century bc Indo-Egyptian trade increased in volume. Strabo mentions that from the sea-port of Myos-Hormus alone about 120 ships sailed for India in one season.

Indo-Roman Trade From the commercial point of view, the most important development of this period was the thriving trade between India, particularly southern India, and the Roman empire. In the beginning the major part of this trade seems to have been by land. But the movement of the Sakas, Parthians and Kushanas hampered the smooth flow of this trade. However, since the first century ad, trade was carried on mainly by sea. The discovery of the 'monsoons' (derived from the Arabic word mausim) by Hippalus (a Greek sailor) in 45 ad gave a great impetus to this trade (according to some historians, the Arabs knew even earlier that the winds of the monsoon could cause ships to sail across the Indian Ocean, but kept it as a closely guarded secret). The sailors now became armed with better knowledge of navigation, which enabled them to call at the Indian ports of Barygaza or Bhrigukachchha (Broach), Arikamedu (near Pondicherry) and Tamralipti (Tamluk). Later, the consolidation of the empire by the Kushana rulers, who exercised suzerainty over extensive parts of the lower Indus valley and western India either directly or through their satraps, contributed to the further extension of this trade. A graphic account of the Indo-Roman trade is preserved in the Periplus Marts Erythreae or Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (meaning a voyage or sailing chart of the Red Sea) written in about ad 60 by an anonymous sailor of Alexandria. It describes the Indian ports along with their exports and imports. They are Barbaricum (near the mouth of the Indus), Barygaza (Broach), Suppara (Sopara), Kalliena (Kalyana), Semylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melizeigara, Byzantion, Togarum, Naura, Tyndis, Muziris, Nelcynda (all on the western coast), Comari, Colchi (Korkai), Poduca (Arikamedu), Sopatma, Masalia (Masulipatnam) and Ganga or Ta eastern coast). The trade between India and ried on in articles of daily or details show a brisk trade in luxury extensive production by-large ind that the Romans mainly imported spic known as the yavanapriya, cardamom,*! or cinnamon, costhus, nard, bedilium, < south India

was famous. They also in precious and semi-precious stones sapphires, agate, cornelian, donyx, etc.), pearls, cotton cloth (fine quality) as well as sagmatogene \ muslins and mallow cloth, indigo, iv wood, animal skins, iron and steel, etc.;| and southern India. All this may be i tuting 'terminal (or territorial) trade', 1 ucts were directly supplied by India, was also some 'transit trade', which diverted by Parthian hostility direct continental routes, sometimes from China via the east coast of India to ij the Malabar coast from where it went to| In return, the Romans exported to number of coins, invariably of gold MEM Wheeler reported in the fifties t of Roman coins of the first cent unearthed in the subcontinent and no fe' came from south of the Vindhyas. Ac latest reports 129 finds of Roman coins | unearthed, and most of them have Peninsular India. This justifies the Pliny the Elder (ad 77) who bewailed 1 other countries of the Orient drained ', extent of 550 million sesterces (Roman j annually. The complaint might be exa cannot be dismissed, for Rome had to 1 silk, cutlery and other goods which we by it from the East. The introduction of § on a significant scale by Vima Kadphises ( ruler) in the first century ad also makes itjj India had a favourable balance of Roman world. The Romans also exported to Ind amphorae (Italian, Laodician and Arabia


1-glazed Arrentine ware (pottery), which have 'discovered in recent excavations at u. Other Roman exports to India included [ like copper, tin and lead, minerals like real-i nony and orpiment, semi-precious stones emerald and coral, plant products like sweet clover and frankincense, varieties of I glass and costly vessels of silver, l&riptions from western India (second century ntion foreign perfume merchants (yavanad), and it is probable that they had their own in the port towns in western India. r of Arrentine vases of such famous Italian i as Vivie at Arikamedu-Virapattinam proves |it was a prosperous south Indian settlement at ; since ad 30. Excavations at the same place I also revealed the remains of a Roman trading n, the first of its kind discovered in India. As tied earlier, the discovery of a large number nt-fresh Roman coins issued in the early ceni of the Christian era from extensive regions in i India would also show the existence of such ntile establishments at other port towns in India. However, on the basis of numismatic again it has been asserted that this Indoi trade suffered a considerable setback in the i of the Roman Emperor Caracalla (ad 217).

with South-East Asia The decline of pa's trade with Rome was accompanied by the : of her mercantile relations with the counj of South-East Asia. In the early centuries of the fistian era Indian or Indianised states were ging in Suvarnabhumi-Suvarnadvipa (Malay sula and Indonesian Archipelago), Kambuja Champa (Cambodia and Annam). These tly testify to the existence of a numerically ng Indian element in the population of the tive countries. Indians visited these countries rily for trade. Archaeologically it can be own that Arikamedu was an entrepot for trade veen Rome and Thailand and thence Champa I China. In this trade with South-East Asia, Indians had a I hand. For Indians had to put up with the power 1 competition of Arab and Roman merchants in the West, whereas the field lay practically open to them in the East. In the later half of the first century ad, very large ships are mentioned in the Western sources as sailing from the Chola ports to Chryse (the exact equivalent of the Indian SuvarnabhumiSuvarnadvipa). These ships were probably of the two-masted type represented on some coins of king Yajnasri Satakarni, which are chiefly found along the Coromandel coast between Madras and Cuddalore.

In the second century ad, a regular sea route was in operation from the eastern coast of India to the South-East Asian countries, as is evident from the stories of the voyages of daring Indian merchants to Suvarnabhumi-Suvarnadvipa in the Jatakas as well as in the great collections of folklore like Brihatkathamanjari and Katha saritsagara. In the third century ad also, the Indian merchants, as recorded by the Chinese writers, undertook daring voyages to the Malay Peninsula and Cambodia. The names given in the Indian works, and after them in the Greek and Arab writings, demonstrate that it was primarily the quest for gold that motivated the Indians to venture across the seas to South-East Asia.

Trade with China Direct Indian contact with China was possibly established at the time of the old Han dynasty, the annals of which mention a voyage to Huang-che (probably Kanchipuram in south India). The discovery of a Chinese coin in Mysore which dubiously bears the date 138 BC may also be a proof of maritime trade between India and China in the second century bc. The report submitted to the emperor by the Chinese envoy Kang Tai (250 ad) and the frequent visits of Buddhist missionaries to China for proselytisation from the beginning of the Christian era also point to the same conclusion. Overland trade between India and China would also seem to have flourished, and the viharas explored by Sir Aurel Stein in Central Asia perhaps acted as car-avan-sarais for night halts of merchants, besides providing shelter to the Buddhist monks. In the first century ad there was a regular overland trade in Chinese raw silk, as well as silk yarn and silk cloth from North-West China to the Malabar


ports by way of the lower Ganga. The extensive trade in these articles led to the issue of gold coins in the lower Ganga region. In the late first century ad sea route to China was known, though vaguely, even to the anonymous author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. From the second century AD onwards, however, we have sufficient evidence of the use of sea route to China by Indians as well as others voyaging from India's shores.

Interne! Trade

There is some archaeological evidence for internal trade. In Ayodhya shreds of rouletted ware (typical Roman pottery mainly found in the trans-Vindhyan zone) have been found in levels assignable to the first-sccoad century ad. Thti is perhaps Ac most inland context i» which this ware has been found in northern India, and it may well have reached here from Tamralipti through the Gangs and then through the Sarayu rivers. Similarly a couple of the shreds of the red polished ware (typical of western India and also of the Kushanas) with incised Kharoshti inscriptions have been found in the lands belonging to the first-second centuries ad in Satanikot in Kurnool district, which might indicate trade between Andhra and northern India. Red polished ware found at several Satavahana sites suggests local trade but it may have been sent to northern India. There are several instances of long distance trade in glass objects and semi-precious beads. We have clear evidence of trade contacts between Mathura and Gandhara. The Mathura image of a goddess is made of blue schist of Gandhara and shows the style of the Graeco-Buddhist shawl. The real cause of development of the west coast was the coconut. This coconut tree, which forms the basis of the whole coastal economy today, seems to be an import from Malaysia. It was being propagated on the east coast about the middle of the first century bc and reached the west coast a century later. By ad 120 the Saka Ushavadata, son of Dinika and son-in-law of the reigning king Nahapana, began to give away whole plantations to Brahmins, each one containing several thousand coconut trees. Ushavadata was generous to the Buddhists as well. Under foreign dynasties like the Sakas, and Kushanas, several trade ce prospered. The Indo-Greek King ised trade emporiums of Sagala (Sa traders from different places assembled. \ in the territory of Sakas, there were traded Kapisa, Taxila, Pushkalavati and Mathu the Kushanas, Indian trade made progress and Kushana traders established! among the different regions of India as' foreign countries. In the early centi Christian era, trade centres of Vid Bharukachchha, Suparaka, Prabhasa, Nasika were under the occupation of j satraps.

*

*-- Pintail

iraev mows

Internal Trade Routes The most impor nal route during the pre-Gupta period wail as the 'Uttarapatha' or the Great Northernf which went from Taxila to Mathura and < several important commercial centres, many subsidiary routes of this main route,! those from Varanasi to Mathura, Va Vaisali, Saket to Sravasti, Kapilavasru to Vaisali to Rajgir via Pataliputra and Chaii| Tamralipti. The route between north India and south In through Avanti across the Vindhyas, and was 1 as the 'Dakshinapatha' or the Great Southern ] It connected Mahishmati with Amaravati. Lif northern counterpart, this route consisted of s segments, such as those from Pratishthana (P to Nasika, Bharukachchha to Suparaka and 1 and Muziris to Kaveripartinam or Poompuhar. I

External Trade Routes Till ad 45 , Indian j with the West (Seleucid empire, Egypt andj Roman empire) was carried on mainly three overland routes. The first was the nori most route which went along the Kabul river i the narrow section of the mountains of nistan. The second route lay about 500 miles I south-west where the Afghan mountains en open up an easy way across 400 miles of pl«

Post-Mouryon India K 20Q-*D 300 A221

i.

mth India ] B was know ernRou Like of seve (Paii dKalj Hihar.

ndian and lat throu northe ver across of Afghani tiles to the/ end and * of platea to Herat, and another way from the t of Qandahar through the Bolan Pass into Indus valley. The third route went across ts of Makran or along the coast of n. After ad 45, however, most of this : carried on along with the monsoon route Arabian Sea. But even before the dislof the monsoon route, searoutes existed i India and the West, though not regularly for instance, India maintained connection by the Red Sea route and with the empire by the Persian Gulf route. Both Dutes were controlled by the powerful Arab Besides, Strabo has left us an interesting of the participation of the Indians in the i trade by the Red Sea route, a's trade with Southeast Asia was carried on ' the sea routes. In the second century ad, a jr sea route was in operation from the seaboard i India to the opposite coast. Ships, accord-olemy's account, sailed from Andhra coast he sea to Sada and Tamale on the Burmese bb their way to Malay Peninsula. Another sea cted the lower Ganga region with Malay i and Indonesian Archipelago. Direct voyi from Bharukachchha were not unheard of. from this important port of western 'coast who traded with Suvarnabhumi-ripa must have found a convenient half: in Sri Lanka. hinese trade was conducted both by oversea routes. In the early centuries of the era, north-western India was connected by several overland routes. Proceeding I north-west frontier, the road went by way and Bamiyan across the Hindukush to where it joined the famous 'Silk-Route' to the Western World. From here, the route passed north of the Taklamakan t across Kucha and Karashar, while the south: went south of the desert through Khotan and, both routes finally converging on the frontier near Tunhuang. But a shorter, It1 more difficult, route followed the upper through Gilgit and Yasin to Kashgar and I onward to China. The sea route to China was

known from the second half of the first century ad, but it was more frequently used only from the second century ad onwards.

Organisation of Trade

Typa* of Merchant Guilds Merchant guilds arose out of the necessity of financing trade and commerce. These guilds acted as custodians of commercial conventions and customs. They also acted as modern banks and received deposits of public money on regular interest and lent out money to the people. Sreni or sangha was a general term for guilds including mercantile corporations. But the specific term for merchants' guilds was nigama, while puga represented interests of different merchants, crafts and professions of a locality. Besides, there were also the sartha type of guilds which were something like mobile corporations meant for transit or caravan trade. The leader of the sartha type of guild was generally known by the name of sarthavaha. The sartha guilds themselves can be classified, on the basis of their nature, into different types, such as those organised by individual traders, contractual traders who shared profits as per their share capital, and destination caravans who shared profits on the basis of their investment in stock in trade.

Functioning of CuM« Guilds played a prominent role in the conduct of trade and commerce in die pre-Gupta period. Gautama (one of the earliest writers on polity) declares that traders and merchants, among others, had the authority to lay down rules for their respective classes. Contemporary evidence shows that occupations were generally hereditary and localised. Jatakas, for instance, mention the 18 guilds, and several instances of--industries localised in particular towns and villages, of separate guilds each having apramukha orjetha as president, and a judge from among themselves settling disputes among the guilds. Jatakas also tell us of the sarthavaftas (caravan leaders) whose directions were obeyed by caravans along the trade routes.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Scope and Nature

I

The tulamana or 'measure' is one of the pi ical categories encompassing under it J mass, number (rasi), size, and weight. Itj gross elements in aggregate and con mass.

We know from the Arthasastra and fro that attempts were made from time to time J India to ensure a standard of uniformity 1 and measures in certain states. Items were weighed in a tula or balam commonplace objects like seeds, grains ol berries, shells, and so on, and a system of j often hypothetical, worked out. Many of the! were descriptively named after the seed, i berry in question. Weights were also closeh with coinage, and several coins were namedJ weights used. Measures of capacity, includ™ measures, were gauged by the cupped hands,! buckets and baskets, and used interchangeai weights. Measures of capacity were also n measures of area, for example the drona, fbl', a measure of dry and liquid capacity, jjj a square measure, the latter determined 1 acreage that could be sown with one buck) corn. *

A similar flexibility existed in the sysa linear measures. The result was that a giva tern of weights and measures was only val particular period and a particular area. AJ or a kishku in fifth century Ujjain differed! ciably from the same weight and mead Pataliputra. The details below give a veryj scale covering the most important of al|j systems. Theoretical Basis

Theoretically all weights and measures sta the anu or atom. The 'measure' of two ato dvyanuka, and of three atoms a tryanuka.Th lows the paramanu. It represents the first

if


The guilds, according to the Smritis, were headed by high executive officers, known as adhyakshas or mukhyas who in turn were assisted by committees of two, three or five persons called samukahitavadins (advisers for the public good) or karyachintaka (advisers

for the public business). The adhyakshas, according to Brihaspati (though assigned to the fourth century ad, his comments are relevant even for the pre-Gupta period), were permitted to punish wrong doers by reprimand and censure as well as by excommunication, and their judgements in the discharge of their duties were required to be respected even by the king. In the opinion of Narada (fourth century ad), the opinion of the advisers was to be respected by the guild leaders, and in case of differences between the two, the king might settle them. Both Narada and Brihaspati provide us with several examples of conventions or compacts known as samvitpatras. Katyayana, another prominent law giver, calls them by the name of sthitipatras and defines them as deeds of convention made by the guilds for preserving their usages intact. These conventions were to be enforced by the king, unless they were adverse to the king's interests, or were disapproved by the people, or were detrimental to the public good. The members of the guilds, for their part, were bound to follow their respective conventions, subject to their obligation of performing their individual duties and to obey the king's order not conflicting with the same. A member who failed to perform his share of the convention, though was capable of it, would be awarded different penalties, including the extreme penalty of confiscation of property and banishment.

The above law givers also tell us about the rights and duties of the individual members. Every member had an equal share in whatever was acquired by the guild or was saved by it, whatever it acquired through the king's favour as well as whatever debts were incurred by it for the common purpose. On the other hand, members were prohibited from mutual combination and unlawful bearing of arms, as well as mutual conflicts. A member who injured the common interest or insulted those who were learned in the Vedas was to be awarded the extreme penalty of banishment.

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AD 300 A223 Measures I Measures of Capacity

vaha or cartload kumbha or load goni or sack

=

=

surpa or basket

=

drona or bucket ' = 1 kamsa or jar = 1 adhaka

=

1 prastha

=

1 sarava or dish

=

1 kudava or vessel

=

1 anjali or cupped hands = 1 pana or handful 1 pala = 10 kumbhas or bharas 5 gonis 2 surpas or kalasas 2 dronas 2 kamsas 2 adhakas 4 prasthas

=

2 saravas 2 kudavas 6 anjalis

2 panas 2

palas

3

suktis

* Sukti is an oyster shell which is above one ounce. II Measures of Length 1 yojana 1 gavyuti 1 krosa 1 rajju 1 danda 1 aratni 1 vitasti 1 dhanurgraha 1 angula 1 yava 1 yuka 1 liksha 1 dhuli 2 gavyutis 2 krosas or gorutas 20 rajjus 10 dandas or dhanus 4 ararnis or hastas 2

vitastis

3

dhanurgrahas

4

angulas 8 yavas

8 yukas 8 likshas 8 dhulis 8 anus * Angula which is about three-fourth of an inch is the basic unit of linear measurement.

Lweights or measures. The trasarenu is f not less than thirty atoms and is visible *1 a sunbeam. Five trasarenu make one is sometimes described as a settled t. The weight of one grain of dust stirred sing chariot is called ratha-dhuli, 'char-id is equal to 8 trasarenu. The balagra, | equal to 8 ratha-dhuli. The egg of a d likrita, is the weight, or the length of 8 e mustard seed, or sarshapa is equal to 3 [ trasarenu. The gaura

or 'white' mus-equal to 3 sarshapa or 72 trasarenu, and jbarley grain is equal to 3 gaura. ghts, measures are also extremely unsysiary from region to region and from d. In measuring a man (for sculpture), uilding), or other object, special meas>"ons of proportion are used. Like iures of length also start from the anu or atom, and proceed to the eparamanu, theyava, etc. and are said i the length of an atom, two atoms, a / and so on.

i (for weighing precious metals and

= 4 karshas uvama = 16 mashakas = 2 rattis (raktikas or red berries) = 2 gunja berries = 2 yavas (barley grains) allest of the jeweller's weights. tis weights (for weighing all other CURRENCY

Silver and Gold Coins

It has been suggested that the Indians in Peninsular India did not know the use of silver and gold currency, and that, for the most part, the imported coins

=

20 tulas or 70 kilos

=

100 tolas or 3.5 kilos

=

10 dharanas or 3 5 grams

=

320 gunjas or 3.5 grams

t in this category is the dharana.


it" m

can only have been used as bullion. But we have some silver coins ascribable to the Satavahanas, and the epigraphic evidence suggests the use of silver pana. Hence Roman gold coins may have been valued for their intrinsic worth, but may also have been circulated in big transactions. In the north-west, the Indo-Greek rulers issued a few gold coins, but the Kushanas issued them in considerable numbers. It is difficult to subscribe to the theory that all Kushana gold coins were minted out of Roman gold. As early as the fifth century bc the Indian satrapy paid a tribute of 320 talents of gold annually to the Persian empire. The source of the metal may have been the gold mines, reported to have existed in Sind in the time of Alexander. This territory and probably the gold mines of Dhalbhum lay under the sway of the Kushanas, who enjoyed the benefit of the knowledge of melting and mining transmitted by the Mauryas. But on account of contact with Rome they began to issue the dinara type of gold coins, which became abundant under the Gupta rule.

Lead and Copper Coins

In day-to-day transactions, however, silver and especially gold coins could hardly be used by the people. Patanjali refers to payment in nishkas to the wage earners (karmakaras), but these do not seem to have been gold coins at this stage. In this connection the issue of lead or potin* coins by the Satavahanas is significant, for it indicates that in the Deccan and in the coastal areas money economy had come to be prevalent. The same inference can be drawn in respect of northern and north-western India from the coinage of the Kushanas, who perhaps issued the largest number of copper coins. Copper coins were also issued in large quantities by the Naga rulers, especially Ganapati Naga, and by several indigenous dynasties such as those of the Yaudheyas and the Mitra

rulers of Kausambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichchhatra and other dynasties. Kings, tribes and important towns vied with one another in

* An old alloy of copper, zinc, lead and tin. issuing coppers, which, in many < coins. All this would suggest that period had money economy into the life of the common peopfe] and suburbs as during this period, i which fits well with the growth of i and the country's flourishing traste i empire.

Usury

The Smriti literature of the pre-Guptai j with the topics of moneylending int its, and the like which are characteris oped money economy. Loans were eiti unsecured by pledges, and were given < or in kind, while the debtors included I versing forests or the high seas for gain.1 The laws relating to interest rates sho esting development. Manu, for instances per cent in general, but sanctions 2, 3,' cent for Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya:| debtors respectively. Yajnavalkya, ano nent law giver, repeats Manu's schedule* reconciles their patent inconsistency by j the 11 per cent rate to loan secured by ] legal rates of interest even reach the hig 24 per cent per annum. Yajnavalkya still higher rates of interest to cover i namely 10 per cent and 20 per cent (per i merchants traversing forests and the respectively. All these clauses point to 1 short supply of capital in comparison! demand. However, we may add here thatH rate of interest charged on loans i ing purposes during the period was cent per annum. The scarcity of capital is also reflected i against usury. Gautama, Vishnu and Manu I the interest accruing at any time must not < principal. However, they provided for interest at special rates in case of selecti The maxima are declared to be five times I pal amount in case of grain, fruit, wool and! burden by Manu, or twice, four and eight I

Fost-Maurvan India bc 200-AD 300 A225

fluids respectively by

r the epigraphic sources of the above Smriti rules es. Instead, the inscription i,,for instance, informs us that Govardhana (Nasik) stipu-$,only I per cent and 3/4th per ti|2 per cent and 9 per cent per

MO:

i its peak in the first three ceni era. We come across a large fjwhich were centres of crafts and (all the Kushana and Satavahana far show good structures. In the i notice some improvement in the s. At several places such as nwaria (in Basti district in northring was made of brick concrete This indicated the use of surkhi to the stability of structures, i for roofing appear in this period es in both the Satavahana and ,>These two factors were found to add fjand longevity of urban structures in i of the Christian era.

iHINAYANA AND YANA BUDDHISM

I of Buddhism

It starts from the time of Buddha's nt (528 bc) and covers his parinirvana fd the spread of Buddhism in eastern India, ti-two Buddhist councils were held during

*

&Phase It starts with the conversion of

^'Buddhism. The third Buddhist council was og this period and the practice of sending lies to different parts of the world also Third Phase It covers the Sunga-Kanva period. Despite the loss of royal patronage in eastern India, it made good progress due to the support given to it by the rich merchant class, for instance large donations to Bharhut stupa, Sanchi stupa and Karle caves; adoption of Buddhism by the rulers in the north-western India and the development of Gandhara art. Buddhism spread to south India due to the tolerant attitude of the Satavahanas, and Buddhist centres like Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda came into existence in the south. However, Buddhism got divided into as many as 18 sects, which was more due to the geographical factors rather than doctrinal differences.

Fourth Phase It starts with the conversion of Kanishka to Buddhism. The fourth Buddhist council was held and Buddhism began to spread to Central Asia and China. The major schism took place during this period, and Buddhists got divided into Mahayanists and Hinayanists. The period also witnessed the beginning of the practice of idolism by the Mahayanists.

Fifth Phase It covers the Gupta period. Despite the loss of royal patronage, it remained popular due to its patronage by individuals. Fahien testifies to its continuing popularity. A noteworthy development of this period was the foundation of the Nalanda Mahavihara (university) by Kumaragupta I.

Sixth Phase In snite of Marsha's patronage, it starts declining from the middle of the seventh century ad onwards. Hiuen Tsang came to India and saw the ruins of some of the Buddhist centres. Huna invasions and their destruction of the Buddhist centres resulted in a further set-back to Buddhism.

Seventh Phase It begins with the revival of Buddhism in eastern India due to its patronage by the Palas (eighth and ninth centuries ad). The famous Vikramasila University was founded by Dharmapala. However Buddhism again underwent a general decline after the fall of the Palas and completely disappeared in India after the Turkish invasions and the destruction of Buddhist centres in eastern India by Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1198 ad.


Buddhist Councils

During the life of the Buddha himself, the Sangha or the order of the ascetics came into existence. After the death of the Buddha, it undertook the responsibility of maintaining the purity of Buddhism.

First Council Held at Rajagriha under the chairmanship of Mahakassapa immediately after the death of the Buddha (483 bc), its purpose was to maintain the purity of the Master's teachings. It resulted in the settlement of the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's sayings) and the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code) by Ananda and Upali respectively. Pitaka literally means a 'basket' and it was called so, because the original texts were written on palm leaves and kept in baskets.

Second Council Convened at Vaisali a century after the death of the Buddha (around 383 bc), it was probably presided over by Sabakami. Its purpose was to end the controversy between the Vajji monks who began to follow some unorthodox practices, and their opponents who remained orthodox. But unfortunately it failed to arrive at an agreement over monastic discipline, leading to the division of the Buddhist Sangha into the orthodox Sthaviravadins (or Theravadins) and the unorthodox Mahasanghikas.

Third Council Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka (around 250 bc) and under the chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa (also known as Upagupta), its purpose was to settle the dispute arising out of the rival claims to authority. Its results were: (i) establishment of the Sthaviravadins as the true followers and expulsion of others as heretics; (ii) final compilation of the Tripitakas (a third one was added to the earlier two), viz. Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka (Philosophical interpretation of the earlier two Pitakas), and (iii) sending of missionaries to different parts of the world.

Fourth Council It was convened in Kashmir under the patronage of Kanishka (first century ad) and under the chairmanship of Vasumitra who was helped by Asvaghosha (author of Buddhacharita).

Its purpose was to settle the diffe: the 18 sects of Buddhism and to cpmp mentaries. Its results were: (i) divisic Buddhists into two major sects, with I (popular in Kashmir and Mathura jfl Mahasanghikas together forming the : (followers of the Greater Vehicle), including Sthaviravadins, forming the , (followers of the Lesser Vehicle); (ii) < the Sarvastivadin doctrines as Mahavibh inscribed on copper plates, which deposited in the stupa built for that pu conduct of the deliberations of the Sanskrit instead of Pali; and (iv) Buddhism to other countries--Maha Central Asia, China and Japan; Him Ceylon, Burma, Thailand and other; East Asia.

SCHISMS IN BUDDHISM

One of the earliest schisms in Buddhism < second council at Vaisali, and resulted in sion of the Buddhists into Sthavirav Mahasanghikas. But the major schism i fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir and i the division of Buddhists into Mah Hinayanists. Further, in the 8th century, sect, viz. the Vajrayanists (followers oft of the Thunder Bolt), came into existence.

Minor Schism

During the second and third centuries death of the Buddha new subdivisions, came into being, with the result that as eighteen sects appeared out of the origil groups (Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghiktut time of the Third Council. The follov based on Vasumitra's book on 'Eighteen' indicates the emergence of the different! The Mahasanghikas, gave rise to the fol| sects:

1. 2.

Ekavyaharikas Lokottaravadins


'.ins

Wiaviravadins, the following sects

ains is
ording to the commentary on the based on the earlier account in the ijlhe origin of the Buddhist sects from the i is as given below:

nghikas as yboharikas or Ekavyaharikas vtikas ptivadins dins or Lokottaravadins iravadins akas or Vastiputriyas bsasakas ottariyas 'rayanikas agarikas nitiyas stivadins naguptikas yapiyas

17. 18.

Sankrantikas Sautrantikas

Pali sources mention six other sects--the Haimavatikas, Rajagirikas, Siddhatthikas, Pubbaseliyas, Aparaseliyas, and Vajiriyas. Some of these sects became important in course of time and had a large following and a literature peculiar to their schools. The Mahansanghikas had their own Vmaya, and besides, they were the precursors of what later came to be called the Mahayanists. The Sthaviravadins and the Sarvastivadins, further giving rise to others, had their own literatures of Vmaya, Sutras, and Abhidharma. The Kathavatthu merely mentions the different views held by one or more individual members of one and the same Sangha. Based on that the Kathavatthu commentary identifies these 'views' with those of the different sects that had already come into existence by the time of the composition of the commentary. On the evidence of the versions of Asoka's pillar edicts about the schisms in the Buddhist Sangha, some scholars believe that these sects will have to be relegated to post-Asokan period.

Sthaviravadins The earliest and, at the same time, a vivid and simple picture of the personality of the Buddha and his teachings is found in the Pali literature of the Theravadins or Sthaviravadins, founded by Mahakachchayana who hailed from Avanti. This literature also describes Buddha as god of gods (devatidevd), or as a superhuman being possessing and exhibiting miraculous powers and capable of being a worldteacher; but the more common description in it is that of a human being with concomitant disabilities and frailties. The Buddha's philosophy, too, was very simple, and it may be summed up in three words: anatman, anitya, and duhkha.

Sarvastivadins Closely related with the school of Theravada the school of the Sarvastivadins is centred round the idea, sabbam atthi (all things exist). This idea is found as early as the Samyutta Nikaya. This school and that of the Sthaviravadins are realists. For them, the external world and its constituent


parts, the dharmas, have a real existence. Therefore this school believes that all things exist, and exist continuously--in the past and the future as well as in the present. The greatest authority of this school was Vasubandhu, who wrote the systematic treatise Abhidharmakosa. Kanishka was the patron-king of this school which flourished in Kashmir and Gandhara. This school was also known by the name Hetuvadins.

Mahasanghikas They believed in the transcendent nature of the Buddhas and therefore all sorts of superhuman powers were attributed to them. Greater importance was attached to the Bodhisattvas than to the Arhats, as they were considered to possess paranormal powers and to have been more helpful to the world than the latter. According to the Kathavatthu, this school believed that the Arhats are subject to retrogression, while the Srotapannas are not. The mahasanghika philosophy is opposed to the fundamental threefold division of the dharmas, into good, evil, and indeterminate (avyakrita), made by the Sthaviravadins. Instead, there are nine asamskrita dharmas. The dharmas in the past and the future do not exist. There is no antarabhava, an intermediate existence between death in this world and birth in the next. Andhrakas was a general name given to the followers of the Mahasanghikas who settled in the Eastern Ghats and around the region of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. Vasumitra mentions three groups of this sect: the Chaitya-sailas, the Aparasailas, and the Uttarasailas, while the Kathavatthu commentary mentions Pubba-seliyas, Aparaseliyas, Rajagirikas, and Siddhatthikas. According to Vasumitra, this school believed that the Bodhisattvas are not free from evil destiny (durgati) and that by making offerings to stupas, one cannot gain great merit. All the above sects and subsects belong to Hinayana. Some of the sects, however, held views which were partially Mahayanic and may be looked upon as the precursors of Mahayana doctrines. For instance, the Mahasanghikas and the Lokottaravadins deified the Buddha, introduced the Bodhisattva conception, changed 1 Arhathood to Buddhahood, and so fori

Hinayanism

The followers of Hinayan believed in teachings of the Buddha, and sought in vation through self-discipline and Unlike the Mahayanists, they did not beH worship. However they did worship Though it lost its popularity in Ind entrenched in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand,^ and Laos.

Mahayanism

From about the 1 st or 2nd century ad onv and very different kind of Buddhism : The new school, which claimed to offer s all, styled itself Mahayana, the Greater' Salvation), as opposed to the older Bud it contemptuously referred to as Kin Lesser Vehicle. The Mahayana scriptuj claimed to represent the final doctrin Buddha, revealed only to his spiritua advanced followers, whereas the earlier were viewed as merely preliminary.'| Mahayana Buddhism, with its pantheon of | Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and its idea physics, was strikingly different in many^ from the Hinayana, of which the main body1| Theravada, it can be viewed as a culminatio dencies that had existed long before--a devel{ favoured and accelerated by great historical ( taking place in north-western India at that I It is probable that even in the life time] Buddha it was thought that he was only the | series of earlier Buddhas. It was held that' Buddha was preceded by six Buddhas, Vipasyi, (2) Sikhi, (3) Visvabhu, (4) Krakuch (5) Kanakamuni and (6) Kasyapa, and the ] of their worship among the Buddhists is confi their representations in Buddhist art. Further i to this contention is provided by the Nigali' Edict of Asoka which refers to the enlarge stupa erected in honour of Kanakamuni

Post-Maurycm India bc 200-AD 300 A229

monarch. Five of these past Buddhas, tii, are represented in the art of Bharhut, bly by means of their characteristic tree-i along with identification labels. Later, per-Zoroastrian influence, it came to be that other Buddhas are yet to come, and ^developed in Maitreya, the future Buddha, ning was said to have been prophesied by Buddha and who in years to come, ' the world with his teachings, tt step in the development of this new uddhism was the changing of the goal at |$ believer aimed. According to Buddhist : are three types of perfected beings-I', who perceived the truth for themselves t it to others; 'Pratyeka Buddhas' (Private who perceived it, but kept it to them-I did not teach it; and 'Arhats' or 'Arhats' b), who learned it from others, but fully lit for themselves. According to earlier : earnest believer should aspire to become a perfect being for whom there was no ij-who already enjoyed nirvana, and who ally enter that state after death. |ireplacement of the ideal of the What by that tiisattva (Being of Wisdom) is the basic i between the old sects and the new, which po be known as Mahay ana. Faith in the vas and the help they afforded was thought many beings on the road to bliss, whereas der school, which did not accept the attva ideal, could save only a few patient and i souls. have been many famous Bodhisattvas in hist tradition, the majority of whom are leg-}r, although a historical basis does underlie j'such as Samanta-bhadra and Vimala-kirti. A hisattvas were moved by compassion and eternal bliss in order to return to the '-sphere to instruct the unenlightened. Other vas are believed to dwell in a state of ; meditation in quiet mountain solitudes, I forth powerful thought forces which influ-to follow the right path. In Tantrik the Bodhisattvas are allowed saktis or land are treated as gods and goddesses. The major Bodhisattvas. Are named below:

1. Amitabha (boundless light) is the guardian of the West. He established a 'Pure Land' called Sukhavati for the salvation of man, entry into which required only faith in and surrender to him. This doctrine forms the subject of a famous Mahayana sutra called the Sukhavativyuha. Amitabha has a sakti or consort named Pandara.

2. Avalokitesvara (watchful lord), also called Padmapani (lotus-bearer), whose attribute is compassion, which reaches down even to Avichi, the lowest Buddhist purgatory. His heaven is Akanishtha, and his sakti is Tara. Avalokitesvara is given a female form in China and Japan. 3. Manjusri (charming) represents the wisdom-aspect of the Buddha principle. He stimulates the understanding, and with his naked sword destroys error and falsehood. 4. Vairochana (illuminant) is regarded as the dharmakaya aspect of Buddha. He is the guardian of the centre, and his sakti is Marichi. 5. Samanta-bhadra (instantly auspicious), also called Chakrapani (wheel-bearer), figures promi nently in the Gandha-vyuha Sutra as the altruis tic monk who taught the young Sudhana the ten vows of the bodhisatrva's life. He is believed to have been a real person.

Lesser Bodhisattvas are: (1) Akshobhya (unshakable), also called Vajrapani (thunderbolt-bearer) or Vajradhara, whose sakti is Lochana (light); (2) Ratnasambhava (gem-being) or Ratnapani (gem-bearer), whose sakti is Mamaki (motherling); (3) Amoghasiddhi (infallible power) or Visvapani (all-holding), whose sakti is Vajradhatvesvari; (4) Mahasthama (great-stance), who is the embodiment of wisdom; (5) Maitreya (benevolent), a messianic saviour still to come, he is waiting in the Tushita heaven for the appointed hour. The next stage in the evolution of the theology of the new Buddhism was the doctrine of the "Three Bodies' (trikaya). According to which the Buddha has three bodies--the Body of Essence (dharmakaya), the Body of Bliss (sambhogakaya) and the Body of Magic Transformation (nirmanakaya). It


was the nirmanakaya only that lived on earth as Siddhartha Gautama, an emanation of the sambhogakaya, which dwells forever in the heavens as a sort of supreme god. TVvvs Body of B\\ss \s\ntumthe emanation of the dharmakaya, the ultimate Buddha, who encompassess the whole universe. Subtle philosophies and metaphysical systems were developed along with these theological ideas, and the dharmakaya was identified with nirvana. It was in fact the World Soul, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form. In the fully developed Mahayanist cosmology there were many sambhogakayas, all of them emanations of the single dharmakaya. But the heavenly Buddha chiefly concerned with our world was Amitabha (Immeasurable Radiance), who dwelt in sukhavati or the heaven. With him was associated the earthly Gautama Buddha, and a very potent and compassionate Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara (the Lord Who Looks Down). Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism flourished side by side in India during the early centuries of the 'Christian era, and we read of Buddhist monasteries in which some of the monks were Mahayanist and some Hinayanist. But in general the Buddhists of north-western India were either Mahayanists or members of Hinayana sects much affected by Mahayanist ideas. The more austere forms of Hinayana seem to have been stronger in parts of western and southern India, and in Ceylon. It was from northwestern India, under the rule of the great Kushana empire that Buddhism spread throughout Central Asia to China. Mahayana also produced physical theories that had a profound influence on Hinduism. The two chief schools of Mahayana philosophy were the Madhyamika (Doctrine of the Middle Position) and the Vijnanavada (Doctrine of Consciousness) or Yogachara (The Way of Yoga or Union). The former school, the founder of which was Nagarjuna (first to second centuries ad), taught that the phenomenal world had only a qualified reality; that all beings labour under constant illusion of perceiving things where in fact there is only emptiness. This emptiness or void (sunyata) is all that truly exists, and hence the Madhyamikas were sometimes also called Sunyavadins (exponents of the do ness). Nagarjuna's Madhyamika Karik, basic text of this sc\voo\. The Vijnanavada school, Maitreyanatha, was an idealist According to it the whole universe < mind of the perceiver. It is possible : meditation to raise before his eyes vis kind that have as much vividness and! truth as have ordinary perceptions; yet 1 they have no objective reality. Pe no proof of the independent existence < and all perceptions may be explained as^ of the percipient mind. This school,

thoug ential than the former (Madhyamika), ] important philosophers and logicians suchf (his Sutralankara is the earliest text of I fourth or fifth century ad), Vasub brother of Asanga), Dignaga and Dh Although the terminology structure is'i the metaphysics of Mahayana Buddhism) in common with the doctrines of the Upanishads and of the 9th century pb Sankara. The latter probably learned Buddhism, and was in fact called by his < 'crypto-Buddhist'. Comparison of Hinayana and Mahay

1.

Hinayana held firm to the letter of teachings, Mahayana to the spirit;

2.

Hinayana developed with the Sangha as ( tre, Mahayana with the individual;

3. Hinayana scriptures are written mainly and are founded on the Tripitaka; Ma, scriptures, written in Sanskrit, are the Su 4. Hinayana believes in salvation by wo each man must work out his own salv Mahayana in salvation by faith; 5. Hinayana is centred round the acts of Bu Mahayana round the symbolism of his lifi personality; 6. Hinayana stressed righteous action and i of karma; Mahayana held that over and : the law of karma was the law ofkaruna or< passion;


I is the What, who strives after a; Mahay ana upholds the ideal [ or saviour, who is concerned t of others.

i of the 5th century ad Indians e.and more interest in the cults of and in the practice of magicoMch were believed to lead to salva5 human power, and which often i or repulsive features, agical Buddhism, like magical larose at about the same time is often n, from the Tantras or scriptures of bing the spells, formulas, and rites advocated. Probably Tantrism did uised Buddhism until the seventh Hiuen Tsang reported that certain nunities were given to certain magical ntric Buddhism was of two main i as Right Hand and Left Hand, as in n. The Right Hand (dakshinachara), tie very influential in China and : little surviving literature in Sanskrit; rised by devotion to masculine divinit Hand (vamachara) sects, to which the (Vehicle of the Thunderbolt) was died, postulated feminine counterparts or s, Bodhisattvas, and other divinities hology of later Buddhism, and devoted f attention to these Taras or 'Saviours'. the chief features of the ritual of a was the repetition of mystical syllables i (mantras), such as the famous Om mani urn. Yoga postures and meditation were . But the tantric groups also followed more iable methods of gaining salvation. It was I that once the adept had reached a certain i of spiritual attainment the normal rules of [behaviour were no longer valid for him, and deliberate breach, if committed in an phere of sanctity, would actually help him on id path. Thus drunkenness, meat-eating and [promiscuity were often indulged in, as well as such practices as eating excrement, and sometimes even ritual murder. With the gradual decline of Buddhist philosophical scholarship by the fifth-sixth century ad, the mantraic literature and the ritualistic worship was revived along with the appearance of a number of distinguished Tantric sadhakas, better known as the Siddhas or Siddhacharyas. The earliest available texts on Tantric Buddhism are the Guhyasamaja and the Manjusri Mulakalpa. The former deals with yoga (ordinary meditation) and anuttarayoga (Tantric forms of meditation), and the latter with mudras (finger and body poses), mandalas (mystic diagrams), mantras (mystic spells), and the like.

However, many Tantric circles practised rites only symbolically, and their teachers often produced works of considerable philosophical subtlety, while the ethical tone of some passages in the Tantricist Saraha's Dohakosa (Treasury of Couplets), one of the last Buddhist works produced in India, is of the highest, order. Thus, the followers of Vajrayana believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring magical power, which they called vajra (thunder-bolt or diamond). The chief divinities of this new sect, the Taras (wives of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas) were to be compelled rather than persuaded to bestow magical power on the worshipper by performing the tantra and reciting the mantra. It became popular in eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar from the eighth century ad under the patronage of the Palas, and later it spread to Tibet.

The Buddhist Pantheon and Dhyani Buddhas

The extensive and diversified pantheon of later-day Buddhism owes its origin to Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana, and it is likely that Buddhism had no pantheon before Tantricism was well established. In early days, Buddhism recognised thirty-three gods of the Hindus, who were the residents of the Tavatimso or Trayastrimsa heaven (literally the heaven where the thirty-three gods reside), which is one of the different rupa heavens. The Buddha was no doubt deified by the Mahayana school which considered him to be lokottara or superhuman.


Though we do not find any of the Buddha's images in the earlier schools like Sanchi or Bharhut, the Gandhara and Mathura schools can have equally strong claims for sculpturing the first images of the Buddha. With the transformation of Mahayana into Vajrayana in the seventh-eighth century ad, a wide pantheon emerged which was further elaborated in the 10th century ad. A number of gods and goddesses are described in the Manjusri Mulakalpa, but it is in the Guhyasamaja that we find the idea of the Buddhist pantheon properly and systematically developed. At the apex of the hierarchy of these gods and goddesses stands the divine pair of Adi Buddha and Adi Prajna, the universal parents of Buddhism, from whom originate five Dhyani Buddhas, viz. (1) Amitabha, (2) Akshobhya, (3) Vairochana, (4) Ratnasambhava and (5) Amoghasiddhi. These Dhyani Buddhas represent the five material elements of which the world is made; air, water, ether, fire; they also stand for the cosmic elements| rupa (form), vedana (sensation), samji samskara (conformation) and vijnana ness). The Dhyani Buddhas take no part if creation, which task they relegate to then; ding Bodhisattvas. The Bodhisartvas are i posed to have been working through Buddhas (Mortal Buddhas) like Kanakamuni and Gautama; this idea extra-Indian. With the increasing pr the 'Female' principle each of the Dhy and Bodhisattvas was given a consort. Fu of the Dhyani Buddhas came to be look kulesa (lord of families) of several go desses. The five kulas (families) (hatred), moha (delusion), raga (attac tamani (gem of contemplation), and sa vention). Evidently with the introductio entrants of deities, the Vajrayana

TABLE I

Amitabha Akshodbhya Vairochana Fire Earth TABLE II

Air Samjana Samadhi Red Padma ?, Water Vijnana Bhusparsa Blue Vajra 1 Ether Rupa Dharmachakra White Chakra C Ratnasamava Vedana Varada Yellow Ratna L Amoghasihi Samskara Abhaya Green Visvavajra C

Akshobhya Vairochana Ratnasambhava Amoghasiddhi


i tag them to one or more of these

i the Dhyani Buddhas are invaring on full-blown lotuses in the med-legs crossed. Each of them has a is displayed by his Sakti and I well. The lotus symbol, for instance, is ; Dhyani Buddha Amitabha, his spouse !*his Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Each [has again his distinctive mudra and i I and II enlist the names of the Dhyani iconographic and other features as Corresponding Bodhisattvas and spouses.

'SCRIPTURES

lôf Buddhist sacred literature may be i two great classes: the Hinayana canon ijfly in Pali, and hence spoken of as the |£and the Mahayana canon written chiefly and widely translated into Chinese, ^Tibetan and other Mongolian languages.

nical Texts

I canonical books consist of three parts col-^known as the Tipitaka which were reduced I between 350 bc and 90 bc.

Pfaka (350 BC) Comprising the t canonical law. It contains the Patimokkha I of monastic discipline for bhikshus, along nentary on the rules. Supplementing this, vagga, 'Great section', lays down rules for lion to the monastic order, the mode of life | the rainy season, regulations on dress, and hygiene, etc. The Chullavagga, 'Smaller b", contains edifying Buddhist stories, duties and nuns, methods of settling disputes ; monks, expiation and penances.

I Sutta PHaka (300 BC) It consists of Five or collections, of aphorisms, precepts and es for the laity. They are (1) Dighanikaya, flection of long sermons dealing with topics fas the origin of the universe, rebirth, asceti-miracles, nirvana, heresy, condemnation of caste, and an account of Buddha's last speeches and his death and the funeral ceremonies; (2) the Majjhima-nikaya, a collection of medium-sized suttas dealing with the relation of Buddha to the Jainas and other religious systems of the day, various forms of asceticism, and a long enumeration of criminal and oral offences such as theft, robbery, adultery and the consequent punishments for them; (3) the Samyutta-nikaya discusses Buddhist doctrine, and includes riddles and aphorisms, ballads in mixed prose and verse and many sayings of Buddha; (4) the Anguttara-nikaya (or Ekottara-nikaya), a collection of sermons arranged in ascending numerical order, enumerating doctrines and principles; and lastly (5) the Khuddaka-nikaya, an anthology of smaller pieces, comprising fifteen books of miscellanea which are essential for an understanding of Buddhism. The principal texts of the Khuddaka-nikaya are often taken to include a few of the most extensive of the Pali canonical writings. The important ones are given below:

a. The Khuddaka-patha: Meaning the lesser read ings; It is a book for young neophytes when they join the Sangha. b. The Dhammapada (the Law-path): The best known of the Buddhist canonical texts, it is a col lection of over four hundred aphoristic verses garnered from the sayings of Buddha. c. The Udana: Based on the utterances of Buddha which are set in the framework of a narrative (One of them contains the world-famous story of the blind men who having felt an elephant, each , touching a different part or limb, report their findings, each giving a different version: the truth being thus viewed from various aspects, as all truth must be viewed by imperfect beings). d. The Itivuttaka: It contains material similar to the Udana in the form of 120 sayings which touch upon some of the deepest problems of human existence. e The Suttanipdta: It preserves many fragments of the oldest Buddhist poetry and gives valuable information on the social and religious conditions in Buddhist India.


f. The Jataka: It comprises stories of Buddha's for mer lives, which are among the most ancient fables in world literature. g. The Buddhavamsa: This records legends in verse about the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times. h. The Theragatha: Literally meaning the Songs of the Elders, and i. The Therigatha: The Songs of the Lady Elders, contains religious lyrical poetry of a high order.

III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka It deals with the same subjects as the Sutta Pitaka but in a more scholastic manner. It consists of supplementary philosophical dissertations and expositions of the finer points of mind-training, psychology and dogma. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani (350 BC) provides a good exposition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics; and the Kathavatthu (or Vinnanapada), ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, president of the Third Council, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogma.

Pali Non-Canonical Texts

The next body of Buddhist scriptures was composed some time during the Bactrian Greek and the Kushana periods of Indian history, since these foreign principalities favoured the Mahayana form of the religion that had been evolving ever since the first Buddhist schism. A work dating from this period is the Milindapanho (130 BC) which relates how the sage Nagasena converts the Bactrian Greek king Menander (Milinda) to Buddhism. Another work, the Mahavastu (75 bc), 'Great Subject', presents some Hinayana doctrines along with additional metaphysics of the Mahasanghika (proto-Mahayana) sects.

Buddha's legendary life is retold in a series of his former births, as in the Jatakas, showing how he acquired the spiritual knowledge to become a Buddha. The Lalitavistara (30 bc) is an anonymous biography of Buddha written in the Gatha (Sanskritized Prakrit) form of language. It co Hinayana material, but is largely Ma In the early centuries of the monks of the Theravada school of ( compiling the traditions concerning i tion of Buddhism in their country, finally set down in two important Pa Dipavamsa (350 ad), Island Cb unknown authorship, which speaks of jjf of Buddhism into Ceylon by Asoka's i and Mahavamsa (550 ad) composed 1 Mahanama and based on a lost work,' the same story in greater details giving I history up to 350 AD.

Sanskrit Texts

The period between the second and sixth] ad is that of the Mahayana classics and I the great translations. The scriptures are j a series of dialogues, discourses and sen ered by Buddha in what is called the s«8 sutta) form, and generally known as the Sutras or 'expanded discourses'. They we lated into Chinese, and from Chinese into»' and Tibetan, and several sutra works exis these versions, the originals being lost. The task of codifying the Mahayana and much original theorising on the subject,! ciated with such scholars as Nagarjuna (if I founder of the Madhyamika school and con several Mahayana works; Asvaghosha (Id author of the Buddhacharita, a poetic biog Buddha, and probably also the author Sraddhotpada (The Awakening of Fail) Mahayana classic, besides other notable worl the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu (50 founders of the Yogachara school, and autl numerous Mahayana texts. Some principals works are as follows:

1. Prajna-paramita It is a class name for a i of sutras which deal especially with the noti sunya or nothingness. According to it, beyo illusory and impermanent world is a new wo freedom, which one can attain with the aid of/ or intuitive and transcendental wisdom.


jhdarika (250 ad) 'The Lotus of iw', also called the Lotus Sutra, has been i the Bible of half-Asia. It is of unknown and is the most important of all the I a sermon delivered by a transfigured and ddha on the Gridharkuta mountain to an ably. Though the tathagat saves I the use of different expedients, it is only he one vehicle as set forth in the Lotus \salvation can come to all creatures.

aka Supposed to be the teaching con-t! Buddha three weeks after his enlighten-smain doctrine taught in this sutra is that of tion'; everything in the world being by everything else, and mutually ng and being conditioned. The twenty expounds the doctrine of parinamana, iference' of merit, whereby one's merit can lover for the salvation of others. Thus the s are able to save men through the excess quired by them.

uha It is actually apart of the above ; Sutra, but is often called a sutra in its . It describes how Buddha while living in a Sravasti entered into a state of profound i and the whole grove became so wide that Hed with a multitude of worlds, and the bod-with him became filled with compassion eihgs. important sutras are (a) the Sukhavatipflealing with the subject of salvation through Amitabha; (b) the Vajrachhedika or the Sutra, which expounds the doctrine of f and clarifies several other concepts central ana, (c) tjie Maha-pari-nirvana, delivered ha just as he was about to enter nirvana, (d) nkavatara (400 ad), supposedly written by hu, teaches the ultimate reality of Mind I (e) the Surangama outlines the means of Bg enlightenment by concentration, medita-I super conscious intuition. The surangama i partly in the form of a dialogue between i and the errant Ananda who had been lured : harlot Chitta. Causes for the Popularity of Buddhism

Non-indulgence in metaphysical discussions and its original simplicity appealed to the masses. It did not attach any importance to the existing varna system and hence appealed to the lower classes. Admission of women to the Sangha also swelled its ranks (Gautami, the widowed step-mother of Buddha, was the first Buddhist nun). The use of Pali, the language of the people, in the early phase helped it further.

Its adoption by the monarchies of Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican state in the initial period, and by Asoka, the Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, Harsha and Palas in the later period.

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism

Reform of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism. Giving up the use of Pali and taking up the use of Sanskrit by the Buddhists from the first century ad. Practising idol-worship and receiving offerings and huge donations, leading to deterioration in moral standards. Attacks by the Hunas (fifth and sixth centuries ad) and Turkish invaders (12th century ad).

Contribution of Buddhism

Concept of ahimsa (non-violence) was its chief contribution. In its contemporareous period, it helped to boost the cattle wealth of the country, and later it became one of the cherished values of Indian culture. In the field of art and architecture Buddhism takes the credit for: (i) first human statues to be worshipped; (ii) stone-pillars depicting the life of the Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut; (iii) Gandhara art and the beautiful images of the Buddha; (iv) cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in western India around Nasik; (v) art pieces of Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda; and numerous other works and sites.


Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz. (i) stupa (a domical structure i« whiot, the reuos of vt«= Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved; hence some kind of a tomb), (ii) chaitya ft {emp|r? Of 3 Shrine With a prayer hall), and (iii) vihara (a monastery or residence of monks). Promotion of education through residential uni versities like those at Taxila, Nagarjuna Konda, Nalanda, and Vikramasila. Promotion of Pali and many local languages, such as Kannada, Gujarati, etc. Improvement in the condition of women and other downtrodden sections. Replacement of dogmatism and faith by reason and logic. Promotion of trade and commerce, Spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

JAINISM

Jaina Councils and Schisms in Jainism

By the end of the fourth century bc there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading, to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and south India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulaba^hu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked) and Svetambaras (White-clad). The first Jaina council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century bc and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas (sections or limbs) to replace the

lost 14 Purvas (former texts). However these texts were accepted only by the Svetambaras. The second council was held at Valabhi in the fifth century ad by the Svetambaras under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana, and resulted in the final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas (minor sections). In the later centuries also. pva.cc in tooth Digambaras and;| Samaiyas broke away from Terapantis from ffie M&. Both renounced idol worship and wo scriptures.

Jaina Church

Mahavira himself founded the Jain severe asceticism and simple docti many followers. He had eleven do apostles known as ganadharas-(he Only one of them, Arya Sud Mahavira and became the thera (pontiff Church after his death. Sudharman, the first thera, died 20] master's death. His successor was Ja the office for 44 years. Three generatk passed after him and during the Nanda of Magadha, the Jaina Church | two theras, Sambhutavijaya and Bh after another. The fourteen Purvas, the text bo Jaina scriptures which Mahavira, taught to his ganadharas, were Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu. Sa is said to have died in the same Chandragupta Maurya ascended the I For the history of the Jaina inception to the fourth or third centi indebted to the Jaina Kalpasutra of Bb was the sixth thera after Mahavira, i temporary of Chandragupta Maurya. The Jaina Kalpasutra consists oft sections--the first section, Jainacharita, contains the biograplj twenty three jinas or tirthankaras wlj Mahavira. The twenty third jina, Pa said to have laid the foundation, Mahavira set up the Jaina Church. .,| section of the Kalpasutra cons Theravail, a list of schools (ganas) i (ganadharas). The third section Samachari or the rules for the monks.


lity with Samkhya system (Jed Syadvada. According to 'may be), seven modes of figi) are possible. Closely (a is Nayavada (the doctrine of !:shows the seven ways of ; of knowledge or study. The Of Jainism are often together da (the doctrine of many-sid-' of reality also. According to J'of two eternal, uncreated, coex-Bt categories, namely the con!; unconscious (ajiva). The con-onds to the soul. It knows and I acted upon. It suffers by its con-l is born again and again only to êndeavour is to free itself from is salvation which could be ^knowledge and meditation upon } unconscious is not what we call i matter, which is given the name includes such things as space 1 vice, and the like, i philosophy all living things are : categories, according to the numr possess.

group, possessing five senses, gods, the higher animals and 11. ;0f these, men, gods, and infernal with certain animals (notably pcattle, horses, elephants, parrots, f Snakes) possess intelligence. class contains creatures thought to nses only--touch, taste, smell, and [class includes most larger insects, such , and butterflies. of three-sensed beings, which are § be devoid of sight and hearing, con[ insects, such as ants, fleas, and bugs, i moths, which are believed to be blind Fof their unfortunate habit of flying into

Two-sensed creatures, with only the sense of taste and touch, include worms, leeches, shellfish, etc. It is in the final class of one-sensed beings, which have only the sense of touch, that the Jaina clas sification shows one of its most original features. This great class is in turn divided into five sub classes: vegetable-bodies, which may be simple as a tree,

containing only one soul, or complex as a turnip, which contains countless souls; earthbodies, which includes earth itself and all things derived from earth, such as stones, clay, minerals, and jewels; water-bodies, found in all forms of water--in rivers, ponds, seas, and rain; fire-bod ies, in all lights and flames, including lightning; and wind-bodies, in all sorts of gases and winds.

Injury to one of the higher forms in the scale of being involves more serious consequences to the soul than injury to a lower form; but even the maltreatment of earth and water may be dangerous for the soul's welfare. For the layman it is impossible not to harm or destroy lives of the one-sensed type, but wanton and unnecessary injury even to these is reprehensible. The Jaina monk vows that as far as possible he will not destroy even the bodies of earth, water, fire, or wind. In order to remain alive he must of course eat and drink, but he will not .damage living plants in order to do so, preferring to leave this to the lay supporters who supply him with food.

Rules for Monastic Discipline

The monk will not eat potatoes or other root veg etables, since these contain large colonies of plant-lives. He strains his drinking water, in order to do as lit the harm as possible to the soul within it. He wears a face-cloth, rather like a surgeon's mask, to ensure that he does not cause serious injury to the wind-lives in the air he breathes. He will not run or stamp his feet, lest he harms the soul in earth and stones, or destroy small insects. He refrains from all quick and jerky movements for fear of injuring the soul in the air.


Thus a monk's whole life must be circumspect and thoroughly regulated. Buddhism demands similar circumspection on the part of its monks, though not taken to such extreme lengths. Jainism differs from Buddhism in that its lay-folk are expected to submit themselves to a more rigid discipline and are given more definite and regular care by the Jaina clergy. The layman should in theory spend full and newmoon days in fasting and penance at a Jaina monastery (basadi). Few modern Jainas keep these fastdays, called posadha, in so rigorous a form, except at the end of the Jaina year, usually in July, when there takes place a sort of Jaina Lent, called paryusana, which lasts for eight days for the Svetambaras and for fifteen for the Digambaras. The year ends with a general penance in which all good Jainas, monks and laymen alike, are expected to confess their sins, pay their debts, and ask forgiveness of their neighbours for any offences, whether intentional or unintentional. According to Jaina philosophy there is no god or creator. Man's salvation from suffering does not depend upon the mercy of any god or creator. Man is the architect of his own destiny. By leading an austere life of purity, virtue, and noble thinking and action, one can escape the ills of life. Life of renunciation is the shortest way to salvation.

Jaina Cosmic Cycles

The process of transmigration continues eternally, and the universe passes through an infinite number of phases of progress and decline. Unlike the similar cyclic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism, in the Jaina system there is no sharp break at the end of the cycle, but rather an imperceptible process of systole and diastole. Each cosmic cycle is divided into two halves, the ascending (utsarpini), and the descending (avasarpini). We are now in the phase of descent, which is divided into six periods. In the first, the 'very happy' (susamasusama), people were of enormous stature and longevity and had no cares; they were spontaneously virtuous, so had no need of morals or religion. In the second period, the 'happy' i was some diminution of their stature,'! bliss.

The third period, called 'hap (susama-duhsamd), witnessed the sorrow and evil in mild forms. At: conscious of the decline in its for patriarchs (kulakard) for guidance until the last patriarch, Rishabhadeva,! fate that was in store for the world, es institutions of government and civ then took to a life of asceticism, ma Bharata the first universal emperor (ch Rishabhadeva was the first tirthati according to Jaina tradition, was the i of Jainism in this age. Brahmi, the Rishabhadeva, invented the numerous < India. The fourth period, 'wretched-happy''| susama), was one of further decline birth of the other twenty three tirthank The fifth period, the 'wretched' (d began some three years after Mahavira'sf is at present current. Its duration is 21,

i of Jainism non dialect in place of Sanskrit by yiis monks, the simple and homely the free ministration of spiritual es, the activities of the Jaina monks age were the forces which helped in f Jainism. jers of Mahavira gradually spread over ntry. Jaina monks were to be seen on ' the Indus when Alexander invaded ng to Jaina tradition, Udayin, the suc^jatasatru, was a devoted Jaina. The I also probably Jainas. In the first ceni became a great centre of Jainism as is the legends of the Jaina Saints and Gardabhilla and his son Vikram

ose of the fourth century bc a band of under Bhadrabahu migrated to the spread Jainism throughout the south i Belgola in Mysore as their central seat, ption (900 ad) records that the summit agiri (Mysore) is marked by the foot-P»Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Munipati. became very popular, especially, i mercantile community, patronage, as noted above, was also I upon Jainism.

agupta Maurya was its devout patron. He klf had joined Bhadrabahu's march to the K. A cave is dedicated to him and the hill on i it exists is known as Chandragiri after him. > the second century bc King Kharavela of Enga professed Jainism, and became its illusand renowned patron by setting up Jaina i himself. the Kushana period, it flourished well at hura and was dominant in eastern India in the :ofHarsha. ring the early centuries of the Christian era, dura in the north and Sravana Belgola in the i were great centres of Jaina activities as is need by a large number of inscriptions, images and other monuments discovered at both the places.

5. In the fifth century many royal dynasties of the south, such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism. 6. Some of the Rashtrakuta kings of Manyakheta showed a special leaning towards Jainism. They gave a great encouragement to the development of Jaina art and literature. Many celebrated Jaina poets flourished under them. Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed their Mahapurana at the time of king Amoghavarsha, whose great Jaina work Ratnamalika became very popular with people of all sects. It is said that Amoghavarsha became a Jaina monk in the latter part of his life. According to epigraphic evidence one of his suc cessors, Indra IV, died in the traditional Jaina fashion, i.e. by committing sallekhana or fasting to death. 7. About the year 1100 ad Jainism gained great ascendancy in Gujarat. There the Chalukya king Siddharaja (1094-1143), also known as Jayasimha, the popular hero of the Gujarat legend and the ruler of Anhilwara, and his successor Kumarapala were great patrons of the Jainism. They openly professed Jainism and encouraged literary and temple-building activities of the Jainas in Gujarat. At the court of Kumarapala lived the famous Jaina scholar Hemachandra who was the royal pandit and annalist. Hemachandra was evidently a man of great versatility; among his works are philosophical treatises, grammars of Sanskrit and Prakrit, lexica of both the lan guages, a treatise on poetics, and narrative poetry. The longest of his poems is the Trisastisalaka Purushacharita (Deeds of the Sixty-three Eminent Men), an enormous work telling the sto ries of the twenty four tirthankaras and of other eminent figures in Jaina mythology, including the patriarchs and various legendary world emperors. The last section of this forms an inde pendent whole, 'The Deeds of Mahavira', and records the life story of the historical founder of


Jainism. In its course Mahavira is said to have prophesied in his omniscience the rise to power of Hemachandra's patron Kumarapala, and to have forecast the reforms he would inaugurate. 8. During the Muslim period, the Jainas particularly increased in the states of Rajputana, where they occupied many important offices as generals and ministers.

JAINA LITERATURE

The Jamas utilised the prevailing spoken languages of different times at different places in the country for their religious propaganda and the preservation of sacred knowledge. They even gave a literary shape to some vernaculars for the first time. Mahavira himself preached in the mixed dialect called Ardha-Magadhi so that people speaking Magadhi or Suraseni might understand him thoroughly. His teachings that were classified into twelve books called Srutangas are written in the Ardha-Magadhi language.

JAINA CANONICAL TEXTS

The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in the Arsha or Ardha-Magadhi form of Prakrit, and may be classified into--twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnas, six Chhedasutras, four Mulasutras and two miscellaneous texts. The Jainas themselves do not claim that these texts are the authentic productions of the founder of Jainism, but maintain that the twelve Limbs were codified some two hundred years after Mahavira's death, while the whole canon did not receive its definitive form until the 5th century ad, when it was finally established at a council held at Valabhi in Saurashtra.

I. Angas

1. The Ayaramga-sutta (Acharangasutra) deals with the rules of conduct which a Jaina monk was to follow. 2. The Suyagartamga (Sutrakritanga), is mainly devoted to a refutation of the heretic doctrines.

3,4. The Thanamga (Sth Samavayamga present the Jain an ascending numerical series. ** 5. The Bhagavati is one of the ml Jaina canonical texts. It contaif hensive exposition of the Jaina") gives a vivid description of the $ and the tortures of hell. An ic of the book contains legends and his predecessors and conti fifth book, for example, ccmtainS'1 ing account of Gosala founder of the Ajivika sect. 6. The Nayadhammakahao (Jnat'M athah) teaches the main principles of doctrine by means of parables, leg stories. 7. The Uvasagadasao (Upasakadasah) j the story often rich merchants who i verted to Jaina faith. 8,9. The Amtagadadasao (Antakriddas\ Anuttarovavaiyadasao (Anuttaraup dasah) contain stories of Jaina ascetid saved their souls by following a course \ orous selftorture, leading to death. 10. The Panhavagaranaim (Prasnavyak is a dogmatic treatise dealing with the 1 cepts, ten prohibitions, etc. 11. The Vivagasuyam (Vipakasrutam) legends illustrating the consequences,' death, of good and bad deeds of a man < this life. 12. The Ditthivaya (Drishtivadd) is only in fectly known from allusions in other texf seems to have contained miscellaneous i trines of a varied character.

II. Upangas

They possess very little literary interest, as their c tents are mostly dogmatic and mythological in ch acter. The second Rayapasenaijja is, however,^ some literary merit, and contains a dialogue betwa the Jaina monk Kesi and a king, Paesi (p Prasenajit of Kosala). The fifth, sixth, and seve

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-ad 300 A241

al with astronomy, geography, cosmol-eighth Nirayavalisuttam contains an pccount of Ajatasatru, but its historical f is doubtful.

signifies (Prakirna--scattered), they Irious doctrinal matters and are written in

:ras

f|with disciplinary rules for monks and llustrate them by various legends. The work is Kalpasutra, attributed to The Kalpasutra forms a part of the dasutra and consists of three sections. jtplpasutra which forms the fifth a is looked upon as the principal treatise i of conduct of the Jaina monks and nuns.

valuable Jaina texts. The first, the (Uttaradhyayanasutrd) forms one important portions of the canon, and ables, maxims, ballads and dialogues.

dus Texts

i canonical texts which do not belong to Lmention may be made of Nandisutta If) and Anuyogadara (Anuyogadvara) yclopaedic texts, containing accounts nt branches of knowledge pursued by

JNICAL WORKS

of non-canonical literature, commen i canonical texts form the most signifi plhe oldest of these, called Nijjuttis

(Niryuktis), may be traced as far back as the time of Bhadrabahu. These were later developed into elaborate Bhashyas and Churnis written in Prakrit, and Tikas and Vrittis written in Sanskrit. One of the most famous commentators was Haribhadra who obtained great celebrity as a scholar and a poet. He lived in the second half of the ninth century ad and is reputed to have composed 1444 works. Three other well-known commentators, Santisuri, Devendragani and Abhayadeva lived in the llth century ad.

II. Stories

Legends and fables form quite a prominent feature of the Jaina literature and there are many independent works containing single stories or collections. Some of these are mentioned below:

1. The Kalakacharya-kathanaka is looked upon as very old and gives a legendary account of the conquest of Ujjayini by the Sakas. 2. The Uttama-charitra-kathanaka is a story containing episodes full of remarkable adventures. 3,4. The Champaka-sreshthikathanaka and Pala-Gopala-kathanaka were both written by Jinakirtisuri in the 15th century ad. 5. The Samyaktvakaumudi describes how a merchant and his eight wives attained samyaktva (perfection) in religion. 6. The Kathakosa is a rich mine of stories some of which have travelled beyond the boundaries of India. It contains the Jaina ver sion of the Nala-Damayanti episode of the Mahabharata. 1. The Antarakatha-samgraha by Rajasekhara (14th century ad). 8.

The Kathamahodadhi by Somachandra (15th century ad).

9.

The Katharatnakara of Hemavijaya (16th century ad.)

10,11. The Kathakosa and Panchasatiprabodhasambandha by Subhasilagani (15th century ad).


III.

Historical Works

The Jainas farther possess an extensive poetic literature of what are called Charitras and Prabandhas. The former narrate the stories of tirthankaras and mythical sages, while the latter give an account of historical Jaina monks and laymen.

1. One of the most famous works is Trisastisalaka Purushacharita (lives of 63 best men) of Hemachandra, which ranks as a Mahakavya among the Jainas. The book is divided into ten parvas and the last parva, Mahaviracharita, dealing with the life of Mahavira, is naturally regarded as very important. But more valuable still, from the point of view of literary history, is the appendix to this book, Parisistaparvan or Sthaviravalicharita, the biography of the earliest teachers of Jainism, whose names and order of succession may be regarded as historical. 2. Lists of Jaina teachers are also furnished in various Pattavalis and their history in the Gurvavalisutra of Dharmasagaragani and the Theravali of Merutunga. 3. The Prabhavakacharitra of Prabhachandra and Pradyumnasuri (1250 ad) gives the story of 22 Jaina teachers including Hemachandra himself.

IV.

Semi-historical Works

1. There are also semi-historical works like Prabandhachintamani of Merutunga (1306 ad) and the Prabandhrakosa of Rajesekhara (1349 ad) in which groups of legends are centred round historical persons, including Jaina teachers and kings like Bhoja, Vikramaditya, Siladitya, and others. 2. The Digambaras sometimes style the Charitras as Puranas, for instance Padmacharita or Padmapurana by Vimalasuri. 3. There is also a Mahapurana, written partly by Jinasena and partly by his disciple Gunabhadra, which contains, like Brahmanical Puranas, an account of the various rites and ceremonies.

Jinasena is also the author of Harivamsapurana, which was completed in 783 ad. V.

Romantic Works

1. The Jainas possess many prose.jj the Samaraichchakaha of Upamitibhavaprapanchakatha (906 ad). 2. The Jaina literature also contains^ her of verse romances. Bana'j served as the model of SomadevaS (959 ad) and Dhanapala's Tilak ad). The poet Harichandra wrote i called Dharmasarmabhyudaya in| Magha's Sisupalavadha. There is I poem called Nemiduta by VikramaJ last line of every stanza is Kalidasa's Meghadutam. There epic poems independently wriri Malayasundarikatha, Yasodhara Kanakesena Vadiraja (10th cent! Mrigavaticharita of Maladhari (13th century ad).

VI.

Religious Lyrics

1. 2.

Bhaktamarastotra of Manatunga; Pavayanasara (Pravachanasara) ofKj| (seventh century ad);

3. 4.

Uvaesamala of Dharmadasa; Sringaravairagyatarangini of Somap ad); and

5. Gathakosa, an anthology by Municl (1122 ad).

Among other famous authors Urn* Umasvamin (seventh century ad) is have composed no less than 500 wqj Tattvarthadhigamasutra, looked upon as I itative work both by the Digambaras1] Svetambaras, deals with cosmology, me and the ethics of the Jainas. Another wo Sravakaprajnapati, gives a systematic of the Jaina religion mainly intended fa followers. Amitagati, the author of Subhashitarati and Dharmapariksha, lived from the late 1C early llth century ad. His books contains


rose romanc f Haribhac tha of Side

itains a large^ (ana's Kada^ ideva's Yasasf. "Hakamanjari i 'rote a Mahak ya in imitatic re is an inter jrama in whicl I is taken he are also kitten, sucljl 'haracharita :entury ad)'' iari Devapra

lofKunc

prabha(121 funichandrasu

Umasvati reputed works. Hil |> as an author* 'was and th^ I metaphysics |workofhisi ; exposition! | for the lay!

samdohct\ > 10th to the! a severer the Brahmanical religion, particularly f system. da Maharaja composed his Charitrasara, p. This work deals with ethical principles of aras. ri's Jivaviyara is a remarkable work, deal-varied subjects like theology, zoology, fcanthprology and mythology, j-rich literature produced by the Jainas pre[ the form of the language as it was current > the evolution of the present-day vernaculars, lly Hindi, Gujaratr and Marathi. This litera-liwritten in the language called Apabhramsa. , the earliest literature in Kanarese is of Jaina e. The Jainas have also written some of their : in Sanskrit.

i Architecture

Bundelkhand, Madhya Bharat and south i are full of Jaina statues. They belong to the nd the 12th centuries.

gigantic statues of Bahubali, called atesvara, at Sravana Belgola and Karkal in ysore are among the wonders of the world. The tier statue, 56.5 feet high, carved out of a ss of granite, standing at the top of a hill was [ in 982 ad by Chamundaraya, the minister |of a Ganga ruler, Rachamalla. colossal reliefs carved out of rock near valior in Madhya Bharat belong to the 15th ntury. ' The Jaina caves with their relief works and stat-fcues at Udaigiri hills near Bhilsa in Madhya ; Bharat and Ellora in Maharashtra are the examples of excellent architecture and sculpture of the | period.

5 Jainas have also constructed cave temples cut in , the earliest examples of which, belonging to ) 2nd century bc, exist in Orissa. They are called higumpha caves. Other examples of different riods are still existing at Junagarh, Junnar, nabad and other places. Many Jaina places of pilgrimage, such as the svanatha Hills, Pavapuri and Rajgir in Bihar, and Girnar and Palitana in Kathiawar have temples and other architectural monuments of different ages. The Jaina tower at Chittor in Rajasthan is one of the best specimens of Jaina architecture. The Jaina temples at Mount Abu, in Rajasthan, belonging to the llth century, are a witness of the Indian genius for the invention of graceful patterns and their application to the decoration of masonry.

Comparison of Buddhism and Jainism

Similarities (i) Both the Buddhist and the Jaina systems were non-theistic. Buddha was agnostic (one who ignores god), while Mahavira denied god as the creator of the Universe and considered gods, if any, as subordinate to Jaina teachers, (ii) Both were protest movements against some practices of Vedic religion or Brahmanism, though not against its essence, (iii) Both were opposed to the caste system but could not eliminate

it, nor did they aim to do so. (iv) Both accepted the doctrines of karma and rebirth, (v) Both renounced worldly life and sought salvation, (vi) The founders of both belonged to the Kshatriya varna.

Differences (i) The method of attaining salvation for Jainas was an extreme one, but for the Buddhists it was a moderate or middle one. (ii) Jainism gave prominence to lay followers, while Buddhism relied mainly on the Sangha and its monks, (iii) Jainism was confined to India, but survived in it. Buddhism spread rapidly to foreign lands, but died in India, (iv) Jainism preserved the metaphysical discussions of the Brahmins, but Buddhism avoided them.

BHAGAVATISM

Between the heterodox religions like Buddhism and Jainism on the one extreme, and the orthodox Vedic religion on the other, there grew up certain religious systems which were destined to become popular soon. These religious sects had no faith in the mechanical system of worship prescribed in the Vedas. But while they agreed with Buddhism and Jainism to a large extent, they did not share the athiestic world view of these two religions. The new


theistic religions centred round the idea of a supreme God conceived as Vishnu, Siva, Sakti or some other form. Salvation was possible through his grace (prasada) alone, and this could be attained only by bhakti, that is, intense love and devotion leading to complete surrender of self to God.

Origin

One of the chief representatives of this new system was Bhagavatism, which owed its orgin to the Upanishadic stream of thought and culminated, in the east, in Buddhism and Jainism. It arose about the same time in the west among the Satvatas, a branch of Yadavas, who settled in the Mathura region. Originally, it merely laid stress upon the idea of a supreme God, God of gods, called Hari, and emphasised the necessity of worshipping Him with devotion, in preference to older methods of sacrifices and rituals. It did not altogether do away with either sacrifice or the Vedic literature which prescribed the same, but regarded them as of minor importance, and omitted the slaughter of animals which formed the principal feature of the Brahmanical religion. The Satvatas thus made an attempt to introduce a religious reform on more conservative principles than Buddhism and Jainism did. The repudiation of the slaughter of animals, and the inefficacy of sacrificial worship and austerities are common to this religious reform with Buddhism. But that the supreme Lord Hari is to be worshipped with devotion, and that the words of the Aranyakas are not to be rejected are doctrines which are peculiar to it.

Vasudeva Krishna and His Teachings

Religious reform received a impetus from Vasudeva Krishna, son of Devaki, of the Vrishni clan, which was probably another name of the Satvatas. He gave a definite shape to the reformed doctrine by promulgating its philosophical teachings in the Bhagavad Gita. This led to the regular growth of an independent sect, and before long Vasudeva was looked upon as the supreme deity. A passage in the Chhandogya Upanishad refers to sage Krishna, son of Devaki, as a disciple of Rishi

Ghora Angirasa, and gives us some i doctrines taught by the latter. He moral virtues as dana (charity), ahimsa (non-injury), and satyava ness), lays stress on tapas (meditatio cates yajna (sacrifice). As all these i sised by Krishna in the Gita, he has 1 with the disciple of Ghora, and the Bhagavatism have been traced to th the latter. In its ultimate form, as develti| Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavatism stood out| for two things. First, it counteracted i look upon ascetic life as a sine qua nott^ elevation by emphasising the supreme irflj doing one's worldly duties according tcrf in society. Secondly, it sought to turn away from dry moral discourses which sociated with a theistic faith. Theistic id doubt, scattered in the Upanishads, hurt Bhagavad Gita which worked it up into af redemption, capable of being easily j Thus, Vasudeva Krishna laid emphasis^ bined pursuit of bhakti, karma andjnanat achieve moksha. The important cb early Bhagavatism were, therefore, devotio knowledge and self-sacrifice (tyaga).

Literary References

1. The earliest reference to Vasudeva seen above, is to be found in the Chh Upanishad. 2. The Ghata Jataka mentions Vasudeva a&\ ing to the royal family of Upper Mathuraf 3. The Jaina text Uttaradhyayana Sutra als< in an interesting manner to Vasudeva, alsol Kesava, who was a contempor Arishtanemi, the 22nd jina, both princes^ town of Soriyapura (Sauryapura). Kesava \ son of Devaki and king Vasudeva ?f Aristanemi was born to king Samudravijay Siva. 4. i

The earliest reference to the deification human hero, Vasudeva, however, is found


fthe sutras of Panini's Ashtadhyayai. It is in this that Vasudeva and Arjuna are mentioned : by side. he story of the fight between Vasudeva and his ernal uncle Kamsa is also referred to in njali's Mahabhashya. Patanjali also knew at Krishna was the younger brother of shanaBaladeva. quoting from Megasthenes' Indica says Heracles is held in special esteem by the asenoi (Surasenas), an Indian tribe possess-hg two large cities, Mathora and Cleisobora, the ver Jobares flowing through their country. Heracles is also called Dorsanes, who according i Arrian, was the father of Pandia. In this con-xt, Megasthenes also tells us a somewhat con-bsed story associating Heracles and the ndavas with the Pandya country in the far uth. This, as well as the name of its capital city durai, undoubtedly derived from Mathura, has some scholars to believe that Bhagavatism netrated into the southernmost part of India as | early as the fourth century bc. uintus Curtius records that an image of Hercles I (Heracles) was carried in front of the infantry of pPorus in his battle with Alexander.

passages quoted above from the early texts, i indigenous and foreign, leave little doubt about existence of Vasudeva cult even some time : Alexander's invasion of India.

haeological Evidence

t by the second century bc, the new religion had ainly spread far beyond the confines of Mathura. riptions, recording the worship of Vasudeva, are in Maharashtra, Rajasthan and central India. I learn from one of these, viz. the Besnagar pillar ription, that a Greek ambassador of king ntialcidas, called Heliodora (Heliodorus), an bitant of Taxila, styled himself a Bhagavata, and a Garudadhvaja (a pillar with an image of da at the top) in honour of Vasudeva, the God [gods, at Besnagar, the site of ancient Vidisa, in al India. It is thus apparent that Bhagavatism,

like Buddhism, was distinguished enough iri the second century bc to attract the most civilised people to its fold. Though the above mentioned Besnagar inscription makes no mention of any other deity except Vasudeva Krishna, the Nagari inscription of king Sarvatata (also of the second century bc) informs us of his erection of stone walls round the shrines of Somkarshone and Vasudeva Krishna. The order in which the two names are placed in the Nagari record obviously shows the prominence of the first two Vrishni-viras in that order and not the vyuhas. Further, the Mora inscription of the First century AD from Mathura refers to the pancha-viras (five heroes) of the Vrishnis, viz. Sornkarshane, Vasudeva, Prodyumna, Samba and Aniruddha, in this order. A Syrian leged further informs us that the cult of Krishna worship was prevalent in Armenia as early as the second century bc. The popularity of the new cult about the same time is sufficiently demonstrated by the fact that the chief legendary exploits of Vasudeva Krishna formed the subject of dramatic representations. From the second century bc the progress of the religion continued unabated, and epigraphic evidence proves that by the end of the pre-Gupta period, it had gained a strong footing in south India, beyond the Krishna river.

MAIN TENETS OR FEATURES

I. Panchaviras

The worship of the divine heroes (virus) was at first one of the most important features of the cult. Arjuna who was a Pandava found no place in this list though it contained the names of (1) Samkarshana or Baladeva (2) Vasudeva-Krishna (3) Pradyumna (4) Samba, and (5) Aniruddha, all of whom belonged to the Vrishni clan and were closely related to one another. Both Samkarshana and Vasudeva were the sons of Vasudeva by different wives (Rohini and Devaki), Pradyumna and Samba were the two sons of Vasudeva (Pradyumna born to Rukmini and Samba to Jambavati who is referred to as a chandala woman), while Aniruddha was the son of Pradyumna.


II. Vyuhavad

Vasudeva Krishna was conceived in his fivefold aspect as follows:

Para, the highest aspect of the Lord; Vyuha, his emanatory aspect; Vibhava, his incarnatory form; Antaryamin aspect, characterises him as the inner controller of the actions; and Archa form, refers to his concrete images regarded by the Pancharatras as his auspicious bodies (srivigrahas).

Much of this can be traced in the Bhagavad Gita which gives the first systematic exposition of the ekantika dharma centering on Vasudeva Krishna. The ideology underlying the vyuhavad mainly centred upon the topic of pure creation (suddhasrishti), i.e. the creation of the six ideal gunas: (1) jnana, (2) aisvarya, (3) sakti (4) bala (5) virya and (6) tejas. According to this notion Vasudeva as the highest god wills his consort Sri Lakshmi in her dual aspects of being and acting (bhuti and kriya) to create the ideal gunas, thus from the Lord's will (ichchhasakti) and Lakshmi's two-fold forms (bhutisakti and kriyasakti) originate the six-fold ideal qualities which are at the root of all creation. The gunas come under two principal groups of three each:

a. The first three (jnana or knowledge, aisvarya or lordship and sakti or potency) forming the first group ofvisrama bhumayah (stages of rest), and b. The second three (bala or strength, virya or viril ity and tejas or splendour) forming the second group ofsrama bhumayah (stages of action).

When the individual qualities of opposite groups pair together for instance, jnana with bala, aisvarya with virya and sakti with tejas, a further advance is made in the process of creation: they are thus divided into three separate pairs. Regarded in their totality as well as by pairs, they are materials or instruments of suddha-srishti (the body of the highest god Para Vasudeva, constituting all the gunas), and in the bodies of the three vyuhas-Samkarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha--each of the three pairs of quality are:'if Vasudeva is supposed to en who possesses the full measures S ties (shadgunyavigraham de Pradyumna and Aniruddha then < from its immediate predecessors.!* these three primary emanations, 1 are pre-eminently manifest; theyj other four qualities also, but on manner. The earliest reference to the found by some scholars in the Bra but it may be noted that it is only if taries thereupon of Sankaracharya that the tenet is clearly mentioned*"! time it may have reached an early for that great commentator perhaps i note on Panini's sutra. The extant inscriptions prove that injf the first century bc and even as late as ( of the first century ad the viravada do of the most prominent ones.

Reconciliation with Brahmanisnt

An $vent of far-reaching importance in j of ancient Indian religions was the ado new sect into the fold of orthodox Br reconciliation between the two is clear^ strated by the fact that Vasudeva Krishnaf cessively indentified with two promis gods, viz. Vishnu, originally a satellite of J but recognised to be a great god in the period; and Narayana, probably a deified j however, appears later as Hari and the'J supreme deity. That this identification pleted before the second century bc is evide the dedication of Garudadhvaja by Helio Vasudeva, the God of gods. For Garuda recognised vehicle of Narayana-Vishnu, deities being ultimately regarded as one. It is not easy to pinpoint either the reasons'! process of this amalgamation. The initiative 1 have been taken by the Brahmins themselve protection against the rapidly expanding Bud The Bhagavatas, on the other hand, pr


olitic to attach to themselves the honour of an old and time-honoured name. |;jnight be the reasons, it must have cost i a bitter pang. The memorable scene in 3ta, in which Sisupala pours forth the his heart against Bhishma for honouring |=the most 'worshipful', seems to be a of the spirit of the die-hards, who cknowledge the divine character of one pt Brahmin by birth, ciliation of Bhagavatism with orthodox i not only assured a permanent position sr, but gave an altogether new turn to the forth Bhagavatism, or as it may now be If, its more popular name, Vaishnavism, ong with Saivism, the main plank of the ^religion in its contest with Buddhism. It r due to its influence that the worship of nown in the Vedic period, gradually I the Brahmanical religion. The sacrificial prescribed in the Vedas no doubt sur| gradually receded into the background.

«ISM

acquired its characteristic form soon riod of the Upanishads (about 800 to 400 itically the Vedic religion forms its basis, : it is only one of the main factors in the êver evolving cultural synthesis. jr>an aggregation of innumerable religious of cults, of customs and of rituals. It cannot as a single religion, since it has no jiiflo single sacredotal order to institute set |,and no central organisation, ^diverse beliefs and views stem from the I of different races and cultures: these include i Neolithic (dating from about 2000 to 750 > Dravidian, which contributed greatly to the nt of the later devotional cults; the tribal riginal groups which constitute the lowest lipf society; and the Aryan culture, i the interaction of the above groups arose a ordinated mass of new and continually changing religious beliefs and practices, some being developed, others modified, and others almost disappearing. Anything that has even a vestige of religious significance is never discarded and may come again to the fore centuries later. Thus no single religious system can be said to represent Brahmanism in its entirety.

Origin of Brahmanism

The worship of yaksas and nagas and other folk-deities constituted the most important part of primitive religious beliefs. Both literary and archaeological evidence prove the existence of this form of worship among the people. Several free-standing images of the yaksas, yaksinis, nagas and naginis belonging to the centuries before and after the Christian era are found in several parts of the country. The folk-cults centred on the yaksas and nagas survived in the orthodox Brahmanical fold in the form of worship of Ganesa (the elephant headed deity), whose hybrid figure was an amalgam of the potbellied yaksa and the elephantine naga (the word naga meant both 'snake' and an 'elephant'). The original importance of the folk element in religion is also apparent in the fact that the first place was assigned to Ganesa in the list of the five principal Puranic deities (Ganesadi Panchadevata-- Ganesa, Vishnu, Siva, Sakti and Surya).

Gods

The Sanskrit term for god is deva, derived from the root word div meaning 'to shine' or 'to be radiant'. It is applied to any abstract or cosmic potency which may be manifested as human beings, or as animals with divine status, or as incarnations (avataras). Every Indian village and district has its own local or tribal divinities as well as innumerable vegetal, forest and field godlings which, when propitiated, will both protect and bestow prosperity on the community. Most of the Vedic deities are deifications of the powers of nature, with natural disasters and diseases being attributed to malevolent powers such as Vrtra, or the goddess Nirrti, the personification of decay, destruction and death. By the first century. ad most


Hindus were either Vaishnavas or Saivas. They lived together amicably, with no feeling of exclusiveness among the members of these cults. Such mutual tolerance led naturally to syncretistic divine forms such as the triad (Trimurti) promulgated in Gupta times. It consists of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. Vishnu incarnates himself to save mankind. Siva is the third member of the triad. His special function is to preside over the dissolution of the world; but he too can intervene to save it when it is endangered. A more popular syncretism than the triad was that of Harihara (Hari is a name for Vishnu, and Hara is a name of Siva). The great diversity of man's spiritual conception is explained by the Samkhya teaching of the three gunas, the main constituents comprising everything in the world. Thus, in the highest conception of divinity as the embodiment of goodness, beneficence, perfection and radiance, the sattva guna predominates; when god is regarded as wrathful, cruel and violent, the rajas Guna is uppermost; and when a god of disease, pestilence, destruction and death is envisaged the tamas guna is to the fore.

The Goddess (Devi)

Rig Vedic goddesses, their attributes and what they smybolise, are given as follows: (a) Ida represents the sacrificial food or libations, (b) Hotra and Svaha are personifications of the ritual invocations, (c) Although the Rig Veda implies that the goddesses are subordinate to the gods, Aditi nonetheless stands out from the rest. She represents freedom and infinity that contains everything else including the gods. Her twelve sons, collectively called the Adityas, represent the months of the solar years and are invoked to bestow benefits on mankind, (d) Another goddess to whom about twenty five hymns are addressed is Ushas, the rosy goddess of the dawn, who signifies the victory of light over darkness and that of life over death. Other Vedic goddesses include (i) Prithvi, the personification of Earth; (ii) Diti, the mother of the Daityas; (iii) Aranyani, the elusive goddess of forests and wild creatures; (iv) Vac (Speech); (v) Puramdhi and Dhisana, both representing abundance; (vi) Raka and Sinivali, beneficent goddess 'mother of the cattle herds'; and (viif of misfortune, decay and death.

In the Sakta and Tantric cults Sakti, represents the visible unive the universal Brahman. In other wo principle of the universe is regarded! is the overflowing cosmic energy -J gods, world and all creatures co fact, she is indistinguishable from i In post-Vedic times Sakti is power (sakti) of the gods and is them in the form of their consorts, ences to her become more frequent i tury Onwards when she became Sival gentle forms are called Parvati, Un Gauri; and her Fierce forms are Sy Chamunda, Kali and Durga. The skull-garlanded goddess KalN popular in Bengal, where her cult overshadowed many of the local Manasa (the goddess of snakes), Sit smallpox), Chandi (goddess of hunters). Kali also includes among her many : the ten mahavidyas, the Seven Mot] four Yoginis, and the dakinis. Today the most popular goddess is I Bonification of prosperity and beauty, tioned once in the Rig Veda and more 1 the Atharva Veda and other works. LateH linked with the post-Vedic goddess emerged from the 'Ocean of Milk' who and asuras churned it. The association 1 goddesses and the varied myths ass them suggests the assimilation of nume ditions. Sri is said to dwell in garlands*) prosperity, good fortune and victory are < those who wear them.

Spirits, Sprites and Codlings

Alongside the Vedic cult and the Vaish and Sakta cults, countless forms of ; nature worship exist in India. Most of I spirits stem from the aboriginal past and i been absorbed gradually by the higher cu


: mysterious beings called yaksas (also com-i Buddhism and Jainism) are apparitions or estations of the numinous. They frequent places and were probably the vegetal figs of pre-Aryan communities. Yaksas are onoured by a stone tablet or altar placed I sacred village tree, their presence ensuring perity of the village. Their feminine counthe yaksinis, symbolise the life sap of on. Some yaksas cause insanity and other 8. Like other supernatural beings, yaksas t. benevolent or malevolent towards man. As rs of the community they are often 1 on local shrines and doorposts as virile verful men. In later mythology the leader of yas is Kubera, god of wealth. Included I the multitude of spirits are the pretas, ethe-of the newly dead. Spirits of the long pie become ancestors or fathers (pitrus), pretas and pitrus remain active in the |!and occasionally assist their descendants, ed cannot be united with his ancestors i to the status of a pitru until the correct rites (sraddhas) have been performed, ivhich include the offering of water and cakes (pindas) to the three immediate itions of the deceased's forebears. I souls of those who die violent deaths become tit bhutas (night-wandering ghosts) who dilated to particular pretas, especially those we died unnatural deaths or whose funerary we not been performed. Bhutas haunt trees relict buildings and are worshipped by some S in northern India. \tas, and other demonic spirits, called s, also appear dancing among the dead and I on battlefields, or in burial, grounds. They the forces of darkness, cruelty, violence ath as do the yatudhanas, guardians of a's mountain. The yatudhanas are associated riginal tribes and are said to have animal

; the other spirits are raksasas, bhairavas, asuras and vetalas. Both raksasas and : are hideous, bloodthirsty, nocturnal eaters rflesh. Pisachas may 'possess' people, but the Atharva Veda provides protection against them by means of mantras and specific plants. Bhairavas are the terror-inspiring attendants of Rudra. Nagas are serpent deities and guardians of the treasures of the earth. Asuras are skilled in magic and powerful in battle. In the Rig Veda, asura is synonymous with 'god' but from the later Vedic period onwards the term is applied to demons. Vetalas resemble vampires who reanimate the dead. Their eerie singing is supposedly often heard in cemeteries. Vetala is also a term for a kind of black magic.

Other beings belonging to the sphere between man and gods are the gandharvas, celestial musicians and inspirers of earthly musicians, singers and dancers. Their female counterparts, the nymph-like apsarasas, the dancers of the gods, may cause war in men. Both gandharvas and apsarasas dwell in specific trees. The yoginis (the female form of yogi) are regarded as witches or demonesses, which reflects the misogynist attitude prevalent in the larger part of Indian tradition, and also explains the ban on women attempting to practise yoga. The yoginis are attendant on Durga and Siva, and are sometimes regarded as minor epiphanies of Durga. Other demonesses associated with Durga are the sakinis and dakinis, eaters of raw flesh. The dakinis are connected with both Buddhist and Hindu Tantrism.

Along with the appearance of religions of non-theis-tic nature (heterodox sects were non-theistic at least in the beginning in the sense that they were more or less of an ethical character and did not encourage vague enquiries about god and soul), creeds of a definitely theistic character came to be evolved. The central figures around which they grew up were not primarily Vedic deities but come from unorthodox sources. In fact, pre-Vedic and post-Vedic folk elements were most conspicuous in their origin. The important factor that activated these theistic movements was bhakti (the single-souled devotion of the worshipper to a particular god). This stimulus led to the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Saivism


and Saktism, all of which came to be regarded as components of orthodox Brahmanism.

VAISHNAVISM

The rise and growth of Vaishnavism was closely connected with that of Bhagavatism. Vaishnavism, having its origins in the pre-Gupta period, began to capture and absorb Bhagavatism during the Gupta period. This process of capture and absorption was completed by the end of the late Gupta period, and in fact the name rrtostly used to designate Bhagavatism from this period onwards was Vaishnavism, indicating the predominance of the later Vedic Vishnu element in it with emphasis on the doctrine of incarnations. Vishnu is a conflation of many local divinities. These include a Vedic god having some solar characteristics; a popular deified hero, Vasudeva, worshipped in western India; and the philosophical 'Absolute' of the Upanishads. This assimilation of deities occurred before the second century bc, since an inscription on a pillar at Besnagar states that the Greek ambassador Heliodorous was a devotee of the 'God of gods' Vasudeva. Vasudeva is said to have propounded the Bhagavata religion which included some solar features and later developed into Vaishnavism. The theory of incaranation greatly facilitated the assimilation of popular divinities into Vaishnavism. It developed during the Epic period and is referred to in the Puranas, The stages by which Vishnu rose to become a major deity are lost in the distant past, but some clues remain; the Rig Veda identifies Bhaga, the lord of bounty, with Varuna and later with Vishnu; and the Brahmanas identify Vishnu with the personified sacrifice and with the 'Cosmic Man' whose sacrificial dismemberment gave rise to the universe.

VAISHNAVA CULTS

Bhagavatas

The Bhagavata and Pancharatra initially cults were separate, the Pancharatras worshipping the deified sage Narayana, and the Bhagavatas worshipping the deified Vrisni hero Vasudeva. The later amalgamated in an atten Narayana and Vasudeva. The Bhagavata is a theistic devotio originated several centuries before the It is based mainly on the Bhagavad.( Bhagavata Parana and Vishnu Pura main texts. When the Bhagavata cult reached iti the second century ad, it came to;| known as the Pancharatra Agama.' 'five nights', but its significance is i The adherence of the Rajput>| Bhagavatism further spread to the wholft southern India, in the Tamil land, movement was spread largely by the i (who had intuitive knowledge of God),t5 ished from the eighth to the early ninethl The Alvars belonged to various cla Among them were a king of Mali woman, Andal, to whom a magnificent I later built at her birthplace, Srivilliputl caste man; and a repentant sinner. After,| came the Acharyas who united dev knowledge and karma.

Pancharatras

According to tradition the Pancharatra^ were first systematised in about 100 ad! who stressed the need for total devotion tof Krishna. A cosmological basis was given to, Krishna by identifying him and the me family with specific cosmic emanations; this was an important tenet of Pancharatras and of the later Sri Vaish The 'emanatory theory' developed earljj Christian era, about the same time as the I incarnation. The Pancharatras postulate a supreme i who reveals himself as Vishnu, Vasu Narayana and whose power gives birth to I verse. At the beginning of Time, the supn of Vasudeva created from himself Samkarshana (a name of Krishna's brother) i


(primal matter (prakriti). From these two com, Krishna's son Pradyumna was produced and with mind (manas). From these arose i (Krishna's grandson) identified with selfusness (ahankara). From the last two sprang : elements (panchabhutas) and their qualities bhutas) simultaneously with Brahma who the earth and everything in it from these

tlast three emanations are regarded not only i of the divine character, but as gods in their ht. Thus paradoxically the gods are both one Later their worship declined when the of Vishnu's incarnations became popular nated Vaishnavism during the Gupta Age. b above deified heroes were worshipped in the t region by people of Yadava-Satvata Vrisni rishna was a Yadava), and the teaching was No western India and northern Deccan by I Yadava tribes.

ilistic cult was founded by the legendary (whose teaching was disseminated by four s: Atri, Marici, Bhrigu and Kasyapa. Hy the cult formed part of the Taittiriya Fthe Black Yajur Veda, but later it became ox Vaishnava cult. In its main text, the
sa ritual theory is based on the fivefold of Vishnu--as brahman (the supreme purusha, as satya, as achyuta (the lie) and as aniruddha (the irreducible orming the five-fold ritual expiates evil i happiness on everyone. »
Alvars or Vaishnava Saints

The history of Vaishnavism from the post-Gupta period till the first decade of the 13th century ad is concerned mostly with south India. Vaishnava saints, popularly known as Alvars in south India, preached one-souled, loving adoration for Vishnu, and their songs in Tamil were collectively named Prabhandhas. Among the 12 Alvars, the most famous are Nammalvar and Tirumalisai Alvar.

Vaishnava Acharyas or Teachers

The wave of Vishnubhakti of the Alvars was supplemented on its doctrinal side by a class of Vaishnava teachers, popularly known as the Vaishnava Acharyas in south India. Ramanuja, one of the early great Acharyas, along with Yamunacharya (another important early Acharya) developed the doctrine of Vmshtadvaita (qualified nondualism) on the basis of some Upanishadic texts in opposition to Sankaracharya's Advaitavada or non-dualism (Sankara does not belong to either Vaishnavism or Saivism but to the nirguna school). Two other Vaishnava Acharyas of south India, who lived after Ramanuja, were Madhvacharya and Nimbarka. The former founded the Dvaitavada (dualism) and the latter Dvaitadvaitavada (dualistic non-dualism) in Vaishnavism. Thus, while the Alvars represented the emotional side of south Indian Vaishnavism, the Acharyas represented its intellectual aspect.

SAIVISM

Origin and Growth

Saivism, unlike Vaishnavism, had its origin in the very ancient past. The pre-Vedic religion (i.e. Indus religion) has, as one of its important components the worship of Pasupati Mahadeva,--a deity conveniently described as proto-Siva. In the Vedic


religion, particularly the later Vedic religion, Rudra can be considered as the Vedic counterpart of Pasupati Mahadeva. However, it is the grammarians of the post-Vedic period who give us an idea about the growth of Saivism as a religious movement. Panini, for instance, refers to a group of Siva worshippers of his time. Patanjali also describes a group of Siva-worshippers named by him as Siva Bhagavatas in his Mahabhasya (second century bc). Patanjali refers indirectly and briefly to the forceful and outlandish ritualism of these worshippers of Siva. This reminds us of the extreme religious practices of the Pasupatas described in the Pasupata Sutras. Saivism, thus, came to the fore in post-Upanishadic times, when Siva is identified with the terrifying Vedic god Rudra. The word Siva means 'auspicious'. Siva's many names, attributes and epithets indicate his diverse functions.

As the personification of the disintegrating power of time, he is called 'Kala' and depicted adorned with garlands of human skulls, and has his body entwined with snakes symbolising the cycle of time. As the passing of time inevitably leads to death, he is called 'Mahakala' or 'Kara', the remover. Consequently he is said to dance in cremation grounds and on battle fields. As the Lord of Mountains, he is 'Girisa'. As the Lord of Animals and Hunters, he is 'Pasupati' who represents the destruction of life by hunting, war and disease. As Lord of Demons (bhutas), he is 'Bhutanatha'. As the supreme yogin, he is 'Mahayogi'. As guru of yogic knowledge, music and the Veda, he is 'Dakshinamurthi'. As the giver of the bliss arising from absolute knowledge, he is 'Sankara'. As the cosmic Lord of Dance ('Nataraja'), he embodies the universal energy.

Siva is universally worshipped in the form of the phallus (linga), the source of manifestation and life, which inevitably contains the seeds of disintegration and death. The female generative i resents Siva's sakti, the personific mic energy. When represented to and the yoni signify the two great j pies of the universe. Some of the Puranas identify 1 ation with Siva through the do faces--Isana, Tatpurusha, Aghora,8 Sadyojata. Siva's five faces are rulers of the five directions, the fa compass and the zenith, making spatial extension. Saivism flourished under although most of them were India, the Pallava king Mahend first a Jaina and later a Saiva. greatly increased the popularity of^ the mystical and devotional poems \ sixty-three Saiva Nayanars (also <

Nayanars or Saiva Saints

Saivism in south India, like Vaishnav in the beginning through the activ saints, popularly called the Nayana in Tamil was called Tevaram (ab Dravida Veda). There are 63 Na important among them being Tirujti and Tirunavukkarasu (popularly know

Saiva Acharyas or Teachers

The emotional Saivism preached by j was supplemented on the doctrinal sid number of Saiva intellectuals (Acha associated.with several forms of Saiv like Agamanta, Suddha and Vir. Agamantas based their tenets mainly < mas which explain the various Aghora Sivacharya was one of their 1 The Suddhasaivas upheld Ramanuja's 1 Srikanta Sivacharya was their great ex Virasaivas or Lingayats were led by! ister of Chalukya king Bijjala Raya oft tury ad). Basava used his political pov tion in furthering the cause of this mov

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AO 300 A253

i a social and religious reform movement, ople were also influenced by Ramanuja's

Cults

upata doctrine, founded by Lakulisa, was in nature. Pasu (the individual soul) was ' existing with the pati (the supreme soul), âttainment ofdukkhanta (end of misery) was i the performance of yoga and vidhi (means). dhi consisted of various senseless and unso(or extreme acts). The Kapalikas and the has were undoubtedly off-shoots of the sect and there is enough epigraphic evi-) show that these were already flourishing in i period. Other extreme sects of Saivism are ghoris (successors of Kapalikas) and the athis. ^contrast to the above mentioned extreme i-some moderate forms of Saivism also , in northern and central India in the early I period. In Kashmir two moderate schools |vism were founded. Vasugupta founded the bhijna school, and his pupils, Kallata and nda, founded the Spandasastra school. All chings, were systematised by Abhinava jfrwho founded a new monistic system, called 3. Another moderate Saiva sect, known as uras, flourished at the same time in central I a little later in some parts of the Deccan. hie evidence from central India shows that f the Mattamayura Acharyas were preceptors Jachuri-Chedi kings.

i probably the earliest known Saiva cult as by the name and Siva's title of Lord of (pasu 'animal' and pati lord'). The cult in Orissa and in western India from the I llth centuries, ('founder of the Pasupata cult was Lakulisa, : an incarnation of Siva. Lakulisa's special i was a club (lakuta) which sometimes sym-he phallus. He is usually depicted naked and ithyphallic. The latter state does not signify sexual excitement but sexual restraint by means of yogic techniques. The cult's main text is the Pasupata Sutra attributed to Lakulisa. It is primarily concerned with ritual and discipline. According to a 13th century inscription Lakulisa had four chief disciples who founded four subsects. A number of Pasupata temples were

established in northern India from about the 6th century onwards, but by the 11th century the movement was in decline. The ultimate aim of the cult is to attain eternal union with Siva and thereby overcome all pain and suffering. There are various stages to this goal. In the first stage a follower serves in a temple and wears only one garment, or will be naked. Later he leaves the temple, removes the sectarian marks, and behaves in an idiotic or indecent way, thereby inviting the ridicule and disgust of orthodox Hindus. The ridicule of others counteracts the devotee's own bad Karmic effects and transfers to him the merit of those who have sworn at him. The indecent behaviour is a means of cutting off the devotee from ordinary society and producing in him a state of tranquil detachment and hence he should live in a cave, a derelict building or a cremation ground. The remaining stages consist of increasingly difficult ascetic practices leading to total control of the senses. After a long hard training the aspirant attains a superhuman body like Siva's and shares his omnipotence and nature. The Pasupata movement is the only one to link liberation with the attainment of paranormal powers.

Kapalikas and Kalamukhas

These are two extreme Tantric cults, which flourished, from about the 10th to the 13th century, mainly in Karnataka. They were probably offshoots of the Pasupata movement. They reduced the diversity of creation into two elements--the Lord and creator and the creation that emanated from him. Unfortunately none of their works are extant, sensational and disparaging allusions are made to them in the Puranas and other literature belonging to the seventh century and later.


According to a few inscriptions and literary references the Kapalikas originated in about the 6th century in the Deccan or in south India. By the 8th century they began to spread northwards; but by the 14th century they had almost died out, their decline being hastened by the rise of the popular Lingayat movement, or perhaps they merged with other Saivite Tantric orders such as the Kanphatas and the Aghoris. The Kapalikas (Skull-bearers) were adherents of an ancient ascetic order centred on the worship of the terrifying aspects of Siva, namely, Mahakala and Kapalabhrit (he who carries a skull) and Bhairava. They were preoccupied with magical practices, and attaining the 'perfections' (siddhis). All social and religious conventions were deliberately flouted. They ate meat, drank intoxicants, and practised ritual sexual union as a means of achieving consubstantiality with Siva. The devotees ate from bowls fashioned from human skull and worshipped Siva. They would carry a triple staff, pot, and a small staff with a skull-shaped top (khatvanja). The Kalamukhas flourished in the Karaataka area from about the llth to the 13th century. They drank from cups fashioned from human skull as a reminder of man's ephemeral nature, and smeared their bodies with the ashes of cremated corpses. The teachings of both cults are similar. Both took the 'Great Vow' (mahavrata) whose significance is now unknown, and yoga was mandatory. Human sacrifices and wine were offered to Bhairava and his consort Chandika.

Aghoris

This was a Tantric movement, now extinct, and said to have consisted of two branches-the pure (suddha) and the dirty (maliri). Aghoris were the successors of the Kapalika cult. Among the female divinities worshipped were Sitala, Pamagiri Devi (the tutelary goddess of ascetics) and Kali. Gurus were highly venerated as is usual in Tantrism. No religious or caste distinctions were allowed, nor was image-worship, and all adherents were required to be celibate. Cannibalism,

animal sacrifices and other cruel! tised. All kinds of refuse was excrement (but never horse meat)i is seen to fertilise the soil, so eatin to 'fertilise' the mind and rend every kind of meditation. The Aghoris led the wandering til Each guru was accompanied by a i in his Bhairava aspect. The Agh buried and not cremated, and were 1 a state of eternal, deep meditation.

Kanphata Yogis or Gorakhnathis

Gorakhnath, a native of eastern Beng the earlier teaching of this move fled with Siva by his followers, accredited with great magical and : ers. He synthesised the Pasupata those of Tantrism and Yoga. This extreme order of ascetics is ch their split ears (kan 'ear',phata 'split') i rings of agate, horn or glass, conferred | their initiation. The Yogis practised ritual copulatio yards and sometimes cannibalism. The i of the devotee is to attain eternal union' means of Yogic techniques. Some texts i yogic positions (asanas); the Siva Samhiti all having magical and hygienic value.! sickness, old age and death, while other < itual perfections (siddhis). The 9 nathas and 84 siddhas play an it part in the movement and a lot of folklore \i ated with them. Gorakhnath's teaching is \ and hence opposed to caste distinctions, few prohibitions concerning food, except i and pork are forbidden. But spirits and opiB be consumed and Yogis are allowed to i The dead are buried in the posture oft for they are permanently in samadhi, and he tombs are called samadh. Representations < linga and yoni are placed above the tomb. Kanphata Yogis officiate in temples dedic Bhairava, Sakti or Devi, and Siva. At one 1 Gorakhnathis were associated with the Agh


pthe Gorakhnathis are in decline both in Nn Nepal where, in the later period of the ury, they received royal patronage, being the clan god of the Gorkha jpho unified Nepal.

i or Saiva Siddhantas

ortant south Indian system of pluralis-, It recognises the reality of the world and of souls. This movement developed i the songs of the early Saiva saints and the fine devotional poetry of the f (from the 7th to the 10th century). r classes of authoritative texts of the cult as, the twenty eight Saiva Agamas, the rai; and the fourteen Saiva Siddhanta hough the Vedas are highly regarded, the nas are of greater importance having I by Siva himself to his devotees. The ^Sastras were written during the 13th and i century by a succession of six teach-Fwhom were non-Brahmins and of lowly Tamil texts and poems include those Nhe three great Saiva teachers--Appar, nbandhar and Sundaramurti. 1st teacher of Tamil Saivism was (13th century, his work being the am). But the founder was Aghora

Siddhanta goal is a state of eternal xperience of unity-in-duality. Today nta flourishes mostly in Tamil-speakfeluding northern Ceylon.

ism

rustic system, also called the Trika system expounded in Kashmir by pta (993-1015 ad) who based his \ the teachings of earlier sages. He com-of commentaries on the now lost PW Somananda, from whom he was ession. Fortunately, a summary of this osed by Utpala, a pupil of Abhinava, atyabhijna Sutras. However, the earliest teacher was Vasugupta who lived in the 9th century and founded the Pratyabhijna school. He taught that the soul gains knowledge by means of intense yogic meditation. The name Trika refers to the three-fold scripture drawn from the non-canonical Agamas. The system was influenced by Samkhya, Advaita Vedanta and Pancharatra doctrines. Initiation in this system is of foremost importance. By means of Siva's divine grace the aspirant finds a true guru who initiates him. Thus the 'power of activity' (kriyasakti) is awakened in his soul, and this leads ultimately to liberation.

Suddhasaivas or Sivadvafta A system expounded by Srikanta, it has some features similar to those of Saiva Siddhanta and Kashmiri Saivism, as well as some unique characteristics. Srikanta's teaching is based on the Vedantasara. The Supreme Siva (Para-Siva) is identified with Brahman--the material and the operative cause of the world. Liberation is attained by deep meditation on Siva and this leads to the knowledge that Siva is identical with the individual self.

Virasaivas

A south Indian devotional cult, also called the Lingayat cult, this was a form of qualified non-dualism, Visishtadvaita. Although the Virasaiva main scriptural text, the Sunyasampadane, does not mention the name Lingayat, it is probable that originally it was an epithet applied to Virasaivas by other cults, because of their concentration on the linga as the only true symbol of divinity. Basava was the founder, or more probably the systematiser, of the movement. At sixteen he left home and went to the pilgrimage town of Sangama, where he worked to reform Saivism, to overcome caste distinctions and to fight the ban on the remarriage of

widows. Later he became a minister of the usurper King Bijjala who reigned at Kalyani. While serving the king he converted a number of


Jainas to his cult. But his unorthodox views caused tension between the king and his subjects and he left the king's service. After Basava's death in 1168 ad the members of his sect were persecuted but today the movement has many followers, mostly in Karnataka and AP. A model of the linga is presented to each devotee at initiation for daily worship. It is worn in a container round the neck or held in the hand during worship. The Virasaiva initiation replaces the investiture with the sacred thread and this initiation usually takes place during infancy. Basava taught that all men are temples, and hence they may worship Siva directly without the aid of priests, ritual sacrifices, fasts or pilgrimages. However, this cult later inaugurated their own priests called jangamas, who are regarded as incarnations of Siva. The movement has no temples except those erected as memorials. Women have equality with men and may choose their husbands. Among the things forbidden to cult members are pride, dishonesty, meanness, animal sacrifices, eating meat and drinking intoxicants, astrology, child marriage, sexual licence, and cremation. The last is forbidden because at death the devotee goes immediately to Siva and is at all times, ensured of his protection. (The dead are buried in a sitting position facing north, unmarried people in a reclining position).

SAKTISM Although Saktism and Tantrism were originally two different cultural forces, they are now closely associated. Both are centred on the worship of the supreme goddess Sakti as the feminisation of 'Ultimate Reality' (Brahman). Thus to members of these cults god is conceived as female. The roots of the Sakti cult go back to the prehistoric 'Earth Cult', the earth being conceived as a religious form which developed into the notion of the earth as the 'Great Mother'. The popular Indian village tutelary goddesses (gramadevatas) are extensions of the concept of the great Mother Goddess. A number of other archaic elements have been assimilated into the 'Great Goddess', some from India's complex tribal cult the Dravidian and Indus civilisa

Sakti is known by so many nameff posite nature, which incorporate*^ many local and tribal goddesses., is closely related with Saivism, it| distinguishable from it. As early as the Rig Veda the go sented cosmic energy, later dei| Similarly Indra's consort Saci divine power. The Atharva Veda i ence to Gnas (literally 'women') whic the powers of nature were associa energies long before the advent of Tai The Gnas were probably divinities 1 vegetal and fertility cults of non-^ By the 7th century, in Bengal, a nu goddess cults, including those of I Chandi (goddess of hunters) had be into the worship of Kali, who later I with Parvati, Siva's consort. Among Sakti's many names is cult in Bengal is a mixture of deep < ness and religious awe coupled with cruel blood rites derived from an ancient) When signifying abstract time, called Adisakti--the primordial active fa ciple in which no duality exists and all i reconciled. As Time (Kala) does not exist until i manifests herself, she is called the 'mot! (Kalamata). As the embodiment of entires| she is Mahakali; as destroyer of worlds i she is Kalaharshini. Whateve name or assumes, her quintessence remains uncha The lunar aspect of Kali-Durga symbolis cosmic totality, and hence she may be iconographically with sixteen arms, signifyj! sixteen digits of the moon, which corresp Vedic belief that the universe is made up of J parts. When Sakti is portrayed with Siva as his < her aspect is beneficent and she is called Devi or Uma (the embodiment of ideal hood), or Mahadevi (the great goddess). The f blissful union (samarasya) of Siva and Sakti i


Ithe 'realistic monism' of the Sakti and Saiva

form of sacramental ritualism, having a fof esoteric and magical aspects, which mantras, yantras and yogic techniques. |lements also feature in Jainism, Mahayana a, Saivism, Vaishnavism and Saktism. tie Tantrism is derived from the sacred Tantras. The earliest works of this vast I were written during the Gupta period. To p, the Tantras are as authoritative as the I hence are known as the 'Fifth Veda'. i developed primarily in north-west India : Afghan border and in western Bengal and only slightly 'Hinduised' areas of the at, and hence many non-Aryan features

i (diksha) and the receiving of a specific i a qualified guru is all important in the llts. The initiate is 'reborn' and given the I esoteric knowledge to guide him towards (.New forms of asceticism were developed, (file sublimation of sexual union in imita-! union of Siva and Sakti. is said to result from the worship of : from the philosophical point of view the : of the Goddess is the result of the low jjprituality. Hence only 'sexuality' can be jffttain transcendence. has two main divisions--the so-;»hand' (vamachard) cult and the 'right-yhinachara) cult. The practices of the fyiara are not as extreme as those of the If,-and their rites, although similar to Ifftflra, are never performed physically tibolically. Neither cult recognises actions and all aspirants have to plex initiatory rites. The vamachara |)erately flout all the social rules and i of Hinduism under ritual conditions, pt'to free themselves from the limitaIfendane existence and so attain greater Initially the erotic and esoteric aspects of Tantrism were intended only for the fully initiated use as liberating techniques. In Tantric ritual copulation the female partner (who incorporates Sakti) should be worshipped with deep devotion, and the sexual rites performed without losing one's purity, keeping one's mind uninvolved. In the highest form of Tantric meditation the female generative organ (yoni) symbolises the universal womb, the source of all existence. When liberated, the souls merge with the cosmic essence in the joy of pure consciousness. Yantras, geometric symbolic patterns having great spiritual significance, are also employed. They are equivalent to the concrete personal expression of the unapproachable Divine. Yantras operate in the visible sphere as mantras do in the

audible. By means of yantras devotees are able to participate ritually in the powers of the universe. The best known is the sriyantra consisting of a number of interlocking triangles with a central point (bindu) symbolising the eternal, undifferentiated principle (Brahman). The Sahajiya Tantrists reject the use of mantras, texts, images, and meditation, since only sunya is one's true nature. The difficulty in defining sunya, and its metaphysical ambiguity, encouraged many extreme sexual excesses.

EPICS

Ramayana

According to tradition the Ramayana was composed about 500 bc. The original authorship of the great epic is attributed to Valmiki. It received its present form two or three centuries later, but there are a number of different versions which exist today. Out of its seven books, the first and last are the latest. The former states that Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu, an indication of its later composition, but many of the stories are very old and include some which probably originated, in the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala.


Mahabharata

Known originally as Jaya Samhita, the Mahabharata includes the Harivamsa (the Genealogy of Hari or Vishnu) and the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord). Traditionally it is attributed to Krishna Dvaipayana, also known as Vyasa. It was composed over many centuries and was almost finalised by the 3rd or 2nd century bc, although the Bhagavad Gita and other interpolations are of somewhat later period. The great battle described in the Mahabharata may have a historical basis in the memory of a battle in north India in the 9th century bc. It consists of eighteen books or sections. The Harivamsa forms an appendix to the Mahabharata and consists of three parts which give an account of creation, a genealogical list of the Yadavas, myths, the adventures and love affairs of Krishna and the cowherd girls. Although it purports to be part of the Mahabharata, it belongs to a much later period and in style resembles the popular works, Puranas. The Gita represents the views of Krishna Devakiputra who declared that righteous conduct is more efficacious than gifts made to a priestly sacrificer. Puranas Traditionally the Puranas expound five subjects: i. the creation of the world; ii. its destruction and recreation; iii. genealogies of gods and patriarchs; iv. reigns of the Manus of various world periods (manvantaras), and v. the history of the Solar and Lunar royal dynasties.

None of the eighteen main Puranas date earlier than the Gupta period, although much of the legendary material is older. The names of the eighteen Puranas are Vishnu, Agni, Bhavishya, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Garuda, Padma, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Siva, Skanda, Brahma, Brahmananda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya and Vamana.ln some lists the Vayu is substituted for the Agni Purana, and in others for the Siva Purana. perhaps the oldest; some others i 15th or 16th century, but all; gone much revision. Puranas greatly aided the Upanishadic teaching to the illiti majority of women to whom educa ately denied.

Dharmasastras or Smritis Their contents include: 1. the sources of dharma, 2. the duties of the four varnas and < 3. various samskaras of man; 4. the avocations of the four varnas it 5. the duties and responsibilities of) for taxation, ownership, guardiansh moneylending, payment of debts punishments for various crimes, ] tance, and different kinds of sons;

6.

impurities of birth, death, and other < J^

7.

different kinds of sraddhas, rules,

duties of women and their property, \ rate) and its conditions; and 8.

sins and their expiations, and j conditions.

The Smritis deal with these topics in and systematised form under three achara (rites), vyavahara (dealings), chitta (expiation). The main Smritis are given as under.-*

a. The Manu Smriti is the most ancient i itative among them. It has twelve ch ing with achara, vyavahara, and pro is looked upon as having served as a i the later Smritis. It has many masti taries like those of Medhatithi, Gov Kulluka Bhatta. The extant work compiled by Bhrigu, one of the Manu.

b.

The next in importance is the Yajnavall which has three kandas (sections)


jpand prayaschitta. It agrees with the jft' on many points, but disagrees on ttiyoga, inheritance, and gambling. It It few valuable commentaries like wApararka, and Mitaksara, of which i the most critical and authoritative. ra Smriti is noted for its advanced i it is considered most suited for the : deals with achara and. prayaschitta ntions the apaddharma of the four jriculture, trade, and commerce for the etc. Its commentary by ya is very popular and authoritative i vyavahara under raja-dharma. i Smriti occurs in two recensions and vyavahara only. It closely follows lit introduces a few innovations in the I titles of law and permits niyoga, remarvomen, and gambling under certain con-ispati Smriti has seven sections dealing vahara, achara, and prayaschitta. It f follows the Manu Smriti and is known as $ista (supplement) to the latter. yana Smriti follows closely the works Brihaspati and Narada. It specially yith stridhana (a woman's personal prop-hers mention may be made of the Smritis a, Daksa, Pitamaha, Prajapati; Marici, Wsvamitra, Vyasa, Sangrahakara, and In the centuries following the rise of Buddha and Mahavira, six orthodox (astika) religiophilosophi-cal systems developed. They all accepted the authority of the Vedas, although their interpretations differ on various points, and include theistic, monistic, atheistic and dualistic views. None of these systems however, ever attained the status of a dogmatic orthodoxy. Despite their differences these systems are regarded as complementary aspects of one truth seen from differing points of view. Nothing is known of the actual or supposed founders of these schools and their names are probably those of the schools rather than of individuals. Each school has a specific Sutra attributed to the supposed founder. The six systems are usually coupled in pairs: Samkhya (based on intellectual knowledge) and Yoga (on control of the senses and inner faculties); the Vaisesika (the experimental point of view based on sensory experience) and the Nyaya (logical view based on

dialectics); Vedanta (based on metaphysical speculation) and Mimamsa (deistic and ritualistic point of view based on the sacred texts). The second system of each pair is more a methodology than a metaphysical school. There are also other systems such as the Saiva Siddhanta lying outside the traditional six systems. The three main unorthodox systems (nastika) are the Buddhist, Jaina and Charvaka. The first two deny the authority of the Vedas but believe in some kind of future life, while the materialist Charvakas deny both propositions.

; ORTHODOX PHILOSOPHICAL is

nskrit term for philosophy is darsana, |from drishti, literally meaning a 'seeing' or it'. Although Indian philosophy is inextrind up with religious beliefs, it is still pos-1 an orthodox Hindu to be an atheist. Some ditional systems are also atheistic insofar as ny the existence of a creator god. He may pt the doctrine of rebirth yet not accept that 5 deity created the world from nothing. Samkhya

The literal meaning of Samkhya is 'enumeration'. It is a system of dualistic realism attributed to the semi-mythical sage Kapila. The oldest extant Samkhya text is the Samkhydkarika of IsvaraRrishna (3rd or 4th century ad). Two ultimate eternal realities are recognised in this system--Spirit (purusha) and Nature (prakriti). Prakriti is a single, all-pervasive, complex substance which evolves in the world into countless different shapes. Its three main constituents or the guna:

H


sattva, rajas and tamos. Each guna has distinct characteristics, which to some extent are antagonistic to the others, yet they always coexist, cohere and cooperate to produce everything in the world. The unfolding of a new world commences only when purusha and prakriti associate (samyoga) whereupon prakriti begins the long process of differentiation. Initially the Samkhya system was atheistic. However under the influence of the Yoga system with which it later coalesced, it became theistic.

Yoga

Yoga is a theistic system having many similarities to Samkhya. It accepts most of Samkhya epistemology, and also the view that individual souls emerge from the Universal Soul. Yoga applies Samkhya teaching to everyday life, as the Svetasvatara Upanishad states: 'Samkhya is knowledge, Yoga is practice. The Yoga Sutras are attributed to Patanjali. The eight steps of yogic practice are (1) restraint (yama), (2) discipline (niyama), (3) the adoption of a comfortable position (asana), the most usual being the padmasana, (4) the technique of breath control (pranayama), (5) withdrawal of the senses (pratya-hard), (6) concentration (dharana), (7) uninterrupted meditation (dhyana), and (8) total absorption (samadhi). In Yoga philosophy the Supreme Being is eternal, able to bring about the association of the eternal divine principles or prakriti and purusha which results in the unfolding of the cosmic process. Yoga has taught that there are many more levels of consciousness than is generally realised, and that only when these levels are actually experienced can man achieve his full physical and psychical potential.

Vaisesika

Initially this was an atheistic system attributed to the legendary sage Kanada (also known as Uluka) and was based on the Vaisesika Sutra (ad 100). The early, Vaisesika promulgated an atomistic account of the universe. It was based on the concept that everything in the world (except soul, conscious ness, time, space and mind) is con combinations of atoms which remain < object has been reduced to its smallestj When the Vaisesika merged with i tern, it became theistic through the in the concept of God to explain how everything in it arises from different t of eternal atoms.

Nyaya

This is a system of logical realism foij sage Gotama, also known as Gauti nickname Aksapada. It is based on thaj probably composed about the 2nd ce There are five clauses in the Nya (1) the proposition, (2) the cause, (3) I cation, (4) the recapitulation of the cau conclusion. Nyaya teaching states that the exis beliefs, visions, and emotions are all < mind, since without a mind to 'think would not exist. However, such things: plants, rivers, mountains, houses, mon not being dependent on our minds, exist i not we know or 'think them'. However, later when the Vaisesika the Nyaya about the 9th century or earlie haps with some Saivite influence), became theistic.

Vedanta

The term Vedanta means 'the end of the Vei culmination of Vedic speculation. The basij the Brahma Sutra or Vedanta Sutra att Badarayana and composed sometime and 450 AD. Traditional Vedanta consists of the largest! sis' of the Veda called Uttaramimamsa coupl<] the 'earlier exegesis', Purvamimamsa. The schools within Vedanta are Advaita (non-d Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) and (dualism). The first systematisers were Gaudapadaf Sankara who established the Advaita Veda


many features adopted from Mahayana especially the doctrine of Sunyavada. \ based his doctrine on the famous passage that' (Tat tvam asi) of the Chandogya lad.

of this system means 'critical examina-1 'solution of a problem by reflection'. The namsa is sometimes called Purvamimamsa, uish it from the more complex Vedanta Uttaramimamsa, or Brahmamimamsa which es on the teachings of the Upanishads. sa is an atheistic system attributed to i and summarised in the Mimamsa Sutra. As amsa system regards the Veda as eternal and ging, it was forced to reject the usual cosmo-j view held almost universally in the Hindu n; that worlds periodically come into being, (.for a time and then dissolve into non-manin. The world, according to Mimamsa, has ? existed and is without beginning or end.

Vedic times there were no temples or i. Most rites were conducted in open air or in structures, and were of a sacrificial |y until post-Upanishadic times when temples

design was influenced by the Buddhist ', halls and rock-cut sanctuaries dating from Leentury bc, a style which continued to dom|chitectural forms for over a thousand years. i no free standing pre-Gupta Hindu temples for they were built of perishable materials ; long since disappeared. I main temple building activity took place I 7th century onwards.

I COSMOLOGY

to Hindu cosmology, a beginningless

P>f worlds pass through cycles within cycles jr. One 'day of Brahma' consists of 4,320 mil lion earthly years and is called a kalpa, his 'night' is of equal length; his 'year' contains 360 such days and nights; and his lifetime is 100 divine years, that is 311,040,000 million years. At the end of this vast period the universe dissolves into non-manifestation, until aeons later another 'secondary" creator-god appears and a 'new' world unfolds. During his 'day' Brahma creates the universe from eternally existing matter and finally absorbs it, where it remains latent during the 'night' of Brahma, after which the process starts again. Each kalpa is divided into 14 secondary cycles (manvantaras), each lasting millions of years and with vast intervals between the cycles. During these periods another world comes into being and a new Manu appears as the progenitor of the human race. At present we are in the seventh manvantara whose Manu is Vaivasvata. Each manvantara comprises 71 aeons called mahayugas; each mahayuga is divided into four ages (yugas), called krita, treta, dwapara and kali, consisting of 4800, 3000, 2400 and 1200 'years of the gods' respectively. (A 'year of the gods' consists of 360 human years). The above ages are sometimes named after metals --gold, silver, copper and iron respectively. We are now in the kali age when goodness, kindness, virtue, justice, strength, longevity and happiness are at their lowest ebb. The present age commenced in 3102 bc which is also the traditional date of the Mahabharata war. In the golden age all beings observed dharma, three-quarters in the silver age, half in the copper or bronze age, and only a quarter in the present debased iron age.

7.7 SCHOOLS OF ART

I. Gandhara School

Period, Place and Patrons It flourished from about the middle of the first century bc to about the fifth century AD in the Gandhara region (northwestern India) and hence known as the 'Gandhara School'. It owed its origin to the Indo-Greek


rulers, but the real patrons of the school were the Sakas and the Kushanas, especially Kanishka. Owing to its intimate connection with Mahayana Buddhism, it is also called the 'Graeco-Buddhist School'.

Gandhara Sculpture Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have been found extensively in the ruins of Taxila and the various ancient sites in Afghanistan and north-western India. They were executed in black stone. Gandhara school has the following main features.

1. A tendency to mould the human body in a realistic manner with great attention to accuracy of physical details, especially the delineation of muscles, the addition of moustaches, curly hair, and the like. 2.

The representation of thick drapery with large and bold fold lines; and

3.

Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism.

Gandhara Architecture excelled mainly during the construction of monasteries and stupas.

Buddhist Monasteries A very large number of Buddhist monasteries were built in the early centuries of the Christian era. Ruins of about 15 monasteries have been found in the neighbourhood of Peshawar and Rawalpindi, while in the Kabul valley alone there are some 50 examples.

Buddhist Stupas The Graeco-Roman architectural impact modified the structure of the stupa. The orthodox Indian design of the stupa was developed into an architectural composition of fine proportions and character. The height of the stupa was raised enormously by elevating it on a high platform and by elongating its main body upwards. Besides, plastic ornamentation was added to the structure of the stupa. All this provided the stupa effective and colourful appearance.

The main theme of Gandhara school can be said to be the new form of Buddhism, viz. Mahayanism, and its most important contribution was the evolution of an image of the Buddha. Mathura School

Period and Place The school of ai at Mathura (UP) has been calle School'. Its origin has been traced 1 die of the second century bc, but it f first century ad that its genuine pn artists of Mathura used the spotted i making images. Though the Mathu much to the earlier Indian traditionsi! and Sanchi), it also borrowed school and adopted more than one motif.

Jaina Images In its early phase,-, school was probably inspired by Jainuf that many figures of cross-le tirthankaras in meditation were carve craftsmen.

Buddhist Images The early Bu Bodhisattvas of the Mathura school ures with little spirituality about them, 1 developed in grace and religious fd attempt to display spiritual strength behind the faces of the images, in fact, 1 the Mathura school.

Brahmanical Images The Mathura carved out images of Brahmanical Popular Brahmanical gods, Siva and Vis represented alone and sometimes with sorts, Parvati and Lakshmi respectively, many other Brahmanical deities were also 1 executed in stone.

Female Figures The most striking remain beautiful female figures of yaksinis, nag apsaras. These richly jewelled ladies, sfc attitudes reminiscent of the Indus dancing j

Royal Statues Most of the Kushana royalf were found at the village of Mat (near where the Kushana kings had a winter palace,^ chapel in which the memory of former and princes was revered. Almost all the fig been broken by the rulers of the succeeding j ties, and that of the great Kanishka, the most s of the statues, unfortunately lacks its head.


ti School

land Place In the region between the lower | of the Krishna and Godavari, which became ant centre of Buddhism at least as early as nd century bc, a separate school of art, as the 'Amaravati School', flourished, i it had its beginnings in the middle of the century bc, it matured only in the later tra period (second and third century ad) and 1 by the end of the forth century ad. Its main were Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and apeta. Its artists mainly used white marble.

Statues The great stupa of Amaravati tied with limestone reliefs depicting scenes iBuddha's life and surrounded with free-standdha figures. Secular Statues Amaravati artists created beautiful human images, which outnumber those of religious nature. The figures and images of males and females carved under the influence of this school have been regarded as some of the best among the contemporaries not only from the point of view of their size, physical beauty and expression of human emotions, but also from the point of view of composition. The female figures in different moods and poses are in particular its best creations. Even men, animals and vegetation have been treated elegantly.

Significance The Amaravati school had a profound influence on surrounding schools of art. Its products were carried to Ceylon and Southeast Asian countries and had a marked effect on the indigenous styles. Its influence on later south Indian sculpture is also very evident.


India in Pre-Gupta

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INDIA Nx-^0 C E A N

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Prwant.axMmal boundary of India shown thu*. W as-i H

I N D I AW

OCEAN


Based upon Survey of India map with (he permission of the Surveyor General of India. Tl» responsibility for the correctness of Internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree «*h the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of hidia. The territorial waters of India extend Into the sea to a dtetance of twelve nautk^ miles measure from the apixopriate base line.


External trade routes of ancient India

The topographical details within Mia an based upon Survey of India maps with the pemwaon of the Surveyor Bweral of I the Copyright 1998 of which vests with the Government of todw. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details restt with the publisher. Trie external boundaries and coastines of India agree withttertecofd/Master Copy certifwd by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the tea to a dbtance of twelve nautical mies measured from the appropriate base f

QUESTIONS I i of the following was not a means of \vama status? out of society and becoming an

(ing rebirth in a higher social status in i's next life arrying outside one's own varna ''a group's change in habitation or geo hical location Sthe term 'Sudra' was a tribal name is ' stated in the: ayana habharata ica habhashya uranas %Smritis the correct answer from the codes

14, ii, iv and v (b) ii, iv, v and vi ill, iv, v and vi (d) ii, iii, iv and v I which of the following periods of Indian ' did the Kshatriyas have a distinct iden-Age of the Buddha Maurya period Post-Maurya age Gupta pertotT hlch of the following texts relegates women I with Vaishyas and Sudras to a low posin, though all of them are assured of equal ; by it in the next world? Arihasastra (b) Bhagavad Gita Ramayana

(d) Manu Smriti

i term apad-dharma of the Smriti literature smeant »i
The children born to a Brahmin father and a Sudra mother are categorised as

(a) Vratyas

(b) Nisadas

(c) Abhiras

(d) Pulindas

7. Which of the following were prescribed in the late ancient period for the Sudras so that ordi nary Brahmins and even priests of a lower cat egory could get their dues on every occasion? (i) Gotras (ii) Samaskaras (iii) Tirthas

(iv) Vratas

Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 8. Which form of marriage was originally pre scribed by Manu for the Kshatriyas, though it was disapproved for them in the later texts? (a) Rakshasa (b) Asura (c) Paisacha

(d) Gandharva

9. According to tradition, the great sages such as Kanva, Vatsa and Satyakamajavala were the sons of (a) Sudra women (b) labour women (c) fisher women (d) slave women 10. Who among the following refers to the aniravasita, a special category of Sudras, regarded as clean and therefore not polluting? (a) Panini

(b) Patanjali

(c) Manu

(d) Yajnavalkya

11. Which of the following factors were responsible for the change in the social structure of ancient India? (i) Economic change (ii) Rise of new religions (iii) Foreign invasions and migrations

(iv) Aryanisation of indigenous tribes Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them

A267


12. Which one of the four varnas mentioned in the Purushasukta of the mandate X of the Rig Veda is referred in the other parts of the Rig Veda in the sense of a vama? (a) Brahmins (b) Kshatriyas (c) Vaishyas (d) Sudras 13. What is the correct order in which the four var nas appear in the Buddhist Pali texts? (a) (b) (c) (d) 14.

Sudda, khattiya, bahamanna and vessa Vessa, bahamanna, sudda and khattiya Bahamanna, khattiya, vessa and sudda Khattiya, bahamanna, vessa and sudda The legendary names of Lilavati and Khana are connected with:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 15.

mathematics and astronomy music and dance medicine and metallurgy language and literature The ancient term bhritaka meant:

(a) a slave who had been granted manumission (b) an unskilled labour working for hire (c) a loyal follower of the ruler (d) a technician working under an employer 16. How many kinds of priests appeared to per form different rituals in public sacrifices, of which the Brahmins were only one type? (a) (b) (c) (d) 17.

Ten Seventeen Twenty Four Thirty Six Which one of the following Puranas mentions more than hundred jatis or castes?

(a) (b)

Vishnu Purana Markandeya Purana

(c) Skanda Purana (d) Brahmavaivarta Purana 18. Consider the following statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): Niyoga was definitely practised by the Sudras, though not by the dvlja varnas, in the early centuries of the Christian era. Reason (R): According to Manu, niyoga cannot take place in marriages which are performed according to the mantras. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct?

(a)

Both A and R are true i explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true I explanation of A.

(c) (d) 19.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Match List I with List II and| answer using the codes gi\

List I (Sources)

(No^

(i) Baudhayana (ii) Manu

(A)

(B)

(iii) Brahmavaivarta (C) (iv) Vasistha (D) (v) Gautama

(E)

Codes: i ii iii iv v (a) DEACB (b) A< (c) BDEAC

(d) Ei

20. Which of the following factors \ for the rise of mixed castes? (i) Emergence of special!; groups (ii) Assimilation of new tribes in (iii) Violation of varna endogan (iv) Violation of gotra exogan Select the correct answer from I below; (a) i, ii and iii (b) Ii, ill j

(c) i, iii and iv (d) All< 21.

Which one of the following described as the barley in the la ature?

(a) Sudras

(b) Va

(c) Brahmins (d) 22. Which one of the following for does not come under the dha (a) Arsa (b) (c) Asura

(d)

23. Which one of the following work&ijj the custom of sati is valued for t (a) Manu Smriti (b) A/an (c) Arthasastra (d) Briha 24. Which one of the following for was the most widely prevalent I lower varnas of ancient period? (a) Gandharvavivaha (b) As (c) Rakshasavivaha (d) Ar

f",'

m led to the evolution of the theory of varfimkara? oncern with occupational specialisation concern with ritual status

distinction between the victorious and the Vanquished :»Distribution of resources and produce I; identity of which one of the following var-;is generally clear in the Brahmanical smriti ature?

Kshatriyas

(b) Vaishyas

Sudras (d) Panchamavama i one of the following approved marriage i was considered inferior for containing ents of 'bride-price'? I Arsa (b) Brahma i Daiva (d) Prajapatya Wch one of the following women philosojers challenged the invincible Yajnavalkya in te in the age of the Upanishads?. 1} Gargi i Maitreyi

(b) Ghosa

(d) Viswavara

der List I and List II: List I List II Vedic period Enslavement in lieu ,..

of uncleared debt

Age of the Buddha Slaves purchased with money I) Maurya period Enslavement by court order Jiich of the above are correctly matched? |oose the answer from the codes below: |'i and ii (b) ii and iii

J and iii

(d) All of them

i one of the following theories about the gin of the varna system is the most accept-jfs theory?

k,Theory of legacy from the aboriginal tribes ^Theory of notions of purity and impurity I Theory of social differentiation arising out |of social conflicts and unequal distribution | of resources

' Theory of division of labour based on natural aptitudes and endowments "ording to the late ancient and early lieval lawbooks, Sudras also could listen to l recitation of the: A269 Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AD 300

(i) Itihasas

(ii) Vedas

(iii) Smritis

(iv) Puranas

Select the correct answer from the codes given as follows:

(a) i and ii

(b) i and iv

(c) i, ii and iii (d) i, iii and iv 32. Dissolution of marriage, according to the Dharmasastras, can take place when: (i) a person loses his varna status (ii) a husband fails to return from journey in time as promised (iii) a husband takes a second wife (iv) a person fails to support his family

Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv

(c) ii and iii

(d) i and ii

33. How many mixed castes are mentioned by the later Vedic literature? (a) Eight (b) Ten (c) Twelve

(d) Fourteen

34. In the Buddhist Pali texts there is evidently frequent tension between the (a) bahamanna and sudda (b) bahamanna and khattiya (c) khattiya and vessa (d) vessa and sudda 35. Varna system is characterised by (i) status by birth

(ii) a hierarchical ordering of social units (iii) rules of exogamy (iv) rules of endogamy (v) ritual purity

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, iv and v

36. Which one of the following works attests to the existence of the Rajanya tribe? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Kautilya's Arthasastra Panini's Ashtadhyayi Manu's Dharmasastra Sana's Harshacharita

37. Which of the following texts provide us with the first major example of validation of Kshatriya status?

(a) Itihasas

(b) Smritis

(c) Puranas

(d) Jatakas

A270 •• Indian History: Ancient India 38.

Women and property were bracketed together particularly from

(a) Maurya period (b) pre-Gupta period (c) Gupta period (d) post-Gupta period 39.

Which one of the following terms was not used for describing the outcastes?

(a) Yavana

(b) Hinasippa

(c) Apasada

(d) Mlechchha

The ancient Indian term for sweeper was (a) kaivarta (c) nisada (d) vratya

(b) paulkasa

Which one of the following vamas is declared as the annada by the Skanda Purana? (a) Brahmin

(b) Kshatriya

(c) Vaishya

(d) Sudra

42. Which one of the following was not a factor on which the concept of vama is based? The four-fold division of life and performance of various sacraments. The idea of pollution extending to social hierarchies. The specialisation of labour and differentiation between occupations. The maintenance of distinctions between ethnic and regional populations. 43.

Which one of the following mixed castes was a result of tribal associations?

(a) Nisadas

(b) Abhiras

(c) Gonds

(d) Mallavas

44. In which one of the following approved forms of marriage was a bride given in marriage to a priest? Arsa vivaha Daiva vivaha Brahma vivaha

Prajapatya vivaha 45. Which Veda, according to Apasthamba, can be made accessible to women and Sudras?

46.

Rig Veda Sama Veda YajurVeda AtharvaVeda The ancient Indian craftsman, karavara, was a

47.

charioteer ivory-worker leatherworker costume-maker The mixed caste ofI result of

48.

a Brahmin marrying a I a Brahmin marrying a'' a Kshatriya marrying a| a Sudra marrying a' When did a deep social > system?

49.

sixth and fifth cent fourth and third centuri third and fourth centuri sixth and seventh < Who states that Vaishya cannot be kept under < occupation with agriculture i

50.

Baudhayana Manu Narada Yajnavalkya Almost all examples of inte the Vedic and epic literature I

51.

anuloma type pratiloma type asovama type savarna type Which of the following is the the development of towns in period?

52.

Development of science ( Development of arts and era Growth of trade and commerce™ Increase in agrarian surplus Which of the following statements I Vedic society are correct?

(i) The Aryans laid stress on blood and racial superiority, (ii) To indicate people of different < they divided the society into fourj (iii) The professions of the four clg hereditary and there were intermarriages and inter-dining. '? (iv) Women enjoyed almost equal most facets of life. Choose the answer from the code below. -3

(a) i, ii and iii (b) i and iv (c) iii and iv

(d) All the ab


Which of the following was the main reason for the enormous addition to the power of Brahmins in the later Vedic period? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Their racial superiority Their status of priestly class The growing cult of rituals and sacrifices The unholy alliance between Brahmins and Kshatriyas

Which of the following statements is incorrect about later Vedic and post-Vedic periods? (a)

The evidence of asramas or stages of life comes from later Vedic texts.

(b) The concept of the asramas was firmly established during the age of the Dharmasutras. (c)

The concept of four stages of life is applicable to all the four vamas.

(d) The whole life of an individual was divided into a series of samskaras or sacraments. 155. Which of the following was mainly responsible for the transformation of ancient society into a single community? (a) Varna system

(b) Asrama system

(c) Domestic rituals (d) Dharmasutras 56. Which of the following statements are correct about the Dharmasutras? (i) The sutra phase roughly coincides with the Buddhist age. (ii) The sufras deal with the social usages and customs of everyday life, (iii) The genesis of civil and criminal law can be traced back to the Dharmasutras. (iv) The Dharmasutras were uniform through out the Indian subcontinent. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii, iii and iv

Which of the following statements are correct about the social conditions in the preMauryan period? (i) New subcastes were born as a result of migration, fusion or subdivision. I) Social distinctions became rigid, and inter-Ffe! caste marriages and change of occupation and caste were forbidden by social customs. ||) The two higher vamas inter-married some times. (iv) We find certain instances of Brahmin and Kshatriya merchants, craftsmen and farmers doing menial work without losing their caste or social position. (v) The Brahmins and Kshatriyas who had taken to productive works were exempted from taxation. Choose the answer from the codes below. (a) ii, iii, iv and v (b) i, ii, iii and v (c) i, ii, iii and iv (d) All of them r 58. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the position of women during the age of Buddha? (a)

The position of women generally deteriorated.

(b)

There were several instances of child marriages.

(c)

Polygamy was gradually growing among the ruling classes.

(d) Education was denied to women. 59. Which of the following statements is not correct about the spoils of war in the Vedic period? (a)

The main income of a chief or a prince came from the spoils of war.

(b) The invoked god is asked to bestow wealth only on priests, princes and sacrificers. (c)

The iion's share went to the chief or prince in lieu of his successful campaigns.

(d) Ordinary members of the tribe received a share which was known as amsa or bhaga, which was distributed in folk assemblies. 60.

Which of the following was/were given as gifts in the early Vedic period?

(i) Cattle (ii) Women slaves (iit) Cereals Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) Onlyi

(b) i and ii

(c) i and iii

(d) i, ii and iii

61.

Which of the following statements is not correct about the Rig Vedic society?

(a) The Rig Vedic society as a whole was tribal, pastoral, semi-nomadic and egalitarian. (b)

In this society it was possible to have high ranks but not high social classes.


(c) Princes and priests employed women slaves for domestic service, but their num her may not have been large. (d)

It had Sudras in the form of the serving order.

62. Who among the following formed the sena or bala in the early part of later Vedic period? (a) Kshatriyas (b) Brahmins (c) Peasantry (d) Vaishyas 63. A Brahmin man marrying a Vaishya woman produces children who are categorised as the (a) Ambastha (b) Nisada (c) Kayastha (d) Vratyas 64.

A pristine stage of casteless society is pro jected in the tradition of the

(a) krita age

(b) treta age

(c) dwapara age

(d) kali age

65.

Social relations in ancient India were based on

(a) (b) (c) (d) 66. status,

varna, kula, asrama and samskara. vama, kula and asrama. varna, kula and samskara. varna, asrama and samskara. Patanjali refers to a special category of Sudras, who, because of their actual were regarded as clean and therefore not pol luting. Identify them

(a) Khattiya

(b) Gahapati

(c) Aniravasita (d) Vratyas

67. In relation to the post-Gupta period which of the following statements are correct? (i) There is a rush for fabrication of genealogies proving the Suryavamsi or Chandravamsi origin of local dynasties after eighth and ninth centuries ad. (ii) To prove that a land grant was legally valid, genealogies were given in the inscription. (iii) It was only the Brahmins, who could provide genealogies to the new kings. (iv) The rise and multiplication of small, regional kingdoms during this period provided both work and status for the genealogists. Choose the answer from the codes below. (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All ofthem 68. Certain classes of outcastes seem to have gained their unenviable position through the growth of the sentiment of no such groups in List I with List II and choose the answer :1 given below the lists. List I (i) Nisada

(A)

(ii) Kaivarta

(B)

(iii) Karavara (C) (iv) Paulkasa (D) (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (b) |-B;1 (c) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (d) i-A,l 69. Which one of the following con the dominant class composition f south Indian society? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Brahmins, Sudras and untou Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and un Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Su Brahmins, Vaishyas and Sud

70. With which one of the following jj foreign immigrants like Hunas, i the fall of the imperial Guptas, i (a) Kshatriyas (b) Fallen! (c) Rajputs

(d) Mle

71.

Who among the following did notl the Indian joint family in ancient |

(a) (b) (c) (d) 72.

Grand children Uncles and their descendants Various collaterals on the male! Various collaterals on the female! Which one of the following was the < in which slaves emerged in ancient In

(a) (b)

A person reduced to slavery for c A person captured in battle victor's slave

(c)

Children born of slaves became i the parents' master

(d) By selling one's own self 73. Which of the following statements arejj about social mobility in ancient India? (i) Downward mobility was quite easy, (ii) Upward mobility was far more dil not open to the individual in normal I (iii) Upward mobility was possible by optiri of society and becoming an ascetic, (iv) Upward mobility could be achie ensuring rebirth in a higher social st; varna in one's next life.


t; Upward mobility was possible as a group over a period of time which was further facilitated by a change in habitation or geographical location. i the answer from the codes below: i, iii, iv and v (b) i, ii, iv and v | i, ii, iii and v (d) All the above i of the following are the characteristics of na system as evolved by fourth century bc? Status by birth (ii) Hierarchical units i Rules of endogamy (iv) Ritual purity se the answer from the codes given

i and ii (b) ii and iv i, ii and iv

(d) All the above

upations and castes became interlinked i the a) Vedic period (b) Epic period period of Smritis (d) post-Gupta period he proliferation of the subcastes in the post arsha period was because of the following ons, except one. Identify it. a)

Expansion of Aryan culture into the nook and corner of the country.

b) Number of pratiloma marriages was much more than the number of anuloma mar riages. c)

Different subcastes pursued the same occupation in different regions.

The nature of the economy underwent a change. hich of the following statements reveals the Apathetic and ignominious position of Sudras in lancient India? |a) Legally a higher varna man can marry a

Sudra woman, but a Sudra man can not marry a higher varna woman. According to Manu the very limb with which a man of low caste hurt a member of high caste was to be cut off. f'(c) If a Sudra insults the twice-born in abusive language, his tongue should be cut off. '(d) Patanjali states that the maid servants and Sudra women were meant for satisfying the pleasures of the people of the upper varnas. 1 Which one of the following statements is not correct?

(a)

The Skanda Purana describes the Sudra as giver of grain (annada).

(b) The rise of the Kayasthas as a professional literate caste in the late ancient and early medieval periods undermined the monop oly of the Brahmins as writers and scribes. (c) Sudras continued to work as slaves, artisans and agricultural labourers and could not take the place of the Vaishyas as cultivators. (d)

The size of the houses was fixed according to varna scale.

79. Which of the following types of marriage was/ were responsible for the proliferation of mixed castes? Sajatiya marriage Pratiloma marriage the codes given (i) Savarna marriage (ii) (iii) Anuloma marriage (iv)

Choose the answer, from below: (a) Only iv

(b) iii and iv

(c) ii, iii and iv (d) i and ii 80. Which one of the following was the meeting ground for the Brahmanical and devotional reli gious levels? (a) Maths

(b) Temples

(c) Ghatikas

(d) Samas

81.

Which one of the following statements is not correct?

(a)

The offspring of a Brahmin man and a Sudra woman was assigned Nisada status.

(b)

Illegitimate offsprings of a Brahmin couple were counted as Sudras.

(c)

A free woman marrying a slave remained free.

(d) Brahmins were generally forbidden to take Sudra wives, but Parashara allowed even this anuloma marriage. 82.

What was the status assigned to a person born of a pratiloma marriage?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 83.

Same as that of mother Same as that of father Intermediate between that of the two parents Lower than that of either parent Hypogamous marriage means

(a)

marriage between a higher class man and a lower class woman.

(b)

marriage between a lower class man and a higher class woman.


(c)

marriage between a man and a woman of the same class.

(d) None of the above. 84. Which one of the following statements about prostitution towards the end of the ancient period is correct? (a)

There was no stigma attached to prostitution conducted under state supervision.

(b)

The attitude of the lawgivers was ambivalent.

(c)

It was very much disapproved by the Smriti writers.

(d)

It was considered as a highly honourable profession.

85.

Which one of the following was not a result of land grants?

(a)

Spreading of knowledge about agricultural calender and Ayurveda medicine.

(b)

Dissemination of writing and use of Prakrit and Sanskrit.

(c) (d)

Vamasamkara or theory of mixed castes. Depreciation of the position of independent Vaishya peasants.

86. Which one of the following statements is not correct about the chandala in ancient India? (a)

The chandala had to live outside the town in special quarters.

(b)

His existence was condemned and there was no hope to attain swarga.

(c)

Penance was prescribed to remove the sin arising out of touching a chandala.

(d) 87.

He did not enjoy any political rights. The Kshatriyas claiming superior status within the caste were known as

(a) Brahmakshatriyas (b) Satkshatriyas (c) Mulakshatriyas (d) Suddhakshatriyas

88.

Which of the following statements are correct about slavery in ancient India?

(i) A Brahmin could never be a slave. (ii) The sale and purchase of a Brahmin woman was illegal. (Hi) Any free woman of non-Brahmin class marrying a slave became a slave. (iv) A slave woman bearing a child to her master was released. Choose the answer from the codes below. (a) ii, iii and iv (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 89.

Which one of the followin was not recognised?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 90.

Varna endogamy Jati endogamy Gotra endogamy None of the above The terms vaidh, avantya,,

(a) (b) (c) (d) 91.

new professions new administrative | new mixed castes . new courtesan classes Which one of the following i ing Vaishya varna is not <

(a)

The disintegration of thef which had begun earlier, < under the Gupta rulers.

(b)

The political role of the the decline and they vir to possess weapons.

(c) New social groups were^ intermarriages between< Sudra craftsmen. ^ (d) Vaishyas bore the bulk of 1 92. Which of the following staten about ancient Indian bureauc (i) In ancient India one can i cracy as an organisation in i (ii) The social composition ot$ was varied, and it did not! of culture among its upp

ranks, (iii) Mobility within the ranks office was related to mob wider context of society i (iv) Bureaucratic status became I obtaining social status for the I (v) Upward mobility even when slow, but it would be ac periods of political crisis. Choose the answer from the < (a) i, ii and iv (b) iii, ivi (c) i, iii, iv and v 93.

(d) All I

Which of the following statements I about the regulations on divorce?

(a) The forms of marriage differed ft to caste and especially between;) and lower castes.


r.(b) Divorce is permitted for all forms of marriage and for all castes. (c) Husband can affect dissolution of marriage tie unilaterally on the grounds of adultery, barrenness, disobedience, and the like. [,(d) The lower the caste the shorter is the period of waiting, and no period of waiting is fixed for a Sudra woman, if her husband is absent. h/Vhich of the following statements is correct fabout marriage practices? 1 (a) Some lawbooks permit anuloma marriages and the wives of different castes enjoy the same position. »(b) Wives of different castes will have the same kind of worship and same level of accommodation. (c) The teacher's wives who are born of low varnas shall be greeted from a distance and not by touching their feet. (d)

The sons born to wives of different castes will enjoy equal share in inheritance.

lion and Reason

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion' (A) and 'Reason' (R) are true, and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A and 'R' are true, but 'R' does not explain 'A. Mark (c) if only 'A is true. Mark (d) if only 'R' is true. Assertion: The Gupta period witnessed a new politicoeconomic structure in many parts of the subcontinent. Reason: The Gupta period marked the beginning of a major change in the agrarian system with the assignment of land grants and revenue grants to both religious and secular assignees.

; Assertion: A wealthy person in Rig Vedic period was known as gomat. Reason: Cattle were considered to be synonymous with wealth. ; Assertion: In the pre-Gupta period, north Indian society had very few similarities with the Satavahana society in the Deccan and the Sangam society in the far south. Reason: The process of Aryanisation started very late in the Deccan and south India. 98.

Assertion: The position of women had declined in the later Vedic period.

Reason: In that period we have reference to widow remarriages being permitted under certain circumstances. 99. Assertion: Social divisions and economic pro fessions started losing interrelationship during pre-Mauryan period. Reason: The irrelevance of the caste to the profession widened as Vaishyas started working as tailors or potters; Brahmins as physicians, tax collectors, traders, and the like. 100. Assertion: The Vaishyas and Sudras welcomed the new heterodox religions. Reason: Heterodox religions attacked the caste system and stood for its abolition. 101. Assertion: In the pre-Gupta period, the ruling dynasties did not acquire the ritual status which may suit their social status. Reason: The actual status of the Brahmin was not yet sufficiently powerful to demand the validation of the dynasties. 102. Assertion: There was tremendous growth in the number of Brahmins with the spread of Aryanisation. Reason: Some form of recruitment either through hypergamy or through the assimilation of priests of local cults into Brahmin class existed due to different reasons. 103. Assertion: AI-Beruni notes the absence of any significant difference between the Vaishyas and Sudras. Reason: The rise of the various strata of landed gentry led to the decline of Vaishyas and advance of Sudras. 104. Assertion: There were no restrictions on any caste to take any profession in the late ancient period. Reason: The doctrine of apad-dharma permitted persons belonging to one class to follow the profession of another class.

105. Assertion: Adultery was among the lesser sins and if an adulterous wife underwent penance, she regained her status. Reason: Adultery was very common in ancient India.


106. Assertion: The traditional varna divisions were coming gradually to lose their former signifi cance. Reason: Man's social status came to be increasingly decided by his property. 107. Assertion: Women in the Gupta age were not disqualified from the exercise of public rights. Reason: The custom of sati, especially among the ruling families, was coming into general use. 108. Assertion: The wife, who belonged to the same caste as her husband, enjoyed special privi leges. Reason: The first marriage of a man usually took place with a girl of the same caste.

109. Assertion: In most parts clear distinction was mainti and trade as sources of in regarded as a superior .< Reason: The risks invoh tion of goods even withlpj were great, but income was quite secure. 110. Assertion: Polygamy was? practised by the lower i castes in ancient India. Reason: The upper castes I the social surplus than the I the period.

ANSWERS I 0 2.(d) 3. (a) 4.(b) D 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) >) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b) » 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (b) i) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (b) I) 52. (b) 53. (c) 54. (c) $ 62. (c) 63. (a) 64. (a) 1) 72. (b) 73. (d) 74. (d) ^ 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (c) 0 92. (d) 93. (b) 94. (c) f» 102. (a) 103. (a) 104. (d) 5.(c) 15. (b) 25. (b) 35. (d) 45. (d) 55. (c) 65. (a) 75. (c) 85. (c) 95. (a) 105. (c) 6.(b) 16. (b) 26. (d) 36. (b) 46. (c) 56. (a) 66. (c) 76. (b) 86. (b) 96. (a) 106. (d) 7. (c) 17. (d) 27. (a) 37. (c) 47. (b) 57. (c) 67. (d) 77. (d) 87. (b) 97. (a) 107. (b) 8. (a) 18. (a) 28. (a) 38. (c) 48. (c) 58. (d) 68. (c) 78. (c) 88. (d) 98. (b) 108. (b) 9.(d) 19. (c) 29. (d) -39. (a) 49. (a) 59. (c) 69. (a) 79. (b) 89. (c) 99. (a) 109. (a) 10. (b) 20. (a) 30. (c) 40. (b) 50. (a) 60. (b) 70. (c) 80. (b) 90. (c) 100. (c) 110. (d)

A277

QUESTIONS II

1. Which one of the following inscriptions refers to three generations of Chera rulers of the first century ad? (a)

Cave inscriptions found in the vicinity of Tanjore

(b) Pugalur inscription on the Amattamalai Hill (c) Marandai inscription in the Malabar coast (d) Korkai inscription in the Pandya country 2. The early troubles of Karikala are graphically described in one of the Pattuppattu. Pick it out from among the following: (a) Perumbanarruppadai (b) Sirupanarruppadai (c) Pattinappalai (d) Maduraikkanji Match List I with List II and select the answer 3. using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Battles at)

(Victors)

Chola (i) Por (A) Karikala, (ii) Vahaipparandalai (iii) Venn! (iv) Talaiyalanganam ruler (B)

Nedunjeliyan, Pandya ruler

(C)

Senguttuvan, Chera ruler

(D)

Senganan, Chola ruler

(E)

Karikala, Chola ruler

(a) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iy-D (b) i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A (c) i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A (d) i-D, ii-A, iiiE, iv-B 4. The idea of a chakravarti is mentioned in the (a) Purananuru Padirruppattu (c) Sivaga Sindamani (d) Agananuru

(b)

5. Which of following ports, according to the anonymous author of the Periplus, are located on the west coast of south India? (i) Naura (iii) Muziris (v) Bacare Choose the below: (ii) (iv) (vi) answer from Tyndis Nelcynda Balita the codes given (a) i, ii and iii (b) J (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d); 6. Which one of the following J] tions provides us with the i reference to the Sangam Asokan edicts? (a) (b)

Junagarh inscription of I Nasik inscription of Satakarni

(c) (d) 7.

Hathigumpha inscription < Besnagar pillar inscription < What is the chronological order< Chera rulers?

(i) Senguttuvan

(ii)

(iii) Mandaranjeral (iv) Ne Irumporai Adan (v) llanjeral Irumporai Choose the answer from the below: (a) iv, i, ii, v and iii (b) iii, i (c) i, v, iii, iv and ii (d) ii, iv, I 8. Arrange the following Chola Sangam age in the chronological i (i) Karikala (ii) Sen (iii) Elara (iv) llanjc Select the answer from the > (a) iii, iv, i and ii (c) ii, i, iii and iv 9.

(b) iv, iii, I

(d) i, iv, iii

Which among the following giv account of south Indian trad Romans?

(a) Manimegalai

(b) Sila

(c) Purananuru (d) Mao 10.

According to the Periplus and Sari particularly Maduraikkanji, a pearl \ located at

(a) Muziris

(b) Arikan

(c) Korkai

(d) Kaverip

11.

Who was the author of Sirupanar

of the Pattuppattu) which hints at the < the three Sangam kingdoms by the i third century ad?

A278


18. Kadungon

(b) Kapilar

Nakkirar

(d) Nattanar

hich of the following ancient port cities were ated on the east coast of the Tamil land? f Korkai (ii) Puhar (iii) Poduca |) Sopatma (v) Masalia (vi) Dosarana t the answer from the codes given as fol i, ii, iii and iv


I, ii, iv and vi (d) All of them en did the direct trade between the Roman npire and India begin to decline? End of the first century ad Beginning of the second century ad End of the second century ad End of the third century ad the following two statements--one died as Assertion (A) and the other labelled ason (R): i (A): During the Sangam age the cus-of sati was practised universally by the

on (R): The heroism and devotion of t sati were applauded greatly by the gam people. In the context of the above I statements which one of the following is ;t? i A and R are true and R is the correct anation of A. i A and R are true but R is not the cor|rect explanation of A. i Is true but R is false. I is false but R is true, one of the following pairs is wrongly d? ugan Hillmen Merchants na

Shepherdesses

ai

Warriors

»of the following works shows knowlstya, including his miraculous birth i relation to Vasishta? am

(b) Palamoli

a/a/'

(d) Silappadigaram

$6f the following were probably pre-nil customs taken over and perpetu-> later times? (i) The tying of the tali at the marriage ceremony. (ii) The consumption of only the plainest food by the widows. (iii) The tonsure of widows. (iv)' The discarding of all ornaments by the widows. Choose the answer from the codes given as follows: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iii

(d) ii and iv

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the lists: List I (i) Saliyur (ii) Puhar (iii) Bandar (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-B (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-A List II (A) (B) (C)

Cholas Cheras Pandyas (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-C (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-C

19.

Consider the following statement:

The yavanas sailed their large ships

to

bearing gold, and returned laden with

yavanapriya and the rare products of the sea and mountain which the king gave'. Which is the port mentioned here? (a) Arikamedu (b) Kaveripattinam (c) Korkai

(d) Muziris

20. Which one of the following was not a heinous crime according to the established law of the land in south India during the Sangam age? (a) (b) (c) (d) 21. cult?

Slaughter of a cow Drinking wine Killing of a foetus Killing of a Brahmin Who among the following Sangam rulers took the lead in organising the pattini

(a) Karikala, the Chola ruler (b) Nedunjeliyan, the Pandya ruler (c) Senguttuvan, the Chera ruler (d) Nedunjeral Adan, the Chera ruler 22. Consider the following two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): Madurai, Vanji, and Uraiyur seem to have passed the meridian of their prosperity and entered on a phase of decline by the close of the third century ad.


Reason (R): According to the author of Sirupanarruppadai, during the period of its hero Nalliyakkondan who ruled over South Arcot and the neighbouring areas around 275 ad, charity had dried up in the capitals of the three Tamil kingdoms. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 23. Which one of the following Sangam works states clearly that marriage as a sacrament attended with ritual was established in south India by the Aryans? (a) Agattiyam (b) Murugarruppadai (c) Tirukkural (d) Tolkappiyam 24.


List I List II (i) Kadaisiyar Ruling Class (ii) Kalabhras Evil rulers (iii) Pulaiyans Rope-makers (iv) Vallalas

Agricultural labourers

(v) Arasar

Agriculturists

Which of the above are not correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and iii

(c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iv and v 25. According to Tamil tradition the three sangams, lasting over 9,990 years, were attended by

poets and patronised by.

Pandyan

rulers. (a) 8,598 poets and 197 Pandyas (b) 9,998 poets and 199 Pandyas (c) 3,333 poets and 89 Pandyas (d) 6,666 poets and 157 Pandyas 26. Which one of the following Chera rulers is said to have imprisoned several yavana traders and released only after obtaining a heavy ransom? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Senguttuvan Udiyanjeral Nedunjeral Adan Mandaranjeral Irumporai 27. Match List I with List II using the codes given I

List I (i) Kudi (ii) Kalam (iii) Tlnai (<5 (iv) Veil

(B (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E (c) i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-B (
Who were the viralis Sangam age?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Classical singers and ( Folk singers and dan Dead soldiers and folk h Poets and scholars

29. The four castes of tudiy and kadamban are mentio (a) Tolkappiyam (b) (c) Purananuru (d)v 30. List I

Match List I with List II and» using the codes given below \

(i) Muziris (ii) Bacare (iii) Balita (iv) Naura (v) Tyndis (vi) Nelcynda (a) (b) (c) (d) 31.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, vF,' i-C, ii-E, iii-F, iv-A, vB,' i-B, ii-D, ili-A, iv-C, we,' i-F, ii-E, iii-C, iv-D, v-B, < What was velanadal?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

An ecstatic dance in I The land of hunters and i A special type of cloth | The practice of worship tors

32. In which work does Agastya's i the south come into promin (a) Ashtadhyayi (b) /ft (c) Mahabharata (d) 33. While Megasthenes was the FH make a mention of the Pandy ian of the forth century ec whaii southerner was the first Indii


ntion of the Pandya, Chola and Chera gdoms. Who was he? Panini (b) Patanjali Bavari (d) Katyayana i one of the following pairs is not correctly ed? Korkai Colchi Camara

Kaveripattinam

Poduca Masulipattinam Argaru Uraiyur the following two statements--one jelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled |Reason (R): lion (A): In the reign of Augustus, despite nbassies from the Pandyan ruler, the Roman ) with south India was by no means exteni or economically important, ason (R): Among the Roman gold and silver us found in south India, a phenomenally number bear the stamp of Augustus. In ) context of the above two statements which ne of the following is correct? Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. B) C)

Both A and R are true but R is not the cor rect explanation of A. A is true but R is false, d) A is false but R is true.

i temple of Sarasvati as well as the Kapalika [ of Saivism are mentioned in the a)

Murugarruppadai (b) Padirruppattu

b)

Silappadigaram (d) Manimegalai audhayana, one of the earliest law givers,

in his Dharmasastra five customs as uliar to the people of the Deccan and south lia. Pick them out from among the following: Dining with one who is not initiated (anupeta) |) Dining with women Dining with Sudras > Eating food kept overnight V) Marrying the daughter of one's maternal uncle «) Marrying the daughter of one's maternal aunt

I the answer from the codes below: a) i, ii, iv, v and vi (b) ii, iii, iv, v and vi i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, iii, v and vi 38. Which one of the following Sangam works deals exclusively with the Chera rulers? (a) Purananuru (b) Padirrupattu . (c) Paripadal (d) Pannirupadalam 39.

What is the chronological order of the following battles of the Sangam age?

(i) Battle of Venni (ii) Battle of Vahaipparanadalai (iii) Battle of Talaiyalanganam (iv) Battle of Por Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iv, i and iii

(c) iv, ii, iii and i

(d) iii, i, iv and ii

40. Maduraikkanji, which contains a full-length description of the Pandyan capital of Madurai, was written by (a) Nakkirar

(b) Gudalur Kilar

(c) Mangudi Marudan (d) Paranar 41.

Consider List I with List II:

List I List II (i) Ayars

Hunters

(ii) Eyinars

Herdsmen

(iii) Malavars Robbers (iv) Paradavars

Fishermen

Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i and iv 42.

(d) iii and iv

Manram of the Sangam age was a

(a) council of ministers (b) trade guild (c) general assembly (d) guild of artisans 43.

The terms sangara and colandia of the Periplus meant

(a)

types of textiles manufactured in the Chola country

(b) (c) (d)

types of ships used on the east coast of India kinds of spices available on the west coast of India kinds of gold coins imported into Sangam kingdoms

44. Which European classical writer states that the inland city of Korura was the Chera capital? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Rolemy Strabo Pliny, the Elder Anonymous author of the Periplus


45. The vivid description of Kaveripattinam and its industry and commerce is found in the (a) Palamoli

(b) Agattiyam

(c) Silappadigaram (d) Pattinappalai 46. Who among the following Chola rulers is said to have been a great devotee of Siva and built 70 temples of the god? (a) Karikala

. (b) Senganan

(c) Elara

(d) llanjetcenni

47.


(a) (b) (c) (d) 48.

Nalavai daily court Kaikki/ai unilateral love Perundlnai improper love Sahavasis close relatives Consider the following statements on Sangam polity?

(i) Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government, (ii) Disputed successions and civil wars were unknown, (iii) The ideal of the vijigishu or conquering king was accepted and acted on. (iv) The most powerful kings were expected to undertake a digvijaya. (v) The practice of committing suicide by the companions of a king when he died was widespread. Of these

(a) (b) (c) (d) 49.

All are true i, ii, iii and iv are true i, iii and iv are true ii, iv and v are true Which one of the following works deals with the fine arts in a detailed manner?

(a) Manimegalai

(b) Tolkappiyam

(c) Silappadigaram (d) Narrinai 50.

The term argaritic was used by the anonymous author of the Periplus for the:

(a) pearls fished off the east coast (b) muslins exported from Uraiyur (c) ivory products of the Cholas (d) ships of the Cheras 51. Up to second century bc the upland portion of the southern peninsula was inhabited by peo ple who are called: (a) (b)

Neolithic people Mesolithic people

(c) (d)

Chalcolithic people Megalithic people

52. The first sangam was pn (a) Skanda (b|| (c) Vasishta (d 53.

Temple of Augustus was I (a) Tondi (b)| (c) Kaveripattinam (d):|

54.

The predominant burial praq age was:

(a) cremation (b) (c) pit burial (d)'J 55.

Which of the Asokan Major I about the Sangam kingdc (a) XIV (b) V (c) VII

56.

Name the Ceylonese king i the occasion of the installatf Kannagi

(a) Gajendrabahu (b) (c) Virabahu (d) 57. The famous festival of the port] (a) Perunal (b) (c) Indra Vizha

(d)

58.

Arrange the following We sources chronologically:

1. Megasthenes 3. Ptolemy

2. Pliri

4.

Choose the answer from the i (a) 1,2,3,4 (b) 1,4| (c) 3,4,1,2

(d) 1,3,|

59.

The leading lady of Silappadigg to the

(a)

community of dancing girls ij tinam

(b)

pastoral group of tribals in the < try

(c) (d)

merchant community of the < royal family of the Pandyas off

60. On which of the following imp did the Roman Senate lay an en was a menace to the city's morals?;: (a) Saffron (b) Wine^t (c) Pepper (d) Muslin's 61. Which of the following kings made a| cut (anaikattu) on the Kaveri, the I which is nowadays drawn off thn channel called Vennar'?

!U:


|(a) Karikala

(b) Peruvaludi

|(b) Senguttuvan

(d) Nedunjeliyan

hich one of the following Sangam towns was amous for Its pearls and muslins, the latter eing as thin as the slough of the snake? a) Uraiyur (b) Muziris |c) Arikamedu (d) Puhar er the death of which one of the following an kings, the trade was conducted more / barter than by coins on account of the finan-I difficulties of the Roman empire? a) Pius (b) Augustus |) Nero (d) Claudius entify the great poet who was a contempo-1 of the Chola king Karikala and the Chera I Senguttuvan. |) Paranar (b) Rudrasarman Kodungan (d) Kapilar he main cause of conflict between the heras, Cholas and Pandyas during the iage was the desire to control the fertile deltas the desire to control coastal region the need for access to important trading centres none of these is said to be the first south Indian con-or of Sri Lanka and to which dynasty does ^belong? Aditya--Cholas Nedunjeliyan--Cheras , Senguttuvan--Pandyas Elara--Cholas i Sangam Age, Devavrinda, a term used scribe a group of gods, comprised which ) following gods? [Murugan (ii) Siva

dra

(iv) Krishna

alram t the answer from the codes given below: I and ii (b) iii and iv I, iii and iv

(d) All of them

i of the following pairs is correctly matched? kappiyam

Gudalur Kilar

attiyamTolkappiyar gurunuru

Agattiyar

ananuru

Rudrasarman

69. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List 1 List II (i) Silappadigaram (A) Tiruttakkadevar (ii) Manimegalai (B) Sattanar (iii) Sivaga Sindamani (C) Munrurai Araiyar (iv) Kural (D) Illango Vadigal (v) Palamoli

(E) Tiruvalluvar

(a) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, we (b) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD (d) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vC 70. The victories of Karikala are well portrayed in (a) Palamoli (b) Aruvanad (c) Pattinappalai

(d) Padirrupattu

71. Which one of the following works states defi nitely that marriage as a sacrament accompa nied by rituals was established in the Tamil country by the Aryans? (a) Naladiyar (b) Sirupanarruppadai (c) Tolkappiyam

(d) Palamoli

72. Which among the following Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) is wholly in praise of the Chera kings? (a) Padirrupattu

(b) Paripadal

(c) Aingurunuru

(d) Agananuru

73.

Consider List I and List II

List I List II (i) Kurinji

Post-marital live

(ii) Pa/a/

Long separation of lovers

(iii) Mullai

Brief separation of lovers

(iv) Marudam Pre-marital love (v) Neydal

Parting of fishermen's

wives from husbands Which of the above are correctly paired? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) iii, iv and v 74. Which of the following Tamil works highlights the importance of Jaina philosophy? (a) (b) (c) (d) 75. lists:

Tirukkural Silappadigaram Sivaga Sindamani Manimegalai Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below the

A2S4 Indian History: Ancient India

List I List II (i) Kurinji

(A) Raiding expedi tions

(ii) Pa/a/

(B) Siege

(iii) Mullai

(C) Pitched battles

(iv) Marudam (D) Cattle raiding (v) Neydal (a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

(E) Turning the coun try side into waste lands

i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vB i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vC i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD What is the meaning of the wood sangam in the Sangam age?

(a) Royal Court (b) Assembly of poets (c) Assembly of religious leaders (d) Meeting of rivers 77. With which of following periods of ancient India does the Sangam age correspond roughly? (a) (b) (c) (d) 78.

Post-Vedic or pre-Maurya period Maurya period Post-Maurya or pre-Maurya period Gupta period According to tradition, how many sangams were held and where?

(a) Five at Kanchipuram (b) Four at Tiruchinapalli (c) Two at Uraiyur (d) Three at Madurai 79. What is the language of the Sangam literature? (a) Tamil (b) Prakrit

(c) Pali (d) Sanskrit 80. What was the script used in the earliest inscrip tions found in some natural caves of south India? (a) Brahmi

(b) Kharoshti

(c) Grantha

(d) Oevanagari

81.

Under whose patronage was the Sangam liter ature composed?

(a) Cholas

(b) Cheras

(c) Pandyas

(d) Chalukyas

82.

Which of the following does not come under Sangam literature?

(a) Ettutogai (b) Pattuppattu (c) Tevaram

(d) Padinenkilkanakku

83.

Tolkappiyam is a

(a) (b) (c) (d) 84.

Tamil epic book of sacrifices «b eulogy of Pandyas book on Tamil gramn Which of the following is i Tamil grammar works? (a) Agattiyam

(c) Pannirupadalam (<$ 85.

What is an 'anthology1?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 86.

A collection of poems A collection of short i A long passage A short poem Which of the following is I Tamil land'?

(a) Silappadigaram (b) '(c) Tirukkural (d)' 87.

Which Pandyan king is Silappadigaram?

(a) Irumporai (b)

(c) Karikala

(d)

88. Which of the following works| tion for the first time about I fine arts in the Sangam age?*] (a) Sivaga Sindamani (b) (c) Tolkappiyam (d) 89.

Which of the following provid erary evidence about the doms?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 90.

Megasthenes' Indica Kautilya's Arthasastra Panini's Ashtadhyayi Narada Smriti Which of the following works i rai a Pandyan king?

(a) Manimegalai

(b)

(c) Aingurunuru

(d)

91. Which of the following Roman I to Strabo, is said to have i sent by a Pandyan king in ab (a) Nero (b) Cli (c) Augustus (d) Plu 92.

What was the early capital of thaf Sangam age?

(a) Puhar

(b)

(c) Tiruchinapalli

(d) Tank

Post-Mauiyan India bc 200-AD 300 MMI A285

is said to be the builder of the city of bar? Illango Vadigal (b) Nedunjeliyan : Karikala (d) Nedenjeral is said to be the first south Indian con-r of Sri Lanka and to which dynasty does fbelong? I Aditya--Cholas f;Nedunjeliyan--Cheras Senguttuvan--Pandyas Elara--Cholas i of the following Chera kings, known as 'Red Chera', built a temple dedicated to nnagi? Nedenjeral Adan (b) Senguttuvan Karikala

(d) Elara

at was the royal emblem of the Pandyas? Carp

(b) Arrow

Umbrella

(d) Lion

at was the capital of the Cheras? Muziris

(b) Vanji

jp) Arikamedu (d) Kanyakumari hat was the royal emblem of the Cholas? Elephant

(b) Horse

Tiger (d) Lion at was pattini cult, prevalent in the Sangam e? Worship of ancestors Worship of animals Worship of Pasupati Mahadeva Worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife

t was the royal emblem of the Cheras? Sword (b) Bow U Peacock

(d) Lotus

) was the chief deity of the Sangam age? I Siva (b) Indra ii'. fMurugan

(d) Vishnu

i Sangam age, Devavrinda, a term used ribe a group of gods, comprised which > following gods? '. Murugan (ii) Siva yndra (iv) Krishna aram t the answer from the codes given below: 1;i and ii (b) iii and iv hii, iii and iv (d) All of them 103. Which of the following belong to Ettutogai? (i) Aingurunuru (iii) Maduraikkanjl (iv) Narrinai

(ii) Agananuru

(v) Murugarruppadai (vi) Paripadal Choose the answer from the codes as follows: (a) i, ii, iv and vi (b) ii, iii, iv and v (c) i and ii 104.

(d) All of them

Which of the following do not belong to Padinenkilkanakku7

(i) Tirukkural (ii) Pa/a/no// (iii) Naladiyar (iv) Acharakkovai (v) Manimegalai

(vi) Silappadigaram

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) v and vi

(d) ii and v

105.

The poetry in which of the following is divided into agam and puram?

(i) Ettutogai

(ii) Pattuppattu

(iii) Padinenkilkanakku (iv) Sangam Epics Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i and ii (c) Hand iii 106.

(d) Only iv

Which of the following statements are true about Ettutogai?

(i) It was composed at the second sangam at Madurai. (ii) It consists of a large body of prose literature. (iii) It is said to be the work of more than 2000 authors. (iv) It is said to be best part of the Sangam literature. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iandii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) All of them

107. Which of the following statements about the society of the Sangam age are not true? (i) Brahmins emerged as a regular varna. (ii) They abstained from eating meat and drinking wine, (iii) There were regular varnas of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. (iv) The ruling class could come from only the Kshatriyas. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i and ii (c) ii and iii

(d) ii, iii and iv


108. Which of the following foreign writers corrobo rate some of the contents of Sangam literature about the Sangam age? (i) Ptolemy (ii) Pliny, the Elder (iii) Strabo (iv) Anonymous author of the Periplus Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) Only ii 109. Which of the following were the major exports from south India during the Sangam age? (i) Cotton goods

(ii) Different spices

(iii) Ivory products (iv) Precious stones (v) Horses (vi) Gold coins Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, iv and v (c) iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, v and vi 110. age?

Which of the following were the major ports of south India during the Sangam

(i) Arikamedu (ii) Kaveripattinam

(iii) Madurai (iv) Muziris (v) Kapatapuram Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and v 111.

Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?

(a) Tolkappiyam (b) Agattlyam (c) Aingurunuru (d) Agananuru Gudalur Kilar Tolkappiyar Agattiyar Rudrasarman 112. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below: List I List II (i) Silappadigaram (A) Tiruttakkadevar (ii) Manimegalai (B) Sattanar (iii) Sivaga Sindamani (C) Munrurai Araiyar (iv) Kural (D) Illango Vadigal (v) Palamoli (a) (b) (c) (d) 113.

(E) Tiruvalluvar

i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, we i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vC Match the following:

List! (i) Kurinji (ii) Pa/a/ (iii) Mullai (iv) Marudam (v) Neydal (I

(a) (b) (c) (d) 114.

i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vf i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, v-D ': i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D, vAJj i-E, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, i Match List I with List II; using the codes given I

List! (i) Kovalan

(Af

(ii) Manimegalai

(B)

(iii) Madhavi (C) (iv) Udayakumaran (v) Kannagi (a) (b) (c) (d)

(D)

(E)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, we i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vC i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, v-D 115. Consider List I and List II:

List I (i) Pumhitar (ii) Amaichchar (iii) Senapatiyar (iv) Orrar (v) Outer

Lll Priests Military i Ministi Spies Ambass Which of the above are Choose the answer from the codes! (a) i, iii and v (b) i, ii i (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iv i 116. Match List I with List II and select! answer from the codes given belo List I List I (i) Kara/

(A) Imp

(ii) Irai (B) Royal I


I Aval (C) Land tax I Perunal

(D) Tributes and war

booty Sungam

(E) Customs and tolls

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, we i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C, we i-E, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, vC i-A, ii-C, iiiE, iv-D, vB iich of the following pairs are correctly ted? Vallalas--Title given to meritorious ministers Arasar-- Ruling class Kavidi--Agricultural class Enadi--Title given to military commanders se the answer from the codes given
(d) ii and ill

i the items of List I with those of List II and t the answer from the codes given below: List I List II Kadaisiyar

(A) Tax Collectors

Pulaiyans

(B) Village assembly

Variyar

(C) Agriculture

labourers \Manram

(D) Rope-makers

i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B f i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C

i and Reason

i (a) if only 'Assertion' (A) is correct. i (b) if only 'Reason' (R) is correct. i (c) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, and 'R' i or explains 'A', i (d) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, but 'R' i not justify or explain 'A. ertion: Padinenkilkanakku are called en Minor Works. n: The poems in these are shorter in i than those in the Eight Anthologies and i idylls. 120.

Assertion: Manimegalai is a Buddhist supple ment to Silappadigaram.

Reason: Buddhism was the predominant religion of the Sangam age. 121.

Assertion: Sivaga Slndamanl was a Brahmin work.

Reason: Its moral is that worldly success alone does not make a person happy. 122. Assertion: Silappadigaram is marked by the predominance of the indigenous style. Reason: Sivaga Sindamani shows the domi nance of Sanskrit style over the indigenous style. 123. Assertion: During the later part of the Sangam age, the position of women started declining. Reason: The practice of satl began to become more common during the later Sangam age. 124. Assertion: Uraiyur, besides having political importance, had economic importance as well. Reason: It was a great centre of cotton trade during the Sangam age.

125. Assertion: In the trade between south India and the Roman empire during the Sangam age the balance of trade was in favour of south India. Reason: Excavations at Arikamedu revealed a Roman settlement there. 126. According to tradition, one of the following is the father of Tamil literature and was also the royal chaplain of the divine line of Pandyan rulers. Who is he? (a) Brihaspati (b) Agastya (c) Tolkappiyar

(d) Agattiyar

127. Which book gives information about the extent of the Tamil country being confined from Vengadam hill to Cape Comorin, by an inunda tion of the sea? (a) Tolkappiyam

(b) Pattuppattu

(c) Kuruntogai (d) Agananuru 128. Which is the grammar book for the first Sangam based on the narration in Iraiyanar Agapporul Urail (a) Tolkappiyam

(b) Pannirupadalam

(c) Agattiyam (d) Kakkaipadiniyam 129. From Sangam literature, we can reconstruct something like a genealogy of which dynasty? (a) Cholas (b) Pandyas (c) Cheras

(d) Pallavas


130. The earliest epigraphic reference to the king doms of the Tamil country after the Asokan inscriptions is found in (a) (b)

Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela Nasik Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni

(c) (d) 131.

Nanaghat Inscription of Sri Satakarni Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman I From where do we get the earliest reference to the term sangam?

(a) Perimbanarruppadai (b) Pannirupadalam (c) Tolkappiyam (d) Iraiyanar Agapporul Urai 132. Which evidence places Sangam anthologies firmly in the first two centuries of the Christian era? (a) Murudam Inscription (b) Arnattamali Inscription (c) Kadungo Inscription (d) Perundevanar Inscription 133. Which king is said to have scored victories over seven crown princes and a local enemy in the Malabar coast and brought yavana traders captive? (a) Nedenjeral Adan (b) Udayanjeral (c) Senguttuvan (d) Aruhan Medu 134. Who was the father of Karikala Chola? (a) Mandaranjeral (b) Senganan (c) Nedenjeral (d) llanjetcenni 135. One of Karikala's early achievements was his victory in a great battle at Venni which is near modern (a) Tanjore

(b) Madurai

(c) Quilon

(d) Kudalur

136.

The victories of Karikala are well portrayed in (a) Tirumudikkarai (b) Aruvanad

(c) Pattinappalai

(d) Padirrupattu

137. Adimandi (daughter of Karikala) and Attan Atti (the Chera prince) mentioned in the Silappadigaram are professionals in one field. Identify the field. (a) Medicine (b) Dance (c) Poetry 138.

(d) Warfare

The author of Maduraikkanji is

(a) Nakkirar

(b) Nedunjeliyan

(c) llandivariyan

(d) Mangudi Marudan

139. Which of the following that marriage as a sacran rituals was established in the Aryans? (a) Naladiyar (b)h (c) Tolkappiyam (d)> 140.

Match List I with List II and I from the codes given below;;

List I (i) Eyinar

(A)

(ii) Kaikkilai (B)

(iii) Kalam

(C)

(iv) Perundinal

(D)

(a) (b) (c) (d) 141. i

i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B ; A poem in the Purananuru castes (kudi). Select the righ mentions the four castes

(a) (b)

Tudiyan, Panan, Tinai, Valll | Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan, <

(c) Tudiyan, Panan, Kadamb (d) Panan, Paraiyan, Kadamb 142. Tolkappiyam, the Tamil grammar jj to have been modelled on the I mar of which school? (a) Brahma

(b) Sud

(c) Aindra

(d) Mihid

143.

Identify the statement which is not] the Sangam poems.

(a)

A veil of land yielded aroun kalams of paddy indicating I of Chola country.

(b)

Cultivation of ragi, paddy, tun mentioned.

(c)

Eight forms of marriage were j Tamil region, just like in Aryan <

(d)

Sangam people made sugar I cane.

144.

Consider the following stateme Sangam age:

(i) Land and trade were chief sou revenue. (ii) The ma and veil were measures! (iii) King's share of produce was 50 [ is stated in Silappadigaram.

Post-Mauryan India bc 200-AD 300 Wfm A289

ernal transit duties on merchandise i levied. ^ Roads were guarded day and night by sol, dters to prevent smuggling.

P*86 I i, H, iv and y are true >: i, ii, iii and v are true , ii, iii and iv are true t All the above are true army comprised the traditional four chariots, elephants, cavalry and -in Sangam age. The chariots were i by horses (b) camels t oxen (d) buffaloes > among the following tells us that a woman i ruling the Pandyan kingdom? Panini (b) Megasthenes Kautilya

(d) Asoka

the following statements about the hie graves of Sangam age: Graves were encircled by big pieces of stone. Axes were the only iron implements found in the graves. i Along with skeletons, objects of daily use were found. V) Hero stones were planted on the graves of all males, f these i and ii only are correct b)

i, ii and iii are correct

C) i and iii only are correct ii and iv only are correct the Sangam kings who were the first to fish their supremacy in south India? Cheras (b) Pandyas c)

Satyaputras

(d) Cholas

I Which of the following statements help in fixing j the date of Sangam age? |(i) The synchronism of Gajabahu of Sri Lanka (173-195 ad) with Chera king, Senguttuvan. (8) The prevalence of pattini cult in Sri Lanka and south India. (W) The evidence from Sangam literature about trade with the Yavanas and from Greek and Latin classical literature describing Tamil country. (iv) The classical nature of Sangam literature. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii only (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, ii and iv (d) All the above 150. Read the following statements about the social system of the Sangam age and identify the one which is not correct: (a) The Sangam people were organised in social groups living apart from one another, but in close proximity within each village and town. (b) The difference in the status and economic conditions was well accepted and rarely challenged by the people. (c)

There were four castes namely Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadamban.

(d) Sangam literature mentions three regular vamas, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. 151.

Which was the main import from the West in Sangam age?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Gold and silver Wine and slaves Horses Pottery and glassware

152. After the death of one of the following Roman kings the trade was carried on more by barter than by coins. Identify the king. (a) Nero

(b) Augustus

(c) Pius

(d) Claudius

153. Read the following statements about Sangam age agriculture and identify the one which is not correct: (a) There were two classes of agriculturists-- people owning land and people tilling the land. (b) (c)

Famines and droughts were not infrequent. The practice of absentee landlordism, though prevalent, was looked down upon.

(d) The tillers of land had an inferior social status. 154. Karikala constructed a great anicut on the river Kaveri, the water of which is nowadays drawn off through a new channel called Vennar. Which region of Tamil Nadu does it irrigate? (a) South Arcot (b) South Tanjavur (c) West Madura! (d) Chengalput


155. Which of the following statements is not a rea son for the beginning of civilisation in south India? (a) The coming of Jaina and Buddhist missionaries made them aware of north Indian material culture. (b)

The megalithic people moving from upland areas in to fertile river basins.

(c)

The establishment of Roman contacts with south India.

(d)

The spread of caste system under the influence of Aryans.

156.


List I List II (i) First sangam

89 Pandyas

(ii) Second sangam 59 Pandyas (iii) Third sangam 49 Pandyas Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i and iii 157.

(d) All of them

Identify the two most recurring causes of war fare in Sangam age.

(i) Cattle lifting (ii) Refusal to give princesses in marriage (iii) Smuggling (iv) Family feuds Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) i and iii

. (b) i and ii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

158. Identify the practice which was not in vogue in disposal of the dead during the Sangam age: (a) (b) (c) (d) 159.

Cremation Inhumation with urns Inhumation without urns Post-exposure burial Which of the following is not correct about beliefs and practices of Sangam age?

.(a) There was much faith in omens and astrology. (b)

Children were provided with amulets for warding off evil.

(c)

A women with disheveled hair was a bad omen.

(d) Eclipses were believed to be the result of Rahu and Ketu eating up the sun and the moon. 160.

Read the following stati and identify the one which 1

(a)

The king relied on work.

(b)

The highest praise for i say that he did Brahmins.

(c)

The Brahmins were Vedas and performed I

(d)

The Brahmins strictly j ism and never took in

161. Illango, the reputed author of1 Silappadigaram, was the king. Who is that Chera king?! (a) Senguttuvan (b) (c) Nedunjeliyan (d) 162.

Which of the following was custom?

(a) (b) (c)

Tonsure of widows Performing the yajna The tying of the tall at 1 mony

(d) 163.

Worship of hero-stone The most important industry was

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Raising of sugarcane Production of cloth '^ Raising of pepper Making of ivory products

164. Where did the Romans tradin kingdoms built a temple of i (a) Arikamedu (b) (c) Muziris (d) 165.

Which of the following is sup Fifth Veda?

(a) Tirukkural (b) (c) Padirrupattu

(d)

166. Tank in Sangam age was knc (a) veil (b) en (c) tincipatti (d)


Instructions

Mark (a) if only 'Assertion' (A) is < Mark (b) if only 'Reason' (R) is i


"(c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' i or explains 'A'. d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' pibt justify or explain 'A'. (?: Spinning and weaving of cotton and I attained a high degree of perfection. n: Spinning was a part-time occupation

Some wives preferred to die with fhusbands and earn fame as satis. The lot of widows was a hard one. Phad to cut off their hair, discard all ornas, and only eat the plainest food. r. Martial arts were given a back seat i Sangam people. n: To the warrior a peaceful death in bed | looked upon as a disgrace. n: The military camp was an elaborate (with streets and roads. Soldiers, who died fighting, were orated by virakkal. n: The king often sent selected gener) lead the army. Reason: If the king was killed or seriously injured in the midst of fight, the army gave up the struggle and accepted defeat. 172. Assertion: The conquered country was at times ruthlessly laid waste, even cornfields not being spared. Reason: The vanquished king's kadlmaram was usually spared by the victorious army.

173. Assertion: The most powerful kings were expected to undertake a digvijaya. Reason: Digvijaya was a conquering expedi tion in an anti-clockwise direction over the whole of India, except the south. 174. Assertion: The elders were expected to set aside their personal quarrels when they attended the aval. Reason: The elders assisted the king in the adjudication of disputes. 175. Assertion: Differences in status and economic conditions were accepted by all as part of the established order. Reason: There is little evidence of any tendency to protest or revolt against the order.

ANSWERS II i.(b) 5. (d) 11. (d) 21. (c) 31. (a) 41. (d) 51. (d) 61. (a)

2.

(c)

r6.(c) 7.(d) 12. (a) 22. (a) 32. (c) 42. (c) 52. (d) 62. (a) 91 71. (c) 72. (a) 81. (c) 82. (c) 91. (c) 92. (b) 101.(c) 102. 107. (d) 111. (d) 112. 117. (b) 121.(b) 122. 127. (a) 131.(d) 132. 137. (b) 141. (b) 142. 147. (c) 151. (a) 152. 157. (b) 161. (a) 162. 167. (d) 171.(b) 172. A292

3.(d)

4.

8. (a) "i 13.(c) 14. 23. (d) 24. 33. (d) 34. 43. (b) 44. 53. (d) 54. 63. (C)

(a)

--

(d) (d) (C) (a) (d) 64.

15. 25. 35. 45. 55. (a)

(b) (a) (b) (d) (d) 65.

16. (c) 26. (c) 36. (d) 46. (b) 56. (b) (a)

17.(c) 27. (d) 37. (a) 47. (d) 57. (c) 66. (d)

18. (a) 28. (b) 38. (b) 48. (c) 58. (b) 67. (d)

75. 85. 95. 104.

(c) (a) (b) (c)

76. (b) 86. (c) 96. (a) 105.

77. (c) 87. (d) 97. (b) (b)

78. (d) a 88. (b) ^ 98. (c) 106. (c)

114.

(b)

115.

(d)

116. (a)

124.

(c)

125.

(d)

126. (b)

134.

(d)

135.

(a)

136. (c)

144.

(a)

145.

(c)

146. (b)

154.

(b)

155.

(d)

156. (d)

164.

(c)

165.

(a)

166. (b)

174.

(c)

175.

(c)

73. (c) 74. (c) 83. (d) 84. (b) 93. (c) 94.
i«5 29; 49? 59i 68. (d)

QUESTIONS III F{l the chronological order of the following ^s? (ii) Hippalus , the Elder (iv) Strabo us author of the Periplus I Hie answer from the codes below: i iii, i and v (b) iii, v, iv, i and ii , v, iii and i (d) v, i, iii, ii and iv i the first to introduce gold coins on a nt scale? ula Kadphises (b) Vima Kadphises ander (d) Kanishka rliest discovery of a Roman trading sta-|made at amedu (b) Muziris ukachchha (d) Tamralipti 5 time of which Roman emperor did the an trade begin to decline? (b) Cartius itus

(d) Caracalla

|l one of the following pairs is incorrectly "-d? nabhumi--Malay Peninsula advipa--Indonesian Archipelago buja--Vietnam \nnam i coins represent the two-masted type

utamiputra Satakarni [Yajnasri Satakarni LVasishtiputra Pulamayi iri Satakarni it the answer from the codes given below: i and ii (b) ii and iii EJandiv

(d) i and iii

|e the odd-man out from among the following: f Jetf?a (b) Nigama ?Puga (d) Sartha t were the samvitapatras?

I charters issued to Brahmins by the rulers

(b) (c)

Agreements reached by the villagers Conventions arrived at by the individual merchants

(d)

Conventions arrived at by the guilds of merchants

9. Who were the karamkarasl (a) Leather workers (b) Carpenters (c) Wage earners (d) Sweepers 10. Who among the following are not credited with issuing copper coins on a large scale? (a) Nagas

(b) Yaudheyas

(c) Mitras

(d) Guptas

11.

India was described as 'the sole mother of pre cious stones' by

(a) Strabo

(b) Pliny, the Elder

(c) Arrian

(d) Ptolemy

12.


(a) (b) (c) (d) 13.

Arrian--Indica Strabo--Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Pliny--Indicopleustes Anonymous Greek--Geography Which one of the following was the most com monly used coin?

(a) Kakini

(b) Pana

(c) Karshapana 14.

The aksayanivi type of land tenure was first introduced by the

(a) Sakas

(b) Guptas

(c) Satavahanas 15.

(d) Nishka

(d) Kushanas

Brick-built dyeing vats have been discovered at

(i) Pataliputra (ii) Arikamedu (iii) Pratisthana

(iv) Uraiyur

Choose the correct answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

16.

The term vardhakin meant a

(a) goldsmith (b) carpenter (c) basket-maker (d) brick-maker

A293


17.

The largest number of copper coins were issued by the

(a) Kushanas (b) Satavahanas (c) Guptas

(d) Sakas

18. Whose coins were restruck by Gautamiputra Satakarni in commemoration of his victory? (a) Rudradaman I (b) Ushavadata (c) Nahapana (d) Moga 19.

Which one of the following rulers was a patron as well as friend of Charaka?

(a) Chandragupta II (b) Menander (c) Pushyamitra Sunga (d) Kanishka 20. Consider the following two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Rudradaman I claimed to have repaired the famous Sudarsana lake without having burdened his subjects with visti, pranaya, etc. Reason (R): According to Kautilya's Arthasastra only pranaya was an emergency tax in the Maurya period. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A.

(c)

A is true but R is false, (a) A is false but R is true.

21. In the Gupta period, a group of artisans had to migrate from Gujarat to Malwa and ultimately give up their profession because of declining demand for their goods. To which profession did they belong? (a) Cotton textile weaving (b) Silk weaving (c) Ivory-working (d) Dyeing 22. Who among the following informs us that trade was revived between India and the Byzantine empire during the Gupta period? (a) Procopius (b) Cosmas (c) Arrian

(d) Pliny, the Younger

23. Who among the following stated that cowries were used as the common medium of exchange during the Gupta period? (a) Narada

(b)

(c) Amarasimha 24.

(d) F|

Which Gupta originated system?

(a) Srigupta

(b)

(c) Samudragupta (d) 25.

That guilds of merchants main militia, called 'Srenibala', is I

(a) Vakataka inscriptions (b) Gupta inscriptions (c) Maukhari inscriptions (d) Kalachuri inscriptions 26. Which one of the following i not reveal any Byzantine gold i (a) Eastern region (b) N(J

(c) Southern region (d) 27.

Who among the following gav Indian imports into the Byzantin

(a) Justinian

(b)

(c) Procopius (d) 28.

Which of the following stat* about the trade in the pre-Gup

(a)

The occupation of nc non-Indians was advar chants.

(b)

Indo-Greek rulers, encoun West Asia and the Medite

(c)

The Sakas, Parthians brought Central Asia into Indian merchant.

(d)

The Roman demand was goods from India.

29. Which of the following evidenc idea that the merchant commu in the pre-Gupta times? (i) Inscriptions of the time (ii) Donations given by the me charities (iii) Literature of the time (iv) The religions supported by 1 were in progress, (a) All of them (b) i, iii (c) ii and iii

(d) Nc

above3 30. To which of the following guilds named Saddalaputta belong, who I 500 work shops?


enters' guild (b) Metalworkers' guild s' guild (d) Painters' guild one of the following statements was about the practice of usury in the | between 200 bc and ad 300? sral rate of interest was 15 per cent. 1 lent for sea trade often called for a sr rate of interest. i rate of interest varied depending upon j caste of the man to whom money is lent, upper caste persons were charged her rate of interest than that of lower s persons. fls the other name of the Tocharians' who to India after the disintegration of an empire? Breeks (b) Sakas hians (d) Kushanas duced caps and boots into India? ntral Asians (b) East Asians linese i yavanika meant gn goods (b) dancer curtain

(d) Greeks

(d) theatre

i one of the following types of coins were i Satavahanas in maximum proportion? (b) Copper (d) Bronze (which one of the following ancient terms dern word gandhi was derived? Srandh (b) Gandh andhika

(d) Gandhara

ill-known trade route 'Uttarapatha' in the I of Kushanas was running between the fol-I two urban settlements f'Ujjain to Mathura I Purushapura to Mathura (f-Mathura to Taxila fePurushapura to Taxila > came to India in search of great wealth of dge and literature in ancient times? H Chinese (b) Sakas BKushanas

(d) Greeks

statement regarding trade and com-i in south India is not correct? The most profitable trade was with the Romans.

(b)

According to Pliny the largest ship was of 75 tons.

(c)

Some of the Tamil rulers employed yavana soldiers in the armies.

(d) A number of harbours, docks, light houses '-,-. existence.

and custom houses came into

46. Which of the following is wrongly matched with regard to the number of trades referred to in a number of works? (a) (b) (c) (d) 41.

Divyavadana--Three dozens Digha AWraya--Two dozens Mahavastu--Thirty six Milinda Panho--Seventy five What is the meaning of the Chinese word 'Yuehchi'?

(a) Young people

(b) Asian tribe

(c) Moon tribe (d) Sun tribe 42. Who among the following personalities is said to have performed asvamedha sacrifice for Pushyamitra Sunga? (a) Patanjali

(b) Panini

(c) Vasishta

(d) Asvaghosha

43.

Agnimitra, the second Sunga ruler, was the hero of a book written by

(a) Kalidasa

(b) Patanjali

(c) Asvaghosha

(d) Bana

44. Consider the statements about the Hathigumpha inscription and choose the correct code that follows the statements? (i) After Asokan edicts, it is the second inscription, the first being the Nanaghat inscription by Naganika. (ii) It proves that Jainism entered Orissa and probably became the state religion within 100 years of the death of Mahavira. (iii) It helps us in fixing third century ad for Kharavela. (iv) This is the earliest inscription to mention an era known as 'the Kala of Raja Muriya'. Codes: (a) All of them except (i) are correct (b) All of them except (ii) are correct (c) All of them except (iii) are correct (d) All of them except (iv) are correct. 45. Some of the officials and their functions of the Satavahana time are given below. Find which one of them is correctly matched.


(a) Bhandagarika--Royal stores-in-charge (b) Amacha--Foreign affairs-in-charge (c) Haranikas--Governors (d) Lekhakas--Finance Ministers 46. Which one of the following statements about Rome is not correct? (a)

Spices were carried to the Roman empire from India alone.

(b) Roman ladies wearing Indian muslins were considered a menace to the city's morals. (c)

Roman women wore Indian pearls on their shoes also.

(d)

Rome was the chief customer of Indian luxury goods.

47 Which fact on the guilds of the pre-Guptan period is incorrect? (a)

Guilds were opposed to the system of slavery.

(b) (c)

Women too joined the guilds. The workers' corporations had their own seals.

(d)

There were workers' bodies like those which built temples and cities.

48.

Match the following:

List II (Superintendent of) A. mines weaving digging agriculture List I (Official Terms) B. C. D.

I. II. III. IV.

Akaradhyaksha Sutradhyaksha Khanyadhyaksha Sitadhyaksha Codes:

(a) I-A, II-B, III-C, IV-D (b) I-B, II-A, III-C, IV-D (c) I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C (d) I-A, II-B, III-D, IV-C 49. Who composed the Sanskrit Kavya Saundaranandal (a) Asvaghosha (b) Kalidasa (c) Aryadeva (d) Nagarjuna 50. Who was the first Gupta to issue silver coins? (a) Samudragupta (b) Chandragupta I (c) Kumaragupta I (d) Chandragupta II 51. Officers in charge of the registration of documents in the Satavahana period were known as (a) mahatalavaras (b) gamlkas (c) nlbandhakaras (d) mahatarakas 52.

Which one of the follc belong to the same category?!

(a) Mauryas--Brihadratha (b) Satavahanas--Simukha (c) Sungas--Devabhuti (d) Kanvas--Susarman 53. Patanjali, the second great' ancient India, was a conti (a) Kanishka (b) (c) Gautamiputra (d) Satakami 54.


List I List II (I) Arjunayanas--Eastern I (II) Audambaras--Punjab (III) Kunindas--Southern I (IV) Yaudheyas--Haryana Which of the above are Select the answer from the < (a) All of them (b) (c) II, III and IV (d)

55. Who among the following assumed the title of 'Ekabrahn (a) Satakarnil (b) (c) Gautamiputra (d) Ya Satakarni 56.

Match List I with List II and self using the codes given below the f

List I Listf (I) (II)

Malakara Halakiya

(A) Cu (B) Fis (iii) Dasaka

(a) (b) (c) (d) 57.

I-B, II-D, III-C, IV-A I-C, II-A, III-B, IV-D I-B, II-C, III-A, IV-D I-D, II-B, III-A, IV-C Which one of the following ports v western coast of India?

(a) Motupalli (b) Bar (c) Sopara

(d) Kalj

58.

Which one of the following pairs is i

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Bhadayaniyas--Nasik Dhammatoriyas--Sopara Mahasanghikas--Karle Mahavinase/iyas--Kanheri

(C) Ga (iv) Lohavanja (D) Bb Codes:


|was the founder of the Chetas of Kalinga? sudeva (b) Kharavela neghavahana (d) Meghavarman ek strategoi and meridarchs were Ho urrency (b) administration i pantheon (d) culture I'^Jver Kannabemna of the Hathigumpha on is identified with the ahanadi (b) Krishna (Godavari

(d) Ganga

der or Milinda was originally a comer of Msitrthydemus ? Demetrius

(b) Eucratides

(d) Antialcidas

i among the following was the first to disnue the practice of issuing coins of bilin-I language? pKanishka

(b) Rudradaman

Menander

(d) Nahapana

i among the following refers to the Sakas \aniravasita (clean) Sudras? Charaka (b) Kalidasa Manu (d) Patanjali c the odd man out from among the following: &} Moga (b) Vonones b)

Diodotus

(d) Kanishka

ho among the following used to shave half of sir heads according to Harivamsa? Sakas (b) Parthians c)

Kushanas

(d) Greeks

ose coins bear the figure of the typically dian deity, AbhishekhaLakshmi? '(a) Kanishka (b) Rudradaman fc) Azilises

(d) Moga

among the following rulers is identified ?with 'Mambarus' of the Periplus of the (Erythrean Sea? (a) Kanishka (b) Nahapana (c) Bhumaka (d) Vima Kadphises Who among the following foreign dynasties of 'India did not strike gold coins? (i) Indo-Greeks (ii) Parthians (iii) Kushanas (iv) Sakas Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

70. Who among the following assumed the epi thets of dharmasthita and sachadharmasthita? (a) Kujula Kadphises (b) Kanishka (c) Rudradaman I (d) Menander 71.

Who among the following rulers was a follower of the Pasupata cult of Saivism?

(a) Huvishka (b) Rudradaman I (c) Vima Kadphises (d) Nahapana 72. lists:

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes give below the

List I List II (I) Mao (A) Siva (II) Mioro (B) Sun-God (lll)Athsho (IV)Vado (D) Wind-God (V) Oesho (E) Fire-God Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 73.

(C) Moon-God

I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-E, VC I-C, II-B, III-E, IV-D, VA I-D, II-C, III-B, IV-A, WE I-A, II-E, III-C, IV-B, VD Who among the following Buddhist scholars was not patronised by Kanishka?

(a) Asvaghosha

(b) Vasumitra

(c) Nagarjuna (d) Vasugupta 74.

Kaisara, meaning Caesar, was a title assumed by

(a) Indo-Greeks

(b) Sakas

(c) Kushanas (d) Parthians 75. Who among the following rulers initiated the Roman aurei (a type of coin) for facilitating trade? (a) Kujula Kadphises (b) Vima Kadphises (c) Kanishka (d) Huvishka 76.

Who was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty?

(a) Sri Satakarni (b) Simukha (c) Pulamayi I (d) Yajnasri Satakami 77. Which one of following Brahmanas provides us with the first literary evidence about the Andhras? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Satapatha Brahmana Kausitaki Brahmana Aitareya Brahmana Jaiminiya Brahmana

A29S Indian History: Ancient India

78.

Who is considered as the greatest Satavahana ruler?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 79.

Gautamiputra Satakarni Hala Simukha Gautamiputra Yajnasri Who succeeded Pushyamitra Sunga, the founder of the Sunga dynasty?

(a) Vasumitra (b) Bhagavata (c) Devabhumi

(d) Agnimitra

80. Who was the founder of the Kanva dynasty? (a) Suserman (b) Vishnusarma (c) Vasudeva (d) Vasumitra 81.

Which Buddhist monk advised Kanishka to convene the fourth Buddhist Council?

(a) Nagarjuna (b) Parsva (c) Asvaghosha

(d) Vasubandhu

82. Which Satavahana ruler is credited with killing the last Kanva ruler? (a) Pulamayi (b) Hala (c) Simukha (d) Yajnasri Satakarni 83.

Who started the Saka era and when?

(a) Kadphises in 58 bc (b) Rudradaman I in 78 ad (c) Vikramaditya in 58 bc (d) Kanishka in 78 ad 84. During whose reign did St Thomas come to India through north-west to propagate Christianity? (a) Menander (b) Moga (c) Gondophernes (d) Vasudeva

85. Who among the following were the first to invade and rule over north-western India? (a) Scythians (b) Bactrian Greeks (c) Kushanas (d) Parthians 86.

Who among the following is considered as the most famous Saka ruler in India?

(a) Moga

(b) Nahapana

(c) Ghamatika (d) Rudradaman I 87. Menander, also known as Milinda, belonged to which of the following foreign dynasties? (a) Indo-Greeks

(b) Parthians

(c) Kushanas (d) Sakas 88. Which one of the following literary works gives us information about the political history of the Satavahanas? (a) (b)

Bhasa's Swapnavasavadatta Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara

(c) (d)

Sudraka's Mrichchhakai Vajjika's Kaumudi Mah 89. Kharavela, a prominent poli

first century bc, was the ruler following kingdoms? (a) Magadha (b) (€) KaVmga

^tf)

90. Which of the following centres famous for the manufacture of during the preGupta period? (a) Varanasi (b) (c) Mathura (d) G 91.

Which of the following was important industries of the period?

(a) Textiles

(b) L<

(c) Iron-working

(d) Pol

92. Which one of the following Maha\ works belonging to the second,) gives a list of 36 types of ai Rajagriha?

(a) Mahavastu (b) Divyi (c) Milinda Panho (d) Madh 93.

Mathura, according to Patanjali, for which one of the following sj of textiles?

(a) Chintz

(b) Duki

(c) Sataka

(d) Ksht

94.

Which of the following were the Indian exports to the Roman emj

(a) (b) (c) (d) 95.

Food grains Raw materials for industries Horses Luxury goods Who among the following lamented was flowing out of the Roman India?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 96.

Anonymous author of the Pi Pliny the Elder Strabo Ptolemy What was the most popular and of the post-Maurya period?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Red Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Black and Red Ware Painted Grey Ware

41


I following rulers controlled the so-ute' and also benefitted the most ipnues it brought? (b) Satavahanas as (d) Sakas the following ports the largest ement and a Roman factory have ered? hchha (b) Tamralipti (d) Arikamedu »following cities acted as the meet-r trade routes from east to west and Mo south? (b) Ujjain (d) Paithan the following ports was called kby the author of the Periplus of the *i Sea? du

(b) Patala

ricum (d) Sopara and craftsmen came mainly from f the following? hyas (b) Sudras atriyas (d) Untouchables i the general rate of interest charged i during the pre-Gupta period? srcent (b) 10 per cent i per cent

(d) 25 per cent

region in India dominated Indian trade he Roman empire? h-western India (b) Western India srn India (d) South India i of the following types of loans attracted ghest rate of interest during the post-an period? an for caravan trade Irioan for sea trade

Loan for domestic purposes i loan for buying raw materials i Chinese emperor built the Great Wall of i in about 220 bc? Wang Hsu Tsi (b) Pu Yi fc) Shih Huang Ti (d) Huang Tsang Ti of the following Puranas give us inforition about the Satavahanas? j[l) Mastya (ii) Markandeya iii) Vishnu (iv) Bhagavat (v) Vayu Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and v (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) iii, iv and v 107.

Which of the following statements about the Satavahanas are true?

(i) They were a Brahmin dynasty. (ii) They used Sanskrit as the official language. (iii) According to Puranic tradition there were 30 Satavahanas spread over 400 years. (iv) They started the practice of granting revenue bearing lands to the officials. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them. (b) i, ii and iii (c) iii and iv 108.

(d) i and iii

Arrange the following Satavahana rulers in chronological order.

(i) Pulamayi I (ii) Sri Satakarni (iii) Gautamiputra Satakarni (iv) Hala Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, i, iii, iv (b) i, iv, ii, iii (c) iv, i, ii, iii (d) iii, ii, iv, i

109.

Arrange the following dynasties in chronologi cal order.

(i) Kanvas

(ii) Ikshvakus

(iii) Satavahanas

(iv) Sungas

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i, iv (b) iv, i, ii, iii (c) iv, i, iii, ii (d) i, iv, ii, iii 110.

The Indo-Greeks

(i) were the first to issue gold coins in India, (ii) were the first to issue coins which can be attributed to particular kings with certainty, (iii) introduced Hellenistic art features in the north-west which in turn facilitated the rise of the Gandhara school of art. (iv) were given status of fallen Kshatriyas by the Brahmanical legal texts. Of these (a) (b) (c) (d)

All are true i, ii and iii are true ii, iii and iv are true Only ii and iii are true

A300 MM . ,. lndlanHist<"y^*ntlndia 111-Rudradamanl » ^r^^seco^, «5^C£Ei""'""'*< Mauiyanperfw """"^"a lake of,he I'") issued the ««.'

0fâsteSansS eVer'0n9^pt/on(n u' these

"frJMa f-M5=a W ft started the i strength by a sH?~ ir«a"^ 5^"-^-" (c) Hand Hi

]:

??;«!' Kn"rShed /n » Jwhna and the G«

°fthe'atersatavan CO Its ,mages are marten .and rap/d movem*? pegged bodie? f'O ' produced not only , fs° secular image?'
SS=B ^ V '.ifandiv

(b)i 116Ma^ List, with List ,,a(di!J -0 theses g^'bXj

(') Nanaghat inscription

('

W Nasik inscription (B) Nfl (C) te) All are true
'^^*tsz-^^ns, r'tona/ trade'

a dom'nated the 'ter

0V) There was an tr^ -ith fll .S^T mone«Sa«on of . , ch^tgu//ds /ssu/nga 'r' 3S t/1e mer-Se'ect the answer froml 5er of co'ns. W'andflorty '"^^^'Venbetew ,. (°) ''. "iandiv W '-'iandiii 113. Which of the fn» W A" of them

«TrSrsa^r^'»» iJ51«S'»'»'^«p. ('") Junagarh inscn'ption ^Hathigumpha "iscription

( ; Ba

Sal que. (E) Mem ?i^Kr^ W '-E, ii-S Hi-n ..... ' Sr---r4r™ sttj?.--":--*.^: »'*»*'i?M S.1***^^ '"> '-0. M, i/i-A, iv.c f°> '. »/ and iv ' ^ "''" and iV

W AH of them


k.of the following pairs are incorrectly

Last great Satavahana nan Last Satavahana udeva Last important Kushana ulamayi III asri

Last Kanva

First Saka in western

akarni India 11 ahana officials) handagarika

Âmatyas )Hararika

ILekhaka Karana the answer from the codes given below: of them f'li, iv and v f, iii and v only the following: List II (Functions) (A)

Foreign Affairs in-charge

(B) (C) (D) (E)

Governors Royal stores in-charge Finance Minister In-charge of reg istration

i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vC i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-B, vD i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E, vC i-C, ii-B, iiiD, iv-A, we hich of the following pairs is correctly hed? a) Pataliputra--Kushanas b) Paithan--Kanvas |c) Purushapura--Satavahanas d) Vidisa--Sungas sider List I and List II: List I List II Strabo History |(ii) Arrian

Geography

iii) Pliny, the Elder

Indica

|(lv) Anonymous Greek Periplus of the I Erythrean Sea Which of the above are incorrectly matched? sChoose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii and iv only 121.


List II A.

Indus basin

B.

Bengal coast

C.

Tamil Nadu coast

D.

Maharashtra coast

E.

Gujarat coast vC

vB v-A v-A I and select the answer below: List II

A.

Gold coins

B.

Silver coins

C.

Copper coins

D.

Coins made of gold, silver, cop per and lead

(b) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D List I I. II. III. IV. V.

Tamralipti Barygaza Barbaricum Sopara Arikamedu

(a) (b) (c) (d) 122.

i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, Match List I with List I using the codes given

List I I. II. III. IV.

Karshapana Kakini Satamana Nishka and Pana

(a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (c) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion' (A) and 'Reason' (R) are correct, and 'R' justifies or explains'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not justify or explain 'A'. Mark (c) if only 'A' is correct. Mark (d) if only 'R' is correct. 123. Assertion: The pre-Gupta period was marked by the political fragmentation of the Indian sub continent.

Reason: Guilds of merchants and artisans flourished during this period. 124.

Assertion: The Gandhara school of art is also known as the Indo-Greek school.

Reason: The Gandhara school was highly influenced by the Graeco-Roman traditions. 125. Assertion: The flourishing trade during the post-Maurya period affected even the contem porary economic laws. Reason: The Smriti laws of the period denounced trade associations and partnerships.


126.

Assertion: The famous Kharavela of Kalinga belonged to the Cheta dynasty.

Reason: The Chetas continued to have their sway over Kalinga till the post-Gupta period. 127. Assertion: Rudradaman I, the most famous Saka ruler in India, started the Saka era in 78 ad. Reason: Vikramaditya, King of Ujjain, after his victory over the Sakas, began the Vikrama era in 58 bc. 128. Assertion: The movement of the Kushanas first into the lower Indus and later into Malwa was motivated by economic need. Reason: The period between 200 bc and 300 ad was a period of thriving trade and considerable economic prosperity in these areas. 129. Assertion: The economic impact of trade, especially external trade, is more evident in the south than in the north. Reason: At Arikamedu even a few months of excavations have revealed a considerable mass of Mediterranean artifacts, while many years of excavations at Taxila reveal only a few pieces. 130. Assertion: The Mathura school of art owed much to the earlier Indian art traditions of Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. Reason: The attempt to display spiritual strength by a nimbus behind the faces of the images began with the Mathura school. 131.

Which of the following statements is incorrect about the post-Mauryan period?

(a) .Maintenance of the existing social institutions was regarded as the chief function of the king. (b) The king's power was buttressed by the deliberate adoption of superstitions and propagation of divinity.

(c) Propaganda and communication were widely used to bring about fundamental changes in the social order. (d) Some literature was composed to make the moral and social changes acceptable to the people. 132.

The land grants recorded on copper plates were mostly in favour of

(a) Ajivikas

(b) Buddhists

(c) Brahmins (d) Jainas 133.

Which of thei

(a)

Buddhism,

nical sects empha ily and property. (b)

Numerous Sanskrit< property in the same <

(c)

The Buddhist sources!! preservation of pati vate property.

(d)

Brahmanical texts call| of private property ar\<|

134.

Who introduced the aks tenure, that is, perpetual < revenues?

(a) Kushanas (b) 1 (c) Satavahanas 135.

(d)

Match List I with List II and < from the codes given below.1"

List I (i) Kakini

(A)

(ii) Pranaya

(B)

(iii) Nivartana (C) (iv) Visti (a) (b) (c)

(D)

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D

(d) 136.

i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D Which one of the following sourt mation about export of iron Abyssinian ports?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 137.

Milinda Panho Digha Nikaya Per/plus of the Erythrean Sea^ Mahavastu Which of the following places built dyeing vats?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 138.

Uraiyur and Arikamedu Puhar and Muziris Mathura and Ujjain Pratisthana and Kongo Who might have issued the largest I copper coins in the post-Mauryan |

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Satavahanas Sakas Kushanas Indo-Greeks


: the following is incorrect about the auryan period? amitra Sunga assassinated the last uryan ruler and usurped the throne. < Buddhist literary sources claim that shyamitra persecuted the Buddhists destroyed their monasteries and i of worship. ^logical evidence supports the i reference. hyamitra was a keen supporter of ahmin orthodoxy and is known to have ned two horse sacrifices, of the following statements about the na lake are correct? he lake was originally constructed by the jjVaisnya rashtriya Pushyagupta under andragupta Maurya. his was maintained by yavana raja fcTusaspa under Asoka. |iDuring the time of Rudradaman the dam of §the lake burst because of floods caused by ifihe rivers Suvarnarekha, Palasini, etc. I It was repaired under the supervision of Parthian amatya Suvisakha, son of |,«Kulaipa. [.Rudradaman was the then ruler when ; Suvisakha repaired the lake, (these statements i, ii and v are true b) i, ii, ill, and v are true C) i, ii, iv and v are true li) All are true hich of the following is the correct chronology f the foreigners invading north-western India? Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas b) Parthians, Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas '(c) Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Kushanas s(d) Sakas, Greeks, Parthians, Kushanas The history of Indo-Greeks has been recon-|ostructed mainly on the evidence of (a) foreign literary sources 1 i (b) epigraphic evidence (c) Indian literary sources (d) coins bearing legends Who was the earliest Satavahana king to I* receive wide recognition and called himself 'Dakshinapathapati'?

(a) Simukha (b) Sri Satakarni (c) Gautamiputra Satakarni (d) Yajnasri Satakarni 144. Nahapana, the Saka ruler, seems to have been defeated by a Satavahana ruler, whose name is found struck over that of the Saka. Identify the Satavahana ruler. (a) Gautamiputra Satakarni (b) Vasishtiputra Pulamayi (c) Yajnasri Satakarni (d) Sri Satakarni 145. Match the places in List I with their supplies in List II and choose the answer from the codes given below. List II Copper Musk and saffron Salt Sandalwood List I (i) Punjab

(A)

(ii) South India

(B)

(iii) Himalayas

(C)

(iv) Deccan

(D)

(a) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (d) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D 146. In 65 ad the first Buddhist missionaries arrived in China and established themselves at the famous White Horse Monastery at (a) Lo-yang

(b) Khotan

(c) Tashkent

(d) Tun-Huang

147. Who was the Brahmin that married a Cambodian princess and is remembered to have introduced Indian culture to Cambodia? (a) Kaundinya (b) Chaitanya (c) Kautilya

(d) Kamandala

148. Medical encyclopedia were composed in the early centuries of the Christian era, the most famous being that of Charaka, a contemporary of the king (a) (b) (c) (d) 149.

Rudradaman Kanishka Gautamiputra Satakarni Nahapana In Buddhist monasteries, the definition of for mal education, includes

(a) (b) (c) (d)

all knowledge theoretical knowledge grammar and medicine practical and technical knowledge


150. Manuscripts of Asvaghosha's plays, originally written in the first century ad, were found in a monastery in (a) Sarnath

(b) Bodh Gaya

(c) Turfan

(d) Laos

151. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the Hathigumpha inscription? (a) After the Asokan edicts, it is the second inscription, the first being the Nanaghat inscription of Naganika. (b) It proves that Jainism entered Orissa and probably became the state religion within 100 years of the death of Mahavira. (c)

It does not give any information about Kharavela's military conquests.

(d) This is the earliest inscription to mention an era known as 'the kala of raja Muriya'. 152.

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander. His capital was located at

(a) Purushapura (c) Malwa

(b) Sakala

(d) Taxila

153. Vikramaditya, a king of Ujjain, started the Vikrama samvat in 58 bc in commemoration of his victory over (a) Indo-Greeks

(b) Sakas

(c) Parthians (d) Kushanas 154. The Kushana kings were called sons of god. This title was adopted by the Kushanas from the (a) Chinese (b) Parthians

(c) Greeks

(d) Ceylonese

155. The Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship and the governors were called (a) sthanikas (b) pradesikas (c) rashtriyas (d) strategos 156. Which of the following museums possesses the largest number of sculptures of Kushana times in India? (a) Sarnath Museum (b) Calcutta Museum (c) Mathura Museum (d) Bhopal Museum 157.

Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit kavya was composed by

(a) Patanjali

(b) Asvaghosha

(c) Panini

(d) Kalidasa

158.

Composition of numerous avadanas were the result of the progress of

(a) (b)

Mahayana Buddhism Hinayana Buddhism

(c) (d) 159. of

Brahmanism Jainism We hear of two envoys^ Roman kings, one in 27' Augustus and the other court

(a) Cartius

(b

(c) Nero

(d)

160.

Which of the following si (i) Knowledge of glass-l

and attained its peak fn of the Christian era. (ii) A coin-mould from shows that through it could be turned out at a (iii) The craftsmen made (iv) Largest number of tei moulds are found at Nalgonda district of Ai Choose the answer from the (a) i and ii (b) U (c) i, ii and iv (d) 161.

Match List I with List II and from the codes given below:

List I (i) Nigama

(A)

(ii) Sarihavaha (B) (iii) Malakara (C) (iv) Dasaka

(a) (b) (c) (d) 162.

(D) H

i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A The practice of issuing bilingu introduced by

(a) Indo-Greeks (c) Pahlavas

(b) Sak

(d) Ku

163.

Which of the following state Kushana society is incorrect?

(a)

The Kushana coins represent 1 politan nature of their society.

(b)

It was during the Kushana Mahayanism made its appear

(c)

Buddhist monks accepted high | Kushana administration.

(d)

Kushanas followed a policy of relj| eration.


l of the following is not a Sanskrit work? avistara

(b) Divyavadana

i Panho (d) Mahavastu

land Reason

l(a) if Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R)

{(b) if 'A' is false, but 'R' is true. ; (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are true, and 'R' i'A'. l(d) if both 'A' and 'R' are true, but 'R' does xplain 'A'. n: Kharavela was addicted to military and conducted a number of suc-campaigns in various directions. Kharavela was a Jaina as evident i the Hathigumpha inscription. n: Rudradaman had collected special i and imposed forced labour on peasants i in times of peace. n: A passage in the Junagarh inscription dradaman seems to suggest that irriga-works were commonly executed by the through the imposition of taxes, forced ur and emergency levies on the peasants. Brtion: Kushana kings got themselves on the coins with the nimbus, aura, ds or flames. n: They wanted to demonstrate their itial origin. ertion: Communication was particularly (in transmitting and diffusing craft skill and /ledge. ason: Artisans were generally illiterate and live.

169.

Assertion: Andhras issued lead or tin coins besides silver and copper coins.

Reason: In the Deccan and coastal areas money economy had come to be prevalent. 170. Assertion: Kushanas issued the dinara type of gold coins on account of their contacts with Rome. Reason: Silver and gold coins played an important role in day-to-day transactions. 171. Assertion: Manu ordains that one who destroys the embankment of a tank shall be either drowned or put to death by beheading. Reason: Tanks, ponds and other embanked water reservoirs had great utility for the welfare of the community. 172. Assertion: Majority of artisans joined guilds. Reason: It was difficult for artisans to compete as individuals against the guilds and in addition guilds offered social status and some general security. 173. Assertion: The guild refrained from intervening in the private lives of its members. Reason: If a married woman wished to join the Buddhist order as a nun, she had to obtain not only permission from her husband but also from the guild to which he belonged. 174. Assertion: Conversion of a single individual to Hinduism would create the problem of provid ing him with an appropriate caste, and caste depended on birth. Reason: Conversion to Hinduism was technically difficult because of the interconnection of caste and religion. 175.

Assertion: The Satavahana society was matri archal in nature.

Reason: It was customary for the Satavahana kings to be named after their mothers such as Gautamiputra, Vasishtiputra, and so on.

ANSWERS III 1.(c) 2.(b) 3. 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. 21. (b) 22. (a) 31. (d) 32. (b) 41. (c) 42. (a) 51. (c) 52. (b) 61. (b) 62. (c) 71. (c) 72. (b) 81. (b) 82. (a) 91. (b) 92. (a) 101. (b) 107. 111. (d) 117. 121. (a) 127. 131.(c) 137. 141. (c) 147. 151.(c) 157. 161.(c) 167. 171.(c)

A306

(a) (b)

23. (d) 33. (a) 43. (a) 53. (d) 63. (a) 73. (d) 83. (d) 93. (c) 102. (c) (d) 108. 112. (d) (b) 118. 122. (c) (d) 128. 132. (c) (a) 138. 142. (d) (a) 148. 152. (b) (b) 158. 162. (a) (c) 168. 172. (c) .§

4. (d) 5. 14. (d) 15.

(c) (d)

6. (b) 7. 16. (b) 17.

(a) (a)

8. 18.

24. (c) 25. 34. (c) 35. 44. (c) 45. 54. (d) 55. M. (d) 65. 74. (c) 75. 84. (c) 85. 94. (d) 95. 103. (d) (b) m 113. (a) 11I 123. (b) (a) 121 I33. (c) (c) 13i 143. (b) (b) 14i 153. (b) (a) 151% 163. (c) (c) 16^ 173. (b)

(d) 26. (b) (c) 36. (c) (a) 46. (a) (c) 56. (b) (d) 66. (a) (a) 76. (b) (b) 86. (d) (b) 96. (a) 104. (b)

(d) 1 (c)

27. 37. 47. 57. 67. 77. 87. 97. 105.

(a) (c) (a) (a) (c) (c) (a) (c) (c)

28. (d) fl 38. o) m 48. (a) fl 58. (d) m 68. m 78. (a) m 88. (b) m 98. mm 106. (a)

114. (d)

115.

(a)

116. (c)

124. (a)

125.

(c)

126. (c)

134. (a)

135.

(b)

136. (c)

144. (a)

145.

(c)

146. (a)

154. (a)

155.

(d)

156. (c)

164. (c)

165.

(d)

166. (b)

174. (c)

175.

(b)

QUESTIONS IV (Minor Which of the above are correctly paired? Select the answer from the codes below: (a) I, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iv and v (d) ii, iv and v

5. Which of the

(a) (b) (c) kept

following pairs is correctly matched?

Sangha--Buddhist monastery Chaitya--Buddhist order or organisation Stupa--A kind of tomb where the relics of Buddha and other Buddhist monks are

(d) Vihara--A Buddhist assembly hall or temple 6. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below:

Which of the following Buddhist councils was n Mahavibhasa, a work on the Sarvastivadin p of Buddhism, compiled? I. First council | Second council I, Third council ) Fourth council itch the following:

List I List II ddha's life)

(Symbols)

Birth (A) BodhiTree

I) Mahabhinishkra(B) Horse |; mana

f Nirvana

(C) Dharmachakra

Dharmachakrapra(D) Stupa vartana Parinirvana (E) Lotus and Bull r. i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vC jb) i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, vD ^ i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A, vD I i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we atch List I with List II and select the answer ilng the codes given below: List I List II |) Sutta Pitaka (A) 500 birth stories

of Buddha f(ii) Vinaya Pitaka (B) Code of conduct

for Buddhist monks and nuns (iii) Abhidhamma ,. Pitaka

(C) Psalms of

Buddhist monks

and nuns (iv) Jatakas

,

(D) Philosophical

interpretations

(v) Dhammapada (E) Sermons and

sayings of

/

Buddha (a) i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C, v-A . (b) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, vD

(c) (d)

i-D, ii-B, iii-E, iv-A, vC i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A, we

4. Consider List I and II: List II Connected Medium Long

Graduated Minor List I (i) Mahayanists List I (i) Digha (7i) Majjhima (iii) Samyutta (iv) Anguttara (v) Khuddaka List II (H) Hinayanists (Hi) Vajrayanists

(iv) Sthaviravadins (v) Mahasanghikas (A)

The original orthodox sect

(B)

The original unorthodox sect

(C)

Followers of the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt

(D)

Followers of the Greater Vehicle

(E)

Followers of the

Lesser Vehicle (a) (b) (c)

i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D, we

(d)

i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, we Arrange the following Buddhist sects in the

chronological order: (i) Hinayanists and Mahayanists (ii) Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas (iii) Vajrayanists (iv) Sarvastivadins


Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, Iv, il and Hi (b) ii, Hi, i and iv (c) ii, iv, i and iii 8.


Which of the following statements about Hlnayanists are true?

(i) They deviated from the original teachings of the Buddha, (ii) They sought individual salvation through self discipline and meditation, (iii) They did not worship even the symbols of the Buddha, (iv) They spread to Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. Choose the answer from the-codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i and ii (c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

9. In which of the following Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka are the Jatakas and the Dhammapada found? Majjima Nikaya Khuddaka Nikaya a Ceylonese (a) Digha Nikaya

(b)

(c) Samyutta Nikaya (d) 10.

Which of the following is not Buddhist chronicle?

(a) Harivamsa (b) Dipavamsa

(c) Mahavamsa 11.

(d) Culavamsa

Which of the following statements are true about Mahayanists?

(i) They believed in the heavenliness of the Buddha, (ii) They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. (iii) They worshipped the images of several Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. (iv) They became popular in Central Asia, China, Japan and Korea, (v) They had two chief philosophical schools, namely, the Madhyamika and Yogachara schools. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii, iv and v

(d) All of them

12. Which of the following works of Mahayanists is a flowery-account of the life of Buddha? (a) (b)

Vajrachedika Lalitavistara

(c) (d) 13.

Karandavyuha Saddharmapunda Who among the follc the Madhyamika school i (a) Asanga

(c) Nagarjuna (d 14. Who among the follc the Yogachara school1! known as the Vijnanav (a) Maitreyanatha (c) Nagarjuna 15. Whose teachings are i.e. the whole world is a i (a) Gautama (b) (c) Dharmakirti (d)<5

16.

Which of the following about Vajrayanists?

(i) They believed that'. attained by acquiring I (ii) Their chief divinities should be compelled suaded to bestow i worshippers, (iii) Taras were the mothers^ and the Bodhisattvas. (iv) They became popular in < the 8th century ad undar| later spread to Tibet. Select the answer from the < (a) All of them (b) (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i.ilj 17. Who among the following become a Buddhist nun? (a) Yasodhara (b) (c) Suj'ata (d) 18. Who among the following Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Bu (i) Rishabha (ii) Av (iii) Manjusri (iv) Vajr (v) Gautama Choose the answer from the i (a) i, ii and iii (b) (c) iii, iv and v (d) All off 19.

Arrange the following Buddhist i the chronological order:

(i) Nagarjuna Konda (ii) Mali (iii) Vikramasila (iv) Taxila


27. 28. t the answer from the codes given below: f iv, i, ii and iii (b) iii, i, ii and iv if, iii, iv and i (d) ii, i, iv and iii ayana Buddhists are credited, rather disBited, with starting the practice of idol-i for the first time in India. When did ' begin this practice? f fourth century bc (b) third century bc Fflrst century ad (d) fourth century ad vira was considered to be the nkara. 21st

(b) 22nd

'23rd

(d) 24th

3 was in Jaina tradition the immediate predssor of Mahavira? 'Gosala (b) Parsva Bhadrabahu

(d) Rishabha

was the first tirthankara according to i tradition? Sthulabahu (b) Angisara Rishabha

(d) Hemachandra

i List I with List II and choose the answer i the codes given below: List I List II Siddhartha Mahavira

(A) Original name of

Trisala (B) Mahavira's father Vardhamana (C) Mahavira's mother v) Anojja

(D) Mahavira's wife

Yasoda(E) Mahavira's daughter B) i-D, ii-B, iii-E, iv-A, vC (» i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C, we d) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, vD hich of the following are incorrectly ed? Select the answer from the codes i below. Kundagram--Mahavira's birth place Pataliputra--The place where Mahavira attained kaivalya ii) Pavapuri--Mahavira's death place v) Valabhi--First Jaina council W) Jrimbhikagrama--Second Jaina council B) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iv and v c) i, iii and v (d) ii, iii and iv 26. Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below: List II (A) (B) (C)

No property No stealing Observing continence

No violence Truth or no lies List I (i) Ahimsa (ii) Satya (iii) Aparigraha (D) (E)

(iv) Asteya (v) Brahmacharya

(a) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, v-A (b) i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC (c) i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vC (d) i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vC Match List I with List II and choose the answer using the codes given below: List I List II (i) Bhadrabahu Sthulabahu (iii) Gosala Maskariputra (iv) Devardhi Kshamasramana (v) Bahubali (Gomantesvara) (A)

Colleague of Mahavira for 6 years during his wandering

(B) (C)

Chairman of the Second Jaina council Leader of the Svetambaras

(D)

Leader of the Digambaras

(E) A Jaina monk for whom a huge statue was installed at Sravana Belgola (a) (b) (c) (d) true?

i-D, ii-B, iii-E, iv-C, v-A i-E, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, vC i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-E, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A, vD Which of the following statements about Mahavira are

(i) He belonged to the Jnatri Kshatriya clan, (ii) He became an ascetic after the death of his parents, (iii) The initial two years of his ascetic life, he spent as the member of an order founded by Parsva. (iv) He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, (v) He claimed himself to be a god.


Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, ill and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 29. Mahavira's followers were originally known as (a) Arhants (b) Mahavratas (c) Anuvratas (d) Nirgranthas 30. Which of the following Jaina principles is said to be the only original contribution of Mahavira? (a) (b) (c) (d) 31.

Observing continence Non-violence and truth No stealing No property Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below.

(i) Digambaras (ii) Svetambaras (iii) Terapanthis (iv) Samaiyas List I List II (A)

Unorthodox and liberal Jainas

(B)

Orthodox and conservative Jainas

(C)

Breakaway group from the Digambaras

(D)

Breakaway group from the Svetambaras

(a) (b)

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D

(c) (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C

32. When did the major schism of Jainas into Digambaras and Svetambaras take place? (a) fifth century bc (b) third century bc (c) first century bc (d) first century ad 33.

Which of the following statements about Jainism are true?

(i) It rejected god as the creator of the Universe, (ii) It accepted the doctrines of karma and rebirth, (iii) It considered Jaina teachers to be superior to gods, if there are any. (iv) Its main support came from the traders and merchants due to its liberal interpretation of property, (v) It came to have its strongholds in western India and Mysore. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) (c) ii, iii and v (d) / 34.

Who was the Maurya emp nied Bhadrabahu to south I

(a) Asoka

(b);

(c) Chandragupta (d) 35.

Which of the following Mahavira are incorrect?

(i) He completely avoided cussions. (ii) He laid down a severe i the Jaina monks, (iii) He took the concept extreme limit, (iv) He used Sanskrit to ings. Select the answecl given below:

(a) i and ii

(b)

(c) iii and iv

(d) i)

36.

Which of the following is sale. Jaina scriptures?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 37.

Twelve Angas Twelve Upangas Fourteen Purvas Fourteen Upapurvas Which of the following matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 38.

Gosala Maskariputn Pakudha Katyayana--I Purana Kassapa--Ajivikal Ajita Kesakambalin--Ma Match List I with List II, using the codes given I

List I (i) Bhakti

A.

(ii) Bhagavata B. (iii) Bhagavat C. (iv) Bhaj

D.

(v) Prapathi

E.

(a) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, vD (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-E, iv-C, vD (c) i-A, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, vB (d) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, we 39. Which of the following Upanishads Krishna Vasudeva as the son of student of Rishi Ghora Angirasa?


gya

(b) Aitareya

niya

(d) Katha

I of the following refer to the worship of i Krishna? njali's Mahabhasya lini's Ashtadhyayi henes' Indica ilus of the Erythrean Sea jtflie answer from the codes given below: I of them (b) i and ii end iii (d) iii and iv i one of the following inscriptions men)0 the worship of Vasudeva Krishna by us, an ambassador of an Indo-Greek

garh Inscription of Rudradaman I higumpha Inscription of Kharavela ar Cave Inscription of Asoka |*snagar Pillar Inscription I the following: A. Real father of Krishna deva B. Real mother of Krishna C. Foster father of Jt Krishna da

D. Foster mother of

Krishna aki

E. Uncle of Krishna

, ii-C, iii-E, iv-B, vD $jC, ii-A, iii-E, iv-D, vB 3, ii-A, iii-E, iv-B, vD B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vD of the following are the textbooks of knanised Bhagavatism? iParana (ii) Bhagavata Parana ayaniya (iv) Yuddhakanda

t the answer from the codes given below: I ii

(b) ii and iii

land iii (d) All of them Krishna, founder of Bhagavatism, I to which Kshatriya clan? us (b) Bharatas atas

(d) Panchalas

was Bhagavatism captured and ed by Brahmanism in general and sin in particular?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 46.

Maurya period Post-Maurya period Gupta period Post-Gupta period Arrange the following avataras or incarnations in the chronological order.

(i) Varaha

(ii) Vamana

(iii) Matsya

(iv) Narasimha

(v) Kurma Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, v, i, iv, ii

(b) ii, i, v, iv, iii

(c) iv, iii, i, v, ii

(d) v, ii, i, iii, iv

47.

Arrange the following avataras in the chrono logical order.

(ii) (iv) Rama Parasurama

(i) Krishna (iii) Kalkin (v) Buddha

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i, iii, v

(b) iv, ii, i, v, iii

(c) iii, iv, ii, v, i

(d) i, ii, v, iv, iii

48. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (i) Manu

(A) Killed by Varaha

(ii) Bali

(B) Murdered by

Narasimha (iii) Hiranyaksa (iv) Hiranyakassipu

(v) Kartavirya (C) (D)

Saved by Matsya Killed by Parasurama

(E) Punished by Vamana Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d) 49.

i-A, ii-D, iii-E, iv-B, vC i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, v-A i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, we i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vD Which of the following are said to be the Kshatriya incarnations of Vishnu?

(i) Parasurama (ii) Krishna (ii) Rama

(iv) Vamana

(v) Buddha Choose the answer from the codes given

below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) i, ii and v


50.

Which of the following terms is best suitable to describe Bhagavatism?

(a) Materialism (c) Atheism 51.

(b) Theism

(d) Agnosticism

'Ganesadl Panchadevata', the principal Puranic deities, consist of

(i) Ganesa

(ii) Vishnu

(iii) Siva

(iv) Agni

(v) Sakti

(vi) Surya

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and v (b) i, ii, iv, v and vi (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, iii, v and vi 52.

Ganesa was an amalgam of which of the fol lowing folk deities?

(i) Yaksa

(ii) Gandharva

(iii) Naga

(iv) Pusan

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii (b) ii and iv (c) i and iv

(d) iii and iv

53. When did Vishnu emerge as a god of some sig nificance for the first time, though Vaishnavism became popular and replaced Bhagavatism only during the Gupta period? (a) (b) (c)

Rig Vedic period Later Vedic period Post-Vedic period

(d) 54.

Post-Maurya period Which of the following is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 55.

Alvars--Saiva saints Nayanars--Emotional poetry of Nayanars Prabhandas--Emotional poetry of Alvars Tevaram--Vaishnava saints Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Madhva

Dvaitavada

(ii) Sankara

Advaitavada

(iii) Ramanuja Dvaitadvaitavada (iv) Nimbarka Visishtadvaitavada Which of the above are not correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iv

(d) iii and iv

56.

Which of the following were the Vaishnava saints?

(i) Nammalvar (ii) Tirumalisai (iii) Sambandhar

(iv) Tirunavakkarasu

Select the i (a) iandii 't* (c) iii and iv 57.

Who among tnej first proto-Siva?1-* (a) Rudra

(c) Pusan 58.

Which among 1 erary evidence i of Siva worship

(a) (b)

Rig Veda, Chandogya I

(c) (d) 59.

Megasthenes'i Panini's Ashb Who among the time to the class of! Bhagavatas7

(a) Patanjali (c) Kautilya 60.

Which of the following^ extreme sects of Saivi: (i) Agamantins

(iii) Kapalikas Select the answer from 1 (a) All of them (b| (c) ii, iii and iv (d 61.

Which among the followin sects of Saivism?

(i) Pratyabhijnas (ii}« (iii) Mattamayuras (K Select the answer from the^ (a) All of them (b)* (c) ii, iii and iv (d)!;j 62.

Who was the founder of 1 (a) Vasugupta

63.

Match List I with List II and i using the codes given belt

List I (i) Pasu

(A)

(ii) Pati

(B)

(iii) Dukkhanta (D) (E)

(iv) Vidhi

(C)

(b)'] (c) Basava

(d)

Post-Mouryan India bc 200-AD 300 I A313

5, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-D , ii-B, iii-D, iv-C (d) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C r the following: aivas Karnataka amayuras Northern India yabhijnas Central India tyanars Tamil Nadu nukhas Kashmir I of the above are not correctly matched? the answer from the codes given I

I iii and v

(b) ii, iii and iv

, iii and v

(d) i, iv and v

i List I with List II and select the answer f the codes given below: tl List II nantins (A) Vasugupta hasaivas (B) Basava gayats atyabhijnas

(C) Kallata

(D) Srikantha

andasastras (E) Aghora 3, ii-Ai Hi-E, iv-C, vD |I-A, ii-C, iii-D?'fvE,yB E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC |i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, v-A i many Nayanars are supposed to be there ding to tradition? [Twelve (b) Fifteen [ Sixty (d) Sixty-three i among the following Nayanars is popu-[ called 'Appar'? fSambandhar (b) Tirunavakkarasu iNammalvar

(d) Nakkirar

i of the following Saiva sects gave equal ance to social and religious reforms? Pasupatas Virasaivas

(b) Mattamayuras

(d) Suddhasaivas

of the following literature is known as I 'Dravida Veda'? Prabhandas

(b) Tevaram

Ettutogai

(d) Pattuppattu

of the following refer to the worship of if/ or the female principle? Megasthenes' Indica Patanjali's Mahabhasya Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (iv) Gangadhara stone inscription of Kumara gupta (v) Brihat Samhita (vi) Laghu Samhita Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, Hi and iv (b) ii, iv and v (c) iii, iv and vi

(d) iii, iv and v

71. Buddha is said to have witnessed four events when he was driving round the royal palace. What is the correct sequential order? (a) (b) (c) (d) 72.

An oldman, a corpse, a sick man, an ascetic A sick man, an oldman, a corpse, an ascetic An oldman, a sick man, a corpse, an ascetic A corpse, an oldman, a sick man, an ascetic Dharmachakrapravartana refers to

(a) attainment of salvation (b) delivering the first sermon (c) laying down the code of conduct (d) organisation of the Sangha 73. The bikshus, a disciplined body of monks, were knit together by a common garb. Identify it. (a) Yellow robes

(b) White robes

(c) Reddish robes (d) Greenish robes

74. Buddha is said to have allowed with much mis giving the formation of a community of nuns. Who caused this? (a) Gautami

(b) Vaidehi

(c) Tara

(d) Avasarpini

75.

Which of the following are said to be the last words of Gautama Buddha?

(a)

'You need not look to a new leader but the Doctrine.'

(b) (c)

'Final blowing out.' 'All composite things decay, strive diligently.'

(d) 'I am his witness.' 76. In the Buddhist council at Rajagriha one of the chief disciples of Buddha is said to have recited the Vinaya Pitaka. Identify him. (a) Ananda

(b) Upali

(c) Mahakassapa (d) Vattagamani 77. Who is said to have unearthed the ashes of the Buddha from their original resting place? (a) Asoka

(b) Kanishka

(c) Ajatasatru (d) Marsha


78.

The Buddhists worshipped the stupa, recalling Buddha's

(a) parinirvana (b) nirvana (c) mahabhinish(d) All the above kramana 79.

Which of the following statements about Buddhism is incorrect?

(a)

During the Sunga-Kanva period Buddhism lost royal patronage.

(b) Of all the religious remains of 200 bc to 200 ad so far discovered in India, those of Buddhism outnumber those of Brahma-nism and Jainism put together. (c) All cjasses of community like kings, princte, merchants and craftsmen made donations to Buddhists. (d)

Buddhism witnessed its first schism in the first council.

80.

The Sarvastivadin sect was strong in the region of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 81.

Mathura and Kashmir Punjab and Haryana Gujarat and Maharashtra Magdha and Kalinga The Sarvastivadin doctrines were codified in a summary, the Mahavibhasa in the:

(a) second Council (b) third Council (c)' fourth Council (d) first Council 82. Who was the missionary monk from Nalanda that went forth to convert Tibet to Buddhism? (a) Asanga (b) Nagarjuna (c) Padmasambhava (d) Ananda

83. 'A Buddha can be born only as a Brahmin or a Kshatriya and not in a low family such as that of a chandala or of a basket-maker or of a chariot-maker or of a pukkasa.' From where do we get this information? (a) Lalitavistara (b) Saddharma pundarika (c) Dipavamsa (d) Mahavamsa 84. Which of the following sects insists on the necessity of monastic life, worship of the relics of the Buddha, attainment of salvation by one self alone as they believe that the Buddha will be no more born? (a) Hinayana (b) Mahayana (c) Vajrayana (d) Sarvastivadin

85.

Which of the f dated with Buddh (a) Purva Min (c) Samkhya

86.

According to Bu Ajatasatru to kill his I

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Buddha's cousin,| Ajatasatru's i Ajatasatru's wife, J Buddha>dis

87. 'Don't ask the Whosoever does the vana.' Who said this? (a) Gautama Buddha (c) Gosala 88.

What are the Three,

(a) (b) (c) (d) 89.

Right speech, right k Right speech, right I Buddha, dhamma i Meditation, awan Which of the following is* for the popularity of Bu

(a) (b)

Early Buddhism i It was not enmeshed philosophical discu

(c) (d) 90.

The nuns attracted the'j It disregarded the castfi Which one of the following I the decline of Buddhism in I

(a) (b)

Reformation of Brahn The riches of the me

(c) (d) 91.

Use of Sanskrit, the I Lack of royal patronage Which of the following is struction?

(a) Stupa

(b)

(c) Vihara

(d)

92. day?

According to Buddhist tradit following events in Buddha's place on a full-moon

(a) (b) (c) (d) 93.

Birth Enlightenment Turning the wheel of law Death Who is said to have destroyed} Wisdom' at Bodh Gaya under \ attained nirvana!

* Post-Mauryan India Be 200-AD 300

A315

anka

(b) Toramana

khtiyar Khalji (d) Mihirakula I of the following works contains informa-ut political and social history? amsa * (b) Mahavamsa avamsa(d) All the above ling to Mahayana tradition there are five dha cycles of which four Buddhas-- ucchand, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa and amuni--have taught. Who is the fifth ha yet to come? ukunda (b) Maitreya I Mahakantaka (d) Inanadeva tPali canon of the Sthaviravadin school committed to writing in Ceylon in the i of sVattagamani (b) Tissa sSamuppada (d) Gajabahu of the following is incorrect about yana Buddhism? $ The universe of the Great Vehicle contains numerous Bodhisattvas. ' Vajrapani, a sterner Bodhisattva, is foe of sin and evil. i The Mahayana Buddhism agrees with the [. concept, 'the world is full of sorrow', and is pessimistic. The Great Vehicle maintains implicitly or explicitly that ultimately all beings will attain nirvana and become Buddhas. i the following texts of List I with their con; in List II and choose the answer from the fs given below. List I List II

Vajrachedika (A) A long series of dialogues P) Saddharmapun(B) Very subtle meta data physical writings i Ashtasahasrika(C) Glorification of prajna Paramita Avalokitesvara v) Karandavyuha (D) Spiritual perfec tions of the Bodh isattvas .£) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (b) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A ||e) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (d) i-C, ii-D, iiiA, iv-B s term vajra in Vajrayana cult refers to Yogini (b) Matangi 1 (c) magical power (d) sadhana 100.

Which of the following statements is/are cor rect about Buddhist order?

(i) Membership of Buddhist order was not restricted by caste, (ii) Slaves, deserted soldiers, debtors, etc. are not normally allowed to become monks, (iii) The minimum age to become a monk is twenty, (iv) The rites of admission are complex Choose the answer from the choices below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i, ii and iii (d) i and iii


Instructions

Mark (a) if Assertion 'A' is correct, but Reason 'R' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if 'A and 'R' are correct and 'R'

explains 'A'. Mark (d) if 'A' and R' are correct and 'R' does not explain 'A. 101. Assertion: Buddhist monasteries were attacked by many foreigners who invaded India. Reason: The monasteries were used by the indigenous rulers as centres of resistance. 102.

Assertion: An important feature of the Buddhist architecture is the column.

Reason: Columns existed in many ancient Buddhist monasteries. 103.

Assertion: Buddha did not explain clearly his conception of nirvana.

Reason: The basis of the teachings of Buddha is the law of karma which is inexorable. 104.

Assertion: The adaptability of Buddhism helped it in spreading rapidly.

Reason: Buddha had empowered the Buddhist councils to take important decisions so far as the minor precepts were concerned. 105.

Assertion: Vajrayana cult appeared in eastern India in the eighth century ad.

Reason: From the end of the Gupta period Indian religion became more and more permeated with primitive ideas of sympathetic magic and sexual mysticism.


106. Assertion: Yogachara school produced many important philosophers and logicians. Reason: Yogachara school is very popular and influential than Madhyamika school. 107.

Assertion: Buddhists accept the precept to refrain from banning living beings.

Reason: Buddhism precludes Buddhists from eating meat. 108.

Of the following statements which are true?

(i) The sacred books of Jainas tell us that Rishabha was the founder of Jainism. (ii) Parsvanatha was the 23rd tirthankara of Jainism. (iii) According to the Kalpasutra of Bhadra bahu, Parsvanatha was son of Asvasena, a Kshatriya king of Banaras. (iv) Parsvanatha died about 250 years before the death of Mahavira. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii are true (b) i and ii are true (c) i, ii and iv are true (d) All are correct 109. of

The statement, 'the Nigantha, Nataputta has just died at Pava', refers to the death

(a) Gautama Buddha (b) Mahavira (c) Siddhartha (d) Gosala Maskariputra 110. 'As a merchant desirous of gain shows his wares and attracts a crowd to do business, in a similar way acts the Sramana Jnatriputra.' Who said these words? (a) Parsvanatha

(b) Rishabhadeva

(c) Gosala Maskariputra (d) Mahavira 111.

What is siddha sila?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 112.

Relief from cycle of rebirths Intuitive knowledge The way of practicing triratnas Becoming ascetic Who became the head of the Jaina church after the death of Mahavira?

(a) Gajabahu (b) Sudharman (c) Kundakofiya 113.

(d) Bhadrabahu

Jainism became the state religion of Lichchhavis, because of prince

(a) Chetaka

(b) Mahasayaga

(c) Abhaya

(d) Kumaradeva

114. Some sources state that I the palace of a Malla King, (a) Shastipala (b) (c) Nandisutta (d) 115.

From where do we get the inft king Nanda was in possession of first Jinat

(a) (b) (c) (d) 116.

Kalpasutra Hathigumpha inscription Parisistaparvan Hemachandra's account Which of the following st reet about Jaina texts?

(i) The Mulasutras deal with trines of Jainism. (ii) The Chedasutras contain the! pline to be observed in the i (iii) The Prakirnas are in versa < with various aspects of. (iv) Angas explain the Jaina < help of legends and theories ( the rules of conduct for the, (v) All these texts belong

Svetambara Jainas. Choose the answer from codes f (a) (b) (c) (d)

I, ii, iii, iv are true i, ii, iv and v are true i, iv and v are true All are correct

117. Jainas have made important the development of regional langij of the following is not one of I (a) Apabhramsa (b) Kan (c) Malayalam (d) Tamil, 118.

When did final compilation of* teachings take place?

(a) fourth Century bc (b) third I (c) fifth Century ad (d) third I 119.

Mahavira died because of

(a) old age

(b) self-s

(c) ill health

(d) fatal I

120.

According to Jaina tradition an or«| | erature had been passed down i

of Mahavira. Who was the last i it perfectly? (a) Sthulabahu (b) San (c) Bhadrabahu

(d) Jameli


m action, no strength, no courage, no endurance or human powers can affect destiny.' This is stated by ivira

(b) Gautama Buddha

Gosala (d) Parsvanatha the body dies, both fool and wise alike cut off and perish; they do not survive after .' Whose idea is this? Parana Kassapa (b) Makhali Gosala Pakudha Katyayana (d) Ajita kesakam balin ivira attained kaivalya under a sal tree in field belonging to Samaga on the river of Rijupalika

(b) Suvarnamukhi

Bhadravati

(d) Chitravati

ge the following theras (heads) of in chronological order. Parsvanatha (ii) Jambu Mahavira

(iv) Sudharman

the answer from the codes given below: I) tii, li, i, iv (b) i, iii, iv, ii :) i, iii, ii, iv

(d) i, ii, iii, iv

convened the first general council of the la church? i) Bhadrabahu (b) Sthulabahu Sudharman

(d) Jambu

!VVhich of the following statements is not correct the first general council of the Jaina i? '(a) The first council of Jaina church met at Pataliputra. (b) The council compiled the twelve Angas. >ffc) Its main purpose was to collect the knowledge of Jainism and compile it into a regular canon, (d) The Digambaras held these Angas as

authentic. Consider the thinkers of List I and their ideas in list II. List I List II (I) Purana Kassapa (A) Karma did not depend on merit or demerit (ii) Makhali Gosala (B) Belief in fate p) Ajita Kesakambalin (C) Did not believe in immortality of the soul

(iv) Pakudha Katyayana (D) Anticipated the atomic theory of the Vaisesika school the answer from the codes given Choose below: (a) (b) (c) (d) 128.

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A Which of the following is not correct about the Jaina Kalpasutra?

(a) (b)

It consists of three different sections. The first section contains the biographies of the first twenty three tirthankaras.

(c) The second section consists of the Theravali, a list of schools (ganas) and their heads (ganadharas). (d)

It was written entirely in Sanskrit by Bhadrabahu.

129. There were some sections of Jainas who renounced idol worship altogether and devoted themselves to the worship of the scriptures only. Identify them. (i) Terapanthis (ii) Verapanthis (iii) Samaiyas (iv) Ganadharas Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv

(c) i and iv

(d) ii and iv

130. Jainism shows a close affinity with Samkhya system of philosophy. Hence the former was also called (a) ajiva

(b) pudgala

(c) Syadvada (d) Bhedavada 131.

Mahavira discarded all clothing like

(a) Katyayana (b) Parsvanatha (c) Gosala 132.

(d) Gautama Buddha

Consider the following statements about Jainism.

(i) The primary purpose of soul is its purification. (ii) Purification can be achieved through knowledge. (iii) Knowledge can be attained by praying to god. (iv) Every mortal has the potential of becoming a tirthankara.


(a) i, ii and iii are true (b) i, iii and iv are true (c) i, ii and iv are true (d) All are true 133. The fourteen Purvas, the textbooks of the old Jaina scriptures which Mahavira himself taught to his ganadharas, were perfected by (a) Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu (b) Sambhutavijaya and Sthulabahu (c) Bhadrabahu and Sambhutavijaya (d) Sthulabhadra and Jameli 134. The Jainas worship five kinds of persons (pan-chaparamasthins). Which is the correct ascending order of the panchaparamasthins? (a)

Arhant, Tirthankara, Upadhyaya, Acharya, Siddha

(b) (c) (d)

Upadhyaya, Acharya, Arhant, Siddha Tirthankara, Upadhyaya, Arhant, Acharya, Tirthankara, Siddha Acharya, Upadhyaya, Tirthankara, Arhant, Siddha

135. According to Jaina philosophy there are seven tattvas or realities. Jiva and ajiva are two of the seven tattvas. What does the contact between jiva and ajiva create? (a) Adharma dravya (b) Karmani sarira (c) Sakriya dravya (d) Sukshma sarira 136. The five vows of ahimsa, satya, asteya, aparigraha and brahmacharya when observed by a householder in a less rigorous form are known as (a) anuvratas (b) gunavratas (c) mahavratas (d) laghuvratas 137.

What difference led the Jainas to split into Svetambaras and Digambaras?

(a) (b)

Idol worship Interpretation of certain philosophical canons

(c)

Whether or not the monks should wear clothes

(d)

Compilation of the teachings of Mahavira and their possession

138. Who among the following is considered to be the greatest Jaina scholar of early medieval period? (a) Amoghavarsha (b) Bahubali (c) Hemachandra (d) Harisena 139. Jainism spread to all the i except one. What is tha (a) Gujarat (b), (c) Rajasthan (d


Instructions

Mark (a) if Assertion (A) isl is wrong. Mark (b) if (A) is wrong an$% Mark (c) if both (A) and (R)i explains (A). Mark (d) if both (A) and (R) c does not explain (A). 140. Assertion: Jaina sources explanation to show that murdered by his son Ajatas Reason: Ajatasatru was a f Jainism. 141.

Assertion: Jainism did not: lowing.

Reason: Jainism advocated' ties that could not appeal man. 142.

Assertion: Jainism did not teries.

Reason: Jainism believed in < ties and so the Jaina monks I comforts whatsoever.

143. Assertion: The regimen of a,» and still is strict in the extreme. Reason: At his initiation his? shaved, but pulled out by the i go through many such hardship 144.

Assertion: Jainism had trines.

Reason: The domestic rites of I Jainism such as birth, mama were similar to those of the Him 145. Assertion: There was a great i monks from the Ganga valley tof where they established imp their faith. Reason: According to a strongly! dition Chandragupta Maurya order.

HL


dear reference to the pastoral are he plays his flute and sports aids comes from: (b) Brahmanas as (d) Puranas t name of the Mahabharata is (b) Maha Samhita I Samhita (d) Vijaya Samhita avata doctrine is said to have been i Vasudeva to the Sun, by the Sun to I by Manu to as (b) Ikshvakus (d) Purus gya Upanishad places Krishna in »or sixth bc. Which other tradition sup-date suggested by the Chandogya ad?. ddhist tradition (b) Ajivika tradition i tradition (d) Saivite tradition 5 the tirthankara who is said to have been sin of Vasudeva Krishna and who preIParsvanatha? hara (b) Jambu dhatri (d) Arishtanemi ) Bhagavata is traced from the times of pi. When did the word Vaishnava come b? iter Vedic period /laurya period Supta period upta period i of the following played an important role ftransforming the Bhagavata cult into navism? JiTransmigration concept \ Avatara concept |-;The concept of bhakti Popularity of Krishna nu was recognised in the Rig Veda as an tof

, Indra (b) Varuna } Sun (d) Gayatri sthenes refers to Heracles, who was held ^special honour by the people of Mathura gion. JHeracles is the Greek analogue of I) Heliodorous (b) Hiranyaksha e) Vasudeva Krishna (d) Vishnu 155. The earliest evidence regarding the identifica tion of Narayana with Vishnu is probably to be traced in the Dharmasastra of (a) Manu

(b) Kautilya

(c) Baudhayana 156.

(d) Gautama

The worshippers of the deified sage Narayana were originally known as

(a) Pancharatras

(b) Bhagavatas

(c) Vishnuputras

(d) Vaikhanasas

157. A four armed figure of the deity, with chakra in the upper left hand is found on the coins of a Panchala king. Identify the king. (a) Vasumitra (b) Vishnumitra (c) Vishnugopa

(d) Panchakra

158. Which of the following incarnations of Vishnu was probably the most popular one during the Gupta period as evident from the contempo rary sculpture? (a) Matsya (b) Varaha (c) Rama (d) Vamana 159. Which one of the following is the true devotion or primary devotion according to Bhagavatism? (a) Devotion of the inquisitive (b) Unmotivated and selfless devotion (c) Devotion of the Brahmanical class (d) Surrender of all our passions and desires 160. According to Bhagavatism which one of the fol lowing is the best means of salvation? (a) Jnana

(b) Yoga

(c) Karma

(d) Bhakti

161. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about the concept of 'action' in Bhagavatism? (a)

We should live an active life completely dedicated to god.

(b)

We should not give up action, but we have to do our duty without any attachment.

(c) We should seek union with god in the life after death, and actions for the preserva tion of life are irrelevant. (d)

We should surrender the fruits of action to god.

162. Which one of the following schools of philoso phy was the main off-shoot of Bhagavatism? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Dvaita Advaita Visishtadvaita Dvaitadvaita


163. Bhagavatism considers bhakti as the best means to overcome all sins. What is the cor rect reason? (a) Repentance is necessary for atonement and true repentance is possible only for a devotee. (b)

In devotion one dedicates one's actions to god, which destroys all sins.

(c) (d)

Sins are destroyed by penances. All other forms of atonement are not practicable.

164. that?

Bhagavatism had accepted many concepts of Vedic religion, except one. What is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The doctrine of samsara Vedic literature as divine revelation Sacrificial rituals as divine revelation Sacrificial rituals as the only means of salvation

165.

Which one of the following statements is incor rect about Siva?

(a)

Siva was evolved from the fierce Vedic god Rudra.

(b)

He lurks in horrible places such as battle fields, cremation grounds, etc.

(c) (d)

He is not ambivalent. He wears a garland of skulls and is surrounded by ghosts.

166. Which one of the following statements is incor rect about Brahmanism of Gupta and post-Gupta periods? (a)

From the beginning of Christian era Hindus are either Saivites or Vaishnavites.

(b) The Vaishnavites deny the existence of Siva and Saivites deny the existence of Vishnu.

(c) two.

There were occasions of rupture and persecution between the followers of the

(d)

As early as the Gupta Age, the concept of trinity came into existence.

167.

Which one of the following statements about Siva is incorrect?

(a) He is the patron deity of ascetics in general. (b) He is the Lord of the Dance (Nataraja) who is said to have invented different forms of dance. (c)

He is also worshipped in the form of Dakshinamurti.

(d)

Siva is chiefly worshipped in the form of Nataraja.

168. Siva is said toj the Himalayas. > story is told n Minakshi. Mir (a) (b) (c) (d) 169.

Pandyan king < Cholakingofl Chera king of I Pallava king oM The Hari Hara i ages and it was (

(a) (b) (c) (d) 170.

North India East India Deccan and' West India The Hari Hara f

(a) (b) (c) (d) 171.

the western' the Vijayanagar I the Chola king* the Kakatiya rulers* The Puranic story of I Kaliya actually in which cult by Bhs region?

(a) Saiva cult (c) Naga cult 172. According to epigraphies following Saiva sects Gupta Period? (i) Virasaivas (iii) Agamantins (v) Mattamayuras

(i\

Choose the answer frontl below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) 1

(c) iii, iv and vi

(d)

173.

Which of the following ac be the preceptors of the I of central India?

(a) Mattamayara (c) Kapallka 174.

(b)

(d)

Vishnu was worshipped under! in the Gupta period. Pick them < lowing?

(i) Gadadhar (ii) Ja (iii) Mahadeva (iv) Na (v) Govind

(vi) Vas

Select the answer from the codes (


sin

(b) i, ii, iv, v and vi

I vi

(d) ii, iii and iv

of the following was not a name I with Siva? (b) Bhutapati ani (d) Hari meaning awakening the power of ss latent in a human being, is I with atas (b) Kalamukhas (d) Vlrasaivas < are located at or in Madhya Bharat aka in Vindhya Pradesh uraho in Bundelkhand ; in Kalinga ) answer from the codes given below: I of them (b) i,ii and iv i and iv(d) iii and iv I List I with List II and select the answer i codes given below: List II Rajgir Padmavati Bhumara (A) (B) (C)

i Temple ninaga Shrine i Temple (D) Nachna Kuthara 3, ii-A, iii-C 3, ii-C, iii-A flrC, ii-B, iii-D |tA, ii-C, iii-B of the following concepts gives us an i of the evolution of life on earth? ; Prapathi (b) Samskaras Karma (d) Avataras er the following quotation: rone who is born, death is certain, and ceri is birth to one who dies. For this reason, i should not grieve over what is inevitable.' i is attributed to: Mahavira (b) Gautama Buddha Vasudeva Krishna (d) Sankaracharya us I sent his admiral to explore Indus valy before his expedition in 517-516 bc which ulted in the annexation of a part of Punjab, i was the admiral? I) Skylax (b) Cyrus c) Nikator

(d) Descartes

182. The parishads or assemblies of monarchies which held their meetings in the open halls were known as (a) Kulakshetras (c) Sanghas

(b) Ganas

(d) Santhagaras


Instructions

Mark (a) if both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and (R) explains (A). Mark (b) if both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) does not explain or justify (A).

Mark (c) if only (A) is true. Mark (d) if only (R) is true. 183. Assertion: Some Gurjara-Pratihara kings of the early medieval period were initiated Saktas. Reason: They are described in the inscriptions as parama bhagavata bhaktas. 184.

Assertion: Sakti worship gained popularity in the Gupta period.

Reason: The Gangadhara stone inscription of the fifth century ad records the tantric form of worship of the divine mother. 185. Assertion: In the Harivamsa of the Mahabharata, we find Krishna defeating the mighty Aryan war god, Indra. Reason: Krishna was approved and accepted in the Vedic pantheon by the Aryans from the very beginning. 186. Assertion: In Brahmanical religion the folk element was originally given a lot of prominence. Reason: In the list of five principal Puranic deities, Ganesa, an amalgam of yaksa and naga, was assigned the first place. 187. Assertion: Nayanars represented the emotional side of south Indian Vaishnavism. Reason: Vaishnava acharyas supplemented the wave of Vishnu bhakti on its doctrinal side. 188. Assertion: Rudra was the Vedic counterpart of the pre-Vedic Pasupati Mahadeva. Reason: Rudra was the first proto-Siva accord ing to the available evidence of all types. 189.

Assertion: Tantrism was acquired by Saktism from Vajrayanism.

Reason: Most of the surviving literature on the. tantric form of Sakti worship were composed in medieval times.


190.

Assertion: Kings of all four castes are known to have ruled.

Reason: Brahmanism failed to uphold vamadharma. 191. Assertion: At least one Brahmanical source describes certain republican tribes as degener ate Kshatriyas and even Sudras. Reason: Republics ceased to honour the Brahmins and to observe Vedic rituals. 192. Consider the following statements about ganarajyas (republics) and find out the one which is not correct. (a)

The republics consisted of either a single tribe or a confederacy of tribes.

(b) The corporate aspect of government was held to be the major strength of the republics. (c)

The assembly was presided over by the raja, whose post was hereditary.

(d) The matter for discussion was placed before the assembly and debated, and if a unanimous decision could not be reached, it was put to vote. 193.

Who is the first Indian king to stress the need for efficient administration?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 194.

Bimbisara Ajatasatru Mahapadma Nanda Chandragupta Maurya According to literary sources which was the first most important kingdom?

(a) Kosala

(tyl

(c) Kasi

(dy;

195.

The first statues to be won probably of

(a) Siva

(b)

(c) Buddha

(d)»l

196. When Pradyota, the king ( ing from jaundice, Bimb physician to Ujjain. Who \ (a) Prasena (b)" (c) Sanjayani (d) 197. Which is the first kingdom tol a large-scale in its wars ag (a) Kosala (b) (c) Magadha (d) 198. The earliest coins were i (a) Gold (c) Copper (d)

(b)

199. The minister of Ajatasatru, \ in sowing the seeds of dissent of the Lichchhavis and enab conquer Vaisali was (a) Vasugupta (b) (c) Prasena

(d)

200.

In place of old assemblies, * small bodies known as parisha

(a) (b) (c) (d)

only Brahmins only Kshatriyas both Brahmins and Ksh all the dvijas

ANSWERS IV |-2.(b) 3.(c) 4.(d) 5. (c) 6. (b) §12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. 20. (c) §22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (b) 26. 30. (a) P2 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (c) 37. §42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. 50. (b) |52.(a) 53. (b) 54. (c) 55. (d) 56. (a) |62.(d) 63. (d) 64. (c) 65. (c) 66. (d) |72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (c) 76. 80. (a) 1 82. (c) 83. (a) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. 90. (d) 1 92. (c) 93. (a) 94. (d) 95. (b) 96. 100. (c) f 102. (c) 103. (d) 104. (c) 105. 108. (d) 109. (b) 110. (c) W12. (b) 113. (c) 114. (a) 115. 118. (c) 119. (b) 120. (c) P122. (d) 123. (a) 124. (b) 125. 128. (d) 129. (c) 130. (c) N2. (c) 133. (c) 134. (b) 135. 138. (c) 139. (d) 140. (c) fci42. (c) 143. (c) 144. (b) 145. 148. (b) 149. (c) 150. (d) f 152. (b) 153. (c) 154. (c) 155. 158. (b) 159. (b) 160. (d) 1162. (c) 163. (b) 164. (c) 165. 168. (a) 169. (c) 170. (b) 1 172. (d) 173. (a) 174. (b) 175. 178. (a) 179. (d) 180. (c) 1 182. (d) 183. (a) 184. (a) 185. 188. (c) 189. (d) 190. (c) 192. (c) 193. (a) 194. (c) 195. 198. (c) 199. (b) 200. (a) A323

7. (d)

(c) 17.

8.(c) (b)

9.(d) 10. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a)

(c)

27.

(c)

28. (b) 29. (d)

(c) (a)

38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (c) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (c)

57. 67. (b)

(b) (b) 77.

58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (c) 68. (c) 69. (b) 70. (d) (a) 78. (a) 79. (d)

(a)

87.

(a)

88. (c) 89. (c).

(a)

97.

(c)

98. (a) 99. (c)

(c)

106.

(a)

107.

(a)

(b)

116.

(d)

117.

(c)

(b)

126.

(d)

127.

(a)

(b)

136.

(a)

137.

(c)

(d)

146.

(a)

147.

(c)

(c)

156.

(a)

157.

(b)

(c)

166.

(b)

167.

(d)

(d)

176.

(c)

177.

(b)

(c)

186.

(a)

187.

(d)

(c)

196.

(d)

197.

(c)

THE GUPTAS AND THEIR SUC03 (ad 300-750)

8,1 GUPTA EMPIRE

Sources

Epigraphic Evidence Gupta epigraphs may broadly be divided into two groups: firstly, those incised for private individuals, and secondly, those engraved on behalf of the ruling king.

Private Records They usually recorded donations in favour of religious establishments or installation of images for worship. Such documents sometimes mentioned the ruling king and occasionally described his achievements. It should, however, be remembered that as these records were not 'official' they were not always drafted with the same care with which official documents were composed. For instance, a private citizen felt no hesitation in describing the Gupta emperor as a mere maharaja. The use of this title for Kumaragupta I in the Mankuwar Buddhist image inscription led Dr Fleet to conjecture that it may indicate an actual historical fact--the reduction of Kumaragupta I toward the close of his life to a feudal rank by Pushyamitras and Hunas, whose attacks on the Guptas are so pointedly alluded to in the Bhitari inscription of Skandagupta. Out of the 42 inscriptions available to us, 23 are private records, the rest (19) being official.

Official Records They are either in the nature of prasastis or charters recording land grants, known as tamra sasanas or tamra patras (c tamra sasanas are replete with mation either of the donor or the i more useful in determining the i of the times. They also contain more| accounts of political events. Such ] useful, for instance, in tracing the < of Chandragupta II and BuddhaguptasJ

Stone and Copper Plate Edicts Fo tions related to the period of the known, out of which 27 are engraved 1 these, 22 are private endowments, one: grant and the remaining 4 are Samudragupta and two of Skand remaining 15, one is on an iron coin prasasti of Chandragupta II. The others! plates--three of them record royal grants j record the sale of lands by the state : purpose of endowments to Brahmins and t the remaining one is a private record of an«

Utility of Gupta Inscriptions These furnish a good deal of valuable infor the political history as well as the relig and economic conditions of the Gupta j provenance indicates the area over which j held sway. The Junagarh record of Skand instance, proves, not only by its contents, 1 its position, that his authority was acknov Saurashtra. The provenance of the early in

A324

The Guptas and their Successors (ad 300-750) A325

fry also indicate the area in which it prasastis and the tamra sasanas s us information on the genealogy of tied in them.

Bmporary Inscriptions Inscripavraman of the Kadamba dynasty I had married off one of his daughters to i inscriptions of the Varman dynasty king the reign of Chandragupta II and || I, there was an indigenous line of s, who ruled independently in the of Mandasore over a great part of recognising the supremacy of the y also give us a clue about the date of Ion of that area by the Guptas, when they along with the stone inscription of 1. Inscriptions of Toramana and * furnish details about the decline of

The Rashtrakuta copper plates, sing then-rulers, have made reflections i emperor, Chandragupta II, though he is named. The Sarnath inscription of and Nalanda inscription of Yasodhariirectly give us information regarding

ITIC EVIDENCE

Nice The internal evidence of a coin i us in the reconstruction of the history of f in more than one way. They inform us of nt events of his reign not known from (e.g. the asvamedha type of coins of I). They hint towards some unusual ^developments like the Kumaradevi type f Chandragupta I. They give an insight into feelings of the king who issued them help us to form an idea of the general in his court. The types issued by upta create an impression that his reign by unusual military activity. Those r Chandragupta II give the impression that phere in the Gupta court during his reign tie more sophisticated. External Evidence The fabric and style of a coin may be of fine execution or it may be degenerate. Though it is not always safe to make inferences from stylistic variations, it sometimes helps to form an idea of the political conditions determining the sequence of events and ideas. For instance, the coinage of the successors of Kumaragupta I reveal a gradual decline in their artistic execution and finesse. It not only indicates the general

deterioration in the economic conditions of the empire but also helps us in assigning a probable date to a king who is not known from other sources.

LITERARY EVIDENCE

Secular Sources

Legal Texts Kamandaka's Nitisara, belonging to the reign of Chandragupta I,-is the Gupta equivalent of Kautilya's Arthasastra. It gives us a fair idea of the polity and administration of the Guptas. Both Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti, written during the fourth century AD, greatly influenced Gupta emperors in the administration of justice.

Kalidasa's Works They include Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Meghadootam, Raghuvamsam, Malavikagnimitram, Ritusamhara, and Kumar as ambhava. Though their subject-matter is love, nature and beauty, they nevertheless give us reliable information about the government, society and religion of the Gupta period. Besides, they also contain traces of political history.

Political Dramas Visakhadatta's Devichandraguptam tells us about Ramagupta's defeat by a Saka ruler (Basana), murder of the Saka ruler as well as Ramagupta by Chandragupta II, his accession to the throne and his marriage to Dhruvadevi (his brother's widow). But unfortunately it is available to us only in fragments. Vajjika's Kaumudimahotsava talks about the succession of Chandragupta I to the throne and his achievements. Sudraka's Mrichchhakatika is essentially the love story of Charudatta (a pious Brahmin) and Vasantsena (a famous courtesan) but also portrays the unstable political conditions of the period.


Sanskrit Kavyas and Other Literary Works Kathasarithsagara by Somadeva, Swapnavasavadatta by Bhasa, ChandraguptaPariprichchha, Sethubandha, Kavya Mimamsa, Ayurveda Dipika, and other works have some stories and legends which refer to the Guptas.

Religious Sources

Hindu Works Puranas like Vayu, Matsya', Vishnu, Bhagavat, Skanda, Brahmana, and Markandeya Puranas, refer to Gupta rulers in one or two lines and also have vague references to their territory. Kaliyugaraja-Vrithanta gives us the history of the dynasty of the kali age, and it has been considered as a genuine source for the Gupta history by some historians.

Buddhist Works The accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India, viz. Fahien (he visited during the reign of Chand though he visited India during I he gives us information about | Buddhism during Gupta period),! ited India in about ad 675, but refi of some villages to Chinese monastery by the first ruler, Sri < dynasty). Tilsya Pannati of Yati VriSl Buddhist monk of the Gupta ] some information about Buddhism during the Gupta $ Mulakalpa has several verses 1 Guptas. But they are unfor between verses relating to the < hence there is confusion.

Jaina Works Jinasena Sun's Ha though belongs to a much later j references to Guptas.

LIST OF GUPTA INSCRIPTIONS

Samudragupta 4 Allahabad Stone Pillar Prasasti ** Eran Stone Pillar Prasasti Nafanda Copper Plate Royal Charter Gaya Copper Plate Royal Charter j Chandragupta II 6 Mehrauli Iron Pillar Prasasti -r£ (Other five are private 1 records of donations) Kumaragupta 1 14 Out of them, five are official 1 Indore Stone Pillar Royal Charter * (Evidence of sub Buddhagupta 7 Paharpur Copper Plate Royal Charter inscription (Evidence of sta ownership of Ian One inscription each is generally attributed to the respective period of the following Gupta rulers: (i) Purugupta, (ii) Naraspta, (iii) Kumaragupta II, (iv) Vishnugupta, (v) Vainyagupta, and (vi) Bhanugupta I


I CONDITIONS

ure--Nature of Land

I by many scholars that the state was the aer of land. The most decisive argu-of the exclusive state ownership of | the Paharpur copper plate inscription of where it is stated that the emperor ; the state) acquired wealth as well as rit, when he made land grants. This vious that he was the owner of the land, ace is furnished to some extent by the Scial procedure that had to be undergone aining land grants. Further, land grants ' indicate that the king had the supreme I of land, otherwise he could not transfer sive rights to the recipient. Even after the |0f land, the king reserved certain preroga|r it. Thus, it appears that though the land 1 intents and purposes, that of the peasants, I its theoretical ownership.

iof Land

economic standpoint, land of the Gupta be classified into the following groups:

:

Cultivatable land

Waste land ita:Jungle or forest land Habitable land Sarah: Pasture land

t Land Tenures

l land grant inscriptions, certain specific Hand tenure are recorded. They are:

no: Land endowment in perpetuity.

aksayana: A perpetual endowment a recipient could not alienate but could is use of the income accruing from it eternally, i dharma: It means that a recipient has all to enjoy such a property but no right to a further gift of the same and can only enjoy the interest and income from the endowed land, but not administrative rights. Bhumichchhidranyaya: This meant rights of ownership as are acquired by a man making barren land cultivable for the first time, and is free from liability to pay rent for it.

While the nivi dharma kind of trusteeship was prevalent in many parts of north and central India, other kinds of trusteeship were probably followed mainly in the eastern part of the Gupta empire. Therefore, they are very frequently mentioned in inscriptions from Bengal.

Land Survey

In the Gupta period land survey is evident form the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and many other inscriptions. Location and boundaries of individual plots were carefully marked out and measured by the record keepers and influential men of the locality as mentioned in the Paharpur copper plate. An officer called ustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district and the village accountant preserved records of land in the village.

Land Transactions

In the Gupta period we have about ten references in copper plates to land sale. During the purchase of a piece of land, certain procedures were followed. First the application was sent to the headquarters of the district where the land was situated, that is, to the pustapala. On receipt of the application for purchase, the leading men and heads of families, apparently of the nearest village, were informed possibly to enable them to offer their objections if any. If there were no objections and after receiving the concurrence of the vishayapati (district head), the pustapala's department sold the land.

Religious Grants

Agrahara Grants These grants were restricted to Brahmins. They were meant to be perpetual, hereditary and tax free, accompanied with the assignment


of all land revenue. The Nalanda and Gaya grants of Samudragupta are the earliest records that throw light on the agrahara grants. The essential condition of these grants was that the revenue paying tenants should not be admitted to the privileged villages to the detriment of the king's revenue. These grants were specifically declared to be liable to resumption for breach of certain conditions such as no treason against the king, not guilty of offences of thefts, adultery, and the like. It is thus evident that the agrahara grants underlined the privileged position of the Brahmins. Also, these grants did not obviously allow any administrative function to grantees.

Devagrahara Grants Some inscriptions of the Gupta period show that villages were granted to secular parties also who administered them for religious purposes. The records of the maharajas of Uccakalpa dynasty of central India, who were the feudatories of the Guptas, show that while one of their known land grants was made in favour of a Brahmin, nearly all the rest are concerned with donations to persons of various classes such as writers, and merchants, for the purpose of repair and worship of temples.

Secular Grants

That land grants were made even independently to secular parties is evident from a grant made by the Uccakalpa dynasty. According to it, two villages were bestowed as a mark of favour, in perpetuity with fiscal and administrative rights upon a person called Pulindabhatta, who seems to have been an aboriginal chief. Other secular grants have been made in this period, but since they were not connected with religious donations they were not recorded on lasting material such as stone or copper. Epigraphic evidence of land grants made to officers for their administrative and military services is lacking, though such grants cannot be ruled out. In fact, certain designations of administrative officers such as bhagika and bhogapatika, and administrative units of the Gupta period suggest that land revenues were granted for remunerating government services. Beginning of Subinfeudatiofi

Gupta grants from Bengal and i authorise the beneficiary to rents or lands to others. But Skandagupta in central India auti to enjoy the land, cultivate it and;j long as he observes the conditio leaves clear scope for creating I ed land and this provides graphic evidence of subinfeudatioa^ in the western part of central tury ad and which characterise* f Valabhi rulers in the sixth and i

Position of Peasantry

From the fifth century ad onwardM land grants in central and western J not only the right to punish thieves 1 to try civil cases. These, together' obviously led to the oppression of j inhabitants of the gifted villages,' obey their new masters and carry oulf Gujarat, central India and even from the sixth century indicate that t often required to remain on their 1 was granted to others. Thus in ce country, the position of independent 1 undermined and they were reduced toi| serfs. Repression of peasants was also j rights of sub infeudation granted to i grants. This implied the recipients' i tenants from their lands. This practical dation, therefore, reduced permanent I position of tenants-at-will. The positaj was undermined also on account of the i forced labour and several new taxes.

LIST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF i

Bhaga King's customary sha duce normally an sixth of the produce, cultivators.


Periodic supplies of fruits, firewood, flowers etc. which the villagers had to furnish to the king. A periodic tax levied on the villagers. It does not appear to be a part of the regular annual land tax, but a special tax which might be remitted by conscientious kings. Originally it was a voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. During the Gupta period, it seems to have been an additional oppressive tax. It could be either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax. Hence it was also an extra tax on the people. There is no unanimity about its meaning and nature, but it was also an extra tax levied on all subjects. Literally it means a tax payable in gold coins but in practice it was probably the king's share of certain crops paid in kind. Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the spirits (bhuta). It was a plough tax, paid by every cultivator owning a plough. It was a royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants. Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls. land Purchase and sales tax.

ITURE

f Agriculture

I plentiful references to agriculture and its ct in the sources on the Gupta period. A Nature and establishment of irrigation !ly helped the expansion of agriculture, pjrom the state and individual cultivators. s, Buddhist and Jaina Sanghas brought waste lands under cultivation when these were donated to them as religious endowments. We find in Kalidasa that even the hermits utilised lands for the purpose of agriculture and produced different kinds of food grains for their own maintenance.

Keeping the importance of agriculture in view, both Narada and Brihaspati laid down rules for drastic punishment of those guilty of either damaging crops or stealing food grains. Even herdsmen were subject to punishment, if due to their negligence, cattle damaged crops. At the same time the cultivator was also asked to fence and protect his field properly. Though we find numerous references to prosperous agriculture during the period, there are equally frequent references to droughts, floods, crop failures and famines.

Land Holdings

In the Gupta period the agricultural holdings were probably small and were cultivated by the owner himself with the help of his family members. But there were also some landholdings, like eleven patakas of land mentioned in the Gunaigarh plate where the owner hired labour for its cultivation or let out the land to sharecroppers. Narada as well as Brihaspati laid down certain rules to govern the relations between the land owner and the hired labour or share-cropper. These rules were essentially meant to safeguard the interests of both the parties concerned.

Crop Pattern and Crops

Since rainfall played a crucial role in agriculture in most of the areas, Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira deals elaborately with meteorological observations providing guidelines to cultivators. There were, according to Varahamihira, three harvests at least in some parts of India--the summer, autumn and spring crops. Both Varahamihira and Amarasimha frequently mention various crops cultivated during the period, such as rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane and oil seeds. From the works of Kalidasa it is evident that south India was famous for pepper


and cardamom. There were also various fruits grown in different parts of India like mango, coconut, grape, palmyra and breadfruit. Varahamihira gives elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees.

Irrigation

The importance of irrigation to help agriculture was recognised in India from the earliest times, for all parts of India were not liberally and equally watered by rivers and rainfall. The north-western part of India especially needed irrigation, which was done by various means. Canals were constructed to prevent inundation as well as to irrigate dry areas. According to Narada, there were two kinds of dykes--the bardhya which protected the field from floods and the khaya which served the purpose of irrigation. The canals which were meant to prevent inundation were also mentioned by Amarasimha as jalanirgamah (drains). Canals were constructed not only from rivers but also tanks and lakes. The tanks were variously called, according to their sizes, as the vapi, tadaga, and dirghula. Of the lakes, the most famous was the Sudarsana lake at the foot of the Girnar Hills in Gujarat. Wells were also used for irrigation of small plots of land. Brihaspati informs us that fines were imposed on those who did any mischief to the irrigation works.

Forestry

Kalidasa provides an elaborate account of forests and forest produce of the Gupta period. The forests yielded a variety of products, such as timber for buildings, boats and ships, skins of various wild animals, ivory, musk, lac and yak tail. That the forests were considered a source of considerable wealth is testified to by the appointment of a royal official as the superintendent of forests, known as gaulmika.

INDUSTRY

Mining and Metallurgy

Among the various industries that flourished in the Gupta period, mining and metallurgy certainly occupied the top position. Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent i mines. From their accountsi'ifi mines of the Kushana worked in the Guptas periodl of Amarasimha gives a co including iron, gold, silver, r bronze or bell-metal (pittal), i mony, red chalk (silajatu) anili Of all the metals, iron was t ful, and blacksmiths were only! importance in the rural con tured, as is evident from the various domestic and agricu and weapons. The Amarakosa \ ploughshare, which may indicate^ most important agricultural ir cultivation of land. It seems there had also taken place some! ploughshare itself, which faciliti and brought virgin land under < eloquent evidence of the high which metallurgy had attained in I the Mehrauli pillar of King Chandra^ as Chandragupta II. This monolith, i through centuries without rusting, is j the genius of the iron-workers of s While the blacksmiths catered to j sections of the society, the goldsmifl fled the demands of the rich. Conti testifies to the wide use of jewellery 1 the time. Ornaments not only beauty but were also a convenient me to save against possible misfortunes, development of the period in metal the manufacture of seals and statues, ] the Buddha. Metal workers formed an in sizeable class of artisans. It was laid < metal worker in iron, gold, silver, copper,^ has to pay to the owner of these metals| these to the artisans to prepare utensils, i loss in smelting which exceeds the usual I

Pottery and Terracottas

A very popular and widely prevalent form'1 try was that of making pots, terracotta fig and leads. The extant specimens reveal


I perfection reached in moulding fthem. While clay utensils were popu-domestic use, clay figures were in (both religious and secular purposes, ye use of clay was natural because of its plity.

I Sculpture

»several masons and sculptors whose i stone. They worked on buildings, pili and statues. Many beautiful monaster-i temples were constructed. A few of vived the ravages of time and foreign i different parts of India.

ducts like silk, wool and skins were a ' for a considerable number of peo-1 wool products and articles made of rare ormally used by the rich people. But cot-i were used by all classes of people. The jpng and embroidery was highly developed silk, wool and cotton industry. The i show that in central and western India, | of silk weavers flourished well, for they lised in guilds and made endowments for i purposes. But some silk weavers had to from Gujarat to Malwa, probably on i of declining demand for their products, and |ive up their profession.

f'~' NIND COMMERCE

I Trade

f Merchants While the traders were a sepi by themselves, we find references to two Jlive types--sresti and sarthavaha. The sresti illy settled at a particular place and enjoyed nt position, by virtue of his wealth and i in the commercial life and administration |4>lace. The sarthavaha was a caravan trader ried his merchandise to different places for ble sale. He often sold his goods for three or ties their original price. Considering the risks

involved on the trade route, this was perhaps not unreasonable. Like the sresti, the sarthavaha also was an important figure in city life.

Items of Trade While local trade was mostly confined to the articles of daily use, trade between the different parts of India was usually for valuable and luxury commodities like pepper, sandalwood, coral, musk, saffron, yak's tail, elephants, horses', gold, copper, iron and mica.

Trade Practices Narada and Brihaspati laid down many regulations to govern the trade practices of the time, particularly concerning the return of goods once sold, quality of the goods, dishonest dealing in substandard and stolen goods. Dishonesty in trade was, however, not a rare phenomenon, in spite of such rules.

Prices and Measurements The Gupta period differed from the Mauryan age in one important respect. Unlike the Mauryas, the Guptas did not try to fix the prices, which, therefore, fluctuated according to supply and demand. In the Gupta period not only prices but also units of measurements varied from place to place.

External Trade

Inspite of evidence of arts and crafts, foreign trade of the Gupta period does not seem to have been as extensive as in the pre-Gupta period. Trade with Rome, which was the main source of earning bullion for India, was undermined by the Roman reaction against the drain of gold, and was completely stopped because of the barbarian invasions of the Roman and Gupta empires. Trade was, however, revived between India and the Byzantine empire, as we learn from the account of Procopius, and it probably worked in favour of India.

Trade with the Byzantine Empire There was a considerable volume of trade going on between the Byzantine empire and India. This is obvious from the Byzantine gold coins discovered in southern, eastern and western parts of India. In his law digest, Justinian gave a long list of imports many of which were clearly stated to be Indian and few others were in all likelihood of Indian origin. They included


I iron, ivory and cotton, but the most important were spices and silk. The Persian traders used to make inordinate profits from the silk trade between India and Byzantine, and Justinian tried in various ways to break the Persian monopoly in silk trade. Besides, India had also trade contacts with Arabia, Persia and perhaps Armenia.

Trade with Ceylon India had close commercial relations with Ceylon during this period. Ceylon received a wide variety of commodities from India like textiles, spices, sandalwood, musk, castor oil, horses and elephants. These were probably again exported to other countries from Ceylon. India's imports from Ceylon were perhaps pearls and silver.

Trade with South-East Asia The coastal people of southern and eastern India carried on trade with the countries of South-East Asia, where they had planted colonies. But India's commercial relations with the East (China and East Asia) were not on the same scale as with countries in the West, and also they did not seriously affect the economy of the interior of the country. However, these contacts, particularly with countries in SouthEast Asia, produced far-reaching effects on the cultures of those countries.

Guilds and Corporations

The law books of Gupta period lay down detailed rules regarding the functioning of the guilds and corporations. These corporate bodies not only performed important economic functions such as carrying out joint contracts, plying trade and receiving money deposits, but also performed judicial and executive functions. Epigraphic evidence of the period shows that the guilds not only issued coins and seals, but also maintained their own militia, which, according to the Kalachuri inscriptions, was known as srenibala. The increasingly autonomous character of the guilds, as virtually independent units of production and political power, can be inferred from the rules which govern the relation between the guilds and the state. The earlier texts enjoin the king to pay respect to the customs of the guilds (srenidharmd), but those of the Gupta times

instruct the king to enforce the usages | the guilds. Brihaspati, for instance, lays down ( er is done by the heads of guilds tov pie, in accordance with prescribed must be approved by the king, for they t to be the appointed managers of af warns that if the usages of localitie families are not maintained, the people i contented and wealth will suffer the seems that the guilds were free to act J manner they liked, and the king accept their decision. However, on certain occasions the'1 interfere in the affairs of the guilds, down that the king shall prevent a different guilds, probably of a hostile^ arming of these corporations witho grounds. The king is also asked by Ni vent the guilds from embarking immoral or criminal actions. But all thg| lations clearly show that during the ( guilds were considered capable of I authority of the state. Probably some < dominated the economic life of the Vaisali and Mandasore, and thus func pendent units of production.

Currency

It is not easy to ascertain with any tainty as to who introduced the Gupta I rency. Until recently it was held that I I, being the first imperial ruler of the j also the originator of the currency sy the Chandragupta-Kumaradevi type were the earliest gold coins of the dy close comparative numismatic study < and other types of gold coins of some scholars have suggested Samudragupta who first issued Gupta ( first gold coins were of the standard I later on he issued the Chandragup type of coins to commemorate his : to the Lichchhavi princess which of great benefit to the Gupta dynasty.


that the minting of silver coins I in the reign of Chandragupta II and i by Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta. old and silver coins, copper coins were jf though to a much limited extent, at least I of Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. at there was a paucity of coins from nod onwards. For the Gupta emperors i as many copper coins as their predeIndo-Greeks and especially the a large number of copper coins, | evidently in common use in different r territories. Thus, Fahien seems to have when he stated that cowries (small f|s currency) formed the common medige. The comparative scarcity of Gupta (that there was hardly any easy medium Sch people of one town could enter into itions with those of the other. The gold iby the Gupta rulers could be useful only tions such as the sale and purchase of hich dinaras (gold coins) were used, flsactions were evidently conducted {^barter system or cowries. efore, argued that Indian economy in i period was largely based on self-suffil Of production in villages and towns, and economy was gradually becoming dis time. The bond of state control which i units together in the Maurya period and currency which unified it in the pre-I no longer operated during this period, not, however, mean that production agricultural and craft produgtion, irlier, had shown a substantial increase. the contract between a lender and a borrower, and perhaps intervened only in extreme cases of usury. Almost virtual absence of state control might well have led to great distress to the borrower in many cases. Individuals as well as collective bodies like guilds and corporations were found involved in this business. In contracting loans, they framed their own rules, although in this respect they seem to have been largely guided by local customs. Narada and Brihaspati laid down rules regarding the security, guarantor and validity, and utility of loan documents. The normal rate of interest according to them was 15 per cent per annum. But interestingly the rates of interest varied from one caste to another, the lowest being paid by the Brahmins. The obligation to repay a loan was inherited by the son or any legal heirs of a debtor.

Urban Centres

The emergence of self-sufficient local units of production is also indicated by the gradual decay of urban centres in the Gupta period. Archaeology shows that Kushana layers belonging to the first-third centuries ad were very flourishing. On the other hand, the Gupta layers belonging to the fourth-sixth centuries ad were in a state of decline, and in many cases Kushana bricks were used in Gupta structures. In many urban sites habitation disappeared after the sixth century ad. This is evident from the excavations at a number of sites in north India such as Sanghol (in Ludhiana), Indraprastha, Hastinapur, and Chirand. The same position obtains in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

connected with currency was usury. |ft was one of the recognised professions, quired thereby did not earn any social r«i the Gupta period. However, both I Brihaspati laid down rules for conduct siness and pointed out the legal, moral omic justifications of interest. The Gupta I apparently little responsibility concerning POLITICAL HISTORY

The Early Guptas

Srigupta and his son Ghatotkachagupta were nonentities assuming the simple title ofmaharaja. As it is not known definitely where these Gupta kings ruled and whether they owed allegiance to any paramount sovereign, it is better to leave undecided the status of the first two Gupta kings.


Chandragupta I

The third ruler Chandragupta I, the son and successor of Ghatotkacha, was definitely a strong ruler whose hands were sought by the Lichchhavis who gave their princess Kumaradevi in marriage to him. This matrimonial alliance with this ancient historic family no doubt enhanced the status of the obscure Guptas. The Lichchhavi territory of north Bihar and the adjoining principality over which the Guptas ruled were united under Chandragupta and the latter was able to extend his dominion over Oudh as well as Magadha, and along the Ganges as far as Prayaga or Allahabad. Chandragupta I is usually regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, which commenced on 26 February, ad 320 to commemorate his accession or coronation--an era which continued in parts of India for several centuries.

Samudragupta

Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son, Samudragupta, who became the ruler after subduing his rival, Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription, written by Harisena, gives a detailed account of the conquests of his royal master. This account contains a long list of states, kings and tribes which were conquered and brought under various degrees of subjugation. This list can be divided into four categories.

The first one includes the 12 states of Dakshinapatha with the names of their kings, who were captured and then liberated and reinstated. They were Kosala, Pistapura, Kanchi, Vengi, Erandapalli, Devarashtra, Avamukta, Dusthalapura, Mahakantara, Kurala, Kothura and Palakka. The second one contains the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta who were exterminated. The third one consists of the rulers of forest states who were reduced to servitude and the chiefs of the five pratyantas or border states, and also nine tribal republics, that

were forced to pay all kinds of taxes, obey his orders and come to perform obeisance. The five border states were Samtata (East Bengal), Davaka (Assam), Kamarupa Kartipura (Kashmir). 1 were the Malavas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Kavas, and Kharap The fourth one incK Shahanushahs (Kushand the dwellers of SinhaW<3 who offered their own Samudragupta.

Aryavarta Campaigns It isL paigns in the Aryavarta, pose of the extermination of i preceded the subjugation of the| Several factors were resp of the Naga kingdoms. Geop the foremost. In the fourth were, apart from the Guptas,' the Aryavarta region. Therefo the Gupta expansion, the first! nated by the struggle against the} Religious differences also pli Guptas were great devotees of Vis of their rivals, the Nagas, the Va and the Maitrakas were staunch! However, the most important Samudragupta to launch a ca Nagas was the opportunity provid disturbances in the Bharasiva and ' which followed the deaths of Bharasivas and Pravarasena I of, Samudragupta, exploiting this sit vigorous campaign against the Na them. After the destruction of the Na strength with the Vakatakas becam^l able eventuality. The Vakatakas, tho the Deccan,, were dabbling in the Aryavarta, a fact which no imperial as! north could feel very happy about, defeated the Vakatakas which broug status significantly. After Prava king of the Vakataka family assume samrat, or any other imperial title for t


later Samudragupta paid attention to item part of the Ganga basin, i.e. mod-I Bengal. Throughout the ancient period £ enjoyed a unique position as a port for |
t against Tribal and Border States The hether the states enumerated in the 3rd ; (tribal states, border states, etc.) accepted hip of the Gupta emperor voluntarily or P?he had to undertake military expeditions , has been left unanswered by Harisena. sing he tried to cultivate friendship with (peoples of the Punjab and Rajasthan, who ated beyond the Naga kingdoms, were his ads; and later on, when he became the 1 master of Aryavarta, he reduced his erstDds to the status of his subordinate allies. |1n some cases he had to exert pressure.

ha Campaigns Samudragupta, duri reign of more than two decades, invaded uth of the Vindhyas perhaps more than once. |f had divided peninsular India into several ompartments with poor communication I them. Consequently the empire-builders of valley could only rarely establish their f over it on a secure footing. But at the same ' could hardly resist the temptation of helpelves to the immense wealth which the |.of the south had accumulated through mare. And the interaction of these two factors 1 their policy towards the south--the pol(jsending plundering expeditions to it without it. Hence, Samudragupta too adopted the olicy, often obtaining what he wanted.

: with the Island States The necessities ne trade with the East and South-East Asia t trans-oceanic orientation to the political out-policies of the early Gupta rulers. The 'rulers of Ceylon and many other islands

entered into diplomatic and friendly relations with Samudragupta.

Chandragupta II

His Accession Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II, surnamed Vikramaditya. But according to some scholars, the immediate successor of Samudragupta was his son Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II. A drama Devichandraguptam, by Visakhadatta, mentions that Ramagupta agreed to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to the infatuation of a Saka chief (Basana) who had invaded his kingdom. The honour of the queen was saved by Chandragupta, younger brother of Ramagupta, who killed the Saka chief, usurped the throne and married the widow. This story with slight variations is referred to in Bana's Harshacharita, Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa and some Rashtrakuta inscriptions of the 9th and 10th centuries. However, the historicity of Ramagupta is a matter of great doubt as neither the contemporary inscriptions nor the coins mention any king of that name.

Conquest of Western India Chandragupta inherited the military genius of his father and extended the Gupta empire by conquests of his own. His principal opponent was the Saka ruler of Gujarat and Kathiawar Peninsula, belonging to the family of western satraps, whose continued independence prevented the political unity of India. In this arduous undertaking against the foreigner, the dominating question that weighed on the king was to secure the friendship of the Vakatakas of Berar who could render inestimable service from their strategic'geographical position. This he achieved by cementing a matrimonial alliance when he gave his daughter Prabhavati by his wife Kubera Naga in marriage to the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. The details of the campaign against the Sakas are not known, but Chandragupta II, accompanied by his feudatory chiefs and ministers, had to wait patiently in Malwa before making the final assault. His efforts were crowned with success. Rudrasimha III, the last of the long line of Saka satraps, was killed.

A336 i^m I .. 'ndl°nHisfo'y: Ancien, (nd(-a

Chandragupta II married KubflMJ ily. The Nagas were a powerful i matrimonial alliance helped the Guj ing his empire. The marriage Prabhavati with the Vakataka king* him to establish his political influa An inscription of the Kadamba i of Kuntala (Canarese country) av were married to the Gupta and oth Fahien's Visit During the reign d the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, F^ The main object of Fahien's missia secure copies of Buddhist mamigj route lay through the inhospitabte,| mountainous tracts of Khotan, thef Gandhara. In India he visited ~ Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Pataliputra, Kasi, Gaya, Bodh ^^ places. He spent three years at PatalijTamralipti. On his return journey, Tamralipti, going home by sea and m and Java on the way. Fahien does qj| name of Chandragupta Vikramadityd interesting information about the lifej and the general condition of the c

Kathiawar and Gujarat To! o!,/ ^ annexation of empn-e from the iy of Re ^ CXpanded th* Gupta but also brought it indLct§ * *" ^^ Sea ;/ r;Vhe acquiS^^7ith theweste™ i

"nd other ports dotted on th ' °Para' Cambay

""d Ae income from th? *" Weste™ coast of India ^.--ousp£S£™"? d«ies collected^ Pen* to the Gupta "±7 8'Ven ^"omic pros. ss::^^--^^

^^»jefc^* 0^^2r^=s^= Gupta conquest of the K"? e Impulse *« the f» ™ad from PatalipuândT P°rtS' °DCe mo^ '% cities of northern and ' ^^ manufactur"ght up to the Sea 7he ffn emral India "» open ?^S£t£5»st aax^S*1^: Poured Roman „ ^«. The western traders

^mn products and the fffcLfr"7 * return f<* the country is noticeabL in th ^^ Wealth «n

Kumaragupta /

Chandraeunta rr KumaragSS whl ™" SUCCeeded k =£s?--i ''ec«£--^ ***** Malwa *<£%£*>** ad"ed ,

ârds the close o?PKempireire was menaced '™ *,umaragupta's i Probably a tribe M* des of ^ Push fortunes of K^hCd tO the H««as. F«5

^tthecouiTS13^^310^ of crown prinS tST"00" ^ ^ îsisrjsr2

-êrofthe coins ofcLndrtpTnVarietyd Other Conquests rh a

Conquests to his StSa ^ °*er -riH-on the lron pil,ar *tAtnnscnpt10n engraved

^ a klng named chan^defeat^ " ^ States of hosble chiefs in Vama, Zf? a confederacy ^ven mouths of theS S^** CrOSSed * Vahhkas. Vanga denotes East fi', C°nquered *e identified by some c t , stBengal and Vahlika i. gsssssss ChandragUpta „ if ^^"y identified with m««t hold that ChandraS , Mtentifi«toB, we emPin al, directions^ e^T Ae °UPta ****!***» ^'^^^west. place in -^ ^ri-^


| his accession Skandagupta had to face the i had already proved themselves to be a i Europe and Asia. About the middle of ntury ad one branch of the Hunas, known Ities or White Hunas, occupied the Oxus I threatened both Persia and India. They I Gandhara and threatened the very exis-: Gupta empire. faced the situation with grim reso-I inflicted such a terrible defeat upon the tthe latter dared not disturb the empire for Af a century. It was a magnificent achieve-hich he assumed the title Vikramaditya in of his grandfather. The Chandra and Kathasaritsagara refer to a's victory over the Hunas. nt source of anxiety was the old Saka |,of Saurashtra, newly annexed to the Gupta : he appointed a capable person called i as governor. An inscription in the Girnar fc'Junagarh in Kathiawar refers to the restora*«the ancient embankment of the great i lake, which had burst owing to heavy rains year of Skandagupta's reign. Pamadatta son Chakrapalita promptly repaired the I saved the country from a great calamity. IHuna war must have taxed the financial i of the empire and this is reflected in the j«of Skandagupta. His gold coins were not J in number but also showed depreciation in i of gold. In spite of the Huna invasion and ubles, Skandagupta was able to maintain the pire and the people enjoyed the blessing i administration.

Ore

' of the imperial Guptas after the death of is obscure. Several kings crowd the fhistory whose dates and exact relationship of speculation among historians. The tlogy traces the imperial line from through Purugupta and altogether ^Skandagupta. We do not know for certain whether Purugupta ascended the throne immediately after his father's death or seized the throne after the death of his brother Skandagupta. But indubitably he reigned and reigned for a brief period and the imperial line was continued by his two sons Buddhagupta and Narasimhagupta.

The reference to Kumaragupta II in the inscriptions introduces a complex problem in the official genealogy. He might have been a son of Skandagupta who was succeeded by Buddhagupta. It is also probable that Kumaragupta II was a son of Purugupta and succeeded him after his death. In any case the reigns of Purugupta and Kumaragupta II were short. With the accession of Buddhagupta the history of the imperial Guptas stands on a firm ground. The records of his reign prove beyond doubt that he ruled over extensive regions stretching from Malwa to Bengal. But it was during his reign that the Gupta empire showed signs of visible decay with feudatory states breaking away from the empire. The Maitrakas of Valabhi, ruling in Kathiawar peninsula, and the Parivrajakas of Bundelkhand refer only in vague general terms to the paramount Gupta emperor indicating then-determination to throw off the suzerainty of the imperial Guptas. Similarly, Maharaja Subandhu, a contemporary of Buddhagupta, who issued a land grant from the ancient town of Mahishmati, presumably asserted his independence as he did not refer to any Gupta sovereign. The coins of Buddhagupta also reflect the process of decline that had set in the Gupta empire. His gold coins are very rare. All these instances go to prove that the process of enfeeblement of the empire had gone too far owing to internal weakness and the war of succession that engulfed the Gupta empire after Skandagupta's exit. The death of Buddhagupta was followed by a confused period of internal dissensions leading to the dismemberment of the empire and the renewed invasion of the Hunas. According to official genealogy Buddhagupta's brother, Narasimhagupta, occupied the imperial throne, and was followed by his son and grandson. The reigns of these three emperors covered the first half of the sixth century ad. But it was during this period that we find the existence of two other kings--Vainyagupta (ad 506)


ruling in Samatata and Nalanda and Bhanugupta (ad 510-r511) in Eran (Saugar district, Madhya Pradesh). Vainyagupta's gold coins and seals leave no doubt that he belonged to the imperial Gupta family. It is probable that Vainyagupta was at first appointed a provincial governor of Bengal by Buddhagupta and then he ascended the imperial throne in ad 506. The other, Bhanugupta, known from a single inscription of Eran, fought a famous battle in which his general Goparaja died and his wife committed sati. The battle fought at Eran must have been directed against the Huna chief, Toramana, who had by that time conquered this region. But unfortunately, the result of the battle is not known and Bhanugupta remains a shadowy figure. Vishnugupta was the last ruler of the imperial Gupta family which had enjoyed sovereignty for more than 230 years.

Hunas

In the beginning of the 6th century ad, a Huna chief named Toramana, proceeding from Gandhara, advanced right up to Malwa. His invasion took place f* at a time when the Gupta imperial family was passing through one of the most critical periods of its history. But his success proved ephemeral due to the defeat he met with at the hands of Bhanugupta in ad 510. His coins show that he ruled over parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajputana, Punjab and Kashmir. According to a Jaina work he was converted to that faith and lived at Pavaiya on the bank of the Chandrabhaga (Chenab river). Toramana was succeeded by his son, Mihirakula sometime in ad 510 whose cruelty and power are recorded by Hiuen Tsang and Kalhana in the Rajatarangini. According to Hiuen Tsang, his capital was at Sakala (Sialkot in the Punjab). It appears from all accounts that he was a powerful tyrant whose sovereignty extended up to Gwalior. Cosmos, an Alexandrian Greek, in his Christian Topography refers to the power of the White Hunas in India. Their king Gollas, usually identified with Mihirakula, according to Cosmos, was the lord of India and forced the people to pay tribute. He remarks "The river Phison separates all the countries of India from the country off the same as the river Indus i therefore, was originally < Sindhu.

Mihirakula was not destiu dancy for a long time. Yasodharman of Mandasor; finally put an end to his ambitious chief of Malwa,; obeisance. Mihirakula was < did not eliminate him as an i political scene. Yasodharman'*' soon after, emboldened the ] marauding activities. The Gupta king, Narasir the full brunt of Mihirakula's i had already been overwheli pressure of Yasodharman. Tsang, Narasimhagupta was: ing position of paying tribute I the long run he triumphed over*! ?Tsang describes in great detail! 'invaded Magadha, was king Baladirya. The recent < tion at Nalanda where Narasiu as 'the great king of irresis quished all the foes' Narasimhagupta's victory, in Kashmir, but died soon aftefi J weakened by Mihirakula's defi source of potential danger to existence is known even in la

Gupta Administration

The inscriptions mention the usual for Guptas: paramadvaita, j maharajadhiraja, prithvipala, rat, ekadhiraja and chakra assisted in his administration called mantri or sachiva. Pratih haras were important officers though they did not participate in| Among the important military j tioned senapati, mahasenap mahabaladhyaksha, baladhikrita


perhaps represented different grades. t two other high military officers--the ft', commander of the infantry and cavalry commander of the elephant corps, nt official mentioned in the Basarh ^ranabhandagaradhikarana, chief of the 'the war office. One more high officer, | for the first time in the Gupta records, was hika or mahasandhivigrahika, a sort of

the inscriptions mentions sarvadhyakntendents of all, but it is not clear were central or provincial officers, i inscriptions mention dutaka or duta who ated royal commands to officers and peoDandapasadhikarana represented ' of the police. Ordinary police officials i as dandapasika, chatas, bhatas, dandi'fitiser), and chauroddharanika (officer og thieves). maintained a close liaison with the jil administration through a class of officials aramatyas and ayuktas. The provinces were usually governed by officers s. The governor of a bhukti has various i in the official records--bhogika, gopta, haraja and rajasthaniya. Bhuktis were into vishayas. These were governed by atis. Headquarter of the district was known as na and the executive officers of the district vahari and ayuktakas. The district magis-helped in his administration by a large ' were maharattaras (village elders), ash-hikaranikas (officers in-charge of groups of alas or families in the local area), gramika headman), saulkika (collector of customs Us), gaulmika (in-charge of forests and forts), < (in-charge of the agraharas, settlements to Brahmins), Dhruvadhikaranika ge of land revenue), bhandagaradhikrita t), talavataka (village accountant), rita (collector of taxes) and pustapala (the r and keeper of records), district records office called akshapatala in charge of mahakshapatalika. There were also, in the district office, sarvodhyakshas or general superintendents under whom were employed men of noble lineage called kulaputras to guard against corruption. The popular element played an important part in the district administration. The advisory district council consisted principally of four members, namely the guild president (nagarasreshthi), the chief merchant (sarthavahd), the chief artisan (prathamakulika), and the chief scribe (prathamakayasthd). The villages were under gramikas along with whom were associated mahattaras or the senior persons of different classes. The town administration was carried on by the mayor

of the city called pura-pala who corresponded to nagaravyavaharakas of the Mauryan age.

GUPTA ARTS

Architecture

By evolving the Nagara and Dravida styles, the Gupta art ushers in the history of Indian architecture a formative and creative age with unlimited scope for future development and elaboration.

Rock-cut Caves The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a large extent, but possess striking novelty by bringing about extensive changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the interior. The most notable groups of rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (MP). The Udayagiri caves (Orissa) are also of this type. Structural Temples: The following five groups may be distinguished among the structural temples.

1. 2.

Flat-roofed square temple; Flat-roofed square temple with a second storey (vimand) above;

3.

Square temple with a curvilinear tower (sikhara) above;

4. 5.

Rectangular temple; and Circular temple.


The second group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the Dravida style. The importance of third group lies in the innovation of a sikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum, the main feature of the Nagara style. Stupas: They were also built in large numbers, but the best are found at Samath (UP), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khan (Sind).

Sculpture

Stone Sculpture A good specimen is the well-known erect Buddha from Sarnath. Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri. Metal Statues: The art of casting statues on a large scale by the cire process was practised by Guptan craftsmen with conspicuous success. Two remarkable examples of Gupta metal sculpture are (1) A copper image of the Buddha, about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar, and (2) Sultanganj Buddha of seven and half feet.

Painting

The art of painting seems to have been more in general practice and popular demand in the Gupta period than the art of stone sculpture. Remains of paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places. From the point of technique, the surface of these paintings was perhaps done in a very simple way. In fact the mural paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, for a fresco is painted while the plaster is still damp and the murals of Ajanta were made after it had set. The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the 'Madhyadesa School' of painting at its best.

Terracottas and Pottery

Clay Figurines were used both for religious and secular purposes. We have figurines of Vishnu, Kartikeya, Surya, Durga, Kubera, Nagas and other gods and goddesses. Gupta pottery Rajgarh, Hastinapur and! proof of the excellence of j tive class of pottery of this j

GUPTA LITERATURE

Sanskrit

The Guptas made Sanskrit the < all their epigraphic records we

SmrMs The period saw the last| literature.

Ithihasas The Mahabharata also got their final touch-up and I ent shape during this age.

Puranas The Puranas also as we i present form were composed > are the historical traditions as Brahmins. They were originally i but now, having come into priestly 1 rewritten in classical Sanskrit, and* Hindu sects, rites and customs was ( make them into sacrosanct Hindu succession of dynasties was recordedl prophecy. Thus, what began as ] the past was revised and rewritten in $ and became the Brahmanical inti

Buddhist Literature The earliest J are in Pali, but in the later phase Sa used to a greater extent and most of the i prose with verse passages in mixed Deva and Arya Asanga of the Gupta j most notable writers. The first reg work on logic was written by Vasubandhu's disciple, Dignaga, was i of many learned works.

Jaina Literature The Jaina canonical lil first grew up in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit < the medium later. Within a short time, Ja duced many great scholars and by their $ Hindu Ithihasas and Puranas were rec versions to popularise their doctrines. Vin duced a Jaina version of the Ramayana. Si<


t the foundation of logic among the

lire Samudragupta himself had JOS fame as kaviraja. The most notable I court was Harisena. It is widely I his court was adorned by the celearatnas--Kalidasa, Amarasimha, i and Dhanavantri. Kalidasa is a poet I and beauty. The works of Sudraka atika), Visakhadatta (Mudraraksasa fandraguptam) and other less known I writers also have some definite lit-jocial value in the classical age, though hined by the brilliance of Kalidasa. An ire of the dramas of this period is I higher varna men speak in Sanskrit, sses and women of all varnas speak

Mnmar The Gupta period also saw the : of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini yi) and Patanjali (Mahabhashya). This licularly memorable for the compilation arakosa by Amarasimha. A Buddhist Bengal, Chandragomia, composed a ir, named Chandravyakaranam.

guage and Literature

i to Sanskrit, literature in Prakrits also had ge outside the court circle. The Gupta t witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit as Suraseni used in Mathura and its y, Ardha Magadhi spoken in Oudh and tid, Magadhi in modern Bihar, and ri in Berar.

i SCIENCES

tics and Astronomy

nulation of the theory of zero and the conse-; evolution of the decimal system are to be I to the thinkers of this age. he Surya Siddhanta, Aryabhatta (late fifth and sixth century ad) examines and explains the

true cause of the solar and lunar eclipses. His calculation of the size of the earth is very near to the modern estimation. He was the first Indian astronomer to discover that the earth rotates round its axis. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with arithmetics, geometry and algebra. Varahamihara's Brihat Samhita (sixth century ad) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history. His other works are Pancha Siddhantika, and Brihat Jataka. Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh century ad), anticipated Newton by declaring that 'all things fall to the earth by law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and keep things.' His works are Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Khanda Khadyaka. Perhaps one of the most seminal developments in the field of science was the pronouncement of the atomic theory by the Vaisesika school of physicists.

Medical and Other Sciences

Metallic preparations for the purpose of medicine and references to the use of mercury and iron by Varahamihira and others indicate that much progress was made in chemistry. The Navanitakarn was a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formulae and prescriptions. Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science, authored by Palakapya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period.

8.2 POLITICAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF THEIR SUCCESSORS

HARSHAVAROHANA (AD 606-47)

Sources for Marsha's Period

Bana was the court poet of Harsha and the author of Harshacharita, Kadambari and Parvatiparinay. Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the seventh century ad. Both deal with Harsha's wars but in a vague and general manner and sometimes make us even more confused.


Above all, they sometimes give an exaggerated account of Marsha. Marsha's dramas such as Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika give us information about the political conditions in those days. Nausasi Copper Plate gives us information about Marsha's successful expedition against Valabhi.

Origin and Early Life of Harsha

Marsha was the second son of Prabhakaravardhana, the first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty with its capital at Thanesvar. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas, but had assumed independence after the Huna invasions. Harsha was favoured to his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, by both his father and the nobles. But Harsha expressed his reluctance to supersede his brother. Rajyavardhana who became the ruler had to face problems from the day of his succession to the throne. Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kanauj and husband of Rajyasri (daughter of Prabhakara), was murdered by Devagupta (the ruler of Malwa) who in alliance with Sasanka (ruler of Gauda or Bengal) now occupied Kanauj and imprisoned Rajyasri. Rajyavardhana, therefore, undertook a campaign against Devagupta and killed him but he was deceived and killed by Sasanka. In the meanwhile Rajyasri escaped into the forests of central India. Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thanesvar. His first act as the ruler was naturally to rescue his sister and avenge the deaths of his brother and brother-in-law..^ was quite successful in both. He drove out Sasanka of Gauda from Kanauj. Between 606 and 612 he brought most of northern India (Punjab, Kanauj, parts of Gauda, Orissa and Mithila) under his control, and assumed the title of 'Siladitya'.

Harsha's Military Conquests

Occupation of Kanauj In his first expedition, Harsha drove away Sasanka from Kanauj who had occupied it after murdering Harsha's brother. After this, he not only unified Kanauj with Thanesvar but also made it his new capital, which made him the most powerful king of north India. Conquest of Valabhi His rulers of Valabhi were cor engaged in consolidating his Gupta-Gauda axis in the east.,j became the bone of contention 1 so he had to turn his attention Nausasi Copper Plate Inscription^ about his expedition against Va the defeat of the Valabhi ruler, Dh acceptance of the position of a fei

War with Pulakesin II The ab ever, proved to be the immediate & between Harsha and Pulakesin question of overlordship over the'1 and Gurjaras seems to have been thi cause of conflict between the twol^ gives an elaborate description of Ha tions for this war, but does not talk i However, he gives the impression I the aggressor but did not succeed ful^ Chalukyan records of Pulakesin's sue tion the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesii (the court poet of Pulakesin II and the i Aihole Inscription) also hints vaguely! sin's victory. But Ravi Kirti's accou the records of Pulakesin's successors! taken as impartial as none of the co records refer to Pulakesin's victory So the only thing we can say is tha attack was not a complete success, and i in the conclusion of an honourable Pulakesin, who continued to have his the south.

His Other Conquests According to : Hasha defeated the Pallava ruler, Mahend and also some other southern rulers, absence of any direct evidence, we cannot?! thing conclusively. But Orissa or the king Kalinga seems to have been subjugated byj Thus, Harsha established his hold practically! whole of north India. Rajasthan, Punjab,' and Orissa were under his direct con sphere of influence spread over a much since peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sin and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereig


itment

ned his empire on the same lines as the except that his administration had i feudal and decentralised. It is stated |6ad cavalry numbering over one lakh phants. This seems to be astonishing yas, who ruled over practically the 8 country, maintained only 30,000 cav-elephants. Harsha could possess a '. only if he could mobilise the support atories at the time of war. Evidently ory contributed his quota of foot soles, and thus made the army vast in

i continued to be made to priests for vices rendered to the state. In addition dited with the grant of land to the offis. These grants allowed more conces-its and officers than those by the earlier s, the feudal practice of rewarding and i with grants of land on a large scale we begun under Harsha.

r under Harsha

of the economy under Harsha became |gty more feudal and self-sufficient. The f trade and commerce which started during aj)eriod itself went on unabated under |This is evident from the decline of trade ['paucity of coins and the almost complete ce of guilds of traders and merchants, lline of trade and commerce obviously itte handicrafts and other industries for want

^decline affected even agriculture, though y. When trade was flourishing a great part of disc consisted of food stuffs, and also f the raw materials for handicrafts and indus-from agricultural production. But now i a lack of large-scale demand for agriculs. So the agriculturist now began to pro-r that much which was required to meet his and those of the locality but not for the ,both internal and external. This naturally led to the rise of a self-sufficient village economy, in which all the needs of the village were met from within, and also marked by an increasing dependence on agriculture.

Society under Harsha

This period witnessed the ascendancy of varnasramadharma and it became an indispensable cornerstone of the Brahmanical social structure. Hiuen Tsang writes about the existence of four varnas or orders in India. Bana characterised Harsha as one who carried out all the rules for the varnas and asramas. The first varna--Brahmins--continued to enjoy a very high and respectable position in the society and the glorification of gifts to them by the other three varnas became a distinct feature of Brahmanism. Despite the existence of some Sudra kings, the Kshatriya kings were in overwhelming majority. The third varna--Vaishyas--formed the class of traders, according to Hiuen Tsang. The fourth varna--Sudras--comprised the agriculturists according to Hiuen Tsang. Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang talk about the existence of many subcastes such as the class of vernacular poets, class of bards, class of betal-bearers, and so on. However, all those groups and subcastes were not new to this period and at least some of them existed in the earlier periods. The rise of those sub-castes was due to the social violation in the code of marriages and general ethics, and also different occupations. Hiuen Tsang takes note of many out-castes and untouchables such as butchers, fishermen, executioners and scavengers, who were segregated and were not allowed to mix with the people of the higher varnas and had habitations marked by a distinguishing sign. The position of women seems to have suffered a further decline during this period. The institution of svayamvara (self-choice in choosing the partner) declined and there is no instance of its practice in the contemporary literature. Remarriage of widows was not permitted particularly among the higher varnas. The evil system of dowry, according to Bana, was quite common. There are also a few examples of the practice of committing sati.

^


Religion under Harsha

Brahmanism, which reasserted itself under the Guptas, got further strengthened during this period. Its gradual ascendancy brought about the decline of Buddhism despite the patronage given to it by Harsha which is evident from the account of Hiuen Tsang. But Jainism did not undergo any major changes and it made neither progress nor any decay. Saivism became the main theistic system of this period. But Vaishnavism, which was very popular during the age of the Guptas, was gradually declining during this period as is evident from the rare references to it. The Vedic ceremonies and rituals once again came to be regarded as inseparable and integral constituents of Brahmanism, and the people practised them on a large scale.

CHALUKYAS (a o 543-755)

Controversy about Origin

North Indian Origin According to Bilhana, the author of Vikramankacharita and the court poet of one of the Kayani Chalukyan rulers, their original home of the Chalukyas was Ayodhya. Also, the later Chalukyan inscriptions lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home. But all this seems to have been done to claim legitimacy and respectability.

West Indian Origin According to another opinion the Chalukyas were related to Gurjaras. But there is no direct evidence for this opinion also.

Indigenous Origin The Chalukyas, according to third opinion, were a local Kanarese people, who improvised into the ruling varna under Brahmanical influence. The third opinion seems to be more probable, though there is no sufficient evidence for this also.

Political History

Pulakesin I (543-66) Founder of the Chalukya Dynasty, he established a small kingdom with Badami (Vatapi) as its capital. Kirtivarman I (566-97) Pulakesin I, he expanded against the Kadambas of I Bastar.

Mangalesa (597-609) man, his brother became Pulakesin II was a minor, territories of Gujarat,

Pulakesin II (609-42) Co the Chalukya rulers of Ba the problems he had to face^ throne, but also because of 1 as well as diplomatic achieve

He had to wage a civil Mangalesa, who refused to | Though Pulakesin succe killing his uncle, this civil i kingdom and rebellions sides. But he was quite! sion of these rebellions, feudatory, Appayika, and | ate, Govinda, when the latter f sion. Establishment of his su bours such as Kadambas of I of south Kanara, the Gangas < Mauryas of north Konkan. Ap rulers, the Latas, Malwas offered their submission to 1 fear of Harshavardhana of! His clash with Harsha, in wb check Harsha's design to con Conquests in the eastern Kosala, Kalinga, Pistapura Rayalaseema offered their sub defeat at the hands of Pulakesin., Conflict with the Pallavas of ] expedition against the Pallava was then ruled by Mahendrava plete success, and he annexed the| the Pallava kingdom. But his ; against the Pallavas, however, end disaster for himself as well a^ Ms|( The then Pallava ruler, Nara&i


1 Mahendravarman, not only drove back ya armies, but also invaded the Chalukya dom, killed Pulakesin II and captured ni. tic achievement--he sent an embassy to sian king, Khusrau II, in ad 625 and also pived one from him. The reception given to sian mission is, in fact, depicted in one of jr'famous Ajanta cave paintings. I of Hiuen Tsang--the description given by f Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin uite useful in knowing the social and ecoic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of

dftya 1 (644-81) After an occupation of fl2 years, he not only drove out the Pallava j but also consolidated the kingdom and plun-he Pallava capital, Kanchi, thus avenging his Ts defeat and death at the hands of the

(681-93) His reign was generally I and prosperous.

i (693-733) It was the longest and also prosperous and peaceful reign. It was I by great increase in temple building.

II (733-44) His reign is significant i successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom es, and the repelling of the Arab invasion of ujarat.

nan II (744-55) This last Chalukyan ruler li was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder shtrakuta dynasty, and thus came an end to ilukya dynasty of Badami.

tion of the Chalukyas

I Architecture

f developed the Deccan or Vesara style in the ding of structural temples, which reached cul-ation, however, only under the Rashtrakutas 1 the Hoyasalas.

It was the Chalukyas who perfected the art of stone building, that is, stones finely joined with out mortar. Under their auspices, the Buddhists, Jainas and Brahmins competed with each other in building cave temples. Though the cave frescoes began earlier, some of the finest specimens belonged to the Chalukya era. The murals that were executed on the walls dealt with not only religious themes but also with secular ones. In the first monastic hall at Ajanta, we notice a painting depicting the reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II.

Temples The temple-building activity under the Chalukyas of Badami can be broadly divided into two stages. The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. Aihole is a town of temples and contains no fewer than 70 structures, of which four are noteworthy.

Ladh Khan temple is a fiat roofed building. Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist chaitya to a Brahmanical term ple. Hucimaligudi is very similar to the Durga temple, but smaller than it. The Jaina temple of Meguti shows some progress in the erection of structural temples, but it is unfinished.

Of the temples at Badami, the Melagitti Sivalaya is a small but finely proportioned and magnificently located temple. A group of four rock-cut halls at Badami (three of them Hindu and one Jaina) are all of the same type. The workmanship in the caves is marked by a high degree of technical excellence. Though the front is very unassuming, the interior is treated with great skill and care in every detail. The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal. There are about ten temples here, four in the northern style and six in the southern style. In the Deccan both styles were used. There was even a tendency to combine the feature of the two styles.


The Papanatha temple is the most notable among the temples of the northern style, it also reveals attempts to combine northern and southern fea tures in one structure. The Virupaksha temple was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Workmen brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction. Hence it is a direct imitation of the Kailasanatha temple which had come into existence in Kanchi some decades earlier. The Sangamesvara temple, which was built some years before the above one, is more or less in the same style.

Religion

The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, but respected other faiths too. Great importance came to be attached to Vedic sacrifices and rituals. In fact, Pulakesin I, the founder of the dynasty, is said to have performed the asvamedha sacrifice. Quite a few Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period. Apart from the orthodox form of Brahmanism, Puranic religion also grew popular under the Chalukyas. It was, in fact, this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Siva and other gods. From the account of Hiuen Tsang, it is clear that Buddhism was on the decline in western Deccan. This decline of Buddhism in western Deccan was in keeping with its general decline throughout India from the fifth and sixth centuries ad. But Jainism, on the other hand, was steadily increasing its popularity, and the decline of Buddhism, in fact, helped it.

Administration

The central government under the Chalukyas of Badami exercised a paternalistic control over the village administration, which was unlike the administrative practice of south India. Thus the main difference between the Chalukyan administration and that of south Indian rulers like Pallavas and Cholas, was that the south India rulers allowed a great

amount of autonomy to the while the Chalukyas of western! The Chalukyas of Badami! great maritime power. Pulakesin ] attacked and captured the capiti try. The army of the Chalukyas ( standing army, but mainly of f$ officers seem to have been used j tion whenever an emergency i

Conclusion

The Chalukyan period was i sions and plunder of the neig There seem to be certain obvious i ture. The state income from land i very limited, since most of the * Chalukyas was rocky and not from the trading activities also able, since trade and commerce in3 period was on the general decH Chalukyas resorted to frequent in of the neighbouring territories. Thel tive Chalukya-Pallava conflict understood only in this background.

PALLAVAS (A d 560-903)

Controversy about Origin

«

Parthian Connection According they were a branch of Parthians. Butp dence for the migration of the south.

Vakataka Connection Another sch the Pallavas were a branch of the dynasty of the Vakatakas of the De again there is no direct evidence of anj( between the Vakatakas and the Pallav

Indigenous Origin The third sell that it was an indigenous dynasty power after the dismemberment of I kingdom. In other words, they were thef Nagas.


i Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who bed their authority in the Tondainadu or the fcreepers.

I History

shnu (560-90) He is considered the first nt Pallava ruler, though Pallavas existed even : time of Samudragupta's invasion of south fe is credited with capturing the territory of plas and humiliating his other southern neigh-eluding Ceylon. He followed Vaishnavism, nt from archaeological evidence.

arman I (590-630) During his reign long drawn out struggle between the and the Chalukyas. He was defeated by i II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.

avarman I (630-68) He is considered st of the Pallava rulers. He is credited with 5 the second invasion of Pulakesin II, killing i capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami. ^he assumed the title of 'Vatapikonda' or of Vatapi). He is also said to have |d the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, ; supreme in south India. Besides, he j naval expeditions to Ceylon and helped his ^Ceylonese prince, to capture the throne of , Besides he was a great builder having con-l Mamallapuram and the various buildings in her significant thing about his reign is the |puen Tsang to Kanchi.

arman II (668-70) He ruled for a very d, since he was killed by Chalukya king, ditya I (son of Pulakesin II).

aravarman I (670-700) He also had to invading forces of Vikramaditya I, but eeded in defeating and driving them r repeated efforts.

III (700-28) His rule, however, I by peace and prosperity, literary activity, ^construction of large and beautiful temples KShore temple at Mamallapuram and the temple at Kanchi. He is also said to

have sent embassies to China, and maritime trade flourished during his reign.

Paramesvaravarman II (728-31) The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign. The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked the Pallava capital and Paramesvaravarman had to conclude a humiliating treaty with him. When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.

Nandivarman II (731-96) The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II again invaded and captured the Pallava capital during his reign. But Vikramaditya this time showed consideration and restraint in treating the vanquished, the only instance of restraint in the whole of the suicidal Chalukya-Pallava conflict, and withdrew from Kanchi without destroying it. However, Nandi soon strengthened himself and defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas. But he had to meet defeat at the hands of the Pandyas. And after this defeat, he concentrated on domestic matters. He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning. During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were constructed.

Successors Successors Nandivarman II were Dantivarman (796-847), Nandivarman III (847-69), Nripatunga (869-99) and Aparajita (899-903). The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola by defeating Aparajita Pallava towards the end of the ninth century ad. However, the Pallava chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century ad as feudatories.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE PALLAVAS

Art and Architecture

The development of temple architecture, particularly Dravida style, under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.

Mahendra Group The influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in this group. Examples: are the rock-cut temples at Bhairavakonda (North


Arcot district), and Anantesvara temple at Undavalli (Guntur district).

Narasimha Group They comprises the rathas or monolithic temples, each of which is hewn out of a single rock-boulder. These monolithic temples are found at Mamallapuram. The rathas, popularly called the Seven Pagodas, are actually eight in number. They are (1) Dharmaraja, (2) Bhima, (3) Arjuna, (4) Sahadeva, (5) Draupadi, (6) Ganesa, (7) Pidari and (8) Valaiyankuttai.

Rajasimha Group There are five examples of this group--the at Mahabalipuram (Shore, Isvara and Mukunda temples), one at Panamalai in South Arcot, and the temple of Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. Among all these, the most mature example is the last one.

Nandivarman Group This group mostly consists of small temples except the Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi and in no way forms an advance on the achievements of the previous age. But they are more ornate, resembling the Chola architecture. The best examples are the temples of Muktesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchi, the Vadamalisvara at Orgadam (near Chingalput), and the Parasuramesvara at Gudimallam (near Renigunta). The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture in south India. The Pallava sculpture largely is indebted to the Buddhist tradition. It is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The best example is the 'Descent of the Ganga' or 'Arjuna's Penance' at Mahabalipuram.

Religion

The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation of the medieval ages. Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Siva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman who were worshippers of Vishnu. Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of

the age. Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods. Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects 1 ing their former glory to Sa tion in general bossed over Sankaracharya in fact gave tradition. Tamil saints of the sixth and! were the progenitors of the , hymns and sermons of the Na and Alvars (Vaishnavite saint$ tion of bhakti. Saivite sfl Sambandar, Sundarar, and otl thing about this age was the saints such as Andal (an Alvar)$

Education and Learning

Education in the early days Jainas and Buddhists. The Jain located at Madurai and Brahmanical institutions su or Brahmin institutions were i and mostly confined to advance! century ad the maths also ' was an omnibus institution rest-house, a feeding centre andi| centre. In all these institutions,' medium of instruction, because iflj cial language.

Literature

Kanchi, the pallava capital, was Sanskrit learning. Both Bharavi authors of Kiratarjuniyam and i respectively, lived in the Pallava i ic works of Varahamihira and the i were well known in the Pallava < kings were accomplished scholars i varman I himself wrote the fai Mattavilasa Prahasana.

Spread of Indian Culture

Pallavas were also instrumental in i culture in South-East Asia. Till the i ad Pallava influence was predomin


njoyed official patronage in these counj Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in i of Java, Cambodia and Annam.

3-ECONOMIC HISTORY OF I SUCCESSORS

> of a New Agrarian Structure

i important reason for the emergence of a i economy in the post-Gupta period was ; practice of land grants. As seen in the s, the practice had its origins in the pre-riod, grew in the Gupta age and became nt in the post-Gupta period. Though reliirit was often quoted as the reason for mak-land grants in the contemporary records s, the real reason behind them was a serious at affected the ancient social order. ' Puranic texts (thirdfourth century ad) i of a situation hi which varnas discarded the assigned to them. Among the numerous i adopted to overcome the crisis, the most s was to grant land to priests and officials f salaries and remuneration. The measure had ntage of throwing the burden of collecting I maintaining law and order in the granted t the recipients. Besides, it could bring new cultivation. ver, the land grantees could neither culti-land themselves nor collect revenues. : actual cultivation was entrusted to peas-Nhare-croppers who were attached to the land I hot legally own it. Itsing (a Chinese pilgrim i in the late seventh century ad) informs us : Indian monasteries got their lands culti-' servants and others. From the sixth century peasants and share-croppers were required to stick to the land granted to Sciaries. So they could not move from one P'to another, instead they had to live in the llage to cater to all its possible needs. titly a new agrarian economy emerged it-Gupta period. This new agrarian economy , and the new agrarian structure in particus to be characterised by a number of salient features, such as the grant of barren as well as cultivated land, transfer of peasants to the grantees, imposition of forced labour, restrictions on the movement of the peasants,

delegation of fiscal and criminal administrative power to religious beneficiaries, remuneration in land grants to officials, growth of the rights of the grantees, multiplicity of taxes, growth of a complex revenue system and wide regional variations in the agrarian structure.

Origin of Feudalism

The origin and development of feudalism is to be sought in the land grants made to Brahmins from the 1st century ad onwards. Their number becomes considerable in northern India in the Gupta period and goes on increasing afterwards. The monastery of Nalanda owned 200 villages in the reign of Harsha. Brahmins and temples were apparently granted land revenues not for rendering civil and military services to their patrons but for spiritual service. In the benefices granted to them they were allowed fiscal rights and such administrative rights as the maintenance of law and order and collection of fines from criminals. Hiuen Tsang states that high officers of the state were paid by land grants, but such grants are wanting because of the perishable nature of the material on which they were recorded. The process of creating a class of landlords spread unevenly over the country. The practice first appeared in Maharashtra around the beginning of the Christian era. It seems that in the 4th-5th centuries ad land grants covered a good part of Madhya Pradesh. In the 5th-6th centuries they became prominent in West Bengal and Bangladesh, in the 6th-7th centuries in Orissa, in the 7th century in Assam, in the 8th century in Tamil Nadu and in the 9th-10th in Kerala. In order to find new avenues of wealth for Brahmins and to bring virgin land under cultivation, the process of land grants started in outlaying, backward and tribal areas first. When it was found useful by the ruling class, it was gradually extended to central India or Madhyadesa which was the civilised part of the country and the epicentre of Brahmanical culture and society.


What distinguished early Indian feudalism was the provision for fiscal units often, or twelve, or sixteen villages and their multiples. The lawbook of Manu, a work of the lst2nd century ad lays down that collectors in charge often villages or their multiples should be paid by land grants. These units persisted in the Rashtrakuta and to some extent in the Pala dominions. The socio-economic aspect of feudalism in India was intimately connected with the transformation of the Sudras, who were treated as the common helots of the three higher varnas, into peasants from the Gupta period onwards. In the older settled areas Sudra labourers seem to have been provided with land. In the backward areas a large number of tribal peasantry was annexed to the Brahmanical system through land grants, and they were called Sudras. Therefore Hiuen Tsang describes the Sudras as agriculturists, a fact corroborated by al-Beruni about four centuries later.

Causes of Subjugation of Peasants

The subjection of the Indian peasantry in late ancient and early medieval times, especially in older settled regions, was a striking development connected with the socioeconomic dimensions of feudalism. It can be explained by several factors, the most important of which was the increase in the burden of taxation on the villagers. The grants mention as many as eleven taxes in the villages; if all these were extracted by the state we doubt whether the peasants were left with even a bare subsistence. In addition to the transfer of these taxes in many cases the donees were given the right to fixed and unfixed, proper and improper taxes. The list of taxes in many grants was not exhaustive, and the grantees were authorised to collect taxes covered by the term 'et cetera' (adi) and 'all sources of income' (sarv-aya-sameta or samasta-pratyaya). All this implies that they could make new impositions. What the peasants paid as revenues to the state was converted as a result of grants into rents to the beneficiaries, many of whom, being priests or religious institutions, did not have to pay any portion of their income as tax to their donors. A second factor that i the peasants was the imposit the Maurya period slaves ; subjected to such labour. But f ad the practice seems to have classes of subjects. Down tp]J grants of western and cenb prevalence ofvisti. Occasion ing chiefs upon the villagers, fiS bound to prove oppressive wh beneficiaries who had a dir exploitation of the rural res

A third factor that worsene peasants was the right of s donees were authorised to cu cultivated. Some late ancient. lawbooks refer to as many as I interests between the king andt soil, which can be also inferred] The right to cultivate the landj also implies the right to ejecy practice in Malwa, Guja Maharashtra, from the 5th to; tended to reduce the permanent! tion of tenants-at-will. What adversely affected donated areas was the transfer < presumably from the villagers boundaries of many 'gift-villa fined, and thus could be taken i beneficiaries to increase the possession.'Similarly the right i gles, pastures, trees and wat< enable them to tax the peasantsi transfer of such rights obviou theory of royal ownership, whictf sised in Gupta and post-Gupta I That there existed certain be inferred from the fact that ind could not be sold in Bengal will the community. Thus the transfer t of agrarian rights enjoyed by thej erode peasant rights and created i These factors may be taken as>f extracting surplus from the of either the king and or his


s. They gave rise to new property rela-' mechanism of economic subordina-ch there was no escape.

F Peasants

s peasants react to the process of dispos-I impoverishment? Land grants provide to this question, nor do most literary belong mainly to courtly literature. , however, indicate two possible forms Jn. One was to leave the country--an old psferred to in the Jatakas. A passage from ' astronomer Varahamihira quoted in shitaratnakosha presents the pitiable ^desolate villages which contain only the I walls of the houses deserted by unwill-> on account of the unwarranted oppres: fiefholder (bhogapati), whose atrocities ^mentioned in the Harshacharita of Bana. i the Brihannaradiya Parana states that on I of famines and oppressive taxes people in migrate to more prosperous lands. Peasants, y, could not leave villages which were | along with their inhabitants, for the donees ^legal authority to restrain them, other possible form which the peasants' i to oppressive conditions might take is the i of their land rights, as can be inferred from volt of the Kaivartas in Eastern Bengal, 1 by Sandhyakaranandi in the Ramacharita. uificance of the event can be appreciated betwe bear in mind that the Kaivartas were of their plots of land given as service and were subjected to heavy taxes. It was bly a peasant uprising directed against the . who made a common cause with their vassals t the Kaivartas. But we cannot make too much i single event, for we have hardly anything else ate this form of reaction on the part of the nts. usual form of reaction therefore may have migrations. However, these could not be of i ayail in the face of the self-sufficient, almost d, -economic systems to which the peasants I tied down in late ancient and early medieval

times. Economic conditions and political organisation being basically the same everywhere, migrations did not liberate the peasants from the oppression of the princes and beneficiaries.

Self-sufficient Economic Units

The feudal order was based on more or less self-sufficient economic units functioning in various parts of the country. This is indicated by the rarity of coins, the prevalence of local weights and measures, and the transfer by the kings and chiefs of income in cash and kind from trade and industries to the temples. The decline of trade and petty commodity production is also indicated by the decay of the urban sites. Archaelogical evidence shows that the Kushana layers belonging to the 1st to the 3rd centuries ad are flourishing. The Gupta layers belonging to the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries ad are in a state of decline, and in many cases Gupta bricks are used in Kushana structures. In many urban sites habitation disappeared after the 6th century ad. This is true of a number of towns such as Hastinapura, Mathura, Kausambi, Varanasi, Vaisali, Chirand, Rajagriha, and Champa. The same position obtains in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra. It is significant that nigama which earlier meant a town came to mean a village in early medieval times. If we take into account all these factors it would appear that marketisation had reached a low ebb and local needs had to be satisfied on a local scale. Therefore it was in this period that there developed the jajmani system. Since artisans did not have much scope for the sale of their products in towns they moved to villages where they catered to the needs of the peasants who paid them at harvest time in kind. The jajmani system was reinforced by the charters which insisted on peasants and artisans sticking to their villages. Monasteries and temples formed wide economic units, some of them comprising more than a hundred villages. Apparently some villages supplied grain, others cloth, and still others labour for the repair of buildings; or else every village furnished part of these articles.


Role of Early Feudalism

The historical role of early Indian feudalism was significant for several reasons. First, land grants served as an important means of bringing virgin soil under cultivation in central India, Orissa and eastern Bengal. The same was true of south India. All in all, early feudalism was a phase of great agrarian expansion. Enterprising Brahmins were given useful employment in the backward, aboriginal tracts where they could spread new methods of cultivation. Some beliefs and rituals sponsored by the priests helped material progress among the tribal people. The priests taught the primitive people not only the use of the plough and manure but also fostered agriculture by giving them the knowledge of seasons and planets, especially of the recurrence of the rains. Much of this knowledge was written down in the form of the Krisi-Parasara, which seems to have been a product of this period. Second, land grants provided the administrative mechanism for maintaining law and order in the donated areas, in which all such powers were delegated to the donees. Both in the settled and backward areas the religious donees inculcated among the people a sense of broad loyalty to the established order. On the other hand secular vassals helped their lords by governing their fiefdoms and supplying troops in times of war. Third, land grants led to the Brahmanisation and acculturation of the tribal peoples, who were given scripts, calender, art, literature and a new way of higher life. In this sense feudalism worked for the integration of the country. One of the main reasons why the four varnas proliferated into numerous castes and the number of the mixed castes shot up to about a hundred according to the Brahmavaivarta Purana was the necessity of finding a place in Brahmanical society for various tribes which were brought into direct contact with the Brahmins through land grants. Indian feudalism, thus, passed through several distinct stages. The age of the Guptas and the following two centuries saw the beginning of land grants to temples and Brahmins, and the number of such jrants increased steadily and their nature changed basically in the kingdoms of the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. j only usufructuary rights were,| from the 8th century onwa were transferred to the donees.' culminated in the llth and 13 northern India was

parcelled in and economic units largely nek)! gious donees, who enjoyed i better than fiefs.

SAMANTA SYSTEM

Origin and Meaning

The institution of the samanta ' vation which distinguished the from the other periods of ancie samanta originally meant 'neig to the independent ruler of an ; the Maurya period, as is evident 1 Arthasastra of Kautilya and the the pre-Gupta period the term givers in the sense of a neighbou land. Even the 'border kings' mentioned by Samudragupta in' prasasti were such samantas in the $ the term. By the end of Gupta rule! the 6th century ad, a new meaning I gained universal currency. Samantt mean a subjected but reinstated trib realm. The rise and growth of the sa tinctive structural feature of the regimes. Whereas in the earlier India administrators had been impoi by imperial appointment, the feudal i post-Gupta period onwards were princes who had once been subjected*) stated and were then obliged to pay ( serve the king loyally. In the late Gu type of administrator was occasion border provinces but in Marsha's ' they became powerful figures even inf of the kingdom. They enjoyed a great < omy within their territory and soon i type of provincial governor in wealth i


to integrate these overmighty subjects s) into the hierarchy of the realm, they were ven high positions at the court of the king. I king of Valabhi in western India who was I by Harsha not only gained recognition as a anta but rose to the high positions of a ithihara (Guardian of the Royal Gateway) hadandanayaka (Royal Field Marshal), ely, the high officers of the central court 1 similar recognition as the defeated kings i and obtained it in due course. But mag-r title alone would not do, the officers also ome territory to go with it. This then was the '(of the 'samantisation' of the realm, which f regard as the Indian variety of feudalism, fprocess of 'samantisation' was accelerated jtfactors: the lack of money for the payment JHes and the new idea that royal prestige on the size of a king's samantachakra f tributary princes). Old treatises on the art nment, like the Arthasastra, provide i list of the salaries of officers and Hiuen orted that certain high officers received ries in cash even in the seventh century. I recession of international trade and the ^circulation of coins made it necessary for | to be paid by the assignment of revenue of ges or of whole districts which they held , Some of the contemporary works tell us i were eager to cancel such assignments, rly if the officer concerned had displeased f. However, the process of samantisation lly stronger than the will of the central

i Evidence

5 the third quarter of the 5th century ad the r was used to mean vassal in south India : samantachudamanayah (best feudato-in a Pallava inscription of the time of (ad 455-470). In the last quarter of ntury ad also, the term occurs in some uthern and western India in the sense of l India the earliest use of the term in a ; seems to have been in a Bengal inscrip tion, and in the Barabar Hill Cave Inscription of the Maukhari chief Anantavarman (early 6th century ad), in which his father is described as samanta^chudamanih (the best among feudatories) of the imperial Guptas. The next important mention of the term is found in the Mandasor Pillar Inscription of Yasodharman (ad 525-535), in which he claims to have subjugated the samantas (feudatories) in the whole of northern India. During the sixth and seventh centuries ad the rulers of Valabhi, as mentioned already, bore the title of mahasamanta or samantamaharaja. Gradually the application of the term was extended from defeated chiefs to royal officials. For example, in the inscriptions dated in the Kalachuri-Chedi era, from ad 597 onwards samantas and rajas took the place ofuparikas and

kumaramatyas. Later, in the land grants of Harsha the terms samantamaharaja and mahasamanta appear as titles of great imperial officers.

Literary Evidence

Bana in his Harshacharita speaks of several types of samantas. Of them, the samanta was the lowest and ordinary type of vassal. Mahasamanta was obviously a step higher than the ordinary samanta. Satru-mahasamanta was a conquered enemy chief. Aptasamantas were probably those who willingly accepted the vassalage of the overlord. Pradhanasamantas were the most trusted hands of the emperor, who never disregarded their advice. Pratisamanta was probably a vassal opposed to the king or merely a hostile vassal, though it cannot be said with any amount of certainty. Anuraktamahasamantas referred to by Bana only once, might be those who were especially attached to their overlord.

Functioning of the System

Bana is the first writer to indicate the obligations of the samantas to their overlord. It is evident from his Harshacharita that the first obligation of the samantas is to pay yearly tributes to the emperor. For we learn from it that Harsha had made his mahasamantas his tributaries (karada). In the areas administered


by the samantas the emperor realised annual taxes from them and not from the subjects. Though it is not clear whether the vassals were free to increase the taxes or to impose fresh ones, they were certainly held responsible for royal taxes in their areas. According to Bana, the second obligation of the samantas is to pay homage to the emperor in person. He informs us that the defeated mahasamantas greeted the conqueror by removing their crowns and head-dresses (sekhara and mauli). It appears that they were subjected to various kinds of humiliation in the court of Harsha. Some served as bearers of fans, others prayed for life by tying a sword to their neck, and still others were always eager to salute the emperor. Bana in his Kadambari mentions four modes of saluting the king (pranam-agamana) by the vanquished chiefs. These included salute by bowing the head, bowing head and touching the feet of the emperor, bowing the head and taking the dust from the feet of the emperor, and finally placing the head on the earth near the feet of the emperor. Again, in the same work Bana enumerates three modes of service undertaken by the defeated kings (parichariki-karand). They held chowries in the court of Harsha, served as door-keepers in the court, and also served as reciters of auspicious words utter-ffigjaya (success). According to Bana, the third obligation of the defeated samantas is to furnish their minor princes or sons to the conqueror. These were probably to be trained in the imperial traditions, so that they might grow loyal to their overlord. But, by and large, the obligations of the vassals known from Bana relate to the defeated chiefs called satrumahasamanta, who were required to serve the conqueror in various ways in consequence of their defeat. Generally one of the most important obligations of the samantas was to render military aid to their overlord. Sana's description of the march of Harsha in Harshacharita shows that the army was made up of the troops supplied by the rajas and samantas, and their number was so huge that Harsha was amazed at the sight of the concourse. The only probable explanation seems to be that his army was a feudal militia which was mustered only in times of war. This view is supported by Pulakesin's Aihole Inscripti Harsha as equipped with the.1 vassals. However, it is not clear eifl or from the lawbooks wh obligation to perform any : functions in peace time. But 1 we learn that on the advice of J tas, whose voice could nq

Rajyavardhana took food when] grief on the imprisonment of! if the counsel of the vassals < personal matters, it could be less 4 affairs where not only their advu; cooperation were badly required,^ It seems that the samantas In the overlord even had to carry!| obligations as well. It is recon that they took part in the variouSff as gambling, dice-playing, playij drawing portraits of the king, sob the like. Similarly, it is Harshacharita that the wives of \ had to attend the court on festive^ the vassals were linked with the < financially and militarily but alsojj and socially.

Impact of 'Samantisation'

Samantisation gradually eroded the| the ruler even in the core area of 1 assignment of revenue-bearing la area directly controlled by the ce tion. This process of the fragme power occurred in other countries I became a legitimate feature of king emphasis placed on the samanta virtue out of necessity. The conten tions and works are full of enthusia of the glitter of the crowns and jewels! tas who surrounded the king when The court emerged in this way as a; the display of royal glory. The greater 1 samantas and mahasamantas who court, the greater the fame of the owe


ra was, of course, inherently unstable. I power of the central ruler declined, a would strive for independence or Mream of stepping into the centre of the

MAN ECONOMY

ship

I; of land-ownership in the post-Gupta hly controversial matter and the consources make it more confusing. f a prominent law-giver of the ninth cence, records at one place that the king I of the soil, and elsewhere states that the 1 to him who made it fit for cultivation |.it. But land was commonly granted by with rights of varying degrees, to I religious institutions for religious and f purposes, to vassals and princes for miles, and to officials for administrative bus, there developed a great variety of rights over land, claimed by various f intermediaries. increasing extent and the changing of the king's right of ownership over issue of the royal ownership of land complicated in actual practice owing in the claim of the ruling samanta jtTand the rural landed aristocracy in this ne post-Gupta inscriptions reveal that chs and overlords gave land grants in es and estates of their samantas. So, the oyed over land by the overlords and the y of different grades depended upon their and prestige. practice of granting lands gained ency, the theoretical ownership of land, the grass and pasture-land, reservoirs, I dry land, also went to the beneficiaries, sing land grants may be interpreted as a dication of an increasing claim of the king I Under such circumstances, sometimes cultivators of the land were also trans-i the donees. However, there is also evidence, both literary and epigraphic, of private individual ownership of land by the aristocracy in the post-Gupta period. Some literary sources have stray references suggesting individual ownership, while several inscriptions record cases of land grants and land sales by private individuals. In some inscriptions, lands owned by private individuals are mentioned in connection with the demarcation of the boundaries of the donated land. Thus the state was deemed to be the owner of all lands as a general proposition, but individuals or groups that cultivated lands in their possession were regarded practically

as owners thereof, subject to the liability to pay land tax and the right of the state to self land for non-payment of tax.

Types of Land

Land can be variously classified as cultivated, cultivable, fallow, barren, low, high, hilly, marshy, and the like. The inscriptions from Bengal mention ksetra which probably suggests cultivated land. That the ksetra was certainly better than the other types can be inferred from the fact that the sale price of ksetra was four dinaras per kulyavapa, and the sale price of other types of land varied between two and three dinaras. Besides ksetra other terms which we come across in the inscriptions from Bengal are khila ksetra, vas-tubhu, aparahata, talabhumi, hajjikakhilabhumer. The term khila also finds place in Amarakosa, which explains khila as land which has not been cultivated. Narada lays down that 'a field that has not been cultivated for one year, is called ardhakhila and that which lies uncultivated for three years is termed khila; khila and khilya appear to have the same meaning. In the Amarakosa the term usara is used to explain barren land, or uncultivable or unploughable land. Therefore, khila land may be taken as a cultivable waste, which was cultivated previously, but is now lying uncultivated for some reason or other. Another term, which is used along with khila in the inscriptions from Bengal is aprahata. The Amarakosa defines the term khila along with aprahata as land which has not been ploughed. Therefore these two terms may be explained separately. Khila, when used alone in inscriptions may be considered


as land whose cultivation has been stopped for some time, and the term aprahata may be considered as land never tilled (or not tilled for a long period). Vastu bhu or habitable land is also referred to in the Bengal inscriptions. It may be said that vastu land was a dwelling site, and was quite different from cultivated or waste land. In the Gunaighar grant of Vainyagupta, the term hajjika-khila-bhumer occurs. DC Sircar has explained it as marshy land. So, the term hajjikakhilabhumer may be taken to mean a marshy uncultivated land. In the same inscription 'low' land has been described as talabhumi. We also find a reference, panika, to marshy lands in, the Amarakosa.

Sources of Revenue

Treasury has been considered by our ancient lawgivers as one of the main organs of the state. Being so, the treasury or kosa naturally presupposes the existence of many sources of revenue. The Mitaksara, while commenting on Yajnavalkya lists gold, mines and others, as sources of income to the king. Kamandaka lays down that 'the quality of the land (fertility and soil resources) is the root of pros-- perity of the kingdom, and with the progressive prosperity of the kingdom flourishes the strength of the king himself. Hence the king should take necessary steps to develop land resources. Resource rich land includes land (bhusam-pad or janapada sam-pad) that is fertile (yielding abundant crops), productive of different types of commodities, rich with mines and mineral resources, and, due to the prevalence of irrigation system.' not dependent on rains (adevomatrika) for cultivation.

Principles of Taxation

Besides enumerating the importance of kosa or treasury for the state and various sources of revenue, the law-givers have also laid down certain principles for the collection of revenue. These principles seem to have considerably restrained the kings in their demand for revenue.

Yanjnavalkya says that the king takes the sixth part of the virtuous deeds (of his subjects) by protect ing them with justice, -d Yajnavalkya, the Mitaksa ing justice according to tecting the subjects, the i from the virtuous deeds.' of the king, Vishnu starts 1 subjects and Kamandakafl and their gainful occupatio However, Katyayana (ii 6th century ad) for the first!) be the lord of the land, of wealth; therefore, he i of the fruits of land but i This concept of the ; the king seems to have su century. This can be infei fourth vuchvasa of Bana's j describes the king as proti that not even the meanest 1 The king was thus entiti because of the protection 1 but also because he was dual legality which the king! of the seventh century powerful. However, the sit greatly offset by certain i ation embodied in early 1 The main idea which law-givers in enunciating i king in levying taxes on his j avoiding the oppression of 1 with the fixation of the rates i commodities, the realisatio smooth manner and the oppressive taxation. For those rulers, who den the form of revenue, andiij Yajnavalkya foresees ill lucks dom. The Mitaksara on this'! sovereign, who increases his < property through illegal 'soon being bereft of good lu or ruin, along with his kins The epigraphic records als principles were followed in extent and the kings refrained i


tfaianda Copper Plate Inscription of [describes him as, 'equal to the (gods) fthe many crores of lawfully acquired i'. The Udayagiri cave inscription of f II describes him as, 'the Earth, which protected with) righteousness (and fc Further, there are inscriptions belong-agupta I, Skandagupta and , which praise all these rulers for good ng according to the lawgivers.

I Tax

i of our period have not only enuncijiciples of taxation, but have also recomttate at which the land tax may be col-ii king on land. Even Hiuen Tsang, while conditions of the people, mentions g's tenants pay one-sixth of the produce i that a sixth part was traditionally I>the rate of the share of the king to be t tax. However, the probability that the r different rates for different types of t:be ruled out. Brihaspati lays down the Menth and one-sixth on kblla land, on the 1 to the rain water (devomatrika), and on vested in vasanta respectively, aphic evidence of the period does not : to the rate of land tax, which was actuIby the rulers. Only in the inscriptions of fcwe find reference to one-sixth share of |fWhich would accrue to the king. The ref-he expression dharmasadbhaga in Gupta I may suggest that the king's normal grain I one-sixth of the produce. It is, however, t we do not find any reference to any rev-in Bengal epigraphs belonging to the : the post-Gupta periods, as in the land elonging to central and western India.

:of Land Revenue

the mode of assessment, it seems that ue was assessed on individual holdings : precision with which the granted fields i were marked on all the four sides sug gests this. Some of the inscriptions belonging to the Gupta period from Bengal are no doubt sale deeds and refer to fields belonging to individuals. About a dozen inscriptions from the region speak of individual holdings which could have been the basis of revenue assessment.

The land revenue having been assessed on brahmadeya or individual holdings leads us to the problem of whether the area of the individual holding was-considered while fixing land revenue. The literary sources do not mention any unit of measurement. It is only in the pre-Gupta sources that we get references to various units of measurement. Regarding the epigraphic evidence we have reference to the units of measurements, like kulyavapa, dronavapa, adhavapa and pataka from Bengal, nivartana and bhumi from central India, and to nivartana and padavarta from western India. Besides, we also have reference to fields requiring one pitaka full of grain as seeds. The reference to different units of measurement in different parts of northern India, undoubtedly suggests that government officers must have adhered to local standards of measurement. The assessment of land revenue most probably on property measured individual holdings leads us to another important question of whether the share was taken on the profit of the cultivator or on the gross produce. A passage from Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa suggests that the tax was most probably not levied on the gross produce but rather on that portion of the produce which remained with the cultivator after he had kept some part of his produce for himself.

Different Taxes

The epigraphs do not provide direct evidence of the taxes prevalent during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. But from references to exemptions from various kinds of royal dues, to their transfer to the donees and the retention of some of them by the donor himself, the system of land revenue can broadly be outlined. In the inscriptions of eastern India belonging to ad 400-700 we do not find any reference to revenue terms. In central India, however, the charters of the


Parivrajakas, the Uccakalpas, the Vakatakas and the Sarabhapuriyas mention several important revenue terms such as udranga, uparikara, bhogabhaga, kara, hiranya, dhanya, klipta and upaklipta. The omission of certain revenue terms from the text of inscriptions and reference to many terms seems to suggest that the listing of the exemptions was.not taken for granted. Specific and particular taxes were listed as immunities. The king could, according to his wish or as the time and positions may permit, withhold or grant any tax to the donee. In the Gangetic plains we do not find many inscriptions. It is mainly because land or villages were not granted in the heart of the Gupta empire. The two copper plates of Samudragupta refer to udranga, uparikara and bhoga-bhaga. In the seventh century, only two inscriptions of Harsha, the Madhuban and Banskheda copper plate inscriptions, have been found, though Sana in Harshacharita refers to a number of land grants having been made by Harsha. The Madhuban Inscription mentions udranga, sarvarajakulabhavya pratyaya sameta, samucit tulya maya bhaga-bhoga kara, hiranya adi pratyaya. The most common revenue term in the inscriptions is bhaga-bhoga. Sometimes this expression is recorded in a reverse order as bhoga-bhaga. The bhaga may be taken to mean the customary share of the produce. The bhoga of the inscriptions may be taken as the periodical supplies of fruits, firewood, flowers and the like, which the villagers had to supply to the king, as is specifically stated in the Vakataka grants. Besides, it is also supported by Manu and his commentators Medhatithi and Kulluka. Kara is another revenue term which we get in the inscriptions. It seem to have been of the nature of a periodical tax levied more or less universally from villagers, and it may have been realised over and above the king's normal grain share. The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman indicates that kara was an oppressive tax. Another fiscal term which we come across in the inscriptions is hiranya. This term is found in all the inscriptions of northern India except in those of the Vakatakas. Hiranya literally means gold, but in its technical sense, it means 1 crops paid in cash as distiti (bhoga) levied on ordinary inferred that most probably ginger, cotton was another which hiranya was levied.

Besides these fiscal terms, ? uparikara and udranga. The the inscriptions belonging to , exception of only a few. One1 is something like the Tamil crown's share of the produce.! not tenable as in the Karitalai pli the Khoh plate (ad 512-13) the<1 uparikara occur along with bhoga kara. Therefore, upar equated with bhaga, the crown'* which is indicated by melvaram^ bhoga. Since the term upon me it has been explained as an extra 1 tation of the term, however, ren The term udranga, which uparikara, is also difficult to exp tions of this term are noteworthy. ] dranga which according to the watch station; it can be taken as a i levied on the district for the maint< police station. It might also be sug anamolous derivative of the Sa and in that case it may be a water I view of the fact that it is recorded i normal royal dues like uparikara, \ have been a levy over and above | share. There are some other fiscal meya and dhanya. The word ditya^ from all dues, forced labour and: Accordingly ditya did not denote i and many taxes may have been inch The term meya also appears in i inscriptions from eastern and cent been explained as the taxes, inclu the produce and the cash money paid;! produce in proper time. The word me taken to be a substitute for the ge known as bhaga.


dhanya also appears to have denoted al land tax. The Kurud plates (5th century Ition dhanya with bhoga and bhaga. It may at dhanya was also an unspecified tax. f, "in the Gupta period several new taxes, such ga and uparikara appear along with bhogahanya and hiranya. In addition to these r have been other taxes in the inscriptions \ the word adi (meaning et cetera). These itinue in the post-Gupta period in almost all ^northern India, though we find variations in 16f taxes.

(Units

in'ous territorial divisions along with a host of I mentioned in the land grants from all parts India from ad 400 to 700 indicate an I system of revenue administration. Bhukti, I, ahara, and grama are some of the units, fare referred in most inscriptions from north-Sia, along with mandala, vithi, petha, patta, \ bhoga which are found in the inscriptions | specific regions. 6 lowest territorial unit, grama, is mentioned obably in all the land charters known from of northern India. Normally grama stood age, which was evidently the smallest territo-nit for administrative purposes. I eastern India vithi seems to have been the next runit after the grama. The next larger territorial dicated by the inscriptions of eastern India is

ukti is another term which is referred to in the i Indian epigraphs. Since we do not have ref! to any bhtikti lying within any other territori oit as in the case of visayas. it may be assumed obably the bhukti was the largest fiscal unit. jsPundravardhana bhukti, the Vardhamana bhukti, nda bhukti are some of the bhuktis recorded in Charters. The bhuktis seem to have been impor Nerritorial divisions as Danda bhukti is men-as having been governed by a feudatory, aja Somadatta, and by Mahapratihara kirti, in the two Midnapore copper plate itions of the time of Sasanka. Bhukti continued to be the largest territorial and administrative unit during the Pala rule in Bengal.

Mandala is another term, which occurs in the eastern Indian epigraphs. Some scholars hold the view that visaya and mandala have been used synonymously in the sense of a district. However, the Paharpur copper plate inscription and the Gunaighar grant of the Guptas imply that a mandala must have been a fairly larger territorial unit. It may be reasonably presumed that mandala was a larger territorial unit including visayas in it. In the Baghelkhand and Bundelkhand divisions of central India, the charters belonging to Uccakalpa and Parivarajaka rulers refer to patta or petha. It may be said that this was probably a subdivision of a visaya, which consisted of more than one village. Thus, in central India the next larger unit after village, -was patta or petha. Ahara was another territorial unit, which was in vogue in the southern central India, in the Vakataka kingdom. But, it may be said that ahara does not seem to have been a very popular subdivision of a visaya, as out of twenty-seven charters belonging to ad 400-700 dated in the Kalachuri-Chedi era, only five refer to this subdivision. Bhukti, which seems to be the largest territorial unit in eastern India, did not occupy the same importance in central India. Bhukti of the Vatkataka inscriptions was smaller in area than that of eastern India, and the next larger unit after village. In the inscriptions of Gujarat and northern Maharashtra pathaka and bhaga seem to be next larger units after grama. They formed the next larger units after village in the early Gurjara and Kalachuri kingdoms also. In Saurashtra region, the Maitraka inscriptions indicate that petha was a larger unit than a village. However, the omission of this territorial division from the grants of Dharasena II indicates that it was not a common territorial division in the Maitraka kingdom. Sthali was the next larger division as it is evident from many Maitraka records. However, it seems to have been an indigenous division developed by the Maitrakas, as we do not get reference to it in the pre-Gupta, Gupta, and the post-Gupta records in northern India.


Pathaka seems to have been the next larger unit after sthali. The next larger division in the Maitraka plan of provincial territorial division seems to have been an ahara. With the exception of sthali of the Maitraka grants, the terms applied for various divisions were the same throughout northern India, though with slight variations.

Religious Grants

From the pre-Gupta period, and especially from the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, certain political and administrative developments tended to feudalise the state apparatus. One of the most striking developments was the practice of making land grants to Brahmins, a custom which was sanctified by the injections laid down in the Dharmasastras, the Puranas and the Mahabharata. Two significant features of such grants, which became more frequent from the fifth century ad, were the transfer of all sources of revenue and the surrender of administrative and police functions. The transfer of all sources of revenue by the ruler to the Brahmins is evident from the land grants made by the Vakataka rulers from the time of Pravarasena II (5th century ad) onwards. In these the ruler gave up his control over almost all sources of revenue, including pasturage, hides and charcoal, mines for the production of salt, forced labour, and hidden treasures and deposits. Certain land grants of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods provide clear evidence of the surrender of administrative power by the state to the Brahmin beneficiaries. Haifa dozen land grants of the Gupta period, made to the Brahmins by the big feudatories in central India, show us that the residents of the gifted villages were asked not only to pay the customary taxes to the recipients but also to obey their commands. Two land grants of the post-Gupta period clearly direct certain government officials (employed as sarvadhyaksha), regular soldiers and umbrella-bearers not to cause any disturbance to the Brahmins in their gifted villages. The surrender of police functions by the state to the Brahmins in the gifted villages was particularly done from the post-Gupta period onwards.

Henceforth in central i donors began to confer i the right to punish thieves ,< the right to punish all offa erty; and person (civil ju the term abhyantarasiddhi^ such powers that they cou into practically independ Gupta grants normally^ grantee to alienate or grant! ers. But the Indore grant (n merchant to a Brahmin Maharaja Swamidasa, prob Imperial Guptas) authorises I field, cultivate it and get it cu observes the conditions of i This leaves clear scope for < donated land and provides graphic evidence of the subin This process of subinfeud western part of central India in ( and characterised the grants oft their donees in the sixth and! The priests, in return for required in the charters to render| which might secure the spirit! donors or their ancestors. But tions were rarely mentioned in i were probably taken for granted. ] natural that the priestly benef repaid their generous donors by i order in the donated lands and in people the sacred duty of carving | functions and of obeying the king. I may have been the intentions of the ( be wrong to think that these grants I gious purposes.

Secular Grants

Another presage of the feudalisatioa'] apparatus was the practice of making;I officers for their administrative and i In the Gupta period there is no direct < dence of such grants, though such a ] not be entirely ruled out. But during thej


t definite change had taken place in the mode nt of officers employed by the state. At least a's reign high officers were not paid in t their services to the state as one-forth of the nues was earmarked for the endowmerit of blic servants. At one place Hiuen Tsang i states that the governors, ministers, magis-officials had each a portion of land f to them for their personal support. These according to Marsha's inscriptions, |mclude daussadha-sadhanika, pramatara, a, uparika and vishayapati. Thus under venues were granted not only to priests and I but also to the officers of the state. The exisf this practice is supported by the paucity of onging to this period. i inscriptions of the post-Gupta period show i were granted to secular parties for different services. The two copper plate grants of from east Bengal, roughly assignable to h-eighth centuries, mention quite a few sec-s. They indicate that plots of land donat-5 head of a Buddhist monastery were actually t several persons who were enjoying them . Though all such persons (from whom lands t taken away) are named, the position and of only a few can be established. In one ", land had been given to the queen for probance, in another to a woman for some If rendered to the king, and still in another to a for services rendered to the overlord, rth/ these and other persons held the plots of ^question as some kind of service grant which rieved either at the lapse of the term or on grounds, otherwise these could not have »easily transferred. All this suggests that dur^post-Gupta period in east Bengal some servi remunerated by means of land which was I for a limited period. ii problem of payment to officers in grants of i can be further examined in the light of the us of the administrative officers of the i period. Bana's Harshacharita states that (of the military march of Harsha, villagers complaints against bhogapatis. Apparifciis anxiety to present the administration of his patron in a favourable light, Bana does not give credence to these complaints. Another feudal functionary in the time of Harsha was the mahabhogi, mentioned' in some epigraphs from Orissa. In the Kadambari, Bana's description of the antahpura in the palace of king Tarapida refers to the presence at the doorway of hundreds of mahabhogis. These mahabhogis were probably those people who were granted land revenues in rural areas and who occasionally flocked to the royal palace to pay homage to their overlord. The early Kalachuri inscriptions introduce a new official bhogikapalaka, who may have acted as superintendent over the bhogikas. All such terms--bhogika, bhogapatika and bhogikapalaka --clearly smack of feudal relations.

Certain terms used for administrative units in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods also indicate land grants to officers. The typical feudal idea that land or territory was meant for the enjoyment of those who held it or governed it first comes into full view in the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, though it is mentioned for the first time in Asokan edicts. The terms ahara literally meant 'food for its holders', but was actually an administrative unit (equivalent to a modem district or subdivision) from the time of Asoka, and continued to be so in Gujarat and Maharashtra even during Gupta and post-Gupta times as is evident from the early Kalachuri inscriptions. At the same time, several other terms signifying enjoyment came to be used commonly for territorial divisions. They include such terms as bhukti, bhoga, and vishaya. The feudalisation of state apparatus is also evident from the feudal connotation of administrative titles like amatya, kumaramatya and others. As far as the amatyas are concerned this was certainly the position in the time of Harsha, for at least at two places the Harshacharita speaks of those amatyas who were anointed as feudatories. The office of kumaramatya originally meant a person who was attached to the prince, but later it became an independent position without having anything to do with the prince. By the late Gupta and post-Gupta times it came to denote a feudal rank of honour conferred on high functionaries, including even a maharaja. Whether the title carried some fiscal or other privileges is not clear. But


towards the end of the reign of the imperial Guptas we find the kumaramatyamaharaja Nandana making a land grant without the permission of the overlord, which suggests that by the middle of the sixth century ad the kumaramatyas had emerged as de facto lords of villages which they could give away.

Position of the Peasantry

There is no evidence to show that peasants in the donated villages had the same position in relation to Brahmin landlords as peasants to their lords in west European manorial villages. But in certain respects the Indian peasant was completely subservient to the benefactor. In many cases, because of the right of getting their land cultivated by others, the landlords could replace old peasants by new ones, thus ousting their tenants. The Gupta grants from central and western India implicitly show that the peasants had to render visti or forced labour to their king or land holder while some land grants from the post-Gupta period make the landlord's right to forced labour quite explicit. A grant of the Valabhi ruler Dharasena I (ad 575) confers on the recipient of a religious grant the right to impose forced labour if the occasion arose. Exactly the same concession is granted by Siladitya I in his charters of the seventh century, the technical term conveying the recipient's right to forced labour is frequently mentioned in the Valabhi grants and even in grants made by lesser chiefs such as the Sendraka chief Allasakti of Gujarat. It also occurs in the land charters of the Chalukyas of Badami. Quite a few radical changes took place in the nature of the forced labour in the Gupta and post-Gupta times. The practice was extended to the western part of central India, Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka, as indicated by the Vakataka, Rashtrakuta and Chalukya records. It assumed a wide magnitude in central India, where it came to be known by the term sarva-visti. The right to forced labour, formerly confined to the king alone, was now extended to recipients of religious grants and their descendants. Its scope too was widened and the various kinds of work done by means of visti are enumerated in the contemporary texts. All upon the peasants.

While the peasants reduced to a servile positic lost status because of the i taxes and levies. It seems ( post-Gupta times the villi contributions of money or : and officials when they halted I villages. Further they had to; for transport. They were also« supplying flowers and milk to < tour. These forced contributi to the state treasury but were i royal troops and officers another class of intermediaries'! lower the position of the ] forced contributions, coupled would not be felt much under 1 of the royal representatives not hereditary, but it could be : by the beneficiaries who were i a hereditary, vested interest in the< resources of the village. Moreovfl administrative authority which-i enjoyed must have added to their.^ over the inhabitants of the village. However, what mainly led to! the peasants was their transfer to I According to the inscriptions, the j ferring peasants began in south grant of the fourth century ad in share-croppers remained attached I which was given away to the Br. implies that original cultivators work on the land even when it was j the beneficiary. Gradually the embrace peasants, who seem to have away to the beneficiaries in Karnati the sixth century ad from the Biji issued by an early Chalukya kin donates 25 nivartanas of land alongj produce, garden-cultivation, wati (nivesd). Here the term nivesa is used i the sense of a house but also of there, as is still done in popular


This conclusion is supported by a t of the same century from the Ganjam I states that six halas of land (land that titivated by six ploughs) along with four haturnivesana-sahita) were constituted ahara and granted free of taxes in peril god Narayana. |jouth India the practice of the transfer of 1 peasants probably spread to central India, i grant of the fifth century ad speaks of Ffour houses meant for the use of cultivaanivesanani), which implies the makF cultivators to the beneficiary, i the practice of transferring all the cultif the village to the beneficiary can be traced 5 sixth century ad. An inscription from the : district assignable to that century advises bitants of a village, cultivating land there I of their livelihood, to continue to live in , which is made over to the Brahmins, plies that the cultivators are counselled to | the soil transferred to the recipient, although f that the village is transferred along with its nts is not explicitly stated in the grant, estern India, particularly Gujarat, the land |.pf the post-Gupta period imply the transfer sants along with the soil. The earliest : can be referred to the second half of the ntury ad, when the Valabhi ruler Dharasena i the gift of plots of varying sizes held by ons, all of whom are mentioned by name i. grant. Probably along with the plots their I also changed hands, otherwise there was no I in mentioning their names. The successor of i II, Dharasena III, also made a grant (ad £4) of four plots of cultivated land of different j held respectively by four cultivators who are 1 in the grant. That the peasants attached soil were transferred can also be inferred i the Navsari plates of an early Gurjara ruler of Jayabhatta III (ad 706), who bestowed a \ field on a Brahmin along with its houses and ble and immovable property. The above three ces concern the gift of fields and not of vil-The earliest grant which unequivocally gfers the villagers to the grantee is that of a feudatory ruler called maharaja Samudrasena (seventh century ad). According to it, a village in the Kangra area is made over as a grant with its inhabitants (saprativasijanasametd). The earliest epigraphic reference to the transfer of peasants to a monastery belongs to the seventh century ad. The Ashrafpur grants from East Bengal, as noted already in some other context, mention the persons who were in the enjoyment of a plot and the cultivators who were tilling it. They indicate that while the plot was taken away from the

enjoyers and given to the Buddhist monastery, the cultivators were left undisturbed, for the monastery would have to get its land cultivated by peasants. Serfdom, that is, the practice of transferring peasants along with land to the beneficiaries, seems to have been a feature of the grant of those pieces of land which did not form part of organised villages but were held independently by peasant families having their habitation in isolated houses rather than in a cluster of dwellings. In these cases all the lands cultivated by the peasants lay around their houses. When these lands were donated, the peasants working on them had to be retained. Otherwise the beneficiaries would be put to great difficulties. Some of these peasants were probably ploughmen. It is, therefore, possible to think of two types of serfs-- those who possibly served as ploughmen and those who served as tenants living in villages. The former (ploughmen attached to the land), may be equated with the full-fledged serfs, while the latter (tenants specifically transferred along with villages) may be treated as semi-serfs. For the latter did not have to work on the private farms of the beneficiaries, and could normally leave the village to seek means of subsistence elsewhere except under difficult economic situations. On the basis of several epigraphic records, we can make the following observations on serfdom in India which became fairly common by the middle of the eighth century ad:

It began in the peripheral areas and then gradu ally spread to the heart of the country in northern India. It was organised in mountainous or backward regions which did not have too many peasants to


run the local economy, but because of the powers it gave to the landholders over the peasants it later spread to developed areas. It began with the share-croppers and then cov ered peasants in general. Finally it began with plots of land and then came to embrace whole villages.

Rise of Sudra peasants is another important development of the Gupta and post-Gupta times. There is sufficient reason to believe that Sudras were also becoming peasants in good numbers, though the traditional view that Vaishyas were peasants recurs in the contemporary literature. Several lawbooks show that land was rented out to the Sudra for half the crop. This would suggest that the practice of granting land to Sudra sharecroppers was becoming more common. Narada includes the kinasa (peasant) among those who are hot fit to be examined as witnesses. A commentator of the seventh century ad explains the term kinasa as a Sudra, which shows that peasants were thought of as Sudras. Besides, Brihaspati provides very severe corporal punishment for the Sudra who acts as a leader in boundary disputes relating to fields, which again suggests thafsuch Sudras were owners of fields. Finally, Hiuen Tsang describes the Sudras as a class of agriculturists, a description which is confirmed by the Narasimha Purana compiled before the tenth century ad. Thus, this significant development, which began from the Gupta period, covered all the Sudras by the first half of the seventh century ad. The view that the farmer population was largely composed of Sudras seems to be more true of the Gupta and post-Gupta times than of earlier periods. Thus, from the point of view of the rise of feudalism the transformation of Sudras from the position of slaves and hired labourers into that of agriculturists should be regarded as a factor of great significance.

Results of Land Grants

As a result of land grants and certain other factors there arose independent, selfsufficient economic units. The beneficiaries of land grants enjoyed several economic rights wh the central authority *i continuity and were more i

main idea behind tyinglj to the lands and viH serve the self-sufficient i conditions obtaining in pendent of the benefj placed under the charge i not very dissimilar. Kamasutra the he women not only to work S yarn so that his clothes i ly. Some of the commoditid put on sale, apparently to < the villagers. That such local units' is also evident from the paui use from the Gupta period i be linked up, on the one '. internal trade and the co ducing local commodities to i 5 on the other, with the weake '" centre, which gradually i ing officials by grants of i indicative of the growing dis Gupta times that the religious ^ were made in cash by the ] the first two centuries of the ( replaced by grants of land. Fu Harsha period hardly any coin i certainty to any ruling house. Of l| refer to the use of coins, land ch levied in hiranya, and some ins cost of construction and purcfi money; but very few actual finds i this period. In fact, the absence of If period 600-900 has been noted by! It is therefore evident that coins in i rarer from the time of Harsha onwa us to the conclusion that trade suffei urban life began to disappear. It seems that in the first half of thel ad silk was as good an earner of bullii spices in the first century ad. The i


i empire in the first century ad was ' means of a legislation, which, though 1 by diplomacy, failed to check it (the Byzantine empire. The solution was. bund in ad 551 by the introduction of brought into the Byzantine empire dand from China. It might have taken years to get the art of rearing silk1 in Byzantium, and by the end of the r ad the problem of obtaining silk from ay have been finally solved for the êmpire. This adversely affected Indian e, which as far as north India is coni confined to silk. Evidently the stoppage to the Byzantine empire drastically ver remained of the shrunken foreign of north-western India in Gupta times, llong as some new articles did not take the : there was no means to restore the bal-retrogression in foreign trade was (. The decline of foreign trade may also caused by the expansion of the Arabs i banner of Islam. The agitated state of sia, Egypt and Eastern Europe, at least in I stages of the Arab conquests, was bound P India's foreign trade with the countries : west. Only when the Arabs had settled ilers in these countries and Sind, did trade i the third century of the hijra era (i.e. ' ad). But meanwhile there was nothing i decline. Thus we have clear indications dine of foreign trade of northwestern i the end of the Gupta period, and espei the first half of the seventh century ad. internal trade and commerce existed i fitted into the emerging feudal structure. This is evident from the detailed rules laid down in the lawbooks regarding the functioning of the guilds of artisans and merchants. It is symptomatic of the declining central authority that the king is required not only to observe the laws of the guilds but also to enforce them. What actually prevailed can be inferred from three charters granted to the guilds of merchants by the rulers of the coastal areas of western India. The first charter was issued at the end of the sixth century ad, while both the second and third charters were issued at the beginning of the eighth century ad by Bhagasakti, the Chalukya king of the Konkan area. On the basis of these three charters, we can make the following comments about the condition of merchants and their guilds in the post-Gupta period. The charters were made to the merchants among whom a few were elevated to the position of managers of the endowment or the town as the case might be. They tied down the merchants to the management of villages, which in one case were attached to a temple and in another to the rehabilitated town. The merchants enjoyed practically the same immunities and privileges as were enjoyed by priests and perhaps by some feudal barons in the villages granted to them. But since they were encumbered with

the management of villages, they could not pay full attention to their trade and commerce. The charters, therefore, show the feudalisation of merchants by turning them into some kind of landed intermediaries. The activities of every guild were restricted to its locality so that it had no freedom of competition, a feature characteristic of the closed economy of Europe in the Middle Ages.


>KARTHPURA £&»> "~v /vsô I (' KUSHANAS ./ JSHAKAS f

dSSk, &

The Gupta Ei

Present external I of India shown thutf j

kama! 'RUPAf

INDIAN OCEAN Tributary Tribes and States

Under Gupta influences (C.A.D. 380-410)

© Government!

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey < The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from t appropriate base line.

QUESTIONS I Imany inscriptions are generally said to be We for the Gupta period? IJfhirty (b) Thirty five (d) Forty two t is a prasastr? fi Royal charter Private endowment |, Eulogy of a king Copper plate of the following inscriptions describes aragupta I as a mere maharaja? Mankuwar Buddhist Image Inscription Bilsad Pillar Inscription Baigram Copper Plate Mathura Jaina Image Inscription i one of the following inscriptions is found tan iron pillar? Allahabad prasasti |) Mehrauli prasasti c) Eran prasasti Junagarh prasasti early Gupta emperors modelled their linage after the gold coins of which of the fol[ lowing dynasties? I (a) Mauryas (b) Satavahanas Indo-Greeks (d) Kushanas Which of the following Gupta emperors is represented on his coins as playing the lute or veena? (a) Chandragupta I (b) Chandragupta II (c) Samudragupta (d) Skandagupta Pick out the first and the last Gupta rulers respectively from among the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) 8.

Chandragupta I and Vainyagupta Samudragupta and Vishnugupta Ghatotkacha and Kumaragupta II Srigupta and Vishnugupta The Gupta era was started by whom and when?

(a) Ghatotkachain ad 300 (b) Srigupta in ad 309-10 (c) Samudragupta in ad 324 (d) Chandragupta I in ad 319-20 9. Which of the following books is considered as the Gupta equivalent to Kautilya's Arthasastra of the Mauryas?

(a) Kamandaka's Nitisara (b) Kaliyugaraja Vrithantha (c) Narada Smriti (d) Brihaspati Smriti 10. Which of the following works tells us about the succession of Chandragupta I to the throne? (a) Devichandraguptam (b) Kaumudi Mahotsava (c) Mrichchhakatika (d) Abhigyana Sakuntalam 11. Which of the following Chinese pilgrims to India give us some information about the first Gupta ruler? (a) Hiuen Tsang (c) Itsing

(b) Fahien

(d) Wang Hiuen Tse

12. Which of the following Gupta rulers got the famous Sudarsana lake of the Mauryas repaired for the second time in history, the first time being by Rudradaman I? (a) Samudragupta (b) Skandagupta (c) Chandragupta I (d) Chandragupta II 13.

Who is the author of the famous Allahabad prasasti?

(a) Kalidasa

(b) Sudraka

(c) Harisena

(d) Ravikirti

14. Who among the following Guptas has the max imum number of inscriptions belonging to his period? (a) Buddhagupta

(b) Samudragupta

(c) Chandragupta II (d) Kumaragupta I

A367


15. Which of the following Gupta inscriptions is said to contain the most decisive evidence in favour of the exclusive ownership of land by the state or the king? (a) Allahabad prasasti (b) Bhitari prasasti (c) Paharpur copper plate (d) Junagarh rock inscription 16. Which of the following inscriptions of the Guptas gives the right of subinfeudation, i.e. the right to not only cultivate the land but also get it cultivated by someone else, to the grantee? (a) (b)

Indore pillar inscription of Skandagupta Nalanda Copper Plate Inscription of Samudragupta

(c)

Damadarpur Copper Plate Inscription of Kumaragupta I

(d)

Nandanpur Copper Plate Inscription of Buddhagupta

17.

Navanitakam of the Gupta period was a book on

(a) Astronomy (b) Mathematics (c) Medicine (d) Metallurgy 18.

Which part of the Mahabharata represents Sudras as the destroyers of the king?

(a) Aranya Parva

(b) Anusasana Parva

(c) Bhagavad Gita (d) Yudha Parva 19. Which inscription of Skandagupta mentions the Hunas and Pushyamitras as his most serious enemies? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Allahabad Pillar Inscription Junagarh Rock Inscription Indore Pillar Inscription Supia Pillar Inscription

20. Which of the following Gupta rulers is said to have embraced Buddhism towards the end of his reign and also founded the Nalanda University? (a) Skandagupta

(b) Buddhagupta

(c) Purugupta (d) Kumaragupta I 21.

Which of the following statements about Guptan inscriptions are true?

(i) They are divided into 23 private records and 19 official documents on the basis of their purpose. (ii) Twenty-seven of the Guptan inscriptions are written on stone, while 14 of them are recorded on copper plates { on an iron column, (iii) Out of all the Guptan ins in the nature of prasastis. (iv) Ten of them record the < state itself for the purpose! to Brahmins and temples, (v) Four of them record royal | religious persons and ins Select the answer from the i (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, I (c) i, iiandiv 22.

(d) AM

Which of the following

give us information about the < (i) Inscriptions of Kadambas !/s (ii) Those of the Varman dyn (iii) Those of the Hunas (iv) Those of the Chalukyas (v) Those of the Rashtrakutas; Choose the answer from the < (a) All of them (b) (c) i, ii, iii and v 23.

(d) ii,l

The Gupta coins give us in

(i) Chronology and territory of ( (ii) Personal life, tastes .and Guptas (iii) Script and science of Guptas (iv) Economic conditions of the |

Choose the answer from I (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii.ij (c) i, iii and iv (d) AH/ 24.

Kalidasa's works include (i) Abhigyana Sakuntalam (ii) Meghadootam

(iii) Raghuvamsa (iv) Malavikagnimitram (v) Ritusamhara (vi) Kumarasambhava Select the answer from the i (a)'All of them (b) i,i (c) i, ii, iv, v and vi (d) 25.

Which of the following ins Samudragupta?

(i) Allahabad Pillar Inscription (ii) Mehrauli Pillar Inscription (iii) Nalanda Copper Plate


I Copper Plate f\ Pillar Inscription i Pillar Inscription sanswer from the codes given below: , iii and iv (b) i, iii, iv and vi li, iv and vi

(d) i, iv, v and vi

f the following Gupta inscriptions are in s of prasasf/s? abad Pillar (ii) Eran Pillar auli Pillar (iv) Junagarh Rock ari Pillar (vi) Rajghat Pillar i the answer from the codes below: I of them (b) i, ii, iii, iv and v ,iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, iv, v and vi i of the following Puranas give us infori about genealogy of the Guptas? (ii) Matsya mi

(iv) Bhagavata

(vi) Brahmana eya the answer from the codes given

, ii, iiiandiv

(b) ii, iv, vandvi

91, v, vi and vii (d) All of them of the following statements about agupta's campaigns as mentioned in lAflahabad Pillar Inscription are true? |The list as given by the inscription includes ght states of Dakshinapatha, whose > were defeated but were reinstated, includes the names of eight kings of avarta who were exterminated and \whose kingdoms were not annexed. [ The list also consists of five border states, nine tribal republics and some forest , states, whose rulers were made to accept Gupta suzerainty either by military action or by coercion.

i Finally the list also comprises Sakas, Kushanas and rulers of island states whose territories were annexed by Samudragupta. i the answer from the codes below: All of them (b) i, ii and iii ii and iii only (d) iii and iv only i five pratyanta or border states, as men-I in the Allahabad prasasti include (i) Samtata

(ii) Davaka

(iii) Vanga

(iv) Kamarupa

(v) Nepala

(vi) Karthipura

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv, v and vi (b) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, iii, iv and v 30.

Which of the following statements about the polity of the Guptas is/are incorrect?

(i) Gupta emperors claimed divine origin and supernatural powers for themselves. (ii) They could neither make their own laws nor modify or interpret the existing laws. (iii) They assumed exalted imperial titles such as maharajadhiraja, rajadhiraja, etc. (iv) They were assisted by a council of ministers. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) i only

(c) iionly

(d) ii and iii

31.

Which of the following statements are true about Guptan administration?

(i) The Gupta empire consisted of directly administered areas and areas ruled _ autonomously by feudal chiefs and tributary kings.

(ii) The directly administered areas were divided into provinces, called ctesa or bhukti. (iii) The provinces were further subdivided into districts, called pradesa or vishaya. (iv) The Guptan administration was a highly centralised administration with a large bureaucracy. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 32. Which of the following statements about the agrarian structure of the Gupta period are true? (i) In the first half of the Gupta period, the king or the state claimed theoretical ownership of the land, though in practice the peasants had ownership rights. (ii) The Poona Copper Plate of Prabhavatigupta provides us sufficient evidence for land survey during the Gupta period.


(iii) An officer called pustapala was in-charge of land revenue collection at the district level, (iv) The Gupta inscriptions from Bengal and Bihar authorise the grantees to make a further gift of their lands to others, (v) The Gupta land grants in central India and western India give not only fiscal rights but also rights of judicial administration to the recipients. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, ii and v 33. Which of the following statements about land grants of the Gupta period is/are incorrect? (i) Land grants were made by Gupta emperors, their queens, feudatory kings, royal officials and even individual citizens. (ii) Most of the surviving land grants were endowed for secular purposes. (iii) Agrahara grants were those land grants made to Brahmins and were meant to be perpetual, heritable and tax free. (iv) Devagrahara grants were land grants made to government officials in lieu of payment for their administrative and military services. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) Only i

(b) i and ii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

34.

Arrange the following Gupta emperors in the chronological order.

(i) Samudragupta (ii) Kumaragupta I (iii) Chandragupta I (iv) Skandagupta (v) Ghatotkachagupta (vi) Chandragupta II Select the answer from the codes below: (a) v, iii, i, vi, ii, iv (b) iii, iv, i, ii, vi, v (c) iv, ii, v, i, vi, iii (d) ii, i, iv, vi, v, iii

35. Arrange the following Chinese Buddhist trav ellers to India in the historical sequence. (i) Hiuen Tsang (iii) Itsing

(ii) Wang Hiuen Tse

(iv) Fahien

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, ii, iv (b) iii, ii, iv, i (c) iv, i, ii, iii (d) ii, iv, i, iii 36. Arrange the following famous ancient Indian astronomers and mathematicians in the chronological order. (i) Varahamihira (iii) Aryabhatta

(i>

Select the answer from the"! (a) i, iii, iv, ii (b)lj (c) ii, iv, i, iii (d)^ 37. Arrange the following! ancient India in the correct! (i) Patanjali (i!) (iii) Chandragomia (iv) Select the answer from the < (a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) (c) ii, i, iv, iii (d) 38.

Match List I with List II and using the codes given below.

List I (i) Sudraka

(A) Dev

(ii) Vajjika

(B) Han

(iii) Visakhadatta (C) Mm (iv) Jinasena Suri (D) 77/sy (v) YatiVrishaha (E) Ka (a) (b) (c) (d) 39.

i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vD i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-E, v-A Match the authors of List List II and select the answer i given below.

List I (i) Aryabhatta (A) (ii) Brahmagupta (B) (iii) Varahamihira (C) (iv) Bhaskara (D) (v) Palakapya (E) (a) (b) (c) (d) 40.

i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, we i-C, ii-A, iii-E, iv-D, vB i-E, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B, vD i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB Match the following:

List I (Gupta emperors) ' (i) Samudragupta (A)

(ii) Kumaragupta I (B) *

(iii) Chandragupta II (C)^ (iv) Buddhagupta (D) ; (v) Skandagupta (E)


| ft-B, iii-C, iv-A, we \, iii-E, iv-B, vD p-E. iii-D, iv-A, vB f JI-C, iii-A, iv-D, we : the following pairs are not correctly

Cultivated land -Waste land Forest land ate Sara/7--Habitable land -Pasture land |the answer from the codes given below: land iii (b) ii, iii and iv i-iv and v

(d) i, iii and v

' List I and List II: > List I List II akara Purchase and sales tax Customs and tolls Periodic supplies of fru its, flowers, etc. ffW/pfa and fUpaklipta Plough tax Customary land revenue i of the above are correctly matched? t the answer from the codes given below: i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv I,

in and iv

(d) ii.iii and v

of the following pairs is correctly (d? 1 Kuberanaga--Lichchhavi princess married to Chandiragupta I i Dhruvadevi--Ramagupta's widow married by Chandragupta II Prabhavati--Naga princess married to |. Chandragupta II Kumaradevi--Daughter of Chandragupta

II,

married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler

List I with List II and select the answer I the codes given below: List I List II (Periods)

(Pottery)

Chalcolithic

(A) Red Ware

Vedic (B) Black and Red Ware |p) Pre-Maurya and (C) Painted Grey Maurya Ware

(iv) Pre-Gupta and Gupta (D)

Northern Black Polished Ware

(E)

Southern Grey Polished Ware

(a) i-A, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D (b) i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-A (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A (d) i-D, ii-A, iiiB, iv-C 45. Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below: List I List II (i) Khadayotapatika (A) Chief of the police and criminal judge (ii) Sandhivigrahika (B) Head of the army (iii) Mahadandanayaka (C) In-charge of military exchequer (D)

Superintendent of royal kitchen

(E)

Minister for peace and war

(iv) Baladhikarana

(v) Ranabhandadhikarana (a) i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-A, vB (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C, we (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD (d) i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, v-C 46. Match the following: List II

(Examples) (A)

Deogarh and Bhitargoan temples

(B)

Maniyar Math

(C)

Temple number XVII at tower Sanchi

(D)

Parvati and Siva temples at Nachna Kuthara and Bhumara respectively

(E)

Kapolesvara temple at Aihole

List I (Types of Gupta temples) (i) Flat-roofed square temple

(ii) Square temple with a vimana (iii) Square temple with asikhara

(iv) Rectangular temple

(v) Circular temple (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vB i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-A, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, vD i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, we



Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion1 and 'Reason' are correct and 'R' justifies or explains 'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A and 'R' are correct but 'R' do os not explain or justify 'A'. Mark (c) if only 'A is correct. Mark (d) if only 'R' is correct. 47. Assertion: Land grants made by Gupta emper ors undoubtedly indicate that the king had the supreme ownership of the land. Reason: In these land grants the Gupta emperors, particularly the later Guptas, transferred comprehensive rights to the donees. 48. Assertion: Under the Guptas, nivi dharma kind of trusteeship of land was prevalent in many parts of north India. Reason: Nivi dharma kind of land tenure was the only type prevalent in eastern India also. 49. Assertion: The Nalanda and Gaya copper plate grants of Samudragupta are the earliest records of the Gupta period that throw light on the agrahara grants. Reason: The above grants give not only financial powers but also administrative rights to the recipients.

50. Assertion: The Gupta period is rightly called the 'Golden Age' of Sanskrit grammar and lit erature. Reason: The Sakas and the Kushanas and even the Mahayana Buddhists patronised Sanskrit much before the imperial Guptas. 51. Assertion: The Gupta empire under the suc cessors of Kumaragupta I was marked by a general deterioration in the economic condi tions. Reason: The coinage of the successors of Kumaragupta I reveal a gradual decline in their fabric, artistic execution and fineness. 52. Assertion: Itsing was the first Chinese Buddhist pilgrim to visit India during the Gupta period. Reason: Itsing refers to the donation of some villages to Chinese Buddhists at Nalanda monastery by Srigupta. 53. Assertion: An overwhelming majority of the Gupta emperors were great patrons of Vaishnavism. Reason: Most of the rivals including the Nagas and the ' staunch Saivites. 54. Assertion: The nomination of j the successor of Samudragup been forced by the sabha, &* organisation of the Gupta | Reason: In the Gupta period i cession to the throne was unil by the sabha. 55. Assertion: Some land grants f period were made to se administered them for relig Reason: The feudal chiefs of I most of their land grants in classes of people, such as * etc. for the purpose of repair i of temples. 56.

Which of the following ins of accession of Chandragupta II j

(a) (b) (c) (d) 57.

Mathura Pillar inscription Allahabad Pillar Inscription Junagarh Rock Inscription Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscrip Match List I with List II and from the codes given below.

List I Ll«t( (i) Kumaragupta I (A) Vya k (ii) Chandragupta II (B) Na (\\\) Kachagupta (C) Sa (iv) Samudragupta (D) (a) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A (b) i-C,i (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (d) i-A, j

58.

Which of the following state (i) Mudrarakshasa of Vis

Samudragupta was sue Chandragupta but Ramagup (ii) The Natyadarpan by Gunachandra contains famous historical drama Mu (iii) This is corroborated by an drama Devichandraguptam. (iv) Sringararupakam of king contains some extracts of guptam. (v) Harshacharita of Sana also i Chandragupta II killed I


Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and iv (d) All of them Which of the following information stated in the Puranas is incorrect about the Gupta period? ^ (a) The Puranas give us a full account of the Gupta empire, its various provinces and their boundaries. (b) A distinction is made between those territories which formed an integral part of the empire and those which were outside its direct jurisdiction. (c) The Puranas help us in locating the names of kings and minor dynasties as well as in identifying them. | (d) They do not help us in fixing up the period of the rise of some of the small states either as, independent ones or within the empire. | Consider the following statements about taxa| Son during Gupta period, f (r) The principal sources of revenue were the bhaga, duties at ports, ferries and fortified K stations, pi) Rulers got income from the crown lands, mines, etc. If) Taxes were collected only in kind, v) Forced labour was not unknown and we hear of a special kind of corvee called bhotta-visti on the horders of Tibet, v) Extra taxation was resorted to in times of emergency, from which even temples were not exempted. iOf these i, ii and iv are true i, ii, iii and iv are true c) i, ii, iv and v are true All are true of the following statements is incorrect t women of Gupta age? Women of the upper classes in certain areas took a prominent part in administration. Women acted as provincial governors and heads of villages. je) According to contemporary epigraphs ft' women were not only skilled in music and dancing but also displayed their proficiency in the arts in public.

(d) The practice of sati was not yet in vogue in any section of the society. 62. Which of the following correctly explains the munificent donations made by guilds to the reli gious institutions and charitable causes during pre-Gupta and Gupta periods? (i) Religious convictions (ii) Social welfare (iii) Self-advertisement (iv) To please the kings Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 63. One particular city became a nodal point for trade routes running from north to south and east to west in the pre-Gupta and Gupta peri -ods. Identify the city, (a) Taxila (b) Mathura (c) Ujjain

(d) Vidisa

64. Which one of the following is the major factor for the decline of silk trade with the Western world? (a)

Indian artisans became lethargic in manufacturing luxury silk cloth.

(b)

India could not compete with the other silk exporting countries.

(c)

Roman conflict with Parthians prevented trade by land routes.

(d) Byzantine people learnt the art of rearing silkworms from the Chinese through the Persians. 65. In the Gupta period many panels of gods are made which depict the leading god in large size and the retainers drawn on a smaller scale. This represents (a)

increase in the number of gods.

(b) perfection of concept of trinity. (c) social and political hierarchy and distinction. (d) premature art and architecture. 66. Which of the following statements are correct about developments in agricultural sector dur ing Gupta period? (i) Village communities attempted to hinder the extension of private ownership. (ii) The number of land grants increased considerably and gradual concentration of land in private hands continued unabated.


(iii) Considerable attention was paid to the rights of land owners and their protection. (iv) All types of land grants became hereditary and permanent in character. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii

(b) i, ii and iii

(c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 67. What were the negative results of vesting mag isterial, police powers as well as fiscal powers with the donees by the king? (i) Extension and intensification of agriculture (ii) Increase in royal authority (iii) Oppression of peasantry (iv) Undermining of the royal authority (v) Emergency of feudal lords who patronised art and architecture. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and v (c) iii, iv and v (d) ii, iii, iv and v 68.

The terms uparikara and hiranya refer to:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 69.

land measurement units. administrative posts at provincial level. taxes collected during Gupta period. religious terms used by priestly class. Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below:

List I List II (i) Arakuta

(A) A variety of brass

(ii) Aprahata (B) Forest land Measure of distance Interest (iii) Gavyuti

(C)

(iv) Kusida

(D)

(a) (b) (c) (d) 70. trade?

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A After the fall of Roman empire, with whom did Indian businessmen mainly

(a) Central Asia

(b) China

(c) West Asia (d) South East Asia 71.

Which of the following was not one of the pur poses for which pearls were used?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Decoration of divine images Decoration of sword handles Decoration of drinking vessels Ornamentation of ladies' dresses

72. Which of the following cities I the best silk cloth producer?,] (a) Kausambi (b) (c) Varanasi (d) 73.

The term puga refers to:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 74.

a group of merchants a group of land grantees a guild of artisans a cartel of bankers Chandragupta II was the issue silver coins which were) coins of:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 75.

Indo-Greek kings King Vikrama of Ujjain the Roman coins of Aug Sakas of western and i Debasement and disappear late Gupta period indicates:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

Decline of agricultural i Cheapness of commodities3 Decline of trade and < Non-availability of metals Which of the following was not i of Gupta period?

(a) Potters

(b)

(c) Carpenters (d) 77.

Which one of the following was r guilds?

(a) Distribution

(b) Qu

(c) Social conduct (d) Pricaj 78.

Match List I with List II and i from the codes given below:

List I (Official terms)

(Super!

(i) Akaradhyaksha

(A)

(ii) Khanyadhyaksha (B) Win (iii) Pautavadhyaksha (C) Agrl (iv) Sitadhyaksha (D) We (v) Sutradhyaksha

(E) Wei|

(a) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD (b) i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vD (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-B, v-A (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C, we 79. Which of the following facts reveal' dominant role of the Brahmins in period?


fiA large number of land grants made to i Brahmins in their capacity as both officials and priests. : Their increasing role in revenue adminisitration. Încreasing rituals and ceremonies. | "rThe mythology of Manu attributing divinity ;to Brahmins. i was the first work to recognise the pay-l of officers by grants of land? Kautilya's Arthasastra Indica of Megasthenes Manu Smriti Harshacharita of Bana the Guptas in eastern India there was ably an intermediate level of administrai between vishayas (districts) and villages. Mt: bhukti (b) pradesa vithi

(d) ahara

i of the following statements is incorrect ut judicial administration under Guptas? a) Theft and adultery came under criminal law. Disputes regarding various types of property came under civil law. e) The king tried cases with the help of Brahmin priests. |fd) The guilds of artisans, merchants and others were governed by general civil laws. the following statements: (i) The village headman continued to be important in Gupta times. |(ii) Village headman managed the village affairs with the assistance of elders. |(iii) No, land transactions could be effected without his consent. f (iv) In the urban administration organised professional bodies were given considerable share. Of these:

(a) i and ii are true (b) ii, iii and iv are true (c) i, ii and iv are true (d) All are true The Gupta charters contained royal seal with an emblem. What is the figure in the emblem? (a) Garuda

(b) Varaha

(c) Lakshmi

(d) Bull

85.


(i) Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax forever. (ii) The beneficiaries were authorised to collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. (iii) The villages granted to the beneficiaries could not be entered by royal agents, retainers, etc. (iv) In several areas the beneficiaries were also empowered to punish the criminals. Of these: (a) i and ii are true (b) ii and iii are true (c) i, ii and iii are true (d) All are true 86. The Gupta rulers did not require as many offi cials as the Mauryas did. Which one of the fol lowing is not a reason for this? (a) Much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries. (b) The state did not take part in economic activities on any big scale as it did in Maurya times. (c) The participation of leading artisans, merchants, elders, etc. in rural and urban administration also lessened the need for maintaining a large retinue of officers. (d) The Gupta emperors generally patronised Brahmanism rather than heterodox sects. 87.

Which one of the following terms does not refer to a land measure?

(a) Ha/a

(b) Kalanju

(c) Karisa

(d) Kulyavapa

88. 'Even one and a half kulyavapa of land had to be purchased in smaller plots at four different places.' This statement highlights: (i) Scarcity of land. (ii) Unprecedented growth in land transactions. (iii) Unwillingness of the people to part with their land. (iv) Increasing pressure of population on land holdings. (v) Fragmentation of land holdings. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) All the above

A376 ••• Indian History: Ancient India 89. Which of the following have the earliest refer ence to the partition of landed property? (i) Manu Smriti (ii) Yajnavalkya Smriti (iii) Narada Smriti (iv) Brihaspati Smriti Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iv (d) iii and iv 90.

Which of the following statement is incorrect about agriculture in Gupta period?

Brahmins possessed many plots of land. Law books legitimised the cultivation of land by Brahmins. Lands were not cultivated by the Brahmins in any instance. Temporary peasants used to till the land for the Brahmins. 91.

Which of the following helped Brahmins to become very powerful?

(i) Their control over spiritual and ideological mechanism. (ii) Acquisition of fiscal and economic rights, (iii) Possession of administrative rights, (iv) Erosion of the rights of peasantry to the land. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) i, ii and iv

(c) i, iii and iv (d) All the above 92.

Which of the following statements is incorrect about Gupta age?

There is evidence of rise of local units of production. The law books of Gupta times lay down detailed rules regarding partnership in business and functioning of guilds. Corporate bodies did not perform any judicial and executive functions. Guilds maintained their own militia, called srenibala. 93. The king normally has no right to confiscate land once granted by him or by his prede cessors, but he reserves the right to confis cate under certain special circumstances, such as, if: (i) the grantees are I (ii) they are adulterers, rf (iii) they do wrong to i (iv) they wage war i (v) they are imprisoned I Select the answer from I (a) i, ii and iii (6 (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d

94. According to Gupta maintained a department 1 dealings. Which of the : tion performed by this i

95.

Maintenance of land i Land measurement Land sale Water supply to all Which of the following, about land measurement in ( Narada gave the sma linear measure as the i According to the Marka Arthasastra 24 angulasi hasta. In eastern part of the ( liar system of land i

mon with units known as < avapa and kulyavapa. (d) There was a definite measurement throughout! Gupta empire. 96. Match the inscriptions in List I they praise in List II and from the codes given below: List I (i) Udayagiri cave (A) inscription

(ii) Junagarh (B) inscription (iii) Indore copper

(C)

plate (iv) Bilsad pillar

(D)

inscription i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A


[Match List I with List II and select the answer (from the codes given below: List II Officers in charge of land revenue (B) (C)

Accountant Inspector General of Police Treasury officers

List I Chauraddharanika (A)

Ralavataka In) Tadayuktaka

V) Dhruvadikaranikas (D) ft) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A to) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A |B) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D d) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B

iand Reason

; (a) if both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) i correct and 'R' explains 'A', ark (b) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' i not explain 'A', ark (c) if only 'A' is correct. ; (d) if only 'R' is correct, f/on: Uttar Pradesh seems to have been imore important province for the Guptas than har. i: Early Gupta coins and inscriptions ave been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh. ertion: A guild of silk weavers migrated i Gujarat to Malwa in ad 473 and adopted productive professions. Reason: There was not much demand for the cloth produced by them as foreign trade declined. 100. Assertion: The judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times. Reason: For the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated besides several law books being compiled.

101. Assertion: Trade and commerce were on the general decline during the Gupta period. Reason: Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India. 102.

Assertion: Survivals of non-religious art from ancient India are few.

Reason: In ancient India art was mostly inspired by religion. .103. Assertion: Brahmins possessed many plots of land which they were not able to cultivate. Reason: Brahmins were not permitted to take to cultivation by any law books of the Gupta period. 104. Assertion: The guilds were powerful and capable of threatening the authority of the state. Reason: Narada ordains that the king shall prevent the guilds from embarking on anti-state or immoral or criminal actions. 105. Assertion: There is no record of the donation of a whole village except by the king. Reason: The king was thought of as the ultimate owner of the villages.

ANSWERS 3(a) 13. (c) 23. (d) 33. (C) 43. (b) 53. (b) 63. (C) 73-(a) 83. (d) 93. (d) 103. (C) Mb) 14. (d) 24. (a) 34. (a) 44. (C) 54. (C) 64. (d) 74. (d) 84. (a) 94. (d) 104. (d) L(d) 11. (c) 21. (d) 31. (b) 41. (C) 51. (a) 61. (d) 71-(a) 81. (C) 91. (d) 101. (b)

2. (c) 12. (b) 22. (C) 32. (d) 42. (d) 52. (d) 62. (d) 72. (c) 82. (d) 92. (C) 102. (a)

5.(d) 15-(c) 25. (b) 35. (C) 45. (d) 55. (a) 65. (C) 75. (c) 85. (d) 95. (d) 105. (a)

6. (c) 16-(a) 26. (b) 36. (b) 46. (b) 56. (a) 66. (a) 76. (d) 86. (d) 96. (C)

7. (d) 17.(C) 27. (d) 37. (C) 47. (a) 57. (d) 67. (c) 77. (a) 87. (b) 97. (a)

8., 18* 28. 38. 48. (e 58. (df 68. (c 78. (ajl 88-(d)' 98. (a*

A378

QUESTIONS II

j among the following works does not ) the individual ownership of land? t Smriti (b) Milinda Panho astra

(d) Divyavadana

1 common type of trusteeship in cen-I northern India was the tdharma ayanivi i dharma hchhidranyaya (Slants, using the term abhyantarasiddhi, \ the donees with the al powers i and judicial powers ers to extract forced labour i to levy extra taxes I mainly led to the servitude of peasants in it-Gupta period? binfeudation of the soil elegation of fiscal and administrative [powers osition of forced labour ansfer of peasants to the grantees one of the following terms does not >the office of village headman? amani (b) Gramayeka 'Gamasamika (d) Gahapati iider List I and List II: List I Mahapratihara

'Ranabhandadhi karana Mahadanda nayaka ) Khadayotapatika List II In-charge of Military Exchequer Guardian of Royal

Gateway Royal Field Marshal

Superintendent of Royal Kitchen hich of the above are correctly matched? t the correct answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

7. The post-Gupta term karada meant (a) peasants (b) tributaries (c) slaves

(d) wage-earners

8.

Kara-sasana of the post-Gupta period was

(a) (b) (c)

one type of land charter an extra tax collected from the peasants the special service rendered by the villagers to the king

(d)

a royal order demanding military service from the feudatories

9. The first land grant made by the Kushanas in the second century ad in Allahabad region was in favour of the (a) Brahmins (b) Buddhists (c) Jainas 10.

(d) Ajivikas

Which one of the following terms does not denote a canal or drain?

(a) Bardhya

(b) Kulyavapa

(c) Khaya

(d) Jalanirgamah

11. How much percentage of royal revenues was ear-marked for the endowment of great public servants during the reign of Marsha? (a Fifty(b) Forty (c) Twenty five

(d) Twenty

12.

Serfdom began

(i) with the independent peasants and then came to embrace the sharecroppers (ii) in the heart of the country and then gradually spread to the peripheral areas (iii) in the mountainous or backward regions and later spread to developed areas (iv) with the plots of land and then came to include whole villages Of these (a) (b) (c) (d)

A379

All are true i, ii and iii are true i and ii are true iii and iv are true


13.

The term gapata sarah meant

(a) forest land (b) pasture land (c) habitable land (d) waste land 14.

Gaulmika was the Superintendent of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 15. of the

Mines Weaving Forests Weights and Measures Who described his father as the samantachudamanih (the best among feudatories) imperial Guptas in the Barabar Hill Cave Inscription of early sixth century ad?

(a) Vakataka ruler, Pravarasena II (b) Naga ruler, Bhanaga (c) Pushyabhuti ruler, Prabhakaravardhana (d) Maukhari ruler, Anantavarman 16. When were the silkworms introduced into the Byzantine empire from China, adversely affect ing India's already declining foreign trade? (a) ad 451 (b) ad 551 (c) ad 651

(d) ad 351

17.

In the post-Gupta period the term karyalekha meant

(a) (b) (c) (d) 18.

a private agreement about land a royal charter to the priests an agrarian dispute over land the written statement of an offender of law Which of the following terms denote land measurements of different sizes?

(i) Nivartana (ii) Nivesa (iii) Ha/a

(iv) Pranaya

(v) Pataka

(vi) Mauli

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and v (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and iv 19. The earliest use of the term samanta in the sense of a vassal is found in an inscription of the (a)

Vakataka ruler, Oharasena II, of the sixth century ad

(b)

Pallava ruler, Santivarman, of the fifth century ad

(c)

Gupta ruler, Samudragupta, of the fourth century ad

(d)

Vakataka ruler, Pravarasena II, of the fifth century ad

20. by

Bana informs us that Harsha's up of the troops supplied by This fact is confirmed

(a) (b) (c) (d) 21.

Huien Tsang's Si-yuki Harsha's Nausasi Copper F Pulakesin II's Aihole Ins Harsha's Ratnavali Which of the following ten measurements of different un eastern India?

(I) Vapl

(ii)

(iii) Dronavapa

(iv)

Choose the correct answer given below: (a) All of them (b) (c) iii and iv

(d)

22. Consider the following stati 'Sages declare a field to cleared away timber, and a first wounded it.' This is attributed to (a) Narada

(b)

(c) Brihaspati (d)

23.

Pustapala was an officer in (

(a) (b) (c)

books and manuscripts revenue records at the dtt records of land trans level

(d) municipal administration 24. What is the correct chrc following lawmakers of an (i) Manu (ii) (iii) Medhatithi (iv)^ Choose the answer from below: (a) i, ii, iv and iii

(b) j|

(c) i, iv, ii and iii

(d)j

25. Where was the term aha food for its holders, continu administrative unit during^ Gupta periods? (a) Western India (k), (c) Northern India (d)| 26. Consider the following The acceptance of an Brahmin is less blamable | one.' It points to the fact I


Brahmins should not accept either tilled or unfilled land. Land grants to the Brahmins are disapproved by lawmakers. Land grants to the Brahmins comprised only unfilled lands. Land grants to the Brahmins also served the purpose of extension of cultivation, i earliest land grant to a secular party, an original chief called Pulindabhatta, was s by the B) Satavahanas Uccakalpas

(b) Guptas

(d) Vakatakas

ho among the following dynasties were the to transfer all sources of revenue to the hmins? a) Vakatakas (b) Guptas c) Pallavas

(d) Chalukyas

here did forced labour come to be known by I term sarvavisti and assume a wide signifince? a) South India (b) Central India |.(c) North India

(d) West India

iBhottavisti was a special kind of forced labour f Imposed on peasants from the borders of B) Kashmir (b) Kamarupa fc) Tibet

(d) Afghanistan

[Which one of the following texts provides us [with the earliest literary evidence for land | grants to officials? j^(a) Manu Smriti

(b) Milinda Panho

yq) Narada Smriti (d) Brihaspati Smriti fijhe term samanta, meaning a feudatory from ilhe sixth century ad, originally meant a .(a) slave (b) cultivator ((c) neighbour (d) foreigner

hat were the different obligations of the amantas to their overload in the post-Gupta ' period? To render military aid pr(ii) To perform administrative and judicial functions in peace time (iii) To pay yearly tributes f(\v) To pay homage to the emperor in person i;(v) To furnish their minor sons or princes (vi) To carry out certain social obligations Select the correct answer from the codes below:

(a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, v and vi (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) All of them 34. Consider the following statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): Land grants of the post-Gupta period throw light on the social configuration of the village. Reason (R): Caste-wise identification of the villagers was made in most of the land charters of the time. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 35. From which period of Indian history did the big merchants, called sethis, enjoy bhogagamasl (a) (b) (c) (d) 36.

Pre-Maurya period Maurya period Post-Maurya period Gupta period Which one of the following was not an agrarian tax?

(a) Bhaga

(b) Kara

(c) Sulka

(d) Halivakara

37.

Which of the following statements about the Indore grant of ad 397 are true?

(i) It was made by a local merchant to a

Brahmin, (ii) The conditions of the grant were those of a devagrahara grant, (iii) It was made with the consent of maharaja Swamidasa, a feudatory of the imperial Guptas, (iv) It authorised the grantee to enjoy the field, cultivate it and get it cultivated, (v) It provides us with the earliest epigraphic evidence of subinfeudation. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii, iv and v



38. When and by whom was serfdom, i.e. the prac tice of transferring peasants along with land to the beneficiaries, started? (a) (b) (c) (d) 39.

third century ad--Vakatakas fourth century ad--Pallavas fifth century ad--Guptas sixth century ad--Maukharis The earliest epigraphic refrence to visti or forced labour is found in the

(a) Nanaghat Inscription of Naganika (b) Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela (c) Junagarh Inscription of Asoka (d) Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman I 40. Who among the following Chinese pilgrims to India informs us that most Indian Buddhist monasteries got their lands cultivated by ser vants and others? (a) Using

(b) Wang Hiuen Tse

(c) Hiuen Tsang

(d) Fahien

41.

Which work gives us the different types of samantas of the reign of Harsha?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 42.

Harsha's Nagananda Sana's Harshacharita Harsha's Priyadarshika Sana's Kadambari When did the practice of mortgaging land for taking loan begin?

(a) Maurya period (b) Pre-Gupta period (c) Gupta period (d) Post-Gupta period 43. When and by whom were administrative rights first abandoned while making religious land grant? (a) (b)

first century bc--Pulamayi I first century ad--Kharavela

(c) second century ad--Gautamiputra Satakami (d) fourth century ad--Samudragupta 44. Tanks were known by different terms, but one of the following does not come under this cate gory. Pick it out. (a) Kalanju

(b) Dirghula

(c) Tadaga

(d) Vapi

45.

Mandasor Pillar Inscription of the early sixth century AD belongs to

(a) Anantavarman (b) Yasodharman (c) Mihirakula (d) Toramana 46.

Consider the following labelled as Assertion (A) and i Reason (R).

Assertion (A): In the post-i any coin can be ascribed with < ruling house. Reason (R): According to HiuQ nors, ministers, magistrates an had each a portion of land as their personal support. In the context of the above which one of the following is i (a)

Both A and R are true andj explanation of A.

(b)

Both A and R are true but f explanation of A.

(c) (d) 47.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. To which period does the evidence, yet available, of and to whom was it made?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

second century bc--Bu first century bc--Brahminsf first century ad--Jainas second century ad--Aji\

48.

Which one of the following meteorological observations lines to cultivators?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 49.

Sana's Harshacharita Kalidasa's Ritusamhara Varahamihira's Brihat.' Amarasimha's Amarako Which one of the following I trative officers does not: tions?

(a) Balisadhaka

(b)

(c) Mahabhogi (d) 50. Who among the following describe Sudras as a class i (a) Manu (b) (c) Hiuen Tsang (d) 51.

Harsha belonged to which'3 dynasties?

(a) Varmans

(b) "f

(c) Pushyamitras (d) 1 52. What was the early capital < (a) Thanesvar (to) | (c) Mathura (d) i


List I List II (i) Prabhakaravardhana (A) Marsha's mother |,was the name of Marsha's brother-in-law I which dynasty did he belong? ahavarman-Varman Dynasty vagupta--Later Guptas skaravarman--Pushyamitras ahavarman-Maukharis ; was the title assumed by Harsha after I to the throne? aharaja (b) Siladitya unaraja (d) Avanisimha Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited a's empire? (b) Fahien HiuenTsang

(d) Wang HiuenTse

of the following inscriptions gives us ition about the conquest of Valabhi by ardhana? Whole pillar inscription |i(inagarh rock inscription amadarpur copper plate [Nausasi copper plate ) was the court poet of Harsha? |Bhani (b) Ravi Kirti ||Bana (d) Vishnusarma i was the author of rHarshacharita (ii) Ratnavali gananda (iv) Priyadarsika nbari t the answer from the codes given below: ,Hand iii (b) ii, iii and iv , iv and v

(d) ii, iv and v

t was the author of vati Parinay (ii) Kadambari arshacharita (iv) Panchatantra namalika N, it and iii

(b) ii, iii and iv

fii, iv and v

(d) i, iii and iv

i is said to have held two great religious nblies. Which of the following places ) the venues for these assemblies? hanesvar (ii) Kanauj fyalabhi

(iv) Prayag

5 the answer from the codes given below: fJand iv (b) ii and iii nil and iv

(d) ii and iv

i List I with List II and choose the answer I the codes given below. (ii) Rajyavardhana (iii) Rajyasri

(iv)Yasoda (v) Grahavarman (B) (C)

Marsha's sister Marsha's brother-in-law

(D) (E)

Marsha's father Marsha's brother

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, we i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vC i-D, ii-B, iii-E, iv-C, v-A 62. Match List I with List II and select the answer

using the codes given below. List I List II

(i) Devagupta (A) Ruler of Kamarupa and close friend of Harsha (ii) Sasanka

(B) Ruler of Malwa

who killed Marsha's brother-in-law and in turn was killed by Harsha's brother (iii) Bhaskaravarman (C) The leading noble at Harsha's court (iv) Dhruvasena II (D) Ruler of Gauda who killed Harsha's brother and was later defeated by Harsha (v) Bhani

(E) Ruler of Valabhi

who was defeated by Harsha (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, vB i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vD i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B, we


Instructions

Mark (a) if only Assertion (A) is true. Mark (b) if only ReasomfR) is true. Mark (c) if both 'A and 'R' are true and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are true, but 'R' is not the correct explanation for 'R'.


63. Assertion: The practice of sati was prevalent among the higher classes during Harsha's period. Reason: Bana has recorded that Harsha's mother committed sati after the death of her husband. 64.

Assertion: Harsha issued a large number of sil ver coins.

Reason: The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of revenuebearing lands on a large scale had begun under Harsha. 65. Assertion: Harsha is reported to have brought a tooth relic of the Buddha from Kashmir. Reason: Kashmir was annexed by Harsha in one of his military campaigns. 66. Who is the author of Vikramankacharita? (a) Ravi Kirti (c) Bana (d) Bilhana 67.

(b) Mangalesa

Who was the founder of the Chalukyas of Badami?

(a) Kirtivarman I

(b) Vikramaditya I

(c) Pulakesin I (d) Vijayaditya 68.

During whose reign did Hiuen Tsang visit the Chalukya kingdom?

(a) Vikramaditya II (b) Pulakesin II (c) Kirtivarman II (d) Vijayaditya 69. Which Chalukya ruler is credited with repelling the Arab invasion of south Gujarat? (a) Vikramaditya I (b) Pulakesin I (c) Pulakesin II (d) Vikramaditya II 70. Which Chalukya ruler is said to have sent an envoy in ad 625 to the Persian king, Khusrau II, and also received one from the latter, as depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings?

(a) Kirtivarman I

(b) Vinayaditya

(c) Pulakesin II

(d) Vijayaditya

71.

Which style of architecture was developed by the Chalukyas of Badami?

(a) Nagara

(b) Dravida

(c) Vesara

(d) Gopuram

72.

Which Chalukyaa town is known as the town of temples ? '

(a) Aihole

(b) Badami

(c) Pattadakal (d) Ajanta 73.

Arrange the following Chalukyas of Badami in the chronological order.

(i) Vikramaditya I (ii) Puls (iii) Kirtivarman I (iv) Vija (v) Vinayaditya Select the answer from the codes; (a) ii, iv, i, v, iii (b) III,-II, ^ (c) iv, ii, i, iii, v 74.

(d) v, ii, i

Which of the following temples Aihole?

(i) Ladh Khan temple (ii) Melagitti Sivalaya (iii) Hucimaligudi (iv) Durga temple (v) Jaina temple of Meguti Choose the answer from the below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iiif

(c) ii, iii, ivand v

(d) i, iii, ivj

75.

Which among the following Pattadakal is said to begin the I architecture?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

Virupaksha temple Sangamesvara temple Papanatha temple Kapolesvara temple Which of the following stateme Pulakesin II are correct?

(i) He had to fight a bitter civil war i uncle before establishing bin throne, (ii) The Aihole Inscription gives us i about his achievements and rule. I (iii) He was defeated by Harsha as I from later Chalukyan inscriptions (iv) He started the suicidal Pallav conflict which went on for centi (v) He died a natural death after about 33 years. Select the answer from the below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii an (c) i, ii and v (d) ii, iv j 77.

Which one of the following pairs is' matched?

(a)

Vijayaditya--Invaded the Pallava I three times

(b)

Kirtivarman II--Longest and mostf reign

The Guptas and their Successors (ad 300-750)

A385

(c)

Vikramaditya I--Drove out the occupying Pallava forces from Badami

(d) Vikramaditya II --Last Badami Chalukya, overthrown by Dantidurga f 78. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. Mark (a) if only Assertion (A) is true. Mark (b) if only Reason (R) is true. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are true and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are true, but 'R' is not the correct explanation for 'R'. Assertion: The later Chalukyan inscriptions lay daim to Ayodhya as the ancestral home of Chalukyas. Reason: The north Indian origin of the Chalukyas is also evident from certain nonChalukyan inscriptions. Assertion: The Chalukyas of Badami exercised paternalistic control over village administration. , Reason: In the village affairs the royal officers of the Chalukyas actively intervened instead of being mere observers. List I (i) Mangalesa

(ii) Appayika

(iii) Vishnuvardhana

(iv) Ravi Kirti

(a) (b)

i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-A

(c) (d)

i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-0 i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C

i and Reason Ustll (A)

Younger brother of Pulakesin // who appointed him as the viceroy of Vengi

(B) Uncle of Pulakesin II (C) Court poet of Pulakesin II and author of Aihole Inscription (D)

A feudatory chief who rebelled against Pulakesin II

(E)

Pallava ruler, killed by Pulakesin II

81. Assertion: The Chalukya period is marked by frequent invasions and plunder of the neigh bouring territories. Reason: The area under Chalukya rule was generally rocky land which yielded limited revenue. 82.

Who was the first independent Pallava ruler?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 83.

Simhavarman S/mhav/shnu Narasimhavarman I Paramesvaravarman I Which Pallava ruler was a contemporary of Sankaracharya?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 84.

Mahendravarman I Narasimhavarman II Nandivarman II Dantivarman Who built the famous Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchipuram?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 85.

Narasimhavarman II Paramesvaravarman II Nandivarman II Aparajita Who was the author of Dasakumaracharitam and at whose court did he live?

(a) (b)

Dandin--Nandivarman II Bharavi--Nandivarman II

(c) (d) 86.

Appar--Dantivarman Andal--Mahendravarman I Who founded the city of Mamallapuram, also known as Mahabalipuram?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 87.

Simhavishnu Narasimhavarman I Narasimhavarman II Paramesvaravarman I What were ghatikas?

(a) Jaina educational institutions (b) Buddhist cultural centres (c) Brahmanical institutions for higher studies (d) Village assemblies in the Pallava period 88. Who is considered as the greatest Pallava because of his military conquests and cultural contribution? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Mahendravarman I Paramesvaravarman II Mahendravarman I Narasimhavarman I


89. During whose time did Hiuen Tsang visit Kanchipuram, the capital of the Pallavas? (a) (b) (c)

Narasimhavarman I Narasimhavarman II Mahendravarman I (d) Mahendravarman II 90. Which of the following Pallavas were the wor shippers of Vishnu, the rest being devotees of Siva? (i) Simhavishnu (ii) Narasimhavarman II (iii) Mahendravarman II (iv) Nandivarman II Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

91.

Which of the following were the Nayanars (Saivite saints) of the Pallava period?

(i) Appar

(ii) Sambandar

(iii) Tirumangai

(iv) Sundarar

(v) Sankara Choose the answer from the codes given below: i, ii and iv

All of them (a) i, ii and iii (b) (c) ii, iii and iv (d) 92.

Arrange the following Pallava rulers in historical sequence.

(i) Narasimhavarman I (ii) Narasimhavarman II (iii) Mahendravarman I (iv) Mahendravarman II (v) Paramesvaravarman I (vi) Paramesvaravarman II Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i, iv, vi, v (b) iv, vi, v, i, ii, iii (c) iii, i, iv, v, ii, vi 93.

(d) i, vi, iii, v, iv, ii

Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below:

List II (A) (B) (C) (D) List I

Gunabhara Rajasimha Avanisimha Vatapikonda

(i) Simhavishnu (ii) Narasimhavarman I (iii) Narasimhavarman II (iv) Mahendravarman I (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A

94. Match the following:

List I (Pallava temples) (i) Mahendra group

(Ex (A) (ii) Narasimha group (B) (iii) Rajasimha group (C) (D) (iv) Nandi group at I (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A 95. Which one of the following matched?

(a)

Manavarman--The Ceylo helped and received help <

(b)

Aditya I--The Pandya ruler I Nandivarman II

(c)

Sripurusha--The Chola threw the Pallavas by i

(d)

Varagunamaharaja--Gan killed Paramesvara II, but;ij Nandi II


Instructions

Mark (a) if only Assertion (A) is I Mark (b) if only Reason (R) is I Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are j the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A1 and 'R' arej not the correct explanation for' 96.

Assertion: Pallavas, accon scholars, were a branch of! dynasty.

Reason: Pallava inscriptions< dence about their connection i 97.

Assertion: Mahendravarman I as 'Mattavilasa'.

Reason: He was the author of a 1 lesque, Mattavilasa Prahasana, in! 98.

Assertion: Pallavas conquered tries in South-East Asia.


ason: The Pallava type of vimana (storey) is in the temples of Java, Cambodia and i belonging to this period. r. The Nandi group of Pallava temples more ornate than the earlier groups, ason: They are mostly small in size, ert/'on: The Pallava administration was Irked by autonomous village administration I), however, developed fully only under the Has. The Pallava rulers did not make i land grants, including religious grants. List I with List II and select the answer i the codes given below. List I List II Alupas (A) Bastar Mauryas

(B) South Canara

|) Nalas

(C) Malwa

Kalachuris

(D) Konkan

p) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D I) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C hich of the following statements is not correct ut Pulakesin II? The Vishnukundins were defeated in a hard fought battle on the shores of Kunala (Koleru) lake. Southern Kosala and Kalinga submitted to the power of Pulakesin II. Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras were defeated and crushed by Pulakesin II. ,(d) The Ganga ruler Durvinita gave his daugh ter in marriage to Pulakesin II, and she gave birth to Vikramaditya I. Where was the First pitched battle fought by rfulakesin II against Mahendravarman I? ;:(a) Kanchi (b) Pullalur j^(c) Manimangala

(d) Vatapi

Who of the following is known as vichitrachitta (curious-minded)? *(a) Mahendravarman I i (b) Narasimhavarman I (c) Paramesvaravarman I (d) Aparajitavarman Which of the following is not a title of r Mahendravarman I, who had a passion for titles?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 106.

Chettahakari Chitrakarapuli Mattavilasa Mahamalla Which of the following statements are correct about Narasimhavarman I?

(i) He was probably the greatest Pallava ruler and became supreme in the whole of south India, (ii) He defeated Pulakesin II in three battles, killed the latter and captured Vatapi. (iii) He withdrew the forces from the Chalukyan territories after his victory over Pulakesin II. (iv) He sent a naval expedition to Ceylon, the details of which are given in the Mahavamsa. (v) Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom during his reign. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) (b) (c) (d) 107.

All of them i, ii and iii ii, iii and v i, ii, iv and v Which of the following statements is incorrect about Narasimhavarman II?

(a) He took up the titles of Rajasimha, Agampriya (lover of sculptures) and Sankarabhakta. (b)

Dandin, the great Sanskrit writer, was his court poet.

(c)

His reign was marred by frequent battles.

(d) Narasimhavarman sent an embassy to China, and trade and commerce flourished during his reign. 108. Which of the following statements is not cor rect about literature and learning of Pallava period? (a) Except a few inscriptions at the beginning in Sanskrit, the rest are written in Tamil. (b)

Kanchi was the seat of Sanskrit learning in the south.

(c) The works of Kalidasa and Varahamihira are well known and provisions were made for the recitation of the Mahabharata in the mandapas of temples. (d)

Mattavilasa Prahasana, a social comedy, belongs to this period.


109.

Which of the following statements are correct about Pallava society?

(i) Saiva and Vaishnava saints who dominated the religion of south lived in Pallava period. (ii) Pallavas were orthodox Hindus and were generally followers of Vishnu, but some of them were devotees of Siva. (iii) It was from Kanchi that the Sanskritisation of the south and the Indian colonies in the Far East proceeded. (iv) Aryanisation of south India began during the Pallava period. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii

(b) i, iii and iv

(c) i, Hand iii (d) All of them 110. Which of the following can be considered as the birthplace of south Indian architecture and sculpture? (a) Kanchi

(b) Mahabalipuram

(c) Madurai

(d) Kaveripattinam

111.

Where do we have life-like portrait images of the Pallava kings and queens?

(a) Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi (b) Virathanesvara temple at Tirrutani (c) Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi (d) Isvara temple at Mahabalipuram 112. What is the animal that is found in most of the pillars of the Pallavas, representing the founder of Pallava dynasty? (a) Tiger '

(b) Lion

(c) Elephant 113.

(d) Bull

Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below.

List I List II (i) Madhuban Copper (A) Genealogy of Plate

Marsha's family

(ii) Sonpat Inscription (B) Chronology of (iii) Banskhara Inscription (iv) Nausasi Copper Plate (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D (c) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D Marsha's reign (C)

Signatures of Harsha

(D)

Harsha's victory over Valabhi

(b) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D 114. Which of the following Sasanka is incorrect? statements about

(a)

Sasanka was an ally of ruler of eastern Malwa.

(b)

Hiuen Tsang says that! secutor of Buddhists an Buddhist monasteries

and Varanasi. (c)

Hiuen Tsang says that Har Sasanka.

(d)

Harsha failed to subjugate I pletely.

115.

Which of the following stati Sana's Harshacharita is not <

(a)

It contains eight chapters chapter he describes Ha family.

(b)

The sixth and seventh the wars and conquests of I

(c) The last and eight chapter | mation about various religk in the forests of the Vindh (d)

The book gives us a good I flourishing urban economy, period.

116.

The term kshauma refers to

(a) a type of cloth (b) a kind of punishment (c) a religious tax (d) an administrative post 117. Which of the following are social customs as observed by I (i) There was no custom of' riage. (ii) There seems to have been / among the higher classes. J (iii) The system of sati was I (iv) Inter-caste marriages wera.,j by the lawmakers of the I Choose the answer from the < (a) iandii (b) i,l (c) i, Hand iii (d) All< 118.

Which of the following idols ' by Harsha in the mahan

at Prayaga? (a) Buddha

(b)

(c) Adityadeva (d) 119.

Which of the following helped I feudal tyranny and rebellions?


Marsha made extensive land grants to all the officials. He maintained military garrisons. He toured the country extensively and established personal contacts with people. He maintained cordial relations with the feudal chiefs. the following administrative units of Harsha's empire in the descending order, (i) Bhukti (ii) Mandate (Si) Vithi

(iv) Rashtra

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) iv, i, ii, iii (b) i, ii, iv, Hi (c) iv, ii, i, iii (d) iv, i, iii, ii rrange the following Chinese travellers, who fcame to India, in correct chronological order. Hiuen Tsang (ii) Fahien 1 (iii) Itsing

(iv) Wang Hiuen Tse

[Choose the answer from the codes below: B) ii, i, iii, iv (b) ii, i, iv, iii ii, iv, i, iii

(d) ii, iii, i, iv

hich of the following statements are correct : the land laws in Gupta and post-Gupta s?

Brihaspati ordains that one field mortgaged to two creditors at the same time shall belong to that mortgagee who was the first to obtain possession of it. Katyayana says that the debtor can get back his fields given for enjoyment as interest from the creditor on paying back the amount he has taken, i) According to Brihaspati when a field is mortgaged for use and the period fixed for such use does not expire, the debtor cannot recoverhis property nor can the creditor recover his loan. V) The practice of mortgaging land for interest began towards the beginning of the Gupta period and continued for another three or four centuries. i the answer from the codes below: i and ii (b) i, iii and iv ii, iii and iv

(d) All the above

i of the following statements is not correct agrarian structure in Gupta and post-i periods?

(a) The feudal tendencies made their appearance towards the closing years of the Gupta rule. (b) References to land grants to officers, Brahmins and temples are available in the reign of Marsha. (c) We find numerous revenue terms in inscriptions some of which were paid to the vassals or officers and others to the state or the overlord. (d) The tax collection rights of the kings and their subordinate chiefs were mutually exclusive and the peasants did not need to pay taxes to both. 124. Which one of the following is the potent cause for the increase in burden of tax on peasant? (a) (b) (c) (d) 125.

Land granted to Brahmins Land granted to feudal chiefs Land granted to the officials Several grades of rulership and subinfeudation Which of the following reduced the status of free peasants to the status of serfs?

(i) Transfer of peasants to the grantees along with land

(ii) Extension of forced labour (iii) Restrictions on the movement of peasants (iv) Delegation of Fiscal and criminal adminis tration to the religious beneficiaries Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iii (d) All of them 126.

The term bhumichchhidranayaya denotes

(a) (b) (c)

ownership of the king over the soil. ownership of the feudal chief over the soil. ownership of the person who brought virgin soil under cultivation,

(d) justice in transactions of the land. 127. Which of the following statements are correct about the rights and customs regarding land? (i) The rights over land could be transferred, bought and sold like any other commodity. (ii) The claims of feudal chiefs and donees weakened the claims and rights of the cultivators. (iii) A number of restrictions were imposed on the claims of the peasant on the land. (iv) The cultivators had the right to refuse to cultivate the land.


Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) All the above 128. Which of the following statements are correct about the rights and customs regarding land? (a) The practice of letting out land to cultivators on the basis of crop-sharing helped in the emergence of feudal land system or tenures. (b) Such tenures developed in only those parts of north India which were economi cally backward. (c)

Sometimes the artisans, labourers, etc. were forced into unpaid labour or visti.

(d)

Women were free from performing various unpaid jobs for the landlord.

129.

Which of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Economy tended to become increasingly agrarian as trade and commerce declined in the post-Gupta period. (b) A fairly large section of peasantry emerged due to transformation of Sudras into peasants. (c) The mode of paying interest on mortgaged land in the form of labour services had become fairly common. (d)

The flourishing agrarian economy raised the living standards of peasants.

130.

Which one of the following is the earliest to accompany the land grants?

(a) (b) (c)

Power to punish thieves and criminals Exemption from payment of taxes Administrative powers over the donated area

(d) Right to impose taxes 131. Which of the following statements is/are true about the land charters of postGupta period? (i) In some land grants, taxes and powers of administration are explicitly delegated in a positive manner. (ii) Some charters specifically transfer peasants and artisans living in a village and also cultivators occupying a piece of land. (iii) Some charters give the beneficiary the right to evict the existing peasants and induce new ones. (iv) One important element in the land donation records is the list of officers, either with both proper names and functional designations or only with designations. Select the answer from the < (a) i and iii (b) i, I (c) i, ii and iv (d) 132.

Which of the following staten about the land charters?

(a)

Most land grants bear writer and the executor.

(b)

The name of the literate! the grant appears in many*

(c)

Land grants are exclusi\ written either on stone orj only.

(d) According to some chari sasana, the donees are. some taxes and in other i asked to shun treason or i the king. 133.

Match List I with List II and i from the codes given below.

List I (i) Nivartana

(A) Ai

(B) (ii) Araghatta

(iii) Vapi

(C) A4

(iv) Hatta

(D)

(a) (b)

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C

(c) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D (d) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A 134. Which one of the following is ti of vesting the donees with K police powers along with fiscal 1 (a) Weakening of king's au (b) Increase in productivity (c) Easy administration overt (d) Oppression of the tenants:* 135. The land ownership in the i with the king, especially Which one of the following isl son for this? (a)

To grant revenues from < cers

(b)

To have the crown Ian small scale cultivators an

(c) (d)

To grant the land to Brahn To grant the land to artists) and architecture


i the south the landowners had the right to f(a) sell land

(b) gift land

|(c) mortgage land (d) all the above | Which one of the following is not correct about I the exemptions and remissions available? B) Temples were exempted from extra taxation in emergency times. b)

Land newly brought under cultivation was exempted from tax for five years.

c) Remission was given to villages which undertake public works like irrigation projects. (d) Remission was given at times of natural calamity. i one of the following is not a purpose for hich local taxes were collected in the villages s/of south? B) Improving environment b) Maintaining irrigation works L(c) Building rest-houses I (d) For village services , Which one of the following is not true about the [agrarian structure of post-Gupta period? (a)

The Indian economy became a self-sufficient village economy.

(b)

A vigorous process of subinfeudation started resulting in uneconomical plots.

: (c) The ties between central authority and the local beneficiaries considerably strengthened. (d) There was a large-scale transfer of land revenue and lands for both secular and religious purposes. Which one of the following statements is not

correct about the position of agrarian classes? (a) There were no restrictions on the practice of taking food from the Sudra sharecroppers. : (b) A Brahmin who became a peasant was placed in the category of people engaged in sinful acts. (c)

The dependent peasants who were sharecroppers outnumbered free peasants.

(d) The status of a free Vaishya peasant declined and he began to be viewed as a Sudra. Which one of the following was the most important consequence of the ancient Indian feudal system?

(a) Stability in the caste system (b) Development of handicrafts (c) Extension of the arable land (d) Development of trade and commerce 142. Which one of the following statements is not correct about the agrarian system in post-Gupta period? (a) Theoretically only the revenue from the land was granted to the feudatory and not land itself. (b)

The grant was subject to reassignment on the death of the tenant.

(c)

Once the grant was made it could not be confiscated by the king.

(d)

The land held by feudatories tended to become hereditary.


Instructions

Mark (a) if both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A' and 'R' are true, but 'R' does

not explain 'A'. Mark (c) if 'A' is true, but 'R' is false. Mark (d) if 'A' is false, but 'R' is true. 143.

Assertion: Harsha seems to have subjugated Kalinga.

Reason: Kalinga region used the Harsha era (ad 606) to record different events. 144. Assertion: Harsha brought peace and tranquility as he brought almost whole of north India under his hegemony. Reason: In the post-Gupta period trade and commerce witnessed further decline which had started during the Gupta period. 145.

Assertion: The evil system of dowry, according to Bana, was quite common.

Reason: The institution of svayamvara declined and there is no instance of its practice in the contemporary literature. 146. Assertion: Wang Hiuen Tse inflicted crushing defeat on Arunasva, a minister of Harsha who had usurped the throne after the death of Harsha. Reason: Harsha's refusal to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Chinese emperor was responsible for the campaigns of Wang Hiuen Tse.


147. Assertion: The actual tiller of the land could be 150. ejected and peasants were reduced to the sta tus of tenants-at-will. Reason: Certain land grants of the period clearly mention that the donee had the right to cultivate the land or get it cultivated. 151. 148. Assertion: In the land grants various dues in cash, kind or labour for purposes of exemption are particularised. Reason: Grantees are conceded several important political and administrative immunities. 149. Assertion: We may know from the land grants 152. whether the donated piece of land or village lies within a virgin, semi-virgin or settled area. Reason: Description of the donated land or village and its physical features is one of the important elements in the land grants. Assertion: Land grants give us a j the social configuration of the < Reason: The village elders ami' of inhabitants, identified cash in many land grants. Assertion: Occasions for grants < lage are mentioned in the charters,4 be various kinds of Vedic in the Srautasutras. Reason: Many of these formed by improvised Kshatriyt;; legitimatise their position. Assertion: Some land grants Chandela and Oriya kings specify I of peasants, artisans and donees. Reason: This was adopted to i sans and peasants to run the conomy.

ANSWERS-II

2. (a) 3.(b) 4. (d) -- mm 5. (d) 6. r(c) 7..(b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. I 3Z (°) 33. (d) 34. (a) 40. (a) I 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (a) 50. (c) § 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (b) 60. (d) I 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (b) 70. (c) 1 72. (a) 73. (b) 74. (d) 80. (c) i 82. (b) 83. (d) 84. (c) 90. (d) { 92. (c) 93. (d) 94. (a) 100. (a) I 102. (c) 103. (b) 104. 108. (a) 109. (c) 1 112. (b) 113. (c) 114. 118. (b) 119. (c) 1 122. (d) 123. (d) 124. 128. (d) 129. (d) | 132. (c) 133. (a) 134. 138. (c) 139. (c) \) 142. (c) 143. (a) 144. 148. (b) 149. (a) A393

10. (b) (d) 16. (a) 26. 35. (a)

(b) (d) 36.

17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (c) (c) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (d)

45.

(b)

46.

(b)

47. (b) 48. (c) 49. (a)

55.

(c)

56.

(d)

57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (a)

65.

(a)

66.

(d)

67. (c) 68. (b) 69. (d)

75.

(c)

76.

(a)

77. (c) 78. (d) 79. (a)

85.

(a)

86.

(b)

87. (c) 88. (d) 89. (a)

95.

(a)

96.

(a)

97. (c) 98. (b) 99. (d)

106.

(d)

107. (c)

116.

(a)

117. (b)

126.

(c)

127. (b)

136.

(d)

137. (a)

146.

(c)

147. (a)

(a) 105. (d) 110. (b) (c) 115. (d) 120. (a) (d) 125. (d) 130. (b) (b) 135. (b) 140. (a) (b) 145. (b) 150. (a) I) 152. (a)

SECTION

EDIEVAL INDIA

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ChronotooyofEventsMedtevallndto

Rashtrakutas of Deccan

1001-1026

Palas of eastern India Dharmapala, the greatest Pala, and founder of the Vikramasila University 1014-1044 -1036 Gurjara-Pratiharas of northern India, 1020-1030 founded by Vatsaraja of Rajasthan

1022

820 Sankaracharya and his philosophy of Advaitavada 885 Bhoja of the GurjaraPratihara

1025

dynasty; visit of Sulaiman, an Arab merchant, to his kingdom

1076

850 Capture of Tanjore by Vijayalayachola from the Pandyas

1076-1435

860 King Balaputra of Sumatra (Indonesia) establishes a monastery at Nalanda 1-1173 Imperial Cholas of Tanjore -1026 Hindu Shahis of Punjab and Kabul 15-927 Indra III, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers; visit of al-Masudi (an Arab trav eller) to his kingdom Chandellas of Jejabhukti (Bundel 1106-1141 khand); construction of Khajuraho temples -967 Krishna III, another great Rashtrakuta ruler, and his defeat of the Cholas

1118-1205

-1195 Kalachuris of Tripuri in central India -1189 Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani (Later or Western Chalukyas) -1192 Chahamanas(Chauhans)ofSakambhari 1178

1175

1080-1194 -1203

(Ajmer) -1233 Paramaras(Pawars)ofDhar(Malwa) 1189-1311 -1238 Solankis (Gujarati Chalukyas) of Anhilwara (Kathiawar)

1191

-1014 Reign of Rajaraja chola; construction of the famous Siva or Brihadeesvara 1192 temple at Tanjore -1323 Kakatiyas of Warangal, Beta Raja I

1194

(founder), Prataparudradeva (last ruler) 1001 Battle of Waihind and defeat of Jaipal (Hindu Shahi ruler) by Mahmud of 1202 Ghazni Seventeen raids by Mahmud of Ghazni into India--sack of the Somnath temple in the last raid Reign of Rajendra Chola Al-Beruni in India Chola expedition to the Gangetic valley; defeat of the Somavamsas of Orissa and the Palas of Bengal Chola naval expedition to Sri Vijaya and its conquest Merger of the Vengi kingdom with the Chola empire by Kulottunga I Eastern Gangas of Orissa; construction of the Lingaraja and Jagannatha temples at Bhuvanesvar and Puri respectively by Anantavarman Choda Ganga (founder); construction of the Sun temple at Konark in 1250 by Narasimha I (second Ganga) Gahadvalas of Kanauj Reign of Vishnuvardhana, Hoyasala ruler; his patronage of Ramanuja; construction of the famous Hoysalesvara or Vishnu temple at Halebid Senas of Bengal; Vijayasena (founder); Lakshmanasena (last ruler) Muhammad of Ghur's conquest of the Punjab Muhammad's defeat by Mularaja II, the Solanki ruler of Gujarat Yadavas of Devagiri; founder-- Bhillama; last ruler--Ramachandra First battle of Tarain and Prithviraj's victory over Muhammad Second battle of Tarain and Muhammad's victory over Prithviraj Battle of Chandwar and defeat and murder of Jayachandra (Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj) by Muhammad Conquest of Bihar and Bengal by Bakhtiyar Khalji

B3

r*.

B4 Indian History: Medieval India

1206 Death of Muhammad of Ghur and

1420

establishment of Delhi sultanate by Qutub-ud-din Aibak 1429 1206-1290 Slave Sultans of Delhi 1211-1236 Reign of Iltutmish and consolidation of Turkish rule in north India

1435-1542

1216-1323 PandyasofMadurai

1436-1531

1221 Invasion of north-west India by 1438-1468 Chengiz Khan 1443 1228 Conquest of Kamarupa by Sukhapa, 1451-1526 the first Ahom king

1469

1231 Completion of the construction of Qutb

1481

Minar at Delhi 1266-1286 Reign of Balban 1288-1293 Marco Polo (the Venetian traveller) in 14901633 India 1490-1686 1290-1320 Khaljis of the Delhi sultanate

1490-1574

1296-1316 Reign of Alauddin Khalji and his 1498 reforms and conquests1506 1296-1306 Mongol attacks and their repulsion by Alauddin

1509-1528

1309-1311 Malik Kafur's expedition into south 1509-1529 India 1320-1414 Tughluqs of Delhi 1325-1351 Reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq

1510

1327 Transfer of capital from Delhi to 1518-1687 Daulatabad

1526

1329 Issue of copper token currency 1334-1337 Sultanate of Madurai

1527

1336-1652 Vijayanagar empire 1336-1342 Ibn Battutah's stay in India (Moroccan 15281619 traveller)

1529

1337 Muhammad bin Tughluq's expedition to Karajal 1339-1561 Shahmiri dynasty of Kashmir

1535

1345-1538 Ilyas Shahi dynasty of Bengal 1347-1518 Bahmani kingdom1539 1351-1388 Firoz Shah Tughluq's reign 1361 Firoz Shah's invasion of Orissa 1540 (Jajnagar) 1389-1601 Faruqi kingdom of Khandesh 1394-1505 Sharqui kingdom of Jaunpur 1398 Timur's invasion of India

1540-1555

1542

1401-1436 Ghurid dynasty of Malwa 1545 1407-1572 Kingdom of Guiarat under the Shahs 1414-1451 Sayyids of Delhi 1555

Visit of Nicolo de Conti (Vei eller) to Vijayanagar Transfer of Bahmani capijj Gulbarga to Bidar by Wali Gajapatis of Orissa Khalji Sultans of Malwa Reign of Rana Kumbha in 1 Abdur Razak's (Persian)' Lodhi Sultans of Delhi Birth of Guru Nanak Murder of Muhammad Ga$ (1463-81) of the Bahmani! and beginning of its disk Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnag Adil Shahis of Bijapur Imad Shahis of Berar Vasco da Gama in Calicut Transfer of capital from by Sikandar Lodhi Reign of Rana Sanga in Me Reign of Sri Krishna Deva 1 of Paes and Barbosa (both 1 to Vijayanagar Conquest of Goa by the Po Qutb Shahis of Golconda First battle of Panipat and i Ibrahim Lodhi by Babur Battle of Khanwa and defeai Sanga by Babur Barid Shahis of Bidar Battle of Ghagara and"! defeat of Afghans under MS Lodhi Visit .of Nuniz (For Vijayanagar Battle of Chausa and first! Humayun by Sher Shah Battle of Bilgram (or) and and final defeat of Hu Sher Shah Sur empire Birth of Akbar at Amarkot Battle of Kalinjar and dea Shah Sur Reconquest of Delhi by Hu

Chronology of Events--Medieval India B5

556 Second battle of Panipat and defeat of Afghans under Hemu by Akbar 05 Akbar's reign Regency of Bairam Khan Akbar's marriage with a princess of Amber |564 Akbar's abolition of the jizya and his victory over Rani Durgavati of Garhkatanga J565 Battle of Talikota and destruction of the city of Vijayanagar 569 Birth of !Akbar's eldest son, Salim, with the blessings of Salim Chisti 571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri 73 Introduction of dagh and chahra by Akbar; construction of Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri 575 Battle of Tukaroi and defeat of Daud Khan of Bengal by Akbar |576 Battle of Haldighati (or Gogunda) and defeat of Rana Pratap by the Mughals under Raja Man Singh of Amber J579 Introduction of the dahsala system in revenue administration; issue of the mahjar or the so-called 'infallibility decree' by Akbar |1582 Proclamation of Tauhit-i-llahi or Din-illahi by Akbar Death of Todar Mai and Bhagwan Das Defence of Ahmadnagar by Chand Bibi ,1596 Introduction of the dual rank (mansab) ofzat and sawar 11602 Murder of Abul Fazl by Sir Singh Bundela at the instigation of Prince Salim |627 Reign of Jahangir 1606 Rebellion of Prince Khusrau and execution of the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun by Jahangir

1626 Prime ministership of Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar; his military exploits and administrative reforms 1,1611 Nur Jahan's marriage with Jahangir >J612 Annexation of Kooch Hajo to the Mughal empire 1615 Conclusion of peace with Mewar under Rana Amar Singh 1622-1624 Rebellion of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) 1626 Rebellion of Mahabat Khan and temporary arrest of Jahangir 1627-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan 1631 Death of Mumtaz Mahal 1636 Imposition of treaties on Bijapur and Golconda by Shah Jahan: appointment of Aurangzeb as viceroy of the Deccan 1656 Annexation of Javli by Sivaji 1656-1658 War of succession among the four sons of Shah Jahan 1658 Battles of Dharmat (April) and Samugarh (May) in which Dara was defeated by Aurangzeb; imprison ment of Shah Jahan by Aurangzeb (June) at Agra; coronation of Aurangzeb 165 8-1707 Aurangzeb's reign 1659 Battles of Khajwah and Deorai in which Dara was finally defeated; cap ture and execution of Dara; imprison ment of Murad (who was ultimately executed in 1661); murder of Afzal Khan by Sivaji 1660 Expulsion of Shuja from Bengal to Arakan; appointment of Mir Jumla as governor of Bengal 1661

Mughal capture of Cooch Behar

1662

Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam and imposition of a treaty on Ahoms

1664

Sack of Surat by Sivaji

1665

Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar between Sivaji and Jai Singh

1666

Death of Shah Jahan; Sivaji's visit to Agra and escape

1668

Issue of new religious ordinances by Aurangzeb

1669

Revolt of the Jats under Gokia

1670

Second sack of Surat by Sivaji

1671

Revolt of Chatrasal Bundela

1672

Satnami rebellion; revolt of Afridis in the northwest


1674

Sivaji's coronation and assumption of the title of chatrapati

1675

Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (ninth Guru of the Sikhs)

1678

Death of Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar

1679 Reimposition of jizya by Aurangzeb; rebellion of Rathors of Marwar under Durgadas and Marwar campaign by the Mughals 1680

Death of Sivaji; rebellion of Prince Akbar

1681

Aurangzeb's arrival in Deccan in pur suit of his rebellious son, Akbar

1686

Conquest and annexation of Bijapur

1687 by

Conquest and annexation of Golconda 1689 Capture and execution of Sambhaji

the Mughal commander Muqarrab Khan at Sangamesvar; accession of Rajaram to the Maratha throne 1700 Death of Rajaram and accession of Sivaji II with Tarabai as regent 1707 Death of Aurangzeb at Aurangabad; release of Shahu from Mughal captivi ty; beginning of civil wa Shahu and Tarabai 1708 Battle of Khed and occ Satara by Shahu; coronatio as chatrapati and grant of I senakarte to Balaji Viswa 1713-1720 Peshwaship of Balaji Viswa 1714 Final defeat and impris Tarabai by Shahu, thus civil war to an end 1719 Conclusion of an agreeme Balaji Viswanath and brothers

1720-1740 Peshwaship of Baji Rao 1; 1 the system of Maratha ( northward expansion of the ] 1740-1761 Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Saheb); further expansion power and influence 1749 Death of Shahu and further« ing of the position of the Pe 1761 Third battle of Panipat* Marathas and Afghans; Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao

chapter

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

JOR DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA HHARAS

1 Pratiharas were a branch of the famous as--one of those nomadic Central Asian \ that poured into India along with the Hunas ving the disintegration of the Gupta empire. |Rashtrakuta records confirm the Gurjara stock Pratiharas and Arab writers like Abu Zaid I'-al-Masudi allude to their fights with the of the north. The most important testii is that of the Kanarese poet Pampa who calls lipala 'Gurjararaja'. The name was derived I one of the kings of the line holding the office atihara (a high dignity), in the Rashtrakuta

ibhatta I The Pratiharas came into promis in the^middle of the eighth century ad when ruler Nagabhatta I defended western India the invasion of the Arabs and carried his up to Broach. He was able to leave to his cessors a powerful principality comprising ilwa and parts of Rajputana and Gujarat, abhatta I was succeeded by his brother's sons, stha and Devaraja, both of whom were non-tities. Vatsaraja The grand-nephew of Nagabhatta I, Vatsaraja was a resourceful ruler and established an empire in northern India. He defeated the famous Bhandi clan, who wielded imperial power probably with its seat of authority at Kanauj. He also defeated Dharmapala, the king of Bengal, and laid the foundation of a mighty empire. He, however suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva.

Nagabhatta II Vatsaraja was succeeded by his son Nagabhatta II who tried to retrieve the fallen fortunes of his family. But he was as unfortunate as his predecessor in suffering defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III. Nagabhatta II tried his luck in other directions. He overran Kanauj, deposed Chakrayudha, Dharmapala's protege, and made it the capital of the Pratihara kingdom. The vassal's deposition was too galling for Dharmapala and the latter made preparations for the inevitable struggle. The Pratihara monarch advanced as far as Monghyr and won a resounding victory over Dharmapala. The Gwalior Inscription of his grandson tells us of Nagabhatta IPs victories over Anartta (northern Kathiawar), Malava or central India, the Matsyas or eastern Rajputana, the Kiratas (of the Himalaya regions), Turushkas (Arab settlers of western India) and the Vatsas in the territory of Kausambi (Kosam). The limits of the Pratihara empire under Nagabhatta

B7


II may be roughly defined as comprising parts of Rajputana, a large portion of modern Uttar Pradesh, central India, northern Kathiawar and adjacent territories. Nagabhatta II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra during whose brief reign of three years, the Pratihara power eclipsed owing to the aggressive policy of the Pala emperor, Devapala.

Mihira Bhoja With the accession of Ramabhadra's son Bhoja the Pratihara power reached glory. He reestablished the supremacy of his family in Bundelkhand and subjugated the Jodhpur Pratiharas (Pariharas). The Daulatpura Copper Plaê of Bhoja shows that the Pratihara king had swieeeded in reasserting his authority over central and eastern Rajputana. In the north, his suzerainty was acknowledged up to the foot of the Himalayas, as is proved by the grant of a piece of land in the Gorakhpur district to a Kalachuri king. Bhoja's imperial ambition was however, not, uniformly successful. He was defeated by the Pala king, Devapala. But instead of being dispirited by this reverse in the east, he turned southward and overran southern Rajputana and the tracts round Ujjain up to the Narmada river. This brought him face to face with the Rashtrakutas whose ruler Dhruva II was able to arrest his triumphant progress. The political spectrum underwent a change with the death of the powerful Pala ruler, Devapala, followed by the Rashtrakuta invasion of Bengal. Bhoja defeated the weak Pala king Narayanapala and secured considerable part of his western dominions. Flushed with this success he clashed with Krishna II, the Rashtrakuta. He defeated him on the banks of the Narmada and occupied Malwa. Thus the extensive dominions of Bhoja extended up to Sutlej in the north-west, the foot of the Himalayas in the north, Bengal in the east, Bundelkhand and Vatsa territories in the south and south-east, and the Narmada and Saurashtra on the south-west including the major portion of Rajputana on the west. Bhoja had a long reign of 46 years and his eventful career drew the attention of the Arab traveller, Sulaiman.

Mahendrapala I Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I. His most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and

Mahendrapala I was a liberal patron of ters. The most brilliant in his court wasj who has to his credit a number of liti Karpuramanjari, Bala Ramayana,^ Bharata, Kavyamimamsa.

Mahipala Mahendrapala's death was j a scramble for the possession of the i his son, Bhoja II seized the throne, brother Mahipala soon usurped the more, the Rashtrakutas sapped the Pratihara empire when its ruler, Indral devastated the city of Kanauj. But the withdrawal of Indra III to] enabled Mahipala to recover from The Arab traveller al-Masudi, who the year ad 915-16, refers to resources of the king of Kanauj wh extended up to Sind in the west Rashtrakuta kingdom in the south, icier testifies to the struggle Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas as well dable force at the disposal of the lattef.f

Later Rulers Mahendrapala II, son s of Mahipala, was able to maintain the>i empire in tact. But it received its during the reign of Devapala when became virtually independent. Thfl decline of the Pratihara empire whifl with Devapala accelerated with Vijayapala. The Pratihara empire spent force when Rajyapala, the ,jj Vijayapala came to the throne of 1 decade of the 10th century ad. A < referred to in an inscription of the ; perhaps the last ruler of the line.

PALAS

Gopala The death of Sasanka wasj anarchy and confusion resulting in j gration which marked the course ofjj Bengal from ad 650 to 750. The i sion led to a natural reaction. The le


al supposedly elected Gopala as the ruler of the kingdom. Gopala founded a dynasty in which ruled for nearly four centuries. He probably born in Pundravardhana (Bogra |jrict). The original limits of Gopala's kingdom fficult to determine, but it seems that he con-his authority over almost the whole of il. Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and is sup , to have built the monastery of Odantapuri i Bihar Sharif).

Gopala was succeeded by his son ila who raised the Pala kingdom to great-fjiSoon after his accession Dharmapala was 1 in a struggle with the two main powers-- atiharas and the Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara ^Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala in a battle probably took place somewhere in the (tic Doab. But before Vatsaraja could reap the | of victory, he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Thereafter Dhruva defeated apala and a little later left for the Deccan. pile these reverses, Dharmapala gained more at he had anticipated. With the defeat of the i power and the retreat of the Rashtrakutas, fepala could dream of building up a mighty e. Dharmapala installed Chakrayudha on the I of Kanauj. Pala empire under Dharmapala was fairly jive. It comprised Bengal and Bihar, directly |by him. Besides, the kingdom of Kanauj was a

ncy, ruled by Dharmapala's own nominee. I Kanauj there were a large number of vassal ' in the Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa and Berar rulers acknowledged Dharmapala as their

apala's triumphant career was soon chal-by his Pratihara adversary, Nagabhatta II, conquered Kanauj and drove away pala's protege Chakrayudha. A struggle for nacy between the two rivals became able. The Pratihara ruler advanced up to hyr and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched bat-But Dharmapala was again rescued by the timely vention of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III to i he might have appealed for aid. After a reign of 32 years Dharmapala died, leaving his extensive dominions unimpaired to his son Devapala. As a Buddhist, he founded the famous mahavihara of Vikramasila near Bhagalpur. He is also credited with the construction of a vihara at Somapura (Paharpur). According to Taranatha, Dharmapala founded fifty religious institutions and was a patron of the great Buddhist author Haribhadra.

Devapala Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala who is regarded as the most powerful Pala ruler. Epigraphic records credit him with extensive conquests from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from the eastern to the western ocean. He is said to have defeated the Gurjaras and the Hunas and conquered Utkala and Kamarupa. The Huna and Kambhoja princes who submitted to Devapala cannot be identified properly. The Gurjara adversary may be identified with Mihira Bhoja, who tried to expand his kingdom eastwards. But he was defeated by Devapala. Like his father, Devapala was a great patron of Buddhism and his fame spread to many Buddhist countries outside India. Balaputradeva, a king of the Buddhist Sailendras, ruling Java, sent an ambassador to Devapala, asking for a grant of five villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda. Devapala granted the request. He appointed Viradeva, as head of Nalanda monastery. Devapala's court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vajradatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka. Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India and wrote his account in ad 85, refers to the Pala kingdom as Ruhmi. According to him, the Pala emperor was at war with the Gurjaras and the Rashtrakutas and had more troops than his adversaries.

Later Palas The glory of the Pala empire suffered irretrievably with the death of Devapala. The rule of his successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration.

Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. After a short reign of three or four years, Vigrahapala abdicated the throne. Vigrahapala's son and successor, Narayanapala, had a long reign. Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha defeated the Pala ruler. The Pratiharas gradually

BIO Indian History: Medieval India

extended their power in the east. Narayanapala not only lost Magadha, but also north Bengal, the heartland of the Palas. However, towards the close of his reign, Narayanapala recovered north Bengal and south Bihar from the Pratiharas, the latter being weakened by the invasion of the Rashtrakutas. Narayanapala was succeeded by his son Rajyapala who was succeeded in turn by his son Gopala II. The rule of these two rulers proved disastrous for Pala power. A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalachuris dismembered the Pala empire.

The fortune of the Palas which reached its lowest ebb was recovered to some extent by Mahipala I, who ascended the throne in ad 98. The most important event of Mahipala's reign was the invasion of Bengal by Rajendra Chola. Rajendra's Tirumalai Inscription records the details of his conquests in the north. The Chola invasion, however, did not lead to the establishment of Chola suzerainty over Bengal. Apart from north and east Bengal, Mahipala was able to recover the northern part of the Burdwan division. Mahipala's success was more pronounced in north and south Bihar. He succeeded in reestablishing his authority over a great part of Bengal. This success was due in a large measure to the repeated invasions of Sultan Mahmud which must have exhausted the strength and resources of the Rajput powers in northern India. Madanapala was the last king of the Pala dynasty.

SENAS

Early Rulers

The Sena family ruled Bengal after the Palas. Its founder was Samantasena described as 'Brahma-kshatriya'. The title Brahmakshatriya shows that Samantasena was a Brahmin, but his successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. Samantasena's son Hemantasena took advantage of the unstable political situation of Bengal and carved out an independent principality.

Vijayasena The son of Hemantasena, Vijayasena brought the family into limelight during his long reign of more than sixty years. Beg as a petty chief, Vijayasena laid the I the greatness of his family by con whole of Bengal. Vijayasena assumed several in paramesvara, paramabhattaraka,; and the like. He had two capitals, onef in West Bengal and another at Bangladesh. The famous poet Srih the Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijay

Ballalasena Vijayasena was sue Ballalasena. His reign was generally; maintained in tact the dominions i father. Ballalasena was a great sch four works of which two are extant, I and the Adbhutasagara. The first work on omens and portents, and astronomy.

Lakshmanasena He succeeded hisj 1179 at an advanced age of sixty. To of his reign, Lakshmanasena was 1 troubles. While the Sena power was! internal rebellions, the invasion of I gave it a crushing blow. A detailed i invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji has TabakatiNasiri. The reign of Lakshmanasena was,} patronising considerable literary devout Vaishnava. Jayadeva, the poet of Bengal and author of the Gita$ at his court. Other celebrated poets' court included Dhoyi, the author oft and Govardhana, the author of the Lakshmanasena himself comple Adbhutasagara begun by his father.^ Tabakat-i-Nasiri, the descendants of I ruled parts of Bengal for some more (

RASHTRAKUTAS

Origin

The term Rashtrakuta denotes offic territorial divisions called rashtras.


of the 7th and 8th centuries ad, i were exhorted not to disturb the peace-nt of the land grants. The Rashtrakutas jjr belonged to Lattalura, modern Latur of They were of Kannada origin and [swas their mother tongue.

He began his career as a feudatory of yas. He laid the foundations of a lasting [The victorious career of Dantidurga is om the two records of his reign--the Plates and the Dasavatara Cave of Ellora. Dantidurga's plan of expan-| directed towards the east and west without Karnataka, the stronghold of Chalukya ie invaded Malwa, which was under the he Gurjara Pratiharas, and brought it within i of influence. He signalised his victory yilwa by performing the hiranyagarbhanony at Ujjain. After a short while, he i to Mahakosala or Chattisgarh District of f'Pradesh. Thus, by ad 75, he had become of the whole of Madhya Pradesh and I southern Gujarat. He then attacked and his suzerain, Kirtivarman II, the emperor and proclaimed himself the nt ruler of the Deccan. He did not live long i victory.

11 Dantidurga died childless and was suc-his uncle Krishna I. After securing his in Maharashtra and Karnataka, Krishna I southwards and invaded Gangawadi ^Mysore), which was then under the sway of |a ruler Sripurusha. He returned home after ; Sripurusha to rule as a feudatory. In the 11 came to grips with the Chalukyas of He sent the crown prince Govinda to Vengi Jjler Vrjayaditya I made his submission with-ht. Great as a conqueror, Krishna was |great as a builder. He constructed the mag-ffock-cut monolithic temple at Ellora, now iKailasa.

\\\ Krishna I was succeeded by his eldest II. He practically left the whole admin-to the care of his younger brother, Dhruva. But Dhruva was ambitious and seized the throne for himself.

Dhruva Shortly after his accession, Dhruva proceeded to punish the kings who had supported his brother. Dhruva then made a bold bid to control north Indian politics, a feat in which no Deccan power had succeeded since the days of the Satavahanas. At that

time northern India was convulsed by the struggle for supremacy between Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dharmapala, the Pala ruler of Bengal. While Vatsaraja was engaged in hostilities with Dharmapala in the Doab, Dhruva crossed the Narmada and occupied Malwa without much opposition. He then proceeded towards Kanauj and inflicted such a crushing defeat on Vatsaraja that the latter sought refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan. Dhruva proceeded further north into the GangaYamuna Doab where he routed Dharmapala. Without marching further into the imperial city of Kanauj, Dhruva returned home laden with rich booty. He had four sons, Karka, Stambha, Govinda and Indra, of whom Karka had predeceased his father. Of the remaining three sons, the emperor chose the ablest Govinda as his successor and installed him as crown prince.

Govinda III Though the accession of Govinda took place peacefully, soon he had to face the hostility of his eldest brother, Stambha, who had been chafing owing to his supercession. After defeating Stambha and securing his position in the Deccan, Govinda turned his attention to the ever tempting politics of northern India. Govinda marched into northern India and defeated Nagabhatta II who fled into Rajputana leaving the Doab at the mercy of the invader. Chakrayudha, the puppet emperor of Kanauj, offered unconditional surrender and so did Dharmapala. Besides the powerful Gurjara Pratihara and Pala kings, other rulers of northern India were also defeated by Govinda III.

Amoghavarsha I Govinda III was succeeded by his son Sarva, better known as Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha was not destined to enjoy peace during his long reign of 64 years. He had to encounter frequent rebellions of his feudatories and to wage


constant wars against his powerful hostile neighbours. Amoghavarsha's reign lacked brilliance and vigour of his father and grandfather. Gangawadi and Malava were lost to the empire. Instead of war, it was rather peace, religion and literature that attracted him most. In his later life he developed definite leanings towards Jainism and Jinasena, the author ofAdipurana, was his chief preceptor. Amoghavarsha was himself an author and a liberal patron of men of letters. The Kavirajamarga, the earliest work on poetics in the Kannada language, was written by him. He was also a great builder. He built the city of Manyakheta and adorned it with an excellent palace. He was succeeded by his son Krishna II.

Krishna II He was neither an able ruler nor a good military commander. His only achievement was the termination of the Gujarat branch. He could just maintain his own against Bhoja I and his wars against Vengi and the Cholas brought disaster and disgrace. Like his father, Amoghavarsha, Krishna was a Jaina.

Indra III Krishna II was succeeded by his grandson Indra III. Indra emulated his great ancestors by declaring war against the Gurjara Pratihara emperor, Mahipala. He marched upon Kanauj and occupied it. Towards Vengi, Indra followed the policy of fomenting troubles for the ruling king and put his own nominee on the Vengi throne.

Amoghavarsha II Indra III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha II. Within a year of accession, Amoghavarsha II died and his younger brother Govinda ascended the throne.

Govinda IV Govinda was a tyrant whore conduct and vicious life provoked universal resentment. A chieftain took a leading part in the revolution which brought about the end of the inglorious reign of Govinda IV and the transfer of the crown to Amoghavarsha III.

Amoghavarsha III He devoted himself to religious rather than administrative affairs. The government was carried on by crown prince Krishna III.

Krishna III After his accession Krishna spent a few years in strengthening the administration. Krishna led a lightning expedition to the< dom and captured Kanchi and Tanjoreaj Cholas a few years to recover from thel ad 949 a decisive battle was fought at * the North Arcot District. Krishna south and after defeating both the Pandya kings even succeeded in Ramesvaram for a time. He built a nu pies in the conquered territories amon temples of Krishnesvara and Gand Ramesvaram are famous. Throughout hiS| Krishna III remained in effective Tondai-mandala consisting of the Arcot, J and Vellore Districts. Like most of his predecessors, Kris fered in the affairs of Vengi. But the power in Vengi proved to be short live the close of his reign, Krishna led an exp Malwa against the Paramara ruler and occupied Ujjain. Krishna's reign marked the disinti Rashtrakuta empire. He was oblivious of developments likely to endanger the sti empire by granting the province of Tai the heart of the empire as a fief to Tailap few years of Krishna's death, Tailapa \ enough to overthrow the Rashtrakutas i foundations of the Western Chalukya' Kalyani.

Khottiga Krishna III was succeeded' brother Khottiga. During his reign, the I empire received a rude blow which < tered its prestige. The defeat which king Siyaka had sustained at the hands| III, was rankling in his mind and he i preparations to avenge it. Siyaka sacke the Rashtrakuta capital. Khottiga did long the disgrace and was followed byl Karka II.

Karka II The prestige of the empire I irreparably when Karka II ascended Matters were worsened by the malad of the new emperor. The feudatories i emboldened to challenge the imperil! and one of them eventually deprived'.


nty over the Deccan within about eighteen |of his accession. This feudatory was Taila a) of the Chalukya family.

ration

hip was usually hereditary and the crown |passed to the eldest, and sometimes to the bn. The yuvaraja or the heir-apparent was during the lifetime of the emperor. The $ usually stayed at the capital, helping the [the discharge of administrative duties and illy accompanying the king in military ftfons. Younger princes were usually I to the posts of provincial governors, up of ministers consisting of the prime mini foreign minister, the revenue minister, the X, the chief justice, the commander-in-chief, gurohita helped the king in carrying out the ationof the empire. htrakuta empire consisted partly of vas-i and partly of directly administered areas, nt feudatories enjoyed almost complete y. But feudatories had to attend the imperial 1 were bound to pay regular tribute and rurjtipulated number of troops. htrakuta empire was divided into several or rashtras which were further divided 1 or districts. The vishayas were subdibhuktis consisting of 50 to 70 villages, were further subdivided into smaller of 10 to 20 villages each. shtrapati was at the head of the adminisf f the province. The rashtrapatis had considowers over their subordinates. Vishayapatis pet officers and bhogapatis or tahsil officers 1 the same power as rashtrapatis within their rareas. Some of the vishayapatis enjoyed status like the provincial governors. itis in charge of bhuktis were appointed |by the central government. Bhogapatis car-I the revenue administration with the help of revenue officers called nalgavundas or utas. The village administration was . by the village headman and the village nt, whose offices were usually hereditary. The village assemblies or councils played an effective role in the administration of the village. The village assembly was divided into a number of sub-committees. Each subcommittee was in charge of a specific subject like the village tank, the village temple, roads, and the like. Rashtrakuta records refer, on rare occasions, to

vishayamaharattas (elders of the district) and rashtra-maharattas (elders of the province), suggesting the existence of popular bodies at the district and provincial headquarters.

Literature

Sanskrit literature was widely patronised. There were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta courts. Trivikrama, the author of the Nalachampu, flourished in the early 10th century. The Kavirahasya of Halayudha was composed in the reign of Krishna III. As the Rashtrakutas were patrons of Jainism, it is natural that Jaina literature should have made considerable progress. Akalanka and Vidyananda wrote Ashtasati and Ashtasahasri, two commentaries on the Aptamimansa. In the field of logic Manikyanandin wrote Parikshamukhasastra in the latter half of the 8th century. He also wrote an independent work called Nyayakaumudichandrodaya. Amoghavarsha I's reign saw the high point of Jaina literature in the Rashtrakuta period. Harisena, the spiritual preceptor of Amoghavarsha I, composed the Harivamsa. He could not complete the Adipurana which relates the life stories of various Jaina saints. It was completed by his disciple Gunabhadra. Jinasena's Parsvabhyudaya is a biography of Parsva in verses. Amoghavarsha's reign saw the composition of two other works-- Amoghavritti of Sakatayana, a work on grammar, and the Ganitasarasamgrahaka of Viracharya, a treatise on mathematics. The Rashtrakuta period witnessed the beginning of the Canarese literature. Amoghavarsha I himself was the reputed author of the Kavirajamarga, the first work of Canarese on poetics. Pampa I, the earliest and the greatest of the Canarese poets and author of Adipurana and the Vikramarjunavijaya, flourished during the first half of the 10th century.


Ponna, another famous poet and author of the Santipurana, flourished in the third quarter of the 10th century.

9.2 THE RAJAPUTRAS

Origin

The anarchy and confusion which followed Marsha's death is the transitional period of Indian history. This period was marked by the rise of the Rajput clans who began to play a significant part in the history of northern and western India from the 8th century ad onwards. The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as Kshatriyas belonging to the 'solar' or lunar' dynasties. According to some scholars the origin of the Rajputs is connected with that of the Gurjaras. In the early years of the 6th century ad, a tribe known as the Khazars poured into India along with the Hunas. These Khazars were known as Gurjaras. According to the bardic tales, the Pratiharas (Pariharas), the Chalukyas (Solankis), the Paramaras (Pawars) and the Chahamanas (Chauhans) are 'fire-born' (agnikuld), originating from a sacrificial fire-pit at Mount Abu in southern Rajputana. The Hunas, Gurjaras and the other allied tribes who entered India during the 5th and 6th centuries merged themselves with the Indians, just as their predecessors, the Greeks, the Kushanas and the Sakas had done. In the southern group, the principal clans are the Chandels, Kalachuris or Haihayas and Gaharwars. They apparently descended from the so-called aboriginal tribes like the Gonds, and the Bhars. The evidence of a close connection between the Chandels and the Gonds is particularly strong. The Chandel Rajputs were originally Hinduised Bhars or Gonds or both, who became Kshatriyas on attaining political power. The Gaharwars similarly are associated with the Bhars; the Bundelas and the northern Rathors are offshoots of the Gaharwars. As a general rule, the Rajputs formed by the social promotion of aborigines were inimical to the Rajputs descended from foreigners. Paramaras

Upendra The kingdom of the Pa ated to the west of that of the Kalach also known as Krishnaraja, was one < of the Paramara family. Dhara, rmxf Madhya Pradesh, was the capital oft

Siyaka II The history of the Pa begins with the accession of Siyaka. J umph was to defy the authority of the] acknowledged so far by the Par the Rashtrakuta, Krishna III presented! tunity and he declared himself inde secured large slices of territory both ( as well as the Rashtrakuta empires.J sons--Munja and Sindhuraja--he wa$| the former.

Munja He was the most glamor dynasty. He was a great warrior and i his gallantry are sung in ballads. He Kalachuri king, Yuvaraja II. His directed towards expanding the area < in Rajputana. Munja next defeated.' Chalukya dynasty of Anahilapataka. The greatest enemy of Munja was5) Taila II, who had established his au Deccan after overthrowing the wanted to assert his authority over: once belonged to them. Taila inva less than six times, but on all repulsed by Munja. In order to get rid i menace, Munja launched an ag against Taila II but was entrapped by1 put to death.

Sindhuraja Munja was succeededj) brother Sindhuraja who recovered ( from Taila II. He also conquer Gujarat), but his attempt to assert north Gujarat was foiled by the ( Chamundaraya, son t>f Mularaja I.

Bhoja Sindhuraja was succeede Bhoja, the greatest celebrity of Bhoja's reign of half a century


: of strenuous campaigns against numerous Despite the ceaseless wars which Bhoja f against several kings, he could acquire no ritory except Konkana. What distinguished his contemporaries was his profound hip and patronage of learning. He is credited ; authorship of more than 23 books on varied s. Bhoja's commentary on the Yogasutras of Qi, though brief, is a great example of his eru-\ His Samaranganasutradhara is an excellent |on art and architecture. Men of letters like ila, Uvata and many others lived in his ji He founded the city of Bhojapura and built a r of temples.

With the passing away of Bhoja, the IParamara ascendancy was over. Bhoja's death ved by a disputed succession; one of the s, Javasimha, who was probably Bhoja's [ the throne with the help of his erstwhile Chalukya prince Vikramaditya VI of the B. Henceforth Jayasimha became a staunch 'Vikramaditya and helped the latter in an sful expedition against the eastern yas of Vengi. Udayaditya, a brother of Bhoja, ed Jayasimha. The famous temple of svara at Udayapur in Bhilsa is ascribed to iitya had a number of sons and two of shmadeva and Naravarman, ruled in sucl after his death. | last known king of the Paramaras was [ Deo, who was defeated by Alauddin Khalji latter invaded his kingdom. Mahlak Deo I and Malava became a province of the

were several minor branches of the s ruling in various parts of the Rajputana-- | Abu, Vagada (modern Banswara and i), Javalipura (Jalor) and Bhinmal (in ; Marwar). All these were ultimately con-fi-by the neighbouring states such as the land the Chahamanas. Under the Paramaras, xy of literary giants thronged Malwa. the Mecca of literature in the days of oja was the greatest builder and lover of f image of Sarasvati, installed by him in the main hall of Sarasvati temple of Dhara, shows Paramara sculpture at its best.

Solankis

Mularaja I The Chalukyas or Solankis ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for nearly three centuries and a half (ad 950-1300). Mularaja established an independent kingdom with its capital at Anahilapataka. Mularaja suffered disgrace at the hands of the Paramara Munja and withdrew to Marwar. He had hardly recovered his kingdom when he was overcome by the Kalachuri Lakshmana. His kingdom extended up to Jodhpur in the north, while his southern frontier stretched up to the Narmada. He was a devout Saiva and built two temples at Anahilapataka. The period of about 25 years which intervened between Mularaja's death and the accession of Bhima I, was inglorious.

Bhima I His kingdom was rudely shaken by the invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni who plundered the immense riches of the famous temple of Somnatha. Bhima, who fled to Kutch at the approach of Sultan Mahmud, returned to his capital after the departure of the invader. Bhima I's reign was important in the history of Indian architecture. It was during his reign that the famous Dilwara temple was built at Abu. He abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kama.

Kama Despite a long reign of about thirty years, Kama could not achieve anything substantial. But he built numerous temples, and founded a city after his name, now represented by Ahmadabad.

Jayasimha Siddharaja Jayasimha, who assumed the title Siddharaja, succeeded his father Kama and ruled for nearly half a century. He embarked upon a career of conquest to extended his kingdom. In the north he annexed Bhinmal after defeating the Paramaras. He then subdued the Chahamanas of Sakambhari. He also invaded the Chandella kingdom and proceeded as far as Kalinjara and Mahoba. In the south, he won a victory over the Chalukya, Vikramaditya VI of Kalyana.


Jayasimha was also a great patron of literature. Under him, Gujarat became a famous seat of learning and literature. He gathered round him a large number of poets and scholars including Hemachandra, who wrote the celebrated grammar SiddhaHemachandra as well as many other works. He was a Saiva and erected many temples, the most magnificent being Rudra Mahakala at Siddhapura. After his death, the throne was seized by his distant relation, Kumarapala.

Kumarapala He embraced Jainism under the influence of Hemachandra. He forbade animal sacrifice and his order was obeyed not only in his own kingdom but also in some of the feudatory states. Despite his religious zeal in favour of Jainism, he showed his veneration to his family deity Siva, and built temples for both the Jainas and the Brahmins.

Mularaja II In ad 1178 Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori invaded Gujarat, but the solankis under Mularaja's mother bravely opposed the Muslims and defeated them near Mt. Abu. However, after the Turkish conquest of India, Qutub-ud-din invaded Gujarat and plundered Anahilapataka in 1197.

Bhima II During the reign of Bhima, all arrangements for defending Gujarat against the aggression of the neighbours were made by Lavanaprasada and his able son Viradhavala. But the most disturbing element was Yadava Singhana who led a number of invasions into Gujarat, which was however defended well by Viradhavala.

Later Rulers Bhima II was succeeded by Tribhunapala, who was in turn supplanted by Virama, a son of Viradhavala. The next ruler was Sarangadeva, who was succeeded by his nephew Kama, the last Hindu king of Gujarat. Shortly afterwards, Gujarat was conquered by Alauddin Khalji. Kama fled to Devagiri, but his queen Kamaladevi and daughter Devaladevi fell into the hands of Alauddin Khalji.

Solanki Art The Chalukya kings were great patrons of art and the magnificent architectural activity during their regime owed, in a large measure, to their active support. Both Vastupala and Tejapala

(ministers of Bhima II) vied with encouraging arts in the most exuberant i sible. The whole province was sti monuments, distinctive in design and | execution. The earliest buildings are thej at Sunak, Kanoda, Delmal and radius of Fifteen miles from Anahili Of the larger temples, the temple ;,j Modhera near Baroda is a typical ex temple of Vimala at Mount Abu in 1 of the best specimens of Solanki art.

Chahamanas

There were several branches of dynasty. The main branch ruled in| modern Sambhar, in Jaipur and the i different places, were collateral, i unquestionably the.feudatories of thft|

Early Rulers Vasudadeva founded 1 the middle of the 6th century ad will as the seat of his power. Taking weakness of the Patiharas cons gle with the Rashtrakutas, the next 'i Vakpatiraja defied the authority of'1 During his reign the Chahamana distinctly higher status as is revealed! tion of the title maharaja. He buiS temple for Siva. Vakpati had three s Vatsaraja and Lakshmana.

Simharaja and Vigraharaja II Siij first prince of the family who maharajadhiraja. This indicates i self independent of the imperia Kanauj. Simharaja's son and sue II was the real founder of the futurej family. He overran Gujarat, fo Mularaja to take refuge at Kanti extended his conquests as far south {

Prithviraja I and Ajayaraja II reputed to have killed a body of 70 had come to Pushkara to rob the 1 time of his son and successor Chahamanas began to pursue an i policy. He founded the city of Aja


enlarged and decorated it with magnificent ces. Ajayaraja was succeeded by his son aja. He had to acknowledge the suzerainty of |
araja III He was a great conqueror and the frontiers of his kingdom in different Stions. He conquered Delhi from the Tomaras ok possession of Hansi in the Hissar district in njab. In the south he plundered the Chalukya aion of Kumarapala and thus avenged the ; inflicted upon his father by the Chalukyas. gdom included perhaps a substantial portion Punjab lying between the Sutlej and the In the north-east, a portion of north etic plain formed a part of his empire, aja was an author of repute. He composed ebrated drama, Harikeli Nataka. Among the |E temples built by him at Ajmer the Sarasvati i is undoubtedly the best.

II and Somesvara During the rule of "aja II, a grandson of Amoraja the age-long t with the Muslims was renewed. Prithviraja succeeded by his uncle Somesvara, son of Ija. While staying at Kumarapala's court, he a Kalachuri princess Karpuradevi, who Ifcirth to two sons, Prithviraja III and Hariraja.

aja III One of the early exploits of aja III was to suppress the revolt of his I'Nagarjuna. He then invaded the Chandella and defeated its king Paramardi. , he invaded the Chalukya kingdom of fand forced Chalukya Bhima II to conclude a tithviraja III also entered into hostility with a, Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj. It is related handra organised a svayamvara ceremony riage of his beautiful daughter Samyukta. ftja was not invited. Prithviraja succeeded in [off the Gahadvala princess by force. ; not till the capture of the strong fort of h, identified with Sirhind, by Shihabud-din that Prithviraja became conscious of the gravity of the situation. Prithviraja met the enemy at the fateful field of Tarain in 1190-91. The first battle of Tarain was disastrous for the Sultan. Despite this victory, Prithviraja III did not take adequate steps to guard the north-western frontier of his empire and allowed himself to dissipate his energy in fighting the Gahadvala king Jayachandra. Meanwhile, Shihab-ud-din came to Tarain in 1192 practically unopposed by passing through Multan and Lahore. One lakh soldiers were killed in the battle, including

Govindaraja, chief of Delhi. Prithviraja himself was taken prisoner and executed thereafter. Many a distinguished scholar and poet from different parts of the country gathered round the court of king Prithviraja III who himself became the theme of two great poems, viz. Prithvirajavijaya and Prithviraj Raso, written by his court poets Jayanaka and Chanda (Chandbardai) respectively.

Gahadvalas

The emergence of the Gahadvalas in Kanauj in the latter part of the 11th century is so sudden that it is difficult to determine their origin. The well-known theory of their connection with the dynasties of the Sun and the Moon cannot be accepted as true, although traditions trace them back to an obscure descendant of Yayati. Early Rulers The Gahadvala dynasty was founded by Yasovigraha. Yasovigraha's son Mahichandra, also called Mahindra and Mahitala, was a ruler of some consequence who ruled in some part of Uttar Pradesh. His son, Chandradeva, took hold of the opportunity afforded by the departure of Mahmud from northern India and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Rashtrakuta ruler, Gopala, on the banks of the Yamuna. He conquered all the territory from Allahabad to Banaras and made Banaras the second capital of the Gahadvalas. He imposed a tax called turushkadanda possibly to defray the expenses of war against Muslim invasions or to make annual payments to the latter. He was succeeded by his son Madanachandra, also known as Madanapala. Govindachandra He succeeded Madanachandra and was perhaps the greatest king of the .dynasty.


More than forty inscriptions have come to light which testify to the splendour of his reign. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Pala monarchy, he annexed portions of Magadha. Govindachandra must have aggrandised himself at the cost of the Chedis. He also defeated the Chandellas and wrested eastern Malwa from them. In fact, Govindachandra raised Kanauj to an unprecedented glory. His neighbouring as well as distant potentates were afraid of his power and showed due respect to him. His reign was marked by the literary activities of his minister named Lakshmidhara who produced a number of works on law and procedure, the most important of which is the Kritya Kalpataru or Kalpadruma.

Vijayachandra Govindachandra was succeeded by his son, Vijayachandra. The Prithviraja Raso credits him with wide conquests, but it is difficult to accept the evidence of these bardic tales at their face value.

Jayachandra Vijayachandra's son and successor, he came to the throne in 1170. His career and achievements, hardly known from his copperplates and the panegyrics of the Prithviraja Raso, are illumined by the Muslim chronicles and other independent sources. Jayachandra was the last great monarch of Kanauj whose power and resources must have impressed the Muslim historians. Jayachandra's peaceful reign was seriously menaced by Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Ghori, who, after conquering Delhi and Ajmer from the Chahamanas, advanced with a large force against Kanauj in 1193. Jayachandra met him on the plain between Chandwar and Etawah, and fell fighting. Jayachandra's name is associated with the history of Sanskrit literature for the liberal patronage extended by him to Sriharsha, who wrote the well-known Naisadhacharita, Khandanakhandakhadya, the latter being the most famous and important of those Vedanta treatises which emphasise the negative or sceptical side of the system.

Last Rulers The defeat and death of Jayachandra did not lead to the annexation of the kingdom of Kanauj by the Muslims. Harishchandra, son of Jayachandra, was allowed to rule as a;1 Shihab-ud-din. Adakkamalla,Harishch cessor, was deprived of his 'ancestral Iltutmish. Thus ended the glory of ir after six centuries of political dominatio ern India.

Chandellas

After the break-up of the Pratihara Chandellas rose and established their Bundelkhand. Like most medieval Chandellas claim their descent from ( descendant of the 'Moon dynasty'. The ( ital of the Chandella kings seems to Khajuraho, the splendour of which reach in the 10th century.

Early Rulers Nannuka founded the dy first quarter of the 9th century around 1 Bundelkhand. Nannuka's son and Vakpati, who lived in the second < century, fought with contemporary Devapala and the Pratihara Bhoja. sons, Jayasakti and Vijayasakti. Jay ceeded his father, was a king of Chandella country ruled was known as j after him. Jayasakti was succeeded by '. brother Vijayasakti, whose successor Rahila.

Yasovarman Rahila was succeeded Yasovarman, also known as Lakshav decline of the Pratihara power made Ya to defy the former and to launch the aggressive militarism. The Khajuraho describes with obvious exaggeration the^j conquests made by Yasovarman. Though i of doubt attaches to the achievements of 1 there is no doubt that he made extensive < north India and made the Chandellas a power. He built a magnificent temple at ] identified with the Chaturbhuja temple, in] installed the image of Vishnu.

Dhanga Yasovarman was succeeded 1 Dhanga (954-1002), the most famous i


, He inherited a large territory from his nga assumed the title of maharajadhi Iraised the Chandella power to its highest. sitrength of his arms, he succeeded in ; the northern boundary of the Chandella i up to the bank of the Ganga. The extant i at Khajuraho bear witness to the artistic i of the reign of Dhanga. The magnificent $of Visvanatha built by him is one of the ell-preserved and lavishly ornamented at Khajuraho. The temples of Jinanatha dyanatha were also built during the reign

ors of Dhanga Dhanga was suc-[ by his son Ganda who was succeeded by Vidyadhara. Sultan Mahmud twice I his kingdom in 1019 and 1022. Instead of ; the enemy in the open field, Vidyadhara to have adopted the scorched earth 'and shut himself up in Kalinjar fort. The besieged and the seize dragged on for riderable time till Vidyadhara sued for The death of Vidyadhara witnessed the eclipse of the Chandella power under (like Vijayapala, Devavarman, Kirttivarman, avarman, Jayavarman, Prithvivarman and avarman. avarman was succeeded by his grandson ii whose eventful reign covered the period f!165-1202. He had to suffer a humiliating t at the hands of the Chahamana Prithviraja III ver, soon succumbed to the onslaught of rid invader Shihab-ud-din Muhammad in |Ten years later (1202) Muhammad's general d-din invested the fort of Kalinjar, the ^citadel of the Chandellas. Qutub-ud-din plunKalinjar and conquered Mahoba and I his own governor to administer the con1 territories. rdi's son Trilokyavarman recovered all ritories including Kalinjar after inflicting a defeat on the Muslims at Kakadwa. yavarman enjoyed a reign of about 45 years succeeded by Viravarman. But in 1309 Khalji conquered the greater part of the kingdom. The last known king of Bundelkhand is Viravarman II.

Kalachuris

Early History The Kalachuris, also known as the Haihayas, have been referred to in the Epics and the Puranas. When they became associated with Chedi country, they were also known as the Chedis. Their earliest seat of power was possibly at Mahishmati on the Narmada. In the second half of the sixth century ad the Kalachuris emerged as a political power and their kingdom comprised Gujarat, northern Maharashtra and even parts of Malwa. Three Kalachuri kings-- Krishnaraja, his son Sankaragana and the latter's son Buddharaja--were known to have ruled between 550-620. They had to contend with the two powerful neighbours--the Maitrakas of Valabhi and the Chalukyas of Badami. But the Kalachuris continued to exist as families of some importance in eastern Malwa and the neighbouring regions and established matrimonial relations with the Eastern and Western Chalukya princes.

Kalachuris of Tripuri In the 8th century, several branches of the Kalachuris were settled in different parts of northern India. One of them founded a principality in Sarayupara in the modern Gorakhpur district and the other, the most powerful, ruled in the Chedi country in Bundelkhand. The Kalachuris of Chedi, also known as kings of 'Dahalamandala' had their capital at Tripuri, near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh.

Kokalla I With the accession of Kokalla I in or about 845, the real history of the Kalachuris of Tripuri may be said to have begun. Kokalla I is credited with victories over many powerful kings. He came into conflict with the Pratihara king Bhoja I and gained a resounding victory over him. He is said to have plundered Vanga or East Bengal, vanquished the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II, who was his son-in-law and invaded northern Konkan. Thereafter, the Kalachuris entered into a series of matrimonial alliances with the Rashtrakutas till the time of


Krishna III and the two families maintained amicable relations.

Sankaragana I Kokalla I married the Chandella princess Nattadevi and had 18 sons. The eldest son, Sankaragana, succeeded his father and defeated the Somavamsi king of Kosala. He was succeeded by his son, Balharsha whose reign was very brief.

Yuvaraja I Notwithstanding the close relationship between the Kalachuris and the Rashtrakutas, the latter under Krishna III invaded the kingdom of Yuvaraja I. Later Yuvaraja succeeded in driving the Rashtrakutas from his kingdom. This was a significant achievement in commemoration of which the famous poet Rajasekhara, who now lived in the Kalachuri court, staged the famous drama Viddhasalabhanjika at the court of Yuvaraja. Yuvaraja I was a Saiva and helped the Saiva ascetics in preaching their doctrine in his kingdom.

Lakshmanaraja and Sankaragana II Yuvaraja I was succeeded by his son Lakshmanaraja who won a victory over Mularaja I, the founder of Chalukyas or Solankis. Like his father Lakshmanaraja patronised Saivism. Lakshmanaraja was succeeded by his son Sankaragana II, who was a Vaishnava. He was succeeded by his brother Yuvaraja II, who lacked martial ardour and the kingdom suffered serious reverses during his rule. His maternal uncle Chalukya Taila II attacked his kingdom. Hardly had he recovered from this shock, when he was overwhelmed by the Paramara king Munja.

Kokalla II After the withdrawal of the Paramaras, the ministers of Sankaragana II placed his son Kokalla II on the throne. Under Kokalla II, the Kalachuris recovered their power. He was succeeded by his son, Gangeyadeva.

Gangeyadeva During his reign the Kalachuris became the greatest political power in India. The most important factor contributing to his success was that the Kalachuris remained unaffected by the marauding raids of Sultan Mahmud. He carried his arms to Orissa as far as the sea coast. He commemorated this great victory by assuming the proud title of 'Trikalingadhipati' or 'Lord of Trikalinga'. He sent an expedition under his son Kama against Anga

and Magadha, which were under Nayapala. According to Tibetan Dipankara, who at that time had Magadha, took the initiative in ind Nayapala to conclude a treaty on the I restitution of conquered territories.

Kama Gangeyadeva was succeeded! Lakshmikarna, better known as \ of the greatest generals of his time,^ Allahabad from the Pratiharas. Chandella, Krittivarman and occu khand. But a feudatory of the Chand country from the Kalachuris. Far was Kama's invasion of the Paran Malava in alliance with Bhima I, the ( of Gujarat. During the war, the PS Bhoja died and the two allies got Malava. Subsequently a quarrel broke j Kama and Bhima on the question spoils. !*l Despite the numerous wars foug powers throughout the greater part of results achieved by Kama were too Allahabad was the only addition kingdom. The series of reverses whid fered particularly at the end of his reig his earlier glory and loosened his feudatories.

Later Rulers Kama abdicated the of his son Yashkarna. A series of whelmed him. The Chalukya, Vi: his kingdom; Chandradeva of the wrested Allahabad and Banaras; the! defeated him and Paramara Laksl his capital. Vijayasimha was the last any importance. Trailokyavarman, defeated him and conquered the whole mandala.

Tomaras

The Tomaras are reckoned as one of < clans. According to the bardic traditk Tuar founded Delhi in 736 and Tomara dynasty. The Tomaras ruled


rfrom their capital city Dhillika or Delhi. i of the Tomara dynasty was apparently a ory chief. The next important member of r was Vajrata, who seems to have lived in I in the 9th century. ; was succeeded by his son Jajjuka, who i sons Gogga, Purnaraja and Devaraja. The built three temples of Vishnu on the P Sarasvati at Prithudaka in the Kamal dis-; first half of the 11th century the Tomaras i conflict with the Muslim invaders. With of the Chahamanas of Sakambhari, they t their irresistible pressure. A Tomara chief [Rudrena, lost his life in a battle with the a, Chandanaraja II. The struggle practi-with the capture of Delhi by the \ under Vigraharaja in the middle of the ntury.

ISM

I of Political Structure

i became an essential feature of the polity i India between ad 750 and 1200. This was ; the authority of the rulers came to be limP'tnany ways. Firstly, the ministers in most chosen on a hereditary basis from I families, which added to their importance, so that the king could not reject their fc. Secondly, there were numerous feudal , quite a number of whom had ties of kinship I ruling family. In the local and central gov, the barons had special privileges and powi no ruler could safely disregard. This also ribed the authority of the ruler. Thirdly, lender an obligation to rule according to the 'stras and the Smritis, the ruler could not amend the laws at will. Thus, the rulers of dia during this period were hereditary lead-udal communities and hence could not be itic despots even if they wanted to be.

ft/I Kingship The basis of sovereignty duri period was a mixture of the Divine Right Pand the Contract Theory. On the one hand as well as the authors of treatises on polity regarded the ruler as a partial incarnation of Vishnu. On the other hand, they also held that it was the representatives of the people who conferred sovereignty on him. So, the natural duty of a ruler was to rule in the interests of the people, while the duty of the

people was to be loyal and faithful to him. Thus the basis of sovereignty was a sort of contract between the king and the people.

Law of Succession A king was usually succeeded by his eldest son, for they followed the principle of primogeniture. If a king died without an heir, the kingdom passed, according to family tradition, to the head of the baronial house, next in kin to the ruling dynasty. Consequently, there was little scope for disputed succession in the polity of this period.

Relationship between the King and the Feudal Lords The powers of the king, though comprehensive in theory, were highly limited in practice due to the privileges and prerogatives of the feudal lords. Since he had the theoretical ownership of all the land, the fiefs of the feudal lords needed his recognition, but this prerogative of the king was limited by the customs which recognised the hereditary rights of the feudal lords. Also, though he had the responsibility of maintaining law and order throughout the state, in practice, however, a free hand was given to the lords in their fiefs. Council of Ministers The king was helped in the administration of his kingdom by a council of ministers, besides the crown prince (yuvaraja) and the queen-consort (patta mahishi). Among them, the chief priest and the court astronomer were generally recruited from among the Brahmins, while the rest of the posts were monopolised by the feudal lords, usually belonging to the same caste (Kshatriya) and even the same family sometimes. Vaishyas and Sudras generally had no place in the council of ministers.

Administration

For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into a central region, directly ruled by the king, and many fiefs ruled by the feudal lords. Again the central region was divided into bhuktis or rashtras, which


were under viceroys, vishayas under vishayapatis, and finally the villages under gramapatis. The administration of the fiefs also followed the same pattern. But the village self-government in north India weakened during this period due to the domination of the feudal chiefs, while at the same time it was at its best in south India under the Cholas.

Military Administration The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the contingents supplied by the feudal lords. This lack of cohesion was, in fact, responsible for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this period. It consisted of an infantry, cavalry and war-elephants, but the cavalry was neither numerous nor were the majority of horses of fine breed. Above all, military service practically came to be the monopoly of Rajputs. Consequently 90 per cent of the people had no opportunity of sharing in the defence of their land and they did not put up any strong opposition to the authority of any military usurper.

Revenue Administration Taxation during this period was heavier compared to the ancient times. This was so because expenditure over the royal household and the court continued to increase. The military budget also continued to be inflated because of ceaseless fighting. Naturally, therefore, the burden on the tax-payer became heavier.

Judicial Administration Provision for justice had been laid down as one of the principal duties of the state in India. But the rulers during this period did not pay adequate attention to it. In the bhuktis there was a dandanayaka who seems to have been in charge of justice, police and prisons simultaneously. But there is no mention of any other officer who might have been principally in charge of justice. So it seems that most of the disputes were settled by arbitration through the caste and village panchayats.

SOCIAL MOBILITY AND POSITION OF WOMEN

Different Types of Feudal Chiefs

Some feudal lords were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were defeated kings and their supporters to enjoy the revenues of limited areas.] were local hereditary chiefs or militi who had carved out a sphere of influ help of armed supporters. Still others ] clan leaders. The actual position oft ied. Some of them were only village { dominated a tract comprising a nu while others dominated an entire i was a definite hierarchy among the&Cj| constantly contested against each < enhance their position.

Caste System

Increased privileges of Brahmins < The caste system formed the basis of:j| in earlier periods, but now the Brahmins were given more privile and more social and religious placed on the Sudras and other lower ( the earlier period.

Proliferation of caste system: writers mention a large number of s potters, weavers, goldsmiths, mu and fishermen. Some of these were < workers which now began to be cli (Jatis). It is significant to note that thejj of the period regard handicrafts as lo Thus, most of the workers were untouchables.

Emergence of Kayasthas: So found difficult to classify new cash scale. An instance of this is the seems that originally people from < including Brahmins and Sudras Kayastha because of a particular carried on. In course of time, they < tinct caste.

Position of Women

Women continued to be denied the i the medieval north Indian society. fij marriageable age for girls was lo\|i

Earl/ Medieval India B23

ng their opportunities for higher education. Bission of all reference to women teachers in Itionaries written during this period show the ate of higher education among women. , in general, were distrusted. They were kept sion and their life was regulated by the male -father, brother, husband and son. ever, with the growth of property rights in sproperty rights of women also increased. In i preserve the property of a family, women jjiven the right to inherit the property of their [Delations. Thus, the growth of the feudal sociagthened the concept of private property. I practice ofsati seems to have spread widely, even made obligatory by some writers. It i that with the growth of the practice of large i of women being maintained by the feudal and with the resultant disputes about prop-here was a tendency for the rite of sati to 1 particularly among the higher varnas.

ition and Learning

ttitude of the learned classes of north India increasingly rigid during this period. They I to repeat by rote the past learning, instead of forward and welcoming new ideas. They nded to isolate themselves from the main cur' of scientific thought outside India. This is I in the writings of al-Beruni, a noted scien-1 scholar from Central Asia who lived in India nud Ghazni's court. Although agreat admirer dian sciences and learning, he also noted the r attitude of the learned people of the country, : Brahmins. The attitude of trying to confine [pledge among a very narrow group, and of tak-arrogant attitude towards new ideas, from hever source they might come, was largely osible for making India backward. In course of India had to pay a very heavy price for its vardness.

ous Developments

, Buddhism and Jainism continued to decline the period. It was during this period that , Buddhism almost disappeared from the land of its oirth after the fall of the Palas. At the same time, there was a marked revival and expansion of Hinduism. This took many forms, the most important being the growing popularity of Siva and Vishnu. A number of popular movements arose around the worship of these gods, while at the intellectual

level, the tenets of Buddhism and Jainism were challenged. In due course, Siva and Vishnu became the chief gods, and the worship of the Sun, Brahma, etc. declined in popularity. In eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was the worship of Sakti, or the worship of the female principle as the cause of creation. Thus, the Hindus began to worship Durga, Kali, etc. who were associated with Siva, and the Buddhists worshipped Taras as the consorts of the Buddhas.

Nature of Society

This type of society can be called a 'feudal' society, because the dominant position was held by those who drew their sustenance from land without working on it. The growth of such a society in north India during this period had far reaching effects.

Agrarian Structure

Meaning of Feudal Economy An economy can be called 'feudal' if a major section of the surplus production from land is appropriated by a particular section of people who claim it as a hereditary right, even though they do not participate in the production process in anyway.

Rise of Self-sufficient Village Economies A very important development of the period was the rise of a self-sufficient village economy where production approximated local requirements, with little attempt at producing a surplus to be used specifically for trade or exchange. This existing system led to accepting the standard of minimum production, since the incentive to improve production was absent. So, as the pressure on the peasantry increased, production stayed at a subsistence level only.


Decline of Trade The subsistence economy of the village naturally led to a decline in trade, since there was little surplus production which could be traded or exchanged. Trade was further hampered by the emergence of a wide range of local weights and measures, making long distance trade more difficult. Lack of trade led to a decrease in the use of coins, and this decrease in turn led to a further decline in trade. The unstable political conditions and the ceaseless internal fighting in India only helped this process of decline in trade. There was also an important external development which contributed to this decline. This was the decline of the Roman and Sassanid empires which caused a setback to the external demand for Indian goods in the West.

Decline of Towns and Cities This decline in trade in turn affected the growth of towns. Those that had attained a certain economic momentum continued, but the founding of new towns was less frequent than before. The Arab geographers, writing of this period, have commented on the paucity of towns in India as compared with China. But in the coastal areas and Bengal, towns were prospering because they continued to trade with West Asia and South-East Asia.

Effects of Feudalism The possibilities of multiplying subfeudatories at various stages in the feudal structure led to a wider diffusion of the income from the land. This weakened the position of those at both ends of the scale--the cultivator and king who suffered from the diversion of the income into the hands of the intermediaries. So the only prosperous class in north India during this period seems to be the feudal lords. But the surplus wealth of these feudatories was not invested in craft production or trade. It was, instead, used for conspicuous consumption. The palatial homes of the feudatories were richly ornamented, and much of the income was spent in building magnificent temples. No wonder these temples attracted invaders whose desire to achieve religious merit by destroying idols was much less than their greed for plunder. 9.4 CHOLAS AND OTHERS OF SOUTH I CHOLA EMPIRE

Vijayalaya The capture of Tanje Muttarayar, an ally of the Pandyas, arou by Vijayalaya and his founding of the Nishumbhasudini (Durga)--these were steps in the rise of the Cholas, who were at! feudatories of the Pallavas.

Aditya He was responsible for mu Pallava overlord Aparajita after defeating^ battle and occupying the entire Tondain Aditya next conquered the Kongu count is said to have built Siva temples on both^ the Kaveri.

Parantaka I At the start of his reign, 1 the Pandya territory and assumed 'Maduraikonda' (Conqueror of Madurai). 3 Chola country was invaded in 916 Rashtrakuta Krishna II, a decisive battle i at Vallala (North Arcot District), which f aster for the Rashtrakutas. But Paranti experience increasing difficulty in deft empire from 940. Krishna III, one of I Rashtrakuta rulers, defeated Parantaka in I battle of Takkolam (near Arkonam) in! ceeded in occupying a large part of the i of the Chola empire.

Thus, the best part of Parantaka's,^ marked by increasing success and pros it ended in disaster brought about by thesl the Rashtrakutas. After Parantaka I there! sion and disorder for about 30 years, i were Ganaraditya, Arinjaya, Paran Uttama Chola. Among the four, only 1 important, for he recovered a part of the I from the Rashtrakutas.

Rajaraja I Known originally by Arumolivarman, he was the son of 1 The real greatness of the Cholas beg He defeated a confederation of the ' doms of Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon i

Earl/ Medieval India B25

jritories. Destruction of Anuradhapura F Ceylon) after defeating Mahinda V led blishment of a Chola province in north «th Polonnaruva as its capital. His of a few parts of modern Mysore I intensified the conflict with the new I

the Chalukyas of Kalyani. He invaded kya kingdom in order to force the

i to retreat from Vengi, whose ruler was y. He also annexed the Maldives prob-ring the trade routes of the Indian

nstructed the magnificent Siva or vara (also known as Rajarajesvara) temnjore. Rajaraja I encouraged Sri Mara avarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri South-East Asia), to build a Buddhist Nagapattinam. The vihara was called ni Vihara' after the father of Sri Mara, nitiated the system of prefacing the stone s of the reign with an account in set terms |f events kept up to date by additions from ime.

I1

He raised the Chola empire to the posi ting the most extensive and respected state

6. He invaded and completed the conquest l by defeating and imprisoning Mahinda V. ^triumphant march through the territories of and Kerala, and made one of his sons oy of both, with Madurai as capital. He | the Western Chalukyas who were trying to fan the succession dispute of Vengi, and [Rajaraja, a nephew of Rajendra, on the tie. He also punished Madhukamarnava, i Ganga ruler of Kalinga, who sided with i Chalukyas. 11 led a military expedition to the Ganga |hich seems to have been a success, and con: a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram pie in celebration of the expedition. His dition to Sri Vijaya either to win glory or a lesson to its rulers who could have , Chola intercourse with China met with ând the kingdom was restored back to its i Vijayottunga (son of Sri Mara). He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political as well as commercial purposes.

Rajadhiraja He suppressed rebellions in Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon kingdoms. He launched an expedition to restore Chola power in Vengi. He defeated the Western Chalukya forces at Dannada (Dhanyakataka) on the Krishna and compelled Vijayaditya, Rajaraja's rival, to retreat. He then entered the Western Chalukya territory and inflicted a defeat on the enemy in the Pundur battle on the banks of the Krishna. At Yetagiri (Yadgir) he put up a pillar of victory with the tiger emblem on it. Later Kalyani itself was sacked, and Rajadhiraja performed the virabhisheka (coronation of the victory there and assumed the title of 'Vijayarajendra'. Towards the end of his career, he led another expedition against the Western Chalukya, Somesvara, but died in the battle of Koppam (Kopbal). But his son and successor, Rajendra II turned the defeat into victory.

Rajendra II After the victory he planted a jayastambha (pillar of victory) at Kollapura and returned to his capital. Somesvara's attempt later to reverse the verdict of Koppam ended in failure. But soon after Rajendra himself passed away.

Virarajendra Somesvara sent a message challenging Virarajendra to another contest. The latter accepted the challenge and took the field at KudalSangamam. But the Western Chalukya ruler failed to turn up due to illness and soon performed the para-mayoga by drowning himself in the Tungabhadra. Virarajendra also successfully foiled the attempts of Sinhalese king Vijayabahu I to overthrow the Chola power on the island. He then sent another naval expedition for the conquest of Kadaram (Sri Vijaya) on behalf of a prince who had come in search of his aid and protection (1068).

Kulottunga I Originally known as Rajendra II, this son of Rajaraja Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess Ammangadevi, took advantage of Virarajendra's death to claim the Chola throne as well. He thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola empire. When Vijayabahu overthrew the Chola authority in


Ceylon, he reconciled himself to the loss. But he could not afford to neglect the revolt of the Pandya and Kerala countries on the mainland. He subjected the whole country once more by launching a strong expedition. Up to 1115 the extent of the Chola empire remained undiminished, except the loss of Ceylon. But towards the end of his reign troubles broke out and he lost the Vengi and Mysore countries to Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and also maintained cordial relations with Sri Vijaya, from whose ruler he received an embassy as well. Tradition and epigraphy alike give him the title of 'Sungam tavirtta' (he who abolished the tolls), though full details of this reform are not available.

Later Cholas Kulottunga I was succeeded by Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II, Rajaraja II, Rajadhiraja II, Kulottunga III and the others. The growing independence of the feudatories noticed in the reign of Rajaraja II became more pronounced under Rajadhiraja II. Kulottunga III delayed the disruption of the Chola empire for about a generation, and his reign marks the last great epoch in the history of Chola architecture and art as he himself is the last of the great Chola monarchs. Cholas, however, continued to be there even afterwards as local chieftains.

Administration

The most striking feature of the administrative system of the Cholas was their autonomous village and town administration, there being no significant difference between the central and provincial administration of the Cholas and that of any other dynasty of early medieval India. But the administration of Cholas was more centralised than that of the Rashtrakutas or the Chalukyas.

Central Administration The emperor or king was at the apex of the administration. He had an udankuttam, immediate attendants, a group of ministers representing all the chief departments of administration to advise him on the disposal of business, besides a chancery (olai). Worship of deceased

rulers, and construction of temple dead kings was a special feature of tl There was an elaborate and con trative machinery or bureaucracy comprising officials of various ] tended to form a separate class in s in two ranks, an upper perundanqjl sirudanam. Higher officers were 1 of adigarigal, while officers of all i ally referred to by the general titles ofjl panimakkal. They were usually assignments of land (jivitas) suited I Titles of honour and shares in boot] formed other rewards of public servj^

Provincial Administration The divided into principalities (under va mandalams (provinces under vie mostly royal princes) with further < provinces into valanadus (divisions tricts) and kurrams (villages).

Town and Village Administratia autonomous administration for tov ships, known as tankurrams. Town, quite similar to village autonomy administered by assemblies.

Revenue Administration A department of land revenue, known t varitinaik-kalam, was in existence.'! land was held in one of the three tenure which may be distinguished as^ prietorship (vellanvagai), service tenu resulting from charitable gifts. The first' ordinary ryotwari village of modern direct relations with the government; land tax liable to revision from time to. I All land was carefully surveyed into tax-paying and non-taxable lands. ] lage and town, the residential part oft nattarri), temples, tanks, channels the village, the outcastes' hamlet (par sans' quarters (kummanachcheri) and*] ground (sudugadu) were exempt from its turn, taxable land was classified grades according to its natural fertility 1


fit. Besides land revenue, there were tolls i transit, taxes on professions and houses, I on ceremonial occasions like marriages, I fines.

Âdministration The soldiers of the illy consisted of two types--the kaikko-: royal troops receiving regular pay from y; and the nattuppadai who were the miliployed only for local defence. The kaikko-infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and alas paid special attention to their navy. ikaikkolar, the velaikkarars were the most troops in the royal service, ready to king and his cause with their lives, i given to the training of the army and , called kadagams, existed.

hitecture

Ures Temple architecture, particularly da or south Indian style of architecture, : pinnacle of glory under the Cholas. The : of a Chola temple is the vimana or the hich was later eclipsed by the richly ornapuram or gateway. Under the Cholas, ame the centres of life, particularly in areas. The village assembly invariably eetings in the temple mandapa, which additional feature of the Chola temple

The Pudukkotai district in Tamil an unusually large number of early pies, which give us a good idea of the the south Indian style of architecture illava period to the Chola period. Most nong them is undoubtedly the Vijayalaya temple at Narthamalai (also called ji). Other important temples in this category jSgesvarasvami temple at Kumbhakonam, temple at Srinivasanallur, the. twin Pbf Agastyisvara and Cholesvara at Mature Phase The best example is, however, the Siva (or the Brihadeesvara or the Rajarajesvara) temple, built in 1009 by Rajaraja I, at Tanjore. It is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the Cholas under Rajaraja 1. Apart from being the tallest (216 feet) of all Indian temples of the medieval period, it is a masterpiece of south Indian architecture. In this temple, a carving of a man's head with a European hat is found on one side of the temple (in a subsidiary structure), which is believed to be that of Marco Polo (late 13th century), the Venetian traveller. The temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram

(also dedicated to Siva or Brihadesvara), the creation of Rajendra I, was meant to excel its predecessor in every conceivable way. Erected around 1030, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests to the more affluent state of the Chola empire under Rajendra 1. It is larger in plan though not as tall as the previous one.

Later Phase In this category, two Chola temples worth mentioning are the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram (Tanjore District) and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam.

Sculpture

The Chola period also witnessed great strides in the field of sculpture. The three main classes of Chola sculpture are the portraits, icons and decorative sculpture. There are three well-preserved and nearly life-size portraits on the walls of the Kuranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur, and several others in the Nagesvara temple at Kumbhakonam. The Siva temple at Tiruvalisvaram is a veritable museum of superb early Chola iconography. The walls of the Brihadesvara temples at Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram contain numerous icons of large size and fine execution. The Chola sculptors started bronze-casting sometime around the middle of the 9th century. The Cholas are particularly known for their Nataraja bronzes (bronze statues of Nataraja or the dancing Siva) which are masterpieces of this medium of art. The best example is the Nataraja image in the Nagesvara temple at


Kumbhakonam. A group of three bronzes of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita with Hanuman at their feet from Tirukkadaiyur (Tanjore District) is one of the finest products of Chola bronze-making of the reign of Rajaraja I. Decorative sculpture is exhibited in many forms--architectural motifs, floral and vegetal patterns, friezes of animals, birds, dancing figures and legendary and Puranic stories.

Paintings

Chola wall paintings are to be found on the walls of the Vrjayalaya Cholesvara and Rajarajesvara temples. On the walls of the Vijayalaya Cholesvara temple, large painted figures of Mahakala, Devi and Siva are still visible. In the Rajarajesvara temple scenes representing Siva in his abode of Kailasa as Nataraja and Tripurantaka are painted on the walls in large and forceful compositions.

Literature and Education

Education based on the epics and the Puranas was imparted during this time through discourses in temples. There were colleges and other institutions for higher education. The period was marked by the growth of Tamil classics such as Sibakasindamani, Kamban's Ramayana, and others. Very few books were composed in Sanskrit. Rajaraja I was the subject of two works--a drama (Rajarajesvara Natakam) and a kavya (Rajaraja Vijayam). Jayangondar, the poet laureate of Kulottunga I, composed the Kalingattupparani, which depicts the ruler's Kalinga war in detail. Kuttan, who was the court poet of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II and Rajaraja II, composed a parani (which deals with Vikrama Chola's Kalinga war) and a pillaittamil (a poem dealing with the childhood of Kulottunga II). Besides, he wrote an ula on each of the three rulers. A contemporary of Kuttan was Pugalendi, whose best work is Nalavenba (the tragic story of Nala and Damayanti). Sekkilar composed his famous Periya Puranam (also known as Tiruttondar Puranam) during the reign of Kulottunga II. Religion

Cholas were mostly devotees of Si\ worshipped Vishnu and Buddhism.* nessed a decline. A peculiarity oft was that greater stress was laid on , on yajna (sacrifice).

Public Works

The Cholas constructed extensive roads and cities. Gangaikonda Choli ficial lake near it (16 miles in leng huge blocks of dressed stone in the i dams across the Kaveri for irriga were some monumental public wo under the Cholas.

Social Divisions

The industrial population of the counti divided into the valangai (right-ha (left-hand) divisions. The Chola king nessed feuds between these two between the two groups in the Kulottunga I resulted in the burning < destruction of its sacred places and 1 temple treasury.

TRADE AND DIPLOMACY

Maritime Activities

Indian, particularly south Indian, i ticipated in international trade since \ But sources of information about 1 are restricted to archaeological Finds! references in literary texts which tellj activities of merchants. However, period there are many sources in inscriptions, some of which are eveni merchants themselves. A distinction was made between i ating locally (swadesi) and (nanadesi). The merchants had ments (nagara) with autonomous


government. The great ports (pattinam) also t their guilds and autonomous institutions, but jr were much more under the control of royal offi-', who, of course, had to try to get along with the I people. he great guilds operating in several countries , nanadesi) had emerged as an important power i in south Indian polity as early as the Pallava They not only financed local development |ects and the construction of temples, but also [ money to the kings. Thus, the rulers did their tto accommodate the guilds because of the ben-|which they derived from their trade. Due to their national connections, the troops they employed | the immunities they enjoyed, such guilds almost uted a state within the state, j^mong the most powerful guilds were the avole and the Manigramam. The Ayyavole, j^ved from the name of a former capital of the (lukyas, Aihole, dominated the trade of the whereas the Manigramam was based in Nadu. The international connections of the avole extended to West Asia, while the nigramam concentrated on trade with South-East a. The inscription at Takuapa (on the Isthmus of n), belonging to the middle of the ninth century, itions this latter guild (Manigramam) specifiy, while the Tamil inscription of 1088 found in was also produced by a guild from Tamil . But there was no strict division of the spheres I between these guilds. Thus, for example, a adesi trader from the Malabar coast aimandalam) established a nanadesivinnagar »le, devoted to Vishnu, at Pagan in Burma in the I century. the trade with West Asia, the traders of the h-west coast of India obviously had some ages. Ethnic connections were helpful in this t too. Arab and Jewish merchants who settled pie Indian south-west coast corresponded with colleagues even in far off Cairo. Letters and found in an old synagogue of Cairo give pie evidence of the intimate contacts which the val merchants of Cairo had with those of south , The respect which the Jewish traders enjoyed i India is shown by a royal grant inscribed on copper plate in favour of one Issuppu Irappan (Joseph Raban). He obtained princely privileges, exemption from all taxes and the grant of the revenue of a traders' quarter of the port of Cranganore on the Malabar coast. The imperial Cholas tried to enhance their maritime strength by gaining control over all strategically important coastlines. They captured the southwest coast of India and almost the entire Indian east coast up to the mouth of the Ganges. They also seized the

Maldives, Sri Lanka and the Andamans. In keeping with this line of policy, they finally took on Sri Vijaya. All these military activities can be properly understood if we keep in mind the fact that there was an increasing competition for trade and trade routes at that time. The Cholas and the South-East Asian rulers in particular vied with each other for shares of the market. The inscriptions of Rajendra I indicate that Chola relations with Sri Vijaya and Cambodia were quite friendly in the period from 1014 to 1019. Yet in 1025 he sent his fleet on the famous expedition to Sumatra and Malaya where his army defeated the mighty Sri Vijaya empire and all its tributary princes. The exact reasons for this Chola expedition against Sri Vijaya can, therefore, only be explained if more relevant sources are discovered. But this military venture was certainly the climax of a period of intense competition for establishing a monopoly of trade. Rajendra Chola's exploits in South-East Asia did not lead to permanent annexations of territory there. But the influence of the Cholas and of south Indian merchants was definitely felt in South-East Asia throughout the llth century. In 1068-69 the Chola fleet intervened once more in the affairs of the island empire. A Chola inscription recorded that their troops conquered a large part of Malaya at the behest of the king who had asked for help to whom the country was returned. It seems that the Cholas had taken sides in a dynastic struggle, supporting the claims of the legitimate ruler. Besides, the Tamil inscription of 1088, as mentioned earlier, provides evidence of the presence of a south Indian merchants' guild in Sumatra at that time.


Diplomatic Achievements

The expanding maritime activities must also be seen in the context of increasing diplomatic activities at that time. The Chinese had sent envoys to the 'Countries of the South' in the late 10th century indicating their interest in an increase of trade. Sri Vijaya, on its part, had responded by sending six delegations to the emperor of China in the brief period from 1003 to 1018. The South-East Asian states were eager to have good relations with the Cholas as with the emperor of China. Around 1005 the Sailendra king of Sri Vijaya endowed a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam for which Rajaraja I provided some land grants. When Rajendra I inherited his father's throne, he immediately confirmed the grant made to the monastery. Cambodia also established diplomatic relations with the Cholas in 1012. King Suryavarman I who expanded the kingdom of Angkor so as to encroach upon Sri Vijaya's sphere of interest in Malaya sent a chariot as a present to Rajaraja I in order to protect his own royal fortune. It is difficult to decide whether the king of Cambodia felt threatened by the emerging power of the Cholas or by their South-East Asian rivals in Sri Vijaya. In 1015 and 1033 Rajendra I had sent diplomatic missions and the Chinese emperor recognised the Chola kingdom as one of the great tributary states, which was a mark of distinction in Chinese eyes. In 1015 after the Chola diplomatic mission had stopped over in Sri Vijaya on their way to China, and again in 1019 the ruler of Sri Vijaya sent rich presents for the Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam which Rajendra acknowledged in his inscriptions. In 1077 the Chola ruler, Kulottunga I, dispatched a mission of 72 merchants to China, which removed the wrong impression of the Chinese that the Cholas were tributary princes of the Sri Vijaya empire. In 1089 the ruler of Sri Vijaya sent two ambassadors to the Chola court and at their request Kulottunga specifically reconfinned the donations made to the monastery at Nagapattinam. Diplomatic relations with Cambodia were also resumed. The king of Angkor, presumably Suryavarman 1

Angkor Vat, sent a precious jewel; who then donated it to the temple i in 1114. Even the Burmese (1086-1113), wrote a letter on gold Chola ruler. All these bits and piece&jj show that Kulottunga's long reign (1{| a time of peaceful diplomatic relati
SOUTH INDIAN VILLAGE SYS

The organisation which was i tinuity of life and tradition in the i political changes in south India was 1 the vitality of its institutions is attest! of inscriptions from all parts of : degree of autonomy at the south Ind was quite remarkable. Participation of in village affairs was more as advis than as administrators.

Types of Villages

The village with an intercaste pop taxes to the king in the form of la the most frequent type. Brahmadeya or agrahara villages^ granted to Brahmins and inhabit them. These were less common t type, but much more prosperous, 1 exemption from tax.

Devadana were villages granted,^ functioned more or less in the i first type except that the revenues J lages were donated to a tec received by the temple authorities ( state.

During the Pallava period, the first i predominant, but under the Cholas last type gained more popularity wh became the centres of life.


(of General Assemblies

:t/r consisted of the tax-paying residents of an tfinary village.

the sabha, membership was restricted to the nins of the village, or was found exclusively i a village gifted to Brahmins.

: nagaram was found more commonly in trade ntres such as cities and towns.

villages the ur and the sabha were found ic. Very large villages had two urs, if this was I to be more convenient.

ling and Constitution of Assemblies

ctioning of assemblies differed from place to ccording to local conditions. The ur was open phe tax-paying adults of the village, but in i older members played a more prominent i some forming a small executive body. The | an executive body, called alunganam, whose , strength and the manner of the appoint-fits members are not clear. The sabha had a plex machinery, which functioned very ough its committees called the variyams. lly constituted smaller committees of dif-from among their members for spekwork. i to the executive body and other commit-he ur or sabha appears to have been coni draw of lots from among those who were ^though amendments to the constitution and ;of the ur or sabha were made whenever y. The Uttaramerur Inscription, belonging of Parantaka I (10th century), gives ut the functioning and constitution of the a. It mentions not only qualifications, i property and education to honesty, but ilifications such as lunacy, and corruption, riptions also give similar information, are a few variations. The assembly ,met in the precincts of the temple, and cooperation among village assem-I also known. Functions of Assemblies First of all, the assemblies collected the assessed land revenue for the government or the temple (assessment could be either joint or individual).

Secondly, they levied additional tax for a particular purpose such as the construction of a water tank. Thirdly, they settled agrarian disputes such as conflicts over tenures and irrigation rights. Fourthly, they maintained records, particularly those pertaining to charities and taxes. The larger assemblies kept a small staff of paid officials, but most of the work was done on a voluntary basis in the smaller assemblies.

CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI

Taila II He began his career as a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Krishna III, but soon overthrew the Rashtrakutas by killing Karkka II. He became the master of the whole of what had been the Rashtrakuta kingdom, with the sole exception of their Gujarat provinces. With the Paramaras of Malwa, Taila II waged bitter war. He led six invasions to that kingdom, but was repulsed on all occasions by the Paramara king, Munja. When Munja attacked Chalukyan territory, Taila defeated and put him to death. Taila's capital was Manyakheta and Kalyani began to assume importance only under Somesvara I.

Satyasraya The kingdom which Satyasraya inherited from his father was fairly extensive. The Cholas were the chief enemy of Satyasraya. It was with great difficulty that Satyasraya succeeded in freeing a major part of his kingdom from the Chola army after defeating Rajendra.

Vikramaditya V Satyasraya was succeeded by his nephew Vikramaditya V, who had a short and uneventful reign of six or seven years. The only notable event in the reign of Vikramaditya was perhaps the Chola invasion by Rajendra.

Jayasimha II Jayasimha II tried to recover the territory lost to the Cholas during the reign of Satyasraya. The disputed succession at Vengi gave Jayasimha a chance of interfering in the affairs of


that kingdom. Jayasimha supported the claim of Vijayaditya VII to the throne against that of Rajaraja. In the initial stage, Jayasimha's efforts were crowned with success. But the situation took a dramatic turn when Rajendra Chola sent two forces simultaneously. A great battle was fought at Maski in the -Raichur Doab in which the Cholas claimed victory. In Vengi, the Chola forces defeated Vijayaditya and the latter took shelter under Jayasimha.

Somesvara I The accession of Somesvara I ushered in a brilliant period in the history of the Chalukyas of Kalyani which ultimately reached the zenith of power and glory in the reign of his son Vikramaditya VI. But Somesvara's reign was marked by protracted struggles with the Cholas. He removed the capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani and adorned it with many new buildings. Soon after his accession, Somesvara launched upon a fresh attack of Vengi. This brought upon him the invasion of the Cholas. Rajadhiraja defeated the western Chalukya forces, but Somesvara made a dramatic recovery and drove the Chola forces out of his territory. Hostilities were soon renewed and a grim battle was fought at Koppam (Kopbal), in which Rajadhiraja fell but his son Rajendra II rallied the forces and turned the defeat into victory. Despite his preoccupations with the Cholas, Somesvara found time to engage in hostilities with other powers. He not only conquered north Konkan but also invaded Gujarat and Malava and received the submission of the Paramara Bhoja after a raid on his capital Dhara. Somesvara I had four sons of whom he appointed his eldest, Somesvara II as his successor.

Somesvara II He ruled for a short period of eight years which witnessed a struggle between him and his younger brother Vikramaditya VI. Finally Vikramaditya killed his elder brother and ascended the throne in ad 1076. Bilhana's Vikramankacharita justifies his patron's action on the ground that Somesvara II was a cruel king who oppressed his subjects.

Vikramaditya VI Vikramaditya VI also had to face the revolt of his younger brother Jayasimha, who

was eventually defeated. More serious < ever, came from the Hoyasala fued Vikramaditya's reign saw the rule of four J chiefs, namely Vinayaditya, Ereyanga, Ba Vishnuvardhana. The first three chiefs cordial relations with the suzerain. With : sion of Vishnuvardhana who was a great sol< an ambitious monarch, the process of exp accelerated at the expense of the Choi) Chalukyas. Several battles were fought, mately Vishnuvardhana made his submissio While engaged in suppressing the Hq Vikramaditya found time to interfere in the i Vengi which had become an appendage oft empire. For some years, the Chola power i exist in Vengi. Vikramaditya's empire exfi far as Narmada in the north and To Cuddapah districts in the south. His long i years was also a period of the development ( literature. Bilhana, the author of Vikrama and Vijnanesvara, the author of Mitaksara,\ his patronage.

Somesvara III Vikramaditya VI was.' his son Somesvara III whose reign witnfi disintegration of the Chalukya empif Hoyasala vassal Vishnuvardhana declared I pendence and conquered some parts ofJ Chalukya territories. Somesvara's interest 1 in religion and letters than in war and was the author of the encyclopaedic work ( Abhilashitartha-chintamani or the Ma which Somesvara was known as sarvajiul^ cient).

Later Rulers The reigns of Somesva Jagadekamalla and Taila III, witnessed the I of the dynasty due to the hostility of the 1 Though Taila's son, Somesvara IV, te revived the Chalukya power, the final given by the Yadava, Bhillama. With the» Somesvara IV came the end of Chain Karnataka which now came to be ruled by 1 doms, that of the Yadavas in the region ; Tungabhadra and that of the Hoyasalas river.


nent being monarchical, all powers he king. It was also hereditary and suc-Qt generally to the eldest son. Generally, tja was in charge of the administration of .. region. There were a number of high-fiinisters to advise the king. Most of the eld charge of certain departments of ition. Sandhi-vigrahika was the officer in ijf the department of peace and war. The dhyaksha was in charge of the manage! royal palace. Another official designatfigures in contemporary records is tantradpwhich appears to mean superintendent of Sration. Bhandari was the treasurer in of the royal treasury. Most of the officers Ascribed as dandanayakas as they were 1 to discharge military service also. Sahani charge of cavalry. Anayasahani was in |of elephants. Most of the officers were paid They were given land grants on tenure

I kingdom was divided into several provinces Ik were administered through provincial goverfpThey were known as mandalesvara or dalesvara. The most common territorial i were called nadu, vishaya or kampana and Nadu was a bigger administrative unit, r or vishaya was a part of nadu. Thana was orial division used as a military cantonment, illage official or gavunda looked after the wel-of the villagers. He was assisted by senabova nika) or the accountant. Besides the villages, were bigger towns and cities described as The nagara was administered by a com1 guild. Nagaradhyaksha was the chief officer ch places. The large city had three general blies each called mahajana, one for the genl problems of the city as a whole, another dealing i problems relating to the Brahmin inhabitants, jtfle a third controlled and regulated matters affect-{the mercantile community. jj/The major source of revenue was land revenue, i different land taxes to be paid were siddhaya, Wanda, niruni-sunka and melivana. Siddhaya was a fixed tax levied not only on land but also on houses and shops. Dasavanda was one-tenth portion of tax payable to the authority from out of the yield from land or revenue. Niruni-sunka was the water cess to be paid by the farmer. Melivana may be taken to mean the tax levied on ploughs. Sources of income included other kinds of taxes like commercial taxes, professional taxes, social and community taxes, and judicial fines. Perjjumka, volavaru (import), horavaru (export) and the like were customs levied on trade and articles of merchandise. Angadidere (tax on shops), gaanadere (tax on oil mills), navidadere (tax on barbers) and the like were professional taxes. Manevana

(house-tax) and hosatilu (tax on the threshold) were property taxes levied by the local bodies. Dandaya was the revenue collected from judicial fines. The tax levied on marriages (maduveya-sunkd) was the most interesting feature of the Chalukyan administration.

Education and Literature

The temple played an important role in imparting education, maintaining students and teachers and promoting arts. The temple received munificent gifts from all people, from the king to the common man. In Karnataka, the main centres of education were the brahmapuri, agrahara, ghatikasthana and math. Brahmapuri was a separate colony of the Brahmins where the latter imparted education to students. The agrahara consisted of a whole village donated to the learned Brahmins by the king or any of the chiefs for conducting educational arid religious activities. Comparatively ghatikasthanas were less in number. The Chalukya period witnessed a phenomenal growth in literature, both in Sanskrit and Kannada. Among the Sanskrit writers of the period, the foremost is Bilhana, the court poet of Vikramaditya VI. Vikramankacharita of Bilhana is a mahakavya. Bilhana wrote many other works. The great jurist Vijnanesvara, who lived at the court of Vikramaditya, wrote the famous Mitaksara, a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti. Somesvara III was the author of encyclopaedic work, Manasollasa or Abhilashitarthachintamani.


Under the Western Chalukyas, Kannada literature reached great heights. The three literary gems-- Pampa, Ponna and Ranna--contributed to the development of Kannada literature in the 10th century. Of the three, Ranna was the court poet of Satyasraya, while the other two belonged to earlier decades. Nagavarma I was another poet of fame. He was the author of Chandombudhi, the ocean of prosody, the earliest work on the subject in Kannada. He also wrote Karnataka-Kandambari which is based on Sana's celebrated romance in Sanskrit. The next writer of note was Durgasimha, a minister under Jayasimha II, who wrote Panchatantra. The Virasaiva mystics, especially Basava, contributed to the development of Kannada language and literature, particularly prose literature. They brought into existence the vachana literature to convey high philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language.

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

Pulakesin II of Badami subdued the king of Pishtapura (Pithapuram in the Godavari district) and the Vishnukundin king and appointed his younger brother Vishnuvardhana viceroy of the newly conquered territories. Very soon the viceroy-airy developed into an independent kingdom and Vishnuvardhana became the founder of a dynasty known as the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. It outlived the main dynasty for many generations. Very often the kingdom became a bone of contention mostly causing a succession of disputes among the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Cholas.

Early Rulers Vishnuvardhana ruled for 18 years. His queen was Ayyana-mahadevi, who built a Jaina temple at Vijayawada. This is the earliest reference of Jainism in the Telugu country. Vishnuvardhana himself was a Bhagavata. Vishnuvardhana was succeeded by his son Jayasimha I. Like his father, Jayasimha was a Bhagavata. He was succeeded by Vishnuvardhana II, Vijayasiddhi, Jayasimha II, Vikramaditya, Vishnuvardhana III and then by Vijayaditya one after another. Vijayaditya His reign witnessed a revolution in the Deccan when the Chalukyas were overthrown by the who began a protracted struggle against I Chalukyas.

Vishnuvardhana IV He was forced to i with the Rashtrakuta Dhruva who gave 1 Silamahadevi in marriage to him. This beginning of the subordinate relationship of the Rashtrakutas.

Vijayaditya II He was one of the most j rulers of the family and enjoyed a long reig years. He was succeeded by Vijayaditya ', mother was the Rashtrakuta princess, Sila

Vijayaditya III Gunaga His reign heralde of aggressive imperialism in which he wa by his able minister Vinayadisarman and I brated military genius of the age, Pandu the death of Amoghavarsha, Vijayaditya the Rashtrakuta yoke after inflicting Krishna II. Then he sent an expeditio Panduranga against Dahala, the Chedi his way he received the submission of the J Kalinga and Kosala. He proclaimed himsefi of the entire Dakshinapatha. Thus he was I est monarch of the Eastern Chalukya dy whose reign the kingdom extended Mahendragiri in the north to the Pulicat! south. After a long reign of 44 years Vijaya succeeded by his brother's son Bhima.

Bhima I His succession was disputed by 1 Yuddhamalla who with the help of the king, Krishna II, seized Vengi. The nobles, however, succeeded in restoring dom to its lawful master after defeating 1 He was a devotee of Siva and built the i Bhimavaram and Draksharamam in Godavari district.

Weak Successors

A series of weak successors followed, Vijayaditya IV, Amma I, Vijayaditya V, Yu II, Bhima II, Amma II and Danarnava.


l&niler came into conflict with the Telugu hief, Jata Choda Bhima of Pedakollu, who I the sovereignty of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Oda Bhima His reign of 27 years is I in the Eastern Chalukya inscriptions as an num. He was a powerful ruler and exercised over a fairly large territory. But his : with the Cholas proved to be disastrous, ola king, Rajaraja I, espoused the cause of of Danarnava (Saktivarman I), invaded |ttnd put Saktivarman I on the Chalukya

alukya Alliance With the accession of I to the throne, Vengi ceased to be an tit kingdom and became an appendix of pla empire. The rule of Saktivarman I saw the of Vengi by the Western Chalukya, ||aya. But he was compelled to withdraw his Vengi when Rajendra Chola I invaded Saktivarman was succeeded by his brother Vimaladitya. The most important f Vunaladitya's reign was his marriage with , the daughter of the great Chola emperor 11, by whom he had a son named Rajaraja. the process of Chola-Chalukya matri-alliances which ultimately ended in the rr of the two dynasties under Kulottunga. ditya had another queen Melama, from [jhe had a son, Vijayaditya VII. Vijayaditya | power with the help of Jayasimha II of by superseding Rajaraja. But Rajendra : to the rescue of his nephew Rajaraja and 1 his nephew as the ruler of Vengi. aja Narendra's long reign was a period of political unrest, accentuated by the ; efforts of his half-brother Vrjayaditya to he throne. When Rajaraja Narendra died the i seized by Vrjayaditya VII, who remained iler of Vengi so long as Virarajendra occuChola throne. But after the death of i in 1070, a civil war engulfed the Chola r which ended with the accession of Rajendra pi alias Kulottunga I, nephew of Vijayaditya. osolidating his position in the Chola coununga I succeeded in capturing Vengi, whereupon Vijayaditya took shelter with Rajaraja Devendravarman, the king of Kalinga. With his death in 1075 the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.

YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI

Early History

The first member of the family was Dridhaprahara. It was, however, Seunachandra I, the son of Dridhaprahara, who first secured feudatory status for his family from the Rashtrakutas. The importance of this chief can be assessed from the fact that the territory ruled by the Yadavas came to be known as Seuna-desa. During the reign of Bhillama II, the Rashtrakuta empire was overthrown by the Western Chalukyas. Hence Bhillama transferred his allegiance to the Chalukyas. He was succeeded by Vesugi, Bhillama III, Bhillama IV, Seunachandra II, Simharaja, Mallugi and Bhillama V.

Bhillama V When he ascended the throne, the great Chalukyan power was already on the road to decline. The Yadavas naturally took advantage of the situation and asserted their independence. Bhillama thus laid the foundation of the Yadava empire which endured for about a century.

Jaitugi He tried to strengthen his southern frontier by marching against the rising power of the Kakatiyas. The Kakatiya monarch Rudra was killed and his nephew, prince Ganapati was taken prisoner. Instead of annexing the Kakatiya kingdom Jaitugi restored the captive prince Ganapati to the throne. Like his father, Jaitugi also fought against his neighbours to the north of the Narmada. He defeated the rulers of Malava, Lata and also the Gurjara kings. Jaitugi was not merely a soldier, but also a patron of learning. Lakshmldhara, son of Bhaskaracharya, the famous astronomer, was his chief court poet.

Simhana He was the most powerful ruler of the family. As the Hoyasalas proved a great obstacle to the further expansion of the kingdom in the south, Simhana launched a successful campaign against them. Elated by his successes in the south, Simhana turned his arms against his hereditary enemies in the


north--the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat. He defeated and killed the Paramara king Arjunavarman. Thus the Yadava kingdom reached the zenith of its glory and power in the reign of Simhana. None among the Hoyasalas, the Kakatiyas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas dared to challenge his supremacy in the Deccan. Simhana was not merely a warrior, but was also a patron of music and literature. Sangitaratnakara of Sarangadeva, an important work on music, was written in his court. Anantadeva and Changadeva were the two famous astronomers who lived at the court of Simhana. Changadeva established a college of astronomy at Patana in Khandesh in memory of his illustrious grandfather, Bhaskaracharya. Anantadeva wrote a commentary on Bhrahmagupta's Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Varahamihira's Brihat Jataka.

Krishna Krishna had many able ministers and generals to help him in consolidating his power. During his reign, Vedantakalpataru, a commentary on the Bhamati, which itself is a commentary upon Sankaracharya's Vedantasutrabhashya was composed.

Mahadeva He fought a successful war against Kakatiya Rudramba but spared her life. He also made a futile attempt to bring the Hoyasala king, Narasimha II, under the domination of the Yadavas. Hemadri, the great Smriti writer, was an important officer under Mahadeva. He completed his Vratakhanda during Mahadeva's reign.

Ramachandra Ramachandra made a desperate attempt to efface the memory of defeat inflicted on Mahadeva by the Hoyasalas. But the Yadavas again suffered a decisive defeat. The last two decades of Ramachandra's rule proved to be disastrous to the Seuna country which led to the ultimate extinction of the dynasty. In the beginning of 1296 Alauddin Khalji attacked Devagiri and compelled Ramachandra to sue for peace. Though Ramachandra retained his kingdom, he lost his independence. The situation was fully exploited by their hereditary enemies in the east and south. Ramachandra continued to send tribute to Alauddin till 1303-04 when the latter's forces were < by Prataparudra. This event embolde

Yadavas, especially the crown prince Sa to defy the Sultan's power with impunity, Igjj Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to chastise the Ya Sankaradeva was defeated by Kafur Ramachandra was taken prisoner. He was wards released and allowed to rule his kingd a vassal of the Sultan.

Sankaradeva He could not reconcile tun the alien rule. So, after his accession, he in ately repudiated the authority of Alauddin, wh more sent Malik Kafur to bring the rebel to I Malik easily defeated Sankaradeva, put him t(H and annexed the Yadava kingdom.

Economic Conditions

Tax on agricultural land was known as ar Income from market tax was known as santhe House-tax or mane-dere as well as the tax on I were also known. Certain professional taxes*1 imposed on carpenters, blacksmiths, cobblers, \ ermen and others. Such taxes were known asl nige. Talevana was perhaps a tax on individu lected in certain places or on specific occas Sunkadhikari was the chief officer in charge of| whose duty was to collect the taxes through nisi ordinates and to remit it to the state Another officer was sunka-vergade whose juri| tion appears to have been restricted to a villi town. The officer in charge of the royal treasu known as mahabhandari. The people engaged in trade and commerce i known as settis and vyavaharas. Merchants i in different articles were known by different i like gatrigas or hannavanigas (those dealin betel-leaves and nuts) and teligas (dealers m\ The most influential trade organisation was I Virabalanja which had its headquarters at with several branches spread over most of] important cities of south India. Trade was inland. Trade in the country was controlled merchant guilds known as the nakharas, settisi settiguttas.


gva rulers were liberal patrons of all relidhism was already a dying force, though ontinued to enjoy the royal patronage. The i Virasaiva sect affected the position of the |a certain extent. The new religious sect that the Seuna country was that of the avas who were the worshippers of god |Traditionally, god Dattatreya is believed to nder of this faith; but Chakradhara after [self-realisation, founded the Mahanubhava 73. Towards the end of the 13th century the ovement associated with Sri Vitthala or i in Pandharpur gained popularity in the f,A number of non-Brahmin saints like . (a tailor), Janabai (a maid servant) and I (a goldsmith) made the bhakti cult the reli-he masses of Maharashtra.

i gave great impetus to the development rit literature. The family of the famous and mathematician Bhaskaracharya to this period. Bhaskaracharya's father, i (known as Kavisvara), wrote two works y, Sekhara and Laghutika. Of the numeri of Bhaskaracharya, the most famous are Siromani (composed in 1150) and uhala, the first being the best treatise on ' be found in Sanskrit literature. His son and his grandson Changadeva were If astrologers of Jaitugi and Simhana respeciskaracharya's grand-nephew Anantadeva, of Simhana, was a master of the three k of astronomy and wrote a commentary on (Jataka of Varahamihira and also on one of Brahmasphuta Siddhanta of

ous work on music Sangitaratnakara osed by Sarangadeva who lived at the Simhana. Suktimuktavali, an anthology of e, was composed in 1258. But the most of the Seuna period was undoubtedly I; who was later on assigned to the post of chief secretary to the government by Mahadeva in 1263. Among his numerous works, those on Dharmasastra have been considered as authoritative in the later period. His work Chaturvarga Chintamani is a compendium of religious rites and practices. Apart from being a prolific writer of the period, Hemadri provides us with valuable information about the history of the dynasty. Bopadeva, a contemporary of Hemadri, wrote Harilila, a work on Bhagavata. The Seuna period forms an important epoch in the history of Marathi literature. The earliest extant work in this language is Vivekasindhu composed by Mukundaraja in

which he expounds the Advaita philosophy. But the most important work in Marathi is the Jnanesvari. The Marathi literature was further enriched by the devotional songs known as the abhangas by the saint-poets like Namadeva, Muktabayi and others. The cause of Marathi literature got a further impetus from the rise of the Mahanubhava sect, whose founder Chakradhara insisted that his followers should write in Marathi and not in Sanskrit. Among the literary works (mostly on religious subjects) may be mentioned the Sisupalavadha of Bhanubhata, the Rukminisvayamvara of Narendrapandita, the Nalopakhyana of Nrisimhakesari and the Lilacharita of Mahendra.

KAKATIYAS OF WARANGAL

Early Rulers Their earliest known chief was Beta I, a feudatory of the Western Chalukyas in the first half of the llth century. He ruled over the Koravi country in AP Beta was succeeded by his son Prola I. The loyalty of Prola I to Chalukya Somesvara I earned for him Anumakonda-vishaya, as a permanent fief. Prola I thus became the founder of the Kakatiya principality. Prola I was succeeded by his younger son Beta II, who was in turn succeeded by his son, Durganripati.

Prola II The reign of Prola II, the next ruler, forms an important landmark in the history of the Kakatiyas. He threw off the overlordship of the


Chalukyas and carved out for himself an independent kingdom which was destined to grow under his successors into a powerful kingdom embracing the whole of the Andhra country.

Rudradeva His achievements are described in his Anumakonda inscription. According to it, he defeated a number of neighbouring princes and extended his dominion right up to the banks of the Godavari. Turning to the south, Rudradeva defeated four kings of the Telugu Choda origin. He also invaded Vengi, but his authority in this area was challenged by the chiefs of Velanadu. In the last year of his reign he came into conflict with the Seunas (Yadavas) of Devagiri which resulted in his defeat and death. Rudradeva was a patron of art and letters. He built magnificent temples in his dominions, dedicated to the god Siva. It is probable that he built the famous Thousand-Pillar temple at Anumakonda. He founded near his capital Anumakonda, a new town called Orugallu, modem Warangal, which became the chief city under his successors. Rudradeva was succeeded by his younger brother Mahadeva who enjoyed a short reign of about three years. He invaded the Seuna kingdom and perished in an attack on Devagiri while his son Ganapati was taken prisoner.

Ganapatideva Though Ganapati began his rule under unfavourable circumstances, his reign was destined to become one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of the Andhra country. During his long reign of 63 years he swept over almost the whole land inhabited by the Telugu speaking peoples. Ganapati invaded the coastal districts and captured Vijayawada and the island of Divi. After the death of Prithvisvara, the territory of the Velanati chiefs passed into the hands of the Kakatiya monarch. The expansion of the Kakatiya power in the south was the direct outcome of its alliance with the Telugu Chodas of Nellore. Dissension in the family of Telugu Chodas induced Ganapati to march against Nellore where he installed Tikka on the throne of his ancestral kingdom. When Tikka died, the kingdom of Nellore was plunged into anarchy riven by the contending claims of Tikka's son Manuma Siddhi II and VijayaGandago instance of the poet Tikkana, Gana

Manuma Siddhi against his domestic seated him firmly on the Nellore throne. Ganapati was the most powerful of t sovereigns who built up an extensive emp ing from the Godavari district up to Chin from Yelgandal up to the sea. Ganapati i administrator and took measures for in and agriculture. Motupalli, now in the ', trict, was an important seaport in his kin quented by foreign merchants. Ganapati i the city of Warangal by building two forts I the other, and shifted his capital to it. no son, but two daughters, Rudr; Ganapamba. Ganapati chose as the he$ Rudramba, who was married to Virabhad of the Eastern Chalukyan lineage.

Rudramadevi After her accession she 1 the rebellion of the recalcitrant nobles who< reconcile to the rule of a woman. But it wa danger that caused her serious trouble. Mahadeva invaded the Kakatiya kingd Rudramba defeated him and compelled for peace. The worst trouble came from the 1 feudatory Ambadeva who reestablished Gandagopala at Nellore. But the Kumara Rudradeva or Prataparudra, Rudramadevi and heir-apparent to the throne, comp'etely altered the balance Kumara Rudradeva made a three-pronged i Ambadeva's territories and at the same patched separate expeditions against Rudramba herself led a large army, Ambadeva and recovered Tripuraantakam j surrounding country. Rudramadevi was undoubtedly one oft est of the rulers of the Andhra country who i active part in the government and led the i person on occasions of emergency.

Prataparudra The main event of Prats reign was the series of Muslim invasi| Warangal which began with an unsuccessful^ 1303 and ended twenty years later with thel of the Kakatiya kingdom.


on

I inscriptions of the Kakatiya monarchs, he Nitisastra-muktavali of Baddena, feudatory of Ganapati and Rudramba, alanitisammatamu of Madiki Singana, | the first quarter of the 15th century-- t on the subject. A king should, according Irara of Prataparudra, grant frequent audi-subjects at prescribed times. The king 1 in the government of the kingdom by a her of ministers like mahapradhanas,
The karanam like the northern patwari kept the accounts and plans of the village including the area of the cultivable, the non-cultivable, the wastelands, gardens and pastures. He was closely associated with reddi in the administration of the village. The reddi was the headman of the village whose main duty was to collect the taxes due to the state. The talari was the village policeman, while the purohita was the village priest. The carpenter and the blacksmith made and the agricultural implements. The vetti or the waterman attended to various menial tasks and regulated the flow of water for irrigation. Most of the ayagars, excepting the karanam, reddi and talari, were primarily the servants of the village and had no direct connection with the state.

Revenue Administration The government derived the bulk of its revenue from land tax. Next in importance were the taxes levied on trade and industry and the assessments of forests on their yield of timber. Land was divided into dry (veli-volamu or velichenu), wet (niru-nela) and garden areas (tomtabhumi) for purposes of assessment. The monarch had his own land, called racha-doddi or rachapolamu, in each village in the district. Tax was collected both in kind and cash but the tax on dry and garden land was always paid in cash. Tax collected from wet land was called para, i.e. one-eighth of the rent, and that from dry land known as pangamu which means one-fourth of the rent. Sunkamu is a broad term used to denote taxes on garden lands, duties on exports and imports, customs


duties on articles of merchandise and excise duties. These taxes or tolls were farmed out to merchant-guilds or associations on payment of a fixed sum to the government. These tax-farmers had their own branches in different localities along with their own officials and establishments. The toll-farmers could exempt any dealer from paying the stipulated duty as a privilege for some important service which he might have done for the guild organisation. The merchant-guilds wielded unlimited powers and enjoyed full autonomy in the internal management of their own affairs. This was probably due to the help which they had rendered to the Kakatiya monarch by fiir. nishing forces (srenibala) at the time of Muslim invasions.

Literature

The Kakatiya rulers extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit. Several eminent Sanskrit writers and poets authored inscriptions which must be regarded as kavyas in miniature. Of these writers Achintendra was commissioned by Rudradeva to compose the prasasti embodied in the Anumakonda inscription. The most famous of the prasasti writers of the time was, however, Isvarasuri, the author of the Bothpur inscriptions. Besides, the contribution of the Kakatiya poets to Sanskrit literature is considerable. A well-known scholar and poet, Sakalya Malla or Mullubhatta, lived at the court of Prataparudra, and composed the Udattaraghavakavya and the NiroshthyaRamayana. In the field of alankarasutra, the Prataparudra-Yasobhushanam of Vidyanatha, is by far the best. Telugu literature also flourished in the Kakatiya kingdom. Several inscriptions were composed partly or wholly in Telugu verse like the inscriptions at Gudur (of Beta II), Karimnagar (Gangadhara), Upparapalle (Kata) and Konidena (Opilisiddhi). The new religious movements like Vaishnavism and Virasaivism gave a great impetus to Telugu literature. Several works on the two great national epics--the Ramayana and the Mahabharata--were produced during this period. The earliest and the most popular Telugu work on the Ramayana is Tikkana's Nirvachanoltara-Ramayanam. Next in pointii come the Bhaskara-Ramayanam (a compositi of five authors) and the Ranganathat (Buddharaja). The Andhra Mahabharata,

Nannayabhatta in the llth century ad, pleted by Tikkana Somayaji, the minister; laureate of the Telugu Chola king Manuma Sf of Nellore i n the middle of the 13th century j

Religion

Saivism in its various forms was the pr faith during the Kakatiya period. There were.| schools of Saivism like the Kalamukha, and Pasupata. Inspite of the predominance < by the Kalamukha doctrine at the begin Kakatiya period, the Pasupata eventually the favour of majority of the common people^ as that of the kings. Prola I and Beta II were followers of Saiv their preceptor was Ramesvara Pandftl Kalamukha Saiva saint. Like their grandfatl II, Rudradeva and his brother Mahadeva we mamahesvaras. The reign of Ganapatideva,5! preceptor was Visvesvara Sambhu, forms a \ period in the history of the Saiva religion, j Saivism continued up to the end of the Prataparudra, the last Kakatiya, who was i paramamahesvara. Besides Saivism there were other faiths i the Arhatamata (Jainism) and Vaishnavism.'! tain Appayacharya, a follower of Jainism ; dent of Warangal, wrote a work kno Pratishthasara during the reign of The Kakatiyas built many temples at Ami Palampeta, Pillalamarri and several other; These temples played important roles in religious life of the period.

HOYASALAS

Early Rulers The home of the Hoyasalasl the hilly tracts to the north-west of Ganga| Mysore. They became prominent during i longed struggle between the later Chaluk


s. They initially became feudatories of ukyas, and after the decline of the latter ilared independence and asserted their over the southern territory of the

nder of the dynasty was Sala, also known a. His son and successor, Vinayaditya, itory of the Chalukya, Vikramaditya VI. ya was succeeded by his son Ereyanga was succeeded by Ballala I. He ruled all principality, with his capital at Belur, i Dvarasamudra (modern Halebid) was an I capital.

r Vishnuvardhana Ballala was succeeded ôvmger brother Bittiga, better known as na. He was the real maker of the i kingdom. He annexed the Chola province gavadi and parts of Nalambavadi. He I

the neighbouring chieftains and built up a dom for himself.

I secured the southern frontier against the |s Vishnuvardhana turned against Chalukya ditya. But Vikramaditya drove the Hoyasala : to his territory. But during the reign of I Somesvara III, Vishnuvardhana not only i authority of the Chalukyas, but tried to |is dominions at their expense. Originally he |ina, but later he became a Vaishnava when Influenced by the Vaishnava teachings of

II Vishnuvardhana was succeeded by his i Narasimha I who in turn was succeeded i Ballala II. In the first twenty years of his . to fight hard against the feudatories of ya empire. He entered into protracted war I'Yadavas and fought successfully against the Emboldened by the decline of the power he finally declared his independ-helped the Chola Kulottunga III and > III against Sundara Pandya. He was suc-' his son Narasimha. Narasimha II and Somesvara Narasimha II had to intervene to save the Cholas from the Pandyas. He restored Rajaraja III to the throne. Narasimha's son and successor, Somesvara, established himself in the south and built a capital at Kannanur near Srirangam. He fought frequently against the Pandyas, but was ultimately defeated and killed by the latter who overran the Chola kingdom.

Narasimha III and Ballala III Narasimha III successfully held the Hoyasala frontier in north against Yadava aggressions. Ballala III, the son of Narasimha III, while waging successful aggressive campaigns against the Yadavas, had to fight hard against the powerful rebellions of feudatories of the empire and the Pandyas in the south. He was able to protect the integrity of his kingdom till 1310 when he was over-powered by Malik Kafur, the general of Alauddin Khalji. For more than three decades, he maintained his precarious existence first against the Khaljis and then against the Tughiuqs. Finally he lost his life in a battle against the Madurai Sultan at Trichinapally. The Hoyasala dynasty came to an end with Ballala Ill's death.


In many cases, the Hoyasala temples are not single but double, having all essential parts duplicated. One more noteworthy feature is that the temple itself appears to be the work of a sculptor and not of a builder. This is best illustrated in the Hoyasalesvara temple at Halebid, whose plinth consists of nine bands and each band has thousands of decorative figures in various postures. Hence the Hoyasala temples have been aptly described as sculptors', architecture. There are a number of temples in the Mysore territory which exhibit amazing display of sculptural exuberance. The most typical and well-known examples are the temples of Kesava at Somnathpur, Chenna Kesava at Belur and Hoyasalesvara at Halebid. The Kesava temple at Somnathpur, near Seringapatnam, erected about 1268, is still in a perfect state.


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QUESTIONS

I term 'Malaimandalam' refers to the Coromandal coast (b) Malabar coast Pandya coast (d) Konkan coast nakshi, the fish-eyed goddess of the andyas of Madurai, is identified with Laxmi (b) Parvati C) Sarasvati

(d) Savitri

famous Jaina temples at Dilwara were tby Paramaras

(b) Chandellas

C) Solankis

(d) Chauhans

hmanasena's court was adorned by P) Dhoyi (ii) Rajasekhara Jayadeva

(iv) Dhananjay

i the answer from the codes below til i and ii (b) ii and iii Hi and iv

(d) i and iii

i title of 'Uttarapathasvamin' was assumed

a) Dharmapala (b) Mihira Bhoja Mahindrapala (d) Prithviraj Chauhan did a foreign trader from the Malabar st establish a nanadeshi-vinnagar temple, I to Vishnu, in the 13th century ad? B) Angkor in Cambodia Pagan in Burma i) Borobudur in Sumatra d) Cairo in Egypt Cambodian ruler sent a chariot as a Bnt to Rajaraja Chola in ad 1012? Suryavarman I (b) Suryavarman II fe) Anantavarman (d) Chandravarman one of the following temples was not dicated to Lord Vishnu?

|a) Ranganatha temple at Srirangam fe) Vithoba temple at Pandharpur (c) Jagannatha temple at Puri Lingaraja temple at Bhuvanesvar 9. Atisha Dipankara and Santarakshita of the early medieval period were (a) (b) (c) (d) 10.

prominent Sanskrit poets great mathematicians and astronomers famous Buddhist monks Hindu religious reformers Who among the following is referred to as the south Indian Manu?

(a) Kamban

(b) Pugalendi

(c) Apasthamba

(d) Tirunavakkarasu

11. Which of the following statements about the Ayyavole, a prominent trade guild of early medieval India, are true? (i) It dominated the internal trade of Tamil Nadu. (ii) It controlled the internal trade of Deccan. (iii) In the field of external trade it concentrated on trade with West Asia, (iv) Its international connections were mainly with South East Asia. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

12.

Sthala Mahatmyas were

(a) (b) (c)

legends recording local origin of gods officials in-charge of temple management pilgrimages undertaken by religious-minded people

(d)

.special levy collected by the temple

13. The famous Sun temple at Konark was build by (a) Prataparudra Anantavarman (c) Narasimha I (d) Narasimha II

(b)

14.

The famous battle of Waihind (ad 1001) took place between

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Rajaraja Chola I and Vikramaditya IV Bhima I and Mahmud of Ghazni Indra III and Mahipala Jaipala and Mahmud of Ghazni

B43


15. When did Rajendra Chola I send his famous naval expedition to the Sri Vijaya empire? (a) 1015

(b) 1020

(c) 1025

(d) 1035

16.

The famous Uttaramerur Inscription belongs to the reign of

(a) Parantakal (b) Parantakal I (c) Rajaraja I (d) Rajendra I 17. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda deals with the cult of (a) Rama (b) Krishna (c) Siva

(d) Sakti

18.

Hiranya-garba was

(a) (b) (c) (d)

a sacred rite of the marriage ceremony a title conferred on brave soldiers a tax paid by the people in gold coins the religious ceremony of passing one's body through a golden cow

19. The term mlechcha-bhoja referred to (a) meat (b) rice (c) wheat

' (d) spices

20.

Which one of the following is incorrectly paired?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Rajaraja I--Rajakesari Rajendra I--Pandita Chola Kulottunga I--Sungam Tavirtta Rajadhiraja--Ahalanka

21. When did the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam with the permission of the Chola ruler? (a) 1000

(b) 1005

(c) 1015

(d) 1025

22. Which Chola emperor received a letter on golden leaves from the Burmese King, Kyanzittha? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajendra I (c) Kulottunga I

(d) Rajadhiraja

23.

Who built the famous Jagannatha temple at Puri as well as the Lingaraja temple?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 24. lists.

Kapilendra Bhanudeva I Purushottam Anantavarman Choda Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Sulaiman

(A) Indra III,

Rashtrakuta

.(B£ (C) (ii) AI-Masudi (iii) Marco Polo

(D) Rud Kak (a) i-B, ii-C, iii-D (b) i-D, ii-(c) i-C, ii-A, iii-D (d) i-C, ii-l 25. Idangai and valangai were the I (a) social divisions (b) Saiv (c) royal ceremonies (d) Vais 26.

The term nanadeshi referred to

(a)

exotic imports from different for! tries

(b)

official in charge of the promotion!^ trade

(c) (d) 27.

merchants indulged in internati travellers from foreign countries Which one of the following temples i royal temple?

(a) Kandariya Mahadeva temple (b) Udayesvara temple (c) Rajarajesvara temple (d) Sun temple 28. What was the original name of Vishnu the Hoyasala ruler of Dvarasamudra' converted to Vaishnavism from Ja Ramanuja and who constructed thef Hoyasalesvara temple at Halebid? (a) Bittideva

(b) Rudrade

(c) Kottiga

(d) Aniruddh

29.

Arrange the following administrative, the Chola period in the descending i

(i) Valanadus (ii) Nadus fl (iii) Mandalams

(iv) Kurrams

Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, iii, ii, iv (b) iii, i, ii, iv (c) ii, iv, i, iii (d) iv, i, ii, iii 30. That the bodyguards of the Chola ei burnt themselves on the funeral their masters when they died is kn from (a) Kamban

(b) Sekkilar

(c) Marco Polo 31.

(d) Nicolodel

Pattinams were

(a) temple towns

(b) industrial i

(c) port cities (d) trade cent]


he annual income of the Rajarajesvara temi in the form of grain from the land donated ) it was worth about--kgs of gold. 500 (b) 100 250

(d) 750

ho founded kulinism, i.e. the system of nobil-among the Brahmins and Kayasthas of ngal? Dharmapala

(b) Gopala

Ballalasena

(d) Vijayasena

onsider List I and List II: List II (Founders) Bhillama Beta Raja Anantavarman Vijayasena Vatsaraja

List! ynasties) Yadavas (ii) Kakatiyas Eastern Gangas i Senas J(v) Pratiharas Vhich of the above are correctly matched? ISelect the answer from the codes given fbelow: |(a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv

|(c) i, iii, iv and v

(d) All of them

LThe capital of the Hindushahi kingdom was: y[a) Peshawar (b) Udabhanda f[c) Attack

(d) Multan

hich Chola emperor, as evident from an [inscription, intervened in the dynastic struggle fof South East Asia in ad 1068-69? la) Rajadhiraja (b) Virarajendra Kulottunga II built the famous

Suryavarman I Chandravarman pc) Kulottunga I

(d)

[Which ruler of Cambodia [Angkor Vat? .(a) Anantavarman (b) s(c) Suryavarman II (d) I Rajavamsavalis were (a) royal grants to temples 3_(b) royal decrees to guilds of artisans (c) royal palaces and buildings Ud) chronicles of dynasties t,The administration of tankurrams in the Chola :v period was looked after by |!(a) urs (b) nagarams £c) sabhas

(d) mahasabhas

|,Who among the following Kalyani Chalukya ulers performed paramayoga by drowning himself in the Tungabhadra? (a) Somesvara I

(b) Somesvara II

(c) Vikramaditya III (d) Vikramaditya IV 41.

Samarangana Sutradhara, written by the Pawar ruler Bhoja, deals with

(a) (b) (c)

art and architecture music and dance mathematics and astronomy

(d) war and peace 42. Issuppu Irappan, who obtained princely privi leges, exemption from all taxes and the grant of the revenue of a traders' quarter of the port of Cranganore on the Malabar coast, was (a) an Arab merchant (b) a Venetian traveller (c) a Cambodian trader (d) a Jewish trader 43. Which Chola emperor sent a large mission of 72 merchants to China that removed the wrong impression of the Chinese that the Cholas were tributary princes of the Sri Vijaya empire? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajendra I (c) Kulottungal 44.

(d) Vikramachola

Where did Ramanuja serve for long as the head priest of a temple?

(a) Tanjore

(b) Srirangam

(c) Kanchipuram

(d) Madurai

45.

Battle of Takkolam was fought between:

(a) (b)

Krishna III and Parantaka I Anantavarman Choda Ganga and Kulottunga I

(c) Vishnuvardhana and Somesvara III (d) Rajaraja I and Vikramaditya IV 46. What was the emblem of the imperial Cholas? (a) Tiger (b) Lion (c) Fish 47.

(d) Horse

Which one of the following pairs is wrongly matched?

(a) Rajasekhara--Karpuramanjari (b) Dhoyi--Pavanaduta (c) Jinasena Suri--Prithviraj Raso (d) Sriharsha--Naisadhacharita 48. An inscription of the ninth century ad found at Takuapa on the Isthmus of Siam, mentions (a) (b) (c)

Manigramam Ayyavole a trader from Malabar

(d)

a Chola ruler


49.

The famous Chidambaram temple in Tamil Nadu is devoted to

(a) Subrahrnanya (b) Nataraja (c) Parvati (d) Vishnu 50.

Which one of the following temples is not found at Khajuraho?

(a) Devi Jagadamba temple (b) Parsvanatha temple (c) Nilakantesvara temple (d) Visvanatha temple 51. Which one of the following kingdoms was referred to as 'Ruhmi' by the Arab merchant, Sulaiman? (a) Rashtrakuta (c) Chola

(b) Pratihara

(d) Pala

52. Sriharsha, who enjoyed the patronage of both the Sena rulers Vijayasena and the Gahadvala ruler Jayachandra, wrote a number of works. Which one of the following is not attributed to him? (a) (b) (c) (d) 53. ruler.

Vijyaprasasti Pavanaduta Naisadhacharita Khandanakhandakhadya Rajendra Chola's expedition to the Gangetic valley resulted in the defeat of a Pala Who is the Pala ruler mentioned in the Tirumalai Inscription of Rajendra I?

(a) Mahipala I (b) Narayanapala (b) Madanapala (d) Vigrahapala 54. Which one of the following Sena rulers is credited with writing Danasagara and Adbhutasagara? (a) Lakshmanasena (b) Vijayasena (c)

Ballalasena

(d) Samantasena

55.

Who was the first Rashtrakuta ruler to suc cessfully invade north India?

(a) Krishna III (b) Indra III (c) Dhruva

(d) Dantidurga

56.

Jinasena, the famous Jaina scholar and author of Adipurana, was at the court of:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 57.

Pala ruler, Devapala Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha I Pratihara ruler, Mihira Bhoja Solanki ruler, Kumarapala Which one of the following dynasties described itself as the Brahma-kshatriya?

(a) Senas

(b) Pali

(c) Rashtrakutas 58.

(d) Pr;

Who was the Solanki ruler when| Ghazni invaded and plundered thaj temple?

(a) Mularaja

(b) Siddli

(c) Bhimall

(d) Bhin !M

59.

The celebrated drama, Harikeli, written by the Chauhan ruler

(a) Prithvirajal (b) (c) Vigraharaja III (d) Son 60. Which Gahadvala king imposed turushkadanda, on his people? (a) Jayachandra (b) Chan (c) Govindachandra (d) Vijay 61. The famous Chaturbhuja temple, «j Vishnu, was built at Khajuraho, byf| (a) Dhanga (b) Yas (c) Paramardi (d) Jaya 62. Who among the following Tomar r ited with founding the city of Delhi?'11 (a) Anangpal (b) Vajrata'i (c) Rudrana (d) Devan 63.

The kings of 'Dahala-mandala' aref known as

(a)

Chandellas of Jejabhukti

(b) (c) (d) 64.

Gahadvalas of Kanauj Chauhans of Sakambhari Kalachuris of Chedi Which Rashtrakuta king built the city of Manyakheta?

(a) Indra II

(b) Krishna!

(c) Amoghavarsha I (d) Govinda? 65.

Which is not an important feature of t temples?

(a) Mandapam or pavilion (b) Sikhara or curvilinear tower (c) Vimana or storey, (d) Gopuram or gateway 66. Which of the following dynasties i part in the triangular conflict for the I Kanauj? (a) Palas

(b) Pratiha

(c) Senas

(d) Ra

67. Which one of the following Pala i have been elected by the people! remove anarchy and establish I


|.-Mahipala

(b) Dharmapala

Devapala

(d) Gopala

court was adorned by Jayadeva and fl, the famous poets of late 12th century ad? J, Mhira Bhoja (b) Amoghavarsha I Lakshmanasena (d) Dharmapala > was the founder of the Sena dynasty? Vijayasena (b) Lakshmanasena Ballalasena

(d) Vinayasena

r whose leadership did the Pratiharas rise (.prominence due to the stiff resistance that I put to the Arabs of Sind? Mihira Bhoja (b) Nagabhatta I Nagabhatta II (d) Vatsaraja ch Rashtrakuta ruler built the famous sa temple of Siva at Ellora? Oantidurga (b) Amoghavarsha I Krishna I

(d) Khottiga

kingdom was visited by al-Masudi, an i traveller of the early tenth century ad? Dharmapala (b) Indra III Gopala (d) Lakshmanasena hich Pala ruler founded the famous amasila University for the Buddhists? I) Mahipala (b) Devapala Gopala (d) Dharmapala

hich Rashtrakuta ruler is credited with ating and preventing the incursion of the abs of Sind into Gujarat? Dhruva(b) Govinda II p) Krishna II (d) Karka ulaiman, an Arab merchant of the ninth centfy, visited whose kingdom? Pala kingdom of Gopala b)

Sena kingdom of Vijayasena

p) Pratihara kingdom of Mihira Bhoja d) Rashtrakuta kingdom of Dantidurga hich Pratihara ruler had the famous poet, ijasekhara, at his court? B) Vatsaraja (b) Mahipala c)

Nagabhatta II (d) Mihira Bhoja

ho was the only Pala ruler to capture and itrol Kanauj for a while? a) Mahipala (b) Devapala c) Gopala

(d) Dharmapala

Who was the first Pratihara to capture and jpy Kanauj. (a) Mihira Bhoja

(b) Nagabhatta I

(c) Vatsaraja (d) Nagabhatta II 79.

Who built the Dasavatara and the Ravanakakhai at Ellora?

(a) Dantidurga (b) Amoghavarsha I (c) Krishna I (d) Indra I 80.

Which Rashtrakuta king transferred his capital from Ellora to Manyakheta?

(a) Indra II

(b) Krishna II

(c) Amoghavarsha I (d) Govinda I

81. Taila, the founder of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, who are also known as later Chalukyas or Western Chalukyas, defeated and overthrew which Rashtrakuta ruler? Karka Amoghavarsha III defeated by the III, in the famous

Kulottunga I Parantaka I (a) Khottiga

(b)

(c) Krishna III (d) 82.

Which Chola ruler was Rashtrakuta king, Krishna battle of Takkolam?

(a) Aditya

(b)

(c) Rajadhiraja (d) 83. Who among the following Cholas is credited with conquering the Sri Vijaya empire of the Sailendra rulers by sending a naval expedi tion? (a) Vijayalaya (b) Rajaraja I (c) Rajendra I (d) Parantaka II 84.

Name the Chola ruler who sent an embassy of 72 merchants to China in ad 1077

(a) Kulottunga I

(b) Rajaraja II

(c) Kulottunga II

(d) Rajendra II

85. Which Chola king gave permission to the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam? (a) Rajendra I (b) Rajaraja I (c) Rajendra II (d) Rajaraja II 86. Who united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola empire in the last quarter of the 12th century? (a) Aditya (b) Uttamachola

(c) Parantaka II 87.

(d) Kulottunga I

Arumolivarman was the original name of which of the following Chola rulers?

(a) Virarajendra

(b) Rajendra I

(c) Rajaraja I (d) Vikramachola 88.

Which is the tallest of all medieval Indian temples?

(a) (b)

Kailasa temple at Ellora Sun temple at Konark


(c) (d) 89.

Nilakantesvara temple at Udayapur Brihadeesvara temple at Tanjore Haribhadra, the famous Buddhist author, was at the court of

(a) Devapala (b) Dharmapala (c) Gopala

(d) Mahipala

90.

What were tankurrams of the Chola period?

(a) (b)

Brahmanical educational Institutions Residences of the devadasis of the temples

(c) (d) 91.

Towns and townships Village general assemblies Arrange the following Pala rulers in the chrono logical order.

(i) Devapala

(ii) Gopala

(ill) Mahipala (Iv) Dharmapala Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i, iii (b) i, iii, iv, ii (c) iii, iv, ii, i (d) iv, i, ii, iii 92.

What is the correct chronological sequence of the following Pratihara rulers?

(i) Nagabhatta I

(ii) Nagabhatta II

(iii) Vatsaraja (iv) Mahindrapala (v) Mahipala (vi) Mihira Bhoja Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) iv, i, ii, iii, v, vi

(b) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi

(c) iii, i, iv, v, vi, ii

(d) i, iii, ii, vi, iv, v

93. Which choice gives the correct historical order of the following Rashtrakuta kings? (i) Dantidurga (ii) Krishna I (iii) Dhruva

(iv) Amoghavarsha I

(v) Indra III

(vi) Krishna III

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iv, iii, ii, vi, v (b) i, iii, ii, iv, v, vi (c) iii, iv, i, v, vi, ii (d) iv, ii, i, vi, v, iii 94.

Arrange the following Chola emperors in the correct sequence.

(i) Rajaraja I (ii) (iii) Rajendra I (iv) (v) Vijayalaya (vi) Select the answer from the ( (a) iv, ii, i, v, iii, vi (b) ii,! (c) v, iv, ii, vi, i, iii

(d) iii, I

95. What is the ascending order < units of administration in the I (i) Valanadus (ii) (iii) Mandalams (iv) Select the answer from the < (a) iii, ii, i, iv (b) (c) iv, i, ii, iii (d) iv,l 96. Which of the following claimed the Agnikula status? (i) Pariharas (ii) (iii) Paramaras (iv) Toi (v) Solankis (vi) Select the answer from thfli^ below: (a) All of them (b)

(c) ii, iii, v and vi

(d) i, i

97. Which of the following can bel the causes for the decline of 1 merce in north India bet\ 1200? (i) Availability of little surplus | (ii) Emergence of a wide weights and measures (iii) Decrease in the use of < (iv) Unstable political conditio fighting (v) Decline of the Roman empires Choose the answer from below: (a) All of them (b) i,i (c) ii, iii and iv (d)

ANSWERS

(b) (b) fl>) .
chapter

CULTURAL TRENDS 750-1100

10.1 GROWTH OF REGIONAL CULTURES

In the process of the growth of regional cultures, three main factors or developments can be clearly identified. They are the emergence of regional kingdoms, the transformation of Brahmanism into a new kind of popular Hinduism, and the evolution of regional languages and literature. In certain regions of India like the eastern, the central and the southern, local rulers emerged who became regional kings using a new royal style as the model for the integration of local and tribal forces. In some ways this 'development from below' was similar to the formation of states in the Gangetic valley in the sixth century bc. There were generally three phases of this process. In the first phase, a tribal chieftain would turn into a local Hindu princeling; in the second phase, this prince would become a king surrounded by samantas (feudatories) and thus establish an 'early kingdom'; and in the third phase, great rulers of 'imperial kingdoms' would emerge who controlled large realms and integrated the samantas into the internal structure of their realm. The expansion of early medieval regional kingdoms and the rise of the samantas created problems which could not be solved by means of the usual patrimonial arrangements made by the ancient kings. The main problem was the control of the outer circle of the samantas. Outright conquest and annexation of 1 their territories would not only have require$| resources and administrative capacity of the i dynasty but also a change in the royal ideology \ measured the king's prestige in terms of the i of tributary princes attending his court. Such ] were, of course, always eager to regain their*] pendence and, if the central king suffered any 1 setback, they would try to increase their aut< and cut the tribute due to him. Contemporary! therefore, describe the samantas as potential i of the king and their military contingents as thei est link in the king's defences. The success o| ruler of a regional kingdom, therefore, de largely on his abilities to curb the power of his sa tas and to instill some loyalty in them. But the in tions do not provide much evidence of a sue control of the samantas. In view of the instability of the samantach the king could really depend only on the area directly controlled by him, but even area, explicitly reserved for the 'enjoyment oft king'

(raja-bhoga), was affected by the institj tional changes in the early medieval region kingdoms. The precarious position of the king with regard t both the control of his core area and his relatio with the samantas necessitated a special ernph on the legitimacy of kingship to enhance his roy power. This was done by means of highlighting 1 divine mission and his ritual sovereignty. The!

B50

Cultural Trends 750-1200 B51

i were instrumental in providing the necesogy for this purpose.

ilOUS CONDITIONS AND 3RTANCE OF TEMPLES

ints of Brahmins Many documents Ig land grants to Brahmins show very clearly |je in providing the necessary ideology. In the hes such land grants had often been made in ncultivated areas where the Brahmins were rmeant to act as missionaries of Hindu cul-t'from the 10th century onwards land grants I a different pattern. Rulers of the regional i adopted the practice of granting land or i of whole villages to Brahmins sometimes jFtiie territories of their samantas. Such a grant Dly at the expense of the samanta rather than ; who gained a loyal follower, because the would look upon the royal patron as his (factor. There was another important change olicy of granting land to Brahmins. While ^Single families or at the most small groups feived such grants, the records of the 10th and ries suddenly mention large number of

hment of Royal Temples The new func|tand grants became even more obvious in the ithe context of the rise of the great royal tem(jich symbolised the power and religious iden-|the respective realm. From the llth to 13th s, such temples were built in various 1 kingdoms. The best examples of such large are Kandariya Mahadeva temple at $iho, Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjore, ira temple at Udayapur, Lingaraja temple at svar and the Jagannatha temple at Puri. emples were evidently meant to be a coun-ht to the divisive forces prevailing in those s. In order to fulfill this function they were I with extensive grants of land. For the per: of the royal ritual, hundreds of Brahmins nple servants were attached to these temples, ories and royal officers were also required to i special services in the temple. These term ples soon became self-supporting and were of great benefit to the king, though their initial cost of construction was quite high. In the case of the Rajarajesvara temple, its annual income in the form of grain from the land donated to it was worth about 502 kg of gold. Its surplus funds were lent to villages in the core area of the realm for agricultural development projects at the rate of 12 per cent interest per annum. These political and economic functions of the royal temple were realised in the role of the king in the royal ritual. The linga of the temple was often named after the king who had donated it. Paintings in the temple and sculptures outside

it showed the king depicted like a god and the gods in turn were decorated with royal attributes. In order to gain additional legitimisation some kings even solemnly transferred their realm to the royal god and ruled it as the god's representative or son. In this way they could use the royal temple and its staff as instruments of government and could threaten recalcitrant feudatories with the wrath of the royal god if they did not obey the king's orders. The settlement of Brahmins and the foundation of royal temples served the purpose of creating a new network of relations-- political, economic and ritual. This network centred on the king and was thus an antidote to the centrifugal tendencies of the samantachakra.

10.3 SHANKARACHARYA AND HINDUISM

The history of Brahmanism in the second half of the first millennium ad was influenced by two tendencies which seemed to contradict each other but whose synthesis actually led to the emergence of a new kind of popular Hinduism which exists till today. On the one hand, this period witnessed the rise of the great philosophical systems which were formulated in constant debates with Buddhists and Jainas in the course of what has been termed a 'Brahmin Counter-Reformation'. On the other hand, the same period produced the great popular movements of the bhakti cults which often explicitly rejected Brahmin orthodoxy and monist philosophy and aimed at salvation by means of pure devotion to a personal god.


Shankara's Philosophy

There were six classical philosophical systems. The most influential of these systems was undoubtedly Vedanta (end of the Vedas) which has often been regarded as the very essence of Indian philosophy. It was Sankaracharya (788-820) who renewed and systematised Vedanta philosophy by stressing its main principle of monism (Kevala Advaita or Absolute Non-dualism). Born at Kaladi in Malabar, he composed his main work, the commentary on the Brahmasutras, at Varanasi and travelled throughout India. Besides, he is credited with establishing four maths in the four centres of India. Badrinath (in the Himalayas), Dwaraka (Gujarat), Puri (Orissa) and Sringeri (Karnataka). He passed away at Kedarnath in the Himalayas at the age of 32 only. He held that the individual soul as embodied in a living being (jiva) is tied to the cycle of rebirths (samsara) because it believes that this world is real although it is only an illusion {maya). This belief is due to ignorance (ajnana or avidya) which prevents the soul from realising its identity with the divine spirit. Only right knowledge (y'nana) leads to the realisation of this identity and to salvation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirths. At the same time he also provided some scope for popular Hinduism by allowing for a 'lower truth' which embodies the manifold appearance of the world and implies the existence of a divine creator (Isvara). Hence everyone could find his own level in this magnificent synthesis of 'lower' and 'higher' truths. In this way he was able to combine popular Hinduism with orthodox Brahmanism in a lofty philosophical system.

The Bhakti Movement

In contrast with the Brahmin's emphasis on right action (karmamarga) and the philosopher's insistence on right knowledge (jnanamarga), the path of love and devotion (bhaktimarga) aimed at self-effacing submission to the will of god. Earlier evidence of this mystical devotion can be found in the Bhagavad Gita, but the proper bhakti movement started only in the sixth century ad in Tamil Nadu. The movement then spread to other parts of southern India and finally also to northern India, entirely new slant to Hinduism.

The idea of holy places which would i grims was deeply linked with these popu cults. The two great gods, Vishnu and Si| fested themselves at numerous places on| well as in their heavenly abodes. In the 1 devotee could have seen them in a tree on a hermitage. The traditions of many refer to such an immediate local origin of worshipped in them. Legends of this kind; Sthala Mahatmya (local sanctity). (archd) worshipped by the devotees are i to be incarnations of gods who had appea the people in tangible form. Once the great gods were worshipped in| such local manifestations, lesser gods i lage gods (grama devatas) also claimed: into the rapidly expanding Hindu pant! local god then made a great career by identified with one of the great gods served by Brahmin priests. Such local go ously often worshipped in primitive forms such as rocks) then underwent a; 'anthropomorphisation', culminating in 1 tion of fully Hinduised icons in temples < at sites reputed to be holy. The transformation of a local temple tffl sacred place is best illustrated by the'. temple city of Chidambaram in Ta Chidambaram is identified with the cult i the 'King of Dancers' (Nataraja). The i cult seems to have been the worship of a | local pond. The stone was later identified ij lingam and was worshiped as mulasthan origin). The identification of the local < with Siva seems to have been done by the*! tury ad. In a similar fashion other lo emerged as major figures of the Hindu | The incorporation of Minakshi, the 'f dess of the Pandyas of Madurai, into the. j Sanskrit tradition was achieved by id with Siva's wife, Parvati, and making i of Siva and Parvati the central feati Minakshi cult. In south India, Vishnu, the< god, has his major centres at Tirupati and!


: is worshipped as Lord Venkatesvara and nganatha respectively. In the Deccan, the fthoba of Pandharpur is similarly associated nu, and attracts several pilgrims. In eastern atha of Puri is a striking example of the ition of a tribal god into a respectable ôf the Hindu pantheon. He has been identi-I Vishnu and as such attracts pilgrims from dia. i of the bhakti cult often also had a 'ter-i region in which their influence was particong and with whose traditions they were related. As incarnations of great gods, I part and parcel of the 'great tradition'. In rticular manifestation, however, their power 1 sanctity (mahatmya) radiate only within nits. This power was most concentrated at (kshetra) or seat and the devotees could nost as a physical sensation. Towards the f of the territory their power diminished and r of neighbouring gods took over. This ter-diation of regional gods can be compared I territorial way of the early medieval kings iiThe latter were celebrated as chakravartins ors of the whole world), but their actual i limited; it was only near a realm's border înfluence of the neighbouring chakravartin elf felt. ally, the hierarchy of gods also reflects I of government. At the village level there age gods (grama devatas), whose power nd beyond the village. At the next level find subregional gods who were some-tutelary deities of local princes. Then f regional gods whose rise to that position i due to their being the 'family gods' (kula nd later the 'gods of the realm' (rashtra (>f a royal dynasty. Sometimes such a god considered to be the territory's actual

Iwas a great variety of ways and means by gional, subregional and local gods could be with each other. Like great kings the i held court surrounded by subregional i were family gods of the king's samantas. gional gods again rallied the village gods around them, just as headmen were occasionally invited to attend the court of a prince. The institution of pilgrimage has remained a central and most vital element of Hinduism. It links holy places of the local, regional and national level. The early Vedic term for such a holy place was .tirtha. With the spread of Aryan culture, the number of such holy places increased. However, they were usually visited only for special purposes, like a sacrifice for ancestors. Longer pilgrimages (tirthayatras) to several holy places became known only during the early period of the Christian era with the rise of great temples

and the belief in the divine presence in the icons. From the end of the first millennium ad onwards particularly, India was crisscrossed by many routes of pilgrimage.

Philosophical Synthesis and New Hinduism

Sankara's monism had reconciled non-theist and theist claims--the Brahman, as universal essence, is identical with the individual soul and encompasses both the impersonal law and the divine manifestation which may appeal to the individual believer. Thus Sankara had established a peaceful coexistence between a highly abstract philosophical system and a variety of faiths. While earlier analogous philosophical debates had not been conducted along sectarian lines, medieval Indian philosophy became more and more identified with particular sects within the fold of Hinduism. Siva, Vishnu or Sakti were worshipped as the highest deities by their respective devotees. The most outstanding personality of the new Vaishnavite school of thought was undoubtedly Ramanuja, who combined Sankara's Advaitavada with the Vaishnava Pancharatra theology (it claimed that Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe). The impact of Ramanuja's writings and his long service as head priest of the famous Vishnu temple at Srirangam made his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly regarded as the founder of Srivaishnavism. The further development of Vaishnavism is marked by the rise of the Krishna cult. Krishna, instead of being only one of the incarnations of


Vishnu, came to be considered as the highest god himself. The Bhagavat Purana (composed in the 10th or 11th century ad), which is perhaps the greatest of all Puranas, was devoted to this elevation of Krishna. The mysticism of the Krishna cult found its most splendid expression in Jayadeva's Gita Govinda (ad 1200). In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Krishna cult was popularised by a number of bhakti saints like Nimbarka, Vallabha, Chaitanya, and Mirabai. Saivism also gave rise to many popular sects, like the Pratyabhijnas, the Spandasastras, the Mattamayuras, the Agamantins, the Suddhasaivas, and the Virasaivas. Though they all agreed that the 'Great God' (Mahadeva) was the very foundation of the universe, they gave different answers to the great question about the relation of god to the individual soul and to inanimate matter.

10.4 LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

Between ad 1000 and 1300 the Indo-Aryan languages of north, central and east India attained a specific regional identity. Among them Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Assamese and Oriya particularly attract our attention. Their early development and their relationship to the medieval Indian Sanskrit dialects, various Prakrits and Apabhramsa, is surely a fascinating study of research. The bhakti cults made a great impact on the evolution of regional languages and literature. Some of the founders of the various sects and movements did not know Sanskrit at all and therefore expressed themselves in the respective regional language. However, even the Brahmins among them who knew Sanskrit were eager to communicate with the people and therefore preferred the regional languages. Moreover, many of the saintly poets who inspired these movements created great works of literature and thus enriched the regional languages. Two other types of literature deserve notice in this context--the chronicles of temples and dynasties. All great temples and centres of pilgrimage produced Sanskrit collections of their legends, the Mahatmyas, but these were soon translated into the respective vernacular language and re pilgrims everywhere. Priests who were i recruit pilgrims for these centres in disti the country also contributed to the sp kind of literature.

The chronicles of king rulers (Rajavamsavali) had a similar1 They were often produced by bards patrons with an impressive genealogy tr to antiquity, or even to the age of mythic Such chronicles also often contained legell the temples which the respective dyna founded.


Features of Nagara Style The funda acteristics of the Nagara style of templest| over north India, are the cruciform groun
Temples of Orissa Of all the regie ments of the Nagara style, that of Oris the most remarkable. The Orissa rightly been described as exhibiting style 'in its greatest purity'. The Pa temple of Bhuvanesvar of 8th century j an advance on the archetypal design of| period. The Muktesvara temple at the belonging to the ninth century ad mature expression of the Nagara style ft course of time, however, the Nagarcf\ Orissa assumed a particular and indrv The temple of Lingaraja at Bhuvanesva represents the Orissan style in its maturitj pie looks imposing with the effect of t the sikhara enhanced by the vertical strongly emphasised ribs. Of the temph this model, few, not even the celebr temple at Puri of the late 12th century A$j massive grandeur and dignity of the''! However, the Sun temple at Konark, buiJ reign of Narasimha I (ad 1238-64), exce


ption and the perfection of its finish. I impressive even in its ruin, the Konark esents the fulfillment and finality of the chitectural movement.

iiof Central India Central India was the |the development of another variety of the Jstyle. The typical central Indian characterisilly evolved and reached their fruition in i of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh. These |were built by the Chandellas of Jejabhukti ad 950 and 1050. The most prominent |>jthe Khajuraho temples are the Kandariya va, Devi Jagadamba, Duladeo, Parsvanatha, na and the Visvanatha temples. The [riya Mahadeva temple represents the peak fthe architectural movement of central India, ct of its height is enhanced by a deep base-the duplication of the tower. Floral and culptures add to its beauty considerably.

I of Western India It was during the time olanki rulers of Anahilapataka (Anhilwara) ', characteristics of the Nagara style in west-i took a precise form. This western Indian i has been called the Solanki style after the |Among the many temples in western India, ^mention the following as representing the I Indian type in its full maturity. Of the I'Jaina temples at Dilwara, Mount Abu n), the most noteworthy are the ones built t in ad 1031, and by Tejpala in ad 1230. In pies, the white marble of Rajasthan has i to admirable use. Another important temple nous Rudramal temple, built by Sidharaja 1143).

I of Malwa and Khandesh In Malwa and b, yet another variety of the Nagara style under the hegemony of the Paramaras, i is designated as the Paramara type. The nument of this type is furnished by the svara temple at Udayapur in MP, built by i King Udayaditya (ad 1059-1080) and known as the Udayesvara temple. The I'of this temple is ornamented with four nar row bands running from the base to the summit. The temple at Ambaranatha (Thane district, Maharashtra) is another good illustration of the Paramara type.

10.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY

Origin and Growth of Islam

Islam, literally meaning 'submission', took birth at Mecca in Arabia. The location of Mecca at the intersection of busy commercial routes had made it very affluent. Its commercial importance was almost doubled by the annual pilgrimage to the cube-like sanctuary called 'Kaba'. Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born to Abdullah and Amina, and was brought up by his uncle Abu Talib. After marrying a widow called Khadija, he started identifying himself with the downtrodden sections of society. Muhammad was convinced that he was the messenger of Allah. His wife and his cousin Ali became his earliest followers and soon some of his friends also accepted him as the Prophet. But his teachings made most of the wealthy Meccans his sworn enemies. Consequently Muhammad migrated to Medina, arriving on September 24, 622. Later his emigration was made the starting-point of the Muslim hijra (immigration) era, when the date was changed to July 16, 622 to make it compatible with the first day of the first month of the Muslim lunar calendar. The immigrants were known as muhajirs. The other inhabitants of Medina, who welcomed the immigrants were known as ansars or the helpers. By the close of 630 Muhammad returned to Mecca with his followers. He died in June 632. After the demise of Muhammad, the muhajirs and ansars of Medina, believing that Muhammad had not appointed any one as successor, elected Abu Bakr as caliph or khalifa (successor). But other followers of the Prophet and the members of the Prophet's Hashimite clan, who believed that Muhammad had nominated his cousin and son-in-law Ali as his heir, broke away. While Ali's supporters came to be known as Shias (partisans), the


former (followers of Abu Bakr) acquired the title of Sunnis in course of time. Abu Bakr (632-4) nominated Umar al-Khattab (634-44) as his successor, under whom the Byzantine territories of Syria, Palestine and Egypt and the Sasanid countries of Iran and Iraq were annexed to the caliphate. When Umar was assassinated by one of his Iranian slaves, Usman (644-56), one of the Prophet's senior companions, was elected caliph. The first six years of Usman's reign were peaceful but civil war broke out in the second half. Subsequently, Ali (656-61) accepted the caliphate in order to save the community from disintegration. However, Muawiya, the governor of Syria, who was related to Usman, refused to submit to Ali. Finally when Ali was assassinated, Muawiya became caliph and founded a dynasty called the Umayyads (661-749). Within a century, however, the Umayyads were also overthrown by the Abbasids (749-1258), who had secretly built up their strength among the anti-Umayyad sections of the Iranian and Arab population. Although the Umayyads and the Abbasids were called caliphs, they were hereditary. The first four rulers (Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali) following the Prophet are known as Rashidun (rightly guided caliphs).

Arab in Sind

Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sind was part of the forward policy of the Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj, to annex the region from Sind to Transoxiana. Sind was then ruled by Dahir, the son of Chach, who had usurped power from the previous Buddhist rulers. In 712 Muhammad invaded Sind and killed Dahir in a hotly contested battle near Brahmanabad. Muhammad married Dahir's widow. Rani Ladi, and became the master of lower Sind. The Chach Namah deals with the administrative regulations Muhammad introduced in Sind. On the orders of Hajjaj, the people of Sind were accorded the status ofzimmis (protected subjects), and hence no interference was to be made in their lives and property. Among the founders of different Islamic schools of law, it was only Abu Hanifa (founder of the Hanafi school, eighth century ad), authorised the collection ofjizya from i while others had ordered for them 'eiti Islam'. Haijaj's death in 714, followed i that of his patron, Caliph Walid, led to I Muhammad. The new Caliph put him in ] subsequently the administration in Sind 1 Henceforth Sind continued to be und occupation. But the Arabs were unable I further into India in the eighth century:) presence of the formidable Pratihara western India and also due to the wron Sind, which could not provide them witi sary resources to conquer India.

The Ghaznavids

Mahmud's invasions of India comme 1000, when he captured some forts near) In 1001 he defeated Jayapala, the Hindu 5 in a battle near Peshawar. Jayapala wasf^ by his son, Anandapala. After eight yeaj| crossed the Indus again and defeated Jayapala's successor, at Waihind in 1009..] repeated invasions of the Punjab Rajasthan destroyed Rajput resistance, he set out on his famous expedition to,' Gujarat. Bhima I, the Chalukya ruler otj offered no resistance, and the temple wa Mahmud was extremely generous to,| poets who composed glowing eulogies other learned men were given a raw deal.! particular, such as Al-Beruni who was i after the fall of Khwarazmshah in 1017, i tie encouragement. Even Firdausi, who < Shah Namah in 1010, was not adequately^

AI-Beruni's India

He wrote his monumental Kitab fi tah Hind in order to acquaint his Ghaznavi<| Hinduism. Though he stayed in Gha visited centres of Brahmanic scholi Kanauj, Varanasi and Kashmir, he had i$ the form of a few Sanskrit scholars


He also quotes from Patanjali's Yoga : Bhagavad Gita and the Samkhya Karika ate his assertions. Apart from providing ; study of human relationships and cul-plexities in various faiths, he defines the divisions as tabaqat (classes) and the ) as birth divisions (nasab). According to him, below the Sudras were the antyaja or casteless, who were divided into eight guilds: fullers, shoemakers, jugglers, basket and shield makers, sailors, fishermen, hunters and weavers. The Hadi, Doma and Chandala, who did the cleaning and scavenging, were outcastes. Finally, foreigners were regarded as mlechchhas or unclean.


S**\ ifS 'v^'~\ **

Crlnasiara

*

GHAZNAVID

EMPIRE / Detail * (TOMARAS)

HA vx y-(TOMARAS) ^. NEPAUH gX£< />/! V, CAHAMANAS V, \V*C '^ \*.K^PllB /, vA|ayameru ^CHAP^Â^WV^J^ ^.yotisa^ PALAS ^^x^-^£rrs ^. ^| Dhara.|y|

Q

» (SENAS).

(YADAVAS) -n. Devagiri Puri CHALUKYAS^ Kalyanl

(KAKATIYAS) ^ Warangal

>v ' ARABIAN SEA

Mahotsavanagar / CHANDELLAS "ww#«V* . """> GUHILLAS S f B A Y 0 F BENGAL

...» Dorasamudra -, °, VTanjavur,

Present external boundary of India shown thus.

(PANDYASr Anuradhapura Pokxmaruva

SIMHALA

INDIAN OCEAN

India in the early 11th Century* (Names in Parentheses are of dynasties which were feaudatory at the time, but became independent later)


Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of li The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the

QUESTIONS

lich of the following were the main features the Nagara style of architecture in early dieval period? jji) Square terraces of diminishing size ii) Curvilinear tower 111) Cruciform ground plan v) High and richly decorated gateway rSelect the answer from the codes below: jf(a) All the above (b) i, ii and ill (c) ii and iii

(d) ii and iv

Which of the following Orissa type Nagara style temples are found at Bhuvanesvar? (i) Jagannatha temple (ii) Parasuramesvara temple (iii) Muktesvara temple (iv) Lingaraja temple (v) Sun temple Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, iii and iv

Which of the following temples of the Nagara style are located at Khajuraho? [' (i) Kandariya Mahadeva temple (ii) Devi Jagadamba temple (iii) Duladeo temple (iv) Parsvanatha temple (v) Nilakantesvara temple Select the answer from the codes given below: E (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv [, (c) i, ii, iv and v


Which of the following rulers built some of the famous Dilwara temples at Mount Abu? (i) Vimala (ii) Tejpala ; (iii) Sidharaja

(iv) Narasimha I

J* (v) Udayaditya Select the answer from the codes as follows; (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and iv 5.

(d) All of them

Amoghavarsha 1, the famous Rashtrakuta ruler, was the author of

(i) Glta Govinda

(ii) Sibakasindamani

(iii) Kavirajamarga (iv) Ratnamalika Select the answer from the codes given below:

(a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

6. Which two Buddhist monks of the Pala period are responsible for the introduction of Buddhism in Tibet? (i) Asvaghosha

(ii) Atisha Dipankara

(iii) Santarakshita

(iv) Dharmarjika

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and In

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iii

7. lists.


List I List II (i) 750 (A) Capture of Tanjore by Vijayalayachola (ii) 753 .(B) Foundation of the Pala dynasty by Gopala (iii) 850

(C) Mahmud Ghazni's

first raid into India (iv) 949

(D) Foundation of the

Rashtrakutas by Dantidurga (v) 1001

(E) Temporary eclipse

of the Cholas after their defeat in the battle of Takkolam

(a) (b) (c) (d)

B59

4

i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, vB i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, we i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, v-A i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC


8.


List I List II (i) Palas

(A) Ellora

(ii) Pratiharas (B) Vijayapura (ill) Rashtrakutas

(C) Pataliputra

(iv) Cholas

(D) Kanauj

(v) Senas

(E) Tanjore

(a) (b) (c) (d) 9.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B, we i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD Consider List I and List II:

List I (i) Pariharas (ii) Chauhans (iii) Paramaras (iv) Solankis (v) Guhilas

List II Southern Rajasthan Mewar Malwa Kathiawar Eastern Rajasthan

Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii, iii and v 10.


List II (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Kashmir Haryana Western UP Bundelkhand Central MP

List I (i) Tomars (ii) Chandellas (iii) Gahadvaias (iv) Karkotakas (v) Kalachuris (a) (b) (c) (d) 11. lists.

i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, v-A i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, we i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, v-A i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D, we Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the


Pavanadwar Prithviraj Raso Ramanataka Gita Govinda Periya Puranam

List I (i) Jayadeva (ii) Dhoyi (iii) Kamban (iv) Sekkilar (v) Chand Bardai (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, we i-B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vD i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vB 12. Which of the following is correctly |

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Siva or Rajarajesvara temple Vijayalayacholesvara temple--Ta Airavatesvara temple--Martha Kampaharesvara temple--Tribhu Match List I with List II and select i

13. using the codes given below the lists.! List I Ur

L'8tl (A) General^ (ii) Sabha (iii) Nagaram

(iv) Eripatti bly of centre (B) (C)

Tank la General j bly of an | village

(D)

General" bly of Bn

(E)

Pasture I

(a) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E (b) i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D Assertion and Reason

Instructions

(A) is

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' 'Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if (A) is wrong, but (R) is i Mark (c) if both (A) and (R) are con (R) is the correct explanation or ju (A). Mark (d) if both (A) and (R) are i (R) is not the correct explanation or ju for (A). 14. Assertion: North India between ad! 1200 witnessed the emergence and I of a new politico-socio-economic sti Reason: There is total unanimity an rians to describe this new structure i ism'. 15. Assertion: The object of political an north India between ad 750 and 1C capture and hold the city of Kanauj. Reason: The continuous trianguli among the Palas, Pratiharas and over the possession of Kanauj divertedf


i their feudatories who succeeded in making elves independent. tion: Among the numerous Rajput clans i rose into prominence in the 10th century | four claimed a special status and started ng themselves the Agnlkula. n: The four Agnikula clans which domi-early Rajput politics claimed descent i a mythical figure who rose out of a vast cial fire pit near Mount Abu. ton: An overwhelmingly large section of iian society was highly apathetic to the polit-I events in north India during the 11th and i centuries. ason: The Turkish invaders of north India this period received enthusiastic sup-t from the local masses who saw a better s for themselves in the impending political flanges. t/on: The law of primogeniture was hardly ected among the Rajput dynasties of early dieval India. on: If a Rajput ruler died without heir, the i traditionally passed to the head of the onical house next in kin to the ruling asty. I/on: The Rajput rulers of north India durf the early medieval period were essentially ditary leaders of feudal communities, ftson: They were neither benevolent s, nor could they be autocratic despots. Brt/on: The Rajput kingdoms of early dieval India included large areas dominated r defeated and subordinate rulers. n: According to the prevalent notions of |, period, it was a sin to deprive even a ated ruler of his lands. a: The subsistence level agrarian pro-i of early medieval India arose out of the I economics of the situation, i: The early medieval Indian peasant knot go for any significant surplus production f fear of the impending demand for a larger i from the feudal lord. tion: Lokamahadevi, the queen of aja I, performed the hiranya garbha cere-y, i.e. passing one's body through a golden Reason: The Chola religion is significant for laying greater stress on yajna or sacrifice than on dana or gift.

23. Assertion: In the Chola period, the agrahara type of villages were numerically greater than any other type of villages. Reason: The practice of maintaining dancing girls by the temples, known as devadasi system, became very popular during the Chola period. 24. Assertion: The Uttaramerur Inscription, belonging to the 10th century, gives details about the functioning and constitution of the local ur. Reason: The inscription mentions not only qualifications but also disqualifications for membership to the local general assembly. 25. Assertion: Construction of temples as tributes to dead kings was a special feature of the Chola period. Reason: The famous Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjore was built by Rajendra I as a tribute to his dead father, Rajaraja I. 26. Who is the author of the following passage: 'On having made some progress, I began to show them the elements on which this science rests... They thought me to be a sorcerer and when speaking of me to their leading men in their native tongue, they spoke of me as the sea....' (a) Sulaiman (b) AI-Masudi (c) Marco Polo 27.

(d) AI-Beruni

Read the passage below and answer the fol lowing question.

The Hindus believe that there is no country like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs. If they travelled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, for their ancestors were not so narrow-minded as the present generation.' In this the author is referring to the Hindu generation of which period. (a) (b) (c) (d) 28.

Early 10th century Late 10th century Early 11th century Late 11th century Read the quotation below and answer the fol lowing question.

'If the contents of these quotations happen to be utterly heathenish and the followers of the


truth find them objectionable, we can only say that such is the belief of the Hindus and that they themselves are best qualified to defend it.' Who are the followers of the truth according to the author? (a) Followers of Brahmanism (b) Followers of Buddhism (c) Followers of Christianity (d) Followers of Islam 29. Who was the important functionary in the Chola empire who had to approve every order issued by the ruler? (a) Mahabaladhikrita (b) Olainayagam (c) Mahadandanayaka (d) Elaya 30. To which god/goddess was the temple founded by Vijayalaya at Tanjore dedicated after its capture by him? (a) Siva

(b) Vishnu

(c) Nisumbhasudini (d) Murugan 31. Who planted in Yadgir a pillar of victory with the tiger emblem on it in commemoration of his vic tory over the Kalyani Chalukyas? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajendra I (c) Rajadhiraja (d) Virarajendra 32. Who was the later Chalukya king who drowned himself in the Tungabhadra river at Kuruvatti in 1068 performing paramayoga"? (a) Somesvara I

(b) Satyasraya

(c) Vikramaditya V (d) Jayasimha II 33. Who informs us that the soldiers acting as body-guards burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch when he died?

(a) Nicolo de Conti (b) Marco Polo (c) AI-Beruni (d) Hiuen Tsang 34.

Which of the following statements about the Chola temples are correct?

(i) The main feature of the Chola temples was the building of a storey upon a storey above the chief deity room, (ii) The number of storeys varied from five to seven and they had a typical style which was known as the vimana. (iii) The temples generally enjoyed revenue free grants of lands for their expenses and also received grants and rich donations from the wealthy merchants, (iv) The temple became a miniature palace with living rooms for priests and many others. (v) Some temples enter money and took part ir% prises. Choose the answer from the ( (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, i (c) i, ii, iii and v

(d)

35.

Which of the following stati economy is incorrect?

(a)

Chola rulers built a ne which were useful for 1 the movement of the an

(b)

Chola rulers drew their i on trade, taxes on profess besides land tax.

(c)

Some Chola kings carried i survey of land in order to ' ment's share of the land i

(d)

The government's share \ the produce.

36.

Which of the following statemeri about Rashtrakuta kingship?

(a)

The king's position was ge tary though election is not un

(b)

The king's person as well were considered divine.

(c) A Parana states, 'Brahma,' king's body by taking prowess from Agni, cruelty \ good fortune from the Moon.j (d)

The rules of succession strictly abided.

37.

Who is known as the south Indian

(a) (b) (c) (d) 38.

Vakpatj Sandhyakaranandi Apasthamba Tirunavakkarasu Which of the following stati about the conditions that exis 800-1200?

(i) The rural areas became economically self-sufficient. (ii) The decline of trade in norther the languishing of trade guilds.! (iii) Some of the older srenis erne castes, such as 'Dvadasa-Sn caste of the Vaishyas. (iv) There was a ban on overseas 1 was considered polluting.


the answer from the codes given

All of them

(b) ii, iii and iv

i, iiandiv

(d) i, ii and iii

hich of the following statements is not correct the status of women during ad 8000? |) Women were generally considered mentally inferior and they had to obey their husbands blindly. |) The Matsya Purana authorises the husband to beat his errant wife (though not on the head and breasts) with a rope or split bamboo. |) Smriti writers say that girls were to be given away by their parents between the ages of six and eight or between the eight year and attainment of puberty. j(d) Remarriage of widows is universally favoured by the lawmakers, hich of the following statements is not correct out religion during ad 800-1200? The Sakti form of worship became popular in eastern India. |(b) The followers of Gorakhnatha, called Nathpanthis, denounced the caste system. !|c) Most of the Nathpanthis were Brahmins and the path they preached was called tantra, which was open to all irrespective of caste. (d) The belief grew that a worshipper could attain what he desired by uttering magical words and making all kinds of mystic gestures. 1 The kingdom of which one of the following I dynasties was also known as Seunadesa? 1 (a) Yadava

(b) Kakatiya

(c) Hoyasala (d) Chandella ; Which of the following statements are correct | about the property rights during the period ad '800-1200? ' (i) If a husband abandoned even a guilty wife,

she was to be given maintenance, (ii) In order to preserve the property of a family, women were given the right to inherit the property of their male relations, (iii) A widow was entitled to inherit the property entirely if the husband had no brothers. (iv) Daughters also had the right to succeed to the properties of a widow. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, ii, iii and iv 43. 'What this king wears between gold and gems and pearls is worth more than a city's ransom.' Whose observation is this? (a) AI-Masudi (b) AI-Beruni (c) Marco Polo

(d) Sulaiman

44.

Identify the four Agnikula Rajputs from the fol lowing:

(a) (b)

Pratiharas, Chauhans, Paramaras and Sol-ankis Pratiharas, Paramaras, Gahadvalas and Tomars

(c)

Pratiharas, Paramaras, Solankis and Tomars

(d)

Pratiharas, Paramaras, Solankis and Gahadvalas

45.

Which fact relating to Brahmins during ad 800-1200 is incorrect?

(a)

Formal education became the preserve of Brahmins.

(b)

Lands were granted to Brahmins to acquire religious merit.

(c)

Brahmins leased out land to the lower castes for cultivation.

(d)

Land grants to Brahmins during this period was made entirely on individual basis.

46.

The term Brahma-kshatriyas refers to

(a)

Kshatriyas who claimed descent from Brahma.

(b)

Kshatriyas who claimed to have attained bra/ima/nana.

(c) Brahmins moving away from their own duties and caste status to those of the Kshatriyas. (d) Kshatriyas moving away from their own duties and caste to those of the Brahmins. 47.

Volavaru and horavaru of the Kalyani Chalukyas were

(a) revenue officials (b) customs duties (c) social groups (d) military ranks 48.

Which of the following statements isnot correct about the Paramara King Bltaja?


(a)

He was the greatest ruler of the Paramara dynasty.

(b)

He founded a college known as Bhojasala at Dhar.

(c) He was the author of about two dozen works on a variety of subjects like medi cine, astronomy, religion, grammar, archi tecture, etc. (d)

His kingdom was visited by Sulaiman, an Arab merchant

49.

Which one of the following pairs is wrong?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 50. lists:

Manevana--judicial fines Angadidere--tax on shops Gaanadere--tax on oil mills Navidadere--tax on barbers Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below the

List II (A) (B) (C) (D) List I

Dasarupa Naisadhacharita Karpuramanjari Pavanaduta

(i) Dhoyi (ii) Dhananjaya (iii) Sriharsha (iv) Rajasekhara (a) (b) (c) (d) 51.

i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B Which one of the following statements about the Palas is correct?

(a)

Devapala sent a number of embassies to the king of Sumatra.

(b) The powerful Sailendra dynasty sent many missions to the Pala court and sought per mission to build a monastery at NaTanda. (c)

The Palas constructed a number of Buddhist monasteries in South-East Asia.

(d)

Dharmapala led an expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom.

52. Rashtrakutas by virtue of their location in the Deccan, constituted a 'bridge' between the north and south like their predeces sors--the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas and the Chalukyas, but differed in one way from their predecessors. Identify it. (a) They tried to maintain the balance of power in the struggle between the north and the south. (b)

They attempted to be transmitters of good ideas from one part to the other.

(c)

They tried to maintain good the southern kingdoms while \ the north.

(d)

They tried to exploit their f to dominate both the north i

53.

In the Deccan, maduveyasunkeil levied on

(a) intoxicants (b) war I (c) marriages (d) prosti 54. Careful planning and campaign Mahmud led to the arrival of the / in India during the (a) winter

(b) sun

(c) harvest

(d) spri

55. Which of the following was not a i which women were allowed to the early medieval period ? (a) (b) (c) (d)

When the husband was impot< When the husband had deseri When the husband died. When the husband suffered i gious and incurable disease.

56. The term nakharas in the Deccan i (a) dancing schools (b) tax oru (c) merchant guilds (d) marl

57.

Which of the following statements < trading activities is incorrect?

(a)

Trade existed between the Ch and China and ambass exchanged.

(b)

Cholas exported textiles, jewels, ivory and ebony, both I the West.

(c)

Chola rulers closely supervis ties of merchant guilds.

(d)

Spices were brought from Sog and the Arabs in turn took West.

58. Which of the following statements t about local administration under t (a) The sabha or the maha assembly of the Brahmin villa . (b) It enjoyed full powers in al| ments of local administration. (c)

Royal officials exercised trol over its functioning.

(d)

Its members were elected by i and held office only for one >


tich statement on the mahasabhas of the Dla period is wrong? 9) They could clear fallow lands and own them. They constituted separate committees and helped revenue collection, law and order, justice and the like, p) Anybody could be elected to executive committees either by drawing of lots or by . representation, jjj It was within the precincts of the temple that tickets of prospective candidates were drawn one by one and the results announced, itch List I with List II and choose the answer i the codes given below the lists. List I Veli-chenu

(A) Dry land

ji) Niru-rela

(B) Wetland

li) Tomta-bhumi

List II

(C) Garden land

i Racha-doddi (D) Crown land a) b)

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C cj i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D t) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A

i and Reason

jilark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but n' (R) is wrong. ; (b) if (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct, lark (c) if both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) I the correct explanation of (A). t (d) if both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R) jtnot the correct explanation of (A). lion: We know a great deal more about ) Cholas than their predecessors. n: The Chola rulers adapted the practice f having long inscriptions on the walls of the nples, giving a historical narrative of their es. 62.

Assertion: Dharmapala assumed the title of Uttarapathasvamin.

Reason: At a durbar held in Kanauj, the rulers of Bhoja, Matsya, Madrasa, Kuru, Yavana, Avanti, Yadu, Gandhara and Kira bowed down respectfully before Dharmapala. 63. Assertion: In the early medieval period most of the craftsmen and artisans were classified as untouchables. Reason: The Smriti writers of this period regard handicrafts as unclean professions. 64. Assertion: In the Rajput society the dominant position was held by those who drew their sus tenance from land without working on it. Reason: In the Rajput period the appropriation of the major share of the surplus production by the non-producers resulted in production at subsistence level. 65. Assertion: North Indian temples were the main targets of Muslim invasions in the 11th century ad. Reason: The best contribution of Rajput rulers lies in their promotion of art and architecture. 66. Assertion: The regionalisation of Indian culture had begun with the emergence of a number of regional kingdoms in the early medieval period. Reason: A number of regional languages started producing a rich literature which challenged the monopoly of Sanskrit literature. 67. Assertion: The enormous increase in the number of samantas in the early medieval king doms created serious problems for their rulers. Reason: Contemporary

texts describe the samantas as potential enemies of the king and their contingents as the weakest link in the king's defences. 68. Assertion: The territorial radiation of the regional gods of the bhakti cults was similar to the terri torial sway of the early medieval Indian kings. Reason: In both cases their power was most concentrated at the centre and diminished towards the periphery.

ANSWERS

1.(c) 2.(b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. 11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. 21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. 31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. 41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. 51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (c) 57. 61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (d) 65. (d) 66. (d) 67. (c) 68. (c)

B66

(d) (a) (c) (c) (b) (c)

8. 18. 28. 38. 48. 58.

(a) (b) (d) (a) (d) (c)

9.(c) 19. (d) 29. (b) 39. (d) 49. (a) 59. (c)

chapter

THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH

CENTURIES

VGHORIAN INVASIONS

empire reached its zenith under two broth-nsud-din Muhammad and Shihabud-din ; Muizz-ud-din) Muhammad. The former con; on expanding westwards, while the latter, 5 capital was in Ghazni, followed Mahmud's trai of invading India. Muizz-ud-din seized Multan 75, but when he invaded Anhilwara or Patan (the I of the Vaghela raja of Gujarat, Mularaja II) he ^defeated in a battle near Mount Abu in 1178. on he decided to give up Mahmud's plans of i of India through Sind and Multan. Instead he I his attention to the Punjab, which offered bet-;ts. Gradually Multan, Lahore and Sind : part of the Ghurid empire. consolidating his conquests, Muizzud-din I Tabarhinda (Bhatinda) in 1189, which made aja Chauhan to react immediately. The two |in a battle at Tarain, near Delhi, in 1191. The i himself was about to fall when a Khalji sol-^saved him. Prithviraja recaptured Tabarhinda did not pursue the invaders further. But the sec\ battle of Tarain (1192) resulted in Muhammad's y. About one lakh Rajput soldiers died, includ-[ the brave Tomar prince of Delhi, Govindaraja. viraja was taken prisoner to Ajmir, where he for some years as a Ghurid vassal. Later he i executed for treason. Jayachandra, the Gahadavala ruler of Kanuaj, was killed in 1194 in the battle of Chandwar on the Jamuna. Kalinjar, Mohaba and Khajuraho were also conquered by the Turks under the leadership of Muhammad's commander, Qutub-ud-din Aibak. By 1200 Turkish military outposts had been set up and fort commandants appointed from Banaras to the Punjab and from Gwalior to Anhilwara. In the meanwhile Bihar and Bengal were conquered by Bakhtiyar Khalji, another slave of Muhammad. He conquered regions as far as the Buddhist university of Odantapuri, Bihar, where he slaughtered the Buddhist monks and seized the town. In 1204-5, Bakhtiyar rushed to Nadia or Navadvipa, one of the two capitals of Lakshmanasena, the king of Bengal. According to the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, only eighteen horsemen were with him when he forcibly entered the palace. Lakshmanasena fled and Bakhtiyar finally took up his quarters in the Sena's western capital, Lakhnauti near Gaur. Unfortunately Bakhtiyar was soon assassinated by one of his own commanders. Meanwhile Muizz-ud-din Muhammad was defeated on the Oxus by the allies of the Khwarazm rulers. The news of the disaster encouraged the Kokkhar tribes of the Punjab

to revolt, but Muhammad crushed their uprising and then returned to Ghazni. In 1206 he was assassinated by a Kokkhar on the banks of the Jhelum. Muhammad

B67


had no sons, but he had bought a large number of slaves. The most prominent slave was Tajud-din Yilduz, who was therefore recognised as the ruler of Ghazni.

11.2 DELHI SULTANATE UNDER THE SLAVE SULTANS

Aibak (1206-10)

The slave and deputy of Muhammad in India, he became the first independent Muslim ruler of India after the death of Muhammad. He founded the Slave dynasty (also known as the Mamluk dynasty). He died while playing Chaugan or polo and was succeeded by his son, Aram Baksh (1210-11).

Iltutmish (1211-36)

Slave as well as son-in-law of Aibak, he came to power by deposing Aram Baksh. Though he was the real consolidator of Muslim power in India, he commenced his career as a sar-i-jandar (head of the royal bodyguard) and controlled the prized iqta of Badaun. Since he belonged to the Ilbari tribe, the successors are known as the Ilbari Turks. During the first ten years of his reign, Iltutmish concentrated on securing his throne from rivals. In the meanwhile Chengiz Khan, the Mongol, had become supremely powerful and established a vast empire. When the last Khwarazm ruler, Jalalud-din, defeated a Mongol force in the Ghazni region in 1221, Chengiz rushed with lightning speed to avenge the defeat and chased Jalal as far as the Indus. Jalal, despite his best efforts, could not persuade Iltutmish to send reinforcements. Fortunately for Iltutmish and Jalal, Chengiz had to turn back his attention to his home region. In 1228 Multan and Sind were annexed to the Delhi sultanate. But before this, Iltutmish reasserted his control over Bihar and Bengal. The Sultan also suppressed the revolts by the Rajasthan chiefs. Between 1226 and 1231 he reconquered Ranthambhor, Ajmir,

Sambhar, Nagaur and Gwalior. In 1234-35 Iltutmish led an expedition against Malwa and captured Bhilsa. The conquest of Ujjain was followe olition of the ancient Mahakal temp military expeditions in Badaun.j Banaras completely undermined independence. Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of jj tury India and a wise statesman. mansur (letter of investiture) caliph in 1229 gave legal status to.' ship. Iltutmish was generous to tale willingly became pillars of the tion.

Rukn-ud-din (April-November, 12

Raziya, the most competent among i Iltutmish, had been promoted by I incompetent brothers. In 1231 lit her his deputy in Delhi while he Gwalior expedition. After Iltutmish,'! Turkan, the mother of Iltutmish's el< son, had her son crowned as Rukni another son of Iltutmish rebelled in; ud-din marched out of the capital rebellion. This gave Raziya the op the throne and put her brother to i

Raziya (1236-40)

After elevating many Tajiks to Raziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqu or Habshi slave, as superintendent,] horses, which aroused resentment in j the already disgruntled Turkish nob the Sultana began to appear unveil Though the people of Delhi suppor mounted among the iqtadars. In crushed some of the rebellious iqh them, Altunia, killed Yaqut and oner. In the meanwhile Iltutmishf Bahram, was put on the throne by,| Turkish nobles. Raziya married Alt combined efforts to capture Delhi faile both killed by some robbers. The fall of Raziya made the-tliq nobles dominant in the court, and


|e for supremacy. Though Zia-ud-din Barani chalisa or chahalgani (the family of Jiey neither formed any organised groups nor I forty. In fact, Minhaj Siraj gives the biogjk.pf merely twenty-five of Iltutmish's leading

II Shah (1240-42)

j,was made to create the position of regent lib or naib-i-mamlakaf), who was intended "^.de facto ruler while the Sultan would only : ruler. When Bahrain's attempts to assert rity failed, he was taken captive and put to

I Shah(1242-46)

I'son of Rukn-ud-din, was made the next I'-'but Balban conspired with Nasirud-din Juki's mother, Malik-i-Jahan, to overthrow Consequently Masud was deposed and ned.

din Mahmud (1246-66)

||iilly aware of the fate of his predecessors, d-din had no alternative but to leave the ation in Balban's hands. In August 1249 i married Balban's daughter and made him tftik naib (regent). He was also awarded the fUlugh (Great) Khan. Balban was now ruler in I'name. However, the Sultan grew resentful of |'s power. In 1253 Rayhan, a Hindu convert,

1 the Sultan to have Balban transferred to f,of Nagaur. But the followers of Balban soon ijed in persuading the Sultan to transfer ito Badaun, and Balban returned to Delhi. ; to Isami's Futuh-us-Salatin, Balban later Nasir-ud-din and captured the throne, ne doubt the authenticity of this account.

1(1266-87)

H^s perception of the Delhi sultanate's prob-> very realistic, and he solved them success fully. He knew that the real threat to the monarchy came from the chahagani's intrigues and their scramble for power. He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs, such as sijada (prostration) undpaibos (kissing the Sultan's feet), to prove his superiority over the nobles. He also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and subjects with his wealth and power. A select body of fearsome soldiers protected the throne. The court was an austere assembly where jest and laughter were seldom heard. He persistently brought home to his sons and noblemen that the monarch was the viceregent of God and next in sanctity only to the prophets. The Sultan was God's shadow on earth and the recipient of direct divine guidance. Only the most obedient nobles survived, the rest being eliminated either by fair or by foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun, who had one of his servants beaten to death, was publicly flogged. Haybat Khan, governor of Avadh, who had killed a man while drunk, was flogged and handed over to the victim's widow to dispose off as she wished. Sher Khan, the governor of Bhatinda, was poisoned. Instead of expanding the sultanate, Balban gave top priority to restoring peace in the region surrounding Delhi. Balban established a separate diwan-i-arz (military department) and reorganised the army. His repeated attacks on the Mewati strongholds and villages stopped their frequent raids of Delhi. The Sultan twice marched on Avadh, killing the rebel leaders and devastating the villages. The rebels in Badaun, Arnrohaand Katihar (modern Rohilkhand) were also killed. His regular hunting trips made the area from Delhi to Avadh reasonably peaceful. The roads became safe for travel, and trade and agriculture improved, leading to further urbanisation. But Balban's own, slave, Tughril, whom he had made governor of Bengal, gave him a rude shock by rebelling. Tughril was ultimately captured by Balban's army arid his severed head sent to the Sultan. Unfortunately for the Sultan, however, a Mongol army suddenly appeared in 1285. Muhammad, Balban's eldest son, attacked the Mongols, but was killed in the battle. It was a mortal


blow to Balban. The Sultan hid his misery and unremittingly discharged his duties, although it is said that he wept throughout the night for his dead elder son.

Kaiqubad (1287-90)

When Balban died, the powerful kotwal of Delhi, Fakhr-ud-din, raised Kaiqubad (one of the grandsons of Balban) to the throne. But Kaiqubad sank into debauchery and was unable to give up his dissipated lifestyle. He was soon struck with paralysis and was finally killed in a pitiable manner by the Khalji maliks. Thus the Ilbari rule came to an end.

11.3 ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI: MEASURES AND CONQUESTS

Jalal-ud-din (1290-96)

His reign witnessed the invasion of the Yadava kingdom by his nephew, Ala-ud-din, governor of Kara. When the news of Ala-ud-din's victory reached Delhi, the Sultan wanted his nephew to surrender the booty (ghanima) which had been acquired from Devagiri. Pretending to be sorry that he had invaded Devagiri without obtaining prior approval, Alaud-din succeeded in persuading his uncle to visit him at Kara. When Jalalud-din landed, Ala-ud-din prostrated himself at his uncles' feet, but signalled the assassins who were awaiting his orders. They immediately killed the Sultan; Ala-ud-din (original name--Ali Gurshasp) usurped the throne, immediately after that.

Ala-ud-din's Measures

Desire to Found a New Religion According to Barani, Ala-ud-din wanted to found a new religion and surpass the Prophet Muhammad, but Barani's uncle, Ala-ul-Mulk, persuaded him to abandon this mad scheme.

Regulations against Nobility An analysis by Alaud-din's trusted advisers of the causes of the rebellions convinced him that the general prosperity of his officials, intermarriages 1 the grandees, inefficiency in and drinking liquor were the' lion. Ala-ud-din therefore By the first he confiscated all j and seized Muslim religious < the intelligence system was secret transactions in the hou immediately reported to the Su lie sale of liquor and drugs wasl fourth ordinance forbade sociaFj men's houses, and no senior < to arrange marriages between i ilies without the Sultan's prior <

Suppression of Rural Elite were aimed at controlling the 1 the village headmen known as' dams were also very rich, military help to the rebels. The! ulations reduced this class to them down to the level of the <

Military Reforms The Sultan < imperialistic ambitions without all efficient standing army. Feriii recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. 1 included introduction of dagh and chahra (descriptive roll of s on a regular muster of the iqtas of the royal troopers, and I salaries in cash. The iqtas of big i commanders were, however, alloj!

Market Reforms In order to fied with their salary, the Sultatf! price-control measures based on'J To enforce these measures, he i arate markets in Delhi, one for ^ cloth, sugar, dried fruits, herbs, 1 for horses, slaves and cattle; and i cellaneous commodities. The ensured by collecting tax in kind i keeping it in the royal store-ho were ordered to sell their grain fields at fixed prices and were not| any grain home for private sale. TheJ


oiler), the bands (intelligence officers), and the hias (Sultan's secret agents) submitted their endent reports on these markets to the Sultan. a minor violation of the rules was not toler-. Every merchant was registered with the com : ministry and had to sign a bond guaranteeing ular supply of the goods in which they traded, i prices fixed for the Delhi market were also I in the provincial capitals and towns.

Economic Reforms His other financial i included increase of land revenue to 50 per of the gross produce and elimination of all mid-ti; resumption of several types of land grants I as inam, and waqf, appropriation of four-fifths : of the war booty (khums) to the state, leaving one-fifth to the soldiers; creation of a new aent, the diwan-i-mustakhraj, to enquire into : arrears and to collect them.

l-din's Conquests

d-din's army brought him success both against Mongols and in his schemes of conquest. The I part of his reign was marked by successive ol invasions. The first two invasions by the ol army were beaten back, but in 1297 the jtiinvader, Qutlugh Khwaja, came up to Kili near Zafar Khan, the Sultan's commander, fell ; the enemy, but the Sultan won the day. In ^;the Mongols again reached Siri but were Two years later the Mongols marched as i Amroha but were again beaten back. Their i in 1306 was stopped near the Ravi.

1-din sent an army in 1299 under the com-pf his brothers Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan Gujarat. Ala-ud-din's army besieged the capital of Raja Karan. While the his daughter (Deval Devi) escaped, his Devi) was captured and sent to Delhi Pthe Sultan married her. The Hindu eunuch ^f. -f Hazardinari, whom the Sultan later made aib, was also taken from his master. Nusrat nd Ulugh Khan next attacked Hamir Deva of imbhor. Nusrat Khan was killed, and only I Sultan's arrival the siege was brought to a successful conclusion. In 1302-03 an army was sent against Prataparudra Deva of Warangal, who, however, succeeded in defeating the invaders. The Sultan's armies also conquered Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi, and governors were appointed for these areas. In 1303 the Sultan himself marched against Chittor. The Rajputs fought valiantly, but finally the ruler. Raja Ratan Singh, submitted. Ala-ud-din also marched against Marwar, where the ruler ultimately submitted. The Sultan was satisfied with establishing his overlordship over the Rajput chiefs, since he wished essentially to ensure communications between Delhi and Gujarat. Ala-ud-din's greatest achievement was the conquest of the Deccan and the far south, which were ruled by three important Hindu dynasties--the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Hoyasalas of Dvarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai. Alaud-din did not annex their countries but fleeced their treasuries and forced them to pay annual tributes. In 1306-7 he sent Malik Kafur to chastise Raja Ramadeva of Devagiri for withholding tribute. After a feeble resistance Ramadeva surrendered. In 1309 Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal, whose ruler, Prataparudra Deva II, ultimately surrendered. An enormous booty was collected. After resting for some time, Malik Kafur marched against the Hoyasala kingdom. Raja Vira Ballala I'll was taken by surprise and agreed to become the Sultan's vassal. Here also vast quantities of booty were seized. Kafur next marched against the Pandya kingdom. Its ruler Vira Pandya fled the capital, enabling Kafur to seize immense booty. Kafur was accorded a royal welcome and was made the malik naib. When Ala-ud-din fell ill in 1315, Kafur, as regent, seized the reins of government. Before his death, Kafur had nominated Shihab-ud-din, Alaud-din's six year old son, as ruler, and imprisoned Mubarak Khan, another of Ala-ud-din's sons. Finally Kafur was killed by Ala-ud-din's loyal bodyguards in order to save their late kings' family from annihilation. Although illiterate himself, the Sultan enjoyed the company of poets such as Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.

z>


Mubarak (1316-20)

After he was released from prison, Mubarak worked as regent for his brother for some time but soon captured the throne. Mubarak could have ruled for many years but for his debauched lifestyle. Being a homosexual he fell deeply in love with two Islamicised Baradus (Hindu) brothers, Hasan and Husamud-din. The Sultan gave Hasan the title Khusrau Khan and transferred Malik Kafur's iqta and army to him. At Khusrau's request about 10,000 Baradus were recruited to act as palace guards, who soon obtained full control over the Sultan's palace. Khusrau killed Mubarak and captured the throne for himself, assuming the title of Nasir-ud-din in July, 1320.

Khusrau (July-September, 1320)

A section of the leading Turkish nobles supported Khusrau enthusiastically. Only Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, and his son, Fakhrud-din Jauna, were strongly opposed to him. When Khusrau sent an army to fight Ghazi Malik, the latter turned the tables on the former. Khusrau was beheaded, and Ghazi Malik ascended the throne under the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq.

11.4 MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ'S INNOVATIONS

Ghiyas-ud-din (1320-25)

Jauna Khan, who was given the title of Ulugh Khan, was sent to Deccan in 1321 to reassert Delhi's authority over the rebellious Prataparudra Deva of Warangal. But the campaign failed in its mission and the heir apparent returned to Devagiri. In 1323 the prince marched out again against Warangal and succeeded in annexing it. Bengal, which was torn by civil war between the various contenders for the throne, attracted the attention of the Sultan, who marched against it and brought it under Delhi's control. When the Sultan returned to Delhi, his son Ulugh Khan hastily built a temporary wooden pavilion near Tughluqabad for his welcome. After lunch the Sultan ordered that the

elephants he had captured be paraded there. The wooden pavilion, however, was not strong enough and collapsed. Both the Sultan and his younger son were crus The story is described in detail by Is Battutah. Both accuse Ulugh Khan of j some later writers consider Ulugh been innocent.

Muhammad (1325-51)

Controversy about His Personality succeeded his father under the title of] bin Tughluq. Contemporary historians'! to assess his personality and left their 1 fused. In fact neither Barani nor Ibn : pains to examine all aspects of the Sufi ality in the correct perspective. It i»n Muhammad bin Tughluq was the only 1 who had received a comprehensive liti and philosophical education, as well1 training. Disappointed with the continuous trusted officers such as Sayyids, Aj Turkish governors, he promoted to hi| intelligent administrators whose ance humble backgrounds. He also inviti from all over the world to his court, offended old nobles and grandees ref ate with him. Immediately after coming to Muhammad faced a Mongol invasions! repulsed and there were no more Mo during his reign. In 1326-7 his cousij governor of Sagar (near Gulbarga), reb captured and mercilessly executed.

Transfer of Capital Muhammad wa the centrally located Devagiri his seco 1327 he made extensive preparations fol of the royal household and the ulema < Delhi to Devagiri, which he renamed 1 1328-9 the Muslim upper classes and t Sufis were ordered to move to Dauli they resisted, the Sultan enforced his i lessly, causing great hardship to the Def The cultural and social life of the received a setback, but no mass exo place. In fact, the two capitals flourish ously.


dition On being informed that the were making incursions into the ^kingdoms, Muhammad dispatched an 8 Kangra region in order to annex it to his t'thus secure his northern frontiers. The r historians refer to it as the Qarachil I' It seems to have taken place during er some initial victories in Kangra, the try pressed on to Tibet, where the local hilated it. This was a major catastrotrich the commander who had exceeded i's orders to confine the invasion to $ responsible.

on of Token Currency In 1329-30 introduced a token currency, which circulation until 1331-2. Imitating the ' money) of Kublai Khan of China and il of Iran (Mongol rulers), the Sultan issued t'copper) coins at par with the value of the i coins. The scheme was designed to fill the gold and silver reserves. The gold-to forge the token coins on a large I tax was paid in the token currency, and rimercial transactions also utilised it. ^merchants naturally stopped all business I with India. In order to combat the mounting j"chaos, the Sultan stopped the circulation i currency and was forced to pay genuine us in exchange, even for the forged ones. ; to Barani, the heaps of bronze coins rose ains near Tughluqabad.

of Land Revenue In 1328-29, in ôvercome financial difficulties, Muhammad I the land revenue demand to fifty per cent s produce on the Doab farmers. According , the farmers set fire to their grain barns and their fields. Baran (Bulandshahr), thome town along with other towns wit-l revolt. Though the rebellion was ruthIfcrushed, the Sultan realised that adequate .sures and the promotion of agricultural were the only solution to the problem, ntly huge sums were advanced as takkavi i enable the cultivators to buy seed, to sink Tand to extend cultivation. Agricultural Reforms During his stay in Delhi (1338-44) the Sultan introduced new regulations to improve farming. An agriculture ministry called the diwan-i-kohi was established to bring barren land under cultivation. Opportunists and adventurers signed written bonds promising to cultivate barren land but they spent the money on personal needs.

Outbreak of Rebellions When Sayyid Ahsan Shah, the governor of Mabar, rebelled, the Sultan marched against him. But at Bidar many of his officers died of bubonic plague, and the Sultan himself fell seriously ill and was taken back to Daulatabad. The rebellious Ahsan Shah, who remained undefeated, succeeded in founding the independent Madurai sultanate. The foundation of the Vrjayanagar kingdom in 1336 and the subsequent independence of Warangal and Kampili were the most severe blows to the Sultan's prestige. After his return to Delhi the Sultan stayed at Svargadvari near Kanauj. Four different governors broke into revolt in succession during this period. The most serious uprising (in 1340) was that of AinulMulk Multani, the governor of Avadh, but he was finally defeated. However, eastern and western Bengal had become independent by then. In 1347 Hasan Gangu established the Bahmani kingdom. Muhammad's health declined rapidly and all his efforts at keeping the sultanate together ended in failure. For three years the Sultan concentrated on chasing the elusive Taghi (a rebel officer) and reorganising the provincial administration of Gujarat. Taghi took shelter with the Sumras of Thatta. The Sultan therefore moved towards Thatta but in 1351 he died on the way. According to Badauni, death liberated the Sultan from his people and freed them from him.

11.5 FIROZ TUGHLUQ AND DECLINE OF DELHI SULTANATE

FirozTughluq (1351-88)

The long reign of Firoz (37 years) can be seen in two phases. The first phase of about 20 years is marked by the reversal of the centralising policies of the previous regime and restoration of peace and prosperity. It also saw the return of the sharia laws, which


were in fact inscribed by the Sultan on an octagonal tower near the Firozabad Jami mosque. Wazir Khan-iJahan Maqbul, an Islamicised Telangani Hindu, successfully maintained the prestige of the Sultan during this period. The second phase of 17 years witnessed inanition and evident decline in the strength and prosperity of the Sultanate.

Administrative Reforms The loans advanced by the previous administration for agricultural purposes were written off. Compensation was paid to the heirs of all those whom Muhammad had executed, and the letters of gratitude obtained from them were deposited in a box at the head of the deceased Sultan's cenotaph. Painstaking reforms were made in the assessment and collection of land taxes. The Sultan instituted a sixyear survey of crop production, enabling him to fix permanently the estimated revenue (jama) of the Sultanate at six crore seventy five lakh tankas. Newly dug wells and irrigation canals improved cultivation. The special tax on some 28 items of urban trade and commerce deemed un-Islamic was abolished. The karkhanas (factories) were developed rapidly by the army of slaves recruited and maintained by Firoz through the newly created diwan-i-bandagan (department of slaves). The Sultan ordered that jobs be created for the unemployed. Free hospitals were established, as was a marriage bureau offering assistance to poor Muslim parents in meeting wedding expenses for their daughters. All the above welfare measures and public works were carried out through another new department, viz. diwan-i-khairat. Finally all positions were made hereditary, irrespective of competence, and the iqta administration was completely decentralised to appease the nobles.

Military Campaigns Firoz led several feeble military expeditions to Bengal, Kangra and Sind but only to assert the tottering central authority. Between 1353 and 1358 he made efforts to recover Bengal, but succeeded only in negotiating a peace settlement and persuading its ruler Sikandar to accept his suzerainty. The Sultan however did better in his Orissa campaign, whose ruler Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa had allied himself with the rebellious Bengal Sultans. Firoz seized Cuttack and destroyed the Jagannatha temple atef attacked Nagarkot in the Kangra reg submitted and offered to pay tribute.' lected 1,300 Sanskrit manuscrip Jwalamukhi and other temples. Firozf to Thatta in lower Sind. After initial j ceeded in establishing his authority <

The last years of the Sultan 'slf marked by a precipitous decline in ( control. Firoz abdicated in 1387, cro Muhammad king. Two months later 1 numbering about a lakh, rebelh Muhammad to flee. Firoz appointed \ Tughluq Shah II, his heir, and died i at the ripe age of 82.

Later Tughluqs (1388-1414) After j the sultanate disintegrated further. The,| dom of Jaunpur came into existence in | and Gujarat also broke away. When ' on the scene in 1398-99, the fate of j dynasty was sealed. After crossing the,! met no serious opposition in the Delhi submitted without much of a army sacked it for three days and in massacred both Hindus and Muslin through Haridvar, Nagarkot and Ja drew from India in March, 1399. though merely a plundering raid, deliv blow to the Tughluq dynasty.

DECLINE UNDER SAYYIDS (141'

Knizr Khan (1414-21)

Before his departure from India, Tidf ferred Multan and Dipalpur on Khizrl confirmation enhanced Khizr Khan's j enabled him to capture Delhi. He tried! Delhi's control from Multan to Kanuaj'f foot of the Himalayas to the Malwa i

Mubarak Shah (1421-34)

His successful expeditions against Me and the Gangetic Doab enabled him to (


I region, although Delhi's authority over their precarious. Mubarak Shah was assassitsome of his own nobles.

I Shah (1434-43)

Sultan was also unable to combat the \ among the leading nobles. He was in fact No the pitiable position of ruling a territory êxtended merely forty miles around his

(1443-51)

retired to Badaun in 1447, Bahlul Lodhi I Delhi. The Sultan did not contest BahluFs Bon and formally transferred the sovereignty hi to him in 1451. The Sayyids had ruled in y, but the Lodhis revived the prestige of the [sultanate.

I f ADMINISTRATION

vernment established by the Turks was a nise between Islamic political ideas and itions on the one hand and the existing Rajput i of government on the other. Consequently, [elements of the Rajput political system, with out changes, became part and parcel of the i administration in India.

i Political Ideas

gical Basis Muslims believe that Islamic ' and government should be organised on the i of divine injunctions of the Quran. The say-nd doings of Prophet Muhammad, collectively i as hadis, began to be supplemented with the e. The ulema (Muslim theologians) gave variJtalings on the basis of the Quran and the hadis t different situations and problems, which are her known as the sharia (Islamic Law).

ar Basis Moreover, zawabit (rules and regui framed by the Sultans) were also used for a i and efficient running of the administration. Allah-Prophet Relationship According to the Quran, the real master and sovereign of the whole universe is Allah. Allah has sent to all lands, through the ages, his prophets for the transmission of his message, Muhammad being the last one. While it is the duty of the governed to obey the ruler, it is equally the duty of the ruler to discharge his functions efficiently.

Caliphate In principle, the entire Muslim fraternity should have only a single monarch. But when the caliphate or the empire of the caliphs became very extensive and disintegrative forces began to gain the upper hand, the ulema or Muslim jurists developed the theory of governors by usurpation and said that whom the caliph did not oppose he approved. Similarly they held that only an elected head could be the ruler. But when the caliphate became a hereditary monarchy they evolved a new doctrine of election. Now election by eleven or five or even by a single person enjoying the confidence of the people was regarded .as election by the people. This legalised nomination by a ruling sovereign as election by the people. In the absence of any widespread uprisings against a ruler it was held that acquiescence was tantamount to approval or election by the people.

Caliph-Sultan Relationship Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were the caliph's representatives. Most of them included the name of the caliph in the khutba (prayer) and the sikka (coin) and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph. As against this, three rulers emphasised their own importance. Balban used to say-that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and called himself the 'Shadow of God'. Muhammad bin Tughluq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had retained the name of the caliph in the khutba and

sikka, Muhammad made no mention of caliph anywhere. But, despite all this, neither of them had the audacity to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this was Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Khalji.


But only three Sultans sought, and secured a mansur or letter of investiture' from the caliph. The first among them was Iltutmish. Next Muhammad bin Tughluq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid caliph in Egypt. After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice. The real object of honouring the office of the caliph is interesting. Muslims in general regarded it as incumbent on the Sultan to show respect to the caliph, and opposition to the Sultan, who had been recognised by the caliph as his deputy, was regarded as contrary to the Holy Law. Hence the Sultans kept up the pretense of subservience to the caliph just to exploit the popular Muslim sentiment in their favour.

Law of Succession According to Islamic ideals, essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a male adult, suffering from no physical disability, a freeborn Muslim, having faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines, and he should be elected by the people. However in practice there were several violations of the prescribed criteria for being elected to the throne. Raziya was raised to the throne despite her womanhood. Minority proved no bar in the case of Muhammad bin Tughluq. Qutub-ud-din Aibak's authority was recognised even before his manumission. Kaiqubad remained the Sultan as a paralytic. Nasir-ud-din Khusrau had no special reverence for Islam and yet he was accepted as the Sultan of Delhi. Ala-ud-din Khalji frankly admitted his ignorance of the sharia but nobody dubbed him as unfit to rule on that score. As far as election was concerned, it had never existed in Islam. At best, support of a few leading men was regarded as tantamount to election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election was tried in the case of Iltutmish, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and Firoz Tughluq.

Theory of Kingship The doctrine offarr orfarrah (supernatural effulgence or radiance) was first enunciated in the Shah Namah by Firdausi, according to whom the God endows the rulers with farr, which symbolises the divine favour. Among the Delhi Sultans, Balban was the first to exhibit his awareness of the doctrine when he remarked that 'the king's heart is the mirror of the divine Later Amir Khusrau observed that Kaiq endowed with the/arr.

Limits to Sultan's Authority In the new rules and regulations the authority oft was circumscribed and every ruler could noy the kingdom in complete disregard of the i the ulema or theologians as Alaud-din Muhammad Tughluq had been able to power of the nobility also blunted their auti some extent. When there was a weak ruler j throne, the nobles, and the ulema particularly inated him. But during the reign of Balban, j din Khalji or Muhammad Tughluq, these proved ineffective. The Sultans were not enough to rule the land in complete disregard! sentiments of the Hindus. And, the numerical)! ority of the Muslims gave them little or no < nity to interfere with local government.

Central Government

Sultan He dominated the central governme was the legal head of the state and acted chief executive and the highest court of i the last capacity, he sat in a secular court knoi mazalim (complaints). According to Bq Muhammad bin Tughluq founded a special i called diwan-i-siyasat. He was the chief o| armed forces and made appointments to higher civil and military posts. The entire 1 cracy acted under his control and supervisio was assisted by a number of officials, chiefs whom were the following:

Naib Sultan Appointment to this post was; ally made only when a ruler was weak or a i But sometimes powerful rulers like Alau offered this high office to a nobleman as a i special favour. The naib enjoyed practically i powers of the Sultan on his behalf and exe general control over the various departments i government.

Wazir He was the head of the finance depa called diwan-i-wazarat. He had a number of pov


among whom deserve special men-rife wazir, (ii) mushrif-i-mumalik and (iii) mtmalik. The first acted as his chiefs second maintained a record of the ^received from the provinces and other i of central government. The third audited nt. Thus while the second was the account-ill, the third was like an auditor-general. |-the rulers made a slight change in the allol-their duties and entrusted the account of all |?to the Mushrifand supervision of expendiJ Mustauf,

llik He was the head of the military nt called diwan-i-arz and was next to the importance. But he was not the com-Wn-chief of the army, since the Sultan him-nanded all the armed forces. The special sibility of the ariz's department was to recruit, I pay the army.

sudur He was the head of the public pes and ecclesiastical department known as \-irisalat. It was he who made grants in cash for the construction and maintenance of s, tombs, khanqahs and madrasas. Again it who granted maintenance allowances to aed, the saintly, the orphaned and the dis-The funds of the department of charities |» utilised for the exclusive good of the alone. It had usually a separate treasury received all collections from zakat (a tax ed from rich Muslims only). It was Firoz iluq who introduced it in the list of regular ^demands.

ul-quzat He was the head of the judicial nent and usually the posts of the chief sadr he chief qazi were combined in a single person. i were appointed in various parts of the empire, jticularly in those places where there was a size! Muslim population. The qazis dispensed civil phased on Muslim personal law (sharia). An offii known as the amir-i-dad presided over the sec-r court (mazalim) in the Sultan's absence. He was * responsible for implementing the qazis' decis. Then, there were the muftis who were the experts on sharia law and gave fatwas (legal rulings) on disputes referred to them. Other legal questions were either decided by the qazis or were left to the ruler's discretion. The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws which were dispensed by panchayats

in the villages and by the leaders of the various castes in the cities. Criminal law was based on rules and regulations framed by various rulers from time to time.

Amir-munshi He was the head of the records department, known as diwan-i-insha. Thefarmans of the Sultan were issued from his office, while all high level correspondence also passed through his hands.

Barid-i-mumalik He was the head of the information and intelligence department. Only a nobleman who enjoyed the fullest confidence of the ruler was appointed the chief barid. The large number of barids, who were posted in different areas, informed the Sultan of what was going on through the chief barid. There were officers connected with the court and the royal household. Vakil-i-dar looked after the royal palace and personal attendants of the sovereign. Barbak looked after the royal court by maintaining the dignity of the court and assigning to nobles a place there in accordance with their rank and status. Amir-i-hajeb scrutinised all visitors to the court and presented them before the sovereign according to court etiquette. Amir-i-shikar organised royal hunts and all areas where the Sultan went hunting were under his direct control and authority. Amir-i-majlis made arrangements for assemblies, feasts and special celebrations. Sar-i-jandar was the chief bodyguard of the Sultan. He commanded several jandars (royal bodyguards and cavalrymen) who were together called hasham-i-qalb or afwaj-i-qalb, and were clearly distinguished from the hasham-iatraf, the name given to the troops posted in the provincial headquarters and the garrisons. The nagibulnuqaba (chief usher) and his assistants (naqibs) announced the Sultan's orders to the soldiers and also proclaimed the Sultan's presence in the royal cavalcade.


Provincial Government

The whole kingdom was divided into a number of provinces, known as wilayat or iqlim, and tributary states. Little attempt was made to interfere in the internal affairs of the tributary states as long as they did not threaten the integrity of the empire. But the provincial administration under the Sultans was neither well organised nor efficient. In the earlier stages, a nobleman was assigned unconquered or semi-conquered territory as iqta and he was acknowledged the governor of all the land he could subdue by force. But this no longer applied in the later times. The ruler himself now undertook the task of conquest and subjugation and he assigned the conquered territory to suitable governors. In the earlier period, transfer of governors was a rare occurrence but in later times this was freely done. In Alaud-din Khalji's reign, according to Barani, there were twelve provinces. The governor was called nayim or wali. Below the provincial governor there was a provincial wazir, a provincial ariz and a provincial qazi. Their functions corresponded to those of similar dignitaries at the centre. Like the Sultan at the centre, the provincial governor combined in his hands the powers of maintaining law and order, control over the local army, realisation of state dues and provision for justice.

Local Government

The provinces were divided into shiqs and below it into paraganas. The shiq was under the control of the shiqdar. The paragana, comprising a number of villages was headed by the amil. The village remained the basic unit of administration and continued to enjoy a large measure of self-government. The most important official in the village was the headman known as muqaddam or chaudhari. '

11.7 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND RELATIONS

The principal achievement of the Delhi Sultans was the great systematisation of agrarian exploitation and the immense concentration of the revenues thus obtained. Immediately after a conquest, settlements were made with the members of the j tocracies. Hence the land revenue then 5 than the tributes fixed on subji Introduction of radical reforms in the i tern came only after a century of i adaptation. After consolidating their position I Delhi Sultans classified the land in gories--iqta land, i.e. land assigned iqtas; khalisa land or crown land, i.e was under the direct control of the SuW revenues were meant for the court and the royal household; and In known as madad-i-maash or su land), i.e. land assigned or granted to i ers and religious institutions.

Evolution of the Iqta System

First Stage (1206-1290) The systems the assignment of different regions as i'a rial areas or units whose revenues were] officials in lieu of salaries) to military < out of whose revenues they could selves and their troops as well. Iqta stood for not only a revenue unit but i istrative unit. Transfer of iqtas from i another was done rarely in this period.

Second Stage (1290-1351) Modific system was done under the Khaljis Tughluqs. They resorted to frequent iqtas. They insisted on the submission of| collection and expenditure by the iqtad (holders of iqtas) regularly and sending 1 (fawazil) to the treasury. Estimation of I paying capacity of each area, fixation oi" of the officers in terms of cash and assig iqtas of the same revenue paying capacil main developments.

Third Stage (1351-1526) It began wit) sal of the trend of the previous pha Tughluq, who granted a series of conce officers. Fixation of the estimated reve iqtas was done permanently, thus allowing to appropriate all the increases of revenue. J


i assignments were made practically hereditary, f. changes, introduced by Firoz, were continued us successors. \ the above developments in the iqta system isically due to the changes in the composition obility under the Delhi Sultans. The nobility |jtially monopolised by the Turks, but gradu-hers like the Persians, Afghans, Abyssinians, i Muslims, entered the nobility, thus mak-|more cosmopolitan and heterogeneous. The of new elements into the nobility under the and early Tughluqs enabled the Sultans to s their control over the iqta system, but once ' elements got themselves strengthened they ed more powers and privileges, thus result-tthe liberalisation and decentralisation of the i by Firoz Tughluq.

^Classes

The peasantry, known as the balahars, j-third of their produce as land revenue, even onehalf of the produce. Besides venue, they paid certain other taxes which Jjfljat taxation during this period was as much, her than, as in the previous period. In other I the peasants were always living at the sub: level which was easily denied by the frej$rars, thus resulting in large scale, and not so at, famines.

is and Small Landlords They had a Ritandard of life, for they readily misused their pn order to exploit the ordinary peasants.

dus Chieftains They constituted the ous rural section. Though they were efeated ruling class, they were still powerful jpespective areas and continued to live a lux-|life as in the pre-Muslim period.

: of Agriculture

undertook efforts to enhance agriculction by providing irrigational facilities vancing takkavi loans for different agricules. They also encouraged peaseants to cultivate cash crops instead of food crops, and superior crops (wheat) in place of inferior ones (barley). There was an overall improvement in the quality of Indian fruits and the system of gardening. Waste lands were granted to different people thereby extending the cultivated area.

11.8 GROWTH OF COMMERCE ft URBANIZATION

Growth of Urban Centres

The 13th and 14th centuries saw the rise and growth of several towns and cities in India. For instance, Lahore and Multan (modern Pakistan); Broach, Cambay and Anhilwara (western India); Laknauti, Gaur and Sonargaon (eastern India); Daulatabad (Deccan); Delhi and Jaunpur (northern India), etc. Delhi, according to Ibn Battutah (a Moroccan traveller who spent eight years at the court of Muhammad bin Tughluq), was the largest town in the Islamic East, and Daulatabad could almost rival Delhi in size.

Growth of Trade and Commerce

Increase in Coins There was an increase in the number of coins during the period of the Delhi Sultans, compared to the previous period, indicating the growth in commercial transactions.

Merchants and their Activities A large amount of evidence about merchants and their operations is available. India again started exporting a large number of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea (West Asia), and also to South East Asian countries. Coastal and sea trade was in the hands of the Jaina Marwaris and Gujaratis, and Muslim Bohra merchants. Overland trade with Central and West Asia was in the hands of the Multanis (mainly Hindus) and Khorasanis (Afghan Muslims). Barani, a contemporary historian, gives an excellent account of their riches.

Efforts of Sultans to Increase Commerce

Political unification of major parts of India removed the political as well as economic barriers. Introduction of the institution of dalals or brokers


(dalal, meaning one who acts as an intermediary, is Arabic in origin), facilitated commercial transactions on a large scale. Construction of new roads and maintenance of old ones facilitated easy and smooth transport and communications. Sarais or rest houses were maintained on the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants.

11.9 TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES

Cotton Textile Industry Increase in its production was affected by the introduction of several new techniques, such as spinning wheel, cotton-carder's bow and weaver's treadles.

Silk Industry There was also an increase in the production of silk cloth due to the introduction of sericulture (production of raw-silk by rearing silkworms), which made India less dependent on Iran and Afghanistan for raw silk.

Paper Industry Its production in India was started by the Turks and there was an extensive use of paper from the 14th and 15th centuries.

Building Industry Introduction of new techniques, like the vaulted (arched) roofing and the cementing lime, made possible large-roofed brick structures.

Other Crafts Leather-making, metal-working, and carpet-weaving increased in production due to the increased demand under the Sultans. However, these crafts did not witness any significant technological changes.

Causes for Changes in Urban Economy

The foremost cause was the immigration of artisans and merchants from the Islamic East to India, bringing with them their crafts, techniques and practices. Secondly, there was

an abundant supply of docile trainable labour obtained through large-scale enslavement. Finally, the Delhi Sultans established a revenue system through which a large share of agricultural surplus was appropriated for consumption in towns. Contemporary historians like Isami give us a good account of the immigration of artisans and merchants to India. The large number i obtained for enslavement in the military^ were trained as artisans by their capti later became free artisans by obtaining j their freedom. Thus the immigration ment were responsible for the growth of | tres and crafts, and their sustenance was ] the increase in the revenues with the i of the new land revenue system. The : who appropriated a large part of the plus, spent most of it in towns.

Coins of Delhi Sultanate

The gold coins which Muhammad of ( imitation of the issues of the Hindu king#| with the goddess Lakshmi on the obve out a parallel in Islamic history. For the| years the currency consisted almost entiij per and billon: hardly have any gold struck, and silver coins of the earlier scarce. Iltutmish, however, issued several silver tanka, the earliest of which has; the king on horseback on the obverse.I type bears witness to the diploma in inl| had received from the Khalifa of Ba Mustansir. Gold, though minted by Masud, N| Mahmud, Balban and Jalal-ud-din Khaljl common until Ala-ud-din Khalji had treasury by conquests in south India, coins are replicas of the silver in weight! Ala-ud-din, whose silver issues are changed the design by dropping the caliph from the obverse and substituting^ laudatory titles, The second Alexander, hand of the Khalifate'. His successor, whose issues are in some respects the whole series, employed the old Indian i for some of his gold, silver and billon. On.) appear the even more arrogant titles, 'The j head of Islam, the Khalifa of the Lord oft earth'. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was the : sovereign to use the title Ghazi (Cha faith).


Fractions of copper jital: 1 adhi (billon) 1 dangi (billon) or fulus (copper)

Multiples of copper jital: Pthe coins struck in billon by these early eluding Muhammad of Ghur, are practii in size and weight (about 56 grains), jjj varieties were struck. The Indian type \ the dehliwala, with the humped bull and fcign's name in Nagari on the reverse, and auhan type of horseman on the obverse, l&e reign of Masud. Another type, with the tobverse and the Sultan's name and titles Kon the reverse, survived till Nasirud-din reign. The billon coins of Alaud-din b the first to bear dates. The earliest copper Iriod is small and insignificant. Some coins, i a few billon pieces, bear the inscription i may mean simply currency. All copper is

bin Tughluq, has been called 'the f-moneyers'. Not only do his coins surpass Iris predecessors in execution, especially in y, but his large output of gold, the number > of all denominations, the interest of the s, reflecting his character and activities, nents with the coinage, entitle him to a ng the greatest moneyers of history. For his jgold and silver pieces he retained the old Jîn standard of his predecessors. His first nt was to add to these, in the first year of his |itd dinars of 201.6 grains and silver aslis of : weight. Muhammad bin Tughluq's gold issues, like those of his predecessors, are |in type. One of the earliest and most curious i struck both at Delhi and Daulatabad, in f Of his father. It bears the superscription of accompanied by the additional title, \ (the Martyr). The early gold and silver, of t half-a-dozen different types exist, were freight different places, including Delhi. And nty-five varieties of his billon coinage are iProm inscriptions on the token currency, we names of their various denominations. r to have been two scales of division, one t Delhi, and the other for Daulatabad and the 1 the former the silver tanka was divided into , and in the latter into fifty jitals. old of Firoz Shah is fairly common, and six known. Following his predecessor's example, he inscribed the name of the caliph on the obverse, and his own name on the reverse. Firoz associated the name of his son, Path Khan, with his own on the coinage. Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce; the shortage of silver is even

more apparent. Only three silver pieces of Firoz have ever come to light, but the copper coins are abundant. The coinage of Firoz is given in the following tables:

1/2 of a jital 1/4 of a jital jitals jitals jitals 8 jitals 10 jitals 12 jitals 24

jitals

25

jitals 48 jitals

2 4 6

dugani chahargani shashgani hastigani dehgani dawazdahgani nisfi panjgani tanka (silver)

The coinage of the later rulers, though abounding in varieties, is almost confined to copper and billon pieces. During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one mint name appears, Delhi. The long reign of Firoz seems to have established his coinage as a popular medium of exchange; and this probably accounts for the prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a period of forty years. Some of these and of the posthumous issues of his son, Muhammad, and of his grandson, Mahmud, were struck by Daulat Khan Lodhi and Khizr Khan. The coinage of the Lodhi family, despite the difference in standard, bears a close resemblance to that of the Sharqi kings of Jaunpur.

11.10 EVOLUTION OF INDO-PERSIAN CULTURE

The establishment of the Delhi sultanate marked a new phase in the cultural development of the country. When the Turks came to India, they not only had


a well-defined faith in Islam to which they were deeply attached, they also had definite ideas of government, arts, architecture, etc. The interaction of the Turks with the Indians who had strong religious beliefs, well-defined ideas of arts, architecture and literature resulted, in the long run, in a rich development. But the process was a long one, with many ups and downs.

Architecture: Main Features

Arch and Dome Method The use of arch and the dome had a number of advantages. The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The arch and the dome dispensed with the need for a larger number of pillars to support the roof and enabled the construction of large halls with a clear view. Such places of assembly were useful in mosques as well as in palaces.

Use of Superior Mortar The arch and the dome needed a strong cement, otherwise the stones could not be held in place. The Turks used fine quality mortar in their buildings.

Slab and Beam Method The architectural device generally used by the Indians consisted of putting one stone over another, narrowing the gap till it could be covered by a caping stone or by putting a beam over a slab of stones which is known as the slab and beam method.

Decoration The Turks eschewed representation of human and animal figures in the buildings. Instead, they used geometrical and floral designs, combining them with panels of inscriptions containing verses from the Quran. Thus, the Arabic script itself became a work of art. The combination of these decorative devices was called arabesque. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such as the bell motif, lotus, etc. The skill of the Indian stone-cutters was fully used. They also added colour to their buildings by using red sand stone, yellow sand stone and marble.

Development and Growth

llbaris They at first converted temples and other existing buildings into mosques. Examples of this are the Quwwat-ul-islam mosque near the Qutub Minar in Delhi (which ] then converted mti Hindus, and finally and the building at. Jhonpra (which had new construction in:( facade of three ela the deity room (gar The most magnificent I Turks (founded by Aibaki in the 13th century was t tower, standing at 71.4 Sufi saint, Qutubud-din traditions of building towwfi India and West Asia, the many ways. It derives its t ful manner in which the jected yet linked with the i and white sand stone and i top stages, and the ribbed effei

Khaljis Ala-ud-din built his ri kilometres away from the site ai1 hardly anything of this city din planned a tower twice the 1 but did not live to complete iff entrance door to the Qutub, calle It has arches of very pleasing contains a dome which, for the : on correct scientific lines.

Tughluqs Ghiyas-ud-din and Mu built the huge palace-cum-for Tughluqabad. By blocking the Yamuna a huge artificial lake was < The tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din, built j Tughluq, marks a new trend in archill a good skyline, the building was platform. Firoz Shah Tughluq built ( Khas (a pleasure resort) and the Kotla (

Specie! features of Tughluq ar marked by the sloping walls or the '$ gives the effect of strength and solid building. However, we do noTfind any S buildings of Firoz: Secondly, they attemp bine the principles of the arch and the do slab and beam in their buildings. This is i


manner in the buildings of Firoz. In the i alternate stories have arches and the lin-Ibeam. The same is to be found in some build-Firoz's Kotla fort. Finally, the Tughluqs gen-the cheaper and more easily available e. Since it was not easy to carve this type of eir buildings have minimum decoration.

The Lodhis further developed the tradition bining many of the new devices brought by the i indigenous forms. Both the arch and the i used in their buildings. Balconies, kiosks i of the Rajasthani-Gujarati style are used. r device used by the Lodhis was placing their S, especially tombs, on a high platform, thus I building a feeling of size as well as a bet-e. Some of the tombs are placed in the midst . The Lodhi garden in Delhi is a fine exam-his. Some of the tombs are of an octagonal ny of these features were adopted by the i later on and their culmination is to be found faj Mahal built by Shah Jahan.

The Turks inherited the rich Arab tradition |jc which had been further developed in Iran I Asia. They brought with them a number ^musical instruments, such as the rabab and i and new musical modes and regulations. Khusrau introduced many new airs or | such as ghora, sanam, etc. He is credited with j invented the sitar, though we have no evif it. The tabla, which is also attributed to him jfhowever, to have developed during the late jf«arly 18th century. The Indian classical work : was translated into Persian during the 'Firoz Tughluq. Musical gatherings spread abodes of the Sufis to the places of the 5 The Sufi saint, Pir Bodhan, is supposed to l one of the great musicians of the age. gional kingdom where music was highly cul-was the kingdom of Gwalior. Raja Man | of Gwalior was a great music lover. The work $Kautuhal, in which all new musical modes ced by the Muslims were included, was pre\ under his patronage. I do not know at what time the musical modes India began to differ from those in the south. But there is little doubt that the differentiation was largely due to the incorporation of Perso-Arabic modes, airs and scales.

Persian Literature

Poetry The most notable Persian writer of the period was Amir Khusrau (1252-1325). He took pride in being an Indian. He wrote a large number of poetical works, including historical romances. He experimented with all the poetical forms and created a new style of Persian which came to be called Sabaq-i-Hind or the style of India. He praised the Indian languages including Hindi (Hindavi). He was also an accomplished musician and took part in religious musical gatherings (samas) organised by the famous Sufi saint, Nizamuddin Auliya. Other important Persian poets were Mir Hasan Dehlawi, Badra Chach, etc.

Historical works Apart from poetry a strong school of history writing in Persian developed in India during the period. The most famous historians of the period were Zia-ud-din Barani, Shams-iShiraj Afif and Isami.

Translations Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit works into Persian. His book Tuti Namah (book of the parrot), written in the time of Muhammad Tughluq, was a Persian translation of Sanskrit stories which were related by a parrot to a woman whose husband had gone on a journey. Zia also translated the old Indian treatise on sexology, the Kok Sastra, into Persian. Later, in the time of Firoz, Sanskrit books on medicine and music were translated into Persian. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir had the famous historical work, Rajatarangini, and the Mahabharata translated into Persian. Sanskrit works on medicine and music were also translated into Persian at his instance.

MYSTIC MOVEMENTS IN ISLAM

Meaning

Sufis They were early Muslims mystics. They were persons of deep devotion who were disgusted


by the vulgar display of wealth and degeneration of morals following the establishment of the Islamic empire.

Basic Doctrine Wahadat-ul-wujud or the 'Unity of the Being' was their basic doctrine. It identified the unity of the haq and the khalq, that is, the creator and the created.

Organisation

The Sufis were organised into orders called silsilahs. These orders were divided into bashara (those who followed the Islamic law) and be-shara (those who were not bound by it). Silsilahs were generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in a khanqah or hospice along with his disciples. The link between the teacher (pir) and the disciples (murids) was vital for the Sufi system. Sufism arrived in India even before the establishment of the Turkish rule, but the real migration of Sufis from the Islamic countries to India and their spread to different parts took place only after the establishment of Turkish rule. They divided the whole country among themselves as their religious spheres of influence. According to Abdul Fazi, there were 14 orders in the Mughul period.

Main Sufi Orders in India Chisti Order Its founder was Shaikh Moinud-in Chisti (12th and 13th century). Other leaders were Hamid-ud-din Nagauri (13th century), Qutubud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (12th and 13th century), Nizamud-din Auliya (13th and 14th centuries) and Shaikh Salim (16th century). They established themselves at Ajmer and other parts of Rajasthan and in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and the Deccan. They believed in simplicity and poverty; possession of private property was ( impediment to the development of | sonality and hence they lived became popular by adopting called sama to create a mood of i

Suhrawardi Order Its founds Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi (12th i Other leaders were Baha-ud-din 1 tury) and Rukn-ud-din Abul Fa They established themselves India. They did not believe in poverty, and so accepted direct by holding important posts in department.

Qadri Order Its founder was Sh Jilani of Baghdad (12th century), in India were Shah Nizamat Ullah i Qadri to come to India; he died itfl Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Jilani (thel Qadri; he organised it effectively and | This order was dominant in Sind and I Dara Shikoh was its follower.

Naqshbandi Order The prominent 1 order were Khwaja Baqi Billah (15 Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi (contemp and Jahangir). They tried to har trines of mysticism with the teachin Islam.

Other Muslim Sects Other move Mahadawi movement, started bjrj Madhi of Jaunpur (15th century); sect, founded by Bayazid Ansari of j century); and the Shattari order, intt by Abdullah Shattari (15th century)! sects laid greater stress on the spirit ( rather than its form.

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries LITERATURE OF DELHI SULTANATE

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lizami

us-Siraj usrau usrau usrau usrau

pTughluq Jin Barani Jin Barani !-i*Shiraj Afif

Utah Kitab fi tahqiq QanuniMasudi JawahirfilJawahir Qamus TajulMaathir Chach Namah LubabulAlab

TabaqatiNasiri KhazainulFutuh Tughluq Namah MiftahulFutuh Khamsah

Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi FatawaiJahandari Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Same title as above Futuhus-Salatin KitabulRahla Shah Namah About Indian sciences About astronomy About mineralogy Arabic dictionary History of llbaris History of Sincl Persian anthology History of Muslim dynasties up to 1260 Ala-ud-din's conquests Rise of Ghiyasud-din Jalal-ud-din's conquests (It consists of his five literary masterpieces, viz. Mutla-ulAnwar, Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnu, AyinaiSikandari and Hasht Bihisht) Autobiography Legal advice on worldly rule History of Tughluqs History of Tughluqs Bahmani kingdom A travelogue Mahmud Ghazni's reign

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WE OF TIMUR

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Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

/^

QUESTIONS

1. The first four rulers of the Muslims following the Prophet are known as 'Rashidun' or 'rightly guided caliphs'. Which one of the following was not one of them? (a) Abu Bakr (b) Umar (c) Muawiya (d) Usman 2. 'Raziya was endowed with all qualities befitting a king, but she was not born of the right sex...' Who was the author of these lines? (a) AI-Beruni (b) Amir Khusrau (c) Ibn Battutah 3.

(d) Minhaj Siraj

With which dynasty did Indian Muslims start entering into positions of power?

(a) Tughluqs (b) llbaris (c) Khaljis

(d) Sayyids

4.

Which Sultan received a robe of honour from the caliph?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 5.

lltutmish Qutub-ud-din Aibak Balban Ala-ud-din Khalji Which tax was not permitted by the shariat?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 6.

Agriculture tax Tax on non-Muslims Commercial tax Marriage tax Which was not true about jizyal

(a) (b) (c)

It was a tax on non-Muslims. Brahmins were generally exempted from it. The first ruler to collect it in India was Firoz Tughluq.

(d) 7.

It never yielded any substantial revenue. The iqtadars during the pei !od of the Delhi sul tanate were also known as

(a)

maliks (b) muqtis (c) mamlatdars

(d) munhias

8.

How did Muhammad Tughluq die? (a, Killed in a battle

(b)

Killed by conspirators

(c) Died of fever (d) Died while playing chaugan 9. How many//te/s made up a ten/ca?| (a) 44 (b) 40 (c) 48 (d) 46 10.

Who destroyed the Jagannatha>] Puri?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Ala-ud-din Khalji

11. Which dynasty marked the end nobility from positions of power? || (a) Khalji (b) Tughli (c) Lodi (d) Sayyid 12.

Who is identified as Tamerlane? (a) Mahmud of

(b) Muhan

Ghazni Ghur (c) Timur 13.

(d) Chengld

Diwan-i-kohi, created by Muhammad j looked after

(a) revenue collection (b) agricult (c) public welfare (d) crown I 14.

Who was the first Sultan to provk famine-affected people?

(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) Firoz T« (c) Balban (d) Muhan TughluqJ 15. Who completed the conquest and . of south India? (a) Firoz Tughluq (b) Balban (c) Jauna Khan

(d) Alau

16.

Who was the first Sultan to pay soldia instead of through /o/fas?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

lltutmish Balban Muhammad Tughluq Ala-ud-din Khalji

B88

|7. How was Ghiyas-Ud-din Tughluq killed? (a) Killed in a battle (b) Poisoned to death (c) Died of cancer (d) Accidental death Who introduced token currency in China before Muhammad Tughluq introduced it in India? (a) Qublai Khan (c) Timur

(b) Chengiz Khan

(b) Gai Khatu

Who was a shahnal (a) Military commander (b) (c) District head (d) supenn-Spy Market tendent Who completed Qutub Minar? (a) Qutub-ud-din Aibak (b) Raziya (c) lltutmish (d) Balban Who was the Abyssinian that was promoted as master of stables? (a) Jauna Khan

(b) Yakut Khan

(c) Jalal-ud-din

(d) Bakhtiyar Khalji

Who was the Indian Muslim that replaced Balban as matik naib to Nasir-ud-din Mahmud? (a) Malik Kafur (b) Khusrau Khan (c) Imad-ud-din Rayhan (d) Qubacha Balahars in the village were (a) landlords (b) headmen (c) menials (d) accountants What were Rajab-wah and Ulugh Khani during Firoz Tughluq's reign? (a) (b)

Rest houses Fruit gardens '(c) Intelligence services

(d)

Canals that were cut by the Sultan from Yamuna

lat was araghatta? A machine to break forts (b) An irrigation canal

A device to lift water [d) A type of cloth was not true about medieval Indian id? (a) The people knew breeding of mulberry silk worms, i) They grew grapes and other fruits.


(c) (d) 27.

They knew grafting of plants. Mango was the most highly prized fruit. Charai was a tax on

(a) Hindus

(b) houses

(c) milch cattle

(d) craftsmen

28. Who among the following medieval historians commented that death liberated Muhammad Tughluq from his people and freed them from him? (a) Badauni

(b) Barani

(c) Isaml

(d) Ibn Battutah

29.

What was kharaj"?

(a) A tribute

(b) Booty

(c) Land tax

(d) Gift

30.

Who were the rais and ranas?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 31.

Intelligence officers Poets under sultanate Local chiefs who opposed Sultans Police officers What is not true about the rawats?

(a) (b) (c)

They were cavalry men of rais. They were of a lower status than ranas. They vanished with the establishment of Delhi sultanate.

(d)

They continued to be engaged by ranas even during Delhi Sultans' period.

32.

During whose reign was jizya collected even from Brahmins?

(a) (b) (c)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq

(d) 33.

Balban Who were the payakas or paiks? (a) ascetics (b) spies

(c) foot soldiers

(d) cavalry men

34.

Which Tughluq fled from Delhi when Timur captured it?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 35.

Ghiyas-ud-din II Abu Bakr Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Muhammad Firoz Who were bands?

(a) Secret agents (b) Military chiefs (c) Revenue collectors (d) Elite guards 36. Who gives us a graphic, though biased, description of the rebellion of the peasants of


the Doab region against Muhammad Tughluq's enhancement of land revenue? (a) Ziaud-din Barani (b) Minhaj Siraj (c) IbnBattutah (d) ShirajAfif 37.

Minhaj Siraj was the poet laureate of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 38.

Ala-ud-din Masud Shah Bahram Shah Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Balban After which Sufi saint was Qutub Minar named?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 39.

Nizam-ud-din Auliya Moin-ud-in Chisti Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki Salim Chisti Which class was hit hard by Alaud-din's measures?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 40.

Peasants Soldiers Muqaddams & traders Nobility Under whose reign did diwan-i-arz become a separate department?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 41.

lltutmish Ala-ud-din Khalji Muhammad Tughluq Balban Which commander of Ala-ud-din defeated Yadava king Ramachandra?

(a) Khizr Khan

(b) Khusrau Khan

(c) Malik Kafur

(d) Mubarak Shah

42.

Why did Muhammad Tughluq introduce token currency?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

He was eccentric. He wanted to experiment with it. To overcome the global shortage of silver. To conduct foreign trade on a large scale.

43.

To which caste did Khusrau Khan, a Hindu convert, belong to?

(a) Kshatriya (b) Vaisya (c) Brahmin

(d) Sudra

44. What was the name of the Jaina saint with whom Muhammad Tughluq held discussions? (a) Rishaba II (b) Hemachandra (c) Jinasena Sur (d) Jinaprabha Sur 45.

Which Sultan appointed Ibn Battutah, a Moroccan traveller, qazi of Delhi?

46.

Ala-ud-din Khalji Firoz Shah Tughluq Muhammad Tughluq Balban Who was the ruler of Ranathambhor v ud-din invaded it?

(a) Prithviraja (b) Ramachan (c) Rai Karan (d) Hamir I 47. Muhammad .Tughluq lived in a camp 'Svargadvar'f for 2\ years. On the which river was it located? (a) Sutlej

(b) Indus

(c) Yamuna

(d) Ganges

48.

Who introduced chahra for the first time?]

49.

lltutmish Qutub-ud-din Aibak Balban Ala-ud-din Khalji What was the correct chronology of the I sultanate?

50.

Slave, Tughluq, Khalji, Sayyid, Lodi Slave, Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid, Lodi Khalji, Slave, Tughluq, Lodi, Sayyid Khalji, Tughluq, Slave, Sayyid, Lodi Paibos, introduced by Balban in the quette, was

a tribute a uniform a formal celebration of the Sultan's I a custom of kissing the feet of the Su 51. During the reign of which Delhi Sultan i chahalgani or chalisa come into existenc (a) Balban (b) Raziya (c) lltutmish

(d) Ala-ud-din I

52. Who was the Abbasid Caliph that pn conferred on Mahmud of Ghazni the 'Sultan1 for the first time in Islamic histor (a) AI-Nazir (b) Qadir (c) AI-Muqtafi(d) AI-Qaim Who was known as 'Lakh Buksh'? (a) Aibak (b) lltutmish (c) Balban (d) Raziya The most serious sectarian conflict the Sunnis and the Shias occurred durin reign of

(a) Raziya

(b) Balban

(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (d) Firoz Tughluq f

'•Which south Indian ruler defeated the army of Ala-ud-din Khalji in 1303? ,{a) Prataparudra II Raja Karan Muladeva Raja Ramachandra The first Muslim incursion on Deccan occurred during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji Ala-ud-din Khalji Balban ,(d) Muhammad Tughluq The term ghanima in the Delhi Sultanate stands for (a) Market cess

(b) irrigation tax

(c) war booty (d) royal treasury Which Sultan of Delhi established an employ ment bureau, a charity bureau and a charitable hospital? (a) Firoz Tughluq (b) Muhammad Tughluq (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (d) Balban t Three types of coins of the sultanate—tanka, shashgani and jital—were made respectively of silver, silver, copper gold, silver, copper silver, bronze, copper gold, bronze, copper i. Which Delhi Sultan received an embassy from the Mongol monarch of China for seeking his permission to visit certain Buddhist temples? Ala-ud-din Khalji Balban Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq i1. Who among the following rulers was the first to order a huge bell to be hung at the gate of his palace so that an aggrieved person could ring it at any time? (a) Aibak

(b) Ala-ud-din Khalji

; (c) lltutmish (d) Balban 62. Which of the following kings remodelled the existing coinage and issued new coins—a new gold piece called dinar and a silver coin called ft ad/?

Balban Ala-ud-din Khalji


(c) (d) 63.

Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq Who introduced the famous Persian festival of Nauroz?

(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) lltutmish (c) Balban (d) Firoz Tughluq 64. Who was appointed as the envoy of Muhammad Tughluq in the court of the Chinese emperor? (a) Barani

(b) Ibn Battutah

(c) Barbosa

(d) Abdur Razzaq

65. Who said: 'I do not know whether this is lawful or not; whatever I think to be for the good of the state or opportune for the emergency, that I decree.'? (a) (b) (c) (d) 66.

Balban Ala-ud-din Khalji Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq Which one of the cities was not founded by Firoz Tughluq?

(a) Jaunpur

(b) Hissar

(c) Tughluqabad

(d) Firozabad

67. Which one of the following Sultans tried to organise the army on the decimal system after the Mongol pattern? (a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) Balban (c) Firoz Tughluq (d) Muhammad Tughluq 68.

Which pair is not correct?

(a)

Fatwa--A legal decision according to Islamic law

(b) (c)

Dar-ul-harab--Land of infidels Jihad--Holy war against infidels by Muslims

(d) Kafir--A person who has faith in Islam 69. Which one of the following terms was used for measurement of land in the sultanate period? (a) Ghalla-Baksh (b) Masahat (c) Nasaq

(d) Batai

70.

What was khidamati?

(a) (b) (c)

One-fifth of the spoils of wars A tax on purchase and sale of commodities A tribute realised from the subjugated Indian chiefs

(d)

A house tax demanded from the Hindus

/^


71.

Who were valiyul kharaj and muqta-gir during the Tughluq period?

(a) They were revenue collectors and revenue farmers respectively who were given the fiscal responsibility of iqtas by Muhammad Tughluq (b)

They were military officers in charge of paraganas.

(c) They acted as spies for the king. (d) They were officers in charge of state farms. 72. Which of the following statements about the army of the Delhi Sultans is incorrect? (a) A sa war was a trooper who had one horse. (b) A murattab was an artillery man. (c) A sar-i-khail during the sultanate period was the head of a cavalry unit of ten troops. (d) 73.

All the above are true. Who were the munhias during the reign of Alaud-din Khalji?

(a) They were the revenue officers. (b) These were special officers who used to give reports about the rates and working of markets. (c)

They were the heads of the market control organisation.

(d) They were the bodyguards of the king. 74. The most lasting contribution of Sultan Firoz Tughluq on account of which he has been compared by a historian with the Roman emperor Augustus was (a) Construction of public and irrigation works (b) Construction of religious places (mosques) (c) Imposition oijizya upon the Brahmins (d) His policy of religious toleration 75. Which one of the following new techniques of cotton textile industry was not introduced in India by the Turks? (a) Weaver's treadles (b) Spinning wheel (c) Cotton-carder's bow (d) Water frame

76. Who was the first caliph as well as the founder of the Umay/ad dynasty (661-749 ad) of the caliphate? (a) (b) (c) (d) 77.

Prophet Muhammad Abu Bakr Walid Hazrat Ibrahim The Hindu ruler of Sind who was defeated and deposed by the Arab invaders was

(a) Jaisingha (b) Jayac (c) Dahar

(d) Bhima

Whom did Mahmud of Ghazni deft quer and annex Peshawar and Punja (a) Hindu Shahis (b) Ghurids (c) Arabs (d) Karko Who was the court poet of Mahmud < and author of Shah Namah? (a) AI-Beruni (b) Ibn I (c) Maulana Khwajagi (d) Firdausi 80.

Who was the first Indian ruler Muhammad of Ghur?

81.

Prithviraja Chauhan, ruler of Ajn Jayachandra, Gahadvala ruler of H Lakshmana, the Sena ruler of I Mularaja II, the Solanki ruler of ( When did the last campaign of Muha Ghur in India take place and for what [ 1199—To suppress a rebe Prithviraja Chauhan 1201—To establish his authority m\ India 1206—To suppress a rebellion of It of the Punjab 1207—To plunder the Somanathajj in Gujarat

82. Which commander of Muhammad of ( responsible for defeating the Senas an lishing Muslim rule in eastern India? (a) Qutub-ud-din Aibak (b) lltutmis (c) Bakhtiyar Khalji (d) Muhan Qasim 83.

During the reign of which Delhi Sultan \ power of the chahalgani destroyed?

84.

lltutmish Balban Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Raziya Point out the Sultan who died while chaugan from among the following

85.

lltutmish Ala-ud-din Khalji Muhammad Tughluq Qutub-ud-din Aibak Diwan-i-khairat was a separate depart

public works and welfare slaves

âgriculture 'foreign affairs whose reign did Chengiz Khan, the us Mongol, attack India's borders in pursuit alal-uddin, the fugitive Khwarazmi prince? I Ala-ud-din Khalji | Balban Muhammad Tughluq ' lltutmish > was the first Delhi Sultan to consider him' as neither onus inter pares (one among als) nor primus Inter pares (first among als) but much superior to the nobles? Qutub-ud-din Aibak : Ala-ud-din Khalji Nasir-ud-din Khusrau Balban ring Firoz Tughluq's long reign of 37 years, i was only one rebellion by a noble. Who the? Malik Kafur Malik Shams-ud-din Damghani Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul Ulugh Khan i among the following Delhi Sultans did not > for any fresh conquests? a) Balban (b) Firoz Tughluq lltutmish

(d) Bahlul Lodi

|About the territory of which Delhi Sultan is the llowing comment made: The dominion of the of the universe extended from Delhi to alam.'? Kaiqubad Qutub-ud-din Mubarak Khalji ^c) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Tughluq Ibrahim Lodhi ho was the founder of the city of Agra? I (a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) Muhammad Tughluq Firoz Tughluq (d) Sikandar Lodi riich military commander of the Delhi sultanate made plundering raids of south India up to Kanyakumari and during whose reign? ^(a) Khani-Jahan Maqbul during the reign of Firoz Tughluq (b) Malik Kafur during the reign of Alaud-din Khalji


(c)

Bakthiyar Khalji during the reign of Qutubud-din Aibak

(d)

Daulat Khan Lodi during the reign of Ibrahim Lodhi

93. The Quwwat-ul-lslam Mosque in Delhi of the period of the Slave dynasty was originally a (a) Vishnu temple (b) Siva temple (c) Buddhist monastery (d) Jaina temple 94.

What is'batter'?

(a) It is a decorative method combining floral and geometrical designs with panels of Quranic inscriptions in Arabic. (b) It is the practice of combining the principles of the Islamic and Indian methods of con struction. (c)

The sloping walls which give the effect of strength and solidarity to the building.

(d)

It is the practice of placing tombs on high platforms in the midst of gardens.

95. Who among the following is said to have wit nessed the reign of eight Delhi Sultans? (a) Zia-ud-din Barani (b) Shams-iShiraj Afif (c) Minhaj-us-Siraj (d) Amir Khusrau 96. Arrange the following Delhi Sultans of the Mamluk dynasty in chronological order (i) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (ii) Kaiqubad (iii) lltutmish (iv) Raziya (v) Qutub-ud-din Aibak

(vi) Balban Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) v, i, iii, vi, iv and ii (b) v, iii, iv, i, vi and ii (c) iii, iv, i, ii, v and vi (d) iv, ii, i, vi, v and iii 97.

What is the historical sequence of the following conquests of Ala-ud-din Khalji?

(i) Malwa

(ii) Chittor

(iv) Gujarat (vi) Deogir from the codes (iii) Ranthambhor (v) Warangal Choose the answer from the codes given below: v, ii, iii, i, vi and iv iv, iii, ii, i, vi and v (a) iii, iv, v, i, ii and vi (b) 98. Arrange the following Tughluqs in the chronological sequence. (c) ii, i, iv, iii, vi and v (d)


(i) Firoz Tughluq (ii) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq (iii) Abu Bakr (iv) Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (v) Muhammad Tughluq Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, v, i, iii and iv (b) i, ii, v, iv and iii (c) II, v, i, iv and iii (d) iv, iii, i, v and ii 99. What is the correct sequence of the following experiments of Muhammad Tughluq? (i) Enhancement of land revenue to 50 per cent in the Doab area (ii) Establishment of a separate department of agriculture (iii) Introduction of token currency (iv) Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (v) Appointment of a new set of revenue officers Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) v, ii, i, iv and iii (b) iii, ii, v, iv and i (c) iv, iii, i, ii and v (d) iv, i, v, ii and iii 100.

Arrange the following historians of the Muslim period in the chronological order

(i) Firdausi

(ii) Abu Bakr

(iii) Amir Khusrau

(iv) Barani

(v) Hasan Nizami Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, ii, i, iv and v (b) ii, i, v, iii and iv (c) iv, i, v, ii and iii (d) ii, i, iv, iii and v 101. What is the descending order of the following ranks of the nobility under the Delhi Sultans? (i) Amir (ii) Khan (iii) Sar-i-Khail

(iv) Malik

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, ii and iv (b) i, ii, iii and iv

(c) iv, iii, i and ii 102.


Which of the following statements about the Arab conquest of Sind are true?

(i) At the time of the Arab conquest of Sind, the caliphate was headed by Khalifa Walid of the Umayyad dynasty. (ii) The Arab governor of Iraq at the time was Hajjaj who secured the permission from his caliph to conquer Sind. (iii) The first two Arab campaigns under the leadership of Ubaidullah and Budail respectively failed to conquer Sind.

(iv) Muhammad bin Qasim, the was successful in conquerin 711-12 was the son-in-law of I (v) In 715 Muhammad bin Qasim \ from India and executed byS Khalifa, Sulaiman. Choose the answer from the below: (a) (b)

All of them ii, iii and iv

(b) i, ii, iiii (d) i, iii i Who among the following Delhi born to Hindu mothers?

(i) Ala-ud-din Khalji (ii) Nasfrt Khusn (iii) Balban

(iv) Ghiya

Tughlu (v) Firoz Tughluq (vi) Sikan Choose the answer from the below: (a) All of them(b) ii and i (c) ii, iv, v and vi (d) i, ii, v i The historical works of which two I the Delhi Sultanate have Tarikhi-their title? (i) Amir Khusrau

(ii) Ziau

(iii) Shams-i-Shiraj Afif (iv) Min Select the answer from the codes gi) (a) i and ii (b) ii and i (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iii

Which of the following statema Mahmud Ghazni are true? (i) He is said to have invaded times in all. (ii) His last raid in India was aimed | ing the wealth of the Somanatl Gujarat, (iii) He never met any reverses in I of India, (iv) He defeated Prithviraja Ch

battle of Waihind. (v) AI-Beruni who visited India In I Mahmud's invasions made no< ments about the raids. Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and i (c) ii, iii, ivand v

(d) All oft

Raziya was (i) nominated by her father, lltutmish, to succeed him. (ii) successful in coming to the throne immediately after her father's death. (iii) not only the only woman ruler of the Delhi sultanate but also the only daughter to be preferred to sons by any ruler of India. (iv) very favourable to an Abyssinian slave, Yaqut Khan, and in turn received invaluable assistance from him. (v) finally deposed by the nobles and murdered by some bandits in Khaital. Of these statements: (a) all are true (b) i, ii, iii and iv are true (c) ii, iii, iv and v are true (d) i, iii, iv and v are true In order to improve the armed forces, Alaud-din Khalji introduced (i) Branding of horses , (ii) Descriptive roll of soldiers (iii) Regular muster of the army (iv) Organisation of the army on the decimal system (v) Abolition of the iqtas of royal troopers Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and v


Alaud-din (i) reduced the prices of various essential commodities and established separate markets for those goods. r (ii) reduced land revenue demand of the state by eliminating all middlemen. resumed several types of land grants such as inams, and waqfs. [ (iv) reduced the state's share of the war booty

to 20 per cent from 80 per cent. P

109.

Firoz Tughluq

(i) set up an employment bureau and introduced the practice of granting pension to old people. (ii) ordered the inclusion of the names of all the previous Delhi Sultans, except that of ' Aibak, in the khutba. (iii) withdrew the exemption of Brahmins from payment of jizya and collected 10 per cent of the gross produce from peasants as irrigation tax. (iv) abolished about 23 taxes or cesses (abwab) like house tax, salt tax, etc., on the ground of their un-lslamic nature. (v) conquered Jajnagar or Orissa and founded the city of Jaunpur. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i.iijii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and v 110. Which of the following Delhi Sultans sought and secured the 'letter of investiture' from the caliph? (i) Qutub-ud-din Aibak (ii) Ala-ud-din Khalji (iii) lltutmish (iv) Muhammad Tughluq (v) Firoz Tughluq Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv

(c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v 111. During the period of the Delhi sultanate, majlisf'-am or majlis-i-khalawat, meaning council of ministers, was formed by Amir-iKohi SadrusSudur Amir Munshi the codes given

i, iii, iv and vi All of them (i) Wazir

(ii)

(iii) Ariz-i-Mumalik (iv) (v) Amir-iHajeb

(vi)

Choose the answer from below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b)

(c) ii, iv, v and vi

(d)

112. Which of the following new techniques in the cotton textile industry were introduced in India by the Turks? (i) Spinning jenny (ii) Spinning wheel (i«) Water frame (iv) Cotton-carder's bow (v) Weaver's treadles


Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them(b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii, iv and v 113. The following words are ascribed to which Delhi Sultan? 'Sovereignty is not conferred upon every man but is placed on the elect.' (a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) lltutmish (c) Muhammad Tughluq (d) Firoz Tughluq Nofe: Questions 114 and 115 should be attempted in the context of the following words. 'Better a people's weal than treasures vast.' 114.

Which Delhi Sultan had the above words as his motto or guiding maxim?

(a) Balban

(b) Firoz Tughluq

(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (d) Muhammad Tughluq 115.

What is the meaning of the above motto?

(a)

It is better to have people's welfare than a huge treasury.

(b)

It is better to have a huge treasury than empty coffers.

(c)

It is better to keep the people at a subsistence level than to allow them grow rich.

(d)

It is better to have rich nobles than rich commoners.

116.


(a)

Battle of Waihind--Defeat of the Hindu Shahi ruler by Muhammad of Ghur

(b)

Battle of Tarain I--Defeat of Prithviraja Chauhan by Muhammad of Ghur

(c)

Battle of Tarain II--Defeat of Muhammad of Ghur by Prithviraja Chauhan

(d)

Battle of Chandwar--Defeat of Jayachandra of Kanauj by Muhammad of Ghur

117.

Match List I with List II and

List I List II (i) llbaris

(A) Abu Bakr

(ii) Khaljis

(B) Nizam Khan

(iii) Tughluqs (C) Aram Baksh (iv) Sayyids

(D) Qutubud-din

Mubarak (v) Lodhis

(E) Shah Alam

(a) (b) (c) (d) 118.

i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-E, vB i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vB Match List I with List II and select from the codes given below.

List! (i) Dagh (A) Kissing feet (ii) Chahra

(B) Branding

(iii) Paibos

(C) Pros)

of the (iv) Nauroz

(D) Persian

(v) Sijada

(E) Descrij

soldier (a) (b) (c) (d) 119.

i-B, ii-E, iii-C, iv-D, v-A i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vC i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, vD i-E, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C, vD Match List I with List II and select using the codes given below.

List I List II (i) Sikka

(A) Letter of I

(ii) Khutba

(B) Muslim

(iii) Mansur

(C) Infidel or

(iv) Alim

(D) Coin

(v) Kafir

(E) Friday Pi

(a) (b) (c) (d) 120.

i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vC i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vB i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, v-A Match the following

List I List! (i) Kharaj Zakat (iii) Jizya (A)

State's 'one-fifth sft war booty, troves, mine

(B)

Irrigation taxj ting to 101 the gross pn

(C)

Land rev unting to i one-half of' duce, paid in the Hindu only, but I

(iv) Shirb (D)

Land tax Muslim pe

select i (v) Khums (E) Religious tax paid by propertied Muslims, amounting to one-tenth of the total value of their property (vi) Ushar

(F) Poll-tax paid by the

Hindus because of the zimmi status in an Islamic state (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-F, iii-A, iv-C, v-E, vi-B i-D, ii-C, iii-F, iv-E, v-B, vi-A i-C, ii-E, iii-F, iv-D, v-A, vi-B i-C, ii-E, iii-F, iv-B, v-A, vi-D Consider List I and List II:

)! d'

)

List H trac she fc tines, tax pen pn enue bnet >f the. iir

iterl paid NantsJ

List I (i) Had/s

(ii) Zawabit (iii) Fatwa (iv) Farman

(v) Shariat List II

Sayings and doings of the Prophet Islamic Law Islamic legal decision Rules and regulations framed by the Sultans Royal order Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v Consider List I and List II: List I List II (i) lltutmish

The first Delhi Sultan to

(ii) Balban

(iii) Firoz Tughluq

(iv) Muhammad Tughlua acquire a mansur The only Delhi Sultan to acquire two mansurs Called himself the shadow of god Removed the name of the caliph from the sMa and khutba "Which of the above are correctly paired? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iv and v (c) ii, iv and v (d) iii, iv and v Match the following: List II Minor when he became ruler Slave when he became ruler List I (i) Qutub-ud-din Aibak (A) (ii) Kaiqubad

(B)


(iii) Ala-ud-din Khalji

(C) The only Indian convert to become (iv) Nasirud-din Khusrau (v) Muhammad Tughluq the Sultan (d) He was a paralytic (E) He expressed ignorance of the Islamic law (a) i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vD (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, v-A (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, v-A 124. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List I (i) Raj'a Karan (ii) Hamir Deva (iii) Ratan Singh (iv) Harananda (v) Ramachandra List II (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Devagiri Malwa Chittor Ranthambhor Gujarat (vi) Prataparudra Deva (F) Warangal

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, v-A, vi-F i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, v-A, vi-F i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, v-D, vi-F i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-F, v-C, vi-E

125.

Which of the following is correctly paired?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 126. lists.

DiwaniMustakhraj--Ba\ban Diwan-l-Kohi--Ala-ud-din Khalji Diwan-i-Arz--Muhammad Tughluq Diwan-i-8andagani--F\roz Tughluq Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Diwan-i-Risalat (A) Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs (ii) Dlwanilnsha (iii) DiwaniWazarat (iv) DiwaniArz (v) DiwaniKohi (B)

Military Department

(C) (D)

Finance Department Agricultural Department

(E)

Department of Slav ves

(vi) Wwan-i-Bandagani (F) Department of Records and Correspondence


(a) i-F, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, v-B, vi-D (b) i-A, ii-F, iii-C, iv-B, v-D, vi-E (c) i-A, ii-F, iii-C, iv-D, v-E, vi-B (d) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-F, v-C, vi-E 127. Match the following: List I (i) MushrifiMumalik

List II (A) Head of Records Department (ii) Mustauf-i-Mumalik (B) Head of Intelligence Department (ili) Barid-i-Mumalik (C) Head of Religious (iv) Amir Munshi (D) Department Accountant-General Auditor-General (E) (v) SadrusSudur (a) (b) (c) (d) 128. lists:

i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D, we i-E, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C, vB i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vC Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Iqta (A) Crown lands whose revenues were meant for the maintenance of the Sultan and his household (ii) Khalisa

(B) Land assigned to reli gious persons or institutions

(iii) Inam salary

(c) Land whose rev enues were assigned to an official in lieu of his

(iv) Madad-i-Maash (d) Land assigned to an artist (v) Dar-ul-Harab (E) Land of infidels (a) (b) (c) (d) 129.

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B, we i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E, vD i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D, we i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vC Match the following:

List II In-charge of the royal household In-charge of the royal court List I (i) Barbak (B) (ii) Amir-iHajeb

(A)

Sar-i-Jandar

(C) In-charge of |

tiny of vis the court (iv) Vaklli-Dar (D) In-charge security Sultan (v) Amir-iMajlis (E)

In-charge of | feasts and, brations

(a) (b) (c) (d) 130.

i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, v-A i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vC i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, we i-A, ii-C. iii-D, iv-B, we Match the following:

List I List II (i) Nayim

Provincial go

(ii) Muqaddam

District in-cha

(iii) Amil

Taluq in-chari

(iv) Shiqdar

Clerk

(v) Dabir

Village head

Which of the above are incorrectly Select the answer from the codes giv (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii, iv and \ (c) i and iv 131.

(d) ii and v

Match List I with List II and select thefl from the codes given below.

List I List II (i) Band

(A) Warrior class

(ii) Qazi (iii) Shahna

(B) L//emaandi (C) Intelligence i

(iv) Ahl-i-Saif (D) Market superin (v) Ahl-i-Qalam (E) Civil Judge

(a) (b) (c) (d) 132.

i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, we i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B, v-A i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vB Which of the following is correctly i

(a) (b) (c) (d) 133.

Hauz Khas--Firoz Tughluq Siri Fort--lltutmish Qutub Minar--Muhammad Tughluql Tughluqabad--Ala-ud-din Khalji Match the following:

List I List II (i) IbnBattutah (A) Futuh-us (ii) AI-Beruni (B) KitabiHin (iii) Isami (C) Tughluq i

(D)

TabaqatiNasiri

(E)

KitabulRahla

(iv) Amir Khusrau (v) Minhaj Siraj (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D, we i-A, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, vB i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, vD i-E, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, vC

Brtion and Reason

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but 'Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, and 'R' is not correct explanation for 'A'. Assertion: Slave Sultans are also called llbari Turks. Reason: llbari in Arabic language means 'the owned'. Assertion: Ala-ud-din Khalji gave maximum attention to the organisation of the armed forces. Reason: He appropriated four-fifths share of the war booty to the state, leaving only one-fifth

share to the soldiers. Assertion: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq died in an accident while receiving his victorious son, Muhammad. Reason: Muhammad Tughluq was himself assassinated by his nephew, Firoz Tughluq. Assertion: Most of the Delhi Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they themselves were his representatives. Reason: Opposition to the Sultan who had been recognised by the caliph as his deputy was regarded by the Muslims in general as contrary to the Holy Law. . Assertion: The post of malik naib was generally filled only when a ruler was weak or a minor. Reason: Ala-ud-din Khalji gave this high post to Malik Kafur as a mark of special favour. . Assertion: Ariz-i-mumalik in his capacity as the head of the military department was the com-manderin-chief of the armed forces.


Reason: He was responsible for recruiting, equipping, training and paying the army. 140. Assertion: The nobility under Muhammad Tughluq was a highly homogeneous one. Reason: Royal intervention in the iqta system was as its peak under Muhammad Tughluq. 141. Assertion: Firoz Tughluq reversed the whole trend of the centralisation of the iqta system by the previous rulers. Reason: He fixed the estimated revenues of the iqtas for allowing the muqtis to appropriate all increase of revenue. 142. Assertion: There was a significant growth of urban centres under the Delhi Sultans. Reason: According to Ibn Battutah, a Moroccan traveller who visited India in the first half of 14th century, Delhi was the largest town in the Islamic East. 143. Assertion: The Delhi Sultans are credited with introducing the institution of da/a/ in India to facil itate commercial transactions on a large-scale. Reason: The dalals immediately established the dadni system in the whole of India to pro cure goods meant for export. 144. Assertion: With the introduction of sericulture in India by the Turks, the Indian silk industry received a boost. Reason: The Indians started exporting raw silk to Persia and Afghanistan from the time of the Delhi Sultans. 145. Assertion: The origins of differentiation between the Hindustani and the Carnatic schools of music can probably be traced to the period of the Delhi sultanate. Reason: The Turks brought with them a number of new musical instruments as well as several new modes, airs and scales. 146. 'She was endowed with all the qualities befit ting a King, but she was not born of the right sex, and so, in the estimation of men, all these virtues were worthless.' Who wrote these words about Raziya?

(a) Isami

(b) Amir Khusrau

(c) Minhaj Siraj

(d) Shiraj Afif

147.

Which one of the following is not permitted by the s/jar/ar?

(a) (b)

The tax on agriculture produce The tax on non-Muslims

j£.


(c) (d) 148.

Commercial taxes and cesses The tax paid by Muslims Which one of the following was the main rea son for the fall of Raziya?

(a) The determined ambition of the Turkish military aristocracy to keep the ruler of Delhi a tool in their hands and to retain the monopoly of power for themselves. (b)

The undue preference given to Jamalud-din Yaqut, an Abyssinian slave by her.

(c) Raziya seems to have given offence to the orthodox Muslim opinion by casting of her female attire and by appearing in the open. (d)

A woman ruling a state was not in consonance with .the spirit of Muslim law.

149. Which fort was described by Amir Khusrau as 'the paradise of the Hindus ... higher than the seventh heaven.'? (a) Ranthambhor (c) Kalinjar 150.

(b) Chittor

(d) Gwalior

Which of the following statements is not correct about Balban?

(a) Under Balban the Delhi court acquired celebrity for its great magnificence, and it gave shelter to many exiled nobles from Central Asia. (b)

Balban considered the sovereign to be the representative of god on earth.

(c)

He launched many aggressive conquests and expanded the limits of his domain.

(d)

He had a strong sense of justice, which he administered without any partiality.

151. Which of the following were considered by Alaud-din Khalji as causes which engender evil and strife and bring forth pride and disloyalty? (i) Disregard of the affairs of the state by the Sultan (ii) The use of wine (iii) The intrigues of women (iv) Intimacy and alliances among the nobles (v) Abundance of money


(b) i, ii, iv and v

(c) i, iii, iv and v


152.

Which of the following statements are correct about Muhammad Tughluq?

(i) His original name was Jauna Khan, (ii) As a prince he failed to subji Warangal in the first attempt, was successful in his second ati (iii) His critics accuse him of arranging { called accidental death of his father^ (iv) He was proficient in logic, philc mathematics, astronomy, physic ences, etc. (v) In his private life, the Sultan par the prevailing vices of the age. Choose the answer/ from the codes' below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) i, iii, ivandi

(c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, iii, iv:

153.

Firoz Tughluq's Nagarkot campaign is in ing, because

(a) (b)

He was defeated by the Rai of I He defeated the Rai of Nagarl annexed it.

(c) He caused three hundred volt Sanskrit books on various subje served in the temple of Jwalamuk rendered into Persian verse. (d)

He asked the Rai of Nagarkot to! return for heavy presents.

154. The chief architect under Firoz Tughlfl gave shape to many buildings, bridges,! reservoirs, tombs, and mosques was (a) (b) (c) (d) 155.

Malik Ghazi Sahana Abdul Haq Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul Khalid Khani Who was the Delhi Sultan to imposey/r on the Brahmins?

(a) Balban

(b) Alauddiif]

(c) Firoz Tughluq

(d) Muhamn

Tughluq 156.

Which of the following was not a deft Shah's administration?

(a)

Extension of the farming-out sy

(b)

Allowing hereditary claims to | as iqtas

(c)

Extension of the scope and rig lection of the jizya

(d)

Abolition of a number of duties i and commerce

should be left only so much to the Hindus that neither on the one hand should ey become intoxicated on account of their alth, nor on the other should they become > destitute as to leave their lands and cultiva-on in despair.' Whose doctrine was this? Alaud-din Khalji (b) Muhammad Tughluq ;c) Balban

(d) Ibrahim Lodhi

hich Sultan wanted to found a new religion, but was advised against it by the ema? a) Balban Ala-ud-din Khalji Ic) Muhammad Tughluq fd) lltutmish hich of the following statements is not correct ut the iqta system? |a) The iqtas of the Delhi sultanate were similar to the amarams of the Vijayanagar period. b) The iqta holders had to maintain a pre scribed number of troops for sending to the Sultan whenever required. jfc) The iqtas were hereditary, but transferable. |d) Iqtas were given not only to Muslims but also to Hindus. hich one of the following was not one of the ilar methods of land revenue assessment er the Delhi Sultans? ["(a) Sharing the crop 2(b) Method of measurement |Hc) Kankut Md) Qabuliat or contract I Which of the following measures taken by IFiroz Tughluq did not help in improving agricul [ture?

|(a) He lowered the demand of the state as far as land revenue was concerned. |fb) He brought about improved methods of cultivation and superior crops. |{c) He laid out 1,200 fruit gardens in the neighbourhood of Delhi, which promoted horticulture. ;(d) He caused the estimate of the annual income from land revenue of the territory directly under the state.

eenth and Fourteenth Centuries B101

According to Islamic practice, one used to expound the law and the other used to deliver judgement. Who were they respectively? (a) Mufti and qazi (b) Qazi and mufti (c) Qazi and sadr (d) Qazi and muqtl Who among the following were originally con sidered as zimmis by Islam because they shared the knowledge of true religion? (i) Zoroastrians (ii) Christians (iii) Hindus

(iv) Jews

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i,ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii and iv only Which one of the following schools of Muslim law allowed idolaters to live as zimmis subject to payment of jizya? (a) Hanafi (b) Malikita (c) Shafisite

(d) Hanbalite

Which one of the following statements is not correct about the religious policy under the Delhi sultanate? (a) Hindus had to pay pilgrimage tax for visiting their holy places and fairs as also for bathing in their sacred tanks or rivers. (b) Hindus were not permitted to construct new temples, though they could repair old ones. 1 (c) In the reign of Sikandar Lodhi a Brahmin named Bodhan was put to death for the offence of saying that there was truth in Hinduism as also Islam. (d) Muhammad Tughluq, though rational and liberal, did not permit Hindus to build new temples. Which Sultan represented himself as 'Sikandar-i-Sani' (The Second Alexander)? (a) (b) (c)

Ala-ud-din Khalji Muhammad Tughluq Sikandar Lodhi

(d) KhizrKhan 'Do not oppose those whom God had given power and position. He has given me the empire of India. When I see any tree rising beyond its limits, I cut down its head with my axe and plant another tree.' Which Sultan made this statement?


(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (b) Muhammad Tughluq (c) Balban 168.

(d) Sikandar Lodhi

Which of the following constituted the tax-col lecting officials?

(i) Rais (ii) Khuts (iii) Chaudharis

(iv) Muqaddams

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, ii and iii (d) ii, iii and iv 169. 'Every pearl in the royal crown is but the crys tallised drops of blood fallen from the tearful eyes of the poor peasant.' Who made this statement? (a) AmirKhusrau

(b) Barani

(c) Ibn Battutah

(d) AI-Beruni


Instructions Mark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is correct but 'Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct. Mark (c) if both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation for (A). Mark (d) if both (a) and (R) are correct and (R)

is not the correct explanation for (A). 170. Assertion: The Sultans may not have been too eager to encourage large-scale conversion. Reason: The increasing conversion could lead to a loss of revenue, as jizya paying citizens

could cease to pay the tax on conv Islam. 171. Assertion: Balban could not raise the i cal strength of the army to the level reached later in the region of AlauddinJ Reason: He insisted upon high birth essential qualification for appointi higher civil and military posts. 172.

Assertion: Ala-ud-din prohibited the use of liquor in Delhi.

Reason: He wanted to uphold religk moral standards. 173. Assertion: The scheme of extending ture through diwan-i-kohi by Muha Tughluq was a failure. Reason: The land chosen was not most of the money was wasted as the < were dishonest and inefficient. 174. Assertion: The government of Afghan I ties was based on the spirit of biradari (o tion of the clan). Reason: Afghan sultanate could not much support either from the Turks Indian converts to Islam, 175. Assertion: Muhammad Tughluq confen ours and high appointments upon converted Hindus, members of Sufi' Afghans and even Mongols. Reason: He wanted to weaken the old i and set up a new order of office-holders ( erogeneous racial origins.

ANSWERS

I 1 i Me) 5.(d) 6.(c) Me) Mb) H(c) me) Me) Md) Ma) Me) |l.(d) (b) Md)

2.(d) -7. 12. (c) 22. (c) 32. (c) 42. (c) 52. (b) 62. (c) 72. (b) 82. (c) 92. (b)

3.(c)

4.

(c)

-- i

(b) 13. (b) 23. (c) 33. (c) 43. (d) 53. (a) 63. (c) 73. (b) 83. (b) 93. (d)

8.(c) 14. 24. 34. 44. 54. 64. 74. 84. 94.

9-(c) (d) (d) (c) (d) (a) (b) (a) (d) (c)

10. (c) 15. (c) 25. (c) 35. (a) 45. (c) 55. (a) 65. (b) 75. (d) 85. (a) 95. (d)

102. (a) 103. (c) 104. (c) 108. (c) 109. (a) Mb) 112. (d) 113. (c) 114. (c) 118. (b) 119. (a) iMc) 122. (b) 123. (d) 124. (d) 128. (a) 129. (c) Md) 132. (a) 133. (c) 134. (c) 138. (d) 139. (b) h.(c) 142. (c) 143. (a) 144. (c) 148. (a) 149. (b) II. (b) 152. (a) 153. (c) 154. (a) 158. (b) 159. (c) Md) 162. (a) 163. (d) 164. (b) 168. (d) 169. (a) Md) 172. (a) 173. (c) 174. B103

16. (d) 26. (c) 36. (a) 46. (d) 56. (a) 66. (c) 76. (b) 86. (d) 96. (b)

17. 27. 37. 47. 57. 67. 77. 87. 97.

(d) (c) (c) (d) (c) (d) (c) (d) (d)

(b) 105. (b) 110. (c) (b) 115. (a) 120. (d) (a) 125. (d) 130. (b) (a) 135. (d) 140. (b) (a) 145. (c) 150. (c) (a) 155. (c) 160. (d) (a) 165. (d) 170. (c) (c) 175. (c)

18. (a) 28. (a) 38. (c) 48. (d) 58. (a) 68. (d) 78. (a) 88. (b) 98. (a)

19. (d) 29. (c) 39. (c) 49. (b) 59. (a) 69. (b) 79. (d) 89. (a) 99. (c)

20. (d) 30. (c) 40. (d) 50. (d) 60. (c) 70. (c) 80. (d) 90. (c) 100.

106. (d)

107.

116. (d)

117.

126. (b)

127.

136. (a)

137.

146. (c)

147.

156. (d)

157.

166. (a)

167.

y\

chapter 12 THE FIFTEENTH AND EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURIES

12.1 VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE Literary Sources

Foreign Travellers' Accounts Ibn Battutah, an African (Moroccan) traveller, has left a good account of the Vijayanagar empire under Harihara 1. Nicolo de Conti, an Italian (Venetian), visited the Vijayanagar empire during the time of Deva Raya I. Abdur Razzak, a Persian, has left us a graphic account of the empire under Deva Raya II. Domingo Paes was a Portuguese visitor to Krishna Deva Raya's empire. Duarte Edwardo Barbosa was also a Portuguese visitor to the empire during Krishna Deva Raya's reign. Fernao Nuniz, another Portuguese, visited the empire during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya.

Indigenous Works Sri Krishna Deva Raya's Amuktamalyada enables us to know about the polity and political ideas of the Vijayanagar rulers. Allasani Peddans's Manucharitam gives us a detailed account of the social conditions, particularly the caste system, of the Vijayanagar empire. Muduravijayam of Gangadevi, wife of Kumara Kampana (one of the sons of Bukka 1), deals with Kampana's conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka I. Gangadhara's Gangadasa Pralapa Vilasam, a contemporary drama, deals with the seige of Vijayanagar city by the Bahmanis and the Gajapatis of Orissa after the death of Deva Ray Saluvabhyudayam of Rajanattha Dindima was a! torical eulogy of the Saluva dynasty.

Archaeological Sources

Inscriptions The Bagapellsi Copper PU Inscription of Harihara I tells us about his ach ments. The Bitragunta grant of Sangama II (9 Kampana) gives us the genealogy of the Sangama brothers responsible for the foundatio the Vijayanagar empire. The Channaraya inscription of Harihara II states that Bukka I successful in conquering several areas. Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya II list the \ ious achievements of the ruler. The Devulapalli < per plates of Immadi Narasimha give us the ge ogy of the Saluva dynasty.

Numismatics The Vijayanagar emperors is large number of gold coins, called varahas. Son them were full varahas, some half varahas and \ rest quarter varahas. On the obverse they figures of various Hindu deities and animals like| bull, the elephant and the fabulous gandaberun double eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in < beak and claw). On the reverse they contain; king's name either in Nagari or Kannada Some quarter varahas of Deva Raya II describe j as 'Gajabentakara'.

B104

TheF

HISTORY

ayanagar empire was founded in 1336 by i and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty who t first, in the service of the Kakatiya ruler of Prataparudra II. But after the Muslim of the Kakatiya kingdom in 1323, they :r to the kingdom of Kampili in modern lea and became ministers there. When i was also overrun by Muhammad Tughluq ng refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two broth-imprisoned, converted to Islam, and ^ted to deal with the rebellions in the province npili. After establishing their sway over ili at first for the Sultan, the two Sangama i returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative t Vidyaranya, proclaimed their independence tided a new city on the south bank of the bhadra which was called Vijayanagar (city of I or Vidyanagar (city of learning).

I Troubles and Expansion

young kingdom had to contend with the sala ruler of Mysore and the Sultan of ai. The Sultan of Madurai had expansionist i. He defeated the Hoyasala ruler in a bat-and executed him. The dissolution of the ala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to I their tiny principality. By 1346, the whole : Hoyasala kingdom had passed into the hands s Vijayanagar rulers. The struggle between the nagar rulers and the Sultans of Madurai, irever, lasted for about four decades, and it was by 1377 that the sultanate of Madurai was pletely wiped out. The Vijayanagar empire comprised the whole of south India upto Besvaram, including the Tamil country as well terala.

anagar-Bahmani Conflict

of interests in three areas The first con-ntious area was the Tungabhadra doab, which was

:ifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries BIOS

the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. The second was the KrishnaGodavari delta, which was very fertile and with its numerous ports controlled the foreign trade of the region. In the third one, that is, the Marathwada country, the main contention was for the control of Konkan and the areas which gave access to it.

Beginning of the Conflict It started on a large scale in 1367 during the reign of Bukka I, when he assaulted the fortress of Mudkal in the disputed Tungabhadra doab and slaughtered the entire garrison except one man. When this news reached the Bahmani Sultan, he was enraged and launched a successful compaign to recapture Mudkal despite the opposition of the Vijayanagar forces. He then crossed the Tungabhadra and defeated the Vijayanagar ruler in a battle. The war dragged on for several months, but the Bahmani Sultan could neither capture the Raja nor his capital. Finally both sides were exhausted, and concluded a treaty which restored the old positions.

Attempt at Eastward Expansion The Vijayanagar empire now embarked upon a policy of expansion towards the eastern sea coast under Harihara II. This new policy of expansion consequently led the Vijayanagar empire into fresh conflicts. It was responsible for the alliance of the Bahmani kingdom with Warangal which lasted for about 50 years and which was a major factor in the inability of the Vijayanagar empire to overrun the Tungabhadra doab or to stem the Bahmani offensive in the area. However, it was to the credit of Harihara II that he, was able to maintain his position in the face of the Bahmani-Warangal combination. His greatest success was in wresting Belgaum and Goa in the west from the Bahmani kingdom.

Renewal of Conflict Under the Deva Rayas The reign of Deva Raya I began with a renewed fight for the Tungabhadra doab. He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler, Firoz Shah, and had to pay a huge indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan. However, this marriage could not by itself bring about peace. The question of the Krishna-Godavari delta led to a renewed conflict


between Vijayanagar, the Bahmani kingdom and Orissa. Following a confusion in the Reddy kingdom, Deva Raya entered into an alliance with Warangal for partitioning the Reddy kingdom between themselves. Warangal's defection from the side of the Bahmani kingdom changed the balance of power in the Deccan. Deva Raya was able to inflict a shattering defeat on Firoz Shah and annexed the entire territory up to the mouth of the Krishna. Deva Raya II was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in his army, and asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from them. With his new army, he crossed the Tungabhadra river and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankpur, etc., which were to the south of the Krishna river and had been lost to the Bahmani Sultans earlier. Three hard battles were fought, but in the end the two sides had to agree to the existing frontiers.

Decline Under Later Sangamas and Saluvas There was confusion in the Vijayanagar empire after the death of Deva Raya II. There were a series of civil wars among the various contenders to the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. The rulers were sunk in pleasure and neglected the affairs of the stste. After some time, the throne was usurped by the king's minister, Saluva Narasimha. Thus the Sangama dynasty came to an end and the Saluva dynasty was established. Saluva Narasimha restored internal law and order in the empire. Its Revival Under Tuluva Krishna Deva Raya The Saluva dynasty also soon came to an end, and a new dynasty called the Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. He was in turn succeeded by his half-brother, Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29) who is considered as the greatest of all the Vijayanagar rulers for his military as well as other achievements.

Final Decline and Aravidu Dynasty Krishna Deva Raya's death was followed by a struggle for succession among his relations. After the uneventful reigns of Achtyuta Deva and Vankata, Sadasiva Raya

ascended the throne. But the real power, reign of all of them lay in the hands of Rama 1 who was a son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya. ] Raja was able to play off various Muslim against one anotner. He entered into a con treaty with the Portuguese where by the sup horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped. In a i of wars he completely defeated the Bijapur rule then allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to i humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahma However, his enemies (except Berar) ultin combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vrjaya at Bannihatti, near Talikota, in 1565. This 1 also known as the Battle of Raksasa Tangadi. Raja was imprisoned and immediately exe This battle is generally considered to mark i of the great age of Vijayanagar. Although th dom lingered on for almost one hundred years i the Aravidu dynasty, its territories shrank st< and the Raya no longer counted in the polj affairs of south India.

Krishna Deva Raya's Achievements

His Immediate Problems The rebel chief Ummattur started contesting the Raya's Ion the Mysore region. The Gajapatis of Orissa' occupation of the north-eastern districts. Thoug Bahmani kingdom had virtually split up into i states, Muslim pressure from the north, esp from Bijapur, continued unabated. Moreover, i was the growing power of the Portuguese to co with, a power which was rapidly establishing co over the sea routes and the maritime trade of west coast.

Repulsion of Bahmani Forces Krishna Raya's first task was to repulse the Bahmani which invaded his territory on their annual raid i the Raya kingdom. But they soon discovered i they were no longer free to plunder and ravage.' Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the I tie of Diwani. Krishna Deva pursued the armies, particularly those of Yusuf Adil Shah,' turned around to oppose him near Kovilkonda i lost his life in the battle that followed.

TheF

I of] vaRaj lusliu 1a [the

,J#? ?Uri tier" t Invasion of Bijapuri Kingdom After this pre-success Krishna Deva Raya invaded the hur doab and took the Raichur fort. Finding his unity in the differences that had arisen Bijapur and the Bahmani Sultan. Yusuf |,Shah was succeeded by his young son Ismail | Shah in Bijapur. After the capture of Raichur, marched on to Gulbarga, defeated Amir , the minister of Sultan Mahmud and took hold : city. From there he marched on Bidar, cap! it after a short siege, released Mahmud and the title of 'Yavanarajyasthapanacharya' jsblisher of the Yavana or Muslim kingdom).

dship with Portuguese The Portuguese gov-fr, Albuquerque, sent an agent to offer aid to . Deva in his fight against the Bahmanis in i for Vrjayanagar support against the Zamorin ilicut. He also promised to supply Arab and i horses only to Vrjayanagar and not to send Bijapur. But Krishna did not immediately t the offer. The second Portuguese ambassador na Deva renewed the Portuguese governor's : to erect a fort at Bhatkal and succeeded in pission. This was after Albuquerque had I and captured Goa in 1510.

an of Internal Revolt The war against el chieftain of Ummattur, Ganga Raya, began »attack on Penugonda, which had passed in to of the rebel. The capture of this strong i was followed by attacks on Ummattur and am (the headquarters of Ganga Raya). In Ganga Raya was killed and the con-territory became a new province with apatnam as capital.

Campaign The Gajapati ruler of Orissa, udra, had been in occupation of the coastal in the east from the day of Saluva , In a series of successful battles, in some the king himself participated, Krishna

efeated the forces of the Orissa ruler, and 1 the whole of Telangana. He then turned ntion to north-coastal Andhra where ndravaram was one of the first cities to be . few feeble attempts were made to stop its

ifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries B107

progress, but the Vijayanagar army continued its triumphant march, devastating the territory of the Gajapatis all along the road up to PotnurSimhadri. Krishna Deva set up a pillar of victory there and returned to his capital. His victorious army marched further in to Kalinga until its capital Cuttack was reached. Prataparudra sued for peace and offered the hand of his daughter. Krishna Deva was magnanimous and returned all the territory north of the Krishna.

Second Invasion of Bijapuri Kingdom Meanwhile Ismail Adil Shah recaptured Raichur and this was the reason for the second conflict between the Bijapur ruler and Krishna Deva Raya. In the battle of Raichur the Bijapur ruler was completely defeated and pushed across the river Krishna, barely escaping with his life. The Viajayanagar armies later destroyed Gulbarga before a truce was made. At Gulbarga, Krishna Deva liberated the sons of Mahmud Bahmani, made the eldest of them the Sultan, and brought the others with him to Vijayanagar. But this second attempt to resuscitate Bahmani sovereignty under Hindu patronage lacked all possibility of success and perhaps only served to irritate the Sultans of the five splinter states to a great extent.

Patronage of Literature Krishna Deva was also a great patron of art and literature, and was known as 'Andhra Bhoja'. Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as ashtadiggajas were at his court. Allasani Peddana was the greatest and he was often described as ' Andhrakavita-Pitamaha'. His important works include Manuchantam and Harikatha-saramsamu. Others include Nandi Timmana (Parijatapaharanam), Madayya (Rajasekharcharitam), Dhurajati (Kalahasti Mahatyam), Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra (Sakaramatasara Sangraham), Pingali Surana (Raghava Pandaviyam and Prabhavari Pradyumma), Ramaraja Bhusan and Tenali Ramalinga (Panduranga Mahatyam). Besides, the king himself was the author of one Telugu work Amuktamalyada, and one Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam.

Contribution to Architecture He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and

BIOS Indian History: Medieval India

Vitthalaswamy at the capital. He also built a new city, called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother, Nagamba. Besides, he built a large number of raya gopurams (towers) and other structures of lesser significance.

ADMINISTRATION

Theory of Kingship

Kingship was based on the principle of absolute monarchy, but of the benevolent type. The king was to ensure people's welfare, listen to their appeals, and remove all their difficulties. He enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal and the supreme lawgiver.

Law of Succession

It was based generally on the hereditary principle. But there were instances of successors being nomiated by the reigning rulers to ensure peaceful succession. There were also instances of usurpation. The Sangama dynasty ended when Saluva Narasimha usurped the throne. When a minor succeeded the throne, the practice of appointing a regent to look after and the administration was also prevalent.


There was a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, to assist and advise the king in administrative matters. But it was left to the king's discretion whether or not to abide by them. The king also consulted, besides the ministers, his own favourite individuals on very important issues. Central administration was divided in to several departments, each supervised by a royal officer.

Provincial and Local Administration

The empire was divided in to different administrative units manadalams or rajyas (provinces), nadus (districts), sthalas (sub-districts) and finnaly in to

gramas (villages). The number and sizel dalams varied from time to time. Each ] under a governor, described as mand nayaka. The Vijayanagar rulers did not| local administration, and hence local' complete autonomy. Gauda, village looked after the administration of the' was the basic unit of administration.

Revenue Administration

Chief Sources of Income Land crown lands was the most important soil and gifts from vassals and feudal ch collected at the ports, and tolls on inli taxes on various professions, houses, s licences; fines inflicted by courts, important sources of income.

Collection of Land Revenue It wasl the basis of assessement, fixed after < Its rate varied according to the na vated land. It was fixed on the basis of tion and the quantum of yield obfc l/6th of the gross produce was colle But sometimes it was raised to fifty ]

Items of Expenditure As sugg« Amuktamalyada, the expenditure of < divided into four parts--charities expenditure of the king, maintenance < itary conquests and security of the i

Judicial Administration

King administered justice impartially over the sabha, the highest court of a courts for administering justice werel ent parts of the empire. They were 1 archy of officals. There were also caste panchayats and guild organisatj of petty offences like violation of < rules of trade. Dharmasastras gene basis on which cases were decided. \ ments were inflicted. For instance, i mutilation, and throwing to eleph common.

TheF

r Administration

I was a well organised and efficient standing ; It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery phant crops. High-breed horses were pro-foreign merchants. Different grades of i were there in the army, the top grades being akas or palegars. In addition to the regular army, armies of vassal kings, governors al levies assisted the king whenever necesi fact, some of the nadaprabhus (in charge of I or sub-distrcts) like the gaudas of Bangalore fically protected the boundaries from foreign iions and even helped in suppressing the defiant cial governors and vassals. Ordinary soldiers oyal army were usually paid in cash, but big like palegars were granted territory (amaith a fixed revenue in lieu of their salaries.

CONDITIONS

i System

ii Peddana, in his Manucharitam, mentions : castes that existed in the Vijayanagar socieKprulu or Brahmins followed the traditional pro-on of teachers and priests. They sometimes also brmed duties of soldiers and administrators, is confirmed from the narration of Domingo S. Rajulu or rachavaru were generally associated ithe ruling dynasty, assisting them in matters of and warfare. The rulers as well as generals actually Sudras, but called rachavaru on of their position. As in the case of other i of south India, the Kshatriya varna seems to be nt here. Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the same chants who carried on trade and commerce. 'ajativaru or Sudras were mainly agriculturists, f some of them carried on several other profess. They were not segregated, although considl inferior. osa's account is very interesting but confus-, He says that villages in the empire were inhab-by Hindus and few Muslims. There were iyas, Brahmins and Virasaivas among the s. He says that the king belonged to the

ifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries ^Hi B109

Kshatriya caste. Polygamy was practised by them and their women observed sati. Brahmins were priests in charge of temple worship. They were vegetarians and so were the Virasaivas who wore the symbol of their god round their neck. Other castes like Vaishyas and Sudras were also there. Jainas also formed an important section of the population.

Position of Women

Education and learning Gangadevi, wife of Kampana, wrote Maduravijayam. Hannamma was a prominent scholar in the court of Prauda Deva. Tirumalamma was a distinguished poetess in Sanskrit in the reign of Achyuta Raya.

Employment According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers. There were also wrestlers among them. Some women were also appointed as accountants, judges, bailiffs, and watch women.

Custom of devadasis The practice of dancing girls attached to temples was also in vogue. From the account of Paes, we learn that devadasis held a highly respectable position in society, and were given land grants, maid-servants, jewellery, etc.

Religion

Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. Virupaksha was their family god. Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. But Siva continued to be worshipped. Vaishnavism was professed in various forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly popular. The Dvaita system of Madhava was also practised. Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses, especially since they served as a means of education among women.

CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION

Architecture

The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style, called the Vijayanagar


style. Though often characterised as Dravida style, it had its own distinct features. The large number and prominence of pillars and piers and the complicated manner in which they were sculptured are some of its distinct features. The horse was the most common animal to be depicted on the pillars. They have a mandapam or open pavillion with a raised plaftform, generally meant for seating the deity on special occasions. These temples also have a kalyana mandapam with elaborately carved pillars. In the Vijayanagar temples the central part was occupied by the garbhagriha--the sanctum cell where the presiding deity was installed. Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the god. The following are the most important temples. The most magnificent of the temples in this style are in Hampi-Vijayanagar. Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples are the best examples. The former reaches a high point in florid magnificence. The Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram, Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram are the other good examples. The raya gopurams, towers in commemoration of the visit of emperors in differnt corners of the empire, are also important.

Literature

The Vijayanagar rulers were also great patrons of literature. Under their patronage, several religious as well as secular books were composed in different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. The peak of literary development was reached during the reign of Krishna Raya, who is rightly called 'Andhra Bhoja'.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The Vijayanagar empire was one of the richest state then known to the world. Several foreign travellers, who visited the empire during the 15th and 16th centuries, have left glowing accounts of its splendour and wealth.

Agriculture

It was in a flourishing condition. It was the policy of its rulers to encourage agriculture in the different

parts of the empire and to increase agricult duction by a wise irrigation policy. Nu Portuguese traveller, speaks of the constructid dam and excavation of canals.

Industries

Its agricultural wealth was supplemented by i ous industries, the most important of which1 textiles, mining and metallurgy. Another in industry was perfumery. Industries and craf regulated by guilds. It was common practice i pie of the same trade to live in one and quarter of the city. Abdur Razzak, the Persian jj mat and traveller, remarks: 'The tradesmen < separate guild or craft have their shops cldj another.'

Trade and Commerce

There was flourishing inland, coastal and o\) trade which was an important source of prosperity. Domingo Paes, the Portuguese i writes: Its king has much treasure and many s and many elephants ... In this city (Vijay one will find men belonging to every natk people, because of the great trade which it 1 the many precious stones there, principally monds ... This is the best provided city in the \ and is stocked with provisions, such as rice, i grains, corn, barley, beans, pulses, horses, The streets and markets are full of laden oxen j out count . . .' For inland trade the chief me transport were kavadis, carts, asses and pack-h The kingdom, according to Abdur Ra 300 sea ports. The most important commercia on the west coast was Malabar, with its in port of Cannanore. It had commercial relation the islands of the Indian Ocean, Burma, the 1 Archipelago and China in the East, and Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal i West. Among the exports, the main items cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar, etc.,] main imports consisted of horses, elephants, ] copper, coral, mercury, China silks and we Barbosa says that the city of Vijayanagar is 'of | extent, highly populous and the seat of an

•*% M Jl;

The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries Bill

tierce in country diamonds, rubies from Pegu, : of China and Alexandria, and cinnabar, cam-k, musk, pepper and sandal from Malabar.' hips were used for coastal and overseas trade. yanagar had its own ships; the art of ship-build-|was known, but we do not know if oceangoing i were built. Barbosa, another Portuguese travjr, says that south India got its ships built in the live Islands.

ards of Living

> accounts of foreign travellers speak of the high i of living of the upper and middle classes, (iur Razzak, for instance, remarks: 'The country ) well populated that it is impossible in a reason; space to convey an idea of it. In the king's treasf there are chambers with excavations in them, with molten gold forming one mass. All the bitants of the country, whether high or low, wear els and gilt ornaments in their ears and around |ir necks, arms, wrists and fingers.' I splendour of the capital city bears testimony I wealth which was, however, the monopoly of a section of the population. But the prices of cles were low and the minimum necessities were abry not beyond the means of the common peop. However, producers, mainly agricultural pro-ers, apparently got inadequate prices for their ce. Another main defect of the economic sys; was that the common people had to bear the : of taxation, which was quite heavy. And the pal authorities sometimes adopted oppressive hods of collection.

OTHER PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES

MAANI KINGDOM

Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58), also as Hasan Gangu and whose original name Ismail Mukh, founded the Bahmani kingdom i Gulbarga as its capital. here were a total of fourteen Bahmani Sultans, nt among them being: Alauddin Hasan (the er); Muhammed Shah 1 (1358-77) who was the immediate successor of Hasan; Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1398-1422) considered greatest among them all; Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-35) who transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar and whose reign marked the end of the 'Gulbarga Phase' of Bahmani kingdom and the beginning of the second phase, called the 'Bidar Phase'.

Mahmud Gawan He was the vakil as well as the wazir of Muhammad Shah III between 1463-81. The Bahmani kingdom saw a resurgence under his guidance. His miltary conquests included Konkan, Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta. His administrative reforms were all aimed to strengthen the control of the Sultan over the nobility and provincial governors. The discontented nobles, particularly the 'Deccani' nobles who resented the rise of 'Afaqis' or new arrivals from West Asia organised a conspiracy against Gawan (who was an Afaqi) and managed to get a death sentence for alleged treachery passed on him by the Sultan in 1481. After Gawan's execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline and disintegrate.

Break-up of the Bahmani Kingdom

Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar (1490-1633) Founded by Ahmad Bahri; later conquered and annexed by Shah Jahan (1633).

Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686) Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Gol Gumbaz, a tomb with the world's second largest dome (St. Paul's church in Rome being the world's largest) was built by one of the Adil Shahi rulers, Muhammed Adil Shah at Bijapur. It is also famous for the so-called 'Whispering Gallery'. It was later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb (1686).

Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574) Founded by Fatullah Khan Imad-ul-mulk. Later it was conquered and annexed by one of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar.

Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687) Founded by Quli Qutub Shah (1518-43) who built the famous Golconda fort and made it his capital. Another Qutub Shahi ruler, Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of all, and it was he who


founded the city of Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar after the name of the Sultan's favourite, Bhagyamati) and also built the famous Charminar in it. The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687). Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619) Founded by Ali Barid. It was later annexed by the Adil Shahis of Bijapur.

Administration

The administrative unit at the centre comprised the following officials: Vakil-US-sultana: Equivalent to the naib sultan of the Delhi sultanate, served as regent also. Wazir-i-kul: Prime minister, supervised the work of all other ministers. Amir-i-jumla: Head of the finance department. Wazir ashraf: Foreign affairs and royal court. Wazir. Deputy head of the finance department. Peshwa: Attached to the vakil. Sadr-i-jahan: Head of the judicial, ecclesiastical and charities department. Kotwal: Head of the police department. Division of the kingdom into provinces, called tarafs headed by tarafdars (governors).

Other

w Provincial .«*^ ->." J5-\ " :*

*

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Bengal

Being a distant province, Bengal had always been a problematic area for the Delhi Sultans and could become independent from time to time. Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of the military commanders of Muhammad of Ghur, was the first Muslim invader who annexed Bihar and Bengal by overthrowing the Sena dynasty which however continued to rule for some more time in east Bengal. Though he probably did not assume the title of Sultan, he had prayers read and coins struck in his own name. His assassination in 1206 by Ali Mardan Khalji led to civil war among the Khalji chiefs in Bengal. Ghiyasud-din Iwaz Khalji (1213-27), however, restored peace and transferred the capital from Devkot to the historic

city of Laknauti (Gaur). He even assumed^ Sultan as an open challenge to Delhi ened his position by securing investiture ;| Abbasid Caliph of Egypt, Al-Nasir. This ] invasion of Bengal by Iltutmish which Ghiyas-ud-din's defeat. During the next 60 years (1227-87), ruled by no less than fifteen chiefs, and off were Mamluks sent from Delhi. Mug Tughril (1268-81), the last and the greatest j Mamluks, claimed independence and voked Balban, who sent two expeditions.' first expedition failed, the second (led pe Balban) succeeded and Bengal was hand Balban's youngest son, Bughra Khan. Bug Bengal as governor during the remaining Balban's reign (128187). On Balban's death] Bughra assumed complete independence and! title of Nasir-uddin Muhammad. Bughraf brother, Kaiqubad, who succeeded Balbarij throne of Delhi, recognised Bughra's inde This house of Balban (Bughra and his ruled Bengal independently till 1328. Ghiy Tughluq led an expedition to Bengal and i suzerainty of Delhi in 1328. But about a de (1339) Bengal again became independe Fakhr-ud-din defied Muhammad bin Tug assumed the title of Fakhr-ud-din Mubarak 1 The history of Bengal entered a new ph Shams-ud-din founded a new dynasty, Shahi dynasty, which ruled Bengal up to 1538 few breaks in between. Shams-ud-din Ity (1345-58) brought the whole of Bengal unified rule. Besides, he made incursions in and Orissa. Even Firoz Shah Tughluq had i native but to make peace with him. His marked by the development of an imp coinage system and large-scale construction < uments. Sikandar Shah (1358-89), the son i cessor of Shams-ud-din, also successfully * Firoz Tughluq's attempts to subdue him in 135 which Bengal was not threatened by Delhi i nearly two centuries. Sikandar also built notable monuments of architecture. Ghiya Azam Shah (1389-1409), the next Sultan able and benevolent ruler. He sent an amb

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nd carried on a flourishing trade with the Far ugh the port of Chittagong. Ghiyas-ud-din's successor, a Brahmin 'flr of Dinajpur (north Bengal), named Raja became powerful and finally seized the 1415. Faced with Muslim opposition from 1 without (from Jaunpur), he converted his . Jadu Sen to Islam and ruled in his son's ^fter Ganesh's death in 1418, Jadu Sen ruled |l under the title of Jalal-ud-din. With the of Shams-ud-din Ahmad Shah, Jalalud-land successor, in 1442, the dynasty of Raja i came to an end the old Ilyas Shahi dynasty ored. q-ud-din Barbak Shah (1459-74) fought suc-against the Hindu rulers of Orissa and i with the help of his newly organised miliEAbyssinian (Ethiopian) slaves. He was also |forhis patronage of Bengal literature. In 1487 i Shahi dynasty was again overthrown by the i slaves under the leadership of Shahzada , the commander of the palace guards. |uddin Hussain Shah (1493-1519), regarded atest independent Muslim ruler of Bengal ' deposed the Abyssinians and revived the hi dynasty. He replaced the Abyssinians by llHindus and Muslims in both civil and miliainistration. Being an indomitable warrior, 1 victories over all his neighbours including (Kamata) Ahoms and Orissa. His gen-[to both Hindus and Muslims was legendary Iras during his reign that Chaitanya preached |vism in Bengal and Orissa. Several celebratili writers flourished during his benevolent

Shah (1519-32), son and successor of , was also an able and powerful ruler. He peace with Babur when the latter was ng in the east. Like his father, he adopted : religious policy and patronised Bengali e, It was during his reign that the Portuguese fir appearance in Bengal, i-ud-din Mahmud Shah's reign (1532-38) I by the struggle between Humayun and i in Bengal and the ultimate fall of the Ilyas sty. Sher Shah captured Gaur in 1538 and


initiated the period of Afghan rule in Bengal which also came to an end in 1574 with its conquest by Akbar.

Assam

The history of the Hindu kingdom of Kamarupa in the 13th century is practically unknown apart from scattered references to Muslim invasions from Bengal. During the first six decades of that century Bakhtiyar Khalji and two of his successors invaded Kamarupa. There are references to a kingdom called Kamata which had its centre outside Kamarupa proper. Whether it was a new kingdom under a new dynasty or the old kingdom of Kamarupa with a new capital is difficult to ascertain. Durlabh Narayan ruled Kamata at the end of the 13th century. The Ahom invasion of his kingdom resulted in the conclusion of an alliance which was strengthened by the marriage of his daughter (Rajani) with the Ahom ruler, Sukhangpha. Muslim chronicles talk about the annexation of the south-eastern districts of Bengal (Mymensingh, Sylhet, Tippera and Chittagong) by the Sultans of Bengal in the first half of the 14th century. But it is not possible to ascertain clearly from these chronicles the exact impact that the annexations had on the kingdom of Kamata. Khens, a tribal people who had brahmanised themselves, made Kamata a powerful kingdom in the early 15th century. Nilambara, probably the last rule of this dynasty, ruled over extensive territories including Kamarupa, Goalpara, Mymensingh and Sylhet with his capital at Kamatapur (near Kooch Bihar in West Bengal). But he was ultimately overthrown and his kingdom annexed by Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah of Bengal by the close of the 15th century. Vishasimha of the Koch tribe set himself as the ruler of Kamata in about 1515. The greatest ruler of this new dynasty was, however, Narayan, during whose reign the kingdom reached its zenith of greatness. But unfortunately there was dissension between the king and his nobles as a result of which the kingdom had to be divided (1570s) into two parts, namely Kooch Bihar and Kooch Hajo. This partition led to perpetual hostility between them with the result that their neighbours, the Ahoms and

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the Mughals intervened. In 1639 the western portion (Kooch Bihar) came under the supremacy of the Mughals and the eastern part (Kooch Hajo) under that of the Ahoms. The Ahoms, belonging to the Mongoloid Shan stock, entered the Brahmaputra valley from north Burma and established a kingdom in its eastern region in the early 13th century. The founder of the ruling dynasty was Sukhapha. But it was during the reign of Sukhangpha that territorial expansion was done at the expense of the neighbouring kingdom of Kamata. During the reign of Sudangpha in the early 15th century the influence of brahmanical Hinduism began to gain ground in Ahom society. The greatest Ahom king was Suhungmung (1497-1539) who suppressed the Chutiyas and Cacharis and repelled the successive invasions of the Sultans of Bengal, including that of Ala-uddin Hussain Shah. His reign is also remarkable not only for the rapid Hinduisation of the Ahoms (he assumed the Hindu name of Svarga Narayan), but also for the spread of a reformed Vaishnava doctrine associated with the name Sankaradeva. The Ahom kingdom, geographically isolated and politically cut off from north India by the independent sultanate of Bengal, did not join the mainstream of Indian history till the 17th century when it became the target of Mughal invasions. But its history is of special interest for three reasons:

The Ahoms introduced into the Indian population a new racial element. They brought with them their religion, social customs and also political and military system. They gradually succumbed to brahmanical Hindusim and adopted its religious and social teachings to a large extent. The Ahom historical chronicles, known as Burangis, have no counterpart in the regional lan guages of north India.

ORISSA

Eastern Gangas

Anantavarman Choda Ganga (1076-1148) made Orissa a powerful kingdom by extending its territories from the mouth of the Ganges in Bengal to that

of the Godavari in the south. Besides I soldier and conqueror, he was a pati and of Sanskrit and Telugu literature, famous Lingaraja temple at Bhuvane Jagannatha temple at Puri. The next no Orissa was Narasimha I (123-864), whdf part of Bengal from its Muslim rulers. 1 famous Sun temple at Konark. With hisll the end of the glory of the Eastern > although it continued to rule in Orissa 1 Narasimha I was succeeded by Ml Bhanudeva II, Narasimha I'll, Bha Narasimha IV, and Bhanudeva IV Narasimha II successfully repelled invaders from Bengal. Bhanudeva II als in repelling the invasion of Orissa by 1 (son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq). Bhanudeva III (1352-1378) witnessed i of Orissa first by Ilyas Shatof Bengal! Firoz Shah Tughluq. Firoz's invasion (the name by which Orissa was Muslims) in 1360 was marked by the < the Jagannatha temple. During Bhanudeva IV (1414-35), the last of 1 Ganga rulers, Orissa was invaded by' Hushang Shah of Malwa, Anapota Kondaveedu and Deva Raya II of Vijay

Suryavamsi Gajapatis

Kapilendra (1435-67), a minister under i last Eastern Ganga rulers, founded the I dynasty which ruled Orissa for more tha He recovered for Orissa the power which it had lost under the later Eastern | fighting successfully against the Sultans i the Bahmani Sultans and Vijayanagar extended his political sway from the Kaveri. The reign of next ruler, (1467-97); was marked by initials failu lost the Andhra coast to the Bahmani Udayagiri to the Vijayanagar ruler. But 1 cessful in maintaining his hold over extending from the Ganges on the no Pennar river in the south. Prataparudra (1497-1540) was the lasff Hindu ruler of Orissa. But he suffered defl

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of Ala-ud-din Hussain of Bengal and Deva Raya of Vijayanagar. The former [ as far as Puri and desecrated the temple he latter assumed the title of 'Gajapati iHarana' (appropriator of Gajapati's seven i of royalty), taking the territory south of i and Gajapati's daughter. The Golconda o invaded and occupied Kondapalli. udra's name is, however remembered in jious history of eastern India because of his ', connection with Chaitanya and his devo Vaishnavism.

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ajapatis were supplanted by the Bhois ), whose founder, Govinda Vidyadhara, to the writer (Bhoi) caste. The Bhoi was also soon overthrown by Mukunda ndan (1559-68), who tried to defend Orissa iluslim invaders. But after his death, Orissa uered and annexed by Sulaiman Kararani

f of Jaunpur (UP) was founded by Firoz Shah and named after his predecessor, Jauna [alias Muhammad bin Tughluq. After Firoz's , Jaunpur became one of the earliest provinces ; independence. Malik Sarwar (1394-99), a entitled Khwaja Jahan, was appointed its or by Mahmud Tughluq (last Tughluq); but ([ing the confusion caused by Timur's invasion cw of allegiance to Delhi. Though he did not I the royal title, he acted for all practical purges an independent ruler. As he had been given tie of 'Sultan-usSharq' (chief of the east) by d, his dynasty came to be known as the |i dynasty. He extended his authority over i as well as parts of the Doab region. He also ht Bihar and Tirhut under his control. Malik was succeeded by his adopted Qaranfal the title of Mubarak Shah (1399-1402). : was, thus, the first member of the Sharqi I to assume the title of king and to strike coins Icause the khutba to be read in his name.


Ibrahim Shah (1402-40), the younger brother of Mubarak, was the greatest ruler of the dynasty. He fought constantly against Delhi ruled by Mahmud Tughluq and later by the Sayyids, but no result came <5ut of this. He also tried to capture Bengal, but failed. However his reign was remarkable, from the point of view of progress in cultural fields as well as economic prosperity. He beautified Jaunpur and built many magnificent buildings there. A new school of architecture, known as Jaunpuri or Sharqi School, came into existence. He patronised several scholars and a number of books like Hashiahi-Hindi, Fatwa-i-Ibrahim Shahi, Irshad, etc., were written. Mahmud Shah (1440-57), the son and successor of Ibrahim, captured the fort of Chunar, but his efforts to conquer Kalpi failed. He also attacked Delhi, but then ruler of Delhi, Bahlul Lodhi, defeated him. Muhammad Shah (1457-58), the son and successor of Mahmud, also fought against Bahlul Lodhi but with no useful result. He was, however, murdered by his own brother, Hussain Shah (1450-1505), who was the last ruler of the Sharqi dynasty. He entered into a life and death struggle against Bahlul Lodhi, who succeeded in capturing Jaunpur in 1483-84. But the Sharqi kingdom was effectively annexed to the Delhi sultanate by Sikandar Lodhi, while Hussain kept trying to recover his power from his base in the sultanate of Bengal till his death.

KASHMIR

Hindu Dynasty

Simhadeva founded a new Hindu dynasty in Kashmir in 1286 by overthrowing the last ruler of an old Hindu dynasty. Suhadeva, the successor of Simhadeva, faced an invasion of his kingdom (1320) by the Mongols under the leadership of Dalucha, and fled from capital, Indrakot. Rinchan, the son of a Ladakh chief, seized the throne at that time, taking advantage of the widespread dislocation caused by the Mongol invasion. Udayanadeva, a cousin of Suhadeva, soon succeeded in overthrowing Rinchan in 1323 and ruled Kashmir till 1339.

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Shah Mir Dynasty

Shah Mir, a Muslim, adventurer who had acquired considerable political influence during the reign of Udayanadeva, seized the throne in 1339. This marked the beginning of Muslim rule in Kashmir. He assumed the title of Sultan Shams-ud-din (1339-42) and his dynasty, known as the Shah Mir dynasty, ruled Kashmir for more than two centuries (1339-1561). The Shah Mir Sultans never acknowledged the suzerainty of Delhi, nor did any Sultan of Delhi make any attempt to subjugate Kashmir. Of the sixteen more members of this dynasty, two deserve special mention. They are Sikandar and Zainul Abidin. Sikandar (1389-1413), known as the Aurangzeb of Kashmir, brought about the religious and social transformation of Kashmir through his ruthless persecution of the Hindus. A large number of Muslim immigrants came to Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia as a result of Timur's devastating campaigns. They were liberally patronised by Sikandar. Supported by the Sultan, they introduced a new and powerful element in to the population of Kashmir and provided for Islam a cultural and educational basis in the valley. Zain-ul Abidin (1420-70), known as the Akbar of Kashmir, gets the credit for undoing the wrongs done to the Hindus by Sikand-\r. Though he was an orthodox Muslim in his personal life, he reconstructed and repaired all the temples which had been destroyed earlier. He also conciliated and brought back many non-Muslims who had fled the valley. Besides, he proved to be a just and benevolent ruler. He took measures for improving the administration of justice and promoting economic prosperity. He dug irrigation canals, built bridges and founded several towns. Well-versed in Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and other languages, he had the Mahabharata and Kalhana's Rajatarangini translated into Persian. Both Jonaraja and Srivara, who continued the Rajatarangini one after another and brought it down to the late 15th century, enjoyed his patronage. The later Shah Mirs were weak and became puppets in the hands of their nobles. Their nominal control was confi -ed to the valley, while the outlying districts fell in to the hands of independent local

rulers. Two parties of nobles kno Makris, became rival contenders for j dancy. The dynasty was ultimately theChaksin 1561.

Chak Dynasty

The Chaks seized power in 1540 ruled as wazirs with Shah Mirs actin pets on the throne. The pretence 1561 when the Chak wazir ass Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Ghazi Sh Chak rulers followed him and the 1 ud-din Muhammad Yusuf Bads defeated and his kingdom annexed byj

RAJASTHAN

Mewar

Mewar was an old principality of mil under the rule of the Guhilot dynasty, \ tal at Nagda. One of its rulers, (1213-61) successfully resisted an ill Delhi under Iltutmish, but Nagda was < Chittor had to be made the new capiti was more unfortunate, for he faced 1 his kingdom by Ala-ud-din Khalji in !| his capital. Consequently there was a < line of rulers. Ramasimha, who elder branch of the Guhilot dynasty,' and replaced by a member of the dy branch, the Sisodia branch. This retained a part of Mewar. Chittor along with the other por remained under the control of Delhi recovery by Rana Hammir (1314-78),] important Sisodia rulers, probably du part of the reign of Muhammad Hammir's long reign marked a new eral ry of Mewar. He extended the frontiers'* dom and his influence was recognised 1 princes of the neighbouring territories, reign of Hammir's successors the disin the Delhi sultanate and the rise of

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kingdom in Malwa and Gujarat created a Dlitical situation. Kshetrasimha (1378-1405), and successor of Hammir, had to fight t Dilawar Khan Ghuri of Malwa on two occai He was unfortunately killed in a family quar-was succeeded by two weak rulers, Lakha ilokala respectively. Kumbha Karan (1438-68) was one of the est rulers of Mewar in the medieval period. He i brave soldier and first-rate general. Some con-r inscriptions and a literary work, Ekalinga atmya, speak eloquently of his military success tst neighbouring Rajput princes. He carried on hcessant warfare against the Sultans of Malwa jujarat and scored some victories. Besides, he i great patron of arts and learning, and was him-i scholar of no mean ability. He is said to have i proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis, amsa, Vyakarna, politics and literature. He a commentary on Jayadeva's Gita Govinda [>ta explanation of the Chandisatakam. He was hor of four dramas in which he used Sanskrit, lit and three vernaculars. He was also an nplished musician and wrote several works on cience of music. Moreover, he took special t in military architecture. He strengthened the ces of Chittor, built 32 forts and laid the founi of a new fort at Kumbhalgarh. He also built a of temples. The greatest architectural monnt of his reign was, however, the Kirtistambha of Fame) built by him at Chittor in com-ation of his victory over Malwa. Kumbha i however, murdered by his son, and during the I's reign and that of his successor (covering the 1468-1509), Mewar was weakened by dis-lions in the ruling family and invasion from va. ana Sangram Singh (1509-28), popularly as Sanga, was able to take Mewar to the i of its glory. Though described as 'the fragl of a soldier', having the marks of 80 wounds i body from sword or lance and being crippled leg, one eye and arm, Rana Sangram had kable military ability. He was generally sue-ill in his wars against Mahmud Khalji II of va and Muzaffar Shah II of Gujarat. He was


also engaged in hostilities with Ibrahim Lodhi of Delhi and scored creditable victories. The ascendancy of Mewar was established over several other Rajput principalities and its boundaries were extended in different directions. Babur himself places Sangram, in his memoirs, next only to the Vijayanagar king among the Hindu rulers of India. But Sangram's attempt to defeat Babur resulted in a disastrous defeat in the battle of Khanwa (1527). While Babur refrained from conquering Mewar for various reasons, Akbar could not succeed in annexing it completely. Mewar ultimately recognised Mughal suzerainty only in the time of Jahangir (1615).

Marwar

The Rathors of Marwar, according to some, were the descendants of the Gahadvalas of Kanauj, while others trace their origin to thb Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. Rathada Siha a person of obscure antecedents, established himself in the area around Pali in the middle of the 13th century and ruled till 1273. But his successors found a new centre at Kher and fought against their neighbours, particularly the Muslim Sultans and the Bhattis of Jaisalmer. But the proper history of Marwar begins from the time of Chunda (13841423), who established his power at Mandor. He, however, lost his life in a fight against the coalition of the Muslims of Nagaur and the Bhattis. Chunda's successor was his grandson, the famous Jodha (1438-89), who built the fort of Jodhpur, founded a town there and made it his capital. He fought against Mewar as an ally of the Sultan of Gujarat. But the greatest ruler of Marwar was undoubtedly Maldeva or Maldeo (153262), under whom the power of the Rathors reached its height. He came into conflict with Sher Shah, who was obliged to make peace with the Rathor ruler.

Other Rajput States

The state of Amber, known later as Jaipur state, was ruled by the Kachhavahas who belonged to the solar dynasty and traced their descent from Lord Rama. Historically, however, the state had its origin in the


principality of Dhundhar, founded by Dullah Rai in the late 10th century. Kakil Deva, son and successor of Dullah, captured the fort of Amber in 1037 from the Minas and made it his capital. In the early days of its history, it was under the suzerainty of Mewar, but acquired political importance only in the 14th century. It was, however, only in the Mughal period that the state gained real prominence. Bharamal, one of its rulers, voluntarily recognised the overlordship of Akbar, and along with his son and grandson (Bhagwan Das and Man Singh respectively) contributed greatly to the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal empire. The state of Bikaner was ruled by a junior branch of the Rathor dynasty of Marwar. Its founder was Bika (1464-1504), the fifth son of Jodha of Marwar. He was also the founder of the city of Bikaner (in northern Rajasthan) which became his capital. His successors, Nara and Lumakarna respectively, made the state one of the formidable powers of Rajasthan. The state of Jaisalmer was ruled by a comparatively older dynasty of the Bhattis. They built various lakes and temples in their territory during the course of their rule of about four centuries. The state of Ranthambhor was ruled by the descendants of the famous Prithviraja Chauhan (12th century). Among these Chauhans of Ranthambhor the most notable ruler was Hammir Deva, who ruled between 1283 and 1301. But later the Chauhans were overthrown by another dynasty, the Hadas, who became prominent in the Mughal period.

GUJARAT

The rich province of Gujarat occupied a prominent place among the provincial kingdoms which arose on the ruins of the Delhi sultanate. Zafar Khan, appointed as governor of Gujarat in 1391 by one of the later Tughluqs (Muhammad bin Firoz Tughluq), exercised independent power from the beginning. But he assumed the insignia of royalty and took the title of Muzaffar Shah only in 1407-08. He started a long drawn out struggle with Malwa which became a prominent feature of the history of western India later. He defeated and captured Hushang

Shah of Malwa and temporarily occupied 1 dom. Ahmad Shah 1 (1411-42), grandson i cessor of Muzaffar, fought against the Su Malwa and Khandesh as also some of i rulers like those of Idar, Dungarpur, Bundi. He followed a policy of Hindus by suppressing Hindu zamindars, \ ing Hindu temples and imposing jizya for j time in Gujarat. But he was a great pat and architecture. He founded the city of I which replaced Anhilwara as the capital of < Muhammad Shah (1442-51), the next rul< mild king. Then came the reign of Ahmad \ (1451-59), who invaded Mewar in the Kumbha but without much success. The greatest Sultan of Gujarat was, Mahmud Shah I (1458-1511), who is known as 'Begarha' because he conquered^ strong Rajput forts (garh) of Gimar and Ch He is equally famous for his ravenous hu fought against several Muslim and Him including Mahmud Khalji I of Malwa. Us the kingdom reached its highest extent, have boundaries Arabian Sea on the west, the south, Malwa on the east, and Jalor i in the north. He was also a great patron of I ture. Interesting references to him are works of Varthema (Italian) as well astj (Portuguese). He faced problems only Portuguese and negotiated peace with some struggle. Muzaffar Shah II (1511-2 small time but capable ruler. He succeeded i the Portuguese attempts of seizing Diu,: against Rana Sanga of Mewar as an ally < Khalji II of Malwa. He was followed by I petent rulers, both of whom ruled only i periods. Then came the reign of Bahadur Shah (I who was the last energetic Sultan of' conquered and annexed Malwa, and Sanga's defeat and death at Khanwa, sack At the fag end of his reign, Humay Gujarat and occupied a part of it. Humayun retreated to tackle Sher Khan 9 Bahadur recovered his lost territory. Me Portuguese, who had earlier entered in to flfl

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i (1535) and gained some concessions, start-ng problems to him, and he fell into the sea uffle with the Portuguese on board a ship conducting negotiations with them. With r's death the glory of independent Gujarat nished. For his successors were mere puppets I hands of the turbulent nobles and its extincf Akbar was only a matter of time.

ovince of Malwa, like that of Gujarat, became ndependent kingdom during the period of of the sultanate of Delhi under the later qs. Dilawar Khan Ghuri, appointed governor va in 1390-91, exercised independent power ne years and formally assumed independence 31-02. Though Dhar was his capital, he began tify Mandu as a centre of defence. Alp Khan, I successor of Dilawar, became the next ruler j the title of Hushang Shah (140635). He was s defeated and taken prisoner by Muzaffar Shah tujarat. Later he led two unsuccessful expedi-\ to Gujarat, but was successful in his raid of (Orissa). He tried to establish his authority f-those regions which lay on the periphery of his om. He exacted tribute from the ruler of (south of Gondwana) captured Kalpi. He Mandu his new capital and founded a new , which was named after him as Hoshangabad. es, he was a patron of architecture and Islamic Qg, and followed a liberal policy towards his subjects. But his son and successor, nad Shah (1435-36), was an incapable ; and was duly overthrown by one of his nobles, he Ghurid dynasty was replaced by the Khalji in 1436. Mahmud Khalji I (1436-69), the of the new dynasty, was the most powerful 1 the Sultans of Malwa, which reached its great-xtent during his reign. He advanced towards , but was compelled to retreat by the invasion i own kingdom by the Sultan of Gujarat. He »invaded Mewar, Gujarat and the Bahmani king , although they did not yield him any permanent s. He even came into conflict with the Sharqi om. Although constantly engaged in war, he


was a careful administrator. He encouraged agriculture, trade and commerce. Besides, he was a great builder. The last ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Mahmud Khalji II (151131), who was weak and dependent on the support of his nobles. There was constant friction between his Hindu and Muslim nobles. A Rajput named Medini Rai played the leading role\for some years. Encouraged and helped by Rana Sanga, Medini Rai showed defiance to the Sultan. Oh one occasion the Rana himself defeated Mahmud and took him prisoner but later reinstated him on the throne. Meanwhile the traditional hostility between Malwa and Gujarat continued. And in 1531 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat captured Mandu and annexed it to his dominions. During the next 30 years (1531-61), Malwa passed through several political changes. It was captured by the Mughal emperor Humayun from Bahadur Shah. After Humayun's departure from Malwa, a former officer of the Khaljis, Mallu Khan, established himself at Mandu. Then Malwa passed under the control of Sher Shah and his Afghan governors. Ultimately Akbar conquered it in 1561 from Baz Bahadur, son of Sujaat Khan who had been governor of Malwa under Islam Shah Sur.

Khandesh

Malik Raja Faruqi (1389-99) was the founder of the principality of Khandesh, located in the Tapti valley. Appointed earlier as its governor by Firoz Shah Tughluq, he set himself up as an independent ruler following Firoz's death and the subsequent confusion in the Delhi sultanate. Although he met reverses at the hands of the Sultan of Gujarat, he strengthened himself by entering into a matrimonial alliance with the Sultan of Malwa. As his successors used the title of Khan, their territory came to be known as Khandesh. Nasir Khan (1399-1437), the son and successor of Malik Raja, captured the strong fortress of Asirgarh from a Hindu chieftain. When he invaded Gujarat in alliance with Malwa, he was defeated and had to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. He also suffered defeat in a battle with Alaud-din Ahmad of the Bahmani kingdom. After Nasir's death Khandesh suffered further decline due


to the weak rule of two of his successors, Miran Adil Khan 1 (1237-41) and Miran Mubarak (1441-57). Next came the reign of Adil Khan II (1457-1503), who was a capable and enterprising ruler. He established his suzerainty on the Hindu rulers of Gondwana and Garh-Mandala. But when he repudiated his allegiance to Gujarat and withheld the annual payment of tribute, Mahmud Begarha led an invasion into Khandesh and compelled him to fall in line. However, he is remembered for his administrative reforms and for freeing his kingdom from the depredations of the Bhils and Kolis. He strengthened Asirgau, and also built the famous citadel of Burhanpur. The later rulers of the Faruqi dynasty (Daud Khan, Ghazi Khan, Adil Khan III, etc.), were quite incapable. Taking advantage of the factional strife within Khandesh, the Sultans of Gujarat and the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar frequently interfered in its internal affairs. Ultimately Akbar annexed it in 1601.

MADURA!

Pandyas of Madurai

The invasion of the Pandya kingdom by Malik Kafur (commander of Ala-ud-din Khalji) was no more than a plundering raid, for no serious attempt was made to annex it to the Delhi sultanate. But this invasion and the simultaneous war of succession among the Pandya princes seem to have weakened their rule and paved the way for the temporary subjugation of the Pandyas by Ravivarma Kulasekhara of Kerala in 1312-13. A partial recovery of Pandya power was made soon after by Vira Pandya with the help of his Hoyasala ally. But the kingdom soon faced threats from both internal and external enemies. Factional strife among Pandya princes encouraged some feudatories to declare their independence, while external threat came in the form of an invasion by Kakatiya Prataparudra, who occupied a part of the kingdom. The process of disintegration was hastened by an expedition led by Khusrau in the reign of Mubarak Khalji. But the final threat came in 1323, when Jauna Khan, son of Ghiyasud-din Tughluq, conquered Madurai. The capture of

Madurai did not, however, mean the total < of Pandya dynasty. Inscriptions of several 1 covering the period 1315-1411, have been i different parts of the modern day Tamil Na

Sultans of Madurai

Madurai, which was annexed to the Delhi su towards the close of Ghiyasud-din reign became the capital of the provi| Malabar. Jalal-ud-din Ahsan Shah (1334 governor of the province, took advanti Muhammad bin Tughluq's difficultie declared his independence. An important i his reign was the visit of Ibn Battutah, a Mo traveller, to his kingdom. Ghiyas-ud-din Da Shah (1340-44), the next Sultan of defeated and killed Vira Ballala III, the Hd ruler of Dwarasamudra. But the fruits of this^ ry seem to have gone more to the Vijayanag than to the Sultan of Madurai, for the Vijay ruler was quick enough to annex most Hoyasala territory to his kingdom. In th< fifties of the 14th century, the Vijayanagarl were engaged in a series of campaigns agafti sultanate of Madurai. According to the conti rary historian Afif, the Sultan was captur killed and the whole of the sultanate came 1 the control of Bikan, i.e. Bukka I of Vijay Numismatic evidence, however, refers Sultans ruling till 1377.

12.3 THE LODHIS (1451-1526)

Bahlul (1451-89)

Bahlul successfully foiled the Sharqi Sultan's I seize Delhi and subdued the ruler of Multan, I invasion of Malwa failed. Yet by the time death, the Lodhi sultanate was firmly establj from the Punjab to the borders of Bihar.

Sikandar(1489-1517)

Despite the fanatical Afghan attachment to purity, one of BahluFs wives, who was a

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ftith's daughter, won the support of the Lodhi i for her son Nizam Khan. The new Sultan, ng the title of Sikandar, crushed Husain Shah I of Jaunpur and liquidated the Rajput upris-the neighbouring region. Bihar was also 1506 to 1517 the Sultan devoted all his i to capturing Gwalior (ruled by the Tomar ^Raja Man Singh), but could capture only ri; Gwalior and Malwa remaining uncon Sikandar enhanced the prestige of the sult without alienating the Afghan nobility. He ; a keen interest in the development of agri-He introduced the gaziSikandari r's yard) of 32 digits for measuring culti elds. But this measurement was confined to elisa lands and not extended to the iqta lands. ilarly examined the price schedules for the What Ala-ud-din Khalji achieved in the of market control through excessive use of Sikandar is said to have accomplished through sion.

1(1517-26)

Afghan nobles made strong efforts to nine the Sultan's autocracy at the very begin-elf by forcing him to make his younger > Jalal the independent ruler of the Jaunpur fef. Civil war broke out between the two broth-Irich ended in the imprisonment and later the i of Jalal. Meanwhile the civil war had pro-i Sanga of Mewar with the opportunity to linroads into the Lodhi territories as far as i near Agra. It also enabled some of the Lodhi to conspire against the Sultan and invite i invade India.

TOST PHASE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

'(1526-30)

i Muhammad Babur was related to Timur i father's side and to Chengiz Khan through ir. The Mughals (descendants of Mongols) . to call themselves the Chaghatayids, after s's second son, Chaghatay. Though Babur


succeeded his father, Shaikh Mirza, as ruler of Farghana, he was soon defeated and deprived of his kingdom by a distant relative, Shaibani Khan Uzbek. Reduced to a mere fugitive, Babur soon took Kabul from one of his uncles. He had also developed an interest in the conquest of India and launched four expeditions between 1519 and 1523. Towards the end of 1525 Babur left Kabul to conquer India. Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Lodhi governor of Lahore, surrendered to Babur after some initial resistance. His victory over the Afghans under Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat (1526) laid the foundation of the Mughal dynasty in India. Then his subsequent victories over the Rajputs under the leadership of Rana Sanga of Mewar in the battle of Khanwa near Agra (1527), and the Afghans under Muhammad Lodhi in the battle of Ghagara in Bihar (1529) consolidated the Mughal power in India. Though Babur died at Agra in 1530, his dead body was taken to Kabul several years later and buried in the terrace of a garden. According to his will no dome or other structure surmounted his grave. The Tuzuk-iBaburi, his memoirs in the Chaghatay-Turki (his mother tongue), frankly confesses his own failures and are free from inhibitions. Babur was a devoted follower of the famous Naqshbandiya Sufi Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar.

Humayun (1530-40)

This eldest son of Babur had three half-brothers-- Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Following the Turko-Mongol custom, Humayun divided the empire among his half-brothers, with Kamran receiving Kabul and Badakhshan. When he was busy tackling the Afghans in the east, he received the alarming news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was moving against the Mughal frontiers. Humayun hastily made a treaty with the rising Afghan leader Sher Khan Sur, leaving him in full control of the area east of Banaras. Marching towards Malwa, Humayun seized Mandu. Then, displaying remarkable heroism, he stormed Champaner and Ahmadabad as well. Though Humayun appointed Askari the viceroy of Gujarat, the latter's lack of tact and inexperience


alienated his nobles. So when Bahadur marched to Ahmadabad, Askari fled to Agra. Both Gujarat and Malwa had now passed out of Mughal control. In the meanwhile Sher Khan had become a formidable rival. When Humayun came to know Sher Khan's Bengal conquests, he opened negotiations with the latter, offering him undisputed rule in Chunar and Jaunpur if he surrendered Bengal to the emperor's representative. But Sher Khan went on bargaining without committing himself to the peace proposal. Finally in the battle of Chausa (1539) he outwitted Humayun and destroyed almost the whole Mughal force, and Humayun, while fleeing across the Ganges, was forced to use an inflated skin offered to him by a poor water-carrier. Humayun returned to Agra, where Kamran was awaiting him. Askari was there, as well as Hindal. When the talks about the future course of action failed, Kamran returned to Lahore, taking his army with him despite the emperor's request that they stay behind to fight Sher Shah. Consequently Humayun again faced Sher Khan alone in the battle of Bilgram (1540), also known as the battle of Kanauj, and was routed. Hotly pursued by the Afghans, Humayun reached Agra. From there he returned to Delhi on his way to Lahore. When his efforts to get help from Kamran failed, he left for Sind in order to make it a base for further operations to regain his empire. Thus began his fifteen-year exile from India.

12.5 THE SUR EMPIRE (1540-55)

The original name of Sher Shah, the founder of Sur empire, was Farid. He began his career with the administration of his father Hasan's iqta at Sahasram in south Bihar. Later he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, who gave him the title 'Sher Khan' for his bravery. Sher Shah learnt that Maldeva, the ruler of Marwar, had opened negotiations with Humayun to overthrow Sher Shah, but the Afghan's conquest of Malwa frightened this Rajput ruler and him to retract his undertaking to help Humayun. When Sher Shah marched towards Marwar, Maldeva was so panic-stricken that he fled. The Rajput army nevertheless

fought stubbornly. Though Sher Shah« rious, he often remarked, referring Marwar territories, that he had nearly 1 of Hindustan for a handful of millet. Sher Shah captured the chain efforts i to Marwar, but the ruler of Kalinjar, thised with Humayun, remained defia Shah decided to capture this fort and 1 attack. But he was very badly burnt and! a freak accident in 1545. After Sher 1 his second son, Jalal Khan, was crov the title Islam Shah. Islam concentrated | the clique of Afghan leaders whom his| tamed and trained. But his early death 1 in 1552 dislocated the administrative Before Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1 different rulers were crowned. During 1 real power lay in the hands of a Br named Hemu.

Humayun (1555-56)

On his way to Sind, Humayun hap Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Hindal's teacher, and married her. Ac Hamida, Humayun left for Jodhpu Maldeva's help. On the way they Amarkot, whose ruler, Rana Prasad, warmly; there in 1542, Hamida gave bir Meanwhile Humayun was warned by hi»J dor at Maldeva's court of the Raja's imprison him. So he abandoned his ja Jodhpur and set out for Qandahar. There j sought to imprison him. Humayun therefi to seek help from Shah Tahmasp in Iran, i vacillation, the Shah gave him a force of 1 \ diers, with which he conquered Askari and Kabul from Kamran. In the i the Sur dynasty was disintegrating rapid Humayun reconquered India by defl Afghans in 1555, but his accidental &6 coming down the steps of a library in \ short his aspirations for consolidating suzerainty in India. Humayun was neith general nor an efficient organiser, but mistic and persevering. He was pa

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I to the study of astronomy, loved painting, ote Persian poetry.

MINISTRATION

I Administration

I on autocratic monarchy. > actual powers to the ministers, nstant supervision and control by the Sultan. | main defect was excessive centralisation.

cial Administration

of enough information about provincial ninistration. i experiments by Sher Shah at the provincial

I Administration

vision of the provinces into sarkars, which under shiqdar-i-shiqdaran (in-charge of p and order, general administration and crimil justice) and munsif-i-munsifan (in-charge of I revenue and civil justice), vision of the sarkars into parganas, which I under shiqdar (law and order, criminal jus-e, etc.) and munsifor amin (land revenue and vil justice). vision of the parganas into villages, under a; responsibility of the local people for aining law and order in their localities. ' appointing two persons of equal rank at par-na and sarkar levels, Sher Shah divided the utive functions thus ensuring balance of ver. 1 by assuming the power of appointment and nissal of even pargana and sarkar officials, P effected greater centralisation.

i Administration

ssment of land revenue on the basis of measnent of land.


Drawing up of schedules of crop rates on the basis of the quality of land. Classification of land into three categories on the basis of their yield (good, bad and middling). Computation of the produce of three kinds of land and fixing l/3rd of their average as the land revenue. Issuing ofpattas to the peasants and the acquisition of qabuliyats from them. Collection of a cess of two-and-half seers per bigha (unit of land from the peasants for famine relief fund.

Military Administration Dispensation of tribal levies, and beginning of direct recruitment of soldiers. Maintenance ofchahra or descriptive rolls of sol diers and dagh or the branding of horses. Setting up of cantonments in different places and posting a garrison in each of them.

Trade and Commerce

Building of new roads and restoration of old ones. Building of sarais or rest houses along the roads for the convenience of the traders and travellers, setting of villages around sarais and their devel opment into qasbahs or market towns; using of sarais as stages for the news service. Currency reforms--issue of fine coins of gold, silver and copper of uniform standard; standardi sation of weights and measures. Other reforms include collection of customs duty on goods only twice, once at the time of entering the country and another at the time of sale of goods; making the

local headmen and zamindars responsible for the loss of the goods of merchants on roads.

12.6 THE PORTUGUESE

Discovery of the New Sea Route The Cape route, a new all-sea route was discovered from


Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. He reached the port of Calicut on the May 17, 1498, and was received warmly by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of Zamorin). He returned to Portugal in 1499.

Arrival of Cabral The arrival of Pedro Alvarez Cabral in India in 1500 and the second trip of Vasco da Gama in 1502 led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. Later Goa replaced it.

Arrival of Albuquerque Alfonso de Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 as the commander of a squadron, and was appointed governor of the Portuguese in India in 1509 (Albuquerque was the second Portuguese governor in India, the first being Francisco de Almeida between 1505-09). He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510. Albuquerque encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian wives but persecuted Muslims. He died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.

Other Governors Other important governors were Nino da Cunha (1529-38), who transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, and Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45). The famous Jesuit saint Francisco Xavier arrived in India with him.

Establishment of Settlements The successors of Albuquerque established settlements at Daman, Salsette, Chaul and Bombay on the western coast, and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal.

Decline of the Portuguese The Portuguese power witnessed a decline by the end of the 16th century and gradually lost many of their settlements in India:

They lost Hugli in 1631 when they were driven out by Qasim Khan, a Mughal noble. In 1661 the king of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when he married the farmer's sister.

The Marathas captured Salsette and 1739. In the end they were left only with Goa, 1 Daman which they retained till 1961.

The main causes for the decline of the Po are enumerated below.

Their religious intolerance provoked the I of the Indian rulers and the people. Piracy and their clandestine practices could not hold ground for long. They were unable to compete successf the other European companies (internal tions of Portugal such as limited backward economy, etc.). Discovery of Brazil diverted their attenti India.

12.7 MONOTHEISTIC MOVEMENTS

Ramananda (1360-1470) Born at Prayag, 1 originally a follower of Ramanuja. Later he i his own sect and taught in Hindi at Ba Agra. A worshipper of Rama, he taught agains and admitted disciples from all castes. His < included the following, showing his disreg caste rules: (a) Kabir, a Muslim weaver; (b) 1 a cobbler; (c) Sena, a barber; (d) Sadhana, a I (e) Dhanna, a Jat peasant; (f) Narahari, a gold and (g) Pipa, a Rajput prince. After Ramananda the bhakti movement in i India was propagated by two schools of I namely the saguna school and the nirguna \ The saguna school believed that god had; forms and attributes akin to the human nirguna school on the other hand believed in i without any form or attributes. The origin i guna bhakti is generally traced to Rama teachings.

Kabir (1398-1518) Born near Banaras sup to a Brahmin widow, he was brought up by a < Muslim weaver, Niru. Married to Loi, he children and led the normal life of a hou

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osedly persecuted by Sikandar Lodhi, who was nporary, he died a natural death at Maghar f. His dohas and sakhi (poems), whose collection nd in the Bijak, were very popular among the i people and throw light on his teachings. He ved in pantheism, i.e. God is everywhere, lie pleaded for Hindu-Muslim unity, and empha-the unity and formlessness of god. Kabir ounced formal religious practices in both and Islam. He did not suggest the aban-tit of the life by a normal house holder for the sof a saintly life. He believed that asceticism and c knowledge were not necessary for true knowl-5 and salvation. He sharply condemned caste and gious distinctions and preached brotherhood of i through his dohas (poems).

ak (1469-1539) and Sikhism Born at ndi (now Nanakana in Pakistan), he travelled f widely in West Asia and Russia. He is also said ave met Babur. Like Kabir, he also preached a itteless, universal, ethical, anti-ritualistic, hestic and highly spritual religion. Nanak laid ater stress on the purity of character and conduct | the first condition in approaching god, and also i need of a guru for guidance. After his death, his followers called themselves hs' and a new religious sect, Sikhism, was nded. Nanak was followed by nine Sikh gurus. Angad, the second guru, started the umukhi script. Guru Amardas, the third guru, i the institution of langar (common kitchen) to olish the caste system. Guru Ramdas, the fourth u, was given the site of Har-mandir at Amritsar r Akbar. Guru Arjun, the fifth guru, compiled the di Granth (later called the Granth Sahib) and also npleted the construction of the Har-mandir at ritsar. His execution by Jahangir for political rea-led to the first phase of militancy among the hs under their sixth guru, Guru Hargobind, who also imprisoned by Jahangir for ten years, liile the period of Guru Harrai, the seventh guru, uneventful, Guru Harkishan, the eighth guru, of smallpox at the tender age of eight. Guru i Bahadur, the ninth guru, was executed by Aurangzeb and Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th and


last guru, established the Khalsa and organised the Sikhs into a military sect. All his sons were killed by a Mughal army at Sirhind, and he was also slain by a Pathan in revenge. A Sikh is initiated into the religion by a rite known as thepahul, when he is of the adult age, and is entitled to use the honorific Singh (Lion) after his name. The orthodox Sikhs are also distinguished by the five kakka (i.e. the five it's), viz. kesa (top knot), kachha (short drawers), kara (iron bangle), kanga (comb) and kirpan (sword).

Dadu Dayal (1544-1603) Born in Ahmedabad to Muslim parents, he was brought up by Lodhi, a Hindu cotton-carder. He preached in Rajasthan, first at Sambhar and later at Naraini (near Jaipur) where he finally died. Though illiterate, his verses were collected by his disciples in a book, the Bani, in Hindi. His followers, Dadupanthis, expose their dead like the Parsis. He practised the teachings of Kabir and denounced caste distinctions. Other prominent Nirguna saints were Raidasa (a contemporary of Kabir), Sundaradasa (a disciple of Dadu), and Dharanidasa (a disciple of Kabir).

Bhakti Movement

Chaitanya (1436-1533) Responsible for the popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal through his kir-tans, he spread the message that ragamarga or the path of spontaneous love was best for salvation. He believed in the bhedabheda, i.e. dualistic non-dualism.

Surdas (1483-1563) Disciple of Vallabhacharya of south India, he.popularised the Krishna cult in UP by singing songs'glorifying Krishna's childhood. He was the author of Sur Sagara, Sur Sarawali, etc.

Mirabai (1498-1569) Hailing from the Sisodia dynasty of Chittor, she was a "great devotee of Krishna and popularised his cult in Rajasthan through her songs.

Sankaradeva (1463-1568) A contemporary of Chaitanya, he spread Vaishnava bhakti in Assam.


Tulsidas (1532-1623) He was a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas in Hindi, expounding the various aspects of Hindu dharma.

Saiva Saints Krishnanda, Brahmanandagiri, Purnanda and Kavirajnana of Bengal were some prominent Saiva saints.

Bhakti Saint-philosophers of South India

Ramanuja (11th century) He gave a sound philosophic basis to the bhakti cult of the Vaishnavas by founding the philosopohy of Visishtadvaita (Modified Monism). According to it, god is saguna. The creative process and all the objects in creation are real, but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya (founder of Advaita or Non-dualism). Therefore, not only god but also the soul and matter are real. However, god is the inner substance, whereas the rest (soul and matter) are his attributes and hence they are dependent on him. Ramanuja was followed by several other saint-philosphers who combined erudite scholarship with abiding faith in the prapathimarga (path of selfsurrender to god).

Madhavacharya (13th century) He was the founder of the Dvaita (Dualism) school of philosophy. According to it, the world is not an illusion but a reality, full of real distinctions. God, soul and matter are all unique in nature, and hence they are irreducible to each other.

Nimbarka (13th and 14th centuries) He advocated another school of philosophy, called Dvaitadvaita (Dualistic Monism). According to it, the Brahman or the Supreme Being transforms himself into the souls and the world, which are therefore real, distinct and different from the Brahman, Though they (soul and world) are real and different from the Brahman, they cannot, however, exist independently without his support.

Vallabhacharya (15 and 16th centuries) He was the founder of yet another school of philosophy, called the Suddhadvaita (Pure NonDualism). According to it, god is one, omnipotent and omniscient and the cause of all that there is in the universe.

He manifests himself in the form of individual! and matter (world). Thus, the three (god, world) are identical in essence though dif manifestation. At the same time it should be 1 mind that god is pure (suddha) in himself and not undergo any change or transformation, he is the cause of everything in the Vallabha's teachings are also known as pit or the path of grace. All the above saint-philosophers belon Vaishnavism. Ramanuja was a Tamilian*^ Madhava was a Kannadiga, while Nir Vallabhava were Telugus.

12.8 GROWTH OF REGIONAL LITERATUF

Punjabi

Masud Farid-ud-din ( 13th century), a myst%| was the pioneer of a new school of poetry in 1 A major contribution to Punjabi poetry towa end of the 15th century was made by Guru ] Later Sikh gurus also contributed to the enric of Punjabi. Guru Arjun compiled the Adi Gn ad 1604 and also wrote Sukhmani, one of the 1 and greatest of medieval mystic poems. The i bution of Guru Gobind Singh is also Several works of poetical romances, such as I of Waris Shah were also written. Punjabi prose j immense progress and a number of religio philosophical works were translated from Sa Punjabi between ad 1600 and ad 1800.

Hindi

The Hindi language originated between the 10th centuries. First stage of Hindi literature, 1 as adi kala (1206-1318), was mainly bardic in i Narapati Nalha and Amir Khusrau were the major poets of the adi kala. Second stage, know bhakti kala (1318-1643) was the richest period in history of Hindi literature. Major contribution ; made by the nirguna and saguna saint-poets andi tic poets. Nirguna saint-poets were Kabir, Nanak, Dadu, Sundaradasa, etc. The saguna poets were Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (| Sagara), Mirabai, etc. Mystic poets were Ja

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ti), Nur Muhammad (Indravati), Uthman ili), etc. Several secular poets like Abdur n-iKhanan also contributed to the growth , Third stage, known as rift' kala (rift' means 1 covering the period 1643-1850, was essenilar. The important poets of this period were , Chintamani, Mati Rama, Bihari, etc.

ged due to the interaction of Persian and t languages in the military camps of Alaudilji. The Deccan was the cradle of Urdu and uage flourished first in the kingdoms of and Golconda. The earliest available work li Urdu is a mystical prose treatise, Mirajtiqin by saint Gesu Daraz (early 15th century). Miranji Shamsul (Khush Namah) and uddin Janam (Irshad Namah) of Bijapur, Quli and Ghawasi (Tuti Namah) of i were the most famous Urdu writers of the Urdu arrived in north India in a more form during the Mughal period. Hatim, Jan-i-Janum, Mir Taqi, Muhammad Rafi and Mir Hassan were the most important i writers of north India in the 18th century.

ugh Oriya originated in the eighth century, works in the language appeared only in the and 14th centuries. Important Oriya writers : Sarladasa (Mahabharata in the 14th century), sa and Jagannadadasa. Balaramadasa and adadasa belonged to a group known as pan-isakha or the five associates, of the 15th century. bhakti movement of Chaitanya and the ishnava poets made a lasting influence on Oriya ature.

Bali

s first stage covered the period between the 10th 12th centuries. Its literature was mainly in the i of folk songs and influenced by the philosophy : Sahaja cult. The second stage began with the slim conquest of Bengal in the 13th century and


continued till the end of the 17th century. Three main trends in this stage were-Vaishnava poetry-- important poets were Chandidasa, Chaitnaya, Govindasa and Krishnadasa Kaviraja (Chaitanya Charitamruta in 16th century); translations and adaptations from classical Sanskrit--Kasirama (Mahabharata), Kristtivasa Ojha (Ramayand) and other works; mangal kavya form of poetry--sectarian in spirit, it narrated the struggle of gods against their rivals. Main contributors were Manikadatta and Mukundarama.

Gujarat!

The first phase, from the 13th to 15th centuries, was marked by two main forms--the prabandha (narrative poem) and the mukta (shorter poem). Important poets of this phase were Sridhara and Bhima, exponents of the first type and Rajasekhara, Jayasekhara and Somasundara who wrote in the second type. The second phase, from the 15th to 17th century, was the golden age of Gujarati literature. Major contributors during this period were Narasimha Mehta, Bhalana and Akho.

Marathi

Marathi literature emerged in the latter half of the 13th, century. A major contribution was made by the saint-poets of the Natha cult (founded by Gorakhanatha) such as Mukundaraja (VlvekSindhu). The saint-poets of the Mahanubhava cult also contributed to Marathi prose and poetry (like Lilachrita, Siddhanta Sutropatta, etc.). Other important contributors were Jananadeva (Jnanesvari and Amritanubhava are sacred books for Marathis), Eknatha, Tukaram (abhangas), Ramdas and Vamana Pandit. The 17th century saw the compilation of secular poetry in the form ofpovadas (ballads describing the warfare skills and selfless valour of the Marathas) and lavanis (romantic works).

Tamil

The literature of the Alvars or Vaishnava saints was known as Prabhanda, the most important among them being Nalayiram (consisting of

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hymns composed by 12 Alvars including Tirumalisai Alvar, Nammalvar, etc.). The literature of the Nayanars or Saiva saints was known as Tevaram, important Nayanars being Appar, Sambhandar and Sundrar. Their works were known as Tirumarai. Kamban's Ramayana, also called Ramanataka was written during the Chola period. Sekkilar's Tiruttondar Puranam, also known as Periya Puranam, was composed during the Chola period. This is a biography of 63 Nayanaras. Pugalendi's Nalavenba was composed in the 15th century.

Telugu

The group of poets called kavitraya were Nannaya (llth century), Tikkana (13th century) and Yerrapragada (13th and 14th century). They translated the Mahabharata into Telugu. Their other works include Nanaya's Andhra Sabda Chintamani and Tikkana's Nirvachanothara Ramayana. Other important writers were Bhima Kavi (Bhimesvara Puranam of the 17th century), Nanne Choda (Kumarasambhava of the 18th century), Somanatha (Basava Puranam of the 13th century), Srinatha (Srinagaranaisada, Sivaratri Mahatyam,

Kasikhanda, etc. of the 14th and the 15th turies), Bammera Potana (Bhagavatam of IS century), Vemana (Satakd), Krishna Deva and his poets and Molla (Ramayana by a poetess < a low caste of the 16th century).

Kannada

The earliest extant work in Kannada ^ Kavirajamarga by Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha' The poets known as ratnatraya are Pampa (9th i tury). Poona (10th century) and Raima (10th ce ry). Their works are: Pampa's Adi Purana Pampa Bharata, Poona's Santi Purana; Ajitanatha Purana and Gadhayudha. Nan known as Kannada Valmiki, wrote Tara Ramayana, and Virupaksha Pandita wrote Che Basava Purana (16th century).

Malayalam

The earliest literary work in Malayam is Unn Sandesam, a work by an unknown writer of H century Ramanuja Elluttoccan (greatest of all)' Harinamakirtanam, Bhagavatam Kilippattu other works.

The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries

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QUESTIONS

1. What was the name of Muhammad bin Tughluq's cousin who revolted against him and took refuge in Kampili kingdom? (a) (b) (c) (d) 2.

Firoz Tughluq Jauna Khan Baha-ud-din Gurshasp Ulugh Khan Nicolo de Conti, an Italian visitor, came to Vijayanagar during the reign of

(a) Deva Raya II

(b) Deva Raya I

(c) Harihara I (d) Bukka I 3.

Who bore the title Gajabentakara?

(a) Krishna Deva Raya (b) Deva Raya II (c) Deva Raya I (d) Rama Raya 4.

Which Vijayanagar ruler sent an embassy to China?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 5.

Harihara I Krishna Deva Raya Bukka I Saluva Narasimha What is the correct chronology of dynasties that ruled Vijayanagar?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 6. which

Sangama, Tuluva, Saluva, Aravidu Tuluva, Sangama, Saluva, Aravidu Aravidu, Sangama, Tuluva, Saluva Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu Of the following foreign travellers who visit ed India during the medieval period pair is not correctly matched to his year of arrival?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 7.

IbnBattutah--1333-34 Nicolo de Conti--1420 Abdur Razzak--1443 Domingo Paes--1535 Which one of the following pairs is wrong?

(a) (b)

Nizam Shahi--Ahmadnagar Adil Shahi--Bijapur

(c) (d) 8.

Barid Shahi--Berar Qutub Shahi--Golconda How many languages did Krishna I patronise?

(a) One

(b) Three

(c) Two

(d) Four

9.

Which Bahmani ruler shifted the Gulbarga to Bidar?

(a) Ala-ud-dinll

(b) Ahmad!

(c) Muhammad Shah I (d) Muhamn 10.

How many years did the Bahmani last?

(a) 150 years (b) 125 yean (c) 175 years (d) 200 yean 11.

The 96 years old man who was cap beheaded at Talikota (Bannihatti) in 15

(a) Rama Raya (b) Krishna Deva Raya (c) Bukka I (d) Saluva Narasimha 12. When was the Bahmani kingdom foun (a) 1325 (b) 1437 (c) 1347 13.

(d) 1341

Which was the second capital of Vijay empire?

(a) Kampili

(b) Kondavidu :

(c) Penukonda (d) Addanki 14.

During whose reign did Vijayanagar < conflict with Orissa for the first time?

(a) Bukka II

(b) Deva Raya I

(c) Deva Raya II 15.

(d) Virupaksa Iff

Policemen of Vijayanagar were paid taxes collected from

(a) wine shops (b) land revenu

(c) taxes on goods (d) prostitutes 16.

Which ruler died screaming that Ma Gawan was tearing him to pieces?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Firoz Shah Hasan Bahmani Muhammad Shah III Ahmad Shah

B130

The Fi

5 the chronological order of the following i travellers? i Polo 2. Nikitin i Battutah

4. Nlcolo de Contl

dur Razzak

6. Barbosa

Hhe answer from the codes below: ,5,4,2, 1,6 (b) 1,3,4,5,2,6 ?2,1,4, 3, 5

(d) 5,3,2, 1,4,6

i List I with List II and select the answer | the codes given below the lists 11 List II to/are 1. Acrobats alattars 2. Blacksmiths, goldsmiths avinodlns nbaras

anchalas avas BCD 3 4 2 3 3. 4.

Entertainers Originally shepherds, later armed retainers

5.

Weavers 1 2 6 4

6.

Fishermen E F

4 3 5 2 26 16 14 56

t were the temples built by Krishna Deva

alaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy nples hore and Brihadeesvara temples ara Ramaswamy and Meenakshi tem^ples alaswamy and Kailasanatha temples I the following in ascending order 2. Kottam bad/n Me/agaram 4. Agavam f,2, 3,4 (b) 2, 1,3,4 8,1,2,4 (d) 4,2, 1,3 (was the largest administrative division in nagar? am

(b) Nadu

\ Kurram

(d) Mandalam

among the following was greatly influ-I by Islam? f Namadeva

(b) Chaitanya

amananda

(d) Ramanuja

one of the following bhakti saints first I the Sufis but later left them?

fteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries B131

(a) Namadeva (b) Tukaram (c) Kabir

(d) Nanak

24. Who founded the Varakari sect in Maharashtra? (a) Namadeva (b) Tukaram (c) Eknatha

(d) Ramdas

25.

Who established the Chistl order in India?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Nizam-ud-din Auliya Salim Chisti Shaikh Moin-ud-in Chisti Hamid-ud-din Nagauri

26. Who built a college at Bidar making it an important intellectual centre in the Deccan? N (a) Muhammad Shah I (b) Ahmad Shah Wali (c) An Barid (d) Mahmud Gawan 27.

Who said 'God is the breath of all breath.'? (a) Nanak

(c) Mirabai

(b) Kabir

(d) Chaitanya

28.

What is the most significant thing in Nanak's life?

(a)

His teachings are contained in the Adi Granth.

(b)

He was a Sufi for some time and probably visited Mecca.

(c)

At the last stage of life he joined his wife and children.

(d) A Muslim friend educated him and for some time Nanak was employed in the Afghan administration. 29.

Doftas were

(a) (b)

Religious teachings of Sufte. A group of merchants who sent large caravans.

(c) The Muslim devotees who emphasised the personal devotion of man to God through love. (d)

Couplets which Kabir composed and by which he taught his followers.

Ramananda did Ramananda

Vaishnavism Jainism 30. Who was born at Kaladi (Malabar) in 783? (a) Ramanuja Madhavacharya (d) 31.

(b) Sankaracharya (c)

To which religious sect belong?

(a) Saivism

(b)

(c) Buddhism (d)

32. Whom did Sikandar Lodhi, the Sultan of Delhi, try to kill by various means, according to a legend?

y^.


(a) Nanak

(b) Mirabai

(c) Kabir

(d) Chaitanya

33.

Guru Nanak was born in

(a) 1469

(b) 1450

(c) 1470

(d) 1445

34. Namadeva and Eknatha wrote in (a) Marathi (b) Hindi (c) Tamil (d) Gujarati 35. Amuktamalyada is a book on (a) poetry (b) dance (c) polity

(d) music

36.

Madura Vijayam written by Gangadevi describes

(a) (b) (c) (d) 37.

battle of Bannihatti Sri Krishna Deva Raya's conquests capture of Madura by Kampana courtof Harihara I Bitragunta Grant of Sangama II deals with

(a) (b) (c) (d) 38.

genealogy of Sangamas usurpation of throne polity of Vijayanagar economy of Vijayanagar Who wrote Gangadasa Pralapa Vilasaml

(a) (b) (c) (d) 39.

Allasani Peddana Tenali Ramakrishna Ramabhadrudu Gangadhara What were varahasl

(a) Couplets of poetry (b) Gold coins (c) Guilds (d) Assembly

40. Amuktamalyada was written in (a) Sanskrit (b) Tamil (c) Telugu 41.

(d) Kannada

City of Nagalapura was built by

(a) Bukka I

(b) Deva Raya I

(c) Krishna Deva Raya (d) Virupaksa 42.

Sangama brothers, who founded Vijayanagar, were originally in the service of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 43.

Kampili kingdom Hoyasala kingdom Kakatiya kingdom Yadava kingdom Who was killed by Krishna Deva Raya in the battle of Kovilkonda?

(a) (b)

Firoz Adil Shah Ismail Adil Shah

(c) (d) 44.

Muhammad Adi! Shah Yusuf Adil Shah Who was responsible for de Gurumukhi script?

(a) Guru Arjun(b) (c) Nanak 45.

(d)

Who was murid?

(a) Sufi saint (b) SufH (c) A disciple (d) Bishop| 46.

A silsllah was a

(a) tomb

(b) shri

(c) a Sufi order

(d)

47. Suddhadvaita was propounded I (a) Ramanuja (c) Tukaram (d) Valli

(b) Nama

48. Who wrote Dasabodha? (a) Kabir (b) Nanaki (c) Ramdas

(d) Tuk

49. Who started the Khalsa in Sikh i (a) Guru Angad (b) Guru j Singh^ (c) Guru Tegh Bahadur (d) Guru j 50.

Who wrote Sur Sarawali?

(a) Mirabai

(b) Chait;

(c) Tulsidas

(d) Sun

51.

Which one of the following places! as the 'Shirazi-Hind'?

(a) Malwa

(b) Khan

(c) Sonargaon (d) Jaunp 52.

Which one of the following cities \ Balghakpur or the city of rebellion?

(a) Sonargaon (b) Jaunp (c) Lakhnauti (d) Ahma 53. The Italian traveller Varthema prince of Cambay's daily food basilisk and toad.' Who was that | (a) Ahmad Shah (b) Mahn (c) MuzaffarShah (d). Nasiri 54.

Which one of the following rulers earned the title of 'But-shikan' or idc

(a) (b) (c) (d) 55.

SikandarShah Azam Shah Shams-ud-din Shah Qutub-ud-din Shah Which one of the following rulers i has been described as the Akbar of t

TheFi

Azam Shah

(b) Zain-ul Abidin

J6) Shihab-ud-din Shah (c) Shah Mir er the death of which one of the following ultans of Delhi did Malik Raja Faruqi, the gov-nor of Khandesh, declare his independence? a) Firoz Tughluq (b) Muhammad bin Tughluq |(c) Bahlul Lodhi

(d) Sikandar Lodhi

Wkitin, a Russian traveller, visited the Bahmani gdom during the reign of |*(a) Firoz Shah $>) Muhammad Shah I f(c) Ahmad Shah Wali \ (d) Muhammad Shah III \ According to Abdur Razzaq, the pay of the policemen of Vijayanagar was paid from the proceeds of i (a) brothels (b) taxes on goods (c) land revenue

(d) wine shops

The so-called 'War of the Goldsmith's Daughter' took place between (a) Ala-ud-din Khalji and Hamir Deva (b) Ala-ud-din Khalji and Kama Deva (c) Firoz Shah and Harihara II (d) Firoz Shah and Deva Raya I The rulers of Vijayanagar had a carefully organised military department called kandachara which was under the control of (a) dandanayaka (b) palegar (c) mahanayakacharya (d) nayaka Which one of the following statements about the practice of becoming a sati is not correct? (a)

The sati's sacrifice was commemorated by erection of satikals.

(b)

There was no compulsion and it was done voluntarily.

(c)

It was very popular and widespread among higher classes.

(d) There were no social disabilities attached to lower class widows who did not choose to become safe.

What is kuttagarn (a) (b) (c) (d)

Grant of land to the Brahmins Lease system of cultivation Service tenures for military Revenue farming

fteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries B133

63.

What is asthavanal

(a) Land revenue department (b) A type of rice (c) One-third of the produce of land (d) House tax 64. The term senabova or sanbhoga was an offi cial designation under Vijayanagar kingdom. It refers to the (a) (b) (c) (d) 65.

chief judicial officer of the mandalam. chief of the military staff. village accountant. head of the accounts department. Which one of the following pairs is not correct?

(a) Kaivinaikuddt--Hired labour (b) Varam--The system of sharing of agricultural income between landlord and tenant (c) (d)

Kaikkolars--Community of fishermen Sthanikas--Those charged with the management of temples

66.

The term kavalgar stands for

(a) the jail

(b) a coin

(c) a police officer (d) a horse 67.

Which one of the following crops was widely exported from Vijayanagar?

(a) Tea (b) Coffee (c) Black pepper

(d) Tobacco

68. The village assemblies during the Vijayanagar period declined and their functions were taken over by the

(a) palegars

(b) nayakas

(c) ayagars

(d) mahanayaka charyas

69. The foreign travellers named one of the famous coins of Vijayanagar as pagoda. What is that? (a) Pan (b) Varaha (c) Hun 70.

(d) Fanam

In which region of India was the Firdausi order popular?

(a) Sind

(b) Bihar

(c) Bengal

(d) Deccan

71. After Kabir's death his tomb was built at (a) Gorakhpur (c) Magahar (d) Basti

(b) Varanasi

72. Which of the following bhakti saints is said to have travelled far and wide and engaged in discussions with the Sufi saints in Delhi?

f-


(a) Tulsidas

(b) Ramananda

(c) Namadeva (d) Vallabhacharya 73.

The 'Trinity' of bhakti movement in north India refers to

(a) (b) (c) (d) 74.

Nanak, Raidasa, Mira Mira, Kabir, Nanak Nanak, Kabir, Raidasa Nanak, Mira, Tulsidas Which bhakti saint's oral teachings are collect ed in the Bijaka and the Sukhnida?

(a) Kabir

(b) Nanak

(c) Tulsidas

(d) Namadeva

75.

Who said 'I am neither in Kaba nor in Kailas... God is the breath of all breath.'?

(a) Kabir

(b) Nanak

(c) Chaitanya (d) Surdas 76. Which bhakti saint developed different modes of religious emotionalism such as vatsalya, dasya, sakhya and madhuriya? (a) Nanak

(b) Kabir

(c) Chaitanya (d) Mira 77.

Who wrote Gitawali, Kavitawali and Vinaya Patrika!

(a) Tulsidas

(b) Surdas

(c) Chaitanya (d) Namadeva 78.

Name the Sufi saint whose philosophy greatly influenced Aurangzeb?

(a) Shaikh Qadri Sirhindi

(b) Shaikh Ahmad

(c) Shah Peer (d) Khwaja Baqi 79.

What is the meaning of the Sufi concept known as tarkeduniya7

(a) The enlightened world (b) The tolerant world (c) The renunciation of the world (d) The unity of the Being 80. Which Sufi saint adopted yogic breathing exer cises and was called sidh or perfect? (a) Nizam-ud-din Auliya (b) Farid (c) SalimChisti (d) Muhammad Jilani 81. Who among the following foreign travellers vis ited the Vijayanagar empire during the time of Achyuta Deva Raya? (a) Fernao Nuniz

(b) Nicolo de Conti

(c) Domingo Paes (d) Duarte Barbosa

82. Whowa&j deals witff] during thej (a) me (c) Ganga 83.

What were' Boars) Elephant! forces.

84.

Lands gn Gold coins i Which one of the follc

the genealogy of the five \ Srirangam copper plate Bagapellsi copper plate Bitragunta grant Devulapalli copper plate 85. Harihara II, in one of his inscriptions, detailed account of the military achiever) of Bukka I. Pick it out from among the 1 inscriptions. Channarayapateena inscription Bitragunta Grant Penugonda Inscription Kondavidu Grant 86. Saluva Narasimha, the founder of dynasty, was originally the chief of which { following areas? (a) Ummattur (b) Chandragiri f (c) Penugonda (d) Kondavidu 87.

Who wss the founder of the Aravidu and what was the capital?

Rama Raya—Vijayanagar Vira Narasimha—Chandragiri Achyuta Deva—Sivasamudram Tirumala Raya—Penugonda 88. The two Sangama brothers, who founded I Vijayanagar empire, were at first in the se of which one of the following kingdoms? Hoyasala kingdom Kampili kingdom Kakatiya kingdom Yadava kingdom 89. At whose initiative did the Sangama brothers | return to the fold of Hinduism from Islam? (a) Sayana

(b) Madhavacharya

(c) Vallabhacharya (d) Vidhyaranya

TheF

one of the following areas was not a i of contention between the Bahmanis and Vijayanagar rulers? averi delta iKrishna-Godavari delta nkan jfTungabhadra Doab i Vijayanagar ruler was decisively defeat-i Firoz Bahmani and forced to pay a huge I indemnity as well as offer his daughter in age? i Harihara II

(b) Deva Raya I

Deva Raya II (d) Bukka I ) was the first Vijayanagar ruler to wrest the ant port of Goa from the Bahmanis? > Harihara I (b) Harihara II Bukka I

(d) Deva Raya II

) among the following is generally acknowl-as the greatest ruler of the Sangama y? Bukka I

(b) Harihara II

Deva Raya I

(d) Deva Raya II

hich Adil Shahi ruler was killed by Krishna va Raya in the battle of Kovilkonda? Ismail Adil Shah Muhammad Adil Shah Yusuf Adil Shah Firoz Adil Shah i was the Portuguese governor in India to :lude a friendship treaty with Krishna Deva i around 1511? |) Vasco da Gama (b) Albuquerque D'Almeida

(d) Nino da Cunha

ho among the following was the author of nbavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit? Krishna Deva Raya

Allasani Peddana c) Tenali Ramalinga Nandi Timmana ho among the following Bahmani Sultans ansferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar? Muhammad Shah I b) Muhammad Shah II Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah Ahmad Shah Wali nud Gawan was the vakil as well as the |waz;r of which of the following Bahmani Sultans?


(a) Ala-ud-din Hasan (b) Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (c) Muhammad Shah III (d) Ahmad Shah Wall 99. Who built the Gol Gumbaj at Bijapur, famous for the world's second largest dome and the 'whispering gallery'? (a) (b) (c) (d) 100.

Mahmud Gawan Yusuf Adil Shah Ismail Adil Shah Muhammad Adil Shah Who were the tarafdarsl

(a)

Military commanders stationed in different directions in the Bahmani kingdom

(b)

Provincial governors under the Bahmani Sultans

(c)

Revenue officials of the districts in the Bahmani splinter states

(d) Officials in charge of enforcement of Islamic law in the Bahmani kingdom and later in its splinter states 101. To which dynasty does Zain-ul Abidin (1420-70) of Kashmir, famous for his patron age of arts and literature, belong? (a) Shah Miri dynasty (b) llyas Shahi dynasty (c) Faruqi dynasty (d) Muzaffar Shahi dynasty 102. Who built the famous 'Kirtistambha' at Chittor? (a) Ratan Singh Hammir (c) Rana Kumbha (d) Sangram Singh

(b) Rana

103. Who among the following founded the city of Ahmadabad, which came to replace Anhilwara as the capital of Gujarat? (a) Muzaffar Shah I (b) Muzaffar Shah II (c) Bahadur Shah (d) Ahmad Shah I 104.

Who was the founder of the Gajapati dynasty of Orissa?

(a) Purushottam

(b) Kapilendra

(c) Prataparudra 105.

(d) Vidhyadhara

Who was the founder of the sultanate of Madurai?

(a) Jalal-ud-din Ahsan (b) Hussain Shah (c) Nusrat Shah (d) Dilwar Khan 106. Which Sikh guru started the Gurumukhi script? (a) Nanak (b) Angad (c) Arjun

(d) Gobind Singh


107.

Who among the following was a worshipper of Rama?

(a) Surdas

(b) Mirabai

(c) Chaitanya (d) Tulsidas 108.

What were abhangasl

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Residences of bhakti saints Literature of the nirguna school of saints Lyrical poems composed by Eknatha Clothes worn by the saints of Maharashtra dharma

109. Who among the following saints of Maharashtra dharma was a dharakari, that is, one who combined spiritual life with worldly life? (a) Ramdas

(b) Tukaram

(c) Jnanadeva (d) Namadeva 110.

Prince Dara Shikoh was a follower of which of the following Sufi orders?

(a) Naqshbandi (c) Shattari 111.

(b) Qadri

(d) Suhrawardi

Arrange the following rulers of the Sangama dynasty in chronological order.

(i) Deva Raya I

(ii) Deva Raya II

(iii) Harihara I (iv) Prauda Deva (v) Mallikarjuna

(vi) Bukka I

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) vi, ii, iii, i, iv, v (b) iii, vi, v, ii, i, iv (c) iv, iii, v, i, vi, ii (d) iii, vi, i, ii, v, iv 112.

What is the historical order of the following Tuluva rulers?

(i) Krishna Deva

(ii) Sadasiva

(iii) Vira Narasimha (iv) Venkata (v) Achyuta Deva Choose the answer from the codes as follows: (a) iii, i, ii, v, iv

(b) ii, iii, i, v, iv

(c) iii, i, v, iv, ii

(d) iv, i, ii, v, iii

113. Arrange the following units of administration of the Vijayanagar empire in descending order, (i) Sthalas (ii) Kurrams (iii) Gramas

(iv) Rajyas

(v) Nadus

(vi) Valanadus

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) iv, vi, ii, v, i, iii (b) iv, ii, v, i, vi, iii (c) iii, ii, i, iv, v, vi 114.

(d) iii, i, v, ii, vi, iv

What is the chronological sequence of the fol lowing bhakti saints of north India?

(i) Chaitanya (ii) Guru I (iii) Kabir

(iv) Oadu I

(v) Mirabai Choose the answer from the codes I (a) iii, ii, v, iv, i (b) iii, i, ii,' (c) ii, iv, i, v, iii 115.

(d) iv, iii, i,'

Arrange the following saints of Ma dharma in the correct sequence.

(i) Eknatha

(ii) Nama

(iii) Ramdas

(iv) Jnanade

(v) Tukaram Select the answer from the codes I (a) i, ii, iv, v, iii (b) iii, iv, v, i (c) iv, ii, i, v, iii

(d) ii, iv, i, v,1

116. Find the correct chronological order < lowing saint philosophers of south I (i) Sankaracharya (ii) Vallabha (iii) Nimbarka (iv) Madha (v) Ramanujacharya Choose the answer from the codes I (a) i, iv, v, iii, ii (b) i, iii, iv, i (c) i, v, ii, iii, iv

(d) i, v, iv, i'

117. What is the chronological order oft the following foreigners to south India! (i) Nicolo de Conti (ii) Domingoj (iii) Marco Polo (iv) Ibn Ball (v) Abdur Razzak Select the answer from the codes I (a) iii, iv, i, v, ii (b) iv, i, (c) iv, ii, v, i, iii

(d) ii, i, v, i

118. Which of the following foreign travelle the Vijayanagar empire during Krishna Deva Raya? (i) Nicolo de Conti (ii) Domingd]

(iii) Fernao Nuniz

(iv) Marco P
(v) Duarte Edwardo Barbosa Choose the answer from the codes I (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and v (c) i.iiandv 119.

(d) All of the!

Which of the following rulers belon Saluva dynasty?

(i) Vira Narasimha (ii) Saluva Narasimha (iii) Timma Raya (iv) Mallikarjuna (v) Immadi Narasimha

TheF

sleet the answer from the codes below: All of them (b) i, li and iii r|c) ii, iii and v (d) ii, iii, iv and v |( Which of the following dynasties ruled over i Warangal successively? i (i) Kakatiyas (ii) Reddis (iii) Musnuri Nayakas (iv) Recharla Velamas (v) Western Gangas Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i and ii (c) i and iii

(d) i, iii and iv

Which of the following statements about Krishna Deva Raya are true? (i) He captured Konkan with the important port of Goa from the Portuguese. (ii) He was successful in suppressing the rebellion of the chieftain of Ummattur, and created a new province with Seringapatnam as the capital. (iii) He defeated the Gajapati ruler of Orissa and annexed all the territory up to Potnursimhadri. (iv) He built a new city, called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother. (v) He took several measures to prohibit the evil practice of human sacrifice. Choose the answer from the codes below:

(a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii and iv 122. Which of the following are mentioned as the main items of expenditure of the state in the Amuktamalyada of Krishna Deva Raya? (i) Personal charities and expenditure of the king (ii) Maintenance of poets, scholars, artists, etc. (iii) Developmental activities and security of the empire (iv) Acquisition and maintenance of horses (v) Military campaigns for territorial expansion Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii, iv and v

(d) i, iii and v

123. Which of the following temples were built by Krishna Deva Raya at HampiVijayanagar?


(i) Parvati temple (ii) Vitthalaswamy temple (ill) Ekambaranatha temple (iv) Hazara Ramaswamy temple (v) Krishnaswamy temple (vi) Varadaraja temple Choose the answer from the codes below. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iv and v (c) i, ii, iii and iv 124.


Mahmud Gawan

(i) was the vakil as well as the wazir of Muhammad Shah III. (ii) revived the Bahmani power and conquered Konkan and Krishna-Godavari delta, (iii) introduced several administrative reforms to strengthen Sultan's control over the nobility and provincial governors, (iv) belonged to a group, called 'Afaqis', i.e. new entrants from West Asia, while his opponents were called 'Deccanis'. (v) was executed by the Sultan for alleged treachery. (a) (b) (c) (d) 125.

All of them are true i, ii, iii and iv are true ii, iii, iv and v are true i, iii and iv only are true Who among the following were saints of the nirguna school?

(i) Dadu Dayal(ii) Nanak (iii) Raidasa

(iv) Kabir

(v) Sundaradasa

(vi) Dharanidasa

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, iv and v

(c) i, ii, iv, v and vi (d) All of them 126.

Who among the following saints of the saguna school were devotees of Krishna?

(i) Surdas

(ii) Tulsidas

(iii) Chaitanya (iv) Mirabai (v) Sankaradasa Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii, iv and v 127.

(d) ii, iii and v

Who among the following Sufi saints belonged to the Chisti order?

(i) Shaikh Hamid-ud-din Nagauri (ii) Khwaja Baqi Billah


(iii) Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki (iv) Shaikh Salim (v) Shaikh Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi (vi) Nizam-ud-din Auliya Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) i, iii, iv and vi

(c) ii, iii, iv and v


128. Who among the following were the major poets of the adi kala stage of the growth of Hindi literature? (i) Khan-i-Khanan (ii) Narrpati Nalha (iii) Chintamani (iv) Amir Khusrau (v) Tulsidas Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii and v 129.

(d) ii and iv

Ratnatraya of Kannada literature consisted of

(i) Narahari

(ii) Rampa

(iii) Kumara Vyasa (iv) Ponna (v) Ranna Select the answer from the codes below: (a) ii, iv and v (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) iii, iv and v 130.

Who among the following were the Nayanars or Saiva saints?

(i) Appar

(ii) Andal

(iii) Sambandhar

(iv) Nammalvar

(v) Sundarar Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and v (d) ii, iii and iv 131. lists.


List I Abdur Razzak (A) List II Fernao Nuniz (B) Italian, visited Kakatiya kingdom in Rudrama Devi's reign Italian, visited Vijayanagar at the time of Deva Raya I (iii) Ibn Battutah

(C)

Moroccan, visited Vijayanagar under Harihara I

(iv) Marco Polo

(D) Persian, visited

Vijayanagar under Deva Raya I (v) Nicolo de Conti (E) Portuguese, visited Vijayanagar of Achyuta Deva (a) (b) (c) (d) 132.

i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vB i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-E, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, vC Match the following:

List II (A)

Harihara I

(B)

Sangama II List I (i) Bagapellsi Copper

Plate (ii) Srirangam Copper Plate Harihara II Deva Raya II

Immadi Narasimha (C) (D)

(E) (iii) Bitragunta Grant (iv) Devulapalli Copper Plate (v) Channarayapateena Edict (a) (b) (c) (d) 133. List II

i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vB i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D, we i-D, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vB i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E, vC Consider List I and List II:

Kalahasti Mahatyam Rajasekhara Charitam Parijatapa Haranam Vasu Charitam List! (i) Nandi Timmana (ii) Madayya (iii) Dhurjati (iv) Rama Raja Bhushan (v) Tenali Ramalinga Panduranga Mahatyam Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iii (b) ii and iv (c) iii and v

(d) i and iv

Match List I with List II and choose the answer using the codes given as follows List I (i) Palegars

(ii) Ayagars (iii) Pradhanis List II (A)

Heads of departments

(B) (C)

Provincial governors Hereditary military chiefs

^.v) GauncM £v) Mandate ») i-A, ii-E^ ,J6») I-D, ii-Cd &<(<% i-C, \\-O4 d) i-C, HD.1 siderl

Li! P<1) Wrap Tottiy iii) Ka v)

2W pfWeh or,

"Select thej 1(8)1,11' ' ||p) I, < ithfj

i (o g*

I Ann

<*M* i by.' <*

E*W Sf fr) jB^ A0» j-E-&) «-C. (d) i-C, I

P) Mteam>< (H)" Ad»! >^(«) Ima 8<(iv) (v) Baridi , ^ Which l*" Choose I

TheF

(iv) Gaundas (D) Village functionaries (v) Mandalesvaras (E) Village headmen (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, vD I-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-B, v-A Consider List I and List II:

List I (i) Virapanchalas (ii) Tottiyans (iii) Kaikkolars (iv) Dombaras (v) Maravas List II Shepherds Smiths, carpenters, etc. Weavers Jugglers Fishermen

Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes below:

(a) i, ii and iii (c) i, iii and v Match the following: List I (i) Gangadevi (b) (d) iii, iv and v ii, iv and v

List II (ii) Annapurna Devi (iii) Nagalamba

(iv) Hannamma (v) Tirumalamma (A)

A scholar in the court of Prauda Deva

(B)

Krishna Deva's mother

(C)

Wife of Kampana and author of Maduravijayam

(D)

A poetess in the court of Achyuta Deva

(E)

Gajapati princess, married to Krishna Deva

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, we i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, v C i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-A, vD i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, v-D [137. Consider List I and List II:

List II Ahmadnagar Bijapur Berar Bidar Golconda List I (i) Nizam Shahis (ii) Adil Shahis (iii) Imad Shahis (iv) Qutub Shahis (v) Barid Shahis Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes below:

iffeenth and Earl/ Sixteenth Centuries B139

(a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v Match List I and List II and select the answer from the codes given below the lists. List I (i) Sadrijahan (ii) Wazirikul (iii) Waziriashraf List I) (iv) Amir-ijumla (v) Vakilussultanat (A) (B) (C)

Deputy Sultan Prime minister Minister of foreign affairs and royal court

(D) (E)

Finance minister Minister of eccle siastical and judicial affairs

(a) (b) (c) (d) 139.

i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vC i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we i-E, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, v-A i-E, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D, v-A Match the following:

List I List II (i) Kabir

(A) Jat farmer

(ii) Raidasa

(B) Rajput

(iii) Dhanna

(C) Weaver

(iv) Sena

(D) Cobbler

(v) Pipa

(E) Barber

(a)

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vB

(b) (c) (d) 140.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-C, v-A Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below.

List II (A)

Jnanamarga or path of knowl edge

(B)

Karmamarga or path of duty and work

(C)

Ragamarga or path of sponta neous love

(D) (E)

Prapathimarga or path of self-surrender Pushtimarga or path of grace

List! (i) Vasudeva Krishna

Sankara

(iii) Ramanuja

(iv) Vallabha

(v) Chaitanya

jfil


(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-E, vC i-A, ii-B, iii-E, iv-C, vD i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, v-C 141. Match the following

List I List II (i) Silsilah

(A) Doctrine of unity

of the Being (ii) Khanqah (B) Sufi order (iii) Wahadat-ul-wuzud (C) Those orders following the Islamic law (iv) Ba-shara (D) Those orders which were not bound by the Islamic law (v) Be-shara (E) Hospice or monastery of the Sufis (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vD i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, vC i-B, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vC i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, vD 142.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List I (i) Hag (ii) Khalq (iii) Sama (iv) Pir (v) Murid (a) i-C, ii-D, List II (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) i-B, iv-A, we Disciple Teacher Created Creator Musical recitations (b)

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB

(c) (d)

i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-B, v-A i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, v-B 143. Consider List I and List II:

List II Sur Sagara Padmavat Ramcharitmanas Indravati Chitravali List I (i) Tulsidas (ii) Surdas (iii) Jayasi (iv) Nur Muhammad (v) Uttaman Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Select the answer from the codes below:

(a) (c) i, ii and iii i, iii and iv (b) (d) iii, iv and v ii, iv and v

144.

Which of the following is correctly1!

(a) (b)

Prabhandas--Romantic i Lavanis--Ballads descr warfare and selfless valour <

(c) (d) 145.

Muktakas--Short poems in i Pavadas--Long narrative | Match List I with List II and using the codes given below

List I LisM (i) Alvars

(A) Siva,

(ii) Nayanars (B) Nak (iii) Sekkilar (C) Tirun (iv) Meykandar

(D) Na/ay

(v) Pugalendi (E) Per/yal (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vB i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E, v-A i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B, we


Instructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is con 'Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is con Mark (c) if both 'A and 'R' are correct an the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct,] is not the correct explanation for 'A'.

146. Assertion: Some of the quarter varahas c Raya II describe him as the 'Gajabentak Reason: Deva Raya II has elephant royal emblem. 147. Assertion: Rama Raya, the de facto i ing the time of later Tuluvas, was succes a great extent in playing off the Bahmanll ter states against one another. Reason: The Battle of Raksasa Tan Talikota in 1565 is generally considered to f the end of the great age of Vijayanagar < 148. Assertion: The nayaka system of Vijayanagar period increased the control < king over the provinces and local un administration. Reason: Under this system nayakas or, gars were granted amaram in lieu of sali return for their services to the state.

TheF

serf/on: According to Domingo Paes, evadasis held a highly respectable position in ) Vijayanagar society. ason: The devadasi system or the practice {attaching dancing girls to temples came into stence in south India for the first time under ayanagar rulers. erf/on: Kabir preached the brotherhood of an and pleaded for Hindu-Muslim unity, ason: He made a sharp criticism of the ste and religious distinctions prevalent in his eriod. | Assert ion: Guru Nanak laid great stress on the I of a guru for spiritual guidance. [Reason: He permitted his followers to form a inew religious sect, called Sikhism, during his [lifetime. lAssertion: Ramdas Samarth, the spiritual fguide of Sivaji, was a varakari.


Reason: His work, Dasabodha, gives advice to people on all aspects of worldly life. 153. Assertion: Madhavacharya was the founder of Dvaitavada or philosophy of dualism. Reason: According to him, not only god but the world as well are real and are irreducible to each other. 154. Assertion: The Chisti silsilah was the most prominent and popular one among all the Sufi orders of the period of the Delhi sultanate. Reason: The Chisti silsilah had, as its spheres of influence, many parts of India such as Rajasthan, Punjab, UP, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Deccan. 155. Assertion: The bhakti saints mainly used the regional languages for spreading their teach ings among the masses. Reason: The Delhi Sultans as well as the Mughals made Persian their official language.

ANSWERS

1.(c) 2. 11. (a) 12. 21. (d) 22. 31. (b) 32. 41. (c) 42. 5
(b) (c) (a) (c) (c)

3.(b) 13.(c) 23. (b) 33. (a) 43. (d)

4.(c) 14. (d) 24. (b) 34. (a) 44. (d)

5 (d) 15. (d) 25. (c) 35. (c) 45. (c)

(c) (b) (c) (d) (b) 102. (d) 112. (a) 122. (b) 132. (a) 142. (d) 152.

53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (b) 63. (a) 64. (c) 65. (c) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (a) 83. (d) 84. (c) 85. (a) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (b) (c) 103. (d) 108. (c) 109. (c) 113. (a) 118. (b) 119. (c) 123. (b) 128. (d) 129. (d) 133. (a) 138. (c) 139. (c) 143. (a) 148. (b) 149. (b) 153. (c)

6.(d) 16. (d) 26. (d) 36. (c) 46. (c)

7. 17. 27. 37. 47.

56. (a) 57. 66. (c) 67. 76. (b) 77. 86. (b) 87. 96. (a) 97. 104. (b) (a) 110 114. (b) (c) 120 124. (a) (a) 130 134. (c) (b) 140 144. (d) (a) 150 154. (c)

(c) (b) (b) (a) (d)

8.(d) 18. (a) 28. (c) 38. (d) 48. (c)

9. 19. 29. 39. 49.

i) i i (b) H (a) $ (d) 36 (b) 49 (b)

(d) 58. (a) (c) 68. (c) (a) 78. (b) (d) 88. (c) (d) 98. (c) 105. (a)

59. (d) 6d 69. (b) 7d 79. (c) 8fl 89. (d) 90 99. (d) 10J 106. (b)

115. (c)

116. (d)

125. (d)

126. (c)

135. (b)

136. (d)

145. (a)

146. (a)

155. (d)

THE MUGHAL I

AKBAR (1556-1605)

and Battle of Panipat Akbar received news of [father's death during his campaign against the us in the Punjab. Though Bairam Khan ptly crowned Akbar king, the latter's position quite precarious. The Afghans drove out the hals from the Agra-Bayana region; Delhi, had i seized by Hemu. In the second battle of Panipat $56) against Akbar, Hemu was about to win the when an arrow pierced his eye; instantly mi's army broke and fled.

am Khan's Regency After appointing a Downed Iranian scholar, Abdul Latif, as Akbar's >r, Bairam consolidated the administration of the nquered region as Akbar's vakil (regent). His owing predominance alienated the 'Atkah KhaiF, sisting of the families of Akbar's relations. r was eighteen years old by 1560 and wished to ; independently. In the same year, Maham Anaga, of his step-mothers, managed to have Akbar nsferred from Agra to Delhi. From there Akbar ote to Bairam ordering him to leave on a pilgrim-i to Mecca. But court politics goaded Bairam to olt. When he finally surrendered Akbar ordered i to resume his pilgrimage. In 1561 Bairam was [fortunately assassinated by an Afghan at Patan in iijarat on his way to Mecca, but his four-year-old n, Abdur Rahim, was sent to court.

iMPIRE (1556-1707)

Akbar's conquests

Akbar's ambitions of conquest and expansion were no different from those of other imperialists. He conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal and the borders of Assam. Next he strengthened his north-west frontier and then proceeded to subdue the Deccan. He conquered Malwa from Baz Bahadur (1561), Garhkatanga (Rani Durgavati and her minor son, Bir Narayan, died fighting Mughals) and Gondwana (1564), Gujarat (1572-3--he built the famous Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri in commemoration of this victory), Bihar and Bengal (1574-76), Kabul from Hakim (1581), Kashmir and Baluchistan (1586), Sind (1591), Orissa (1592), Qandahar (1595), Khandesh and a part of Ahmadnagar from Chand Bibi (1593-1601). In 1585 Akbar moved to the north-west frontier in order to foil the attempts of the ambitious Abdullah Khan Uzbek to seize Kabul, and stayed there until Abdullah Khan's death in 1598. During his fourteen years' presence in the area, Akbar sent three expeditions from his camp at Hasan Abdal. One left for Kashmir and another set out against Baluchistan. The third force went to subdue the Afghan tribes and an Afghan religious movement called the Raushaniyas. Akbar's early military operations against the Raushaniyas and the tribes were unsuccessful, and in 1586 his trusted friend Birbal (a Brahmin) was ambushed by the Yusufzais and

B143

B144 Indian History. Medieval India

killed. Raja Bhagawan Das, one of the generals of the Kashmir expedition, succeeded in persuading Yusuf Khan, the last ruler of Kashmir, to surrender. Akbar, however, refused to accept his terms and instead had him and his son arrested. The army sent by Akbar conquered Kashmir in 1586, and it was made a sarkar of Kabul province. The army sent against Baluchistan persuaded the Baluchi chiefs to surrender and in 1590-1 Sind was also conquered. Early in Akbar's reign the Shah of Iran had captured Qandahar, so Akbar sent an army under his famous general Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. The governor of Qandahar surrendered, and it became a part of the Mughal empire. The Mughal boundaries, extending from Sind, Baluchistan, Kabul, and Kashmir to the Hindu Kush, were the strongest line of defence that had ever existed in India, and no other Indian ruler ever controlled such a formidable frontier as Akbar. Deccan, Ahmadnagar, Chand Bibi, defended it heroically. Rajput Policy Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber married his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja Bharamars heir) and Man Singh (his nephew and adopted son) were subsequently given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy. One by one all the Rajput states were subjugated and they submitted to Akbar. But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty despite several defeats, particularly the one in the battle of Haldighati (1576) in which Rana Pratap was severely defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh.

Policy of SulhiKul

In 1575 Akbar ordered the construction of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) near the Jami Masjid in his newly built town of Fatehpur Sikri. Only the Sunnis were initially allowed to participate in religious discussions. Abdul Qadir Badauni and Abul Fazl were the principal debaters. Both had been trained by Abul Fazl's father, Shaikh Mubarak. After the battle of Haldighati, Akbar resumed the theological debates with representatives of all religious groups such as Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians. He grew convinced that all religions contained some truth and that this was not the prerogative of Islam.

During a crisis Shaikh Mubarak emperor to obtain the written verdict of ule whether the ruler was empowered to accordance with expediency on controve questions. A document dated August-Se 1579, known as the mahzar, was con signed by the leading ulema under the guid Shaikh Mubarak and his sons. It was not an' bility decree' as claimed by VA Smith. Father Monserrate, a member of the fir mission at Akbar's court (1580-3), who i nied the emperor in the Kabul campaign^ against his half-brother Mirza Hakim, -lively account of the religious debates journey. Father Daniel Bartoli, a later Jesuit i claims that after his return from Kabul,, himself the founder and head of a new This religion, Bartoli continues, was discu council of learned men and command council is regarded by modern scholars as 1 guration of Akbar's new faith, the Din Ilahi( Faith). The letters and reports of three Jesu sions which visited Akbar, however, indie no new religion was ever promulgated. The \ nation of contemporary sources does not le the conclusipn that Akbar invented a new i Essentially he expected his state grandees to] the four degrees of devotion or discipleship, ( ing readiness to sacrifice their life, property, I and religion to promote the interest of their i al master. In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl deals with a J her of laws made by Akbar for secularising thej which were, however, termed as 'illegal' orthodox Badauni. For instance, Akbar polygamy and allowed a second wife only in < tional circumstances. He also prohibited riages, the circumcision of boys below the twelve, the slaughter of animals on certain t totalling about half the year.

Prince Salim's Rebellion Prince Salim, the I awaited heir to the Mughal throne, was born in! due to the blessings of Shaikh Salim Chisti,'! whom the infant was named. His mother Kachchhwaha princess. But when prince

lied, in Allahabad in 1601, Akbar asked Abul help deal with the rebellion. Abul Fazl I to the north, but Salim had him killed by the ela chief, Bir Singh, near Gwalior on his way fa. Salim had ignored his duties from 1591, ; to lead an expedition either to the Deccan Transoxiana. Akbar's mother, Hamida Banu n, and his aunt, Gulbadan Begum, interceded rince and softened Akbar's resentment, he real threat to Salim's accession came from son, Khusrau, born to Man Singh's sister. did not want to pass over Salim in favour of au but saw in him a weapon to use against |im.When Akbar fell seriously ill, court intrigues increasingly brisk. Finally when Akbar died 11605, the conspiracy to set Salim aside petered

HE MANSAB SYSTEM

airing

sab (or rank) under the Mughals indicated the iition of its holder (mansabdar) in the official chy. Apart from determining the status of its folder, it also fixed his pay and the number of troop-i with horses and equipment to be maintained by n. The mansab system under the Mughals was a i in which the peerage, and the civil and mili-administrations were all rolled into one corn-lex whole. Under the system, mansabs (ranks) in us of numbers were assigned to nobles and com-nders, who were also placed in important adminative positions. Thus, the Mughal mansab system eluded all public services (such as military, civil nd financial), except the judiciary.

Iain Features under Akbar

i and Chahra Dagh (branding of horses) and hahra or tashiha (descriptive roll of soldiers) hich were meant to decrease the possibility of and and to fix rank according to the size of the con-ngent maintained (maratib) and also to check evaIsion of military obligation. They were introduced in


the 18th regnal year of Akbar's reign (1574). Henceforth correlation between the mansabdar's rank and the number of horsemen maintained by him came into effect.

Zat and Sawar The mansab system under Akbar came to be represented by the dual rank of zat and sowar from the 41st regnal year (1597). The former determined the personal pay and status in the official hierarchy. The latter determined the number of horsemen to be maintained and the salary for the maintenance of those horsemen.

Three Categories Those who had sawar ranks equivalent to their zat ranks; those whose sawar ranks were less than their zat ranks but not lesser than half of their zat ranks; those whose sawar ranks were less than half of their zat ranks.

Other Features Direct subordination of mansabdars to the emperor (hence contingents of big mans-abdars were not formed by adding those of the smaller ones); grant ofmansabs of 5,000 and above only to the princes and members of the royal family; mansab was not hereditary, but based on merit; sawar rank was always normally either equal to or lower than the zat rank; sawar rank was always preceded by the zat rank, the latter being more important than the former; possibility of the existence of a zat rank without a sawar rank, but never a sawar rank without a zat rank. According to the Ain-i-Akbari, the ranks ranged from the dahbashi (commander of 10) to the dah hazari (commander of 10,000), taking the total to 66, though only 36 actually appear in the work.

Main Addition by Jahangir

Duaspa-sihaspa Rank Introduction of the duaspasihaspa (2-3 horses) rank, literally meaning troopers having 2 or 3 horses; and hence related to the sawar rank. Its grant by the emperor to those selected nobles as a special favour. It was also given to those mansabdars engaged in military operations and expeditions. This rank doubled the ordinary sawar rank, and hence doubled the obligations and the privileges that went with it.


Further Changes by Shah Jahan

Rule of one-third, one-fourth It scaled down the obligations of the mansabdars. If a mansabdar was serving in a province where his jagir was, then his contingent should be equal to at least l/3rd of his sowar rank; if elsewhere then only l/4th; for those serving in Baikh, Badakshan and Kabul, only l/5th.

Month Scales A mansabdar often found that the hasil (actual revenue collected from & jagir) was less than the jama (stipulated or assessed revenue from a jagir), on which his salary was actually fixed. So recognising this difference and its inevitability the emperor classified Jagirs on the basis of hasil into '8-month Jagir' or '6-month Jagir' i.e. the income from a jagir assigned for one year actually yielded a revenue equal to what was expected in 8 months or 6 months instead of 12 months. Thus the month scale was a devise to express the ratio between the jama and the hasil, and hence gave some relief in service obligations to mansabdars.

THE JAGIR SYSTEM

Meaning

Jagir or tuyul was a unit of land, whose revenues were assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of his salary. The jagirs assigned in lieu of salary were known as tankhwah jagirs. Besides, there were the watan jagirs (hereditary possessions) of the autonomous chiefs, who, if in Mughal service, were also granted the former type of jagirs in the imperial territory. It is shown that in 1647 about 60 per cent of the total jama of the empire was assigned to 445 mansabdars of 500 rank and above. Under the Mughals, apart from One jagir lands, whose revenues went to pay the salaries of the mansabdars for their services to the state, there were also the khalisa lands, whose revenues were earmarked for the maintenance of the imperial court and the personal expenditure of the emperor. Hence the jagir of the Mughal times was similar to the iqta of the Delhi sultanate. Like the iqta, the assignment of a jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to

that jagir on the mansabdar. He could enjoy 1 revenues of the jagir only as long as he held \ mansab or official rank and rendered services tol state. In other words, the jagirdars (holders* jagirs) owed their position to the Mughal emp there being no practical difference between the s and the emperor in Mughal times. The Mugj emperors jealously guarded their privileged tion against any hereditary claims to the jagirs \ the jagirdars by following the policy of: transfer of jagirs of the jagirdars.

Thus, ^bs jagir system was closely related tot mansab system. In fact it was a subsidiary syste the all-in-one mansab system. We should note 1 that all jagirdars were mansabdars, but not mansabdars were jagirdars, because some man dars were paid in cash and not through the assig ment of jagirs.

Jagirdari Crisis

In a narrow sense, jagirdari crisis means crisis I the jagir system resulting in the attempt of i nobles to corner the most profitableyag/rs for t selves. But in the broader sense it means a crisis i the economic and social relations of medie Mughal India, more specifically in the relations and the administrative superstructi reared upon these relations. The following were I causes for this crisis:

The nature of medieval India society, which Hi ited agricultural growth, and whose delicate 1 ance was liable to be upset on a number counts, such as serious struggle for power at 1 centre, disaffection in the nobility, etc. was main cause of this crisis. Further, the breakdown of the Mughal trative system, and the weaknesses of the Mughals also led to this crisis. Another cause was the growth in the size demands of the ruling class, viz. the nobility i their dependents, both of whom subsisted on thel revenue resources of the empire. The number of J mansabdars increased from around 2000 in 1605 to almost 12,000 by 1675.

he expansion of the khalisa lands by both hah Jahan and Aurangzeb in order to meet he growing administrative expenses as also he cost of the wars which were a continuous Ifeature of Aurangzeb's reign also initiated this rcrisis. Finally, opposition and revolts of the zamindars land the peasants against the illegal exactions of | the nobles aggravated this crisis.

INISTRATION MEASURES

Weal Ideals

Dry of Kingship Abul Fazl introduced a new tision to the Mughal theory of kingship. To , the institution of kingship, rather than the indiual who held the office, was endowed withyarr-di (divine effulgence). His padshah or shahan-(king of kings) was a unique personality and i the viceregent of God on earth. Another import scholar on this subject was Shaikh Abdul Haqq lawi who wrote the Nuriyya-i-Sultaniyya, a trea-covering all aspects of this subject, during hangir's reign.

nplete Sovereignty Complete independence sovereign or the king, both internally and nally. Internally, every institution and person i subordinate to the king. Externally, the Mughal eign did not recognise any superior authority the caliph, which was done by the Delhi iltans.

erialism The desire of the Mughals to bring lender their imperial rule not only the whole of India at also territories outside India such as hanistan, Central Asia, etc.

BStic Loyalties The Mughal administration i reared on dynastic loyalties. Though in theory

nistrative posts were open to all, in practice stly those persons having royal origins were into administration. And the government sernts owed loyalty to the dynasties rather than to the titutions.

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707) Central Administration

B147

Emperor The form of Mughal government was despotic monarchy. The king was the head of the executive, legislature, judiciary and the army. His main duty was benevolence towards the subjects. The royal uzuk (small signet ring) was affixed to far-mans granting senior appointments, titles, jagirs, etc. The only limits on the autocracy of the king were the nobility and the ulema. Though in theory the nobles owed their position to the king, in practice the king could not easily ignore the strength of the nobility.

Vakil Representative of the king and hence exercised all powers on behalf and in the name of the king; decline of the powers of this office after Bairam Khan, and continuation of this post mainly as a decorative one.

Wazir or Diwan In his capacity as diwanikull (principal diwari), he was the head of the revenue department, When there was no vakil, he acted as the P.M. as well and hence called the wazir.

Mir Bakshi Head of the military department, and also became the paymaster general after the introduction of the mansab system. With the growth of the mansab system and the expansion of the empire, he became as powerful, if not more than, as the wazir, thus acting as a check on the latter.

Sadr-US-Sudur Head of the ecclesiastical department, hence regulated the religious policy of the state; was also in charge of public charities and endowments; combination of the office of the chief sadr and the chief qazi (qazi-ul-quzat), and hence head of the department of justice also. The Mughal counter-part of the Delhi Sultanate's secular judge (amir-i-dad) was the mir adl, who was likewise responsible for implementing the qazis1 decisions. There were also the muhtasibs and muftis, who continued as subordinate officers of the qazis.

Khan-i-Saman Head of the royal household and the royal karkhanas or buyutats (workshops); his gradual ascendancy into prominence at the centre. Initially he looked after only the royal household,

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while diwan-i-buyutat looked after the workshops. But later he was made senior to the latter, thus bringing the latter's charge also under his supervision.

Others Apart from the above, there were many other ministers and officers at the centre, though not as important as the above. They were: diwanikhalisa (in-charge of crown lands), diwan-i-tan (in-charge of jagirs), mushrif-i-mumalik (accountant-general), mustauf-i-mumalik (auditor-general), daroga-i-dak chauki (postmaster-general), miriarz (in-charge of petitions), mir-i-mal (in-charge of privy purse), mir-i-tozak (in-charge of ceremonies), mir bahri (incharge of ships and boats), mir manzil (in-charge of quarters), mir atish or darogaitopkhana (head of artillery). Besides, certain other officials worked in various parts of the empire under the supervision of their respective heads at the centre. They were: muhtasibs (enforced public morals), waqia navis (news reporters), khufia navis (secret letter writers), harkaras (spies and special couriers), etc. Some elite or crack troops, called ahadis, were maintained directly by the emperors without placing them under the mansabdars. Their equipment was of high standard and each had to muster five horses. They were placed under a seperate diwan and bakshi.

Provincial Administration

Division and systematic organisation of the empire into different provinces or subas by Akbar. Their number was 15 at the time of the death of Akbar, rose to 19 under Shah Jahan, and 21 under Aurangzeb. Akbar established a uniform pattern of administration in all the provinces.

Important Officials The governor was known as subedar or sipah-salar, and also some times as nayim. His functions included maintenance of law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees, administration of criminal justice, etc. The provincial diwan was incharge of revenue administration of the province. His responsibilities were similar to those of the central diwan (diwan-i-kull). He acted as a check on the subedar and was directly responsible to the central diwan. The bakshi was directly responsi-

ble to the mir bakshi, and discharged du to those of the latter. Other provincial of qazi, sadr, muhtasib, etc.

Local Administration

There was a division of a province into soft sarkar was further divided into paragan consisted of a group of villages. The i of the sarkars and paraganas was more i the lines laid down by Sher Shah, changes were made by the Mughals in this Groups of villages which had been con fiscal purposes only were known as the! Further, the provinces were also subdivjjj smaller units, known asfawjdaris, for £ convenience. Afawjdar was responsible foi her of paraganas but not usually an entinjj] The fawjdaris were composed of sr known as thanas or military outposts, conri thanedars. Jhefawjdars performed milit&] and judicial functions and also helped in administration. They were required to deall rebellions by thejagirdars, zamindars and j

Relationship between Centre and

The centre appointed the officials of the ] sarkars and paraganas, and hence they we ly responsible to the centre. Further the ( frequently transfer the provincial and lo in order to prevent them from acquiring 1 and interests. Frequent tours were und central officers and the emperor himself in make the local officials function properly^ horsemen as well as dispatch runners news and reports expeditiously from dif] of the empire. According to Ibn Battutah, I post, called uluq, used royal horses statio mile intervals. The foot-post, which dawa, had three stations per mile. Betwe the human runner travelled faster than the 1 Despite all the above precautions, the conti centre above the provinces and local unit always very effective, particularly during t weak rulers.

JE ADMINISTRATION

[bar's 8th regnal year, Sher Shah's system I to be the basis with some modifications to ; growing need for granting jagirs. A series iments were made till Akbar's 24th regnal after which the land revenue administration bilised. It can be examined under several

I Ownership

rietorship (i.e. hereditary rights only) of peas-i soil was recognised. Abul Fazl, for instance, 'Field belongs to him who clears away timber.' ;, zamindars andjagirdars had only the superior s over the revenue.

; of Calculation

al government usually fixed rates annually ding to yield which fluctuated. Akbar, however, a uniform system of assessment through Ich he could make an accurate estimate of crops, at there would be minimum chances of oppres-by officers and less fraud by the cultivators. : of the prevailing methods are discussed below.

ai or Galla-Baksh In this sharing was done in nt ways. Firstly, after the harvest of the crop, nment claim was taken by directly going to the s. Secondly, after the harvest, crop was divided ) equal heaps and specified heaps were taken by s government officer. Thirdly, before the harvest ;lf, the standing crop was surveyed and state share I by making a line of demarcation.

nkut Cultivator and official arrived at a general nate of produce of the whole area on the basis of pie survey by mutual agreement.

In this method the revenue payable by the iltivator was estimated on the basis of past experi asurement Introduced by Ala-ud-din Khalji I followed by Sher Shah also; system of dividing I into 3 categories--good, bad and middling.

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707) IMI B149

Akbar's Experiments

Zabti or Bandobast System: Under this system a new jama was prepared. Raja Todar Mai (a Khattri) found the old jama figures unreliable and hence collected correct figures from the qanungos and in the 15th regnal year the new jama came into force.

The karori experiment was began by Akbar with the extension of khalisa land, so as to provide facilities to revenue department to collect exten sive data. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding revenue of one karor. That is why it is known as the karori experiment. Each circle was placed under a revenue official called karori. Aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a tanab made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measur ing land in 1575.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems, viz. batai, kankut, etc. continued. Thus wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti or bandobast system.

Dahsala System On the basis of the above zabti system fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mai. These reforms, collectively known as AiniDahsala, were completed in 1580.

Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz. polaj--annually cultivated, parauti--left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar--left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar--uncultivated for 5 years or more. In 1588 Todar Mai introduced a uniform unit of measurement, llahi gaz, which is a medium gaz of 41 digits (33 inches). Further as Abul Fazl mentioned, according to Ain-i-Dahsala, a 10years state of every paragana was ascertained in regard to the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ul-amal) and remove difficulties and


delays associated with yearly sanction. So in the 24th regnal year final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities. Average cash rate of previous 10 years' harvest was derived, and cash rate was fixed once for all. Dasturs for cash crops were fixed separately.

Mode of Payment

Payment was made generally in cash, though there were some exceptions. For example, in Kashmir and Orissa it was in kind. Cash payment was a source of great hardships to the peasants. They had to immediately dispose of the harvested crop even when the prices were very low, since revenue was to be paid in cash. Hence there was greater demand for money, which in turn increased the hold ofbaniyas on the peasants.

Machinery for Collection

There was the patwari at the village level. He kept a bahi, i.e. a register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed rev enue. It was the most important document and served as evidence in settling disputes. The vil lage headmen, who assisted pargana revenue collectors in their task, received two-and-a half per cent of the tax as remuneration. There were the qanungos at the pargana level. The post of qanungo was a hereditary office. He maintained records. In Deccan and Gujarat, this officer was known as desai. He was also respon sible for advance oftakkavi loans to peasants and assessment of revenue. At the sarkar (district) level, amil or amalguzar was assisted by the karkun (accountant) and khazanadar (treasurer).

All these officials worked under the supervision of the provincial diwan, who was directly under the diwan at the centre.

13.2 OTHER GREAT MUGHALS Jahangir (1605-27)

Reforms Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (World Conqueror) and adhered to Akbar's ideals of

the coexistence of all religious communities. 1 ted some local taxes on trade and the manufi goods. He also forbade the killing of animal 1 on Thursdays and Sundays. Besides, he enhance the importance of the mazolim court.^

Nur Jahan In 1611 Jahangir married nisa, the widow of Sher Afghan, who wa fighting the governor of Bengal. After her i Mihr-un-nisa was given the title Nur Ma of the Palace) and, later, Nur Jahan (Light of 1 Nur Jahan's father, Itimaduddaula, appointed jomt-diwan long before the After his daughter's marriage to the emperor, | promoted as wazir. Nur Jahan's elder brothe Abul Hasan, was given the title Asaf Khan i appointed khan-i-saman. In 1612 Asaf daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later Mumtaz Mahal), married Jahangir's th prince Khurram. Coins were even struck^ name, but it was not until 1622 that Jahang^ idly declining health reduced him to a fig and made Nur Jahan ruler in all but name.

Campaigns Jahangir used both military fa diplomacy in trying to secure the su Maharana Pratap's successor, Amar Singh., phase opened in Mughal-Mewar relation rulers showed understanding towards each ( concluded peace (1615). After Mewar, the! was Jahangir's main concern. But Malik Habshi or Abyssinian slave) of Ahmadna sued his guerrilla tactics with greater vig Mughal invasions were repeatedly beaten 1

Rebellions In 1606 Jahangir's son, revolted, but was defeated and imprisoned, i Khusrau's well-wishers, Guru Arjun (5th^ Sikhs), was beheaded. Later Khusrau was bli order to disqualify him permanently from; the throne. Khusrau died at Burhanpur in 162| custody of Khurram. His youngest Shahryar, was incompetent, although his bet! Ladili Begum, Nur Jahan's daughter by Afghan, made him the real contender to the I When Iranians invaded Qandahar Khu given the command to repel the Iranis, but 1 procrastinated. Shahryar was then commissid

campaign against Qandahar. Finding no Khurram rebelled and marched towards f Khan supported Khurram in the civil war which lasted for more than three years, i ultimately surrendered and was pardoned. sir's second son, Parvez, and Mahabat i had exhibited considerable perseverance ng Khurram's rebellion, now posed a threat i. Mahabat was transferred to Bengal as (T. Another royal mandate ordered Mahabat i an account of the large sums forfeited to nent from the dismissal of disloyal jagirzamindars. Mahabat Khan realised that i him in the face. In 1625 Mahabat took of the emperor and his camp. Nur Jahan to foment dissatisfaction against Mahabat, Mahangir, under her direction, also pretended ateful to Mahabat for freeing him from Nur . The emperor persuaded Mahabat to let him his troops and then assumed command of cing Mahabat to flee. ngir's declining health had diverted attention | him to his successor. In 1627 the emperor died in Kashmir. The emperor's dead body from Bhimbar to Lahore for burial in the sha garden of Shahdara. In his Tuzukiliri (autobiography), he described his drink-nts without inhibition. It is informative and i the author's deep appreciation of nature as his inherent inquisitiveness.

iJahan(1627-58)

sion Jahangir's death made the struggle the throne imminent. Nur Jahan alerted to prepare for war. Asaf Khan sent mes-to Khurram, urging him to come to Agra st-haste. Asaf played for time by proclaiming one Jahangir's favourites, Khusrau's son Dawar , king. Shahryar proclaimed himself king but af Khan defeated him, imprisoning him and niyal's two sons. Before Khurram reached Agra, var Baksh, his brother Shahryar, and Daniyal's sons were beheaded. Parvez had already died hurram proclaimed himself emperor as Shah n. The cold-blooded murder of all possible con


tenders for the throne had removed any threat from the imperial family to Shah Jahan's rule.

Military Campaigns Shah Jahan's war against the Bundelas was endemic. During Jahangir's reign Bir Singh Bundela had become the emperor's favourite by assassinating Abul Fazl. After his death his son Jujhar succeeded him. Jujhar and his son, Vikramajit, rebelled against the Mughals, but the imperialist forces pursued them relentlessly and eventually murdered them. The Mughal inability to fight prolonged wars in mountains frustrated Shah Jahan's ambitions to conquer Transoxiana, his ancestral lands. The Mughals lost more than five thousand lives during their successive invasions between 1639 and 1647. Shah Jahan became more realistic and stopped dreaming of ruling over his former ancestral lands. Shah Jahan's imperial policies were more successful in the Deccan. Malik Ambar had died. Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service. The most eminent among them was Shahji Bhonsle. Malik Ambar's son, Path Khan, failed to get the cooperation of the Nizam Shahi nobles, and consequently he surrendered to Mughals. In 1636 Shah Jahan again arrived in Daulatabad. The Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Mughal onslaught and lost its independence. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor. Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces. The first viceroy, Aurangzeb, controlled all four provinces from 1636 to 1644. Six viceroys succeeded him, each working for a short period only. In 1652 Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan for the second time. He made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of the Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad. The land revenue collected was, however, insufficient to maintain the huge army necessary to control the hilly terrain. The financial bickering between father and son forms a large part of Aurangzeb's correspondence known as the AdabiAlamgiri.

War of Succession Shah Jahan's sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war (1657-59) among his four sons--Dara Shikoh

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(crown-prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangzeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Of their sisters, Jahanara Begum called Begum Sahiba, was Dara's partisan, Roshanara supported Aurangzeb, and Gauharara acted as a spy for Murad. Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb had made a friendly alliance. Murad also became friendly with Aurangzeb. On hearing of Shah Jahan's illness, their clandestine correspondence became more frequent. Though Shah Jahan had recovered by November 1657, the princes refused to believe the news and raised the battle-cry of liberating Shah Jahan from Dara's vicious control. Murad declared himself king, and Shah Shuja proclaimed his independence in Bengal. When Shah Shuja reached Banaras, Dara's son, Sulaiman Shikoh, defeated him. But Aurangzeb moved cautiously. Early in 1658 he set off from Aurangabad and met Murad at Dipalpur near Ujjain, and the two armies camped at Dharmat. The imperial forces under Maharaja Jaswant Singh had already arrived at Ujjain to prevent the princes from proceeding to Agra. In the battle that followed the princes gained the upper hand and the Rajputs fled. Now Dara moved to Samugarh, near Agra, to give battle, but was outmaneuvered and rushed to Agra. After besieging Agra, Aurangzeb rejected all Shah Jahan's invitations to visit him. When the supply of Jamuna water was also stopped, Shah Jahan wrote a pathetic letter complaining to Aurangzeb and finally opened the gates. The emperor was confined within the ladies' palace, and Aurangzeb refused to see his father until he had killed Dara, whom he declared an infidel. Aurangzeb and Murad marched together from Agra towards Delhi in pursuit of Dara. But on the way Aurangzeb treacherously took Murad captive and later sentenced him to death. Aurangzeb then moved to Delhi, forcing Dara to flee the Punjab. At Delhi, Aurangzeb formally crowned himself king with the title Alamgir (Conqueror of the Universe). The pursuit of Dara was stepped up, but the real threat to his rule came from Shuja, who was heading towards Allahabad in order to seize Agra. In the battle of Khajwa (1658) Shuja's army was routed, and

he himself took to flight. He was however ] by Mir Jumla as far as Bengal. In 1660 Shujfl farewell to Bengal which he had ruled for 1 years, and sailed for Arakan with his family. Meanwhile Jai Singh pursued Dara with 1 able tenacity. Dara set off towards the but was taken captive by his treacherous \t chief, Malik Jiwan, who handed him over Singh. Dara was brought to Delhi and senti death for committing apostasy (ridda or iriti stating in his Majma-ul-Bahrain that Isla Hinduism were twin brothers (1659). In 1666? Jahan died, having been tended throughout 1 tivity by Jahanara. His remains were buried 1 his wife's grave in the Taj Mahal.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Religious Policy Initially Aurangzeb hit few administrative changes. A high-powered i abdar (Iwaz Wajih) was appointed as chief c morals (muhtasib) to prevent drinking, taking / and other drugs, forbidden and unlawful deeds,| committing shameful acts such as aduK Subsequently, the enforcement of Sunni lav suppression of all Shia practices, and the tion of all moral reforms were also incorporat* their duties. Finally, in 1699 they were allot! task of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrati the Iranian Nauroz festival, was banned. The i was no longer stamped on coins, to prevent the 1 words from being defiled by unbelievers or he The north Indian period of Aurangzeb's (1658-81) was marked by a gradual departure j Akbar's policy of coexistence. His early regula were designed to offer relief to Muslims and i urban taxation. Customs duty on all imports 3 fixed in 1665 at 2 1/2 per cent of their value inj| case of Muslim traders and 5 per cent for: Two years later all customs duty for Muslims*] abolished. In 1669 a general order to demolish 1 pies and Hindu centres of learning was issued. ] celebrated Visvanatha temple of Banaras and,] Kesava Rai temple of Mathura were reduc ruins. In April 1679, he reimposed jizya Hindu protests.

The first ten years of Aurangzeb's rule r and politically a great success. Minor were instantly crushed. Chatrasal, for some years but he also, like became the champion of freedom in By 1661 Mir Jumla seized Kooch-1 inarched up the Brahmaputra. Next year he hgaon (near Gauhati), the Ahom capital, i army fled but their continual depredations with pestilence and famine exacted a 1 on the Mughals. Finally, prostrated by ill-fJumla made peace with the Ahom Raja and s way to Dacca.

Aurangzeb's early success is over-l by his later setbacks. The excesses com-Abdunnabi, the faujdar of Mathura, l>the Jats around Mathura and Agra to rise in okla, a zamindar, became the peasants' I killed the faujdar. The emperor himself I to the area and put down temporarily by ; and executing Gokla (1669). But soon the rived their activities, Churaman, Rajaram's successor, strengthened the Jat fort of I, near Bharatpur, and they fearlessly sacked I around Agra and Delhi. Even Akbar's tomb ira was dug open in the hope of obtaining itreasure. iSatanami revolt of 1672 was sparked off by 1 dispute between a Satanami peasant and a lier. Satanamis established an independent nent, but the imperial army crushed the on. The ninth guru of the Sikhs, Tegh , exasperated the Mughals by his preach1675, while the emperor was at Hasan , Tegh Bahadur was beheaded on the orders of zi of Delhi. Guru Gobind, the tenth guru of the , reinterpreted the Sikh ideologies to justify r action. The Sikhs who accepted the rite of i which he devised were known as the Khalsa (and were given the title of Singh (Lion). A reinforcement cut off supplies to the Sikh old of Anandpur. The guru evacuated the ut his two sons were savagely executed by I" Khan, the Sirhind faujdar. The guru wrote to xor condemning his faujdar's atrocities.


The Sikhs and the imperial troops went clashing till Aurangzeb's death. The most serious challenge to Aurangzeb, however, came in 1678 when Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in the north-western tribal region. He had no heirs, but one of his pregnant queens gave birth to a posthumous son Ajit Singh. As the paramount power, Aurangzeb escheated the Maharaja's property upon his death and resumed the whole of Marwar into the khalisa. Indra Singh Rathor, a grand-nephew of Jaswant, was subsequently made Raja of Jodhpur. Though Ajit was put under house-arrest in Delhi, the Rathors under Durgadas rescued and I took him to Marwar. Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar joined Jaswant's chief queen. Rani Hadi, in pressing Ajit's right to his father's throne. In 1679 the emperor ordered his fourth son, Akbar, to invade Marwar. But the prince instead declared himself emperor in 1681 with the support of the Rajputs. Aurangzeb, who was appalled by the prince's declaration of independence, marched against him and managed to alienate the Rajputs from Akbar by having a counterfeit treacherous letter, addressed to Akbar, delivered to Durgadas's camp. Rajputs deserted Akbar at midnight. Akbar escaped to Marwar and fled to the court of Sivaji's son Sambhaji. Meanwhile Raj Singh's son, Jai Singh, made peace with the emperor.

Expansion in the Deccan Aurangzeb left for the Deccan in September 1681, never to return to the north. In the Deccan Aurangzeb failed to assess the situation realistically. Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and south of Konkan. To contain the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur under Sikandar Adil Shah. Bijapur was annexed in 1686 and the Adil Shahi dynasty came to an end. Bijapur was made the seat of the Mughal provincial governor. Now it was the turn of Abul Hasan Qutub Shah of Golconda. Aurangzeb ordered prince Muazzam to march against Golconda. Madanna and his brother Akkanna were killed by the leading Qutub Shahi nobles, who accused them of causing Aurangzeb's invasion. However Muazzam himself

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was condemned as a traitor by Aurangzeb and imprisoned with his entire family. In 1687 a treacherous Afghan opened one of the gates of the fort to the Mughal army and Golconda was annexed. Sambhaji was taken captive and executed at Sangamesvar and his family, including his son Sahu, were captured. Aurangzeb gave Sahu the mansab of 7,000 and treated him well. But he misjudged the strength of the Maratha guerrillas and the situation deteriorated. The booty from Bijapur and Golconda relieved the emperor temporarily from the need to utilise his reserves, but is was not sufficient to cover the cost of the last phase of the Deccan wars. The reputation of the Mughal war machine was undermined by the rebellions of the zamindars in northern India and the ravages of the marauding bands of Marathas in the Deccan. Bhim Sen, who served the Mughals gives a most realistic analysis of the Maratha rise at the end of the seventeenth century. Aurangzeb's death in 1707 at the ripe age of eighty-nine finally ended the age of the Great Mughals. His failures are ascribed to his bigotry and narrow-minded religious policy. What caused the real breakdown, however, was his unrealistic estimate of the Deccan problems. And after prince Akbar's rebellion, Aurangzeb never trusted his remaining three sons and he shivered at the memory of Shah Jahan's last days. His main concern was as much to neutralise his sons' intrigues as to destroy the Marathas.

13.3 SIVAJI AND HIS SUCCESSORS

His Life and Conquests

Born at Sivner to Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai, he inherited thejagir of Poona from his father in 1637. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadeo, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. Before that, at the age of 18, he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Toma from Bijapur (1645-47). His real career of conquest began with his capture of Javli (1656) from a Maratha chief (Chanda Rao More), which made him the master of the high lands area of Mavala (Mavali foot soldiers became a

strong part of his army). He attacked I territories in 1657-58. Afzal Khan ' the Adil Shah ruler to punish Sivaji,"'' murdered Afzal in 1659. Later Shaista Khan, governor of I deputed by Aurangzeb to put down the I of Sivaji in 1660. Sivaji was attacke forces from the north and Bijapur fa south. Sivaji lost Poona and suffered! between 1660 and 1663 till he made a \ Shaista's military camp and plundered! and later Ahmadnagar. Raja Jai Singh < then appointed by Aurangzeb to put (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded in in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently 1 Purandhar (1665) was signed according I

Sivaji had to surrender 23 forts (and f ritories around them) out of his Mughals. The Mughals recognised Sivaji's rig parts of the Bijapur kingdom (some i under Sivaji's control and others we quered). Grant of a mansab of 5000 was to bel favour of Sivaji's son.

Sivaji visited Agra in 1666 where he oned after he managed to escape from i remained in relative silence for (1666-69) and renewed his conflict'^ Mughals by his second plunder of Surat in .four years he carried on military conq ing all his former forts and territories, was coronated at Raigarh and assumed i 'Haindava Dharmodharak' (Protector of I He formed an alliance with the Qutub^ Golconda and led a campaign into Bijapuri j (1676-79) and conquered Gingee (Jinji) i etc. But he refused to share the newly < ritories with Qutb Shah. Sivaji died in 1(

Sivaji's Administration

Central Administration Sivaji was helj ashtapradhan (eight ministers) which council of ministers, for there was no

sibility; each minister was directly responsi> Sivaji. The ashtapradhan included:

feshwa--Finance and general administration; he became Prime Minister and assumed at importance. r-i-Naubat--Senapati or military commander; his was only an honorary post with no real mili-' powers. Majumdar or Amatya--Accountant general dur-5 the rule of the Peshwas; he later became rev-nue and finance minister. Waqenavis--Intelligence, posts and household airs. unavis or Sachiv--Also called chitnis, looked I after correspondence. \Dabir or Sumanta--Master of ceremonies. i INyayadhish--Justice. Pandit Rao--Charities and religious affairs.

: of the administrative reforms of Sivaji were 1 on Malik Ambar's (Ahmadnagar) reforms.

enue Administration Assessment of land nue was based on measurement. The kathi of was adopted as the measuring rod. Land nue was increased from 33 per cent to 40 per pt in later years. The Swarajya was divided into her of revenue divisions, called prants conof two or more districts. Sivaji brought lit changes in the position of the hereditary revofficials, variously called deshmukhs, deshdes, patils and kulkarnis. Though he did not pletely do away with these officials, he considbly reduced their powers by close supervision strict collection of revenue from them, ointment of his own revenue officials (subah-! or karkuns in charge of revenue administration ^prants) helped in establishing a solid revenue

'^Chauth and sardeshmukhi were collected not on jswarajya but on an undefined belt of land which i legally part of the Mughal empire or the Deccan Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue to the Marathas so as not be subjected to ha raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy 110 per cent on those lands of Maharashtra over


which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal empire.

Military Administration Ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but the big chiefs and military commanders were paid through the grant of revenues of saranjam or mokasa (jagirs). All ministers, except the nyayadhish and the pandit rao had to participate in war. The hierarchy of army officials was like this--sar-i-naubat (senapati), panch hazari, jumladar, havaldar and naik. The army consisted of the infantry (Mavali foot soldiers playing the most important role), the cavalry (consisting of bargis and silahdars, the former were provided with horses and equipment by the state, while the latter maintained their own) and the navy (consisting of two squadrons, each under a Muslim and a Hindu). Forts occupied an important position. Each fort was put under the charge of three officers of equal rank (qilahdars) as a precaution against treachery, and they were frequently transferred (by the end of his reign, Sivaji had 240 forts under him).

Successors of Sivaji

Sambhaji (1680-89) The war of succession between Sambhaji, the elder son, and Rajaram, the younger son, of Sivaji, resulted in the victory of the former and imprisonment of the latter. Sambhaji provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. But Akbar failed against his father and departed to Persia. Sambhaji was also captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal noble and executed.

Rajaram (1689-1700) Rajaram was released and succeeded to the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. He fled from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 (Jinji remained his base till 1698) due to a Mughal invasion in which Raigarh was captured along with Sambhaji's wile and son (Shahu) by the Mughals. Jinji fell to the Mughals (1698) and Rajaram escaped to Visalgarh (Maharashtra). Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji. Rajaram's administrative changes included the creation of the new post of pratimdhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine.

^.

B156 HH1 Indian History: Medieval India

Sivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707) Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Sivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai. He attacked Berar (1703), Baroda (1706) and Aurangabad.

Shahu (1707-1749) Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah and this was the beginning of civil war (1707-14) between him and Tarabai. Tarabai's army was defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (1700) and Shahu occupied Satara. The final defeat and imprisonment of Tarabai by Shahu came in 1714. But the southern part of the Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram (Sivaji II and later Sambhaji II). Shahu's reign saw the rise of Peshwaship and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.

13.4 ECONOMY

Condition of Peasants

Khudkashta Those peasants living in their own villages, owning their own lands and implements. Two obligations to the state--payment of revenue regularly and cultivation of his land. Some of them rented out their spare lands and implements to the other two categories. They were called mirasdars in Maharashtra and gharuhala or gaveti in Rajasthan. Their economic and social superiority over the other two categories of peasants. Economic superiority since they paid only the customary revenue to the state and not any other tax as was paid by the other two categories. Social superiority due to their land ownership rights, and being the core of the village community.

Pahis Those who were basically outsiders but cultivated the rented lands in a village either while staying in the neighbouring village or by staying in the same village. Their division into two groups: nonresidential pahis and residential pahis. The former came from the neighbouring villages and cultivated the rented lands without constructing residences in that village. The latter came from the far-off villages

and cultivated the rented lands by construe residences in the village. The residential pahid transform themselves into khudkashta, if I their own implements, possession of impl( being more important than that of lands, whicj in abundance. They were known as up Maharashtra.

Muzariyams Those who belonged to the i lage, but who did not have either lands or in and hence were heavily dependent on the khu ta for their supply. Their division into two ] tenants-at-will and those who had hereditary! rights. They formed the poorest section oft antry and can be compared with the sh of the later period.

Condition of Zamindars

Autonomous Zamindars They were the he rulers of their respective territories. Econ and militarily they formed a formidable cli could be divided into three groups on the 1 overlordship of the Mughals over the joined Mughal imperial service and were mansabs zndjagirs; those who did not join ] service and hence were not given mansd jagirs, but had the obligation of rendering j service to the Mughals when called upon 1 and those who never rendered military se paid tributes and personal homage to the '. The Mughals normally did not interfere in I nal affairs of these autonomous zamindars.

Intermediary Zamindars Those who hadl ship rights over his personal lands but zamindari rights, i.e. hereditary right to coU enue from the peasants for the state, ovet ( area. For this service to the state," they we for a portion of the surplus produce. Theyj the back-bone of Mughal revenue adminis

Primary Zamindars Those who had ov rights over his personal lands and zamina over his zamindari, but did not perform i itary function of collecting revenue for i He got only his malikana or customary i

surplus produce, but not the nankar or additional share of the surplus produce, which he could have got if he had performed his hereditary function. Thus, the rights of the zamindars co-existed with those of the state and the actual producer. The economic condition of the zamindars as a class was much better than that of the peasantry. Bigger zamindars led as ostentatious a life as the nobles, but the smaller zamindars lived more or less like the peasantry.

State of Agriculture

Main Crops Foreign travellers' accounts as well as the Ain-i-Akbarl show that cereals, millets, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo, poppies and betel were grown extensively. Ajmer sugarcane was perhaps the best in quality in the 16th century. European demand resulted in a tremendous increase in indigo production in India, centered in Sarkhij (Gujarat) and Bayana (near Agra). Tobacco, which was brought to the Mughal court from Bijapur during Akbar's reign and the smoking of which was prohibited by Jahangir, became a very valuable crop and was extensively cultivated. Chilli as well as potato were introduced in India by the Portuguese, while Babur brought many Central Asian fruits with him.

Irrigation During Akbar's reign, Firoz Shah's Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time. Under Shah Jahan it was reopened from its mouth at Khizrabad to serve Delhi and came to be known as the Nahr-i-Bihisht (Channel of Heaven). It was also used for irrigation.

Slow Growth Agriculture was carried on in the same way as in the ancient times, there being little change in the methods of cultivation and agricultural implements. Despite the expansion in the area under cultivation, the growth in agricultural production was quite slow, i.e. it was not able to keep in pace with the growth in the needs of the people as well the state.

Causes This slow growth or near stagnation in agricultural production (in comparison with the rapidly increasing requirements of the time) was due to


certain factors--lack of any new methods of cultivation to counter the trend of declining productivity of the soil; increased amount of land revenue; the attempts of the zamindars and the upper caste and rich peasants to prevent the lower castes and the rural poor from settling new villages and thus acquiring proprietary rights in land; thejajmani system, a reciprocal system that existed in rural India, encouraged production mainly meant for local consumption and not for the market.

Growth in Trade

Urbanisation The Mughals, forming the main part of the ruling class and being outsiders, found it convenient to settle down in towns and cities, rather than in villages where they would be treated as aliens. Unlike the British of the later period, they made India their home and spent all their income in India itself particularly in the towns and cities, by encouraging handicrafts, art and architecture, literature, and the like.

Traders and Merchants Economically and professionally, this was a highly stratified class. Economically, they could be divided into big business magnates owning hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders of towns, and petty shopkeepers. Professional specialisation was prevalent in the form of wholesale traders, retail traders, banjaras or those specialised in the carrying trade, shroffs or those specialised in banking, etc. The shroffs developed the institution of hundis or bills of exchange. Big and rich merchants lived in an ostentatious manner and aped the manners of the nobles. But small merchants lived a simple life. Though European novelties were very popular with the Mughal aristocracy, the same cannot be said about their mechanical inventions. But what is interesting is the request made by Bhimji Parikh, a broker of the English East India Company, for a printing press possibly to print his bills. Though a printer was accordingly sent in 1671, the experiment was not a success and no further information on Parikh's pioneering efforts at printing in India are available.

a


Others The class of officials ranged from big mansabdars to ordinary soldiers and clerks. Other urban groups or classes included those of the artisans, handicraftsmen, teachers and doctors.

Causes for Growth of Trade

Political and economic unification of the country under Mughal rule and the establishment of law and order over extensive areas. Improvement of transport and communications by the Mughals. Encouragement given by the Mughals to the monetisation of the economy or the growth of money economy. Arrival of the European traders from the beginning of the 17th century onwards and the growth of European trade.

Items of Trade and Commerce

Exports Textiles, especially various kinds of cotton fabrics, indigo, raw silk, sugar, salt petre, pepper, opium and various kinds of drugs and miscellaneous goods.

Imports Bullion, horses, metals, perfumes, drugs, China goods especially porcelain and silk, African slaves and European wines.

Coins of Surs and Mughals

Sur Coinage Sher Shah was ruler of great constructive and administrative ability, and the reform of the coinage, though completed by Akbar, was in a great measure due to his genius. His innovations lay chiefly in two directions: first, the introduction of a new standard of 178 grains for silver, and one of about 330 grains for copper, with its half, quarter, eighth and sixteenth parts. These two new coins were subsequently known as the rupee and the dam. The second innovation saw a large increase in the number of the

mints: at least twenty three mint names appear on the Sur coins. Genuine gold coins of the Sur kings are exceedingly rare. The rupees are fine broad pieces; the obverse follows the style of

Humayun's silver; the reverse bears the Suit! name in Hindi, often very faulty. In the margin i inscribed the special titles of the Sultan, and i times the mint. On a large number of both silver <. copper coins no mint name occurs.

Mughal Coinage

The importance attached to the currency by Mughal emperors is revealed in the accounts giv by Akbar's minister, Abul Fazl, in the AiniAk and by Jahangir in his memoirs, the Tuzuk\ Jahangiri, and by the number of references to subject by historians throughout the whole From these and from a study of the coins themselv scholars have collected a mass of materials, which it is now possible to give a fairly compr sive account of the Mughal coinage. Abul Fazl and Jahangir mention a large nu of gold and silver coins, varying from 2,000 tolahs t a few grains in weight. Gigantic pieces are also me tioned by Manucci, Hawkins and others; Manucci says that Shah Jahan 'gave them as pn to the ladies.' They were also at times presented 1 ambassadors, and appear to have been merely i as a convenient form in which to store treasure.

Types of Coins The standard gold coin of Mughals was the muhar, of about 170 to 175 j the equivalent of nine rupees in Abul Fazl's Half and quarter muhars are known to have issued by several emperors, and a very few sn pieces, also. The rupee, adopted from Sher Shah's currency, ^ the most famous of all Mughal coins. The occurs only once, on a rupee of Agra minted hi Akbar's forty-seventh regnal year. Halves, quarte eighths and sixteenths were also struck. In Surat 1 half rupee appears to have been in special demand.^ In addition to the regular gold and silver i cy, special small pieces were occasionally struck foi largess; the commonest of these is the nisar, st in silver by Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb^ Jahangir also issued similar pieces, which he ca nur afshan and khair qabul. The Mughal copper coinage is based on Sher] Shah's dam which with its half, quarter and eighth,

nued to be struck until the fifth year of gzeb. The name dam occurs only once on a dam of Akbar. The usual term employed isfulus money) or sikkah fulus (stamped copper hey). The names nisfi (half dam), damra (quarter i), damri (one eighth of a dam) also appear on 's copper.

Features Perhaps the most distinctive fea-; of the Mughal coinage is the diversity of mints, r's known mints number seventy six. Copper I struck in fifty nine of these, the largest number ded for any emperor, while silver is known thirty nine. Aurangzeb's conquests in the ccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas er mints sank to twenty four. was the coinage of the Great Mughals. sidering it as the output of a single dynasty, which lintained the high standard and purity of its gold 1 silver for three hundred years, considering also its riety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of ne of its series, the influence it exerted on contem-and subsequent coinages, and the importance fits standard coin--the rupee--in the commerce of ay, the Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as ; of the great coinages of the world.

WIERCE WITH EUROPE

jjFormation of the Company In March, 1602, by a [charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India |Company was formed with powers to make wars, con[clude treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses.

[Establishment of Factories The Dutch set up facitories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat k(1616), Bimilipatam(1641), Karikal(1645), Chinsura .(1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, L Negapatam (all in 1658) and Cochin (1663).

' Overthrow of the Portuguese In the 17th century, fthey supplanted the Portuguese as the most domi nant power in European trade with the East, includ-' kg India. Pulicat was their main centre in India till I 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.


Beginning of Anglo-Dutch Rivalry In the middle of the 17th century (1654) the English began to emerge as a formidable colonial power. After 60-70 years of rivalry with the English,the Dutch power in India began to decline by the beginning of the 18th century. Their final collapse came with their defeat by the English in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

Loss of Settlements One by one the Dutch lost their settlements to the English. Their expulsion from their possessions in India by the British came in 1795.

ENGLISH

Arrival of Mildenhall Before the East India Company establised trade in the India, it was a merchant adventurer, John Mildenhall who arrived in India in 1599 by the overland route, ostensively for the purpose of trade with Indian merchants.

Formation of the Company Popularly known as the 'English East India Company', it was formed by a group of merchants known as the 'Merchant Adventures' in 1599. A charter to the new Company was granted by Queen Elizabeth (December, 1600) giving it the monopoly of Eastern trade for 15 years. A fresh charter even before the expiry of the first charter was granted by James I (1609), giving it a monopoly for an indefinite period.

Decision to open a factory at Surat Following the decision of the East India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608), Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's court (1609) to seek permission. Jahangir although initially willing to grant permission later refused due to Portuguese pressure. But when a Portuguese fleet was defeated by the English under Captain Best at Swally (near Surat) in 1612, afarman was issued by Jahangir permitting the English to erect a factory at Surat (1613).

Arrival of Thomas Roe Sir Thomas came to India as ambassador of James I to Jahangir's court in 1615 and stayed there till the end of 1618, during which period he obtained the emperor's permission to trade and erect factories in different parts of the empire. He left India for England in February, 1619.


Establishment of Factories

West Coast The English established factories at Agra, Ahmadabad, Baroda and Broach by 1619, all of which were placed under the control of the president and council of the Surat factory. The company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease at an annual rental often pounds in 1668. Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669 to 1677. Surat was replaced by Bombay as the headquarters of the Company on the west coast in 1687.

South-eastern Coast Factories were established at Masulipatam (1611) and Armagaon near Pulicat (1626). In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory, which was named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandal coast, and in 1658 all the English settlements in eastern India (Bengal, Bihar and Orissa) and the Coromandal were placed under the control of the president and council of Fort St George.

Eastern India Factories were set up at Hariharpur and Balasore in Orissa (1633), at Hugli in 1651, followed by those at Patna, Dacca, Kasimbazar in Bengal and Bihar. In 1690 a factory was established at Sutanuti by Job Charaock and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of Calcutta. The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 (the British used the rebellion of Shobha Singh, a zamindar of Burdwan as an excuse to do this) and this new fortified settlement was named 'Fort William' in 1700. A council with a president for Fort William was created (Sir Charles Eyre was the first president) and all settlements in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were placed under it (1700).

Anglo-Mughal Relations

The relations between the Mughals and the English were marked by the desire to dominate each other. Initially, Hugli was sacked and war was declared on the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, in 1686 by the English. The Mughals retaliated by the capture of all

English settlements in Bengal (1687). The began hostile activities under Sir John Child ( west coast, seizing Mughal ships and harassing | pilgrims. The Mughals retaliated by cap English factories all over the empire (1688-16 The British finally surrendered but were by the emperor (1690) and were granted afar The farman of 1691 granted by Aur exempted the Company from payment of i duties in Bengal in return for an annual payment I a second one granted by Farukh Siyar in 17171 firmed the privileges of 1691 and extended the Gujarat and the Deccan.

Problems of the Company at Home

The Company had to face several problems home. A rival company by a group of merch under Sir William Courten was formed in 16351 was granted a licence to trade in the East by Ch 1. There was rivalry between the two companies i a while which was ended with their amalgamate in 1649. The East India Company was transfer! into a joint-stock company by a charter of Cn well in 1657. In 1694 the British Parliament passed a resoh tion giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade i the East. A new rival company, known as 'English Company of Merchants Trading to the 1 Indies' (1698) was formed, which sent Sir Willia Norris as ambassador to Aurangzeb to secure 1 ing privileges for itself. But Sir William failed in 1 mission. There was ruinous competition between 1 two for a while but they finally agreed to con together in 1702. Their final amalgamation came if I 1708 by the award of the Earl of Goldolphin i the title of 'the United Company of Merchants England Trading to the East Indies'. This new conf] pany continued its existence till 1858.

FRENCH

The French East India Company was formed bj?' Colbert under state patronage in 1664. The first \ French factory was established at Surat by Francois ; Caron in 1668. Later Maracara set up a factory at' Masulipatam in 1669.

. A small village was acquired from the Muslim pvernor of Valikondapuram by Francois Martin Bellanger de Lespinay in 1673. The village veloped into Pondicherry and its first governor i Francois Martin. Also Chandernagore in Bengal i acquired from the Mughal governor in 1690. , The French in India declined between 1706 and 20 which led to the reconstitution of the Company 1720. The French power in India was revived er Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, nam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karikal in nil Nadu (1739). The arrival of Dupleix as ch governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning 'Anglo-French conflict (Carnatic wars) resulting i their final defeat in India.

JISH

Danes formed an East India Company and rived in India in 1616. They established settle-ots at Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at npore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their quarters in India. However, they failed to ngthen themselves in India and were forced to ell all their settlements in India to the British in 1845.

LE OF EUROPEAN COMPANIES

uguese

pte Portuguese seizure of power in the Indian Ocean tthe beginning of the 16th century proceeded with zing rapidity, and for more than a century they lined lords of the waters and sent many precious hiploads to Lisbon. The armed control of the sea was quite easy for the Portuguese, for they nd a flourishing and unprotected free trade sys-when they entered this ocean. Except for an sional pirate, bearing rather primitive arms, i was nobody in these waters who had made it i business to use force for the control of trade.


This prevailing free trade system of the India Ocean, with all its flexibility, was nevertheless very-vulnerable. For this trade was not restricted exclusively to luxury goods, like spices, precious textiles, gold and ivory. Though they played a major role in this trade, there was also considerable division of labour in the course of which some ports had become entirely dependent of long-distance grain shipments. As no duties and other protection costs distorted the price level in this free trade system, everything was much cheaper here than in the Mediterranean where the Egyptians and the Venetians operated a tight monopoly. What the Portuguese did was to protect the Mediterranean practice in the Indian Ocean. They were keen observers and quickly seized upon the strategic points from which they could control the vast network of Asian maritime trade. Their fortified outposts served as customs stations where Asian merchants had to acquire cartazes (letters of protection) which saved them from being attacked and ransacked by the Portuguese on the high seas. The Portuguese king soon made the spice trade, particularly pepper trade, a royal monopoly. Their spice imports rose from less than a quarter of a million pounds in 1501 to more than 2.3 million pounds per year by 1505, when Venetian merchants found that they could buy barely one million pounds of spice in Alexandria, though their annual purchase in 1495 had been 3.5 million pounds. Arab and Venetian merchants remained in the spice trade throughout the century of Portuguese power in Asia, but the balance of trade had shifted dramatically, and the Portuguese persisted in short-circuiting Arab middlemen carriers as the European demand for spices continued to increase. The Portuguese king never wanted to undersell the Venetians, as they had initially suspected. He adjusted his sole price to the Venetian one, while simultaneously forcing his Indian suppliers to part with their pepper at a cheap rate. For the royal monopolist it was an ideal system: buy the pepper at a cheap fixed rate in India and sell at a high fixed price in Europe. Once this system was established, it was very well suited for subcontracting thus saving the king trouble and giving him an assured income.

S>J


A comparison of the Portuguese budget in the years 1506 and 1518 shows a striking change in the structure of state finance due to pepper monopoly. The income from pepper monopoly rose from 1,35,000 cruzados (one cruzado being equal to 3.6 grams of gold) in 1506 to 3,00,000 cruzados in 1518. Though there was an increase in other sources of income during the period, the pepper monopoly certainly dwarfed all other sources. The enormous profit derived from this monopoly made their annual investment of 50,000 cruzados in it appear rather moderate. Thus, the Portuguese got good value for money in this respect. Another source of income which became as important to the Portuguese king as the pepper monopoly was the sale of the offices of captains and customs collectors in the Indian Ocean strongholds. The Portuguese collected customs at Ormuz on the Persian Gulf and other places around the Indian Ocean. The offices of those who collected these customs were auctioned by the king at short intervals, usually three years. So this was another royal money estate which yielded income without any risk. In this way the king became a rent receiver rather than a royal entrepreneur.

Dutch

The Dutch invaded the Indian Ocean with dramatic speed at the beginning of the 17th century, just as the Portuguese had done a hundred years earlier. Several favourable preconditions accounted for this Dutch success, such as a good educational system, advancement in science and technology, their ability to acquire nautical information from the Portuguese, existence of a huge merchant marine and easy access to sufficient wood for shipbuilding. Unlike the situation in Portugal, the Dutch state had no hand in business, and the monopoly which was granted to the Dutch East India Company (VOC) referred to spices only. Furthermore, monopoly control stopped once the shipments reached Amsterdam, where the goods were freely auctioned to the highest bidder. These auptions provided a good idea of what the market would take, and they also helped to introduce new commodities,

such as textiles, which were not covered monopoly. Throughout the 17th century the Dutch Co operated on a much larger scale than its counterpart. Nevertheless, the Dutch were concerned about British competition and trie best to outdo them. While fighting against the ination of the seas by the Spanish an Portuguese, the Dutch laid stress on the princi] freedom of the seas. But as early as the decade of the 17th century they refused al powers, including the British, an access Indonesian Spice Islands, because only in this"! they argued, could they be compensated for the^ tection they furnished. While the Dutch zealously guarded their te rial control in Indonesia at a very early : showed no such ambitions in India. This wa haps due to the fact that they procured textiles 1 increasing extent in India, and these were n< ered by a monopoly. The textile trade became more important to the Dutch requ methods of control other than the physical occ tion of the area of production. It was more in tant in this case to tie down producers and mid men by means of credit and advances and to < ise the acquisition of the right type of textiles i were popular with customers abroad. As a consequence of their adaptation to the I tile trade, the Dutch factories experienced a deal of structural change. Initially, such fai were expected only to store goods for the shipment; in due course, however, they became ( tres whose influence extended far into the interio the country as they placed orders, distributed | terns, granted and supervised credit, etc. The 1 who had many factories on India's east coast, • also represented at the court of the Sultan Golconda whose realm was an important sources! textiles for them. Thus, the Dutch used India, particularly India, as a major source for the purchase of i cloth as well as of slaves for their spice isli tations. Dutch investments in Coromand which would then be sold for spices in proved a most profitable way of dimin

(.* (drain of gold and silver bullion) from technique of 'triangular trade' was and followed by the English, who r anxious to reduce the eastern flow of

i invasion of the Indian Ocean brought ution in international trade which the had never accomplished. The flow of in the Mediterranean was completely The trade of the Levant (eastern region), following its revival in the t, century, experienced a sudden decline, i ships now supplied the ports of the the goods which had been sent from West only a few years earlier. Venice he same decline, and was soon no more gional port of Italy. maritime trade was not as immediately i this trade revolution as the Mediterranean . There were great Indian ship owners who I so many ships every year to the ports of Fthe Persian Gulf that they easily outnuml-the European ships in the Indian Ocean at The Dutch participated in this Indian as well. Just as they were Europe's ping agents, they now offered their servsian merchants to an ever-increasing extent. r merchants did not have ships of their own glad to entrust their goods to Europeans tops were armed and could thus defend them-st piracy.

nglish East India Company, founded in i two years before the Dutch Company, operlon much the same terms including sale by auc-And in the East, from their premier base at the English soon gained control over the bian Sea and Persian Gulf, destroying uguese power by seizing Ormuz in 1622. t, Persian silk competed with Gujarati calii England's favourite textiles from the East (cal-|was still used mostly for household linens, table-i and towels in Britain and western Europe, aing popular for apparel only after 1660).


English annual imports of Indian calico 'pieces' (12 to 15 yards in length) jumped from 14,000 in 1619 to over 2,00,000 in 1625; the demand for Persian silk grew less swiftly. Indigo and saltpetre were the other major imports from India, and the fact that both products were produced in the eastern Gangetic plain, especially in Bihar, stimulated British efforts to establish factories on the east coast as well as the west coast of the Indian subcontinent. The English merchants, anxious to reduce the eastern flow of their bullion, soon learned that by investing their gold in south Indian weavers, whose products could easily be sold in Indonesia for spices, they were able to buy four times the value of pepper and cloves for the same amount of gold. Small wonder that their interest in establishing a factory along the Coromandal coast quickly intensified. From these ports in south eastern India, they soon sought more immediate access to the mainstream of produce flowing down from the Gangetic plain to the Bay of Bengal. The factories of the English Company, like those of the Dutch ones, experienced a similar kind of structural change after their adaptation to the textile trade. But, since the English had no access to the Spice Islands particularly after their massacre by the Dutch at Amboyna in 1623, they concentrated on India and on the textile trade to an everincreasing extent. Nonetheless, in the 17th century the English were still lagging behind the Dutch even in this field. European piracy increased in the Indian Ocean as individual entrepreneurs were quick to learn their nautical and commercial lessons. However, not all of the European 'interlopers' were pirates. Some of them simply earned a living in the 'country trade', as the intra-Asian trade was called. The British private traders were very active in this field, and though the East India Company officially decried the activities of these interlopers (who crossed the Asian seas without any respect for monopoly rights granted by royal charter), there emerged a kind of symbiosis between them and the Company. The Company itself concentrated on intercontinental trade, and the 'country traders' made their deals with the servants of the Company and made use of the infrastructure


and the protection network provided by the Company without contributing to its maintenance. This gave them a comparative advantage in the intra-Asian trade and the Company did well in specialising in the intercontinental connection and leaving the 'country trade' to others.

French

Another major European power, which was destined to play an important part in the history of India in the 18th century, was still rather insignificant in the Indian context of the late 17th century. Colbert organised the French Company on federal lines. But this was counter-productive, because the Company was organised by the government and there were no private capitalists. Colbert had to persuade the big dignitaries to subscribe funds for this purpose, and whoever contributed did so only in order to please the king. The commercial success of the Company was more limited than the imperial vision of some of its great officials, like Governor Dupleix, Admiral la Bourdonnais and General de Bussy. But after its reorganisation in 1685, the Company started managing its trade with bureaucratic precision. In peace time it could even make some profit, although it was debarred from the lucrative textile trade because of French mercantilist policy. However, the frequent interruption of this trade due to European wars drove the Company to the verge of bankruptcy. It was only after the merger of the French West Indies Company with the French East India Company in 1719 that France caught up with the new pattern of international trade, which linked Indian Ocean trade with transAtlantic trade.

IMPACT OF EUROPEANS ON INDIA'S FOREIGN TRADE

With the arrival of the Europeans, particularly the Dutch and the English, there was a tremendous increase in the demand for Indian textiles for both the Asian markets and later the European market. The Asian markets for Indian textiles were developed over a long period. There markets were exten-

sive and widespread and there was great div their demand. This intra-Asian trade in Ind tiles seems to have operated in two ways. \ there was a bilateral trade between the < and various parts of South East Asia Malacca, Java and the Spice Islands. In the Coromandal textiles were exchanged fort ety of South-East Asian products. Coromandal textiles acted as a link in a mu trade, embracing the Coromandal, South-E West Asia, and the Mediterranean. In Coromandal textiles were exchanged for i Asian spices which were in turn meant for I Asian and Mediterranean markets. The market for Indian textiles actually developed I the middle of the 17th century, and thereafter i by leaps and bounds. The intra-Asian trade witnessed severe i tion among the various groups of merchants, i the Portuguese, the Dutch, the English, the I and the Indians consisting of both the Moors i Chettis, whereas the European market for textiles was dominated entirely by the Eu companies, particularly the English and the 1 with the Indian merchants acting essentially! dlemen. European participation in the foreign India showed a marked increase in the second! the 17th century. This increase can be seen cl< the sharp rise in their investments, a large ; which was in textiles meant for the Asian i well as the European market. Though in European investment in Indian textiles consid exceeded those ordered for the European i the end of the 17th century the situation was i with two-thirds of it going for the European i and only one-third for the Asian market.. various European companies competing textiles, the main rivalry was between the 1 the English, with the former initially having an ( but the latter gradually gaining supremacy turn of the 17th century and the beginning < 18th century. With regard to the textile varieties that exported from the Coromandal to South Easts and other Asian markets, and later to Europ

opean records give us a very long list. The varied-: types, in order of importance, were long-cloth, ores, moris (chintz), guinea-cloth, bethiles, llegias, sarassas, tapis, and the like. All these varies were being exported even during earlier perii to several Asian markets such as the Moluccan pice Islands, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Malay sula, Siam, Tenasserim, Pegu, Arakan, Persia, abia, and the Red Sea ports. But the speciality of I period under study was the increased European ers which, though matching the already existing rieties, demanded measurements larger than those the Asian markets. Consequently the Indian weavers had to change their methods and their us to accommodate this European demand. of them did so quite profitably, but it necessilongterm contracts and rendered spot orders 1'improbable. The Indian economy, more specifically its textile Itrade and industry, during the second half of the [,17th century, was a sellers' (i.e. producers') market. [For, when the three European companies--English, [Dutch and French (which had entered the fray in the (1670s) were competing in the open market, making [large orders from India, and these were supple[mented by European private trade and Indian trade, ' the weavers had greater flexibility and larger freedom of operation. The interchangeability of goods ordered by these various buyers, who were aiming ' at broadly the same export markets, made it possil ble for weavers to play one against the other. In 1 other words, this was the phase in which whatever the weaver produced was bought up by one or the |»other eager customer. If, for instance, any cloth produced by the weaver was rejected by the compai nies, then the weaver could sell it to English private i traders. This situation existed in many parts of the ; country where the three companies as well as the , other buyers were in free competition.

CHANGES IN THE ORGANISATION OF TRADE

One important feature of the trade organisation of .India in the 17th and early 18th centuries is that I>, indigenous merchants were generally mentioned in , their individual capacity rather than as part of a mer

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707) 8165

cantile organisation, an indication that the great merchant guilds of the medieval period were fast declining. Besides, the dividing line between independent merchants and merchants acting on behalf of the European companies was a very thin one. In several cases, in fact, a merchant functioned in both capacities. But the company records specifically mention several indigenous merchants as their rivals and competitors. Many of the native merchants, however, found that it was more profitable and less risky to act on behalf of the companies rather than make voyages on their own. In the organisational set-up of the companies, their function was fourfold: purchasing cloth for the company and acting as a link between it and the weavers; supervising weavers and minimising the company's risks by taking on bad debts; ensuring quality and timely delivery; and saving the company the necessity of laying out vast sums of money by making the initial advances themselves. With regard to the mercantile groups and their activities, the Hindus as a whole continued to dominate the commercial world of the Coromandal-- overseas and coastal trading, wholesaling and retailing, brokerage, banking and shroffing. Among Hindu merchants, the most important were Telugu mercantile castes, viz. the komatis and balijas (belonging to the right hand" faction--valankaf), and beru chettis (left hand faction--idankai). Prominent Hindu individual merchants were Kasi Viranna (Casa Verona), Malaya and his brother Chinanna, Narasimha Rama Chetti, Ben Rama Chetti, Kesara Chetti, Seshadri, Varadappa and Koneri Chetti. Muslim merchants of the Coromandal, indiscriminately referred to by the Europeans as Moors, shared the domination of the overseas and coastal trade of the Coromandal with the Hindu merchants. The so-called Moors consisted of the Golconda Muslim merchants and the Chulia merchants of south Coromandal, both of whom had diverse ethnic origins. Other major merchant groups in the Coromandal were Gujaratis and Armenians, who seem to have made Coromandal their home. Among the Muslim merchants, the most important personalities were Mir Jumla, Khwaja Nizam, Mir


Kamal-ud-din, Mirza Muhammad, Khwaja Hassan All, Mir Qasar, and Khwaja Araby. A number of them had close political connections, and enjoyed a good bargaining position in their relations with the companies. Indian merchant relationships with Europeans tended to become institutionalised by the beginning of the period under study, first in the form of chief merchants and later in the so-called joint-stock companies or associations of the indigenous merchants, both of which had origins in the medieval Indian commercial practices though influenced and inspired by the European commercial innovations. Both the institutions were an outcome of the European need to put the whole ordering and delivery process on a firm and sturdy footing, and their desire to ensure better maintenance of standards and greater control over the suppliers. In all the European settlements in India, there evolved an office of chief merchant, held by one or two of the most prominent merchants of the settlement. This tendency to deal with one or two strong and powerful individuals, instead of a large number of diverse merchants, was stronger with the English than with the Dutch, while the French fell somewhere in between in this respect. With regard to the merchant associations, all the available evidence suggests that they first came into existence in the 1660s in the Dutch settlements in India with the initiative and support of the Dutch Company. Later the English and French companies followed suit, and encouraged the Indian merchants to form such associations in their settlements. These merchant associations, however, began to decline rapidly as the 18th century advanced. By the very nature of things a certain group of people, known as dalals (brokers) became indispensable to the trade organisation of India during this period, though brokerage as an established commercial practice and brokers as a distinct commercial group existed in India throughout the medieval period. The brokers acted as a link between the producers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. Besides the primary job of procuring goods at cheaper rates for their clients, they performed a variety of functions. There was a hierar-

chical division among the brokers, each them was an important link in the overall set-u commercial organisation. As mentioned most of the indigenous merchants of India this period belonged to the various categor brokers.

13.5 MUGHAL CULTURE ARCHITECTURE Chief Characteristics

Combination of the Persian elements of j and originality with the grace and decoratio Indian or Hindu architecture. Uniformity in the architectural character structural principles all over the empire. Construction of mausoleums in the centre! large park-like enclosures and on high pla Construction of a double dome, the outer andf inner one, the latter forming the vaulted ceilii the mortuary chamber underneath. Other features like the cupolas at the co standing on slender pillars, magnificent halls and the lofty vaulted gateway.

Development

Fort-building The first to undertake const on a large-scale was Akbar, who constructed a s efforts, the most important being the Agra fort, t in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore I Allahabad. The reign of Shah Jahan saw the climax of 1 building as seen in the Red Fort at Delhi, buildings within it being the Rang Mahal, Diwa Am and DiwaniKhas.

Palace-building During Akbar's reign a cum-fort was built at Fatehpur Sikri. Here many the buildings were in the style of Gujarat Bengal. Gujarat style buildings were for his wives. The Persian influence can be seen in i

[ glazed blue tiles. Most magnificent building in it is i the mosque (Jami Masjid) and its gateway (Buland Darwaza) which stands 176 feet in height. Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai's palace (influence of Hindu style), palaces of Mariam and Sultana, Birbal's house, Diwani-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, and Panch Mahal (a paramedical structure in Five storeys which shows influence of Buddhist vihara).

Building of Mausoleums During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure and it also marked the beginning of the use of white marble by the Mughals. The tomb of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri was also built during Akbar's reign. Akbar's tomb at Sikandara near Agra was started by Akbar himself, but completed by his son, Jahangir. Influence of Buddhist vihara could be seen in it. Tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan for her father, was constructed wholly of white marble with pietra-dura. Beginning of the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble, and a new method of decoration, viz. pietra-dura (decoration of walls with floral designs made of semiprecious stones). During Shah Jahan's reign large-scale use was made of pietra-dura in his buildings, especially Taj Mahal, which is considered as the jewel of a builder's art and which portrayed all Mughal architectural features. It was built at the cost of Rs 50 lakhs at that time supposedly by Ustad Isa.

Building of Masjids During Babur's reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal, Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (old fort) and Ayodhya were built. Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar's reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. Shah Jahan's reign saw the climax as seen in Moti Masjid at Agra (built entirely in white marble) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (built in red sand stone). The Mughal architectural traditions were continued into the 18th and early 19th centuries. Their influence in provincial and regional kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707} B167 PAINTING Features

The Mughal pictures were small in size, and hence are known as 'miniature paintings'. Though the Mughal art absorbed the Indian atmosphere, it neither represented the Indian emotions, nor the scenes from the daily life of the Indian. It was mostly courtly and aristocratic. A keen appreciation of nature was another char acteristic of the Mughal school. Remarkable excellence achieved by the Mughal school in portrait-painting. Excellence of the Mughal artists in colour com position.

Development

Humayun During his stay at the court of the Persian ruler, he could admire the collection of illuminated manuscripts and see the artists at work. At Tabriz he met two young painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and AbdalSamad (or Abdus Samad), to whom he gave hope of future employment in case he regained his kingdom. Later on those two joined him in Kabul and Abdus Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar.

Akbar Though illiterate, Akbar had great thirst for knowledge and commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He called a great number of artists to his court. Going by their names, the majority of these seemed to be Hindu. Thus Akbar became the real founder of the Mughal school of painting. Akbar gave employment to many artists. A hundred and fifty or so are known since the illustrations in the manuscripts produced during Akbar's reign bear the names of the artists. During Akbar's reign two or more artists worked together, but not more than four or five. One made the tarrah (sketch), another the ami (painting). Occasionally a third did the chira numa (portrait) and very rarely a fourth made the surat (figure drawing). A few inscriptions name a fifth artist who undertook the rangamezi (colouring). Such a system suggests that Mughal painting was a craft more than a fine art.

£168 Indian History: Medieval India

The chief painters were Mir Sayyid Ali, AbdalSamad (already in the service of Humayun) and Baswan, a Hindu. Mir Sayyid Ali and AbdalSamad drilled the craftsmen in all the technical details of Persian, miniatures. Many Indians such Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as court artists and Abul Fazl in his AiniAkbari (biography of Akbar) bestows high praise on them. Baswan is mentioned in twelve of the best miniatures illustrating the Razm Namah (Mahabharata), which originally contained a hundred and sixty-nine full page illustrations. In this and the Persian version of the Ramayana, Indian artists could introduce some of their cherished figure types and details of landscape. Under the supervision of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad the imperial atelier of painters and calligraphers took shape. Their first endeavour was to complete the pictures for the earliest Mughal illustrated manuscript, the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza. Begun in 1550 under Humayun, it took twenty-five years to finish. All of the 1375 paintings, however, show consistency in style because Mir Sayyid Ali had from the start planned out the whole work in the Safavid style, though other artists, either Persian or Indian, assisted him in the actual painting. To please aristocratic tastes, the artists of Akbar's atelier illustrated classical Persian literature such as Nizami's Khamsa, Sadi's Gulistan (mortal tales), Hafiz's Diwan and Jami's Baharistan. The Hamza Namah series, illustrating a popular romance interwoven with many legends of Prophet Muhammad's uncle, shows the difference between the work of Mir Sayyid Ali, who maintained the Persian Safavid conventions, and the more original Abd-alSamad who succeeded him as chief artist in the atelier when the former left for Persia in 1574 never to return. Completed in 1582, the Hamza Namah series consists of fourteen volumes, each containing hundred pictures, but hardly a tenth survives. In 1580 Akbar received in his court the first group of Jesuit priests who presented him with a copy of the Polyglot Bible illustrated with Flemish engravings. The emperor ordered his painters to copy them. Soon other European paintings were

brought to his court and studied with interest, i result, Mughal artists began to use perspectiv employ light and shade, to lower the horizons i pictures, and to represent the sky more realis with cloud arrangements and brilliant sunsets. 1595 Mughal paintings reveal the assimilati Western techniques—modelling of three din al figures by means of shading and a limited i tion of perspective. Western influence may be seen in the another favourite topic of Akbar's atelier. Tl Namah (the parrot's tale) and Anwar-i-Suhaili s each bird and animal with detailed realism.' trayal of animals foreshadows the perfei attained under Jahangir. Illustrations of historical manuscripts bee distinctive contribution of Akbar's studio, included Tarikh-i-Alft (history of the world),, ut-Tawarikh m Jami-al-Tawarikh (history Mongols by Rashid-ud-din), Darab Namah, Namah, Timur Namah and Babur Namah. who contributed to the Jami-al-Tawarikh inch Baswan, Lai, Bhim Gujarati, Dharm Das, and Surdas Gujarati; but the most typical belongs to Miskina, who did scenes of laments and dancing with westernised figures set in landscapes. Together with Nanha, Burah, Sai and Kanha (who were familiar with European i Miskina contributed to the Darab Namah. Ano series of sixty-one illustrations of the Akbar Na is perhaps a later version (1605). The artists tioned here include Sankar, Daulat, Govar Inayat and Pidarat. The spiritual works illustrated during reign include Yoga Vasisht (Hindu Veda Philosophy) and Najhat-ul-Uns (breaths of felW ship), a prose treatise by Jami on Sufi saints. Akbar also encouraged the painting of: portraits—a notable contribution to Indian Except for some rare individual faces pictured 1 memory at Ajanta, Indian artists had always de ed well-defined types and ideals. Persian influ set the art of portraiture on a course of perfecti rivalling that of Persia itself. Under Akbar's artists painted the likeness of all the important ] sonages in his court with exquisite skill and delic

ut sure lines. This exerted a great influence on late lajput painting.

ahangir He had a predilection for the art of paint-which he cultivated much more than architecitoe. During his residence at Allahabad as Salim, he thad already employed a number of painters, notably I Aqa Riza, whose son Abul Hasan later served under I Jahangir. Other renowned painters of his time included Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, [Govardhan and Ustad Mansur, through whom i Mughal painting reached its zenith. The coopera-I tion of several painters on one work continued, but '' Jahangir could distinguish which part each artist had contributed. During this period European influence manifested itself more and more. The colours became softer and less enamel-like than in the previous period. They melt harmoniously together, especially in the more naturalistic representation of landscapes. The custom of copying European paintings and engravings continued. By that time book illustrations became outdated except for the representation of fables, for example lyar-i-Danish and Anwar-i-Suhaili. The portrayal of officers also continued. Jahangir preferred group portraits as well as court scenes and different episodes of his life. 'Jahangir embracing Shah Jahan' shows the same careful portrayal as in Akbar's time. Soon after his accession Jahangir ordered muraqqa (albums) composed of mounted pictures of uniform size (40 x 24 cm). Completed around 1618, each folio has either one or several paintings on one side and on the other exquisite calligraphy. Arabesque or floral and animal motifs around the borders, all richly interspersed with gold, frame these paintings beautifully. The original idea of decorated borders came from Persia around 1570, but it attained perfection in Jahangir's time. A new type of painting, born of the emperor's great love of nature, produced the most delightful pictures of his time, namely the animal and flower representations. His painters used to accompany him on his outings and often the emperor asked them to paint the lovely blossoms, plants, birds and animals he noticed. These masterpieces show much fresher


inspiration than the countless court scenes and constitute the highest achievement in the paintings of his reign. They illustrate the emperor's charming memoirs, Tuzuk-iJahangiri, which record many episodes from his daily life. During the last ten years of Jahangir' s reign Mughal paintings reveal a change: an increased predilection for symbolism. Mysticism also attracted him; so he entertained and visited Sufi holy men and ascetics. 'Jahangir preferring Sufi shaikh to kings', an allegory painting by Bichitr around 1625 shows the emperor sitting on a big hourglass. He hands a book to a shaikh, most probably Shaikh Hussain, the head of the shrine of Khwaja Moin-ud-in Chisti in Ajmer. Next to him, the Ottoman Sultan humbly folds his hands, while below him waits James I, king of England. In the field of portraiture Jahangir perfected another genre initiated by Akbar. The early portraits show the persons standing or seated either in front of the buildings or inside. The mature Jahangiri portrait however depicts the full-length subjects standing against a plain turquoise or green background, either in profile or three-quarter view. Many of these were copied for nobles, so it is hard to identify the originals.

Shah Jahan Though interested mainly in architecture, he continued to patronise painting. The high quality of craftsmanship continued, but the inner vitality started to disappear. The paintings of this time lack both the dynamic energy of Akbar's time and the keen love of nature shown by Jahangir. The visit of the emperor with his nobles and royal ladies to ascetics and dervishes constitutes a predominant theme of this period. Many night scenes were also painted for the first time in the Mughal period. Subdued emotion, unknown in the earlier objective style of Mughal painting, often pervades these scenes. A new technique, consisting of fine, delicate line drawings slightly tinted with washes of pale colours and gold and known as Siyahi Qalam, became fashionable. 'Emperor Shah Jahan on the peacock throne', one of the best known Mughal miniatures, has a double interest. On the one hand, it shows the famous peacock throne--now lost, but much admired by

A.


contemporaries and described by the French traveller Bernier. On the other hand, it typifies the portraits of this time. The emperor sits in-strict profile, a halo behind his head and a flower in his right hand.

Aurangzeb He did not patronise any arts. Culture lost its vitality and finally declined. Perhaps during his waning years he may have consented to have his portraits painted, for there are surviving examples where he is shown either as a bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the Quran in his hand.

PERSIAN LITERATURE

Akbar During Akbar's reign many historical works were written. They were: Ain-iAkbari and Akbar Namah by Abul Fazl; MuntakhabulTawarikh by Badauni; Tarikh-iAlfi by Mulla Daud; and Tabaqat-i-Akbari by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad. Translation of several works was undertaken during Akbar's reign. Translation of different sections of the Mahabharata into Persian by many scholars under the title of Razm Namah', the Ramayana by Badauni; Atharva Veda by Sarhindi; Lilawati (a work on mathematics) by Faizi; Rajatarangini by Shahabadi. Translation of some Greek and Arabic works also into Persian. Poetry was given royal patronage. Among the famous poets were Gizali, Faizi, Muhammad Hussain Naziri, Jamal-ud-din Urfi, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, etc.

Jahangir He wrote his autobiography, TuzukiJahangiri famous for its style, frankness and sincerity of views. He patronised many scholars and learned men like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Niamatulla, etc.

Shah Jahan He patronised many writers; torians like Abdul Hamid Lahori (Padshah Na{ and Inayat Khan (Shah Jahan Namah). His Dara Shikoh, besides writing a treatise on the

I nical terms of Hindu pantheon, wrote a bio of the Muslim saints and got the Hindu scrip like the Gita, and Upanishads translated^ Persian.

Aurangzeb He was a great scholar of Isl: ology and jurisprudence. He appointed a ulema to compile authoritative passages standard works of Hana.fi fiqh (school of law) 1 guidance of the qazis. Known as the Fata Alamgiriyya, it was completed in 1672. important historical works were also written i his reign, namely, Muntakhab-ui-Lubab by Khan; Alamgir Namah by Mirza Muha Kazim; Masir-i-Alamgiri by Muhammad Saqi/ Futuhat-i-Alamgiri by Iswar Das.

Maharashtra Dharma

Jnanadeva (13th century) He was the the bhakti movement in Maharashtra, called 1 dharma. His work Jnanesvari (a commentary i Bhagavad Gita) earned him the title of' J

Namadeva (14th century) He preached,, gospel of love and was opposed to idol-worsh priestly domination. Vehemently opposed to| caste system, his followers came from all <

Literature of the Mughal Period

Gulbadan Begam Abul Fazl Abul Fazl Badauni

Mulla Daud Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Jahangir Humayun Namah AiniAkbari Akbar Namah MuntakhabulTawarikh TawarikhiAlfi TabaqatiAkbari TuzuklJahangirl History of Humayun History of Akbar's reign

Autobiography

amad Khan dul Haqq dul Hamid Lahori uhammad Waris ayat Khan uhammad Salih ara Shikoh i Shikoh i Shikoh i Shikoh urangzeb iKhan uhammad Kazim {Muhammad Saqi nil Khan Zafar uhammad Rafi Khan ujan Rai Khatri [Bhimsen war Das Nimat Khan Ali Iqbal Namah NuriyyaiSultaniyye Padshah Namah Padshah Namah Shah Jahan Namal Shah Jahan Namat SafinatulAullya SakinatulAuliya HasanatulArifin Majmaul-Bahrain RaqqatiAlamgiri MuntakhabulLuba Alamgir Namah MasiriAlamgiri NamahiAlamgiri HamlaiHaidari KhulasatulTawarik NuskhaiDilkusha FutuhatiAlamgiri

WaqaiiHyderabad

ha (16th century) He opposed caste distinci and was sympathetic to men of lower castes. |He composed many abhangas (lyrical poems) and I was reputed for his bhajans and kirtans.

karam (17th century) A contemporary of Sivaji i great devotee of Vithal of Pandharpur, he was Irresponsible for creating a background for Maratha Inationalism. His conception of god resembled that pf Kabir. He did not believe in religious formalities I rituals and was against all social distinctions.

tSamarth Ramdas (17th century) Unlike the others, 1 he sought to combine spiritual and practical life and [evinced much interest in politics. Hence he was a yiharakari as opposed to the others who were varakaris. influenced Sivaji to a great extent to overthrow | ûghal rule. He was the author of; Dasabodha, a work I which gave advice on all aspects of life.

[13.6 RELIGIOUS THOUGHT: ABUL FA2L

dox Religious Thought

IAkbar's religious experiments had no impact on the Muslim masses among whom he made no attempt to P m ui si S b; A S( ti ui

ft rt ai o S ft

cl n E N Ji

P w

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707)

History of Jahangir's reign Theory of kingship History of Shah Jahan's reign B171

Biographies of Sufi saints Translation of Upanishads His religious and philosophical ideas A collection of his letters History of Aurangzeb's

:h

Conquest of Golconda by Aurangzeb

ropagate the Tauhit-i-Ilahi. A Muslim revivalist lovement began in the closing years of his reign nder the leadership of the Naqshbandi Sufis. They jpported Jahangir's accession to the throne. The unni orthodoxy sponsored by them was patronised y Shah Jahan. It was also an important factor in .urangzeb's victory over Dara who weakened him-;lf politically by his efforts to revive Akbar's ecleccism. Aurangzeb's accession heralded the final tri-mph of Sunni orthodoxy. Among the Shias there was a general belief that ic Hidden Imam, al-Mahdi, would reappear, restore ic purity of Islam, and re-establish justice, peace id prosperity. This expectation of the establishment f the Kingdom of God on earth was shared by the unnis despite their differences with the Shias about ic succession to the Imamate (Caliphate). From time to time bold impostors arose and laid [aim to Mahdiship. This is known as the Mahdavi lovement. One such pretender, Ruknuddin of >elhi, was put to death by Firuz Shah Tughluq. fearly a century later Sayyid Muhammad of lunpur claimed to be the Mahdi, incurred the disleasure of Sultan Mahmud Shah I of Gujarat, and 'as banished to Mecca. His teachings were imbibed


by Mian Abdullah Niyazi and Shaikh Alai who were suppressed by Islam Shah Sur. The Mahdavi movement practically fizzled out in the second half of the sixteenth century. Abul Fazl represented Akbar as a mujaddid (religious reformer). According to an Apostolic tradition a mujaddid was expected to appear towards the end of the first millennium after the hijra. This tradition lay behind the compilation of an important historical work of Akbar's reign, TarikhiAlfi, which, however, was left incomplete. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a pupil of the Naqshbandi saint Khwaja Baqi Billah, who died in Delhi towards the close of Akbar's reign, was known as mujaddid alf sani (reformer of the second millennium).

Unorthodox Religious Thought

During the Mughal period the Chishti school of Sufis lost ground and it produced no outstanding saint who could reinvigorate its teachings. Due to aloofness from politics and administration it was also out of tune with the prevailing political and social conditions. The Naqshbandi school attached itself closely to the court and the nobility and degraded Sufism to the status of a handmaid of orthodox Islam. Its programme took an aggressive form in the propaganda of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1563-1624). He became the leading spokesman of this school after Akbar's death. He maintained contact with the nobles of the imperial court and gave wide currency--through tracts and letters--to the idea that Akbar's liberal policy had polluted the purity of Islam and led to the political, social and cultural degeneration of Muslims. He aimed at purging the Muslim community of all ideas and practices which appeared to be un-Islamic. His teachings were not confined to the reform of Islam; he advocated a crusade against the Hindus. Shah Jahan was an orthodox Sunni, but his favourite eldest son Dara was a believer in Akbar's eclecticism. During the latters reign the conflict between orthodoxy and mysticism continued. It was resolved in favour of the orthodox Sunni School of thought through war of succession which saw Aurangzeb ascend the throne. Before and after his

accession to the throne Aurangzeb maintained < tact with Khwaja Muhammad Masum, son' Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. On the other hand Daral Jahanara were disciples of a Qadiri Sufi saint, I Shah, a Persian well known for religious tole The Qadiri school of Sufis found a footholi India in Akbar's reign. Its principal centre was 1 in Sind. One of the early advocates of its teaching India was Shaikh Abdul a wellknown theolog scholar Haq of Delhi and contemporary of. Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Mir Muhammad, known as Mian Mir, who lived at Lahore and i highly respected friend of the Sikhs was also a i her of this School. Aurangzeb's religious and political ideas totally irreconcilable with the mysticism and lib generally associated with Sufism. He ruled : to the shariat and this necessitated codification of! principles in a rigid form (FatawaiAlamgiri).

Abul Fazl's Background

The most important historical writer of the age i the Great Mughals is Abul Fazl Allami. Born 1550, he was murdered at the instigation of Prin Salim in 1602. His father, Shaikh Mubarak, famous scholar and sufi; he played an important i in the development of Akbar's religious views i policy. His brother Faizi was a poetlaureate Akbar's court. He was himself a first-rate schok and writer, a firm believer in eclecticism, an and loyal servant of the state, a man of extraor industry, and an intimate friend of Akbar. Commissioned by the Emperor to write a his of his reign, he produced two outstanding His narration of facts and his chronology are gene ally accurate. But his style, though brilliant, is ' rhetorical and involved to make a direct appeal the reader. It is also marked by the flattery of his j patron whom he considered a superman. On the] whole, Abul Fazl cannot be regarded as a fully I objective and impartial historian.

His Writings and Historiography

Abul Fazl's Akbar Nama is a voluminous work. After narrating the history of the Mughal royal

July from Timur to Humayun, it deals with the of Akbar's reign, year by year, down to 2. It explains the reasons behind the measures i by the Emperor and covers every aspect of ^history of the period. Inayatullah's Takmiliarnama is a continuation of Abul Fazl's work, ying down the narrative to Akbar's death. "Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari is the principal source : Akbar's administrative institutions. It deals priirily with Akbar's regulations in all departments 1 on all subjects and includes, besides some extra-matter, a valuable and minute statistical nt of his empire with historical and other notes. 1 There is a collection of Abul Fazl's letters qqat-i-Abul Fazl) to Akbar and members of the rial family. This collection has been useful in ving light on several historical events.

1.7 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND STATUS OF WOMEN

i Societies

ring the medieval period Indian society was divid-into two broad divisions based on religion. In ;lish documents and records of the period the i are referred to as 'Gentoos' (Gentiles) and the slims as 'Moors'. The two communities differed respect to social manners and etiquette; even r forms of salutation were different. They differed > the respect of dress and diet too. Each community its own religious festivals. The social rites and lies of the two communities, on occasions of and marriage, for instance, were different, hough these differences occasionally provoked sion and even hostility, a system of peaceful codeveloped and even fraternizing on social sions and in fairs was not uncommon.

lim Society

a result of continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of Central and West Asia the Muslim population retained the mixed character lirhich it had acquired during the previous centuries. i the north-western region the Central Asians and


Persians, who entered India during the reigns of Babur and his successors, lived side by side with the Muslim immigrants of the pre-Mughal period. In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, hailing originally from Arabia and the Persian Gulf. As a result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Hindus or converts a number of Muslim communities of mixed origin had come into existence, e.g., the Navayats of western India, the Mappillas or Moplahs of Malabar, and the Labbais of the Coromandel coast. There were also a considerable number of Muslims of Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were originally imported as slaves. As large parts of Afghanistan formed an integral part of the Mughal Empire, Afghans living in India could hardly be placed in the category of immigrants. Muslims of foreign origin, formally united by Islam, had racial and religious differences which influenced politics and society. The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans were Sunnis; the Persians (Iranians) were Shias. There was much rivalry for political prominence and social promotion among these Muslims of diverse origins. However, Muslims of foreign origin considered as a distinct group, constituted the principal element in the ruling class of the Mughal period. They claimed superiority to the Hindustani Muslims, i.e., Hindu converts and their descendants on the basis of birth, race and culture. The overwhelming majority of the Muslims were descendants of Hindu converts; but there was a tendency on their part to claim foreign descent with a view to securing political and social advantages. They were generally looked down upon by bona ride Turanians and Iranians; but they were received on equal terms in mosques during the Friday prayers and also on occasions of principal religious festivals. There was no bar to intermarriage on racial grounds. A Muslim of low birth could rise to a high rank in the nobility by dint of ability or through the favour of fortune. The Muslim society had far greater internal mobility than the Hindu society. Apart from racial and religious differences, i.e. Shia-Sunni disputes, there were clear-cut social differences within the Muslim society. Three classes are


mentioned in a sixteenth-century Persian work: (a) the ruling class comprising the imperial family, the nobility and the army; (b) the intelligentsia, comprising theologians (ulema), judges (qazis), men of learning and men of letters; (c) the class catering to pleasures, comprising musicians, minstrels and dancing girls. This classification is obviously incomplete and unsatisfactory. For example, it does not make a note of the producing classes--the peasants and the artisans--who formed the backbone of state and society, and the lower ranks of the official bureaucracy or the minor officials.

Hindu Society

Hindu society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was characterised by conflicting trends of liberalism and catholicity on the one hand and exclusiveness and conservatism on the other. Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to some extent, the religious and social rights of women as also of the Sudras. Some non-Brahmin followers of Chaitanya became spiritual preceptors (gurus) not only of the three lower castes but also of Brahmins. In Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and in the Brahmaputra valley Sankardev and Madhavdev, who were Kayasthas, had Brahmin disciples. But the Brahmin authors of the nibandhas tried to maintain the integrity of the ancient socio-religious system (varnasrama dharmd) by regulating the life and conduct of all classes of Hindus in the minutest details in conformity with traditional caste rules. Some writers of the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrons and their injunctions carried political sanction. One of them, Keshava Pandit, was a judge under the Maratha King Sambhaji. But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and Ramnath of Bengal, Pitambar of Kamarup and Kamalakar Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by the Hindu society even though it was not backed by royal patronage. Their influence effectively counteracted the liberal trends. They raised their voice against the usurping of the privileges of the Brahmins by the lower castes.

Position of Women

Purdah System: With the advent of Islam,; forces appeared on the Indian horizon. Strict we of women was the common practice among j Muslims in their native land. Naturally in a foi country like India, greater stress was laid The Hindus adopted purdah as a protective i The tendency to imitate the ruling class was i factor which operated in favour of introducing^ dah among the Hindu families. Seclusion became a sign of respect and was strictly among the high-class families of both commu Barbosa has referred to the strict observation ofi dah by the women of Bengal. Barring some i Muslim families, the south Indians did not aj purdah. In the Vijayanagar Empire, purdah was] fined only to the members of the royal hou No such coercive purdah system was obs among the Hindu middle classes and certain^ among the Hindu masses.

Child Marriages: The custom, in those day not allow girls to remain in their parents' ho more than six to eight years after birth. The i of the custom together with the celebration i marriage at a very early age left no room wh er for either the bride or bridegroom to have I think of a partner of their own choice. Dov demanded while in some castes and localiti bride-price was also known to be prevalent.

Monogamy: Monogamy seems to have rule among the lower stratum of society communities during the medieval period. In i the decision of the ulema in the Ibadat Akbar's times, that a man might marry any i of wives by mutah but only four by nikah,; had issued definite orders that a man of i means should not possess more than one wifeii the first proved to be barren. Polygamy was ( ilege of the rich.

Position of Widows: Divorce and common among Muslims, were prohibit! Hindu women. Widow-remarriage, except: the lower caste people, had completely disa in Hindu society during the medieval

i of sati was prevalent. Even betrothed girls commit sati on the funeral pyres of their ehusbands. Those widows who would not elves with their husbands were treated i by society.

I of Sati: Some of the Delhi Sultans did try ge the custom of sati which prevailed 5 a large section of the Hindu population, par-rly the upper classes and the Rajputs. Though i only voluntary in the south and not enjoined | widows, it is difficult to account for its wide r in the Vijayanagar Empire, whose rulers : seem to have put up any restriction on its vance. Muhammad Tughluq was, in all proba-|, the first medieval ruler who placed restric-) on its observance. Though Akbar did not for-he sati altogether, he had issued definite orders s kotwals that they should not allow a woman to


be burnt against her inclination. Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders (1664) forbidding sati in his realm altogether.

Economic Position: Economically, a Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance with absolute right to dispose it off. Unlike her Hindu sister, she retained the right even after marriage. Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was another safeguard for Muslim women whereas a Hindu woman had no right to the property of her husband's parents. A Hindu woman was only entitled to maintenance and residence expenses besides movable property like ornaments, jewellery, etc. Thus, from the legal point of view, women were reduced to a position of dependency in every sphere of life. The women in the south under the Cholas (8th to 13th century), however, had the right to inherit property.

B176

Indian History: Medieval India

C Government of India Copyright 1998

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line

The Mughal Empire (1556-1707)

Aurangzeb's Empire in 1700 with European Settlements


Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into (he sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

B177

/^

QUESTIONS

1.

In which language did Babur write his mem oirs, called TuzukiBaburi?

(a) Persian

(b) Arabic

(c) Mongol

(d) Turkish

2. Pick out the ruler of Gujarat who was a con temporary of Humayun and who died in a scuf fle with the Portuguese on board one of their ships? (a) Baz Bahadur

(b) Muhammad Shah

(c) Bahadur Shah (d) Hussain Shah 3. Hemu, the Hindu general who led the Afghan forces against the Mughals in the second bat the of Panipat, was the general of which of the following Sur rulers? (a) Islam Shah (b) Muhammad Adil Shah (c) SikandarShah (d) SherShah 4. Whose outrageous behaviour is said to be mainly responsible for the revolt of Bairam Khan against Akbar? (a) Man Singh (b) Pir Muhammad (c) Birbal

(d) Todar Mai

5. Pick out the first and the last territorial con quests of Akbar respectively from among the following? (a) (b) (c) (d) 6.

Malwa and Asirgarh Gujarat and Baluchistan Malwa and Kashmir Garhkatanga and Kabul Who among the following Rajputs were the first to voluntarily submit to Akbar?

(a) Hadas

(b) Sisodias

(c) Rathors

(d) Kachchhawahas

7. Who among the following nobles of Akbar was killed by the Afghan rebels in one of the Mughal campaigns to suppress them?

(a) Man Singh (b) Todar Mai (c) Birbal

(d) Bhagawan Das

8. Who led the Mughal forces in the battle of Haldighati against Pratap Singh Rana of Mewar? (a) Akbar

(b) Prince Salim

(c) Pir Muhammad (d) Man Singh 9. Who among the following murdered Abul I the official historian of Akbar, at the ins of Prince Salim in 1602? (a) Mirza Ghiyas Beg (b) Bir Singh Bundela (c) Rajal Todar Mai (d) Raja Bhagawan Das 10. Which revenue system among the followin also known as the bandobast system? (a) Zabti (b) Dahsala (c) Nasaq

(d) Kankut

11. What was the original name of Nur Jahan? (a) Zeb-un-nisa (b) Fatima Begum j (c) Mihr-un-nisa (d) Jahanara 12. Who among the following Mughals is said I have 'tumbled in life and tumbled out of it' \ coming down the steps of a library? (a) Shah Jahan (b) Jahangir (c) Babur 13.

(d) Humayun

During the reign of which Mughal was tob introduced in India?

(a) Aurangzeb (b) Jahangir (c) Akbar

(d) Shah Jahan

14. Which Mughal is credited with prohibiting unless the widow herself, of her own free will,| persistently desired it? (a) Akbar

(b) Babur

(c) Humayun (d) Jahangir 15.

Who among the following Englishmen was given the title of 'Khan' by Jahangir?

(a) Thomas Roe (c) Hawkins

(b) Ralph Fitch

(d) Newbery

16.

What was duaspa-sihaspa and who introduced it?

(a) (b)

A revenue system introduced by Akbar A decorative method introduced by Shah Jahan

8178

(c)

A special rank having higher sawar than zat introduced by Aurangzeb

(d) A subrank of sawar introduced by Jahangir. Jagir of the Mughals is equal to which one of the Delhi Sultans? (a) Khalisa

(b) Inam

(c) Waqf

(d) Iqta

Who among the following Mughal ministers was the paymaster-general as well?
(b) Mir Bakshi

(c) Khan-i-Saman (d) Vakil Who were the harkaras of the Mughal period? Enforcers of public morals News writers and reporters Secret letter writers and informers Spies and special couriers How many Mughal provinces were there under Akbar and Aurangzeb respectively? (a) 15 and 21 (b) 17 and 19 (c) 14 and 20 (d) 16 and 19 21. What was a tanab in the Mughal period? A revenue circle of the smallest size A uniform medium size unit of measurement A measuring instrument made of bamboo sticks joined .by iron rings A register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed revenue 122.

Uparis of Maharashtra were same as which of the following of north India?

(a) Muzariams (b) Pahikashta (c) Khudkashta

(d) Gaveti

123. Who among the following category of rural elite were not entitled to nankar, though they used to get malikana, of the surplus produce of peasants? Autonomous zam/'ndars Revenue farmers

Intermediary zamindars Primary zamindars 24. What was Jajmani system of the Mughal period? A revenue system in which revenues of different units of land were assigned to offi cials in lieu of salaries. An administrative system in which ranks in terms of numbers were assigned to nobles, military commanders and other


prominent people for placing them in the official hierarchy. (c) A reciprocal system that existed in rural India between the peasantry and other occupational groups. (d) A commercial system that developed in urban India for facilitating commercial transactions on a large scale. 25. Which of the following Mughal tombs can be considered as a prototype of the Taj Mahal for being the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure? (a) Humayun's tomb at Delhi (b) Jahangir's tomb at Lahore (c) Itimad-ud-daula's tomb at Agra (d) Salim Chisti's tomb at Fatehpur Sikri 26. Which of the following Mughal buildings is said to possess the unique feature of being exactly equal in length and breadth? (a) Red Fort

(b) Taj Mahal

(c) Buland Darwaza (d) Agra Fort 27. The world famous 'Peacock Throne' was kept in which of the following Mughal buildings? (a) Diwan-i-Khas at Fatehpur Sikri (b) New Agra Fort (c) The Rang Mahal of the Red Fort at Delhi (d) The Diwan-i-Am of the Red Fort at Delhi 28. Which of the following mosques of the Mughals is also known as the 'Pearl Mosque'? (a) Jamia Masjid at Delhi (b) Jamia Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri (c) Moti Masjid at Agra -(d) Aurangzeb's personal mosque in the Red . Fort 29. Who wrote the history of Aurangzeb's reign in total secrecy because of the emperor's opposi tion to it and what was the name of that histor ical work?

(a) Khafi Khan's MutakhabulLubab (b) Mirza Muhammad Kazim's Alamgir Namah (c) Muhammad Saqi's MasiriAlamgiri (d) Aquil Khan Razi's Zafar NamahiAlamgir 30. During Akbar's reign, a group of scholars translated Mahabharata into Persian from Sanskrit. What is this Persian version called? (a) Sakinat-ul-Auliya (b) Razm Namah (c) Iqbal Namah

(d) Akbar Namah


31.

Arrange the following battles of the Mughal period in the chronological order.

(i) Battle of Ghagara (ii) Battle of Gujarat (iii) Battle of Panipat I (iv) Battle of Chunar (v) Battle of Khanwa Select the answer from the codes below: (a) iii, ii, i, v, iv (b) ii, iv, iii, i, v (c) iv, ii, v, i, iii 32.

(d) iii, v, i, iv, ii

What is the correct sequence of the .following battles?

(i) ^Battle of Haldighati (ii) Battle of Chausa (iii) Battle of Samel (iv) Battle of Panipat II (v) Battle of Bilgram Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) iii, iv, ii, i, v (b) iv, ii, i, v, iii (c) ii, v, iii, iv, i 33.

(d) iii, v, ii, iv, i

Arrange the Great Mughals in historical order.

(ii) Shah Jahan (iv) Aurangzeb (vi) Jahangir (i) Akbar (iii) Babur (v) Humayun Select the answer from the codes below: (a) iii, v, i, vi, ii, iv (b) iii, v, i, ii, vi, iv (c) i, ii, iii, v, vi, iv (d) iii, iv, ii, i, v, vi 34.

What is the correct chronology of the following events of Akbar's reign?

(i) Introduction of dagh and chahra (ii) Introduction of the dual rank of zat and

sawar (iii) Issue of mahjar (iv) Abolition oljlzya (v) Abolition of pilgrim tax (vi) Proclamation of Tauhitillahi Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) ii, iii, i, v, iv, vi (b) v, iv, i, iii, vi, ii (c) iii, iv, i, ii, vi, v (d) v, iv, vi, i, ii, iii 35.

Arrange the following events of Jahangir's reign in chronological order.

(i) Captain Hawkin's visit to Jahangir's court (ii) Sir Thomas Roe's arrival at Jahangir's court (iii) Mahabat Khan's revolt and capture of Jahangir (iv) Prince Khurram's revolt against his father (v) Jahangir's marriage with Nur Jahan (vi) Issue of the famous 12 ordinances

Choose the answer from the codes belo (a) i, ii, v, vi, iii, iv (b) vi, v, i, ii, iv, i (c) ii, iv, iii, v, vi, i (d) vi, i, v, ii, iv, I 36. Pick out the correct code giving the chn of the following events of Aurangzeb's i (i) Conquest of Bijapur and Golconda (ii) Rebellion of the Sikhs under Guru i Singh (iii) Rebellion of the Jats under Gokla (iv) Reimposition of the Jizya (v) Sivaji's visit to the Mughal court (vi) Rebellion of the Satnamis Choose the answer from the codes below:! (a) i, iii, ii, vi, iv, v (b) ii, iv, i, v, vi, iiij (c) v, iii, vi, ii, iv, i (d) iii, iv, ii, vi, i, v} 37.

Nur Jahan'sy'u/tfa, apart from herself, <

(i) Mahabat Khan (ii) AsafKhan (iii) Prince Khusrau (iv) Itimadudi (v) Prince Khurram (vi) Sher Afghan, Choose the answer from the codes below:] (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv only (d) ii, iv and v i 38. Which of the following were French vis the Mughal empire, all of whom were in In 1666? (i) Bernier

(ii) Thevenot

(iii) Tavernier (iv) Manucci (v) Ralph Fitch Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and iv 39.

(d) All of them

Who among the following belonged to the I dynasty?

(i) Sher Shah (ii) Islam Shah (iii) Bahadur Shah (iv) AN Adil Shah (v) SikandarShah (vi) Muhammad Adil i Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and v (b) i, ii, v and vi (c) ii, iii, iv and v 40.

(d) i, ii, iv and vi

Who among the following persons in Babur to invade India?

(i) Rana Sanga of Mewar (ii) Daulat Khan Lodhi (iii) Alam Khan Lodhi (iv) Mahmud Lodhi (v) Bharamal of Amber

s the answer from the codes below: i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (i!i, ii, iv and v(d) All of them i of the following statements about Babur Mrue? ^He was the son of Shaikh Mirza, the ruler 1 of Farghana in Central Asia. He was related to Chengiz Khan on his [ father's side and to Timur on his mother's side. He translated a famous Sufi work, called Masnaw'from Persian into Turkish, i He passed away while going to Kabul in 1530. hoose the answer from the codes below: All of them (b) i, ii and iii i, iii and iv

(d) ii, iii and iv

tich of the following revenue systems were ar's own innovations? Batai (ii) Kankut ii) Nasaq

(iv) Zabti

Dahsala elect the answer from the codes below: |a) i and iv (b) ii and v iii and iv

(d) iv and v

ho among the following religious groups par-;ipated in the religious debates held at the at Khana during 1575-80? Shias (ii) Sunnis (iii) Sufis

(iv) Jainas

r.(v) Hindus

(vi) Christians

cSelect the answer from the codes below: ;(a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, v and vi

rWho among the following were the four sons of Shah Jahan who fought for the throne between 1656 and 1658? i (i) Dara Shikoh

(ii) Dawar Baksh

(iii) Shuja

(iv) Aurangzeb

(v) Murad

(vi) Khusrau

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) i, iii, iv and v (c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, iii and vi

Which of the following statements about the war of succession among the sons of Shah Jahan are true?


(i) Raja Jaswant Singh, the Rathor ruler of Jodhpur, fought on the side of Dara Shikoh. (ii) Manucci, an Italian touring India, served in the army of Dara. (iii) Bernier, a French traveller, served in Aurangzeb's retinue in this war. (iv) Shah Jahan openly supported the claims of Aurangzeb to the throne. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iii (d) ii, iii and iv 46. Pick out the main features of the mansab sys term of the Mughals from among the following: (i) All sawar rank holders are necessarily holders of zat ranks as well, but not vice-versa. (ii) The zat rank was always preceded by the sawar rank. (iii) The zat rank was normally either equal to or higher than the sawar rank. (iv) The contingents of the big mansabadars were usually formed by adding those of the smaller ones. Choose the answer from the codes below. (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 47. Which of the following were the main items of export of India during the Mughal period? (i) Cotton textiles (ii) Indigo and saltpetre

(iii) Bullion and horses (iv) Raw silk and sugar (v) Opium and pepper (vi) Metals and perfumes Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) i, ii, iv and v

(c) i, iii, iv and vi

(d) i, iii, v and vi

48.

Mughal architecture was marked by

(i) Combination of the Persian elements of grandeur and originality with Indian elements of grace and decoration (ii) Uniformity in the structural principles and architectural character all over the empire (iii) Construction of tombs in the centre of large parks on high platforms


(iv) Construction of a double-dome, the outer and the inner one (v) Cupolas standing on slender pillars at the corners, magnificent palace-halls, lofty vaulted gateways, etc. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iil and v (c) ii, ili, iv and v 49.

(d) I, Hi, Iv and v

Which of the following buildings are found at Fatehpur Sikri?

(i) Tomb of Salim Chisti (ii) Buland Darwaza (iii) Palaces of Mariam and Sultana (iv) Humayun's tomb (v) Ranch Mahal (vi) Rang Mahal Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them(b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and v

(d) ii, iii, iv and vi

50. Who were the two Persian master painters who came to India with Humayun and later organised painting in the imperial karkhana under Akbar's patronage? (i) Muhammad Nazir (ii) Tamshad AN (iii) Sayyid Ali Tabrezi (iv) Abdus Samad Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i and iii 51.

(d) iii and iv

Mughal school of painting is characterised by

(I) Miniature paintings (ii) Excellency in portrait painting and colour composition (iii) Keen appreciation of nature (iv) Democratic and popular in content (v) Courtly and aristocratic in content (vi) Secular and materialistic (vii) Spiritual and mystic Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and v (b) i, ii, iii, v and vi (c) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (d) ii, iv and vi only 52.

Who among the following Mughal historians were the contemporaries of Akbar?

(i) AbulFazI (ii) Badauni (iii) Mulla Daud (iv) Nizam-ud-din Ahmad

(v) Mutamad Khan (vi) Abdul Hamid Lahori Select the answer from the codes belo (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) i, Hi, iv i

(c) i, iii, vandvi

(d) All of 1

53.

Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Sha was the author of which of the works?

(i) Safinat-ul-Auliya (iii) SaWnafu/i (iii) Hasanat-ul-Arifin (iv) Majmat Select the answer from the codes I (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, Hand iii (d) All of the 54. Which of the following statements revenue reforms of Sher Shah Sur an (i) Assessment of land revenue on 1 of measurement of land (ii) Introduction of a new unit of i called //a/?/ gaz (iii) Classification of land into three < on the basis of their yield, i.e. and middling, (iv) Computation of the average pn three kinds of land and fixing I/: the land revenue, (v) Issue of title deeds to peasants; sition of acceptance deeds from I Choose the answer from the codes I (a) All of them (b) i, ii, iii i (c) i, iii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, Hi i

55. What were the various measures Sher Shah to improve trade and con (i) Building several new roads and i of all old ones (ii) Construction of rest houses a« roads for the convenience of the I and traders (iii) Issue of fine coins of gold, silver i

per of uniform standafd (iv) Collection of custom duties and( several places all through the i (v) Making the local headmen and , responsible for the loss of the merchants in transit Select the answer from the codes be (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) i, ii, iii i (c) ii, iii, iv and v

(d) All of I

Consider List I and List II: List I List II (Battles at)

(Results)

(i) Samel

(A) Defeat of Afghans

under Ibrahim Lodhi by Babur (ii) Bilgram

(B) Defeat of Rajputs

under Rana Sanga by Babur (iii) Ghagara (C) Defeat of Afghans under Mahmud Lodhi by Babur (iv) Khanwa (D) Final defeat of Hum-ayun by Sher Shah (v) Panipat

(E) Defeat of Rajputs

under Maldeo of Marwar by Sher Shah (a) (b) (c) (d)

\-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A, we i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B, v-A i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD f 57. Which of the following is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Kachchhawahas--Mewar Ranas--Marwar Hadas--Ranthambhor Rathors--Amber 58. Consider List I and List II:

List I List II Baz Bahadur (i) Rani Durgavati Last ruler of Malwa defeated by Akbar Ruler of Garhkatanga who put up stiff resistance before its conquest by Akbar (iii) Muhammad Hakim

(iv) Chand Sultana

(v) Malik Ambar Akbar's half-brother, after whose death Akbar occupied Kabul The person who put up stiff resistance to Akbar before his conquest of a half of Ahmadnagar kingdom The person who was responsible for foiling Jahangirs's attempts to complete the annexation of Ahmadnagar


Which of the above are correctly paired? Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v 59.

Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below.

List I List II (i) Amar Singh

(A) The first Rajput

ruler to voluntarily submit and offer his daughter in marriage to Akbar (ii) Ajit Singh (B) The first Rana to refuse to submit to Akbar (iii) Udai Singh

(C) The Rana with

whom Jahangir concluded peace (iv) Bharamal (D) The person res ponsible for implementing the revenue reforms of Akbar (v) Todar Mai (E) The posthumous son of Jaswant Singh of Marwar (a) (b) (c) (d) 60.

i-C, ii-E, iii-A, iv-D, vB i-C, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, v*D i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E, vC i-E, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, vD Match the following:

List I List II (i) Jama

Has// (iii) Dastur (iv) Bahi (v) Bigha (A)

Assessed or stipulated revenue from a unit of land

(B)

Final and permanent assessed revenue from a unit of land

(C)

Revenue actually collected from a unit of land

(D)

A particular unit of land

(E)

A revenue regis ter kept at the vil lage level


(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, vD i-A," ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, we i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E, vD 61.

Which code gives the correct pairing of the following lists? List II Prime Minister Head of revenue department (C)

Head of military department

(D)

Head of royal household and workshops

(E)

In-charge of royal ships and boats

List I (A) (B) Diwan Mir Bakshi (iii) MirBahri (iv) KriarnSaman

(v) Wazir (a) (b) (c) (d) 62.

i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, we i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-E, v-A i-B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, v-A Match List I and List II and select the answer from the codes given below,

List I List II Mir-i-Arz

(A) Head of artillery

Mir-i-Mal

(B) In-charge of royal

quarters (iii) Mir-i-Tozak

(C) In-charge of royal

ceremonies (iv) MirAtish (D) In-charge of privy purse (v) Mir Manzil(E) In-charge of peti tions (a) (b) (c) (d) 63.

i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vD i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B, v-A i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, we Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Batai

(li) Kankut (iii) Nasaq Assessment of land revenue on the basis of measurement Crop-sharing in different ways Estimation of revenue payable on the basis of past experience

(iv) Zabti

Estimation of

of the whole area { basis of samplei (v) Dahsala Collection i the past 10 ye age produce in; cash Which of the above are not correctly i Choose the answer from the codes I (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and i (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and i Which of the following is correctly i (a) (b) (c) (d)

Po/a/--Annually cultivated land Chachar-- Left fallow for one or t Banjar-- Left fallow for three or 1 Parautl-- Uncultivated for four years

Match List I with List II and select thai using the codes below.

66.

Listl List II 1 (i) Patwari (A) Revenue « at the distridl (ii) Qanungo (B) Revenue m at the taluq I (iii) Amalguzar (C) Village rev( official ' (iv) Karkun (D) Treasurer at district level ' (v) Khazanadar (E) Accountant (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D, v-A (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-D, vC (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD (d) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, vD Match the following: Listl List II (i) Mohur (A) Mughal I coin (ii) Shahrukhi (B) Mughal gold (iii) Patta (C) Market town (iv) Qabuliyat (D) Revenue ac ance (v) Kasba (E) Revenue deed (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, vD (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-D, vC (d) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-E, vC

Which code gives the correct matching of the following list of Mughals and places of their tombs. List II Kabul Delhi Sikandara

List I (A) (B) (C) (D)

Lahore

(E)

Agra

(F)

Aurangabad

(i) Babur (ii) Humayun (iii) Akbar (iv) Jahangir (v) Shah Jahan (vi) Aurangzeb (a) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, v-F, vi-D (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D, v-E, vi-F (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-E, v-F, vi-A (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, v-E, vi-F Match List I and List II and choose the answer from the codes given below.

List II (A)

Influence of Buddhist vihara in its construction

(B)

Beginning of the use of white mar ble by Mughals

(C)

Prototype of the Taj Mahal

(D)

Replica of Moti Masjid at Aurangabad

(E)

Replica of the Taj Mahal

List I (i) Itimaduddaula's tomb

(ii) Humayun's Tomb

(iii) Akbar's tomb

(iv) Tomb of Aurangzeb's wife

(v) Aurangzeb's personal mosque in the Red Fort (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vD i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D, v-A i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, vD i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-E, v-D k Consider List I and List II:

List II KhulasatulTarikh FutuhatiAlamgiri Humayun Namah FatwaiAlamgiri NuskhaiDilkusha List I (i) Aurangzeb Gulbadan Begam I'(Hi) Sujan Rai Khatri (iv) Iswar Das t[v) Bhimsen [VVhich of the above are incorrectly paired? Delect the answer from the codes below: i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv i, ii, iii and iv (d) All of them


70. Match the following: List! (I) Ganj

(A)

(ii) Hat (B)

(ill) Milki

(C)

(iv) Nazrana

(D)

(v)

Watan (E)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-A, vD i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vC i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, vC i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, vB

List II Proprietorship in land Gift from an inferior to a superior Hereditary lands Market or trade centre Periodic Village fair


Instructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' (A) is correct and 'Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong and 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R1 is not the correct explanation for 'A'. 71. Assertion: During the war of succession, Jahanara, one of the daughters of Shah Jahan, supported the claims of Dara Shikoh to the throne, while her sister, Roshanara, supported Aurangzeb's claims. Reason: Jahanara, who served Shalj Jahan during his eight year period of imprisonment by his son, was later made the first lady of the realm by Aurangzeb. 72. Assertion: Among the several rebellions to rock the Mughal empire during the time of Aurangzeb, that of the Rathors of Jodhpur was an important and serious one. Reason: The Rathors were goaded into rebellion by Aurangzeb's refusal to recognise Ajit Singh, the posthumous son of Jaswant Singh, as the legal heir. 73. Assertion: After the introduction of dagh and chahra in the mansab system by Akbar in his 18th regnal year, the correlation between the mansabdar's rank and the number of horse men maintained by him came into effect.


Reason: Dagh and chahra decreased the possibility of fraud by the mansabdar and fixed his rank according to the size of the contingent maintained by him. 74. Assertion: The month-scale, introduced by Shah Jahan in the mansab system, was a device to express the ratio between the jama and hasil. Reason: The month-scale, along with the rule of one-third and one-fifth doubled the military obligations of the mansabdars to the state. 75. Assertion: All mansabdars were Jagirdars, but all jagirdars were not mansabdars. Reason: A few mansabdars were paid in cash and not through the assignment of jagirs. 76. Assertion: Both Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb expanded the khalisa lands considerably at the expense of the jagir lands. Reason: The number of mansabdars of the Mughal empire increased from around 2000 in 1605 to almost 12,000 by 1675. 77. Assertion: The Mughal emperors had complete sovereignty, not only internally but also exter nally. Reason: They refused to recognise any external authority like the caliph as their superior. 78. Assertion: The Mughals, particularly Akbar, established a uniform pattern of administration in all provinces. Reason: Akbar is greatly indebted to Sher Shah Sur not only in local administration but also in provincial administration. 79. Assertion: In the Mughal period the peasants were recognised as the proprietors of the soil in the precapitalist sense. Reason: Under the Mughals the emperor, the jagirdars and the zamindars had superior rights over land revenue. 80 Assertion: By his 24th regnal year, Akbar completed a series of revenue reforms, which are together known as the ainidahsala. Reason: From Akbar's 24th regnal year onwards, the only revenue system that prevailed throughout his empire was the dahsala system.

81. Assertion: In the Mughal period, the residential pahis could, if they had their own implements and draught animals, hope to acquire the status of khudkashta.

Reason: In medieval rural India, posse implements and draught animals was more important than that of lands. 82. Assertion: A major characteristic featun Mughal India was the slow increase or i stagnation in agricultural production. Reason: There is sufficient evidence to! gradual expansion in the total area under < vation during the Mughal period. 83. Assertion: The European traders were ins mental in introducing and developing the i tution of hundis in Mughal period. Reason: The merchant class of the Mu period was a highly stratified class econ cally as well as socially. 84. Assertion: The culture of the Mughal generally termed as the Mughal court cult Reason: The Mughal court culture was| antithesis of Indian culture. 85. Assertion: Akbar dispensed with the prac keeping revenue records in the local guages, in addition to Persian. Reason: In Mughal India, Persian language ^ literature was well developed and widely in t 86.

Read the following lines and answer the qu 'If on earth be an Eden of Bliss,

It is this, it is this, none but this.' Who is the author and where is it found? (a)

Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan--In Persian translation of TuzukiBaburi

(b) (c)

Faizi--In the new Agra Fort Abul Fazl--In the Buland Darwazas Fatehpur Sikri

(d)

Amir Khusrau--In the Diwan-i-Khas off Red Fort at Delhi

87. Who wrote the following passage: 'Hindus a country that has few pleasures to recomn it. The people are not handsome. They hav»| idea of the charms of friendly society, of f mixing together . . . They have no genius,! comprehension of mind, no fellow felling,j ingenuity or mechanical invention ...' (a) Aurangzeb (b) Jahangir (c) Babur

(d) Sir Thomas I

88. Read the following lines and answer the qu tion: 'I know of Islam and I respect it. I know! Hinduism and I am proud of it. But I know r ing of this new faith and I cannot accept I

Who is .the speaker and to which faith is he , referring to? I (a) Akbar--Christianity |{b) Man Smgh--Tauhitillahi *(c) Akbar--Jainism |'(d) Todar Ma\--Tauhitillahi f Identify the following views on painting with the respective personalities? 'If there were similar portraits finished by several artists, I j,. could point out the painter of each' and . There are many that hate painting; but such , men I dislike. It appears to me if a painter had quite peculiar means of recognising god.' (a) (b) (c) (d)

Jahangir and Akbar Humayun and Akbar Akbar and Jahangir Jahangir and Humayun That Akbar was an illiterate

(a) (b) (c) (d)

is probably true is definitely doubtful is probably wrong is proved beyond doubt What was the ancestral principality of Babur?

(a) Samarkhand

(b) Kabul

(c) Farghana (d) Persia What was the name of Turkish engineer who helped Bahadur Shah of Gujarat to storm Chittor fort? (a) Amir Khan (b) Hindal (c) Rumi Khan(d) Khusrau Khan After which battle did Humayun go into exile? (a) Jaunpur

(b) Chausa

(c) Mandasor (d) Bilgram Who translated Tuzuk-i-Baburi into Persian? (a) Abul Fazl (b) Amir Khusrau (c) Abdur Rahim

(d) Daulat Khan

Who was the Persian ruler who helped

Humayun with 12,000 troops? (a) Chengiz Khan (b) Timur (c) Nadir Shah (d) Shah Tahmasp The Atkah Khail, who conspired for the fall of Bairam Khan, were (a) (b) (c) (d)

enemies of Bairam relations of Akbar Sunni nobles of the Mughal court non-Persian nobles at Mughal court


97. Who crushed the Afghan power in Orissa? (a) Adham Khan (c) Todar Mai (d) Munim Khan 98.

(b) Man Singh

The Jesuit missionary who had discussions with Akbar was

(a) Rudolf Aquaviva (b) Antony Monserrate (c) Sir Thomas Roe (d) Francis Henrequez 99.

Who wrote TabaqatiAkbari7

(a) Abul Fazl (b) Badauni (c) Munim Khan (d) Nizam-ud-din Ahmad 100.

The Persian ruler who besieged Qandahar in Jahangir's reign was

(a) Shah Raza (b) Shah Abbas (c) Shah Muhammad (d) Shah Parwez 101.

After which battle Humayun crossed the Ganges with the help of a water-carrier?

(a) Bilgram

(b) Kanauj

(c) Chausa

(d) Gaghra

102. Who was a great poet among the following? (a) Babur (b) Humayun (c) Akbar 103.

(d) Jahangir

Which Sikh guru helped the rebel prince, Khusrau, with money and prayers?

(a) Hargovind (b) Arjun Dev (c) Tez Bahadur

(d) Govind Singh

104. Who among the following Mughal emperors were half Rajput (born of a Rajput mother)? (a)

Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb

(b) Akbar and Jahangir (c) Jahangir and Shah Jahan (d) Jahangir and Humayun 105. Who chose to live voluntarily with Shah Jahan and later was awarded great honour by Aurangzeb? (a) Jahanara (b) Zebunnisa (c) Zeenat Mahal 106.

(d) Roshanara

Who was the first Englishman to visit Jahangir's court?

(a) William Edwards (b) George Barlow (c) Thomas Roe (d) Hawkins 107.

What was the first English ship that came to India?

(a) May Flower (c) Bengal 108.

(b) Red Dragon

(d) Elizabeth

The Persian ruler who besieged Qandahar in Jahangir's reign was

(a) Shah Muhammad (b) Shah Abbas (c) Shah Raza (d) Shah Parwez


109.

Which of the following branches of the army was wholly state paid?

(a) Infantry

(b) Cavalry

(c) Elephants (d) Artillery 110.

Who was the in-charge of a pargana? (a) Amil (d) Qanungo

(b) Pattidar (c) Shiqdar

111.

The range of mansabs as organised by Akbar varied between

(a) 10 to 5,000 (b) 10 to 7,000 (c) 10 to 10,000 112.

(d) 100 to 5,000

Persons holding ranks from 500 to less than 2,500 were known as

(a) mansabdar (b) amir (c) amir-i-umada

(d) khwaja

113. A new technique of painting, known as siyahi qalam, became fashionable during the reign of (a) Akbar (b) Aurangzeb (c) Jahangir

(d) Shah Jahan

114. Which of the following varieties of land during Mughal period did not yield any land revenue to the state? (a) Khalisa

(b) Jagir

(c) Sayurghal (d) Ralyati 115. Which one of the following was not a chief fea ture of the dahsala system of land revenue? (a) (b) (c)

Survey and measurement of land Classification of land Fixation of rates

(d) Biennial assessment 116. What portion of actual produce was fixed as the demand of the state under the zabtf? (a) one-half

(b) one-third

(c) one-fourth (d) one-fifth 117.

Akbar laid the foundation of the new city at Fatehpur Sikri in honour of

(a) Babur

(b) Moin-ud-in Chisti

(c) Salim Chisti (d) Nizam-ud-din Auliya 118. Akbar is reputed to have been a good player of (a) veena (b) sitar '(c) pakhawaj (d) nakkarah 119.

During the reign of which great Mughal was tobacco introduced in India?

(a) Jahangir

(b) Akbar

(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 120. Which great Mughal is credited with prohibiting sati unless the widow herself, of her own free will, persistently desired it?

(a) Akbar

(b) Babur

(c) Humayun (d) Jahangir 121. Akbar's enlightened religious policy was? based on his philosophy of sulh-i-kul which j meant (a) (b) (c) (d) 122.

universal tolerance universal peace enlightened benevolence unity of godhead Jahangir's faithful general Mahabat Khan I revolted against him in 1626 because

(a)

he wanted to rule independently in Bengal'^ and Bihar.

(b) his son was executed by Jahangir. (c) of Nur Jahan's intrigues. (d) of all the above reasons. 123. The 'chain of justice' is associated with (a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Jahangir

(d) Shah Jahan

124.

Aurangzeb discontinued the practice of inscribj ing kalima on the coins because

(a) (b)

it was a practice borrowed from the Turks.^ it would have been dishonoured by comin under the feet of the people.

(c)

it hampered the smooth functioning of thej escheat system.

(d) it was an irreligious practice. 125. Who among the following was an illiterate? (a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 126. Aurangzeb got some temples destroyed.] Which one of the following was not one off them? (a) Somanatha temple in Gujarat (b) Visvanatha temple at Banaras (c) Kesava Rai temple at Banaras (d) Jagannatha temple at Puri 127. Under Aurangzeb, the amin collected (a) grazing tax (b) jizya

(c) kharaj 128.

(d) zakat

The promulgation of 'twelve edicts' is associatJ ed with the reign of

(a) Akbar

(h) Jahangir

(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 129. Mir Jumla, who was appointed the Governor of j Bengal by Aurangzeb, originally belonged to (a) Ahmadnagar (b) Bijapur (c) Gujarat

(d) Golconda

The police chief of a city was called (a) qazi (b) faujdar (c) kotwal

(d) qilahdar

Certain mansabdars were paid in cash. They were called (a) naqdis

(b) Jagirdars

(c) amirs

(d) mirzas

Todar Mai was a brilliant revenue officer who first served under (a) Bhagawan Das (b) Sher Shah (c) Humayun (d) Baz Bahadur Who imposed the taxes like jaribana (survey or's fee), mahasilana (tax collector's fee) and insurance tax on the cultivators? (a) Sher Shah (b) Akbar (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb The land grants made to the scholarly men were known as (a) inam

(b) waqf

(c) sayurghal (d) madadimaash Villages with no zamindari rights were called (a) raiyati (b) milkiyat (c) peshkashi (d) bisvi Peshkashi zamindars were (a)

territorial zamindars who did not render military service to the state.

(b)

territorial zamindars who rendered military service to the state.

(c)

primary zamindars who maintained law and order.

(d)

intermediary zamindars who collected taxes for the state.

. The only type of Jag/r which could not be transferred was the (a) khidmati jagir

(b) watanjagir

(c) milkiyat jagir

(d) tan jagir

Who was the Frenchman that visited India six times during the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb and wrote his accounts of India in his work 'Six Voyages'? (a) Tavernier (b) Manucci (c) Thevenot (d) Bernier Taj Mahal was designed by (a) Ustad Isa (b) Ustad Marrsur (c) Ustad Rahim

(d) Ustad Shansher

Of the buildings built during the time of Shah Jahan, which one had the famous peacock throne?


(a) Rang Mahal

(b) DiwaniKhas

(c) Diwan-i-Am

(d) Jama Masjid

141.

The master of portrait painting was

(a) Mansur

(b) Sannad Beg

(c) Mir Hussain 142.

(d) Daswant

Surdas, Baiju Bawra and Ramdas were famous singers during the time of

(a) Akbar

(b) Jahangir

(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 143. The subject matter of Hamza Namah is (a) architecture (c) music (d) philosophy 144.

(b) painting

The French traveller Francois Bemier served as physician to

(a) Akbar

(b) Jahangir

(c) Shah Jahan (c) Aurangzeb 145. Which of the following manuscripts, containing miniature paintings, reveals a sense of realism and authenticity witnessed or experienced by the painters themselves? (a) Timur Namah

(b) Akbar Namah

(c) Jamiut-Tawarikh (d) TarikhiAlfi 146. During the reign of which one of the following Mughal emperors were the Marathas admitted to the nobility? (a) Akbar

(b) Humayun

(c) Jahangir

(d) Shah Jahan

147. Which one of the following Mughal emperors is credited with the composition of many Hindi songs? (a) Humayun (b) Babur (c) Akbar 148.

(d) Jahangir

Muraqqas of the Mughal period were

(a) albums of the miniature paintings. (b) revenue officials at the paragana level. (c) hired soldiers of the Mughal nobles. (d) musical compositions by the Sufis. 149. Who among the following discovered the Cape of Good Hope which he originally called the Cape Storm in 1487? (a) (b) (c) (d) 150.

Vasco da Gama Pedro Alvarez Cabral Bartholomew Diaz Columbus What was the early capital of the Portuguese in India?

(a) Goa

(b) Cochin

(c) Calicut

(d) Cannanore


c s 151.

Who was the 'Zamorin'?

(a)

Religious head of the Portuguese in India

(b) (c) (d) 152.

Commercial head of the Arab merchants in India The Muslim ruler of Cochin The Hindu ruler of Calicut What was the only settlement of the Portuguese on the south-east coast?

(a) San Thome (b) Armagaon (c) Karikal

(d) Pulicat

153. By the beginning of the 17th century, the Portuguese power declined in India and the neighbouring regions, and they began to lose one settlement after another. To whom did they lose Ormuz in the Persian Gulf in 1622? (a) Arabs

(b) Turks

(c) English

(d) Dutch

154.

When and by whom were the Portuguese driven out of Hugli in Bengal?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 155.

1625--Shaista Khan 1631--Qasim Khan 1650--Prince Murad 1666--Prince Shuja Which of the following, statements about Vasco da Gama are true?

(i) He discovered the new and all-sea route from Europe to India, (ii) He reached the port of Cochin on May 17, 1498. (iii) He was given a hostile reception by the

ruler of Cochin. (iv) He made a second trip to India in 1502. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iv (c) iandiv 156.

(d) i and iii

Which of the following statements about Alfonso de Albuquerque are incorrect?

(i) He became the Portuguese governor in India in 1509. (ii) He captured Goa from the ruler of Ahmednagar in 1511. (iii) He persecuted Muslims and prohibited his countrymen from taking Indian women as wives, (iv) He conquered the island of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf in 1515. (v) He died in 1520 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in the Indian Ocean.

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii and iii only (c) iii and iv only (d) ii, iii and v 157. Which of the following places never Portuguese settlement or trading station? (i) Calicut (ii) Broach (iii) Cochin

(iv) Cannanore

(v) Mahe Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) ii and iv (b) iii and iv (c) ii and v

(d) iv and v

158. Which were the two places acquired by Portuguese governor Nino da Cunha Bahadur Shah of Gujarat? (i) Bombay

(ii) Diu

(iii) Chaul

(iv) Bassein

(v) Salsette Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) i and v

159.

Match List I with List II and select the ans using the codes given below.

List I Alfonso de Albuquerque Nino da Cunha List II (ii) (iii) Martin Alfonso (iv) Francisco de Almeida

(A)

First Portuguese governor in India

(B)

Second Portugue governor in India

(C)

Portuguese who transferred I quarters in India 1 Cochin to Goa

(D)

Portuguese goven who was accon nied by Je suit Francisco Xavier India

(a) (b) (c) (d) lists?

i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-A, ii-Br iii-D, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D 160. Which code gives the correct pairing of the 1 lowing

List I List II (i) 1498

(A)

Arrival of Cabral

(ii) 1500

(B)

Arrival of Gama

(iii) 1503

(C)

Arrival of Almeida

(iv) 1505

(D)

Arrival of Albuquen

were cap i) Salsetl ;--o« s

i) Select the i ;») i and f* i) fliari IT [€«>,

Sterk(a}J

:>#* 1*$S*^ -m*%» 3***m-

tâ) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D l(b) i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D d) i-B, ii-A, iiiD, iv-C |.Arrange the following Portuguese governors in pindia in chronological order. :f(i) Garcia de Noronha (ii) Dom de Castro Nino da Cunha (iv) Martin de Souza Choose the answer from the codes below: '(a) iii, i, iv, ii (b) ii, i, iv, iii (c) iv, ii, i, iii (d) i, iii, ii, iv h/Vhich were the Portuguese settlements that | were captured by the Marathas in 1739? (i) Salsette

(ii) Bassein

»{iii) Bombay (iv) Chaul '-'Select the answer from the codes below: f' (a) i and ii (c) iii and iv

(b) ii and iii

(d) iv and v

iand Reason

ctions

Mark (a) if the Assertion (A) is correct, but the Reason (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' ' explains 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R.' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A'. Assertion: In 1666 the King of Portugal sold Bombay to Charles II of England. Reason: Charles II married Catherine of Braganza, sister of the Portuguese King. Assertion: The discovery of Brazil led to the diversion of Portuguese attention from India to Brazil. Reason: The Portuguese failed to withstand the severe competition from the other European companies in the sphere of Indian trade. Assertion: The Indian people as well as rulers became hostile to the Portuguese. Reason: The Portuguese in India followed a policy of religious intolerance. Who was Gerald Aungier? (a) (b)

First Englishman to arrive in India First governor of Bombay and responsible for its rise into prominence


(c) (d) 167.

First president of the council of Surat First president of the council of Madras Who established a factory at Sutanuti in 1690?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 168.

Job Chamock Sir John Child Sir William Courten Eyre Coote Who obtained the site of Madras and from whom?

(a)

Captain Hawkins from the Nawab of Carnatic

(b)

Sir Thomas Roe from the Nizam of Hyderabad

(c)

Sir Charles Eyre from the Raja of Valikondapuram

(d) 169.

Francis Day from the Raja of Chandragiri Identify Fort St George and Fort William with their respective settlements?

(a) Bombay and Madras (b) Bombay and Calcutta (c) Madras and Calcutta (d) Calcutta and Madras 170. At which of the following places on the west coast did the English have their factories? (i) Ahmadabad (iii) Baroda

(ii) Salsette (iv) Broach

(v) Bassein Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii, iii and v 171. Which of the following statements about the activities of the British on the west coast are true? (i) Till 1687 all the English factories on the

west coast were under the control of the president and council of their factory at Surat. (ii) In 1670 the Company purchased Bombay from Charles II for a nominal amount of a hundred pounds only, (iii) In 1687 Bombay replaced Surat as the head-quarters of the Company on the west coast, (iv) In 1688 the English under Sir John Child captured many Mughal ships off the west coast and disrupted the traffic of haj pilgrims. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv


I 172.

Which of the following statements about Madras are correct?

(i) In 1640 the British obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Valikondapuram. (ii) The British built a fortified factory, viz. Fort St George, at Madras. (iii) In 1658 all the English settlements on the Coromandal and in eastern India were placed under the control of Fort St George. (iv) In 1801 Lord Wellesley created the Madras presidency as it existed till Indian independence. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iii (d) ii, iii and iv 173. At which of the following places in Orissa did the British establish factories in 1633? (i) Cuttack

(ii) Hariharpur

(iii) Patna

(iv) Dacca

Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) ii and iv 174.

(d) i and iv

Which of the following places in Bihar and Bengal had English factories?

(i) Hugh

(ii) Chinsura

(iii) Patna

(iv) Dacca

(v) Monghyr (vi) Kasimbazar Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, iii, iv and vi (b) ii, iii, v and vi (c) i, iii, iv and v 175.


Which of the following statements about the British in Bengal are incorrect?

(i) The British purchased the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindpur in 1698 from the governor of Bengal, (ii) They fortified their factory at Sutanuti in 1699 with the permission of the Mughal governor of Bengal, (iii) The fortified factory at Sutanuti was named Fort William in 1700. (iv) All the English settlements in Bengal were placed under the separate control of a president and council of Fort William in 1700. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iii (b) i and ii (c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

176. Arrange the following events in the history i the East India Company in chronological order.] (i) Resolution of the British Parliament givin equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East, (ii) Formation of a rival company by a group ( merchants under Sir William Courten. (iii) Transformation of the East India Compan into a joint-stock company, (iv) Amalgamation of Courten's company ' the East India Company. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) i, ii, iv, iii (c) ii, iii, i, iv (d) ii, iv, iii, i 177. th4

Which of the following statements are true? (i) A new rival company, known as

'English Company of Merchants Trading t the East Indies' was formed in 1698. (ii) The new company sent Sir William Non to Aurangzeb's court and succeeded iij securing trading privileges for itself. (iii) The old and the new companies came to £ understanding in 1702 after a brief pe of ruinous competition. (iv) By the award of Goldophin of 1708 were amalgamated under the title of 'United Company of Merchants of Englan Trading to the East Indies' which existed t 1858. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii and iv

(c) i, ii and iv (d) iii and iv 178. Which of the following statements about th
(b) i, ii and iv

(c) i, iii and iv (d) i and iv

M)

»1 1613

i

(B)|

>

if) 1619

(C

s1626

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, I ^|-A, ii-D, iii-C^ riJ-D, ii-B, iii-Ai^ i-B, ii-A, iii-D^

; and Re

*'(a)ifthe^ *son(R)[ rW(b)if'A"

T(c)lffc' Una'*.' W

JtvjfMi'f^Kljpyi :it_«:k^^jfc»-'^^^^^^^^^^

!*4B

latch List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List I List II f(i) Arrival of Hawkins

(A) 1599

at Jahangir's court tii) Arrival of Thomas (B) 1609 Roe at Jahangir's court ;p) Arrival of Milden-hall

(C) 1612

in India (iv) Defeat of Portuguese (D) 1615 fleet by English at Swally (a) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D (b) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-C, ii-D, iiiA, iv-B (d) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A n'ch code gives the correct matching of the following lists? List I List II 1611 1613

(A) Jahangir's farman per mitting the English to set up a factory at Surat (B) Establishment of an

English factory at Masulipatam (iii) 1619 (C) Establishment of an English factory at Armagaon near Pulicat :(iv)1626 (D) Departure of Sir Thomas Roe for England (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B {b) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (c) (d)

i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C

Dns and Reason

ons

Mark (a) if the Assertion (A) is correct, but the Reason (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A1 is wrong, but 'R' is correct.

Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A'. Assertion: Jahangir initially agreed to grant the request of Captain Hawkins to allow the British to set up a factory at Surat, but later refused.


Reason: The Portuguese were very influential in the Mughal court at that time and opposed the entry of the British into Indian trade. 182. Assertion: The British used the rebellion of Shobha Singh, a zamindar of Burdwan district, as an excuse to fortify their settlement at Sutanuti in 1696. Reason: The British were driven out of their settlement at Sutanuti by the Mughal governor of Bengal in 1687. 183. Assertion: The Mughals captured all the English settlements in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1687. Reason: The English sacked Hugli and declared war on the Mughal emperor in 1686. 184.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below.

List I List II (Dutch Factories) (i) Karikal

(Years)

(A) 1605

(ii) Bimilipatam

(B) 1616

(iii) Chinsura (C) 1641 (iv) Masulipatam (v) Surat (a) (b) (c) (d) 185.

(D) 1645

(E) 1653

i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vB i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C, we i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-E, vD i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-E, v-A Which of the following statements are true?

(i) The Dutch established their last factory at Cochin in 1663.

(ii) Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690. (iii) The Dutch set up a factory at Negapatam in 1658. (iv) After 1690 Negapatam became their main centre in India. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, iiandiv 186.

(d) All of them

At which of the following places did the Dutch set up factories in 1658?

(i) Kasimbazar (ii) Baranagore (iii) Hugli

(iv) Patna

(v) Cochin

(vi) Balasore

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iv, v and vi (c) ii, iii, v and vi

(d) All of them


187.

Which of the following statements about the Dutch in India are true?

(i) In the 17th century the Dutch supplanted the Portuguese as the most dominant power in the European trade with India, (ii) Serious rivalry began between the Dutch and the English in India in the middle of the 17th century, (iii) The Dutch power began to decline in India by the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, (iv) The Dutch were finally expelled from their last possession in India by the British in 1795. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iv

(b) i, iii and iv

(c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii, iv and vi 188.

Which of the following statements about the battle of Bedera is/are true?

(i) It was fought between the English and the Dutch. (ii) It took place in the Coromandal in 1780. (iii) Before this battle, Mir Jafar, the Nawab of Bengal, entered into a conspiracy with the Dutch with a view to expel the English from India. (iv) The Dutch were badly defeated in this battle, leading to their final collapse in India. Select the answers from the codes below: (a) ii and iii

(b) ii only

(c) iii only

(d) iii and iv

189. When was the Dutch East India Company formed and invested with powers to make wars, conclude treaties acquire territories, and the like.?

(a) 1600

(b) 1601

(c) 1602

(d) 1603

190.

Which code gives the correct matching of the following lists?

List I Francois Caron

Maracara

Lespmay List II (A)

One of the two Frenchmen who acquired the site of Pondicherry

(B)

Set up a French factory at Surat

(C)

French admiral who lost San Thome to Dutch

^\

(iv) De la Have

(iv) Set un a

at Masulin (a) (b) (c) (d) 191.

i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-A. ii-C. iii-D. iv-B Which of the following statements Pondicherry are true?

(i) The site for it was acquired Muslim governor of Valikondapun (ii) Francois Martin was its governor I 1674-93 and again between 1697(iii) Under Martin it developed treme and became the headquarters French in India, (iv) It was captured by the Dutch in 16 was handed back to the French in < Select the answer from the codes belo (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii, iii and iv 192. Arrange the following French gove Pondicherry in chronological order, (i) Francois Martin (ii) Dumas (iii) Lenoir (iv) Count de I (v) Dupleix Choose the answer from the codes I (a) i, ii, iii, v, iv (b) ii, i, iii, iv, \ (c) iii, i, ii, iv, v

(d) i, iii, ii, v, i

193. What is the historical sequence of lishment of the following French fac (i) Masulipatam (ii) Mahe (iii) Surat

(iv) Pondichen

Select the answer from the codes belo (a) i, iv, ii, iii (b) ii, iv, iii, i (c) iii, i, iv, ii (d) iv, i, ii, iii 194.

Arrange the following settlements French in their correct chronology.

(i) Yanam

(ii) Chande

(iii) Karikal

(iv) San Thon

Choose the answer from the codes be (a) iii, ii, iv, i (b) iv, ii, i, iii (c) ii, i, iii, iv (d) i, iii, iv, ii 195. Which of the following statements ab French East India Company are true? (i) It was formed in 1600 by a group of f merchants, (ii) The man behind its formation was I

(iii) It was owned and managed by the French government. (iv) It was abolished in 1725. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iii

: When did the Danes form an East India Company and arrive in India? (a) 1614 (b) 1615 (c) 1616

(d) 1617

Which of the following statements about the Danes in India are correct? (i) They set up a factory at Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu in 1620. , (ii) They established a settlement at Serampore in Bengal in 1676. (iii) Tranquebar was their headquarters in India, (iv) Serampore was their headquarters in India. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iii (b) ii and iii (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, ii and iii When and to whom did the Danes sell all their settlements in India? (a) 1750—French (b) 1700—Portuguese (c) 1800—Dutch (d) 1845—British Which of the following were the main items that were imported by Europeans from India? (i) Textiles (ii) Indigo (iii) Perfumes (iv) Saltpetre (v) Opium

(vi) Horses

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and v (b) ii, iii, iv and v (c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) i, ii, v and vi

Which of the following items were not imported by Europeans from India? (i) Sugar (ii) Porcelain

(iii) Raw silk (iv) Pepper (v) Bullion Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and v (d) ii and v Which of the following were the positive effects of the beginning of European commerce? (i) Increase in the quantity of India's exports (ii) Commercialisation of Indian agriculture (iii) Rapid rise in the prices of goods in India (iv) Growth of money economy in India


(v) Establishment of close links between the Indian and the world markets Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iv and v (b) i, ill, iv and v (c) i, ii, iii and v

(d) All of them

202.

Who were 'Physiocrats'?

(a)

English classical economists opposed to monopolist trade practices

(b) (c) (d)

French merchants in favour of free trade policy Portuguese sea pirates in the Indian ocean Dutch soldiers protecting their settlements in India

203. The English were able to triumph over the Dutch in India, but not outside. In fact at one of the places outside India, a number of Englishmen were massacred by the Dutch in 1623. Pick it out from among the following: (a) Sri Lanka (b) Madagascar (c) Amboyna (d) Cambodia 204. Who among the following Europeans confined their trading activities almost exclusively to China? (a) Swedes (b) Dutch (c) Spaniards (d) Danes 205. Which region in India provided the best quality saltpetre and opium to the Europeans? (a) Coromandal (c) Bihar

(b) Gujarat

(d) Malabar


Instructions

Mark (a) if the Assertion (A) is correct, but the Reason (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A. 206. Assertion: The attitude of Indian traders was on the whole friendly towards the Europeans. Reason: European commerce caused a sub stantial rise in the revenues of Indian rulers. 207.

Assertion: Increasing European trade resulted in inflation in India.

Reason: The beginning of European commerce was accompanied by an increase in the inflow of bullion, both gold and silver, into India.


208.

Assertion: Indian calicoes were in great demand in Europe.

Reason: The Dutch took Indian calicoes to the Spice Islands where they exchanged them for spices. 209.

Which of the following statements about Alfonso de Albuquerque are correct?

(i) He was the first Portuguese governor in India, (ii) He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510. (iii) He persecuted Muslims but permitted his countrymen to take Indian women as wives, (iv) He conquered the island of Ormuz in the Persian Gulf in 1515. (v) He died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in the Indian Ocean. (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii and iii only (c) iii and iv only


210.

Which one of the following is not correctly paired?

(a) (b)

Alfonso de Albuquerque--Second Governor Nino da Cunha--Transferred headquarters from Cochin to Goa

(c)

Martin Alfonso--Accompanied by Jesuit saint Francisco Xavier to India

(d)

Francisco de Almeida--Lost Ormuz to the British

211. Which place was replaced by Bombay in 1689 as the headquarters of the East India Company on the west coast of India? (a) Broach

(b) Surat

(c) Chaul

(d) Salsette

212.

Who created the Madras Presidency as it existed till Indian independence?

(a) Sir Thomas Munro (b) Lord Cornwallis (c) Lord Hastings (d) Lord Wellesley 213. Which one of the following villages was not purchased by the English from the Mughal governor of Bengal in 1698? (a) Kalikata

(b) Hariharpur

(c) Sutanuti

(d) Govindpur

214.

What is the chronological order of the following events?

(i) Jahangir's farman permitting the English to set up a factory at Surat (ii) Establishment of an English factory at Masulipatam

(iii) Establishment of an English Armagaon near Pulicat (iv) Departure of Sir Thomas Roe for I Choose the answer from the codes I (a) ii, iii, iv, i (b) i, iv, ii, iii (c) iv, ii, iii, i (d) ii, i, iv, iii 215.

Which one of the following was not a J settlement?

(a) Yanam

(b) Chande

(c) Karikal

(d) Balasore

216.

Which one of the following was not imp Europeans from India?

(a) Textiles

(b) Indigo

(c) Perfumes (d) Saltpetre 217.

The Portuguese built their first fort on I soil in the territory of the Raja of

(a) Calicut

(b) Cochin

(c) Daman

(d) Bijapur

The resistance from Arab traders war! pletely crushed by the Portuguese und (a) Albuquerque (b) De Almeida (c) General Pestado (d) Nino da Cu Which crop was introduced in India Portuguese? (a) Coffee

(b) Chili

(c) Tobacco

(d) Groundnut1'

220. The Dutch established themselve Masulipatam after obtaining a farman 1 ruler of (a) Bijapur in 1601 (b) Travancore in (c) Arcotin 1606 (d) Golconda in

221. Which was the main centre of Dutch the Coromandal until the headquarters! shifted to Negapatam in 1690? (a) Gingi

(b) Masulipatam |

(c) Pulicat

(d) Balasore

222.

Who conquered Ceylon from the Portugu 1658?

(a) English

(b) Danes

(c) Dutch

(d) French

223. Who gave Bombay to Charles II of Engli a dowry gift for his marriage with Cathe Braganza? (a) Spanish

(b) Portuguese

(c) Dutch

(d) Danes

224.

Which Englishman remarked: 'I know people are best treated with the sword

hand and the caducean (a rod carried by a messenger) in the other'? (a) William Hawkins (b) Joshua Child (c) Thomas Roe (d) Gerald Aungier An item was developed by the European powers which supplemented the European sources for gunpowder and which was also used as a ballast for ships going to Europe. What was it? (a) Cadmium (b) Saltpetre (c) Charcoal

(d) Steam power

In 1632, English obtained the long coveted permission, the Golden farman for erecting a fortified factory on the Coromandal coast from (a) the Sultan of Golconda (b) the Sultan of Bijapur (c) the Raja of Chandragiri (d) the Mughal emperor |227. The English East India Company's servants were divided into three ranks. What were they? (a) Writers, councillors, merchants (b) Writers, factors, merchants (c) Janitors, factors, traders (d) Merchants, clerks, soldiers '228. Which one of the following factories of the English was the first one to be fortified? (a) Bombay (b) Surat (c) Madras

(d) Masulipatam

229. Who was the governor of Madras whose term of office is regarded as 'the golden age of Madras in respect of the development of trade and increase of wealth'? (a) Job Chamock (b) Thomas Pitt (c) William Langhorne (d) Thomas Munro 230. Who evolved the strategy of intervening in the mutual quarrels of Indian princes and, by supporting one against the other, securing monetary, commercial or territorial favours from the victor? (a) Albuquerque (c) Dupleix

(b) Robert Clive

(d) Wellesley

231. Who granted to the French the area in Andhra known as Northern Circars (Elore, Mustafa-nagar, Rajahmundry and Chicacole)?

(a) Anwar-ud-din

(b) Asaf Jah

(c) Muzzafar Jang (d) Salabat Jang


232.

Dupleix's major opponent on the English side who outwitted him was

(a) Warren Hastings (b) Arthur Wellesley (c) Eyre Coote (d) Robert Clive 233. The cartaze system, by which Indian ships sail ing to destinations not reserved by an European power for its own trade had to buy passes if they were to avoid seizure and con fiscation of merchandise, was implemented in the Indian Ocean by the (a) Portuguese (b) Dutch (c) French

(d) English

234. During the Middle Ages the trade between Europe and Asia was monopolised by the mer chants of * (a) Spain and Portugal (b) Persia and Arabia (c) Genoa and Venice (d) Armenia and Afghanistan 235. Name the English merchant who claimed to have attempted to obtain from Akbar a farman for trade in Gujarat? (a) Thomas Stephens (b) Ralp Fitch (c) John Mildenhall (d) Sir Thomas Roe 236. Which one of the following commodities the Dutch purchased in India and sold it in the East Indies in exchange for spices? (a) Opium

(b) Indigo

(c)

Saltpetre

(d) Cotton textiles

237.

Who were the 'Interlopers'?

(a)

The dismissed employees of the East India Company.

(b) The middlemen engaged by the East India Company to negotiate with the merchants and traders in India.

% (c) The 'Free Merchants' who traded independently in Asia inspite of the monopoly of the East India Company. (d) It was a factious term used in Company barracks to describe the Englishmen who kept Indian mistresses. 238. The objectives of the French during the early period were purely commercial. During the gov ernorship of which one of the following did the concept of a French empire in India take shape? (a) Dumas (b) Francois Martin (c)

Lenoir (d) Dupleix

ANSWERS

i.(d) 2.(c) 3.(b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. 11. (C) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 20. (all 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. 31. (d) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. 41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (b) 45. (c) 46. 51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. 61. (d) 62. (c) 63. (b) ,64. (a) 65. (d) 66. 71. (d) 72. (c) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (b) 76. (a)1 81. (c) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. 91. (c) 92. (c) 93. (d) 94. (c) 95. (d) 96. (b) 101.(c) 102. (a) 103. (b) 104. 107. (b) 108. (b) 109. (d) 111. (c) 112. (b) 113. (d) 114. 117. (c) 118. (d) 119. (a) 121. (b) 122. (c) 123. (c) 124. 127. (b) 128. (b) 129. (d) 131. (a) 132. (b) 133. (a) 134. 137. (b) 138. (a) 139. (a) 141. (a) 142. (a) 143. (b) 144. 147. (d) 148. (a) 149. (c) 151.(d) 152. (a) 153. (c) 154. 157. (c) 158. (c) 159. (b) 161. (a) 162. (a) 163. (b) 164. 167. (a) 168. (d) 169. (c) 171. (b) 172. (d) 173. (c) 174. 177. (a) 178. (d) 179. (b) 181.(c) 182. (a) 183. (c) 184. 187. (d) 188. (b) 189. (c) 191. (a) 192. (d) 193. (c) 194. 197. (d) 198. (d) 199. (c) 201. (a) 202. (b) 203. (c) 204. 207. (c) 208. (d) 209. (d) 211.(b) 212. (d) 213. (b) 214. 217. (b) 218. (a) 219. (c) 221. (c) 222. (c) 223. (b) 224. 227. (b) 228. (c) 229. (b) 231. (b) 232. (d) 233. (a) 234. 237. (c) 238. (d) B198

(d) 16.

7.(c) (d)

8.(d) 9.(b) 10. (aH 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (d)

(b) (c) (d) (a) (c) (d)

27. (d) 37. (d) 47. (b) 57. (c) 67. (b) 77. (c)

28. (c) 38. (a) 48. (a) 58. (c) 68. (d) 78. (a)

(d) (b)

87. (c) 88. (b) 89. (a) 90.(d)« 97. (b) 98. (b) 99. (d) 100.

(c) 105. (b) 110. (c) (c) 115. (d) 120. (a), (b) 125. (a) 130. (c) (c) 135. (a) 140. (c) (d) 145. (b) 150. (b) (b) 155. (c) 160. (d) (d) 165. (c) 170. (c) (a) 175. (b) 180.(d) (a) 185. (d) 190. (b) (b) 195. (b) 200. (d) (d) 205. (c) 210. (d) (d) 215. (d) 220. (d) (c) 225. (b) 230. (c) (c) 235. (c)

29. (a) 39. (b) 49. (c) 59. (b) 69. (c) 79. (d)

30. (b)] 40. (a| 50. (dfl 60. (a)] 70. (c) 80.

106.

(d)

116.

(b)

126.

(d)

136.

(a)

146.

(c)

156.

(d)

166.

(b)

176.

(d)

186.

(d)

196.

(c)

206.

(d)

216.

(c)

226.

(a)

236.

(d)

-»j^«« •

DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1707-61)

1.1 LATER MUGHALS: CAUSES BEHIND DECLINE

I MUGHALS (1707-1857 ad)

Shah (1707-12)

Shah ascended the Mughal throne after a of succession among the three sons of ngzeb. Soon after he assumed the title Shah 11. During his reign there was a reconciliation i the Sikhs by taking Guru Gobind Singh into al service. However, the truce with the Sikhs | cut short by the revolt of the Sikhs under Banda dur after the death of Gobind. Even the delas and the Jats were reconciled when Shah took their chiefs (Chatrasal and i respectively) into his service. Later in his following the release of Shahu there was an of Maratha civil war between Shahu and iBai.

ndarShah(1712-13)

I war of succession among the four sons of r Shah resulted in the emergence of Jahandar ; successor due to the support given to him by qar Khan (beginning of the practice of nobles as king-makers). Later, Jahandar was I by his nephew Farukh Siyar in 1713. FarukhSiyar(1713-19) The Sayyid brothers played a decisive role (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan) in the succession of Farukh. His ascendence marked the beginning of the struggle for power between the emperor and the Sayyid brothers. (The elder of the two was made the wazir and the younger the mir bakshi.) Farukh was murdered by the Sayyid brothers and Rafiud-darajat, grandson of Bahadur Shah, was made the emperor.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48)

After the death of Rafi, Muhammad Shah ascended the Mughal throne with the help of the Sayyid brothers. In 1720 some of the nobles con spired against the Sayyid brothers

and murdered them. Muhammad's reign saw the foundation of the autonomous state of Hyderabad by NizamulMulk in 1720. During 1738-39, Nadir Shah invaded India and captured Delhi. Further, the Mughals lost provinces west of the Indus, the Kohinoor diamond, the peacock throne and other possessions. v

Ahmad Shah (1748-54)

His reign saw the first invasion of India by Ahmad Shah Abdali (ruler of Afghanistan and former general of Nadir Shah) in 1748. His Wazir,

B199


Imad-ul-Mulk, blinded him, and placed Alamgir II on the throne.

Alamgir II (1754-59)

He was killed in 1759 by his Wazir, ImadulMulk.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

He was the son of Alamgir II, and though he succeeded his father in 1759 he did not live in his capital in the initial years due to his fear of the wazir. He was defeated in the battle of Buxar in 1764. Capture of Delhi by the British in 1803 was followed by his death in 1806 as a prisoner of the British.

AKBAR II (1806-37)

He conferred the title of 'Raja' on Ram Mohan Roy and requested the latter to go to England to plead for a hike in the emperor's pension.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-62)

He was the last Mughal Emperor. Deported to Rangoon in 1858 after the Revolt of 1857, his death came in 1862.

CAUSES BEHIND DECLINE

The Mughal power declined due to the following causes:

Mistakes of Aurangzeb. Wars of succession. Weak personalities of the later Mughals.

Deterioration in the organisation and character of the Mughal nobility. Failure of the Mughal economy to satisfy the minimum needs of its population. Breakdown of Mughal administration and armed power. Foreign invasions. Absence of the spirit of political nationalism among the people of the Mughal empire.

Inherent defects of hereditary despotism centralised government. Indirect influence of religious reformers like| Sikh gurus, Ramdas (Maharashtra), Sati Mahadawis, Raushaniyas and others.

14.2 MARATHA POWER UNDER THE PESli

Balaji Viswanath (1713-20)

He began his career as a small revenue official i was given the title of 'Sena Karte' (marker of army) by Shahu in 1708. He became Peshv 1713 and made the post the most important i powerful as well as hereditary. He played a i role in the civil war and was responsible for the I victory of Shahu by winning over almost all] Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu. He concli an agreement with the Sayyid brothers (1719J which the Mughal emperor (Farukh Siyar) promised Shahu as the king of the swarajya, relea his family members and allowed Shahu to chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six mu provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720-40)

Baji Rao, the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath, \ ceeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20^ was considered the greatest exponent of tactics after Sivaji and Maratha power reache zenith under him. His period saw the beginning of the systi confederacy and the rise of Maratha chiefs. Uij the system, each prominent Maratha chief assigned a territory as his sphere of influence,' he was supposed to conquer on his own and' he could administer autonomously. Conse several Maratha families became prominent i themselves entrenched in different parts of ] (a) the Gaekwad at Baroda, (b) the Bttons Nagpur, (c) the Holkars at Indore, (d) the Scindijj Gwalior and (e) the Peshwas at Poona. After defeating and expelling the Siddh^j Janjira from the mainland (1722), he conqu »ein and Salsette from the 1 » defeated the NizamulN eluded the treaty of Duraii iwa and Bundelkhand frotf r/hinumerable successful J

d to weaken the Mughal I athas the supreme powe~ .trike at the trunk of to" nches will fall of the

6ji Baji Rao (1740-61 ttlarly known as Nam aiCT at the age of 20. |49), the management jj his hands. Shahu dief Itaominated Ramrajai successor, the latter 1 _ Peshwa on the susp |An agreement was \ freror (Ahmad Sir* latter would pr I and external (I i for the ch _-i total revemi _i agreement br<$ t*with Ahmad Sb le battle of Pfci _? defeat of the l| [,the death off .siv Rao 1 u«; other _ JTbattle decide^] iwasto.Nsjif j 23,176IJ was su vana Rao 95),an^j

and

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em and Salsette from the Portuguese (1733). He defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and ncluded the treaty of Durai Sarai by which he got ilwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). He innumerable successful expeditions into north dia to weaken the Mughal empire and to make the darathas the supreme power in India. He said: 'Let i strike at the trunk of the/withering tree and the nches will fall of themselves.'

jBalaji Baji Rao (1740-61) [Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his [father at the age of 20. After the death of Shahu [(1749), the management of all state affairs was left [ in his hands. Shahu died childless, and though he i had nominated Ramraja (a grandson of Rajaram) as his successor, the latter was imprisoned at Satara by the Peshwa on the suspicion that he was an imposter. An agreement was reached between the Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah) and the Peshwa (1752) that the latter would protect the Mughal empire from internal and external (Ahmad Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces. This agreement brought the Marathas in direct conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. The battle of Panipat (January 14, 1761) resulted in the defeat of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb) and Sadasiv Rao Bhau (cousin of Nana Saheb) and several other Maratha leaders and 28,000 soldiers. The battle decided who was not to rule India instead of who was to. Nana Saheb died on hearing the news on June 23, 1761. He was succeeded by Madhav Rao (1761-72), Narayana Rao (1772-73), Sawai Madhav Rao (1773-95), and Baji Rao (1795-1818).

Maratha Confederacy Origin and Causes It originated, as already mentioned, during the administration of the second Peshwa, Baji Rao I. Compelled partly by the opposition of the Kshatnya section of the Marathas led by the senapati Dabodi, and partly by the rapid

dine of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B201

expansion of Maratha domination in north as well as in south India, Peshwa Baji Rao I had to depend on the loyal support of his adherents with proven military capacity.

Rise and Growth Peshwa Baji Rao I put large areas under the control of his lieutenants, chief of whom were Raghuji Bhonsle, Ranoji Scindia, Malhar Rao Holkar and Damaji Gaekwad. These leaders formed the Maratha confederacy which, during the administration of Baji Rao, was held in strict control by the Peshwa and carried his victories to Delhi and even into the Punjab.

Defects and Decline The severe defeat of the Peshwa's army in the third battle of Panipat was followed by the death of Peshwa Balaji Rao himself. The succession disputes that ensued weakened the Peshwa's hold on the ambitious members of the Maratha confederacy, which then became a serious disintegrating element in the Maratha state. The conflicts amongst its members, their intrigues and rivalries, especially between Holkar and Scindia, made united action among them impossible and contributed much to the decline and fall of the Maratha empire and its independence.

14.3 REGIONAL STATES: BENGAL (1717-72)

Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27)

He was appointed as Bengal's diwan by Aurangzeb ( 1700), as naib subahdar (deputy governor--1713) and later as subahdar (governor--1717) by Farukh Siyar. His de facto rule frcyn 1700 was thus made de jure in 1717 (between 1700-07 Prince Azim, son of Bahadur Shah, was the governor; between 1707-13, Farukh Siyar, son of Azim was the governor). He was also granted the governorship of Orissa by the emperor (Farukh Siyar) in 1719. He transferred his capital from Dacca to Murshidabad. He gradually assumed autonomy, though continuing to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor. He carried out the following reforms:

Reorganisation of the finances--transfer of large parts ofjagir lands into khalisa (crown) lands,

/"I


introduction of the system of revenue-farming and the like. Grant of Takkavi loans to peasants for personal use, improving agriculture, and paying land rev enue in times of famines. Reorganisation of administration and giving equal opportunities of employment to Muslims and Hindus. (His policy of appointing local Hindu zamindars and moneylenders as revenue-farmers led to the rise and growth of a new landed aristocracy in Bengal). Expansion of trade and commerce by giving encouragement to Indian and foreign merchants, providing security to them on roads and rivers, checking private trade by officials, preventing abuses in customs administration and so on. Foreign trading companies--maintaining strict control over their activities; preventing the ser vants of the East India Company from abusing the privileges granted to the company by the Mughal farmans of 1691 (Aurangzeb's) and 1717(Farukh Siyar's). Establishment of law and order by suppressing the rebellious zamindars.

Shuja-ud-din (1727-39)

He was the son-in-law of Murshid. He continued the policies and reforms of Murshid. He was granted the governorship of Bihar as well by the emperor (Muhammad Shah) in 1733 (from now on the nawabs of Bengal ruled over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa).

Sarfaraz Khan (1739-40)

Son of Shuja, he was murdered by Alivardi-Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar, in 1740.

Alivardi Khan (1740-56)

He legalised his usurpation by receiving afarman from emperor Muhammad Shah after paying him Rs two crore. During his reign there were continuous incursions of the Marathas into Bengal. He bought

peace with them by ceding the revenues of a j Orissa (to Raghuji Bhonsle) and an annual ] of Rs 12 lakh as the chauth of Bengal (1751). He prevented the English from misusing ] privileges, and prohibited them and the Frenchl fortifying their factories at Calcutta Chandranagore respectively. Even before his i there had been disputes over succession even t he favoured and chose Siraj-uddaula, the son< youngest daughter. He refused to pay any trib the Mughal emperor when the latter (1746).

Siraj-ud-daula (1756-57)

He wrote letters to the British governor of ( to demolish additional fortifications, and also} hostile activities such as their support to Jang (son of Ghasiti Begum and cousin br Siraj) who wanted to become the nawab, and ( protection to Rajballabh's family (sup Shaukat). The British refused to comply with his and he seized the English factory at (June 4, 1756) and then Calcutta (June 15J English escaped to Futla and Siraj Murshidabad, leaving Calcutta in cha Manikchand.

Black Hole Episode (June 20, 1756) to Holwell (an Englishman), 146 English ] were confined during the night in a small i only 23 survived, the rest dying of suffocatio night. This version has been questioned on\ grounds. In any case, Siraj is no more hehjjj ally responsible for it. This incident was followed by Siraj's i execution of Shaukat Jang, who had acquired ihefarman for the governorship < from the titular Mughal Emperor, Shaukat Jang had been conspiring with i chiefs and the English to occupy Bengal. Soon after the British conspired' leading men of the nawab's court (Mir mir bakshi, Manikchand--officer in Calcutta, Omichand--a rich merchant of \

De<

at Seth --the famous banker of Bengal, and Rai rlabh and Khadim Khan--important nobles). Arrival of a strong contingent from Madras under olonel Clive and Admiral Watson (December 14, resulted in the recovery of Calcutta by Clive |January 2, 1757) without any serious fighting. I peaty of Alinagar (1757) Calcutta was renamed Jinagar after its capture by Siraj-ud-daula on June , 1756. On 5 February 1757 the Nawab's men were [worsted by a small English force in a night attack [under Robert Clive. This impelled the Nawab to [come to an understanding and establish peace with | the English four days later. The treaty comprised:

a list of demands made by the Company; an agreement affirming to return to the status quo ante', 1 a number offarmans and dastaks issued by the Nawab; and an agreement that 'as long, as he (the Nawab) shall observe his agreement, the English will always look upon his enemies as their enemies' and grant him all assistance in their power.

In sum, all the trade privileges held earlier by the Company stood confirmed, and these could not be called into question. Additionally, the English were authorised to fortify Calcutta against possible French attack and to strike its own coins. While the Nawab agreed to make good all losses the English had incurred and abide by other articles of the treaty, the English promised him their friendship and goodwill. The treaty was violated by the conquest of Chandranagore by the British in March, 1757. Siraj protested by offering protection to the French. The British reacted by conspiring (June, 1757) to replace Siraj. In the same year Watson's signature was forged by Clive to please Omichand, who wanted a bigger share for acting as the intermediary between the British and the other Indian conspirators. The Battle of Plassey (a place on the banks of the Bhagirathi) took place on June 23, 1757. This battle saw the treachery of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh; bravery of a small force under Mohanlal and Mir Madan; desertion of the Nawab's forces and escape of Siraj; and his capture and execution by Miran (son of Mir Jafar).

dine of the Mughal Empire (1707-61)

Mir Jafar (1757-60) B203

He granted the right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and the zamindari of the 24 Parganas to the British, besides paying them a sum of Rs 17.7 million as compensation for the attack on Calcutta, and many other 'gifts' to the British officials. His reign saw the beginning of the drain of wealth from India to Britain. He made futile efforts to replace the English by the Dutch, but the Dutch were defeated by the English at Bedara in 1759.

Mir Qasim (1760-63)

He granted the zamindari of Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong to the British officials, besides paying them Rs 2.9 million. He introduced several revenue and military reforms to strengthen his position. His reign saw the beginning of the conflict between the Nawab and the British for sovereign power. He transferred his capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr (1762). He stopped the misuse of the dastaks (free passes allowed to the company) and abolished all duties on internal trade against British wishes in order to protect the Indian traders (1763). During his reign the Battle of Buxar (October 22, 1764) was fought between the British and the three allies (Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and Shah Alam II). This battle ended in the defeat of the allies by the British forces under Major Hector Munro.

Mir Jafar (1763-65)

His reinstatement in 1763 by the British took place after the outbreak of the war with Mir Qasim. He died in 1765.

Najm-ud-daula (1765-72)

Najm, son of Mir Jafar, was made the nawab in 1765 and remained a puppet in'the hands of the British during the period of 'Dual System of Government'. In 1772, he was pensioned off when the Company took over the direct charge of Bengal.

B204 Indian History: Medieval India AWADH (1722-1856)

Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722-39)

He was appointed as the governor of Awadh by Emperor Muhammad Shah. Later he founded an autonomous state there in 1722. He introduced several revenue and military reforms, thereby making Awadh economically and politically strong. He treated Hindus and Muslims equally in the matter of employment. He was summoned to Delhi at the time of Nadir Shah's invasion. In 1739 he committed suicide for some unknown reason.

Safdar Jung (1739-54)

He was appointed as the wazir of the Mughal empire and granted the province of Allahabad as well by the Mughal emperor in 1748. From 1748, the nawabs of Awadh came to be known as the nawab wazirs, since Safdar and his successors held both the 'nawabship' of Awadh and the 'wazirship' of the Mughal Empire. His wars against the Rohillas, the Jats and the Marathas, resulted in the extension of his territories.

Shuja-ud-daula (1754-75)

Shuja-ud-daula (son of Safdar) succeeded to the nawabship of Awadh as well as the wazirship of the Mughal empire (1754). He was involved in the Battle of Buxar (1764) in which he lost Allahabad and Kara; paid a huge indemnity to the British; and had to enter a defensive alliance with the British. He met Warren Hastings and concluded the Treaty of Benaras (1773), whereby Kara and Allahabad were sold to the Nawab; and British troops were stationed at Awadh to protect the Nawab, for which he had to pay a subsidy to the British. He defeated the Rohillas with the help of the British, and annexed Rohilkhand to Awadh in 1774.

Asaf-ud-daula (1775-97)

The succession of Asaf-ud-daula was soon followed by the treaty of Faizabad (1755) between him and the British.

Treaty of Faizabad (1775) The treaty, signed I him with the British soon after coming to pov stipulated that:

the contracting parties shall not encourage peasants in committing hostilities and disti the Nawab promised not to entertain or receil Mir Qasim, the ex-subahdar of Bengal; the districts of Kara and Allahabad shall rema in the Nawab's possession; for his defence the Nawab gave to the Comp sovereignty in perpetuity over all the distric (Banaras, Ghazipur and Jaunpur) dependent i Raja Chait Singh; the Nawab shall pay for a brigade of English 1 if stationed with him, a sum of Rs 2.6 lakh per r if the Nawab is in need of assistance for defence of any other of his territories, he wo have to pay an extra amount.

For the new Nawab, the treaty proved to be expensive arrangement, for while it increased liabilities it sharply decreased his revenues. Asaf-ud-daula transferred his capital Faizabad to Lucknow in 1775. During his reign 1 Begums of Awadh (mother and grandmother; Asaf) were mistreated by the Nawab Wazir with \ help of Warren Hastings (1781-1782), and hq amounts were extracted from them.

Wazir All (1797-98)

The period of Wazir Ali (son of Asaf) was too 1 and uneventful.

Saadat Khan

He was the elder brother of Asaf and came to i throne in 1798 with the help of the British.

Saadat Ali

He signed a subsidiary treaty with Lord Wellesle November 1801, by which the Nawab was deprflj of about half of his territory for the mainti the subsidiary troops.

De

[All Shah

fAwadh was annexed by Lord Dalhousie in y, 1856, this last ruler of Awadh was pen-I off and deported to Calcutta.

JAIL Hulk AsafJah (1724-48)

term as the viceroy of the Deccan was 1713 and 1715. (His original name was lilich Khan, but emperor Farukh Siyar coni him the titles of 'Khan-i-Dauran' and later n-ulMulk'). His second term as the viceroy of FDeccan fell between 1720 and 1722. His ntment as the wazir of the Mughal Empire -24) by Muhammad Shah resulted in his dis-| with Mughal Court politics and his march to the Can without waiting for the Emperor's permisi(1724). foundation of the state of Hyderabad by the (1724); inability of the Mughal emperor to Irish the Nizam; confirmation of the Nizam in the yalty of the Deccan and grant of the title of af Jah' to him by the Emperor (1725); practical endence of the Nizam, though he continued to nise the emperor as his sovereign--are some > major developments of this period. prThe reforms initiated by the Nizam include the blishment of peace and security by suppressing disaffected nobles and putting down theft and bery, efforts to stop the plundering raids of the athas (though partially successful), and revival ' agriculture and industry by giving incentives to ners and craftsmen.

sir Jung (1748-50)

; was defeated and murdered by Muzaffar Jung (son fNasir's sister and grandson of NizamulMulk).

affar Jung (1750-51)

He acceded to the throne with help of the French, fis rule came to an abrupt end with his accidental Neath.

cline of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) Salabat Jung (1751-60)

B205

This third son of Nizam-ul-Mulk came to the throne with the help of the French. However, the official historians of the dynasty do not treat Nasir, Muzaffar and Salabat as independent rulers, and consider Nizam AH, the next ruler, as the legal successor of NizamulMulk. Other Nizams were Nizam Ali (1760-1803), Sikandar Jah (1803-29), Nasir-ud-daula (1829-57), Afjal-ud-daula ( 1857-69), Mahabat Ali Khan (1869-1911) and Osman Ali Khan (1911-49).

British Relations with the Nizams

The British relations with the Nizams involved the following:

British interference in the affairs of Hyderabad for the first time in 1750 when they supported Nasir Jung against Muzaffar Jung, and their failure. Conclusion of a friendship treaty by the British (Colonel Forde) with Salabat Jung, known as the Treaty of Masulipatam, 1759. Conclusion of an offensive-cum-defensive treaty, viz. Treaty of Hyderabad, 1766, by which the English obtained the five North ern Circars (Ellur, Siccacole, Rajahmundry, Mustafurnagar and Murtizanagar) from the Nizam in return for military assistance or the payment of an annual tribute; renewal of the offensive-cum-defensive alliance by the Treaty of Hyderabad (1768). Neutrality of the Nizam in the Second Mysore War and his cooperation with the English in the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars. Conclusion of the Subsidiary Alliance between Nizam Ali and Lord Wellesley (1798); surrender of all the territories that the Nizam had got ^s spoils of the third and fourth Mysore wars to the British for the maintenance of the subsidiary force in Hyderabad (1800).

In 1853 Dalhousie coerced the Nizam to cede Berar in lieu of the subsidiary amount. Assistance of the Nizam to the British during the Revolt of 1857.


CARNATIC

Foundation of the autonomous state of Camatic (which was earlier one of the subahs or provinces of the Mughals in the Deccan) with Arcot as its capital in the 1720's by Saadutullah Khan (who was its governor and was nominally under the control of the nizam of Hyderabad). Succession of Dost Ali (nephew of Saadutullah) as the nawab; his murder by the Marathas in 1740; succession of Safdar Ali (son of Dost Ali) and his murder by a relative--all these events invited the intervention of the Nizam in the affairs of the Carnatic. The latter appointed Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab of the Carnatic (1743). Chanda Sahib came to the throne by murdering Anwar-ud-din in 1749 with the help of the French, but he was also killed by an ally of the British, who placed the son of Anwar, Muhammad Ali, on the throne in 1752. Lord Wellesley pensioned off the last Nawab of Carnatic and annexed it in 1801.

MYSORE (1761-99)

Haider Ali (1761-82)

Beginning his career as a soldier in the service of the Mysore state (which became independent under the Hindu Wodeyar Dynasty in 1565 after the fall of Vijayanagar Empire), he had a meritorious record as the faujdar of Dindigul. Training of the troops under him on western lines and establishment of a modern arsenal (1755) with French help were his other early achievements. His success in defending Seringapatam (capital of Mysore) against the Marathas hi 1759 was rewarded by conferring the title of Fateh Haider Bahadur (brave victorious lion) on him by Nanjarajar (the Prime Minister who was the de facto ruler though Chikka Krishna Raja I continued to be the de jure ruler of Mysore.) Haider overthrew Nanjarajar and assumed power in 1761, but continued to recognise Krishna Raja as the lawful ruler. He conquered several territories--Coorg, Malabar, Bellary, Gooty, Cuddapah, etc. His administrative reforms also made Mysore one of

the leading Indian powers. He fi Anglo-Mysore War and the Second War and died (1782) due to caw course of the war. t

Tipu Sultan (1782-99) i Succeeding Haider, he continued the i British till 1785. He fought the Thii$ War (179092) and the Fourth Ang| (1799) and died while fighting the Bri His economic reforms He was 1 ruler to have understood the impd nomic strength as the foundatiq strength. His reforms include attend modern industries by importing fora extending state support to many incfi ambassadors to France, Turkey, Ir| develop foreign trade; attempts to I company on the European lines; in new system of coinage, new scales, measures, and a new calendar. *< Revenue reforms They inchrf increase the state income by the, i Jagir system, and also by reducifljj possessions of the poligars (feudal 4 to improve the position of the peasaf collection of illegal cesses, and by sion whenever the need arose. ,; Military reforms He organised th< European lines and made attempts tt navy-establishment of two dockyi His interest jn French Revolutid his planting of a Tree of Liberty at $ becoming a member of the Jacobias

PUNJAB (1792-1849)

i

d Rise of Sikh community under the! followed by disorder in Punjab fojj sions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, ™« one in 1767. Then came the i Sikhs into 12 misls (confederaci their rise into prominence.

De<

I Singh (1792-1839)

ito the chief of the Sukerchakia misl in 1780, he ded to the chieftainship in 1792 as a minor ihis mother as the regent and assumed of5" full ' sin 1796. ure of Lahore (1799) with the help of Zaman I of Afghanistan and Amritsar (1802) where he the golden dome to the Golden Temple; option of the title of Maharaja of Lahore 9); gradual establishment of his control over all [Sikh misls west of the Sutlej; occupation of na (1806) were his early achievements.

of Amritsar (1809) Metcalfe was sent to tiate a treaty with Ranjit Singh for thwarting a lible French advance into India. The parleys protracted as both parties devised ways and us to further their own selfish ends. British ce coupled with the adroitness of the young calfe who assured the Sikh chief that he could he conquests in other directions without British ference, made Ranjit Singh pause. British presence coupled with the fear that some I Punjab chiefs might flock to the British banner I seek their protection made the Sikh ruler to sign y. The treaty, signed formally at Amritsar on ri!25,1809, provided for:

perpetual friendship and most favoured power * treatment for Ranjit Singh; ^'recognition of Ranjit's sovereignty over all territories north of the Sutlej; and t permission to keep troops on the left bank of the river only to the extent required for the internal security of that territory.

sides the occupation of Kangra (1809), Attock 313), Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), Peshawar 13) and many other places like Tonk, Kohat, nu, etc., he acquired Kohinoor diamond from Shuja of Afghanistan after giving him pro-tion in 1814. (It was taken from the Mughals by dir Shah, from whom Ahmed Shah Abdali it, and it was inherited by Shah Shuja ' belonged to Abdali's dynasty. After the sec-Anglo-Sikh War, the British acquired it and

dine of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B207

took to England where it still remains.) Meeting between Ranjit Singh and Lord Bentinck took place in 1831. Conclusion of the Tripartite Treaty by Ranjit with Lord Auckland (Governor-General of India) and Shah Shuja (1838) to invade Afghanistan and to place Shah Shuja on its throne was followed by the outbreak of the First Afghan War (1838-42). But Ranjit refused to permit the British troops to march through his territory during the war.

Ranjit Singh's reforms They include organisation of his army on western lines with the help of Europeans; recruitment of not only Sikhs but also Gorkhas, Biharis, Pathans, Punjabi Muslims, etc., as soldiers; establishment of modem foundries to manufacture cannon, thus making his army the second best in Asia, the first being that of the British; appointment of able Hindus and Muslims as ministers and commanders.

Avitabile (1791-1850) Born in south Italy, he reached Lahore via Kabul and was employed by Ranjit Singh in 1826. A successful but ruthless administrator, he ruled by fear and torture. Appointed governor of Wazirabad in 1829, he always added a civil governorship to the command of a military brigade. Five years later (1834) Avitabile became governor of Peshawar. His presence at Peshawar both before and after the First Anglo-Afghan War proved to be indispensable to the British, for the force furnished by Ranjit Singh under the conditions of the Tripartite Treaty were more inclined to fight against than for the British. In 1842, in the wake of their retreat from Kabul, he rendered the East India Company troops all possible assistance. He continued serving under Ranjit Singh's successors, but soon sought permission to leave, which was granted in 1843. Behind the scenes he is said to have been in treasonable correspondence with Henry Lawrence, giving the British useful information about the deployment of Sikh forces.

Ranjit's successors His successors were Kharak Singh. Nao Nihal Singh, Sher Singh, and Dalip Singh.


14.4 THE AFGHANS

Nadir Shah's Invasion

Nadir Shah captured and sacked Delhi in early 1739 returning to Persia laden with loot equal to three years revenue as well as the treasures of the Kohinoor diamond and Peacock Throne. But disappointment dogged his footsteps from this time forward; his temper soured to vindictiveness and finally crossed the verge of sanity. When he was assassinated in 1747 he was the most hated man of his age. His death was the signal for the breakup of Persia. The troubles which began ended with the emergence of the Kajar dynasty; the ever-turbulent Afghans broke away to form a new succession state. The net result of Nadir Shah's incursion into India was the permanent loss of Kabul.

Rise of Abdali

The Afghans found a leader of genius in Ahmad Shah Abdali. He would have remained the ruler of a vigorous people in a barren country but for one of the periodical eras of political confusion in the Indian plains. Like Babur he had the ability to conquer, but unlike Babur he lacked the political sagacity and skillful agents to make good his conquest. Babur had adventurers from Persia and Turkistan, to draw on as well as Afghan chiefs. For the most part they were untroubled by fanaticism and were, used to dealing with diverse people and creeds. The Mughuls were 'kings by profession' and their offi/ cers imperialists by instinct; the Afghans w*re turbulent and fanatical hillmen who knew hop to conquer but not how to conciliate. They cojfld die for a cause, but not compromise for it. t?

Abdali'S Invasions i i Ahmad Shah's first attempt on the empire failed at Sirhind in 1748. If the Mughul empire had continued to be vigorous, no more would have been heard of himj east of the Indus. However, the Emperor Muhammad Shah died the same year and was succeeded by his son Ahmad Shah. Under his nerveless

control in Delhi dissensions revived and Shah Abdali was quick to take advantage oft In 1749 he appeared again, but was bought ( the governor of Lahore. In 1751-52 he again and captured Lahore after a four months'! This time the imperial government itself bou off by allowing the cession of Panjab and Mu By 1756 the empire was further weaken civil war and political assassinations. This* Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi and appointe Rohilla chief Najib Khan (entitled Najibudi as the guardian of the new empire. Local force rallied and called in the Marathas from the 1

Third Battle of Panipat

Ahmad Shah entered India for the fifth time inf and found himself confronted not so much 1 Mughals as with the resurgent power Marathas. The moves and counter-moves oft eighteen months culminated in the battle of I onJanuary 14, 1761. By skilful movements Abdali had cut Maratha forces from their base in the so compelled them to fight when depressed by i and starved of supplies. The resounding which he gained appeared to lay Hindustan] feet. The Marathas were scattered and confl the surviving Mughal chiefs divided and power, the English Company still distant in ] But at>this moment his troops clamoured for! of pay and a return to Kabul. They lacked 1 ity of Babur's Mughal begs and Hindustan j self benefit of the wealth which had exi$ Babur's day. There is nothing more eloquent of the i state of the empire than that Afghans shou to their hills because Delhi could not provid with pay. Ahmad Shah was compelled to the scepter within his"grasp, saving his face] nomination of Shah Alam as a vassal emp Najib-ud-daula as his minister. In fact he 1 cated the empire; his Indian territories we forth confined to the Panjab and Sind. returned to Delhi and his own kingdom wasl up in its turn within half a century.

De(

SAWAI JAI SINGH, THE ASTRONOMER

I of Sawai Jai Singh II

aja Jai Singh (1699-1743) was born in 1688. tided the throne in 1699 when he was still a or. He founded, after his name, the new city of in 1728. From this time the town of Amber, | old capital of Kachhawas, lost its importance i the history of the subsequent rulers of Dhundar ciated with the new capital. He was undoubt-one of the most remarkable men of his time I a man of science. He lived during a period of chy in India. On Jai Singh's accession, the r State comprised the three districts of Amber, i and Baswa only and possessed little political ht. I At the time of his death the two provinces of ore and Deoti that were added to the Shekhawati [federation had become tributary. Amber was from a small principality to an extensive i and Jaipur was recognised for the first time i raj or kingdom and had become one of the pre-states in Rajputana. Jai Singh distinguished elf as a man of science, as a soldier and also as der. He was well versed in Sanskrit and Persian was deeply interested in Mathematics' and onomy. In 1721 with the removal of Sayyids and the ssion of Muhammed Shah on the throne of Jai Singh devoted himself to his favourite suits, Astronomy and History and built his obserories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and iras. So deep and perfect was his knowledge in nomy that he discovered errors in the tables of i La Hire sent to him by the king of Portugal. The nents of Ulug Beg, the Royal Astronomer of narkand and those used by the Turkey nomers failed to answer his requirements, fin 1723 Jai Singh published his tables, the Zeech hammed Shahi (Movements of heavenly bodies), ath Jaggannath Bhatt, a Maratha and an emi-: astronomer, was associated with Jai Singh in astronomical pursuits, and Dala Ram, who signed and planned the city of Jaipur, was Jai ngh's Chief Architect.

B209 dine of the Mughal Empire (1707-61)

Though Jai Singh was engaged in much desultory warfare, and had many opportunities of distinguishing himself in the field, his talent for civil govern' ment and intrigue appears to have served him far better than his military attainments. Besides constructing astronomical observatories and building palaces, Jai Singh had built sarctis or inns for travellers in various parts of his dominions and did much to improve his province. Jai Singh seemed to have collected treasures of learning from all parts of the world and had amassed a valuable library. He had great love for music and women. He had 31 wives, numerous concubines and led a luxurious life. Jai Singh's death took place in 1743 after a reign of 44 years and he was cremated at Getore in Brahampuri where a marble cenotaph commemorates him. He was survived by two sons.

Observatories of Jai Singh

Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II read the works of Ptolemy, Euclid and Persian astronomers. Wanting to improve the Indian calendar and the ability to precisely locate the Sun, for purposes of mapmaking, he built five astronomical observatories in India. The instruments at these observatories, based on Muslim design, perhaps copies of the large 15th century instruments at Samarkand, Uzbekistan built by Ulgh Beg, were large masonry structures equipped with protractors and marked grids to aid in the precise measurements of the location of celestial objects. The Jantar Mantar or "House of Instruments" at Jaipur is the largest of the observatories and contains eighteen instruments. The largest instrument is the Samrat Yantra or equatorial sundial. It consists of a straight 90 foot high ramp, or gnomon, which is aligned north-south and elevated at an angle of 27 degrees above the northern horizon. The latitude of Jaipur is 27 degrees north, thus the ramp points toward the celestial pole. On each side of the ramp there are two quarter circles, or quadrants, fashioned in masonry. The quadrants are centered on the nearest edge of the ramp. One of the more interesting instruments is the Jai Prakash Yantra. It is attributed to Sawai Jai Singh II. There are a number of sundials; one of which a

****


beautiful vertical sundial. There is a smaller equito-rial sundial as well as two large masonry instruments built to help read the altitude and azimuth of celestial bodies.

14.6 RISE OF URDU LANGUAGE

Origin of Urdu Language

Urdu, literally meaning "camp" in Turkish, is a mixture of many tongues and languages. Muslims brought many different languages to India, and mixed India's languages freely with words from their own. When Delhi was the seat of Muslim power in the early 13th century the languages around Delhi, mainly Brij bhasha and Sauraseni, became heavily mixed with Persian, the lingua franca of the Muslim rulers. Other languages that found their way into the languages of India were Turkish and Arabic. Whereas much of the vocabulary of the original languages (Sauraseni, for example) changed, the basic grammatical structure remained intact. In the 13th century, the language of India became widely known as Hindavi, Hindi, and Brij bhasha and was written in the devanagri script (the Sanskrit script). The name 'Urdu' was given to the thriving language of this region in the period of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1627-58). This language was introduced in the Deccan by the armies and followers of the Tughluq and Khalji kings in the 14th century. Affected by the dialects of the South, the language then became known as Deccani (after Hyderabad Deccan). However, the written script remained Persian and this new hybrid soon replaced Persian as the official language. The first Urdu poet was Amir Khusro (1253-1325). Later, the language it received significant contributions from Kabir, Mira Bai, Guru Nanak, Malik Mohammad Jaisi and Abdul Rahim Khan-iKhanan.

Growth of Urdu

Before Amir Khusro (1253-1325), the language of poetry was primarily the vernacular Brij bhasha. Amir Khusro interspersed it with Persian, as the

first school ofghazal poets emerged in the I during the 15th and 16th centuries. The ghazal was somewhat free of structure rather simple and blunt expressions as wej the works of the Qutub Shahi poets of the 1 Vali (1668-1744) contributed much to the ture of ghazal. When the works of Vali Delhi in 1720, the town was in an up within a decade, Urdu became the lang poetry. The works of many minor poets like Hati Mazmoon and Abru actually formed the work that cemented the structure of Urdu i the 18th century in Northern India, and ] Delhi. The Urdu ghazal became heavily Pe and heralded the golden age of this poetic j beginning with Mir Taqi Mir. The simplicity < tions expressed in earlier ghazals went metamorphosis, leading to the works of Gh haps the greatest Urdu ghazal poet. This transition from the 15th to 18th cent! due not only to the maturity of technique \ changes in the social order as well. For 18th century was an age of transition. The la Great Mughals was Aurangzeb (1707), a there was dismemberment of the empire.' was invaded and destroyed by Nadir Sh Ahmad Shah Abdali, followed by others. Fin British crept in with their deceptive plans. All of this changed the aura of the empir had stifled human thought. The uncertaintie time caused many to raise questions assertive. A revival of the arts and literati of renaissance period, ensued for India in ; century. Urdu poetry benefited most from I lution of thoughts. The doubts and the uncertainties of the 18 tury continued into the 19th century, and theij of 1857 against the British left many indelib on the social and cultural scene of Northern! All this is reflected melancholically by many Ghalib included. Many new constructions guage ensued, using old similes. The exe and the rival were now the British. Christ 1 symbol of the ruling elite and new me given to the kalisa (church).

De

The weak and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar, a and dreamer, became a symbol of the disin ating and dying Mughal empire that he ruled Mourning over lost glory became an oft-ated topic for Urdu poetry.

cline of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B211

In brief, the Urdu ghazal finds its roots in the melancholic romantic era of the Mughal period. It was through the rise of the Urdu ghazal as a medium of expression that the Urdu language rose to great heights of popularity and evolution, in a very short time.


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Present external boundary of India shown thus.

INDIAN OCEAN

© Government of India C

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India.

The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of I' The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the I base line.

Decline of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B213


Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of Indis. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line

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B214

Indian History: Medieval India

Battle of Wandiwash (22 January 1760)

Battle of Plassey (1757) and Battle of Buxar (1764) © Government of India Copyright 1998 Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India The temtonal waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line

Decline of the Mughal Empire (1707-61)

/A

INDIAN OCEAN \

First Anglo-Mysore War(1767-9)

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-4)

e Government of India Copyright 1998

Based upon Sunrex of India map with (ha permission of the Surveyor General o( India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The coastlines of India agree with the Recant/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical mites measured from the appropriate base line.

B215

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B216

idian History: Medieval India

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1)

The topographical details within India are based upon Survey of India maps with the permission of the Survey or General of India, the Copyright 1998 of which vests with the Government of India The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) 0 Government of India Copyright 1998 Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher The coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured

QUESTIONS

When and where was Sivaji born? (a) 1607--Purandhar (b) 1615--Poona (c) 1622--Raigarh (d) 1627--Sivner In 1637 Sivaji inherited ay'ag/rfrom his father for the maintenance of his mother as well as himself. Which was the jagir? (a) Kolhapur (b) Torna (c) Poona

(d) Javli

Who among the following was the religious guru of Sivaji? (a) Tukaram

(b) Ramdas

(c) Eknatha

(d) Jnanadeva

Between 1645 and 1647, Sivaji conquered three forts from the Adil Shahi ruler of Bijapur. Which of the following is not one of them? (a)

Raigarh

(c) Torna

(b) Javli

(d) Kondana

Who was Afzal Khan? , (a) Mughal governor of Deccan, deputed to put down Sivaji (b)

Nizam Shahi noble who patronised Sivaji against the Mughals

(c)

Adil Shahi noble, deputed to punish Sivaji, but instead killed by the latter

'(d) Qutub Shahi minister who made an alliance with Sivaji against Bijapur With whom did Sivaji sign the treaty of Purandhar and when? (a) 1645--Shaista Khan (b) 1650--Afzal Khan (c) 1660--Raja Jaswant Singh '{d) 1665--Raja Jai Singh Who was Dadaji Kondadeo? (a) (b)

Sivaji's guardian Sivaji's maternal uncle '(c) Sivaji's father

(d)

Sivaji's father-in-law

Maratha expertise in the guerrilla tactics of warfare was one of the crucial factors responsible for their rise and emergence as a strong power in the Deccan. From whom did they probably learn these tactics? (a) Mahmud Gawan of the Bahmani sultanate (b) Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar (c) Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar (d) Chand Bibi of Ahmadnagar 9. From whom did Sivaji conquer Javli which made him the master of the highlands of Maharashtra? (a) Jhadav Rao(b) Adil Shahi ruler (c) Chanda Rao More (d) Nizam Shahi ruler 10. What made Sivaji temporarily suspend hostile activities against the Adil Shahis of Bijapur for a brief period of six years (1649-55)? (a)

Internal problems created by other Maratha chiefs

(b)

His arrest and imprisonment by the Adil Shahi ruler

(c)

His concentration on the rivalry against the Mughals

(d)

Arrest and imprisonment of his father by the Adil Shahi ruler

11. How many times and when did Sivaji plunder Surat, the most important commercial and trade centre of the Mughals?

(a) Only once--1664 (b) Twice--1664 and 1670 (c) Thrice--1660, 1664 and 1670 (d) Four times--1664, 1670, 1675 and 1680 12. With whom did Sivaji go for an alliance to conquer certain parts of the Bijapuri Kamataka region? (a) (b) (c) (d) 13.

Qutub Shahis of Golconda Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar Mughals Aravidu dynasty of Penugonda To whom is Sivaji greatly indebted in the field of administrative reforms?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sher Shah Sur Mahmud Gawan of the Bahmani kingdom Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar Akbar, the Great

B217

/x

B218 § Indian History: Medieval India

14.

What was saranjam under the Marathas?

(a) Revenue system in which assessment of land revenue was made on the basis of measurement (b)

Tax collected from the merchants and traders

(c)

Tribute paid by the Maratha chiefs to the ruler

(d) Unit of land whose revenues were assigned to beg officials and military com manders in lieu of their salaries 15. The new post of pratinidhi came into existence during the reign of which Maratha ruler? (a) Sivaji

(b) Rajaram

(c) Shahu

(d) Sambhaji

16. Who among the following is generally consid ered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics of warfare after Sivaji? (a) Tarabai

(b) Balaji Viswanath

(c) Rajaram

(d) Baji Rao I

17.

Who among the following got the title of 'Sena Karte'?

(a) Balaji Viswanath (b) Balaji Baji Rao (c) Shahu (d) Baji Rao I 18. During whose Peshwaship did the system of Maratha confederacy begin, with certain Maratha chiefs getting themselves entrenched in different parts of India? (a) Balaji Baji Rao (b) Sawai Madhav Rao (c) Shahu (d) Baji Rao II 19. Who was popularly known as 'Nana Saheb'? (a) Baji Rao I (b) Balaji Baji Rao (c) Balaji Viswanath (d) Sawai Madhav Rao

20. During whose reign did the post of Peshwa not only become powerful but also hereditary? (a) Rajaram (b) Sivaji II (c) Sambhaji (d) Shahu 21. Sambhaji was captured by a Mughal noble and executed in 1689 on the orders of Aurangzeb. Who was the Mughal noble and where was Sambhaji captured? (a) Shaista Khan--Purandhar (b) Dilir Khan--Raigarh (c) Raja Jai Singh--Jinji (d) Muqarrab Khan--Sangamesvar 22. Who among the following was the first Maratha ruler to get legal recognition from the Mughals?

(a) Shahu

(b) SivajL

(c) Rajaram

(d) San

Sivaji, in his later years, incn revenue in his swarajya from 331 (a) 35 per cent (b) 40 perl (c) 45 per cent (d) 50 per] In Maratha administration who was I for the collection of land revenue i unit, i.e the village? (a) Mirasdar

(b) Kulk

(c) Patil

(d) Des

What was the measuring instrun by Sivaji for the uniform measun (a) Sikandar-igaz (b) Tanab' (c) Jarib (d) Kathi Where did Sivaji station his naval I (a) Kolaba (c) Salsette (d) Basseiri

(b) Kalya

Arrange the successors of Sivaji in < cal order. (i) Rajaram

(ii) Ramn

(iii) Sambhaji (iv) Shahu (v) Sivaji II Select the answer from the codes I (a) iii, ii, v, i, iv (b) iii, i, v, I (c) ii, iv, v, i, iii 28.

(d) v, iii, i

What is the historical sequence of the I Peshwas?

(i) BajiRao

(ii) BalajiBajH

(iii) Madhav Rao (iv) Sawai I (v) fialaji Viswanath (vi) Narayanl Choose the answer from the codes I (a) i, v, ii, iv, iii, vi (b) ii, iii, iv,' (c) v, i, ii, iii, vi, iv (d) v, 29.

Arrange the following events of Sivajl'f chronological sequence.

(i) His bold attack on Shaista Khan'jj camp (ii) His visit to Aurangzeb's court, ment and escape (iii) His conquest of the Javli fort (iv) His conquest of Jinji, Vellore, < (v) His coronation at Raigarh and i of the title of Chatrapati Choose the answer from trte codes I (a) i, ii, v, iv, iii (b) ii, iv, i, i (c) iv, ii, i, iii, v

(d) iii, i, ii, v.'j

Dec

is the ascending order of the following officials of the Marathas? Jumladar Paik

(ii) Havaldar

(iv) Naik

Sar-i-Naubat (vi) Hazari feet the answer from the codes below: i) ii, iii, v, iv, i, vi (b) iii, iv, ii, i, vi, v ;) iv, ii, iii, v, vi, i

(d) ii, iv, v, vi, i, iii

ich of the following statements about the of Purandhar are true? fl) Sivaji surrendered 23 of his 35 forts to the Mughals. The Mughals in return ceded the two districts of Surat and Ahmadnagar to Sivaji. (iii) Sivaji's son, Sambhaji, was granted a mansab of 5000 by the Mughals. (iv) Sivaji was recognised as the independent ruler of swarajya by Mughals. (v) The Mughals recognised Sivaji's right to certain parts of the Bijapur kingdom. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii, Hi and iv (c) i, iii and v (d) i, ii and iv Which of the following statements about Sivaji's revenue administration are incorrect? I (i) He introduced a uniform assessment of land revenue on the basis of measurement of land. He completely did away with various hereditary revenue officials, (iii) He collected chauth and sardeshmukhi,

apart from the traditional land revenue, from the peasants of his swarajya. (iv) He paid all his officials, big or small, military or civil, in cash only. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) ii, iii and iv (b) iii and iv (c) ii and iv

(d) Only iii

Almost all the ministers of Sivaji's ashtapradhan, except two, participated in war. Pick out the exceptions from among the following: (I) Peshwa (ii) Amatya (iii) Pandit Rao

(iv) Nyayadhish

(v) Sachiv Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and v (b) ii and iii (c) i and iii

(d) iii and iv

fine of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B219

34.

Which of the following statements about Sambhaji are true?

(i) He had to overcome the opposition of Rajaram, his younger brother, before ascending the throne, (ii) He supported Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb, against the Mughal emperor, (iii) He made Jinji his capital due to Mughal pressure, (iv) Immediately after his execution by the Mughals, his wife and son were also imprisoned by the latter. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All of them 35.

Who among the following were the advisers of Rajaram?

(i) Ramachandra Pant (ii) Balaji Viswanath (iii) Prahlad Niraji (iv) Nana Phadnis (v) Sankaraji Malhar (vi) Parasuram Trimbak Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iii, v and vi

(c) i, iii, v and vi 36.


Which of the following statements about Rajaram are not true?

(i) He was released from prison and put on the throne by the ministers in 1689. (ii) He took refuge at Madurai after the fall of Raigarh to the Mughals. (iii) Towards the end of his reign he made Satara his new capital, (iv) He was succeeded by his wife as the new ruler since he died childless. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

37. Which of the following statements about the Maratha civil war between 1707 and 1714 are true? (i) It broke out between Tarabai and Shahu immediately after the latter's release by the Mughals. (ii) In the battle of Khed in 1708 Shahu was able to defeat Tarabai and occupy Satara.

=o*jl


(iii) It was only in 1714 that Tarabai was finally defeated and imprisoned by Shahu. (iv) The southern part of the Maratha kingdom continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram with Kolhapur as their capital. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, ii and iii (d) i and iii 38. Which of the following statements about the treaty of 1719 between the Marathas and Mughals are true? (i) It was signed by Balaji Viswanath with Hussain AH, the elder of the Sayyid brothers. (ii) According to it, Shahu was recognised as the king of his swarajya by the Mughals. (iii) Shahu's mother as well as other members of his family were released by the Mughals. (iv) Shahu was permitted to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan. (v) The Marathas were, in turn, asked to maintain a contingent of 15,000 horsemen for the service of the Mughals. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii, iv and v 39.

(d) All of them

Which of the following statements about Balaji Baji Rao are true?

(i) He imprisoned Ramraja, a grandson of Rajaram and the nominated heir of Shahu at Satara. (ii) In 1751 he became the official head of the Maratha confederacy and shifted his capital to Poona as a symbol of this fact.

(iii) During his Peshwaship Maratha power reached its zenith. (iv) In 1752, he signed an agreement with the Mughals by which he became the protector of the Mughal empire from internal as well as external enemies. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 40. Which of the following statements about the third battle of Panipat in 1761 are true?

(i) The Maratha forces were led I Rao, while the Afghan forces \ Ahmad Shah Abdah (il) The Marathas made full use of { rilla tactics of warfare in this I (iii) The Marathas received wh support from several of the I but still lost to the Afghans, (iv) Several Maratha leaders, Sadasiv Rao Bhau and Viswas I killed in the battle. Select the answer from the codes I (a) i and iii only (b) iv only * (c) i, ii and iv (d) i only Consider List I and List II:

List I (Marathas) List II (Sivaji's rela (i) Lakhji Jhadav Rao Father (ii) Maloji Bhonsle Maternal un (iii) Shahji Bhonsle Grandfather' (iv) Jija Bai Mother (v) Tarabai

Daughter-in

Which of the above are correctly Select the answer from the codes giv (a) i and ii (b) iii and iyj (c) iv and v

(d) ii and'

Match List I and List II and select I using the codes given below:

(A) (B)

List I (i) Majumdar

(ii) Waqenavis (C) (D)

(iii) Chitnis (iv) Dabir

(v) Pandit Rao (E)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, we i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-E, vD i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vB i-A, ii-C, iii-E, iv-D, vB List II

In-chan corres In-chan ligence, and affairs Inn monies Initially i ant finance I Inn lesk

and i

Dec

Which of the following is correctly matched? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Prant--Kama Vistar Grama--Karkun Paragana--Pate/ Taraf--Mamlatdar Match the following:

List I List II (i) Balutadar (A) Hereditary rev enue collector of a district or sub-district (II) Kutkarni (B) Hereditary accou ntant of revenue collection at the district or subdistrict level (iii) Deshpande

(C) Hereditary village

accountant (iv) Deshmukh

(D) Hereditary village

servant or artisan (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (b) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (d) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B 45. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below:

List I (i) Bhagdar (ii) Haliya (iii) Mirasdar (iv) Upari

(a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (c) i-B, ii-D, ii»-A, iv-C 146. Match the following: List! (i) Silahdar

(ii) Barg/ (iii) Paik

(iv) Panch Hazari List II (A)

Holder of hereditary rights in land

(B)

Shareholder of a joint village

(C)

Cultivator of rented lands

(D)

Bonded agricultural labourer

(b) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C

List II (A)

Second highest military rank

(B) (C)

Lowest military rank Second lowest military rank

(D)

Cavalryman having his own horses and equipment

line of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B221

(v) Naik

(E) Cavalryman provided

with horses and equipment by the state (a) i-E, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, vC (b) i-D, ii-E, iii-C, iv-A, vB (c) i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, vB (d) i-D, ii-E, iii-B, iv-A, vC 47. Which code gives the correct pairing of the following lists? List I (i) Chauth

List II (A) A levy equal to one year's income of the taxpayer realised in times of financial difficulties (ii) Sardeshmukhi (B) one-fourth of the land revenue of an undefined belt of land paid to the Marathas by the others so that their areas would not be subjected to Maratha raids (iii) Mokasa

(C) An additional levy

of 10 per cent on those lands over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights (iv) Kurja-Patti (D) Lands whose rev enues were assigned to military officers in lieu of their salaries (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A 48. Which of the following is correctly matched?

(a)

Treaty of Durai Sarai (1665)--Sivaji and Jai Singh

(b)

Treaty of Purandhar (1719)--Balaji Viswanath and Hussain Ali

(c) (d)

Treaty of Wama (1731)--Shahu and Sivaji II Treaty of Delhi (1737)--Baji Rao I and NizamulMulk

B222 I'll Indian History: Medieval India

49.


List I List II (i) Peshwa

(A) Indore

(ii) Bhonsle

(B) Gwalior

(Hi) Holkar

(C) Poona

(iv) Gaekwad (D) Nagpur (v) Scindia (a) (b) (c) (d)

(E) Baroda

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-E, vB i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, we i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E, vB i-C, ii-A, iii-E, iv-B, vD


Instructions

Mark (a) if both 'Assertion' (A) and 'Reason' (R) are correct, and 'R' is the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (b) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' is not the correct explanation for 'A'. Mark (c) if only 'A' is correct. Mark (d) if only 'R' is correct. 50. Assertion: Sivaji's conquest of Javli, which commanded the Mavala area, was the begin ning of his rise into prominence. Reason: Mavala land supplied Sivaji a number of foot soldiers who played a crucial role in his guerrilla war against the Mughals and the Deccan powers. 51. Assertion: Shaista Khan was unceremoniously transferred from the Deccan to Bengal by Aurangzeb. Reason: Shaista Khan was the maternal uncle of Aurangzeb.

52. Assertion: Sivaji refused to share the newly conquered territories of Bijapur (1676-79) with the Qutub Shahis of Golconda. Reason: Madanna Pandit, the wazir of Qutub Shah, gave protection to Sivaji's rebellious son, Sambhaji. 53. Assertion: Sivaji gave strict instructions to his soldiers that no Hindu, either Brahmin or non-Brahmin, of Mughal or Bijapur territories should be plundered of his wealth. Reason: Sivaji assumed the title of 'Haindava Dharmodharak1 or protector of Hinduism after his coronation.

Assertion: Sivaji's ashtapradhan was council of ministers in the real sense. Reason: There was no collective responsib but only individual responsibility, in its fun ing. Assertion: Sivaji, by the end of his reign, under his control about 240 forts, quite i which were won over by him by unfair i Reason: In each of his forts, he ap three officers of equal rank as a precaution i frequently transferred them. Assertion: Baji Rao I assigned different I ries to prominent Maratha chiefs as 'spheres of influence'. Reason: The various Maratha chiefs began! rule their respective areas as indepen rulers from the time of Baji Rao I. Assertion: The third battle of Panipat conclusively as to who was to rule India. Reason: The Maratha defeat in this battle \ a major blow to their dream of establis 'Hindupad Padshahi'. Who said: 'Let us strike at the trunk of 1 withering tree and the branches will fall themselves... Thus should the Maratha flag) from the Krishna to the Indus.' (a) Sivaji

(b) Balaji Viswanathf

(c) Baji Rao I (d) Balaji Baji Rao 59. Who opined in the following manner? 'We <, hem Siva in like the centre of a circle.' (a) Aurangzeb (b) Raja Jai Singh (c) ShaistaKhan 60.

(d) Afzal Khan

Read the statement below and answer following question.

The two pearls have been dissolved, 22 go mohurs have been lost, and as to silver copper, the total can not be cast up.' What I the meaning and context of this statement? Material loss of Mughals due to Sivaji's plunder of Surat in 1670 Sivaji's territorial loss due to the signing i the treaty of Purandhar Nizam-ul-Mulk's territorial loss due to nisi defeat in the battle of Bhopal in 1737 Marathas' loss in human life due to their i defeat in the third battle of Panipat

61.

Which of the following statements about Bahadur Shah are true?

Dec

(i) He fought a war of succession with his brothers before he became the emperor. (ii) After becoming the Emperor, he assumed the title of Shah Alam I. (iii) His reign lasted from 1700 to 1712. (iv) His reign witnessed the outbreak of the Maratha civil war between Shahu and Tara Bai. Select the answer from the codes given below: ' (a) i and ii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) iii and iv Bahadur Shah was responsible for: (i) Executing Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru of the Sikhs. (ii) Taking Chatrasal, the Bundela Chief, into his service. (iii) Releasing Shahu, the son of Shambaji. (iv) Defeating and killing Churaman, the Jat Chief. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

Which of the following statements about Jahandar Shah is/are not true? (i) He succeeded in the war of succession after the death of Bahadur Shah due to the support given to him by Zulfiqar Khan. (ii) He was the grandson of Bahadur Shah. (iii) His reign lasted between 1713 and 1719. (iv) The practice of Mughal nobles acting as king-makers began with his reign.

(v) He was defeated and killed by his nephew, Farukh Siyar. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) Only ii

(c) iii only

(d) ii and iii

Which of the following statements about the Sayyid brothers are correct? (i) They played a decisive role in the succession of Farukh Siyar as the emperor. (ii) They are known in Indian history as kingmakers. (iii) Abdullah Khan, the elder of the two brothers, was made the Mir Bakhsi by Farukh Siyar. (iv) They murdered Farukh Siyar in 1719 and made two young princes the Emperors in quick succession.


(v) They were murdered in 1720 by their opponents. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and v

(b) ii, iii and iv

(c) i, ii, iii and v

(d) ii, iv and v

65.

Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following events?

(i) Ahmad Shah Abdali's first invasion of India. (ii) Revolt of the Sikhs under Banda Bahadur, (iii) Nadir Shah's invasion of India, (iv) Capture of Delhi by the British. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, ii and iv

(b) ii, iii, i and iv

(c) iii, ii, i and iv

(d) ii, iii, iv and i

66.


List I List II (i) Mughal emperor (A) Muhammad who spent his initial Shah years as a wanderer due to his fear of (B)

Ahmad Shah

(C)

Shah Alam II the wazir (ii) Last Mughal

Emperor (iii) Mughal Emperor

who lost the Kohinoor and the Peacock throne to (D) Bahadur Shah II Nadir Shah (iv) First invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali (a) (b) (c) (d) 67.

i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D Arrange the following Mughal Emperors in the correct chronological sequence:

(i) Farukh Siyar

(ii) Jahandar Shah

(iii) Ahmad Shah

(iv) Shah Alam I

(v) Muhammad Shah Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, i, v and iii (b) ii, i, iv, iii and v (c) i, iv, iii, ii and v (d) v, iv, i, iii and ii



Instructions

Mark (a) if the 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but the 'Reason'(R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A'. 68. Assertion: The people of the Mughal Empire lacked the spirit of political nationalism. Reason: The Jats, Marathas, Rajputs, and oth ers rebelled against the Mughals to consoli date their regional and tribal power. 69. Assertion: Some of the religious reformers, through their preachings, indirectly helped in the disintegration of the Mughal empire. Reason: In the Deccan, Ramdas insisted on the acquisition of political sovereignty for the defence of the Maharashtra Dharma. 70. Assertion: During the reign of the Later Mughals, the practice of 'Ijara' became more common in the Jagir as well as the Khalisa lands. Reason: The Ijaradars caused a great amount of damage to agriculture in general and the agriculturists in particular. 71. Assertion: None of the Indian powers that rose on the ruins of the Mughal Empire could replace the Mughals. Reason: The British who replaced the Mughals in India as the imperial power had a superior socioeconomic system than that of the Indian powers.

72.

Which of the following statements are not true about Haider All?

(i) He began his career as a soldier in the service of the Mysore state, ruled by the rulers of the Hindu Wodeyar Dynasty. (ii) During his term as the faujdar of Dindigul, he established a modern dockyard. (iii) Due to his successful defence of Seringapatam, against the Marathas in 1759, he was given the title of Fateh Haider Bahadur by Nanjarajar, the king of Mysore. (iv) He was not only a capable military leader and efficient administrator, but also a well-read man.

Select the answer from the codes giy (a) ii and iii (b) ii and iv,, (c) i, ii and iv (d) ii, iii and! 73.

Which of the following are true about * (i) He assumed all the power by <

Nanjarajar. (ii) He conquered and annexed; ries such as Coorg, Malabar, Gooty. (iii) He fought the first and Mysore wars against the Britis (iv) He was killed by the British in I Anglo-Mysore war. Choose the answer from the below: (a) ii and iii

(b) i, iii andjj

(c) i, ii and iii (d) i and iv; 74.

Tipu Sultan

(i) Attempted to introduce modem,| in Mysore by inviting foreign < (ii) Sent embassies to France.Turl Pegu to develop foreign trade, (iii) Attempted to set up a state pany on the European lines, (iv) Introduced a new system of con scales of weights and measuri new calendar, (v) Established a modern arsenal with French help. Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, iii, iv and v

(b) i, ii,


(d) i, ii, ivi

75.

Which of the following statements < Sultan is/are incorrect?

(i) He tried to increase the state,

introducing the practice of ing. (ii) He reduced the hereditary | the poligars. (iii) He checked the collection of ille from the peasants, (iv) He refused to grant remission i enue to the peasantry even in i uations. Select the answer from the codes giv (a) ionly (b) i and ii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

Dec

Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes below: List II (A) Sir Eyre Coote

List I (i) First Anglo-Mysore War (B)

General Stuart

(C)

General Smith

(D)

Major General Meadows

(ii) Second Anglo-Mysore War (iii) Third Anglo-Mysore War (a) (b) (c) (d) (iv) Fourth Anglo-Mysore War i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-C, ii-B, iiiA, iv-D i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B |J7. Which of the following is correctly matched? (a) (b) (c)

Colonel Baillie--Defeated by Haider in 1780 General Harris--Captured by Tipu in 1783 Brigadier Mathews--Defeated by Tipu in 1790

(d)

Major General Meadows--Defeated Tipu in 1799

' 78. Match the following: List II 1782 1784 1792 List I (A) (B) (C) (i) Death of Haider (ii) Death of Tipu (iii) Treaty of

(D) 1799 Seringapatam (iv) Treaty of Mangalore (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B 79. Which of the followii

(statements about the ngle-Mysore wars are first and the secon incorrect? (i) The First Anglo-Mysore War began in 1746 and ended in 1750. (ii) The Second Anglo-Mysore War began in 1780 and ended in 1784. (iii) The first peace treaty between the British and Mysore was concluded in 1784. (iv) One of the causes for the outbreak of the Second War was the British capture of Mane, a French settlement within Haider's jurisdiction.


Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

80. The governor of Madras who concluded the Treaty of Mangalore with Tipu Sultan was? (a) Lord Harris (b) Lord Hamilton (c) Lord Macartney (d) Lord Stephenson 81.

Who was the governor-general during the Second Anglo-Mysore War?

(a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Cornwallis (c) Sir John Shore (d) Lord Wellesley 82.

Which of the following statements about the Third Anglo-Mysore war are true?

(i) The immediate cause of this war was Tipu's occupation of a part of the territory of Travancore, whose Raja was an ally of the British. (ii) It started in 1786 and ended in 1788. (iii) The British forged an alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu. (iv) Lord Cornwallis, the then governor-general, assumed personal command of the British forces in the middle of the war. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iii (d) i, ii and iv 83.

The Treaty of Seringapatam, signed by Tipu and Cornwallis, contained

(i) Surrender of almost half of Tipu's territories, which were to be shared among the English, the Nizam and the Marathas. (ii) Payment of a war indemnity of about Rs three crore by Tipu.

(iii) Stationing of British resident at Seringapatam. (iv) Sending two of his sons by Tipu as hostages to the British camp. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) i and iii

(c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 84. From which of the following countries did Tipu seek help to expel the British from India? (i) France

(ii) Arabia

(iii) Afghanistan

(iv) Russia

(v) Turkey Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and v (c) i, ii, iii and iv

-J

(d) i, ii, iii and v


85. Which of the following statements are correct about the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War? (i) The Immediate cause of this war was the landing of a small French force at Mangalore in April 1798. (ii) Lord Wellesley was the governor-general during this war. (iii) Tipu Sultan was successively defeated at Sedaseer and Malvelley by the British. (iv) Tipu was captured and executed by the British after this war. (v) Arthur Wellesly, the future duke of Wellington and the person who later defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo, participated in this war. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv


(c) i, ii, iii and v


86.

Which of the following statements about the State of Mysore are not true?

(i) After the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war, a major part of Mysore was annexed by the British. (ii) A small portion of it was restored to a minor son of Tipu Sultan. (iii) A subsidiary treaty was signed by the British with the new ruler of Mysore. (iv) In 1849, Lord Dalhousie took over the administration of Mysore because of misgovernment by its ruler. (v) In 1881, Lord Ripon restored Mysore to its ruler. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) ii and iii

(d) iii and v


Instructions

Mark (a) if the 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but the 'Reason1 (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct and 'R' explains 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A. 87. Assertion: In 1761 Haider AN became the de facto ruler of Mysore.

91

92. Reason: Haider All continued to Chikka Krishna Raja I as the \a Mysore. Assertion: Tipu Sultan established yards and the models of the ships < plied by himself. Reason: He was one of the few India have realised the importance of a mo Assertion: Tipu Sultan planted a' at Mangalore. Reason: He became a member of Club after the French Revolution. Which of the following statements ab Singh are true? (i) Before his rise into prominence,^ was ruled by 12 Sikh misls. (ii) He was born to the chief of the I misl. (iii) He succeeded to the chieftainshi) misl as a minor with his mother'l regent, (iv) He assumed full charge of his attaining 16 years. Select the answer from the codes giv (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv

(c) iii and iv

(d) ii, iii and iv||

Arrange the following conquests of i Singh in chronological order, (i) Ludhiana (ii) Amritsar (iii) Kangra

(iv) Lahore

Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) iv, ii, i and iii

(b) ii, i, iii and I

(c) ii, iv, iii and i

(d) i, iii, iv and j

Arrange the following events in the Ranjit Singh in chronological sequence: (i) Acquisition of ê kohinoor by Shah Shuja of Afghanistan, (ii) Assumption of the title of Marian Lahore by Ranjit. (iii) Meeting between Ranjit Singh and i Bentinck. (iv) Mission of Metcalfe to Ranjit Singh, (v) Occupation of Kashmir by Ranjit. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) iii, i, iv, v and ii (b) i, iii, iv, ii andl (c) iv, ii, i, v and iii (d) ii, iv, i, v and I

Dec

Match the following: List I List II (i) Treaty of Amritsar (A) 1809 (ii) Death of Ranjit Singh (B) 1823 (iii) Tripartite Treaty (C) 1838 (iv) Occupation of

(D) 1839

Peshawar (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A Which of the following are true about Ranjit

Singh? (i) He organised his army on western lines with the help of Europeans, (ii) He cooperated with Zaman Shah of Afghanistan when the latter invaded Punjab in 1799. (iii) He recruited only Sikhs as soldiers, (iv) He established modern foundries to manufacture cannons. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

Which of the following were the signatories to the Tripartite Treaty? (i) Zaman Shah (ii) Ranjit Singh (iii) William Bentinck (iv) Shah Shuja (v) Lord Auckland Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iv and v (d) i, ii and iv

Arrange the following successors of Ranjit Singh in the chronological order, (i) Sher Singh (ii) Kharak Singh (iii) Dalip Singh

(iv) Nao Nihal Singh

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i and iii (b) ii, i, iv and iii (c) i, iii, ii and iv

(d) i, iv, iii and ii

Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following events. (i) Occupation of Sikharpur by the British, (ii) Occupation of Ferozpur by the British, (iii) Succession of Dalip Singh as the ruler of Punjab.

:line of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B227

(iv) Appointment of British resident at Ludhiana. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, iv and ii

(b) iv, iii, i and ii

(c) iii, iv, ii and i

(d) ii, i, iv and iii

98.

Arrange the following battles of the First Anglo-Sikh war in chronological order.

(i) Buddewal (ii) Aliwal (iii) Ferozpur (iv) Sobroan (v) Mudki Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, v, iv and ii (b) v, iii, i, ii and iv (c) ii, iv, iii, v and i (d) iii, ii, i, iv and v 99.

The Treaty of Lahore contained

(i) Ceding of the Jullunder Doab to the British and payment of a war indemnity of about Rs 1 1/2 crore. (ii) Appointment of a British resident at Lahore, (iii) Derecognition of Dalip Singh as the ruler of Punjab, (iv) Reduction of Sikh army to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, (v) Permission to the ruler of Punjab to employ any European without the consent of the

British. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iv and v (d) iii, iv and v 100. The terms of the Treaty of Bhairowal included (i) Setting up of a council of Regency for Punjab, (ii) The council of regency was to consist of eight Sikh sardars as members, and was to be presided over by Rani Jindan. (iii) Stationing of a British force at Lahore in return for the payment of Rs 22 lakh by the Sikhs, (iv) Power of the governor-general to take and garrison any fort in Punjab, (v) Annexation of a part of Punjab by the British. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and iv


101.

Which of the following were the causes for the Second Anglo-Sikh War?

(i) Desire of the Sikh army to avenge their humiliation in the First Anglo-Sikh war. (ii) Discontentment of the Sikh sardars with the British control over Punjab, (ill) Mistreatment of Rani Jindan by the British, (iv) Revolt of the governor of Multan leading to the outbreak of general rebellion by the Sikhs. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ill and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All of them 102. Two English officers sent to Multan to help Sardar Khan Singh, the newly appointed gov ernor, in taking over its administration were murdered by the Sikhs in April 1848. Who were they? (i) Vans Agnew

(ii) Herbert Edwards

(iii) It Nicholson

(iv) It Anderson

(v) Richard Temple Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i and iv

(d) iii and v

103.


List I List II (i) Lai Singh The Prime Minister of Punjab before and during the first Anglo-Sikh War. (ii) Tej Singh The commander-in-chief of Punjab before and during the First War.

(iii) Mullen

The Governor of

Multan who resigned and then revolted against the British in 1848. (iv) Sher Singh

The person who was

sent by the British to suppress the revolt at Multan but who himself joined the revolt. Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them

Arrange the following battles and ev Second Anglo-Sikh War in chronological! (i) Battle of Gujarat. (ii) Battle of Ramnagar (iii) Surrender of Sher Singh (iv) Capture of Multan and surrender of| (v) Battle of Chillianwala Select the answer from the codes given j (a) iii, ii, i, iv and v (b) i, ii, iii, iv i (c) iv, ii, i, v and iii (d) ii, v, iv, i an Match List I with List II and choose the i from the codes given below: List I List II (i) Sir Henry Lawrence (A) British resl Ludhiana the First Sikh war (ii) Sir John Lawrence (B) British (iii) Lord Hugh Gough (iv) Major Broadfoot (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A 106. After the annexation of Punjab by the Board of three commissioners was in 1849 to administer Punjab. Who three Britishers? (i) Henry Lawrence (ii) John Law (iii) Walter Gilbert (iv) Charles Oj

(v) V. Richard Temple Select the answer from the cod' below: (a) i, iii and v (b) i, ii and iv , (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii, iv and\ 107.

Which of the following statements Jindan are not true?

(i) She was the wife of Ranjit Sii mother of Dalip Singh, (ii) She became the regent of Punjab (iii) She was removed from the reg< Treaty of Lahore. at Lahon the First Sikh war (C) British der-in-chief| the second! Sikh war (D)The First) Commissk Punjab (b) i-A, ii-C, i (d) i-D, ii-B, lit

Dec

(iv) After the first Anglo-Sikh War, she was implicated in a conspiracy against the British and transported to Shaikhpur first and then to Benaras. (v) She was sentenced to death by the British after the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Choose the answer from the codes given below: December, 1846 (C) (v)

1849

(E)

(a) i-A, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B, vC (b) i-A, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, vB (c) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D, we (d) i-A, ii-E, iii-B, iv-D, vC (a) i and iv (c) ii and ill Match the following: List I 1845 (i)

March, 1846

(iv) 1848 (b) ill and v (d) iv and v

List II (A)

Outbreak of the First Anglo-Sikh War

(B) Outbreak of the Second Anglo-Sikh war Annexation of Punjab by the British

(D) Treaty of Bhairowal Treaty of Lahore

Brtion and Reason

Assertion: By the Treaty of Lahore, the British troops were permitted to pass through Sikh territories whenever the need arose. Reason: Ranjit Singh permitted the British troops to march through his territory in 1838. 10. Assertion; The British sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh in return for 1 million rupees in 1846. Reason: The British acquired Kashmir from the ruler of Punjab in lieu of a part of the war indemnity which he could not pay in cash. 111. Assertion: Dalip Singh, the last ruler of Independent Punjab, was deposed and pensioned off by Lord Dalhousie. Reason: Dalip Singh was implicated in a conspiracy case and executed by the British. 12. Which of the following statements about Nizam-ul-Mulk are true?


Mis original name was Chinquilich Khan. He served his first term as the viceroy of the Deccan between 1713-15. (iii) He was the wazir of the Mughal empire between 1715-20. (iv) He served his second term as the wazir of the Mughal Empire between 1720-26. (v) 'Nizam-ul-Mulk' and 'Khan-i-Dauran' were the titles given to him by Emperor Farukh Siyar. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) i, ii and v 113.

Nizam-ul-Mulk did:

(i) Gave up his Wazirship of the Mughal Empire voluntarily and marched to the Deccan without taking the Emperor's permission. (ii) Founded the state of Hyderabad in 1720. (iii) Got the confirmation of his Viceroyaly of the Deccan and the title of 'Asaf Jan' from Emperor Muhammad Shah in 1725. (iv) Continued to recognise the Mughal Emperor as his sovereign. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv 114.

Which of the following statements about Nizam-ul-Mulk are not true?

(i) He established peace and security in Hyderabad by suppressing all disaffected nobles and by putting down theft and robbery. (ii) He fully succeeded in stopping the plundering raids of the Marathas into his territory. (iii) He revived agriculture and industry in his domain by giving incentives to farmers and craftsmen. (iv) He was killed by the Marathas in 1740. (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) i and iv

115.

Arrange the following Nizams in chronological order.

(i) Salabat Jung

(ii) Sikandar Jah

(iii) Muzaffar Jung (iv) Nasir Jung (v) Nizam Ali


Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, iv, ii and v (b) iv, ii, Hi, v and i (c) iii, ii, i, iv and v (d) iv, iii, i, v and ii 116. Which of the following statements about the Anglo-Nizam relations are true? (i) The British tried to interfere in the affairs of Hyderabad for the first time in 1750. (ii) They supported Nasir Jung against Muzaffar Jung in the succession dispute between the two. (iii) Colonel Forde concluded a friendship treaty with Muzaffar Jung in 1760. (iv) The Nizam cooperated with Mysore in the third and fourth Anglo-Mysore wars. Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(b) (d) (a) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (b) (c) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B (d) 118. Which of the following statements about the Nizams of Hyderabad are not true? (i) Nasir Jung was murdered by Muzaffar Jung with the help of the French, (ii) Muzaffar Jung was murdered by Salabat Jung with the help of the British, (iii) Sikandar Jah succeeded Muzaffar Jung, (iv) Osman All Khan was the last Nizam of Hyderabad. Choose the answer from the codes given below. (a) i and ii

(b) i and iii

(c) ii and iii

(d) ii and iv

(a) i, ii and iii (c) i, ii and iv 117. Match the following:

List I (i) 1766 (ii) 1768 (iii) 1798

(iv) 1853 ii, iii and iv i, iii and iv

List II (A) (B)

Treaty of Masulipatam Subsidiary Treaty with Nizam

(C) Acquisition of Berar by the British from the Nizam (D) Acquisition of Northern Circars from the Nizam by the British for an ann ual payment. i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C

119.

Who was the Nizam who signed Treaty with Lord Wellesley?

(a) Salabat Jung

(b) Nizam

(c) Muzaffar Jung (d) Sikam 120.

Match List I with List II and select using the codes given below:

List I (i) Treaty of Faizabad (A) 17 (ii) Treaty of Allahabad (B) 1] (iii) Subsidiary Treaty (C) M (iv) Treaty of Benaras (D) 18 (a) (b) (c) (d) 121.

i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A Which is the correct chronological following nawabs of Awadh?

(i) Shujauddaula (ii) Saadat Khan BurhanulMulk (iii) Asafuddaula (iv) Safdar Jung Choose the answer from the below: (a) iv, ii, iii and i

(b) ii, i, iv

(c) iv, i, ii and iii

(d) ii, iv, i

122.


List I List I (i) Intervention of Sir (A) 1748" John Shore in the succession dispute

of Awadh (ii) Annexation of

(B) 1773;<

Rohilkhand to Awadh (iii) Grant of the province (C) 1774$ of Allahabad to the Nawab of Awadh by Mughal Emperor (iv) Meeting between (D) 1798 Warren Hastings and Shujauddaula (a) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A (b) i-B, ii-C, i (c) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (d) i-A, ii-C, iii 123.

Arrange the following nawabs of Ai chronological order:

(i) Saadat All (ii) WazirAli (iii) Wazid AN Khan (iv) Saadat

De<

[Select the answer from the codes given below: i, iv, iii and ii (b) ii, iv, i and iii l(c) ii, iii, i and iv

(d) iii, ii, iv and i

{Which of the following statements about [Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk are true? F(i) He founded the state of Awadh. I (ii) He suppressed the rebellious zamindars in Awadh, and established law and order there. He discriminated against Hindus in the matter of employment. I (iv) He made Awadh economically and militarily strong by carrying out revenue and military reforms. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii, iii and iv Which of the following statements about Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk are incorrect? (i) He was appointed as the governor of Awadh by Muhammad Shah. (ii) He became the wazir of the Mughal Empire in 1735. (iii) He was murdered by Nadir Shah in 1739. (iv) He committed suicide in 1739. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

Which of the following statements about Safdar Jung are true? (i) He succeeded to the governorship of Awadh in 1739. (ii) He was given the additional charge of the

wazirship of the Mughal Empire in 1748. (iii) He extended his territories by successfully waging wars against the Jats, Rohillas, etc. (iv) He was killed by the Marathas in a battle. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv

:line of the Mughal Empire (1707-61) B231

127.

Shujauddaula:

(i) Succeeded to the Nawabship of Awadh as well as the Wazirship of the Mughal Empire in 1764. (ii) Was defeated by the Rohillas in 1774. (iii) Signed a subsidiary treaty and paid a huge war indemnity to the British due to his defeat in the Battle of Plassey. (iv) Purchased Kara and Allahabad from the British in 1773. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii and iii 128.

(d) i and iv

Asafuddaula

(i) Concluded the Treaty of Faizabad with the British, (ii) Transferred his capital from Lucknow to Faizabad in 1775. (iii) Mistreated the Begums of Awadh and extracted hugh amounts from them by force, (iv) Was removed from the nawabship of Awadh for mismanagement by the British. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i and iv

(d) ii and iii


129. Assertion: After 1748, the nawabs of Awadh came to be called the 'nawabwazirs'. Reason: Since 1748 the nawabs of Awadh held both the nawabship of Awadh and the wazir-ship of the Mughal Empire simultaneously. 130. Assertion: In 1801 Nawab Saadat Ali of Awadh ceded almost half of his territory to the British. Reason: Saadat Ali signed the Subsidiary Treaty with Lord Wellesley. 131.

Assertion: Wazir Ali was the last ruler of Awadh.

Reason: Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1756 on grounds of misgovernment.

ANSWERS

l.(d) 5.(c)

2.(c) 3. r6.(d) 7.

8.

1

WU 11. (b) 12. (a) 21. (d) 22. (a) 31. (c) 32. (a) 41. (c) 42. (a) 51. (b) 52. (c) 61. (c) 62. (b) 71. (c) 72. (d) 81. (a) 82. (a) 91. (a) 92. (d) 101. (d) 107. 111. (a) 117. 121. (d) 127. B232

(b) (a)

13. (c) 23. (b) 33. (d) 43. (d) 53. (d) 63. (d) 73. (c) 83. (c) 93. (c) 102. (c) (b) 108. 112. (d) (d) 118. 122. (c) (d) 128.

4. (b) -^WMBHHBM

14. 24. 34. 44. 54. 64. 74. 84. 94. 103. (a) id 113. (c) 11 123. (a) 12

(d) (c) (b) (b) (a) (a) (b) (d) (b) (d)

15. (b) 25. (d) 35. (c) 45. (c) 55. (a) 65. (b) 75. (d) 85. (c) 95. (c) 104.

16. (d) 26. (a) 36. (d) 46. (d) 56. (c) 66. (c) 76. (a) 86. (b) 96. (a) (d)

17. (a) 27. (b) 37. (a) 47. (a) 57. (d) 67. (a) 77. (d) 87. (c) 97. (d) 105. (c)

18. (e« 28. (c» 38. (d)'*l 48. (c) 1 58. 1 68. (c)'l 78. (d) i 88. (c) 9 98. (b) 9 106. (b)

(b)

114.

(c)

115. (d)

116. (a)

(b) 124. 131. (b)

(b)

125. (c)

126. (a)

SECTON

MODERN INDIA

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142

P44-48 145 I46 §47 |48

H9 049-54 bo bl

P 756

757 Chronology of Events-Modern India

Battle of Jajau, accession of Bahadur Shah I Death of Guru Gobind Singh Death of Bahadur Shah I, accession of Jahandar Shah Accession of Farukh Siyar, murder of Jahandar Shah Hussain Ali becomes viceroy of the Deccan, Treaty between Hussain Ali and the Marathas Execution of Banda Bahadur, Surman Embassy to the Imperial Court Emperor Farukh Siyar's firman to East India Co. Appointment of Murshid Quli Khan as governor of Bengal Farukh Siyar put to death, accession and deposition of puppet emperors, accession of Muhammad Shah Fall of the Sayyid brothers Appointment of Sa'adat Khan as governor of Oudh, virtual independence of the Nizam in the Deccan, appointment of Qamaruddin as wazir Nadir Shah took Delhi and sacked it,

death of Shuja-ud-din and appointment of his son, Sarfaraz, as governor of Bengal, capture of Bassein and Salsette by the Marathas Alivardi Khan defeated and killed Sarfaraz Khan and became Nawab of Bengal Marathas invaded Bengal, appointment of Dupleix as Governor of Pondicherry First Carnatic (Anglo-French) War Rohillas in occupation of Rohilkhand Capture of Madras by La Bourdonnais Invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali Death of Nizam Chinquilich Khan, death of Emperor Muhammad Shah, accession of Ahmad Shah Restoration of Madras to the English Second Carnatic War Defeat and death of Nizam Nasir Jang, Muzaffar Jung became Nizam Capture and defence of Arcot by Robert Clive, death of Muzaffar Jang, accession of Salabat Jang as Nizam, conclusion of treaty by Nawab Alivardi Khan with the Marathas by surrendering Cuttack Recall of Dupleix, Godehu's appointment as governor and his treaty with the English, accession of Alamgir II Death of Alivardi Khan (21 April), accession of Siraj-ud-daula who captured Calcutta (20 June) Recovery of Calcutta by the English (2 Jan.), Delhi and Mathura sacked by Ahmad Shah Abdali (Jan.), treaty of Alinagar between Siraj and the English (9 Feb.), capture of Chandernagore by the English (March), battle of Plassey (23 June), Mir Jafar installed as Nawab (28 June), capture and execution of Siraj-ud-daula (2 July)

C3

C4 Indian History: Modern India

1758-63 1758 1759 1760 1761

1763 1764 1765

1766 1766-69 1767 1770 1772

1773 1774 1775

1776 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784

1785 1786 1790 1792

1793

1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 Third Carnatic War Arrival of Lally in India, occupation of the Panjab by the Masulipatnam captured by Forde Battle of Bedara, Prince Ali Gauhar's futile invasion of BiharJ Alamgir II murdered by Ghaziud-din Battle of Wandiwash, battle of Udgir, installation of Mir Qasim as| Bengal, Vansittart appointed governor in Bengal Third battle of Panipat (14 January), surrender of Pondicherry to 1 accession of Ali Gauhar as Emperor Shah Alam II, appointment of | daula as wazir, Haider Ali king of Mysore Mir Qasim driven out of Bengal and Bihar Battle of Buxar Death of Mir Jafar, second governorship of Clive in Bengal, Allahabad, grant of the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by Sh to the Company Acquisition by the Company of the Northern Circars

First Mysore War Departure of Clive, Verelest, governor in Bengal The Great Bengal Famine Warren Hastings appointed governor of Bengal, death of Peshwa ] Rao, accession and murder of Peshwa Narayan Rao Enactment of the Regulating Act, Peshwaship of Raghunath Rao or 1 Accession of Narayan Rao as peshwa, the Rohilla War, Warren installed as governor general, establishment of Supreme Court in Ca Trial and execution of Nanda Kumar, commencement of the First ] War which continued till 1782 Treaty of Purandhar Convention of Wadgaon Gwalior captured by General Popham, Second Mysore War (1780 Deposition of Chait Singh, Amendment of the Regulating Act Affair of the Begums of Oudh, the treaty of Salbai, death of Haider i Fox's India Bill Treaty of Mangalore closed the Second Mysore War, Pitt's India Act^ Warren Hastings resigned governor generalship Lord Cornwallis appointed governor general Commencement of the Third Mysore War (1790-92) Treaty of Seringapatnam ended the Third Mysore War, Ranjit Singh 1 the leader of a Sikh misl Permanent Settlement of land revenue in Bengal, renewal of the <

Charter, retirement of Lord Cornwallis, Sir John Shore-governor ge Death of Mahadji Sindhia The battle of Kharda or Khardla, death of Ahalya Bai Death of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan, Baji Rao II Peshwa Zaman Shah in the Punjab, death of Nawab Asaf-ud-daula of Oudh Lord Wellesley governor general; acceptance of Subsidiary Alliance I Nizam


P>4 P05

IJ806J1807 1808 1809 P1813

1814 11816 1817-18

1818 *1819

?1820 1823

4824 !1826 f

;1827 !1828 '1829-37 1830 1831

1832 1833 1834 Fourth Mysore War, death of Tipu, fall of Seringapatnam, partition of Mysore, installation of the Hindu Raja's family in Mysore, Ranjit Singh appointed governor of Lahore by Zaman Shah, Malcolm led English mission to Persia, opening of the Baptist Mission at Serampore by William Carey Death of Nana Phadnis Carnatic annexed to the British empire The battle of Poona, Treaty of Bassein The Second Maratha War (1803-5), capture of Aligarh, Battles of Delhi, Assaye, Laswari and Argaon, treaty of Deogaon and cession of Cuttack, treaty of Surji Arjungaon War with the Holkar, defeat of Monson, battle of Deeg Failure of the English siege of Bharatpur, recall of Lord Wellesley, second term of Lord Cornwallis as governor general, death of Lord Cornwallis, Sir George Barlow governor general, treaty with the Holkar Vellore Mutiny Lord Minto I appointed governor general (1807-13) English Missions under Malcolm to Persia and under Elphinstone to Kabul Treaty of Amritsar between the English and Ranjit Singh Company's Charter renewed, retirement of Lord Minto I, appointment of Lord Hastings as governor general (1813-23) Outbreak of War with Nepal (1814-16)

Treaty of Sagauli closed war with Nepal The Pindari war and the Third Maratha War, battles of Kirkee and Sitabaldi, deposition of Appa Shaheb Bhonsle, battle of Mahidpur, treaty with the Holkar Battle of Ashti, defence of Koregaon, surrender of Peshwa Baji Rao II Capitulation of Asirgarh, abolition of the Peshwaship and retirement of Baji Rao II to Bithur as a British pensioner, protective alliances with the states of Rajputana, earthquakes Appointment of Sir Thomas Munro as governor of Madras (1820-27) Departure of Lord Hastings, Mr. Adams acting governor general, Lord Amherst governor general The first Burmese War (1824-26), Barrackpore Mutiny Fall of Bharatpur, treaty of Yandabo, annexation of Assam, Arakan and Tennasserim The Enterprise, a man-of-war propelled by steam, lay off Madras Lord William Bentinck appointed governor general (1828-36) Suppression of Thuggee Annexation of Cachar, Raja Rammohan Roy visited England Deposition of the Raja of Mysore and assumption of its administration by the English, journey of Burnes up the Indus, meeting at Rupar between Ranjit Singh and Lord William Bentinck Annexation of Jaintia Renewal of the Company's Charter, various reforms

Annexation of Coorg, institution of law member in Supreme Council with Lord Macaulay as the first incumbent


1835

1836 1837-38 1838 1839

1840 1841 1842

1843 1844

1845 1846 1848

1849

1850 1852

1853

1854 1855 1856

1857 1858

1859 Foundation of Calcutta Medical College, Education Resolution, i Lord William Bentinck, Sir Charles Metcalfe officiating gove abolition of Press restrictions Appointment of Lord Auckland as governor general (1836-42) Famine in North India Tripartite treaty of the English with Shah Shuja and Ranjit Singh New treaty forced on the Amirs of Sind; death of Ranjit Singh, Fill War (1839-42), Capture of Ghazni and occupation of Kabul Risings of Afghan tribes, deposition of Dost Muhammad Murder of Bumes and Macnaghten by the Afghans British disaster in Afghanistan, retirement to Jalalabad of Dr. Br Lord Ellenborough became governor general (1842-44), relief of ] reoccupation of Kabul, restoration of Dost Muhammad, British < Afghanistan War with the Amirs of Sind, battles of Miani and Dabo, annexatio battle of Maharajpur, suppression of slavery Recall of Lord Ellenborough, Lord Hardinge became governor! (1844-48) The First Sikh War (1845^6), battles of Mudki and Ferozpur Battles of Aliwal and Sobraon, Treaty of Lahore

Lord Dalhousie became governor general (1848-56), revolt of Mil Second Sikh War (1848-49), enunciation of the Doctrine of Lapse i ation of Satara Battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat, annexation of the Punjab, School for girls started in Calcutta, annexation of Jaitpur and Samb Penal annexation of a part of Sikkim Second Burmese War, annexation of Pegu, death of ex-Peshwa Baji j and stoppage of his pension Opening of first railway in India from Calcutta to Thana, laying oft line from Calcutta to Agra, annexation of Nagpur and Jhansi, cession ( by the Nizam, renewal of the Company's Charter, entrance into I.C.S.i open to competition Education Despatch of Sir Charles Wood The Santal insurrection Annexation of Oudh, the Indian Universities Act, Religious Disabilitie Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act, departure of Lord Dalhousie and i ment of Lord Canning as Governor General, end of Crimean War, < Service Order, Persian War, war in China (1856-60), introduction i Enfield rifle and greased cartridges Beginning of the Revolt or Sepoy Mutiny, foundation of Calcutta,' and Madras Universities Trial of Emperor Bahadur Shah (Jan-March), proclamation of peace by | Canning (July), Act for the better government of India (August),

Proclamation (Nov), Lord Canning appointed Viceroy (Nov.) Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse, gradual restoration of order, indigo dis in Bengal (1859-60)


Enactment of Indian Penal Code Indian Councils Act, establishment of High Courts, Civil Service Act, Famine in N.W. India, enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure Retirement of Lord Canning, Lord Elgin I appointed Viceroy (1862-63), amalgamation of Supreme and Sadar Courts into high courts Sir John Lawrence appointed viceroy Bhutan War Orissa famine (1865-67), opening of telegraphic communication with Europe Opening of railway from Ambala to Delhi Lord Mayo became Viceroy (1869-72), visit of the Duke of Edinborough Murder of Lord Mayo, Lord Northbrook appointed viceroy (1872-76) Famine in Bihar (1873-74) Deposition of Malhar Rao Gaekwad, visit of Edward, Prince of Wales Retirement of Lord Northbrook, Lord Lytton I became viceroy (1876-80), the Royal Titles Act, occupation of Quetta, outbreak of famine in the Deccan Delhi Durbar (1 Jan.), Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India Vernacular Press Act, Second Afghan War (1878-80) Resignation of Lord Lytton I, Lord Ripon viceroy (1880-84) Rendition of Mysore, first Factory Act, first general census Repeal of Vernacular Press Act, Hunter Commission

Beginning of legislation establishing local self-government in India, the Ilbert Bill Resignation of Lord Ripon, Lord Dufferin viceroy Third Burmese War, First meeting of the Indian National Congress, Bengal Local Self-Govemment Act Annexation of Upper Burma, restoration of Gwalior fort Queen Victoria's Jubilee Resignation of Lord Dufferin and Lord Lansdowne became viceroy (1888-94) Second visit of Edward, Prince of Wales Second Factory Act, Age of Consent Act, Manipur Rebellion Indian Councils Act Durand's Mission to Kabul, Vivekanada in U.S.A. Lord Elgin II Viceroy (1894-99) Plague in Bombay (1896-1900), famine (1896-97) Famine Commission Lord Curzon Viceroy (1899-1905) Famine, Land Alienation Act Death of Queen Victoria and accession of King Edward VII, North West Frontier Province created Tibetan expedition (1903-04) Indian Universities Act, Co-operative Society Act Partition of Bengal, Lord Minto II Viceroy (1905-10), Morley Secretary of

State for India, Swadeshi and boycotti Foundation of the Muslim League, Calcutta Congress, President Dadabhai Naoroji declared 'Swaraj' as the goal of the Congress


1907 1908 1909

1910 1911

1912

1913 1914

1915 1916

1917 1918

1919 1920

1921

1922 1923

1925

1926 1927

1928 1929

1930

1931 Anglo-Russian Convention, Congress split at Surat Newspapers Act Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms), terrorists' Indian (S.P. Sinha) appointed to the Viceroy's Executive Council Lord Hardinge Viceroy (1910-16) ; King George V and his Queen visited India, Delhi Durbar, Partitio modified, transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi announced Removal of Imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi, constitution < province of Bihar and Orissa, Lord Haydinge wounded by a bon Nobel Prize for Rabindranath Tagore \ The First World War, Declaration of War (4 Aug.), landing of 1 in France (26 Sept.) Defence of India Act Lord Chelmsford Viceroy (1916-21), Saddler Commission, Pact between the Congress and the League, foundation of the i Leagues, foundation of the Women's University at Poona Pronouncement by Mr Montague, secretary of state, in the <

Commons Indians declared eligible for King's Commission, Indian Natio Federation, publication of Montague Chelmsford Report and same in the Parliament, end of the First World War Government of India Act, 1919, Punjab disturbances The Khilafat Movement, death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the : Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started the Nd tion Movement, Lord Sinha appointed Governor of Bihar and ( Continuance of Non-cooperation movement, Chamber of rebellion, visit of Edward, Prince of Wales, General Census, viceroy (1921-26) Resignation of Montague, withdrawal of Non-cooperation Mov Foundation of Swaraj Party, certification of Salt Tax, decision i command of certain regiments of the Indian army Death of C R Das, formation of the Inter-University Board, officiated viceroy Lord Irwin Viceroy (1926-31), devaluation of the rupee Appointment of Simon Commission, National Congress at its 1 adopted independence as the goal of Indian national aspirations All Parties Conference, the Nehru Report Lord Irwin's announcement (31 Oct) that the natural issue of 1 national progress was the attainment of Dominion Status, the ] and 'Poorna Swaraj' Resolution

Civil Disobedience Movement started on 6 April, Report| Commission, rebellion in Burma, First Session of the Conference Irwin-Gandhi Pact (5 March), census of India, Second Session < Table Conference which Gandhiji attended (Sept. Dec.), Lord Viceroy (1931-36)


1946

1947

August 15, 1947

October 1947 November 1947 January 1948 January 30, 1948 September 1948 November 1948 Imprisonment of Gandhiji (Jan.), Congress proscribed, severe repression, Communal Award (Aug.), Gandhiji's fast, Poona Pact, foundation of the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun White Paper on proposed reforms published, Joint Select Committee Civil Disobedience Movement called off, Bihar earthquake, Factories Act, Royal Indian Navy created Government of India Act Death of King Emperor George V, accession and abdication of Edward VIII, accession of George VI, Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy (1936) Provincial autonomy inaugurated (1 April), Interim Ministries, Viceregal statement (June), formation of Congress Ministries in six provinces (July), Federal Court started Second World War (3 September), Viceroy consulted Indian leaders, Congress demand an immediate definition of war aims. Viceroy's announcement (17 Oct.) of Dominion Status to be the goal of constitutional development after the war, resignation of the Provincial Congress Ministries Muslim League declares for Pakistan Subhas Bose jumped home internment and went over land to Germany British capitulation in Burma and evacuation leaving 90,000 Indian soldiers behind, Japan

bombarded Vizag (April), Cripps Mission, 'Quit India' Movement started disturbances and repression, Bengal famine, imprisonment of Congress leaders The Bengal famine, Lord Wavell, governor general (1943--47) Japanese invasion of Assam, INA, repulse of the Japanese and of the INA near Kohima in Manipur Japan surrendered, general elections in India, Muslim League captured majority of Muslim seats in all provinces except NWFP while the Congress captured the majority of the general seats in all provinces and at the Centre Revolt of the RIN (18 Feb.), Cabinet Mission in India, Direct Action Day (16 Aug.) observed by the Muslim League with bloody communal riots in Calcutta, communal riots in Dacca (20 Aug.), formation of the Interim Govt. (2 Sept.), communal riots in Noakhali and Tipperah (14 Oct.), communal riots in Bihar (25 Oct.), Muslim League joined the Interim Govt. (26 Oct.), first session of the Constituent Assembly (9 Dec.) Lord Mountbatten governor-general, communal riots in the Panjab, Mountbatten's announcement of the grant of independence on the basis of the partition of India into India and Pakistan (3 June), Independence of India Act (15 Aug.) India obtains Independence from the British; Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Indian Prime Minister "\ Maharaja of Kashmir accedes to Indian Sovereignty John Mathai presents the First Railway Budget Reserve Bank of India nationalised Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in New Delhi Troops of Government of India enter Hyderabad state B. R. Ambedkar presents first Draft Constitution to Constituent Assembly

CIO Indian History: Modem India

January 1, 1949 September 1949 November 26, 1949 January 26, 1950 March 1950 July 1951 October 25, 1951February21, 1952 1952

1953

December 29,1953 April 1954 July 1954 December 1954 1955 May 18, 1955 June 1, 1955 1956 January 1956 June 17, 1956 February 24-June 9 1957 September 1957 February 1958

1959

March 1959 October 1959 April 19, 1960 1960 January 21, 1961 December 19, 1961 February 16-June 6, 1962 October 1962 January 1963 August 10, 1963 May 27, 1964 June 09,1964 United Nations monitored cease fire takes effect in Kashmir Rupee devalued by approximately 31 percent New Constitution of India adopted and signed Constitution of India comes into force Planning Commission set up First Five year plan set in motion

First General Election Atomic Energy establishment set up in Bombay; Chandernagar i with India Private Airlines are nationalised; Chandigarh inaugurated all Punjab States Reorganisation Commission India concludes treaty with China Nehru inaugurates Bhakhra Dam Imperial Bank renamed as State Bank of India

Chinese troops enter India's Garhwal district in Uttar Pradesh Hindu Marriage Act is amended Untouchability Act comes into force Second Five year Plan Nationalisation of Insurance Companies Hindu Succession Act Second General Election held Wealth Tax Bill passed Finance Minister T.T. Krishnamachari resigns following Mu scandal Oil and Natural Gas Corporation set up; Television transmissia in New Delhi; Indo-Portuguese dispute Dalai Lama flees from Tibet to India Military confrontation with China in Aksai Chin Meeting of Afro-Asian Conference at New Delhi Bombay Presidency bifurcated into Maharashtra and Gujarat! Arrival of Queen Elizabeth at New Delhi Liberation of Goa Third General Election Indo-China war Gold Control Order comes into force The Kamraj Plan Jawaharlal Nehru dies '

Lai Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minister

dqrtar 15

, BRITISH EXPANSION

J5.1 CARNATICWARS

t War (1745-48)

f The chronology of the main events of the war is (listed as under:

Capture of the French ships by the English navy under Barnett (1745) and retaliation of the French under Dupleix by the capture of Madras (1746). Appeal of the English to the Carnatic nawab to save them from the French and secure the release of Madras from the French. Refusal of the French to obey the nawab (Anwarud-din) and the battle between the forces of the nawab (10,000) and the French (around 1,000) at St. Thome which resulted in a severe defeat to the Nawab, exposing the weakness of the traditional Indian armies against the European trained armies. End of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe resulting in the end of AngloFrench hostilities in India (1748) and restoration of Madras to the English by the French.

Second War (1749-54)

The main events of the war were:

French support to Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib in Hyderabad and Carnatic respectively.

English support to their opponents in the two states (Nasir Jung in Hyderabad and Anwarud-din and later his son Muhammad Ali in the Carnatic).

Success of the French in both states in defeating and murdering their opponents and placing their supporters on the thrones in 1749. Capture of Arcot by the English under Clive (1751) and successive defeats of the French by the English. Capture and execution of Chanda Sahib (he was killed by a general of Tanjore, an ally of the British during the war--1752) and placement of Muhammad Ali on the throne of the Carnatic. Futile efforts of Dupleix to reverse the trend (1753-54), and his recall by the French government (1754). Retention of French position at Hyderabad through their agent Bussy.

Third War (1758-63)

The significant events of the war were:

Outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe in 1756, the capture of Chandranagore by Clive and Watson (1757) in Bengal and the arrival of Count de Lally to retrieve the position of the French in India (1758).

C11


Defeat of the French fleet under d' Ache by the English navy under Pocock in three naval battles, and the departure of d'Ache for France (1759). Defeat of Count Lally by the English General Eyre Coote in the Battle of Wandiwash (a fort in the Carnatic state) (January 22, 1760). Replacement of the French by the English as the Nizam's protectors (March, 1760), surrender of Pondicherry to the English (1761) and loss of all other settlements in India by the French. Conclusion of peace and restoration of the settle ments to the French (1763).

15.2 CONQUEST OF BENGAL Battle of Plassey (1757)

Causes The causes which led to the battle of Plassey were:

Misinterpretation of the Mughalfarman (declara tion) of 1717 by the British, and their ^misuse of the dastaks or free passes. Personality of Siraj-ud-daula: Being young and energetic, though inexperienced and hasty, the new nawab wanted to impose the same restric tions as was done by his predecessors on the British, who now felt strong enough to oppose his authority after their success in south India. The fortification of Calcutta by the British against the Nawab's orders.

Course Plassey, more correctly 'Palasi' (from the palas trees that abound in the area), is the name of a village and paragana, 20 miles from Murshidabad. On June 23, 1757 it was the scene of a battle fought between the British forces and those of Nawab Sirajuddaulah. The former, under Robert Clive, numbered 613 European infantry, 100 Eurasian soldiers, 171 pieces of artillery and 2,100 Indian infantry; the latter was estimated at 35,000 infantry, 15,000 cavalry, 53 pieces of artillery under the command of

40. or 50 Frenchmen. Considering the numbers involved, the losses on both sides were insignificant, the English casualties being 52 sepoys and 20 Europeans killed or wounded, whil numbered about five hundred. The agility of the English, unscrupulous employment of I conspiracy in the enemy's camp, for the English victory. Only twolj Madan and Mohan Lai fought, three--Mir Jafar, Yar Lutuf Durlabh--secretly in league with agents stood aside as mere specti

Results and significance:

The Battle of Plassey

Paved the way for the British i and eventually the whole of India. Boosted the prestige of the Bri them a major contender for the ] Enabled the Company and its : untold wealth at the cost of the ] Marked the beginning of the drains India to Britain, that is, economic i India by the British..

Battle of Buxar (1764)

Causes The causes for the battle of 1

Conflict for sovereign power and Mir Qasim, the nawab of 1 Misuse of the farman of 1717 and i the British, and the abolition of 1 internal trade by the nawab. Misbehaviour of the British withal cials and the oppression of the lo company's servants.

Course The town of Buxar lies soniej ters to the west of Patna. A battle was I October 22, 1764 between British Major Hector Munro and the con Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daula and Sh English troops numbered 7,702, Europeans, 5,297 sepoys and 918 The forces of the allies are said to '.

British Expansion C13

I fifty thousand. Lack of coordination among i disparate allies, each with a different axe to 'was responsible for their decisive defeat. Ijtish losses are said to have been 847 killed and , while the three Indian allies accounted for (dead; many more were wounded. Mir Qasim, vas not a good general, depends^ heavily upon i mercenaries--the brigades of Marker |
i and significance:

I Battle of Buxar

de the British the de facto rulers of Bengal, ; Bihar and Orissa (dual government). * if Made the nawab of Awadh a dependent of the 'Company and the Mughal emperor its pensioner, thus raising the prestige of the company. ^Demonstration of the superiority of the English in military skills and arms.

i on the Governors of Calcutta or Fort (1756-72)

i (1756-58) Capture of Calcutta by Siraj and ilck Hole Episode; recapture of Calcutta by Clive; tleofPlassey.

i (1758-60) Election of Clive as governor by s Council of Calcutta (June 1758) and legalisation ef this election by the home authorities of the Company (December 1756); departure of Clive to ngland (February 1760).

art (1760-65) Replacement of Mir Jafar by I Mir Qasim as the Nawab (1760) and reinstatement of j-Mir Jafar (1763); Battle of Buxar (1764); death of liMir Jafar and succession of Najmuddaula; conclufflion of a treaty (February 20, 1765) with the new : nawab--administration to be left in the hands of a deputy subahdar who would be nominated by the British and who could not be dismissed by the nawab f; .without their consent; major part of the army of the nawab to be disbanded. Clive (1765-67) Return of Clive to India (May 1765) to serve his second term as governor. A tripartite treaty was concluded at Allahabad on August 16,1765 by Robert Clive on behalf of the Company, Najm-ud-daula (Mir Jafar's son and successor and the then titular ruler of Bengal) and Shujauddaula. According to its terms:

Oudh was to be restored to Shuja-ud-daula with the exception of the two districts of Allahabad and Kara, which were given to Shah Alam. Mutual assistance to be given by the parties to each other in the event of an attack by another power. Shuja was to pay Rs 50 lakh as war indemnity. Raja Balwant Singh was to continue to hold Benaras, Ghazipur and other districts. Shuja was to maintain, at his expense, an English garrison and also to grant trading privileges to the Company throughout his dominion. Four days before the conclusion of the treaty, the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam had conferred upon the Company the diwani rights of the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. In return, he was to receive from the revenues of Bengal an annual grant of Rs 26 lakh but revert his royal jagir to the Company.

Verelst (1767-69) and Cartier (1769-72)

Warren Hastings (1772-73) He abolished the Dual Government, pensioned off the nawab, took over the direct charge of administering Bengal, concluded the Treaty of Benaras (1773) with the nawab of Awadh. The treaty, signed on 7 September, stipulated that:

The two districts of Kara and Allahabad would be sold to the nawab wazir. Since the emperor, to whom these districts had been initially ceded in return for his conferment of the rights of diwani on the Company in 1765, had transferred his

allegiance to the Marathas and to that extent forfeited his claim to British gratitude and these


territories, they were now sold to the nawab. In lieu, the latter was required to pay Rs SO lakh to the Company. The Nawab would defray the expenses of the troops maintained by the Company for his help and assistance at Rs 2.1 lakh per month for a brigade whenever needed.

15.3 MYSORE AND ITS RESISTANCE TO BRITISH EXPANSION

First War (1766-69)

Causes The main causes for this war were:

Haider's ambition to drive the British away from the Carnatic and finally from India and the British realisation of the threat posed to them by Haider. A tripartite alliance was formed against Haider by the British, the Nizam and the Marathas. Haider's success in breaking the alliance and dec laration of war on the British.

Course The main events of the war were:

Brilliant victories of Haider over the British and his appearance within five miles of Madras in March 1769. End of the war and conclusion of a defensive treaty (April, 1769).

Treaty of Madras (1769) It was signed by Haider AH and the allies, consisting of the Company, the Raja of Tanjore, the Malabar ruler. It provided that:

a mutual restitution of conquests take place except for Karur and its districts, which were to be retained by the Mysore ruler; in case either of the parties was attacked, the other would rally to its assistance; all the captured employees of the Madras govern ment were to be released by Haider Ali; the Raja of Tanjore was to be treated as a friend and ally of Haider Ali; and the trade privileges of Bombay Presidency and English factories were to be restored. Second War (1780-84)

Causes The main causes which led to 1 war were:

Mutual distrust and refusal of the '. fil the terms of the defensive treaty ' when he was attacked by the Marathas i Outbreak of hostilities between the the French (an ally of Haider) American War of Independence. British capture of Mahe, a French within Haider's jurisdiction. For alliance by Haider with the Nizam and 1 against the English in 1779.

Course The course of the second war"1 chronicled as:

Defeat of Colonel Baillie and seizure of] Haidgr (1780). Defeat of Haider by Sir Eyre Coote at I (1781). Defeat of Colonel Braithwaite by Haiderl Capture of Brigadier Mathews and hisj Tipu(1783). End of the war and conclusion of the' Mangalore (March 1784) by Tipu Macartney (governor of Madras).

Treaty of Mangalore (1784) The Treaty i that:

The two parties were not to assist enemies directly or indirectly, nor : each other's allies. The trade privileges granted to the i Haider Ali in 1770 were to be restored, \ no additional benefits would accrue. Born sides agreed to a mutual restoratio sessions (barring the forts of Amb Satgur), and Tipu undertook not to claims on the Carnatic in future. Tipu agreed to release all prisoners of \ bering 1,680). Tipu was to restore the factory and possessed by the Company at Calicut i

British Expansion CIS

Causes were: I War (1790-92)

Following are the main causes which led fthird war:

cess of Tipu in strengthening his position by Icing various internal reforms; appreheni of the British, the nizam and the Marathas. npts of Tipu to acquire the help of France rid Turkey by sending envoys to those countries |787). gement of his territories by Tipu at the cost his neighbours, particularly the Raja of avancore, who was an ally of the British §1789), and elusion of an alliance by the British with the fern and the Marathas against Tipu (1790).

The war witnessed the following events:

Bjefeat of Major-General Medows by Tipu (1790) land assumption of command by Cornwallis him-Ptelf (January 1791). 'Success of Cornwallis in surrounding f Seringapatam after some initial setbacks '^February 1792). I End of the war with the signing of the treaty of f Seringapatam (March 1792).

of Seringapatam (1792) It was signed by i on the one hand and the English and their allies t Nizam and the Peshwa) on the other. The treaty ilated that:

the earlier treaties between the English and the rulers of Mysore stood confirmed. Tipu was to cede half his territories, which were to be shared among the three allies; the territory to be ceded to the Nizam and the Marathas was to be 'adjacent to their respective boundaries', while that to the north and east of the river Kaveri were to be part of the Company's dominion and those to the south and west of the river Tipu's. Tipu was to make immediate payment of Rs 1.6 crore out of the total indemnity agreed upon (Rs 3.6 crore) while the remainder (Rs 2 crore) was to be given in three instalments.

Tipu was also to order the release of all prisoners ofwar. Pending fulfilment of these terms, two of his sons were to be detained as (British) hostages.

In terms of territory, the Nizam obtained the lion's share, while the Marathas also extended their boundary to the Tungabhadra and the Krishna. The English secured large chunks on the Malabar coast from the north of Cannanore to the south of the Ponnani river, with Coorg as its defensive hinterland. In addition, they obtained the Baramahal district as well as Dindigul. But ironically the Raja of Travancore, on whose behalf ostensibly the war had been fought, got virtually nothing.

Fourth War (1799)

The main reasons behind the Fourth War

Desire of Tipu to avenge his humiliating defeat and the terms imposed on him by the British and his success in making Mysore strong once again. Tipu's efforts to seek help from the Revolu tionary France and the^Muslims of Arabia, Kabul and Turkey in order to expel the British from India (He sent emissaries to these countries, and a small French force even landed at Mangalore in April 1798). Determination of Lord Wellesley (the new gover nor general) to remove the threat from Tipu once for all.

Course The Fourth war witnessed the following events:

Defeat of Tipu first by Stuart at Sedaseer (5th March) and then by General Harris at Malvelley (27th March). Retreat of Tipu to Seringapatam where he died defending it (4th May). Arthur Wellesley, who was the brother of the governor general and who was to defeat Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo, also participated in this war. Annexation of the major part of Mysore by the British and restoration of a small part of it to a


successor (Krishnaraja III--a boy of five years) of the former Hindu Raja of Wodeyar Dynasty. Signing of a subsidiary treaty by the new Raja with British (1799). In 1831, William Bentinck took over the administration of Mysore because of misgovernment by its ruler, but in 1881 Lord Ripon restored it to its Raja.

15.4 ANGLO-MARATHA WARS AND TREATIES

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

Causes The factors which led to the first Anglo-Maratha war were:

Struggle for power among the Marathas (bet ween Sawai Madhav Rao, supported by Nana Phadnis, and Raghunath Rao, uncle of Madhav Rao). Attempts of the British to take advantage of this struggle by intervening on behalf of one party (namely, Raghunath Rao).

Course The First Anglo-Maratha war witnessed the following:

Defeat of British by the Marathas at Talegaon (1776). March of British army under Goddard from Calcutta to Ahmadabad through central India (which itself was a great military feat in those days) and the brilliant victories on the way (1779-80). Stalemate and deadlock for two years (1781-82).

Consequences This war resulted in the following:

Treaty of Salba'i (1782) by which the status quo was maintained, and gave the British 20 years of peace with the Marathas. The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pres sure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territoris from Haider AH. Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved them selves from the combined opposition of Indian powers, and on the other succeeded in dividing the Indian powers. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) Causes The main causes behind the war w|

Wellesley's aggressive policy of inti the internal affairs of the Marathas--his < impose Subsidiary Alliance on the 1 Opportunity provided to the British by I of almost all wise and experienced Marat! ers by the end of the 18th century. Fratricidal strife among the Maratha chie ing to the signing of the Subsidiary Bassein (1802) by the Peshwa (Baji Rao 1 the British.

Results This war resulted in the following;:

Defeat of the combined forces of Sir Bhonsle by the British under Arthur Welle Assaye and Argaon in 1803 and the conclu Subsidiary Treaties with them. Failure of British to defeat Holkar and i peace with him by signing the Tre Rajpurghat. Establishment of British interests in the 1 Empire. Thus, the war resulted in the company 1 the paramount power in India.

Pindari War (1817-18) The depredations Pindaris and their erstwhile allies, the Pa gradually spread to areas directly held, or indii ruled, by the Company. With the approval Court of Directors, the then governor-ge Hastings assembled a large force to round exterminate the seemingly lawless Pindari and their chiefs--Karim Khan, Wasil Muha and Chitu.

Surrounded in Malwa, the Pindaris fled to 1 but were forced to retreat, suffering heavy i in the process. Karim Khan submitted and| offered an estate at Gawashpur; Wasil Mu was forced to lay down arms and died in ca Chitu was defeated and not heard of again, operations lasting over a year, the Pindaris we tually annihilated.


1arathaWar(1817-18)

The two main causes of the war were:

at of the Marathas against the loss of r freedom to the British. I control exercised by the British Residents I Maratha Chiefs.

CBS The war resulted in the following:

onement of the Peshwa (he was pensioned | and sent to Bithur near Kanpur) and the hexation of all his territories by the British (the ition of the Bombay Presidency). ation of the kingdom of Satara out of the hwa's lands to satisfy Maratha pride. Heeding of large territories by the Maratha jjuefs to the company. s, after this war, the Maratha chiefs too existed (the mercy of the British.

MARATHA TREATIES

' of Surat (1775) For a long time the Court ^Directors had been asking the Bombay ncy to acquire among others the strategically 1 islands of Salsette and Bassein by peaceful s, if possible, or by force, if necessary. The

of Peshwa Madhav Rao (1772) came as a sing for the British, as both Raghoba and ayana Rao were rival claimants to the now nt throne. When Raghoba had Narayan Rao ;red in 1773, the Maratha sardars under Nana nis turned against him. Raghoba now fled to and sought the Company's support. The ay government, only too eager to fish in trou-waters, signed with him a treaty on March 6, 75. According to the treaty:

f the earlier treaties between the Company and the i Peshwa were confirmed. an English contingent of 2,500 men was to be . placed at the disposal of Raghoba for supporting his candidature for the Peshwaship. Raghoba was to deposit jewellery worth Rs 6 lakh as security in British custody, as well as pay half a lakh rupees every month for the upkeep of the army. He agired to cede to the British, in perpetuity, Bassein, Salsette and the four islands adjacent to Bombay. Maratha raids into Bengal and the Carnatic were to cease and any peace made by Raghoba with the authorities in Poona was not to exclude the English.

This treaty was later to involve the Company actively in the prolonged hostilities of the First Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Purandhar (1776) The Bombay Presidency's decision to lend its support in 1773 to Raghunath Rao's claims to the Peshwaship was disapproved by the Calcutta Council which asked Bombay to reopen negotiations with the ruling group in the Peshwa's court at Poona. After protracted negotiations, the ruling group signed a treaty with the British on March 1, 1776, according to which:

the Company would restore Salsette and its surrounding islands.

Poona agreed to pay Rs 12 lakh as war indemnity. The Company was to restore those parts of Gujarat ceded to them by Raghunath Rao or the Gaekwad. All treaties made with Raghoba and the Gaekwad stood annulled, while those of 1739 and 1756 concluded with the Peshwa's court were reaf firmed.

Treaty of Wadgaon (1779) It was a sequel to the rout of the Company's retreating troops at Wadgaon on January 12, 1779. The treaty was signed on January 16, by Mahadji Sindhia on behalf of the Marathas, and Colonel John Carnac, representing Bombay army. It stipulated that:

The Bombay government would no longer pro tect Raghunath Rao or Raghoba and would sur render all acquisitions made by it since 1773. The troops advancing from Bengal were to be stopped and a sum of Rs 41,000 and two hostages

CIS Indian History: Modern India

(William Farmer and Charles Stewart) surrendered as security for fulfilling this condition. Broach was to be handed over to Sindhia.

But both the Bombay and Bengal governments later disapproved of and repudiated the treaty, maintaining that Colonel Carnac had exceeded instructions and lacked authority to conclude it.

Treaty of Salbai (1782} Salbai, located 32 kms to the south of Gwalior, became the venue for a treaty signed between Mahadji Sindhia, acting for the Peshwa Madhav Rao, and the British, on May 17, 1782, ending the First Anglo-Maratha War. The treaty stipulated that:

The Company was to restore all territories cap tured by them (including Bassein) to the Peshwa, and return to him and the Gaekwad territories taken in Gujarat. Salsette and its three neighbouring islands as well as the city of Broach, were to remain with the British. Territories granted earlier to the Company by Raghunath Rao would be restored to the Marathas. The Company was not to afford Raghunath Rao any support or protection. The Peshwa was to make Haider Ali relinquish his claims to British territory. Both parties were to abstain from attacking each other's allies, while the Peshwa would neither support any other European power nor allow it to settle in his dominions without the English con sent. The Company's trade privileges were to be restored.

The treaty had great importance, particularly for the Company. It was, in fact, a turning point in its career, securing peace with the Marathas for nearly 20 years to come and establishing beyond dispute its predominance as an important control ling factor in Indian politics.

Treaty of Bassein (1802) At the beginning of the 19th century, the Marathas had shown signs of drifting apart, with a weak central authority and mutual jealousies and wrangles marking! Daulat Rao Sindhia and Yashv fought for supremacy at the peshwa's^ ter had Malhar Rao Holkar mu son Kande Rao prisoner; a little la Rao II got Vithoji Holkar mu Yashwant Rao to march to Poona.t Sindhia, even though pre-occupied in?j troops to the peshwa's rescue but forces were bested by Holkar. Baji 1 and reached Bassein to seek an alii English to re-establish his authority..) on December 13, 1802, a subsid signed whereby the peshwa virtually^ his own independence as well as that.< According to this treaty of Bassein,' return for a defensive alliance which i agreed:

to maintain a subsidiary force of < with a proportionate artiller, the ; of which was estimated to be Rs ?S agreed not to entertain any foreign] tile to the British in his service; to accept British intercession to i ences with the Nizam and the Ga to negotiate with any other state I with the two of them; not to negotiate with any other i Company's prior permission; and to relinquish for ever all his rights I the city of Surat.

Next, a supplementary treaty was Poona on December 16, 1803, which! addition of a regiment of native British subsidiary force. The Treaty of Bassein, thus, gave) legitimate right to interfere in the Peslnj tic affairs. Its rejection by the other 1 led to the Second Anglo-Maratha War ii sequent break-up of the confederacy, torians regarded the Treaty as one important land-marks of British India, while contemporary Englishr marked a distinct change in the footii


ny stood in western India. Unfortunatipeshwa was a broken reed to lean upon ||he words of Arthur Wellesley, it was 'a i a cipher (that is the Peshwa)'.

| Of Deogaon (1803) On December 17, huji Bhonsle and the Company concluded ' of Deogaon in the course of the Second daratha War, Under the treaty, Bhonsle [to:

I the province of Cuttack, including Balasore, i gave the Company control over a continul stretch of the eastern seaboard and linked the Bidencies of Bengal and Madras; el all foreigners from his service; pt British arbitration in all his disputes with 5 nizam or the peshwa; t treaties concluded by the British with his atories; ciate himself and his successors from the nfederacy and other Maratha chiefs; and pt a British envoy at his court (Mount Stuart Elphinstone was appointed in that capacity).

of Surji Arjangaon (1803) Concluded on nber 30, 1803, Sindhia, by this treaty, agreed

Lcede all territory between the Ganga and the Yamuna; I give up his control over the imperial cities of |Delhi and Agra as well as the Rajput states; have an 'accredited minister' at his court (John Malcolm was designated as the first British envoy); surrender parts of Bundelkhand, Ahmadnagar, Broach and territories west of the Ajanta hills; accept the treaty of Bassein; |i renounce all claims on the peshwa, the Mughal emperor, the nizam, the gaekwad and the English Company and to accept the latter as a sovereign authority; and not to employ in his service any European without the consent of the British. In return, the Company promised to:

provide Sindhia a force of six battalions of infantry, its expenses being defrayed from the revenues of lands ceded by him; and restore to Bhonsle Asirgarh, Burhanpur, Powanghur and Dohud and territories in Khandesh and Gujarat depending on these forts.

By the supplementary treaty of Burhanpur (February 27, 1804), the British agreed to support him with a subsidiary force.

Treaty of Rajpurghat (1805) Signed on December 24, 1805, under this treaty, Yashvantrao Holkar agreed:

to renounce all claims to the area north of the Bundi hills; never to entertain in his service any European.

On their part, the British promised:

not to disturb Holkar's possessions in Mewar and Malwa or interfere with the rulers south of the Chambal; and to restore those of his possessions situated south of the river Tapti.

Later, on February 2, 1806, the British renounced all claims to territory north of the Bundi hills. The treaty marked the end of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Poona (1817) The British were apprehensive lest Peshwa Baji Rao II stir up anti-British sentiments as well as strengthen his army for hostile action. A new compact, which was a supplement to the earlier Treaty of Bassein, was signed on June 13, 1817. According to the new treaty, the Peshwa agreed to:

cede to the British some more lands in perpetuity; and abide by all the articles in the treaty of Bassein, not contrary to the new compact.

Treaty of Gwalior (1817) As part of the preparations for launching his campaign against the Pindaris, Lord Hastings concluded this treaty with


Daulat Rao Sindhia on November 5, 1817. According to it:

both the parties would deploy their forces in oper ations against the Pindaris and other free-hooters; Sindhia would never readmit the Pindaris nor lend them any support; Sindhia was to place 5,000 horsemen in active operations against the Pindaris; Sindhia's troops were not to change positions without the concurrence of the British nor was he to augment his forces during the war; British forces would be permitted into the forts of Handing and Asirgarh; notwithstanding the earlier Treaty of Surji Arjangaon, the British were at liberty to enter into engagements with the rulers of Udaipur, Jodhpur, Kotah, Bundhi and other states on the left bank of the Chambal; and details of the earlier treaties of Surji Arjangaon and Mustafapur (November 22, 1805) which were not affected by provisions of the new agree ment were to remain in full force.

This treaty virtually made Sindhia a mere spectator in the now impending Third AngloMaratha War.

Treaty of Mandasor (1818) It was concluded on January 6, 1818 by Malhar Rao Holkar II in the course of the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Under its terms, Holkar agreed to:

confirm a British commitment to the Pindari chief, Nawab Amir Khan, and renounce all claims to territories guaranteed to him; cede in perpetuity to Raja Zalim Singh of Kotah the four parganas rented by the Raja;

cede to the British claims of tribute and revenues on the Rajas of Udaipur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kotah, Bundi and Karauli; renounce all claims to territories within or north of the Bundi hills; cede to the British all territories and claims south of the Satpura hills; the stationing of a British field force to maintain his internal security;

discharge his superfluous not to keep a larger force i could sustain; not to employ any En Company's consent; and receive an accredited British i

In turn, the British undertook Peshwa or his heirs and success cise any sovereign rights over heirs and successors.

15.5 ANGLO-SIKH WARS

First War (1845-46)

Causes The main reasons behind were:

Anarchy in Punjab after the Murder of three rulers (Kharak Sui Singh and Sher Singh) withip (1839-45); succession of Dalip Siti old son of Ranjit) (1845); absence i over the army (Khalsa). British policy of encirclement of^ 1833 itself (occupation of Feroz Sikharpur in 1836, and appoint! Residents at Ludhiana and in SindJ their military preparations (incr from 2,500 in 1836 to 14,000 in If Confirmation of the suspicions of < by the annexation of Sind by the ]

Course The course of events in th|| follows:

Defeat of the Sikh army under Lai I Minister) by Sir Hugh Gough at MtJ Defeat of Sikh army under Tej Singh( in-chief) by the British at Ferozpur (t| Defeat of the British under Harry Sikhs under Ranjur Singh Majhithiaj (1846). Defeat of Sikhs by Smith at Sobroan (1846) (the second one


: hardest-fought battles in Indian history) and ssing of the Sutlej and occupation of Lahore ' the British.

This war ended with the signing of the r of Lahore (March, 1846), which resulted in:

ding of the Jullunder Doab to the British and pay-t of an indemnity of Rs 1 1/2 crore (Sikhs could r only half of this amount and for the rest British t Kashmir which they sold to Gulab Singh). Appointment of a British resident at Lahore (Sir fenry Lawrence) and recognition of Dalip Singh the ruler of Punjab and Rani Jindan as his egent. iReduction of Sikh army and prohibition of its iruler from employing any European without the Iprior consent of the British. [Permission to the British troops to pass through f-Sikh territory whenever need arose.

after, the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed in iber, 1846, which resulted in:

ti Removal of Rani Jindan as regent and setting up of a council of regency for Punjab (consisting of eight Sikh Sardars and presided over by Sir Henry Lawrence). Stationing of a British force at Lahore for which the Sikhs had to pay Rs 22 lakhs. Power of the governor-general of India to take and garrison any fort in Punjab.

nd War (1848-49)

The second Anglo-Sikh war was caused t the following:

Desire of the Sikh army to avenge their humiliation of the first war. I Discontentment of the Sikh Sardars with the British control over Punjab.

Treatment of Rani Jindan by the British (Her transportation to Shaikpur first and then to Benaras, and drastic reduction of her pension). Revolt of Mulraj (Governor of Multan) and the murder of two English officers (Vans Agnew and It Anderson) sent to Multan to take over its administration. Revolt of Sher Singh (he was sent to suppress the revolt of Mulraj but he himself joined the revolt against the British) leading to the outbreak of a general rebellion by the Sikh army and the Sardars.

Course The main events of the war were:

Battle of Ramnagar between Sher Singh and Lord Gough (British commander-inchief) in 1848 and battle of Chillianwala (1849) between the two ended without any result. Capture of Multan by Lord Gough and surrender of Mulraj who was transported for life. Final defeat of the Sikhs by Gough in the Battle of Gujarat (a town near the Chenab) in 1849, and the surrender of Sher Singh and other Sikh chiefs and the army in 1849.

Results The war resulted in the following:

Annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie and disposal of Dalip Singh (who was pensioned off and sent to England along with his mother Rani Jindan). Establishment of a Board of Three Commissioners (Lawrence brothers--Henry and John, and Charles G Mansel) in 1849 to administer Punjab; Abolition of the Board and appointment of a Chief Commissioner for Punjab in 1853 (Sir John Lawrence--the first Chief Commissioner for Punjab).

15.6 ANNEXATION OF SIND (1843)

Rise of Sind as an Autonomous State

First under Kaloras and from 1783 under Amirs of Baluchistan, it became autonomous after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. Under the Amirs of the Baluchi tribe, it was divided into three units (Hyderabad, Mirpur and Khairpur), each under a separate branch of the tribe.

Causes The causes for the British annexation of Sind are as follows:


Commercial possibilities of the Indus. British fear of the expansion of the Russian Empire towards the East. British desire to increase its influence in Persia and Afghanistan through control over Sind.

Early Relations between Sind and the British The early relations between Sind and the British consisted of the following events:

Lord Minto I sent an ambassador to the Amirs in 1809 and concluded a friendship treaty with them. Journey of Alexander Burnes up the Indus on his way to Lahore in 1831. Conclusion of a treaty by Lord Bentinck with them in 1832, by which the roads and rivers of Sind were opened to English trade. Lord Auckland forced the Amirs to sign the Subsidiary Treaty in 1839.

War and Annexation

The events involved in the war and annexation of Sind were: Lord Ellenborough unnecessarily provoked the Amirs and people of Sind into a war. Appointment of Sir Charles Napier as the British resident in Sind in place of Major James Outram (1842). Destruction of Imamgarh, a famous desert fortress by Napier (1843).

Attack on the British Residency by the Baluchis (1843) and declaration of war. Defeat of the Baluchi army by Napier at Miani and the surrender of some of the Amirs. Defeat of Sher Muhammad (Amir of Mirpur) by Napier at Dabo. Expulsion of Sher Muhammad from Sind. Formal annexation of Sind by the British (1843). Appointment of Sir Napier as the first governor of Sind. After occupying Sind, he is said to have sent a telegram to the governor general saying 'I have sin(ne)d'. 15.7 STRUCTURE OF BRITISH

Nature of State and Government i India under British

The nature of the state was that dependency in the British Empir Parliament possessed unrestricted ] tion, though this legal sovereignty^ Parliament over India was not any where until 1858. The Act of r facilitated the assumption of direct i India by the Crown.

Home Government Absolute ne an India Office in the Whitehall came to be known as the 'Home < Company's initial claims to its I private property and the British i acceptance of the claim posed a ,d British government whether to < or to leave it in the company's I found a via media in remodelling! governing body and establishing a j incouncil. Act of 1784 created as'j ment' system (Court of Directing Control). Direct administration of India bjfj of 1858 replaced the Board and 1 tary of state for India and his con Unquestioned authority of the Ho control and direct authorities in I lished. But the necessity of ( ment of India in India itself made ftl authority to the man on the spot.

System of British Indian tern was unitary or highly ceni it was supreme with undivi Presidency system, though his origin, died out in 1833, and th| provincial governments was and decentralisation. M

Evolution of Unitary System a Government Initially there was| ity in India with every presk


: to the Company's Directors. First signs ition were seen in the Act of 1773, which the governor of Calcutta as governor f Bengal. Further strengthening of the cennt was made possible by the Acts of 1813, though the other presidencies I to be independent in all matters except 1 peace. Act of 1833 invested the central rin Calcutta with more powers and reduced I mere agents: The Unitary System set up in I to be in operation until 1919.

of Decentralisation and Devolution npt at decentralisation was initiated by yo in 1870 in the sphere of finance, but real nt take place only after 1918. Act of 1919 1 for the division of subjects between central cial governments and the introduction of jly' in the provinces. Act of 1935 brought s abolition of Dyarchy in the provinces and nt of provincial autonomy.

i of the Colonial Government

of the Government The government ed into the following branches.

Branch The governor-general was titutionally responsibility to the secretary f, and the provincial heads answerability to nor-general was also enshrined in the rules. e, however, the 'man on the spot' theory vsy. live councils of the governor-general and overnors came to gain considerable size. ;r, their size was reduced after 1773. Initially jjiefs of the councils had no special powers, but hey were given the power to overrule their pils. The early cumbrous and dilatory proceef the councils was replaced by the 'portfolio ipb'under Canning's Rules of Business.

Branch The legislative process in

Devolved through the following developments, general-in-council made the sole legisla India by the Act of 1833; appointment of a lission under Macaulay; reorganisation of legislative machinery by the Act of 1853; creation of an 'official' legislature by adding more members to the governor-general's council; decentralisation of legislative authority by the Act of 1861 which established provincial legislatures; enlargement of legislative councils and provision for election of members in 1892; Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909; and Montford Reforms of 1919.

Judicial Branch The evolution of the judicial system in India witnessed the following landmarks-- Warren Hastings' efforts to establish, a well-organised judicial system in 1772; parallel system of courts, one subservient to the company and other independent of it, between 1781 and 1861; establishment of a common system of high courts in all presidencies by the Act of 1861; introduction of the principles of the 'Rule of Law' and 'Equality before Law'. Two recurring problems were the unwillingness of the Europeans to be tried by Indian Judges, and executive officers exercising judicial authority.

Departmentalisation of the Government The Company initially functioned with only two committees or departments--secret and select committees, but gradually created more and more departments for smooth and efficient functioning of the government.

Growth of District Administration District was an important unit of administration, and was in charge of the collector who was directly responsible to the provincial government. The role and functions of the collector gave rise to a controversy between two schools of thought, the English school and the Indian school. The former wanted a limited role while the latter favoured a paternalistic role and full powers. Reforms of Cornwallis (belonging to the former) included inter alia separation of revenue from judicial and police functions. Munro, Elphinstone and Lawrence (supporters of the latter) worked for the restoration of the collector-magistrate, and their efforts finally resulted in the firm establishment of the collector-magistrate after 1857. Later tendencies to reduce the responsibilities of the collector arose due to several factors like the expansion of government's welfare activities, growth of


local self-government and the like. However the collector still continued to be the principal officer of the district.

Growth of local self-government The Britishers initiated half-hearted attempts to set up municipal bodies in the mercantile stage and again in the 1850s and 60s. Reforms of Ripon gave a fillip to the movement, but all the local bodies prior to 1919 lacked genuine democratic spirit and suffered from unwarranted official domination.

Civil Services

Government of India came to being a bureaucracy or government by officials through the following stages---transformation of the Company's service from a 'mercantile service' into an 'administrative service'; reforms of Comwallis--his creation of a modern civil service in the form of the Covenanted Civil Service of India (known as the ICS after 1861); establishment of Fort William College at Calcutta by Wellesley and later its replacement by Haileybury college in England; and replacement of the system of patronage by a proper recruitment method through open competitive examinations^ Further developments were the constitution of several specialised and technical services from the second half of the 19th century, and provincial and subordinate services after 1890. The civil services came to have the presence of many Indians under Clive and Warren Hastings, but Indians were excluded from the time of Cornwallis. Bentinck undertook measures to improve the status of Indian officials.

Indianisation of higher services 'Scholarship Scheme' (1868) and 'Scheme of Statutory Civilians' (1879) were two partially successful steps towards the Indianisation of civil services. The former aimed at helping talented Indian students to proceed to England for taking the ICS examination, while the latter provided for filling one-fifth of the vacancies in the ICS through nomination of young Indians of respectable families and sound education. The Aitchison Commission (1886) was appointed by Lord Dufferin ostensibly to find ways and means of

admitting more Indians into higher services.; commission, instead of doing that, pn reduce die ICS to an 'elite corps' by limitifl number to what was necessary to fill the administrative appointments and to transfej| remaining posts to a wholly Indian provincial i ice to be constituted in each of the Holding of the ICS examinations simult England and India was done for the first 1922. Appointment of the Lee commission (fl by Lord Reading and its recommendations of| ping recruitment to services which cerned the subjects transferred to popular and acceleration of die pace of Indianisationl| other services. Establishment of the Public I Commission at the Centre (1926) and the ] ones later were the other significant develo

15.8 GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICE

British India saw thirteen governors-generalj 1773 to 1857. The main events and de,ve their respective tenures are listed.

Warren Hastings (1773-85)

Regulating Act of 1773. The Act of 1781 (it made a clear de between the jurisdiction of the General-inCouncil and that of the Court at Calcutta). Pitt's India Act of 1784. The Rohilla war (1774) and annexa| Rohilkhand by the Nawab of Oudh with;] the British. First Maratha war (1775-82) and the Salbai(1782). Second Mysore war (1780-84) (First fought in 1766-69). Chait Singh affair (1778) (Chait Singh Raja of Benaras). , The Begams of Oudh affair (1782). Nand Kumar episode (1775). Foundation of the Asiatic Society of] Hastings and Sir William Jones (1784).


'his return to England (1785), impeachment ogs were started against him in the House by, Edmund Burke, Charles James Fox, and Gilbert Elliot. He was defended by I Law, Plumer and Dallas. After a prolonged ven years), he was finally acquitted.

ornwallis (1786-93)

Mysore War (1790-92) and the Treaty of tiBgapatam(1792). ction of the permanent revenue settlement I'the zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar "93). i of the judiciary (1793)--setting up courts (ifferent le^fjs and separation of revenue lustration from judical administration; intro-;tion of civil service and reforms to purify and owe administration.

i Store (1793-98)

.introduction of the permanent settlement ; played an important role as the President of 1 of Revenue, but his Governor-Generalship r uneventful.

(1798-1805)

tion of the system of Subsidiary Alliance 8), and the first Subsidiary Treaty with the i of Hyderabad (1798). i Mysore War (1799) and the annexation of ' parts of Mysore, isidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802) and Second atha War (1803-05). tion of the Madras Presidency after the ition of the kingdoms of Tanjore and tic.

Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).

Charter Act of 1813. ,

Lord Hastings (1813-23)

War with Nepal or the Gorkha War (1814-16); due to his success in this war, he was made Marquis of Hastings (1816). Third Maratha War (1817-1818)--abolition of Peshwaship and annexation of all his territories, and creation of the Bombay Presidency (1818). PindariWar(1817-1818). Introduction of the ryotwari settlement in Madras Presidency by governor, Thomas Munro (1820).

Lord Amherst (1823-28)

First Burmese War (1824-26). Capture of Bharatpur (1826).

Lord WNHain Bentinck (1828-35)

Prohibition of sati( 1829). Suppression of thuggee (1829-35), » Charter Act of 1833. Macaulay's Minutes and introduction of English as the medium of instruction (1835). Visit of Rammohan Roy to England (1830) and his death there (1833). Deposition of the Raja of Mysore and annexation of his territories (1831). Annexation of Cachar and Jaintia( 1832). Annexation of Coorg (1834). Formation of the Agra Province (1834).

" Abolition of the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit, and appointment of Commissioners instead.

1(1807-13)

jMinto, Sir George Barlow was the governor-Ifor two years (1805-07). Main event was the 5 Mutiny (1806). Lord Auckland (1835-42)

Before Auckland, Sir Metcalfe who was in charge of administration for a short while freed the Indian press of restrictions (1835).


First Afghan War (1836-42)--disaster of the British in the war and recall of Auckland. Death of Ranjit Singh (1839).

Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)

Termination of the first Afghan war (1842). Conquest and annexation of Sind (1843). War with Gwalior ( 1843).

Lord Hardinge I (1844-48)

First Sikh war (1845-46) and treaty of Lahore (1846). Prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice among the Gonds of central India.

Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)

Second Sikh war (1848-49) and annexation of the Punjab. Second Burmese war (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma. Charter Act of 1853. Application of the Doctrine of Lapse and annex* ation of Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1849), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur ('1854), etc. Annexation of Oudh (1856).

Wood's (President of the Board of Control) Education Despatch of 1854 and British assump tion of the responsibility of educating the masses. Introduction of the Railways (First train-- Bombay to Thana), Telegraph (First line-- Calcutta to Agra) and the Postal System in 1853. Widow Remarriage Act (1856). Establishment of a separate Public Works Department in every province. Santhal uprising (1855-56). .

Lord Canning (1856-57)

Establishment of three universities (at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay) in 1857. Revolt of 1857. VICEROYS (1858-62)

Lord Canning (1858-62)

Queen Victoria's Proclamation and'i of 1858. 'White Mutiny' by the European EICO in 1859. India Councils Act of 1861.

Lord Elgin I (1862)

His sudden death in 1862;; on by Sir Napier and Sir Denison 1864.

Lord John Lawrence (1864-69)

War with Bhutan in 1865.

Establishment of the High Cou Bombay and Madras in 1865.

Lord Mayo (1869-72)

Establishment of two colleges for ( and political training of the Indian 3 Rajkot college in Kathiawar and lege at Ajmer in Rajasthan. .First step in the direction of s >and provincial finances in 1870. , Organisation of Statistical Survey < Establishment of a Department o^ and Commerce. Beginning of the system of State 1 His assassination by a convict in i in 1872.

Lord North Brook (1872-76)

Visit of the Prince of Wales (later 1 India in 1875. . His resignation over the Afghan <

Lord Lytton (1876-80)

Royal Titles Act of 1876 and the j " the title of'Empress of India' by I the Delhi-Durbar in January 1877.


r Press Act and the Anns Act of 1878. .fghan War of (1878-80). of the first Famine Commission r Richard Strachey in 1878.

1(1880-84)

-Act of 1881. I taken in India (18.81)--254 millions. \ of Local Self-Government in 1882. f of the Vernacular Press Act in 1882. i of the finances of the centre in 1882. at of an Educational Commission Sir William Hunter in 1882. t Bill Controversy (1883). into existence of the Famine Code in

rin (1884-88)

Burmese war ( 1885-86). i of the Indian National Congress (Lord i the Secretary of State at that time).

m (1888-94)

r Act of 1891. of the Civil Services into Imperial, al and Subordinate, i Councils Act of 1852. at of the Durand Commission and its ition of the Durand Line between British i and Afghanistan (now between Pakistan nistan) in 1893.

111(1804^99)

.tion of two British officials by the brothers of Poona in 1897.

i(1899-4905)

uent of a commission under Sir Thomas in 1902 to suggest reforms regarding universities, and the passing of the Indian Universities Act of 1904 on the basis of its recommendations. Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. Establishment of an Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa in Delhi. Partition of Bengal in 1905. Col. Younghusband's Expedition to Tibet in 1904.

Lord Minto II (1905-10)

Anti-Partition and Swadeshi Movements. Surat session and split in the Congress (1907). Minto-Morley Reforms or the Indian Councils Act of 1909. Foundation of the Muslim League by the Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca, etc. in 1906.

Lord Hardinge II (1910-16)

Annulment of the partition of Bengal and cre ation of a Governorship for Bengal like Bombay and Madras in 1911. (Lieutenant Governorship for Bihar and Orissa, and Chief Commissionership for Assam). Transfer of the Imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Coronation Durbar of King George V and Queen Maryat Delhi (December, 1911).

Death of G. K. Gokhale in 1915. Foundation of the Hindu Mahasabha in 1915 by Madan Mohan Malviya and some Punjabi leaders.

Lord Chelmsford (1916-21)

Foundation of two Home Rule Leagues--one by Tilak in April, 1916 and another by Mrs Annie Besant in September, 1916. Lucknow session and the reunion of the Congress (1916) (Mrs Besant played an important role in the reunion). Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the Muslim League in 1916. (Tilak played an impor tant role in this).

C28 ) Indian History: Modern India

Return of Gandhi to India (1915); foundation of the Sabarmati ashram (1916); Champaran satyagraha (the first time Gandhi experimented his new technique in India1917); satyagraha at Ahmadabad ( 1918); Khaira satyagraha (1918). August Declaration (1917) by Montague, the then Secretary of State, and Montford reforms or the Government of India Act of 1919. Resignation of some veteran leaders led by S.N. Banerji from the Congress, and (heir foundation of the Indian Liberal Federation (1918). » Rowlatt Act (March, 1919) and the Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (13th April, 1919). Death of Tilak on 1st August, 1920. Formation of the Khilafat Committee and the launching of the Khilafat Movement (1919-20). Launching of the Non-cooperation Movement . (1920-22). Nagpur session of the Congress (Dec. 1920)-- changes in the constitution of the Congress. Foundation of .fee Women's University at Poona (1916). Appointment of Sir S. P. Sinha as Lieutenant Governor of Bihar (Sir Sinha was the first Indian to become a Governor and the second Indian to become a member of the British Parliament, the first being Dadabhai Naoroji).

Lord Reading (1921-26)

Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the withdrawal of the Noncooperation Move ment by Gandhi. Formation of the Swaraj Party by C.R. Das (Deshbandu) and Motilal Nehru in December 1922. Foundation of the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangha (RSS) by K B Hedgewar at Nagpur in 1925. Repeal of the Rowlatt Act.

Holding of simultaneous examinations for the ICS in England and India with effect from 1923.

Beginning of Indianisation of the officer'* of the Indian army. Foundation of the Communist Party of 1 1925.

Lord Irwinf 1926-31)

(Popularly known as the 'Christian Viceroy'),

Appointment of the Simon Commission 1927) and the boycott of the CoraffljfHoaJI ^Congress.

~*-lx^

Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian! Commission in Nov. 1927 (to recommend ijj ures for the establishment of better relj between the Indian states and the Central ( and the convening of the All I«fia States Pe Conference in Dec. 1927 by the states'; response. Meeting of the First All India Yoiifc < December, 1928. Convening of an All Parties Conference i appointment of a committee under Motilal 1 to prepare a constitution for Committee's submission of a report the 'Nehru Report' in August, 1928; the report by the Muslim League, Mahasabha, etc. >V 'Deepavali Declaration' by Lord Irwin (ob| 1929) that India would be granted < tus in due course.

%

Lahore session of the Congress (Dec. 192 the Poorna Swaraj resolution; Fixing 26 1930 as the first Independence Day. Launching of the Civil Disobedience Mov by Gandhi with his Dandi March (12th 1930); boycott of the first session of the Table Conference by the Congress ( GandhiIrwin Pact and the suspension movement (March 1931).

Lord Wellingdon (1931-36)

Participation of Gandhi in the second sessS the Round Table Conference (Sep. 1931),


: of the conference; return of Gandhi jlia (Dec. 1931) and resumption of the Bent; Gandhi's imprisonment; final susi of the movement in May, 1934. lêssion of the Round Table Conference in i (1932) without the representation of the ss. ncement of the 'Communal Award' by ay Macdonald, British P.M. (1932); Si's fast unto death in the Yeravadi prison 'the Poona Pact between Gandhi and (Sept. 1932). -nent of India Act of 1935. ition of Burma from India (1935). ition of the Congress-Socialist Party by ya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan I-ition of the All-India Kisan Sabha in 1936.

ligow (1936-43)

ition of Congress Ministries in majority of Ijjrovinces (1937). X iignation of Subhas Chandra Bose from the sidentship of the Congress as well as from " membership in 1939; formation of the vard Bloc/by Bose and his followers 39). ition of the Congress Ministries after the t break of the World War II (1939). tion of the Congress Ministries' resignai as 'Deliverance Day' by the Muslim League 39X and its Lahore Resolution (23rd March, 0) demanding separate state for the Muslims. ; atithis session that Jinnah propounded his i-Nation Theory.) Offer' by Linlithgow (1940); its rejeci by the Congress and the starting of ihdivid1satyagraha by Gandhi, ape of S C Bose from India in 1941. Mission (March, 1942) offering Dtimin-Status to India, and its rejection by the ngress. Passing of the 'Quit India' Resolution by the Congress at Bombay (8th August, 1942), arrest of all the Congress leaders and the outbreak of the 'August Revolution' or Revolt of 1942.

Lord Wavell (1943-47)

C.R. Formula evolved by C. Rajagopala Chan in 1944 and the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944) based on it: failure of the talks. Wavell Plan and the Simla Conference (1945) to discuss it; its failure. INA Trials and the Naval Mutiny (1946). Cabinet Mission (Three members--Lawrence, Cripps and Alexander) and acceptance of its plan by both the Congress and the League (1946). Formation of Interim Government by the Congress (Sep. 1946). Launching of 'Direct Action Day' by the League (17th Aug. 1946), but it also joined the Interim Govt. in Oct. 1946, though it abstained from the Constituent Assembly.

Lord Mountbatten (March-August, 1947)

Mountbatten plan; partition of India and achievement of freedom.

15.9 CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

Regulating Act of 1773

Changes in the constitution of the Court of Directors (such as term of the Directors, eligibility for the right to vote, etc.) and subjection of their actions to the British Government. Government of Bengal to be carried on by a Governor General of Fort William and his Council of 4 members (Warren Hastings--first Governor General of Fort William) The power of the Governor General-in-Council to supervise and control the Bombay and Madras Presidencies in matters of peace and war.


Establishment of a Supreme* Court at Calcutta, with a Chief Justice (first Chief Justice--Impey) and three judges to administer justice (both civil and criminal) over all British subjects of Bengal Presidency. Prohibition of receiving all presents and bribes by the servants of the Company. Governor General (Macaulay--the first Member). Abolition of the legislative decentralisation'! the power of different Presidencies to make j for themselves) and giving the governor j in-council the power to make laws for all 1 India.

Pitt's India Act of 1784

Establishment of a Board of Control, consisting of 6 members (called Commissioners), to super vise and control the Government of India.

Giving to the Court of Directors the right to make all appointments in India and to recall. Reduction of the number of the members of the Council of the Governor General to 3 from 4 in order to make him more powerful and efficient. Clear-cut subordination of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies to the Governor General-in-Council in all questions of diplomacy, war and revenue.

Charter Act of 1813

Throwing open the Indian trade to all British sub jects, though the company's monopoly of trade in tea and trade with China was not disturbed. Providing an annual sum of Rs. 1,00,000 for the spread of education. It required the company's servants to under go some training in England before entering service.

Charter Act of 1833

Completion of the introduction of free trade in India by abolishing the company's monopoly of trade in tea and trade with China. Renaming the Governor General of Fort William as the Governor General of India (William Bentinck was the first Governor General of India as well as the Governor of Bengal Presidency). Inclusion of a Law Member in the Council of the Charter Act of 1853

Appointment of a separate Lieutenant Gov for Bengal and making Dalhousie the Governor General of India (i.e. without anyl| tional charge). Depriving the company (Court of Direct its right to appoint and recall officials in 1 and introduction of the system of recruitment to the I.C.S. through a comp exam (Board of Control was to do the i ment). inclusion of additional members to the t General's council, which was to act Legislative Council (total members--12). :

Government of India Act of 1858

Abolition of the company's rule and beg the rule by the British Crown. Abolition of the Board of Control and the j of Directors. Appointment of a Secretary of State for>] (who would be a member of the British Cai who would rule India with the aid of a ( viz. India Council, consisting of 15 me (Sir Charles Wood, the last President of thel of Control, was made the first Secretary of for India). Making the Governor General of Indijj Viceroy as well (Lord Canning--first Vic well as Governor General of India) and inc control of British Home Government ov Viceroy (through the new Secretary of! India) due to the establishment of direct tele link.


ncilsActof 1861

gement of the legislative wing of the oy's council (from now onwards known as nperial Legislative Council). duction of the Portfolio System (based on I Canning's rules of business) by which each nber of the Viceroy's Executive Council was t in charge of a department, blishment of Legislative Councils in various vinces like Madras, Bombay and Bengal.

i Councils Act of 1892

action of indirect elections for the non-offi-members of the Imperial and Provincial gislative Councils: those of the former were to nominated by the Bengal Chamber of nmerce and the Provincial Legislative cils; those of the latter by certain local bodi such as universities, district boards, municiilities, etc. Retention of official majority at both vels. he Councils at both levels were to have the ver of discussing the budget (but not of votIfflg) and of addressing questions to the execuItives. an Councils Act of 1909 or the linto Reforms

' Introduction of an element of direct elections to 1 the Legislative Councils. f Introduction of separate electorate for the Muslims (Communal Electorates).

Enlargement of the Provincial Legislative Councils and removal of official majority in them. Retention of official majority in the Imperial Legislative Council. Increase in the deliberative functions of the Councils at both levels. Still majority of the non-officials at both levels were indirectly elected. Government of India Act of 1919 or the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms or Montford Reforms

Introduction of 'Dyarchy' in the provinces; divi sion of the provincial subjects into 'Reserved Subjects' (like police, jails, land revenue, irriga tion, forests, etc. to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council) and 'Transferred Subjects' (like education, local self-government, public health and sanitation, agri culture, industries, etc., to be looked after by the Governor and his ministers). Relaxation of central control over the provinces through 'Devolution Rules' which categorised the subjects of administration into two groups, viz. Central and Provincial. (This devolution of powers to the provinces should not, however, be mistaken for a federal distribution of powers for the provinces in this case got their powers by way of delegation from the centre and not as constitu tional division). Making the Central Legislature bicameral (con sisting of the Council of States and Legislative Assembly) and more representative by removing the official majority and increasing the non-official directly elected majority. The salaries of the Secretary of State for India and his assistants to be paid out of the British revenues (hitherto they were paid out of Indian revenues). Appointment of a High Commissioner of India at London, who was responsible to Indian Government and paid by it. His duties--to pro cure stores for Indian government, to supply trade information and promote commerce, and to look after the education of Indian students in England.


Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation to be based on a union of the provinces of British India and the Princely States (It did not come into existence since the Princely States did not give their consentfor the union).


Division of powers into three lists--Federal, Provincial and Concurrent, Residuary Powers with the Governor General. Provincial Autonomy--Introduction of responsible government in the provinces and abolition of Dyarchy in them. Provincial Legislatures were made bicameral, for the First time, in 6 provinces (Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Assam). Extension of the principle of separate < to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Chris AngloIndians. 'Discretionary Powers' of the Gove and the Governors.

Establishment of a Federal Court at 1937) with a Chief Justice and not i judges.


First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-79) ^

Second Angto-Maratha War (1803-5)


Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured


Annexation of Sind (1843)


I Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India, j The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. | The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified ' by Survey of India.

The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured 1 from the appropriate base line.


First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-6)

0 Go»emmenl of India CopyrtgM 1996

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of to Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the.correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The External boundaries of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1M8-9)

0 Government ol India Copyright 1998

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. Tr* territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.


0 Government of Ma Copyright 1996 Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests wrfc the publisher. The External boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. The territorial waters of India extend Into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

QUESTIONS

hich is the correct chronological sequence of i following nawabs of the Camatic? Anwar-ud-din (ii) Muhammad All i Dost All

(iv) Saadutullah Khan

Chanda Sahib (vi) Safdar All the answer from the codes given ft) iv, ii, iii, v and vi c) ii, i, v, iv, vi and iii jMatch the following: list I I(i) "Anwar-ud-din (A)

(b) ii, i, vi, iv and v (d) iv, iii, vi, i, v and ii

List II Ii) Dost AH
Murdered by a general of Tanjore

(C)

Murdered by the French

(D)

Murdered by a relative

;-i.{a) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (b) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (c) i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C (d) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A Who was the founder of the autonomous state i of the Carnatic? (a) Safdar All (b) Dost All (c) Saadutullah Khan (d) Anwarud-din Which was the capital of the state of Carnatic?

(a) Trichinopoly

(b) Arcot

(c) Srirangam (d) Tanjore Match List I and List II and choose the answer from the codes given below. (i) 1745 (ii) 1746

(iii) 1751 List I List II

(A)

Capture of Arcot by Glive

(B)

Recall of Dupliex by the French Government

(C)

Capture of French ships by English under Barnett

(iv) 1754 (D) Capture of Madras by Dupleix (a) (b) (c) (d) 6.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A Which of the following statements are true about the First Carnatic War?

(i) It began in 1745 and ended in 1748. (ii) Anwar-ud-din, the nawab of the Carnatic, intervened in the war on behalf of the English, (iii) The French refused to obey the Nawab, and were defeated by him at St Thome near the Adyar river, (iv) Madras was restored to the English by the French after the war. Select the answer from the codes given below:

(a) ii, iii and iv (b) i, ii and iii (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 7.

Which of the following statements about the Second Carnatic War are incorrect?

(i) It began in 1749 and ended in 1754. (it) In the Carnatic, the French supported Chanda Sahib, while the British supported Anwarud-din. (iii) In 1749 the combined forces of Anwarud-din and the British defeated and killed Chanda Sahib. (iv) In 1752 Anwar-ud-din was killed by Muhammad Ali who then became the new nawab of Carnatic. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iv

(d) iii and iv

8.

Arrange the following events in chronological order.

(i) Surrender of Pondicherry to the British (ii) Replacement of the French by the English as the Nizam's protectors

C37


(iii) Departure of d'Ache for France (iv) Arrival of Count de Lally in India Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i, and iii

(b) iv, iii, ii and i



9. Who was the English general who defeated Count de Lally in the Battle of Wandiwash, fought on January 22, 1760? (a) General Forde (b) General Hamilton (c) General Harris (d) General Eyre Coote 10.

When and by which governor-general was the Carnatic state annexed?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 11.

1792--Lord Cornwallis 1797--Sir John Shore 1801--Lord Wellesley 1808--Lord Minto Which of the following statements are true about the state of Sind?

(i) ft became independent under the Kaloras after the decline of the Mughal Empire. (ii) In 1783 the Amirs of the Talpura tribe of Baluchistan overthrew the last of the Kaloras. (iii) Under Amirs, Sindh was divided into five units, each under a separate branch of the tribe. (iv) The Amirs of Sind owed a nominal allegiance to the ruler of Afghanistan. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i and ii

(d) iii and iv

12.

Which code gives the correct matching of the following lists?

List I List II

(i) 1809

(A) Journey of Alexander

Burnes up the Indus rivar (ii) 1831

(B) Conclusion of a treaty

by Lord Bentinck with the Amirs to open up Sind to English trade. (iii) 1832 (C) Conclusion of a Sub sidiary Treaty by Lord Auckland with the Amirs.

(iv) 1839 (D) Concha shipi Minto I \ (a) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (b) (c) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (d) 13. Which of the following were trutf annexation of Sind by the Brit) (i) Commercial possibilities of I (ii) Refusal of the Amirs to troops to pass through ' (iii) British fear of the expan empire towards the East, (iv) British desire to increase Persia and Afghanistan over Sind. (v) Refusal of the Amirs to,i Auckland's demand for a I Choose the answer from the; below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii, iii i (c) iii, iv and v (d) ii, iv "i 14.. Pick out the two places which ties between the English and the /* the formal annexation of Sind?

(i) Hyderabad (ii) Datxr (iii) Miani (iv) mh Choose the answer from the below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and J

(c) iii and iv

(d) land ill]

15.

When and whom did Sir Cli replace as the British resident in Sir

(a) (b) (c) (d) 16.

1840--Alexander Burnes 1841--Sir John Keane 1842--Major James Outram 1843--Sir Eyre Coote Who was the First British governor <

(a) (b) (c) (d) 17.

Sir Charles Napier Sir John Keane Sir Henry Lawrence Robert Montgomery Who was the governor-general of I Sind was annexed?

(a) Lord Auckland (b) Lord Ell (c) Lord Dalhousie (d) Lord I 18.

Who confessed: The defeats of many I and Braithwaites will not destroy them.


lin their resources by land, but I can not dry ) the sea.'? Haider Ali

(b) Tipu sultan

|c) Sher Singh (d) Anwarud-din i was the governor-general who remarked: hat a man is this Lord Macartney! I yet ilieve that, in spite of the peace, he will effect i loss of the Carnatic.'? a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Cornwallis f(c) Lord Wellesley (d) Lord Dalhousie > confessed in the following way? 'We have i right to seize Sind, yet we shall do so, and i very advantageous, useful, humane piece of ^rascality it will be.' f(a) Lord Auckland i (b) Lord Ellenborough j(c) Sir Charles Napier I(d) Major James Outram I Who declared: 'However contrary it may be to our past views and to our present views, annexation of Punjab is the most advantageous policy for us to pursue.'? ' (a) Lord Hugh Gough ?(b) Sir John Lawrence (c) Lord Ellenborough *

(d) Lord Dalhousie

i(a) Kasimbazaar

(b) Monghyr

(c) Murshidabad

(d) Gaur

Who captured and executed Sirajuddaula Barter the Battle of Plassey? (a) (b)

Miran, son of Mir Jafar Robert Clive, the new governor of Fort ii William

(c)

Mir Jafar, the new nawab of Bengal *(d) Mir Qasim, the son-in-law of Mir Jafar

After the recovery of Calcutta in Jan 1757 by the English under Clive, Siraj-ud-daula signed a treaty with the English conceding almost all *

their demands. What is the name of this treaty?

(a) (b)

Treaty of Calcutta Treaty of Alinagar | (c) Treaty of Futia

(d)

Treaty of Kasimbazar

^The British organised a conspiracy with several prominent persons to replace Sirajuddaula. But one of the conspirators later demanded a bigger share of the spoils than originally 'agreed upon, for whose satisfaction Clive is said to have committed the infamous act of forgery? (a) Manik Chand

(b) Jagath Seth

(c) Rai Durlabh

(d) Omichand

26. All the information concerning those-called "Black Hole Episode" is found in a single-sided account of it by an Englishman. What is the name of this Englishman? (a) William Hamilton (b) John Surman (c) Holwell (d) Stephenson 27.

Which of the following statements about Murshid Quli Khin are true?

(i) He served as the wazir of the Mughal Em pire between 1700 and 1707. (ii) He was made Naib Subahdar and then Subahdar of Bengal by Farukh Siyar in 1713 and 1717 respectively. (iii) In 1719 he was granted the governorship of Bihar also by Farukh Siyar. (iv) He stopped recognising the Mughal emperor as his suzerain from 1720 onwards. Choose the answer from the codes given

below: (a) i and ii

(b) i and iv

(c) ii and iv (d) ii and iii 28. Murshid Quli Khan did not: (i) Stop paying tribute and homage to the Mughal Emperors, though he was practically independent. (ii) Transfer parts of jagir lands into khalisa lands. (iii) Introduced the system of revenue-farming in place of direct revenue collection by government officials. (iv) Discriminate between Hindus and Muslims in providing employment opportunities. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i and iii

(d) i and iv

29. Murshid Quli Khan took various measures to expand trade and commerce of Bengal. Which of the following was/were not included in those measures?


(i) Providing security to the traders on roads and rivers (ii) Allowing his officials to carry on private trade (iii) Preventing abuse in customs administration (iv) Giving encouragement to Indian merchants and discouraging foreign merchants Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) Only ii

(b) ii and iv

(c) Onlyiv

(d) iii and iv

30.

Which of the following statements about Shujaud-din is/are incorrect?

(i) He was the governor of Bengal and Orissa between 1727 and 1739. (ii) He was the son of Murshid Quli Khan, (iii) He was granted the governorship of Bihar also by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah in 1733. (iv) He continued to acknowledge the Mughal Emperor as his sovereign. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii

(b) iii and iv

(c) Only ii

(d) iii only

31. Which of the following statements are true? (i) Sarfaraz Khan succeeded Shujaud-din. (ii) Alivardi Khan succeeded Shujaud-din. (iii) Sarfaraz Khan was the sonin-law of

Shujaud-din. (iv) Alivardi Khan was the deputy governor of Bihar before he murdered Sarfaraz and became the nawab. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) i and iv (c) ii and iii 32.

(d) i and iii

Which of the following statements about Alivardi Khan are true?

(i) He paid rupees two crore to the Mughal Emperor and received a farman in 1740 confirming his position as the governor of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. (ii) He refused to pay any tribute to the Mughal Emperor when the latter demanded it in 1748 through a farman. (iii) He favoured and chose Shaukat Jung, one of his sons, as his successor. (iv) He prohibited the English and the Fq from fortifying their factories at and Chandranagore. Choose the answer from the codes >: below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and iii «, (c) i, iii and iv (d) i, iiandiv 33.

Sirajuddaula

(i) Ordered the British to demolish fortifications at Calcutta, (ii) Conceded almost all the demands i British by concluding a treaty with 1 (Hi) Protested against the British conqu Chandranagore. (iv) Refused to offer protection to the after their defeat by the English. Select the answer from the codes given t (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iii

34.

Which of the following statements are i about Sirajuddaula?

(i) He besieged and captured Cak June 1756. (ii) He returned to Murshidabad, Calcutta in charge of Mir Jafar. (iii) He was not responsible for the 'Black I Tragedy' in which 123 Englishmen supposed to have died, (iv) He received wholehearted support I nobles and soldiers in the Battle of F against the British. Choose the answer from the codes given t (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i and iii 35.

(d) iii and iv

Which of the following statements about] Jafar is/are not true?

(i) He was the diwan of Siraj-ud-daula, I the Battle of Plassey. (ii) After he was made the Nawab by British, he granted them the right to I trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and i the Zamindari of the 24 Paraganas. (iii) His efforts to replace the British by1 Dutch ended in failure with the the latter by the former at Bedera. (iv) He voluntarily abdicated the thron favour of his son-in-law, Mir Qasim.


|Choose the answer from the codes given elow: H(a) i and Iv (b) ii only (c) iv only

(d) iii and iv

"Mir Qasim (i) Granted the British the Zamlndari of Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. (ii) Transfered his capital from Murshidabad to Dacca. * (iii) Stopped the British from misusing the dastaks. (iv) Escaped alive after his defeat in the Battle of Buxar. [, Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i only (q) ii only

(d) i and iv

Arrange the following Nawabs in chronological sequence. (i) Alivardi Khan

(ii) Nazmuddaula

(iii) Sarfaraz Khan (iv) Sirajuddaula (v) Shujaud-din Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) v, i, ii, iv and iii (b) v, iii, i, iv and ii (c) i, v, iv, iii and ii (d) i, iv, v, ii and iii Among the following British governors of Calcutta in the chronlogical order. (i) Vansittart (ii) Verelst (iii) Drake

(iv) Warren Hastings

(v) Cartier Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, ii, v and iv (b) i, iii, v, ii and iv (c) ii, iii, i, v and iv (d) iii, i, iv, ii and v Arrange the following events in the correct chronological Order: (i) Death of Mir Jafar (ii) Battle of Buxar (iii) Black Hole Tragedy (iv) Treaty of Allahabad (v) Departure of Clive to England after his first term as Governor of Calcutta Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, v, iii and iv (b) iii, ii, iv, i and v (c) iii, v, ii, i and iv (d) i, iv, v, iii and ii Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following events? (i) Reinstatement of Mir Jafar as the nawab. (ii) Election of Clive as the governor of Calcutta. (iii) Battle of Plassey. (iv) Grant of the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the British by the Mughal Emperor, (v) Return of Clive to India for his second term as governor of Calcutta. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, ii, i, v and iv (b) iii, i, ii, iv and v (c) ii, iii, i, v and iv (d) i, iii, ii, iv and v 41.

Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following events?

(i) Accession of Najm-ud-daula as the nawab of Bengal, (ii) Formation of an alliance by Mir Qasim with the nawab of Avadh and the Mughal Emperor, (iii) Outbreak of war between Mir Quasim and the British, (iv) Beginning of the drain of wealth from India to England, (v) Abolition of the dual system of Government in Bengal. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i, v and iv (b) ii, i, iii, iv and v (c) iv, ii, i, iii and v (d) iv, iii, ii, i and v

42.


List I List II (i) Robert Clive

(A) Battle of Buxar

(ii) Hector Munro

(B) Battle of Plassey

(iii) Shuja-ud-din

(C) The last nawab of

Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (iv) Najm-ud-daula (D) The first nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (d) i-A, ii-B, iiiD, iv-C


Instructions

Mark (a) if Assertion 'A' is correct, but Reason 'R' is wrong.


Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A. 43. Assertion: The rule of Murshid Quli Khan wit nessed the rise and growth of a new landed aristocracy in Bengal. Reason: He reorganised the administration and appointed local Hindu Zamindars and moneylenders as revenue-farmers. 44. Assertion: The Mughal farman of 1717 to the British has been described as the "Magna Carta of the Company". Reason: It revoked the privileges granted to the British by the farman of 1691. 45. Assertion: In 1751 Alivardi Khan bought peace with the Marathas by ceding the revenues of a part of Orissa and an annual payment of Rs 12 lakhs as the chauth of Bengal. Reason: The First decade of his regime was spent in an unceasing warfare with the Marathas whose repeated incursions caused untold miseries to the people of Bengal. 46. Assertion: Siraj-ud-daula seized the English factory at Chandranagore in June 1756. Reason: The British gave protection to the enemies of Siraj-ud-daula and refused to sur render them to the nawab. 47. Assertion: Siraj-ud-daula defeated and executed Shaukat Jung, who was his step brother. Reason: Shaukat had plans to become the nawab and even acquired a farman from the titular Mughal Emperor. 48. Assertion: Colonel Clive caused the signature of Admiral Watson to be forged on a duplicate copy of the treaty signed with Mir Jafar and his supporters. Reason: Clive wanted to cause trouble to Admiral Watson.

49.

Assertion: The British won the Battle of Plassey without any real fighting.

Reason: The Battle of Plassey gave the British a political foothold in Bengal. 50. Assertion: Mir Qasim abolished all duties on internal trade in 1763 after his unsuccessful attempts to check the misuse of the dastaks by the servants of the company. Reason: He wanted to place th%i British traders on the same fo either group enjoying any undue i 51. Assertion: Within a short period of I accession as the nawab, serious^ arose between him and the British^ Reason: The British got dis inefficient rule of Mir Qasim. 52. Assertion: From the military point .'d Battle of Buxar was much less imp< the Battle of Plassey. Reason: The British won the Batl due to their superior military technli 53. Assertion: The British acquired control over the administration of I February 1765. Reason: In February 1765, the British J a treaty with the new Nawab by which! to leave the entire administration in 1 a British-nominated naib subahdan removed only with their consent. 54.

Assertion: Clive was sent to India iell the Home authorities to serve his i

as the governor of Calcutta and the gains made by the British after the| Buxar. Reason: He proved himself to be and sincere officer during his first 1 governor. 55. Assertion: The Treaty of Allahabad eluded by the British with the Mughal I Shah Alam II. Reason: The Mughal emperor grah| diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to I India Company in 1765.

56. Assertion: In the Dual System of Go in Bengal, the British had all the power responsibility. Reason: In this system of governn nawab had neither power nor responsib 57. Assertion: The Dual system of was an adroit measure of Clive to real position of the Company in Bengal.I Reason: The serious defects inherent! Dual Government caused immense the people of Bengal. 58. The British organised a conspiracy ' leading people of the Nawab's court to i Siraj-ud-daula from the nawabship of I


Which of the following people were not inclu ded in this conspiracy? (i) Manikchand (it) Krishnadas (iii) Jagat Seth (iv) Ghasiti Begam (v) Omichand Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

Only a few of the officials of Sirajuddaula fought for him in the Battle of Plassey. Which of the following are those? (i) Rai Durlabh (ii) Mohanlal (iii) Khadim Khan

(iv) Rajballabh

(v) Mir Madan Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii and v (c) iii and iv

(d) iv and v

Where did the so-called 'Black Hole Tragedy' take place? (a) Murshidabad

(b) Dacca

(c) Monghyr (d) Calcutta 81. The Mughal Emperor who unsuccessfully tried to take Bihar forcefully from the nawab of Bengal? (a) Alamgir II (b) Shah Alam II

(c) Muhammad Shah (d) Farukh Siyar Mir Quasim formed an alliance with the nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor to fight against the British. Who was the nawab of Awadh? (a) Najib-ud-daula (b) Azizud-din (c) Shuja-ud-daula (d) Ghaziud-din > 63. Who was the author of the following passage? 'Shall I only say that such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption, and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal; nor such and so many fortunes acquired in so unjust and rapacious manner.' (a) Colonel Malleson (b) Colonel Clive (c) Nabin Chandra Sen (d) Admiral Watson 64. Who was the Maratha sardarto whom Alivardi Khan ceded the revenues of a part of Orissa? (a) (b) (c) (d) 65.

Raghuji Bhonsle Trimbak Rao Dhabade Ranoji Sindhia Malhar Rao Holkar Who was the first president of the council of Fort William established in 1700?

(a) Sir Charles Eyre (b) Sir John Child (c) Sir Job Charnock (d) Sir William Norris 66. Who was the leader of the English mission sent to the Mughal court in 1715 which suc ceeded in getting the farman of 1717 from the Mughal Emperor, Farukh Siyar? (a) Thomas Pitt (b) William Hamilton (c) Edward Stephenson (d) John Surman 67. Which of the following statement are true about the Mughal farman of 1717 granted to the East India Company? (i) It confirmed the privileges enjoyed by the English in Bengal under the farman of 1691. (ii) It permitted the servants of the company in Bengal to use the dastaks (free passes) which were hitherto permitted to the company only and not to its servants. (iii) It permitted the English to rent additional territory around Calcutta. (iv) It exempted them from the payment of all dues at Surat in return for an annual payment of Rs 10,000.

(v) The coins of the Company (minted at Bombay) were allowed to have currency throughout the Mughal Empire. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii, iv and v

(d) i, iii and iv

68. Who was the author of the SiyarulMutakherim, a contemporary historical account? (a) Ghulam Hussain (b) Nasir Hussain (c) Arif Muhammad (d) Shahabuddin 69.

The British officer who defeated Mir Qasim in a series of battles of 1763 was?

(a) Major Hector Munro (b) Major Adams (c) Colonel Malleson (d) Colonel Holwell 70. Under the Dual Government of Bengal, the same person acted as the Deputy Subahdar on behalf of the nawab as well as the Deputy Diwan on behalf of the Company. Pick him out from among the following:


(a) Mir Madan (b) Abdullah Khan (c) Shaukat Jang (d) Muhammad Reza Khan 71. In 1773 Warren Hastings signed a treaty with the nawab of Awadh giving back the latter the two districts of Kara and Allahabad for a pay ment of Rs 50 lakhs. What is the name of treaty? (a) (b) (c) (d) 72. 1773?

Treaty of Allahabad Treaty of Lucknow Treaty of Banaras Treaty of Faizabad Which of the following statements is/are not true about the Regulating Act of

(i) It made changes in the constitution of the Court of Directors and subjected their actions to the British Government (ii) It appointed the first governor-general of India and his council of three members. (iii) The governor-general-in-council was given the power to superintend and control the Bombay and Madras Presidencies in certain matters. (iv) It established a supreme court at Calcutta. (v) It gave permission to the servants of the Company to receive presents, but not bribes. Choose below: (a) ii and iii (c) ii and v the answer from the codes given

(b) iii and iv (d) Onlyv 73. Which of the following statements are true about the Pitt's India Act of 1784?

(i) It established a Board of Control, consisting of six members. (ii) It increased the number of members of the council of the governor-general. (iii) It gave the Court of Directors the right to appoint and recall officials in India. (iv) It laid down that the Supreme Court at Calcutta was to have no jurisdiction over the governor-general and his council in discharge of their public duties. (v) It clearly subordinated the Bombay and Madras Presidencies to the governorgeneralin-council in certain matters. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ivand v (d) i, iii and v < 74.

The Charter Act of 1793

(i) Renewed the Charter of the Comp 20 more years. (ii) Regulated the finances of the Con (iii) Laid down that the salaries of the I Control and its staff were to be pak the British revenues, (iv) Prohibited the commander-in-chief «J being a member of the govemorge Council. Select the answer from the codes given t (a) i, ii and iii only (b) i, ii and iv < (c) i and ii only (d) ii and iii only | 75.

The Charter Act of 1813 did not

(i) Terminate charter of the company, (ii) Disturb the Company's monopoly of 1 in tea and trade with China, (iii) End the company's general monc trade (iv) Require the company's servants to i go some prior training in England, (a) i and ii only (b) ii and iii only

(c) i only 76.

(d) iv only

The Charter Act of 1833

(i), Completed the process of throwing Indian trade to all British subjects, (ii) Renamed the governor-general of William as the governor-general of In (iii) Allow the different Presidencies to laws for themselves, (iv) Include a law member to the Council of| governor-general. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i and iv only (b) ii, iii and v only| (c) i, ii and iv only (d) ii and iii only 77.

Match List I with List II and select the using the codes given below.

List I List II (i) First governor-

(A) Lord Macau

general of Fort William (ii) First chief justice (B) Lord Cannin of the supreme court


(C) Warren Hastings (D) Elijah Impey First law member of the governer-general's Council f (iv) First viceroy as well as the governor-general of India i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B

List II

(A)

Charter Act of 1813

(B)

Charter Act of 1853

(b) (d) [ (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B I (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C Match the following:

List I

(i) Appointment of a separate lieutenant governor for Bengal (ii) Provision of an annual sum of one lakh rupees for the spread of education (C)


(D)

Indian Councils Act, 1861

(b) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (d) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (iii) Abolition of the Board of Control and Court of Directors (iv) Introduction of the Portfolio System (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A (c) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D Which code gives the correct pairing of the following lists?

List I List II (A) Charter Act of 1853

(i) Establishment of the Imperial Legislative Council and the provincial legislative councils (B) Government of India Act, 1858 (ii) Introduction of the system of direct recruitment to the ICS through a competitive examination (C)


(D)


(iii) Appointment of a secretary of state for India (iv) Introduction of separate electorates for the Muslims (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-A, ii-C, iiiB, iv-D 80. Arrange the following in chronological order (i) Appointment of a high commissioner of

India at London. (ii) Establishment of direct telegraph link between India and England. (iii) Establishment of federal court at Delhi. (iv) Introduction of an element of direct elections to the legislative councils. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i and iv

(b) iv, ii, i and iii

(c) ii, iv, i and iii

(d) iv, ii, iii and i

81.


List I List II (i) Removal of official (A) Indian Coun-majority in the cils Act, 1861 provincial legislative councils, (ii) Introduction of (B) Morley Minto bicameralism at

Reforms

the Centre (iii) Extension of the (C) Montford principle of separate Reforms ' electorates to other communities, besides (iv) Introduction of indirect (D) Government elections for the

of India Act,

non-official members 1935 of the legislative councils. (a)

i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C

(b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A


82. Assertion: William Bentinck was the first one to be called governor-general of India. Reason: He also had the additional charge of the governorship of Bengal. 83. Assertion: The Charter Act of 1853 deprived the Court of Directors of its right to appoint and recall officials in India.


Reason: The charter empowered the governor-general to appoint and dismiss the high officials in India. 84.

Assertion: Lord Dalhousie was the first real governor-general of India.

Reason: He was the first governor-general of India without any additional charge. 85. Assertion: The 'India Council', an advisory body to the secretary of state for India, con sisted of 15 members. Reason: Half of its members were Indians. 86. Assertion: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 allowed the legislative councils at the centre and the provinces to discuss and vote the budget. Reason: The Act of 1892 retained official majority in the legislative councils at both the central and provincial levels. 87. Assertion: The Morley-Minto Reforms removed the official majority in the Imperial Legislative Council. Reason: Even after the Act of 1909 majority of the non-officials in the Imperial Legislative Council were indirectly elected. 88. Assertion: The central legislature was made more representative by the Montford Reforms. Reason: The Montford Reforms increased the non-official elected majority in the central legis lature. 89. Assertion: From 1919, the secretary of state for India began to draw his salary from the British exchequer. Reason: The high commissioner of India at London was paid, from the beginning, by the Indian Government. 90. Assertion: The Montford Reforms introduced 'Dyarchy' at both the Central and provincial levels.

Reason: In 1919 the provinces were given the power of looking after certain subjects of administration by way of delegation from the centre. 91.

Assertion: The Government of India Act, 1935 introduced provincial autonomy.

Reason: The Act itself made a clear-cut division of powers between the centre and the provinces. 92. 'Reserved Subjects' ufl provinces were admlnisti and his executive council^ ing were included1 in I (i) Law and order (tt (iii) Agriculture

(i*)

(v) Industries ^ Choose the answer from', below: (a) i, ii and iii (b)ic (c) i, ii and v (dy 93. The Transferred Subjects1.' after by the governor and I ters. Which of the follc included in them? (i) Education (ii) Forests (iii) Local self-government (iv) Jails (v) Public health and saniti Choose the answer from below: (a) ii only

(b)

(c) iv only

(d)

94.

The high commissioner of In certain duties to perform, ing were his duties?

(i) Procuring stores for Government, (ii) Keeping the British parilt the developments in India, (iii) Supplying trade information J commerce between India i (iv) Acting as a link between the. | eral of India and the India, (v) Looking after the education! dents in England. Select the answer from the ( (a) i, iii and v (b) i, ii J (c) ii, iii and v (d) ii, I 95. In which of the following provir eralism introduced for the first I (i) Bengal (ii) Pu (iii) Uttar Pradesh (iv) BihaW (v) Central Provinces (vi)


tthe answer from the codes given below: i, ii, iii and v (b) i, iii, iv and vi i, ii, iv and v (d) i, iv, v and vi 1935 the principle of separate electorates > extended to Sikhs (ii) Untouchables (iii) Europeans (iv)

Indian Christians

(v) Anglo-Indians Choose the answer

from

the codes given

(a) i, ii, iii and v

(b)

i, iii and v


(d)

iii, iv and v

below:

ANSWERS

1.(d) 11. (b) 21. (d) 31, (b) 41. (d) 51. (a) 61. (b) 71. (c) 81. (b) 91. (c) C48

2. 12. 22. 32. 42. 52. 62. 72. 82. 92.

(b) (c) (c) (c) (b) (b) (c) (c) (d) (b)

3.(c) 13. (a) 23. (a) 33. (b) 43. (c) 53. (c) 63. (b) 73. (d) 83. (a) 93. (d)

4. 14. 24. 34. 44. 54. 64. 74. 84. 94.

(b) (b) (b) (c) (a) (a) (a) (b) (c) (a)

5. 15. 25. 35. 45. 55. 65. 75. 85. 95.

(a) (c) (d) (a) (c) (b) (a) (a) (a) (b)

6.(c) 16. (a) 26. (c) 36. (d) 46. (b) 56. (a) 66..(d) 76. (c) 86. (b) 96. (c)

7.(d) 17. (b) 27. (c) 37. (b) 47. (c) 57. (d) 67. (c) 77. (d) 87. (b)

8.(b) 18. (a) 28. (d) 38. (a) 48. (a) 58. (c) 68. (a) 78. (b) 88. (c)

11 2f m

69. 79. 89.

chapter

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RAJ

[three stages of colonialism

i colonialism established its firm roots in India stages, each stage representing a different . of subordination of the colony and consefjy different colonial policies, ideologies, and the colonial people's response. The I from one stage to another was due partly to ges in the metropolis itself and partly to the i in the colonies. ) three stages are not strictly bound. But each |Jias some main features, though the features of irlier one may continue into the later one. (some stages are atrophied in some colonies, | third stage in India.

I of Mercantilism (1757-1813)

bjectives of the British during this time were bly of trade and direct appropriation of revf The main features were:

r strong element of plunder and direct seizure ower. sence of large-scale import of British

> basic changes in the colony's administration, y, culture, economy, etc.

Period of Laissez Faire (1813-1860)

The main features of this period were:

Determination of the administrative policies and economic structure of the colony by the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie of the metropolis. Making the colony a subordinate trading partner which would export raw materials and import manufactured goods.

Transformation of the colony's economy, polity, administration, society, culture and ideology under the -guise of development and modernisa tion in order to exploit for furthering British interests.

Finance Imperialism (1860-1947)

This period was marked by:

Intense struggle for new, secure and exclusive markets and sources of raw materials among the industrialised countries. The consequent export of capital by these coun tries to the colonies. " Replacement of liberal policies by reactionary ones in the administration of colonies.

C49


16.2 DRAIN OF WEALTH (TRIBUTE)

Meaning and Nature

During the 200 years of British rule India had to pay a very heavy price for what she got from England. The price which India had to pay for the British contribution to India's political, economic and social progress was not only out of proportion to what India received, but it was also so heavy that the British rule in India left 'poverty amidst plenty'. The British siphoning system adopted to take away India's resources and wealth has come to be appropriately called by economists like R. C. Dutt, Dadabhai and others 'the Economic Drain'. The Theory of Drain was developed by the Indian nationalist thinkers mainly with a view to analyse one of the main causes of poverty in India. The Drain referred to "the unrequited surplus of exports over imports that was transferred to England." The drain was typically "a phenomenon of the colonial rule." The transfer of resources (i.e. unrequited exports) from India to England either without getting anything in return or getting only a disproportionately small part of such a transfer of resources has come to be described as the Drain on India's resources. The person to draw pointed attention to this drain of resources from India to England was Dadabhai Naoroji in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1871). Dadabhai Naoroji made an attempt, in his book, to explain the causes of the drain, to measure the amount of the drain flowing from India to England, and to trace the consequences of such drain. Dadabhai tried to prove that the prevailing mass poverty in India was the direct consequence, among other reasons, for the drain of resources from India to England.

Forms of Drain

According to Dadabhai Naoroji, the following forms of drain can be identified:

1. Remittances to England by Europeans for the support of families and education of children--a feature of the colonial system off 2. Remittances of savings by empl< Company, since most employees'! invest at home. 3. Remittances for purchase of Britisi the consumption of British emplo as purchases by them of British j 4.

Government purchase of stores in Britain.

5. Interest charges on public debt hell (excluding interest payments on i and debts incurred for productive i 6. In addition, the government of the] make huge payments to people inl account of political, administrate mercial connections established 1 and England. These commitments' 'Home Charges'. They included:

a.

Interest on public debt raised in 1 comparatively higher rates;

b.

Annuities on account of railv gation works;

c.

Payments in connection with i ments where Englishmen were J

d. India Office expenses including f retired officials who had worked! who had worked for India in '. retired there, pensions to army personnel, and their furlough alld

Estimate of the Drain

It is impossible to accurately measure the i drain which in the form of resources and i lion flowed from India into Great Britain < British rule. Some idea of the extent of the < be got by figures quoted by some authors. Verelst estimated that within a period of jij years after the Battle of Plassey, goods : worth 4.94 million pounds sterling went < country. I. C. Sinha stated that during 17571 the amount of drain on Bengal's resources alo something like 38 million pounds. With the available information, it was i


|pne-fourth of all the revenues in India came to nually remitted to England as Home Charges

Bferent nationalist leaders made attempts to the amount of the drain annually flowing |pf India into England. There is considerable tion in these estimates because different adopted different methods for calculating |!Drain', and also because India's export surplus undergoing continual change in the upward don.

LAND REVENUE SETTLEMENTS

dari or Permanent Settlement

: of Lord Cornwallis' major achievements was Permanent Settlement (1793) of land revenue in il. For a quarter century after the grant (1765) Jiwani Rights to the John Company, the revenue nent had been on an annual basis, though a nent system was also anticipated. 10 February 1790, the Governor General ounced a decennial settlement. Three years later i approved by the Court of Directors and made nent as of 22 March 1793. It constituted ilation I in the series of regulations passed by i" Calcutta Supreme Council on 1 May and collecfcly known as the Cornwallis Code. tUnder the new dispensation, the zamindars were uized as proprietors of land. Land revenue was fbe fixed, there being no enhancement of dues to i government, nor could the zamindar in return t any remissions or postponement of dues. fftCornwallis argued that these measures would age landlords to obtain the maximum produce I well as reclaim waste land, ensure a permanent ome to the government, and save time and effort »wasted on annual settlements. By accepting i hereditary status of zamindars, however, the set-nent completely ignored the interests of cultiva-who were thus thrown to the mercies of big Uords. The Governor General's views were opposed by of his advisors, including John Shore and

Charles Grant. Shore wanted a proper survey to be carried out before a perpetual assessment was made; Grant was doubtful about the zamindars' proprietary rights to the land without an exhaustive study of the records. Ironically, Shore who succeeded Cornwallis was to bear witness to the first results of the Permanent Settlement he had so steadfastly opposed. The changes it brought about proved to be more of social disorders. The loss of rights of peasants, growth of sub-infeudation, conflicts between old and new houses, absenteeism, pressure of the sale laws, inadequate law courts and police system, exclusion of the natives from the important offices, decline of trade and commerce and industries--all contributed to an extremely tense and unstable social environment. Within that atmosphere, the zamindars failed to stand for improvement. Instead of becoming improving landlords they turned out to be tyrannical and unproductive. In actual fact the Settlement was the result of a complex causation in which ideas too played a role to the extent that these were relevant to mundane interests and provided a decent appearance to them. Cornwallis not only legitimised a heavy tribute in the form of rent; he also made its collection rigid and harsh. His ideas represented British ruling classes' immediate interests as well as their false view of Bengal's social reality. Viewed in its purely commercial and financial aspects, the Settlement resulted in considerable loss of future revenues. As an administrative measure, its completion required a stronger statutory base and more vigorous executive management than were forthcoming. But looking at the measure solely from a political point of view, it was the means of allaying apprehensions and removing doubts amongst a class of Indians.

Ryotwari Settlement

Not long after Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement fn Bengal, the question of extending it to other territories, acquired by the John Company from time, to time presented itself. The capture of Baramahal and Dindigul from Tipu Sultan in the Third Mysore War, and the cession of the Northern circars in 1794 as ajagir brought the issue to the


fore. In 1799 Tanjore and Coimbatore and in 1801 Malabar and the territory of the Nawab of Arcot had been annexed to Madras Presidency. Among the first officials to be associated with land revenue settlement in these areas were Alexander Read and Lionel Place. Thomas Munro was one of Read's assistants; in 1800 he had been transferred from Kanara to the Deccan districts ceded by the Nizam of Hyderabad. While these officials were busy sorting out the complex revenue affairs under their charge, Lord Wellesley, the Governor General, issued a peremptory order to the Madras Government to introduce the Bengal system of Permanent Settlement in its newly acquired dominion. The directive was not well received, for as Munro and his assistants gained in experience, they became extremely critical of the Bengal system. More over they were able to sell their new ideas to the local administration. In particular, William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras (1803-7), was attracted by what they were doing and ruled that further progress with zamindari settlement be stayed. Later (1808), permission was accorded to experiment with village panchayats, apart from the ryotwari system. The ryotwari system had a staunch champion in Munro. As a result of earlier experiences in Tanjore, Hodgson, who was then powerful in the Madras Board of Revenue, was keen on village panchayats. In 1808-9, the ryotwari experiment was tried in most of the districts, but much to Hodgson's discomfiture reports regarding village leases were uniformly unfavourable. In Madras, by 1818, the suppression of landed aristocrats, the poligars, the establishment of judicial courts and the improvement of the revenue system had been ensured. However, in the bargain they had claimed a heavy toll. As soon as Munro became Governor in May 1820 the system was declared generally operative in all parts of the Madras Presidency, barring areas already under the Permanent Settlement. As to the latter, every opportunity was taken of getting back, on account of lapses or by means of purchase, the zamindari mootahs and such other tenures as existed, with a view to introducing the new system therein. The central characteristic of Munro'! that the government demand on land' manently fixed and each cultivator reject the field he was offered if he I be excessive. Munro reduced the roughly half (45 or 50 or 55 per cent) toj the estimated produce; even so, in manyj ter represented the entire economic thus, by definition, oppressive.

Two other factors impinged on the sit| the cultivator had to pay a fixed sum of \ spective of the actual yield or the pn secondly, the rent was not calculated i bodies, as in the North-Western Provin low-paid agents who made unjust used oppressive methods. It is to Munro'i' he strove all through his seven-year i to lower the assessments and keep the i system under constant check. In the Bombay area the Maratha systi ing out the revenue was adopted to sfc districts were farmed out to desais and 1 of villages. The Collector or his agent, i dar or kamavisdar, had to make the deal with the desai for the annual revenu vided the amount was duly paid, kept out< as far as the desai s methods were cone 1819, the ryotwari system was intrc talti or village accountant, appointed dir Bombay Government, superseded the < Apart from the Madras and Bombay Sind) Presidencies, the ryotwari system,' modifications as local conditions also prevalent in Berar, Assam, Burma and|

Mahalwari Settlement

The question of introducing a settlement of 1 enue in the ceded and conquered provinces^ fore in the opening years of the nineteenth c provinces included territory ceded by the Awadh and his tributary, the Nawab of Fa 1801-2 and conquered by the British in li result of Lord Lake's victories over the 1 they were known as the NorthWestern 1

On the basis of a recommendation of the Board of nissioners, Holt Mackenzie had drafted his mites of 1819, in which he recommended a settle-nt with village communities after a systematic vey and inquiry. While undertaking operations, a ord of the rights was to be prepared--village nunities being represented by headmen called mbardars (viz. persons having a 'number' in the ollector's register of persons liable to pay land venue to the state). With all ideas of the Bengal system finally abanned in 1821, Mackenzi's minutes became the basis a new settlement. In essence, his plea was that venue be fixed at a moderate rate and the settle-nt be made with the landlords (viz. zamindars) or sant proprietors where they existed and with the ^village communities where they held land in corntenancy. Landlords or talukdars who claimed rights of land were generally granted compensation Iftom the government treasury, the sum being later Lcollected from the village zamindars. As the revenue fsettlement was to be made village by village and testate by estate and as an estate is called a 'mahal', lift came to be known as the Mahalwari Settlement. I The basis of the settlement was the 'net produce' or pthat portion of the gross produce of land which Ifemained after deducting the expenses of cultivation ['including the profits of stock (invested capital) and j. wages of labour. Regulation VII of 1822 and the settlement were a , failure because inquiries needed for a system of s record of rights made no progress; detailed investitgations relating to produce of individual fields 'proved vexatious and futile'; state demand comput/ed at 80 per cent and above was both severe and impracticable. William Bentinck's Regulation IX of [1833, however, became the true basis of the land settlement in northern India. Moreover, government , demand was reduced to two-thirds of the gross rental, and the settlement took 30 years to be completed. R. M. Bird, the It. Governor of North-Western Provinces, implemented the settlement, and is rightly known as 'the father of land settlement in northern India'. Subsequently, the system was intro-i duced in the Central Provinces, the Panjab etc.

C53 Economic Impact of the British Raj 16.4 RAILWAYS

The development of Indian railways may, broadly, be divided into five different stages or phases: (i) the 'old guarantee system', 1849-69; (ii) state construction and ownership, 1869-82; (iii) the 'modified guarantee system', 1882-1924; (iv) nationalisation, 1924-48; and (v) integration and regrouping, 1948-52.

First Phase (1849-69)

To start with, three experimental lines were sanctioned in 1845: the East Indian Railway, from Calcutta to Raniganj (120 miles); the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, from Bombay to Kalyan (32 miles); and the Madras Railway, from Madras to Arkonam (30 miles). But Indian railroad building began in right earnest after Lord Dalhousie's Minute of 1853 on the subject. And the Revolt of 1857 hastened this process by making the British government realise the importance of speedier transport and communications. Since no large-scale private capital for these huge undertakings was forthcoming, the Company decided that English companies, interest on whose capital investment would be guaranteed by the state, be constituted to take up this work. By the end of 1859 contracts with eight such companies for the construction of 5,000 miles of railroad were signed. In all these cases the government underwrote the capital and guaranteed a 5 per cent return on it, coupled with a free grant of all land required for construction. In return, the companies were called upon to share the surplus profits with the government. The railroads were to be sold to the government on stipulated terms at the close of 25 years, While during this period the government was to exercise control both over their expenditure as well as working. The two most controversial features of the arrangement were the ownership of railways by private companies and the guarantee by the government of a minimum return on their capital, especially the latter.


Second Phase (1869-82)

In the second phase, both the Home and Indian Governments accepted the policy of state construction. In his Minute of 1869, John Lawrence strongly recommended state construction and ownership of railways. Progress however was by no means rapid. Thus between 1869-91 the mileage added through government agency totalled 3,297 only. But the state proved as good an agent as the companies in construction and administration, sometimes even better. The first of the old guaranteed railways to be purchased was the East Indian Railway in 1879. So far as new lines were concerned, their commitment as well as financing was under-written by the state for several years after 1869. By the end of 1879, 6,128 miles of railways had been constructed by various companies as against 2,175 by the state.

Third Phase (1882-1924)

As the existing companies were refusing to raise the requisite additional capital for constructing urgently needed new lines, the central government had to figure out alternative sources. It undertook construction of branch and feeder lines, seemingly unremunerative, with the provincial governments holding out guarantees against loss. A 'modified guarantee system' thus operated during the years 1882-1924. Both government as well as non-government agencies were to undertake construction; the government was to concentrate only on strategic lines or those demanded for purposes of famine relief or other urgent needs. Besides, the Indian states, district boards and other local authorities were actively encouraged to finance, construct and operate railway lines to serve their areas, either directly or through some other agency. By March 1923 the total mileage of railways in India stood at 37,618 of which more than 66 per cent was owned by the government, its subordinate agencies and the Indian states, although most of the railways were managed by private companies. Only three principal railways, North-Western, Eastern Bengal, and Oudh and Rohilkhand and two small

lines, Jorhat and the Aden railv direct management and control,?! the remaining being worked by < In 1900 the railways showed i first time. In succeeding years 1 rapidly; in 1918-19 railway million. In 1924-25 railway] from the general budget for the j In 1901, Thomas Robertson cial commissioner to examine the organisation and working of the He proposed (1903) drastic ch mended the constitution of a Railv chairman, two members and a sec was formally set up in March 1905 andj dinate to the government. In 1907, the Secretary of State, appointed a committee under Sir JamesJ examine the financial and administrative ( the railways. It found out that the obje Railway Board, viz. an expeditious and i posal of business, was not properly there was friction between the Board andj emment; that defects existed in the con the Board itself. The Railway Board, as constituted in modified in 1909, and again in 1914, didi satisfactorily. Initially, its chairman and njj were men with considerable knowledge andj experience. This was modified in 1914, member with financial and commercial tions was appointed. The position was reve 1920, when it was decided that all the three, j hers should possess experience of work in 1 ways. After 1921, when the government direct responsibility for the state railways, it^ gated all its powers to the Railway Board. In 1920 the Secretary of State announce appointment of the East India Railways Con under the chairmanship of Sir William Acwo go into the whole question of railway finances and administration. Also known as] Acworth Committee, it consisted of 10 me among whom 3 were Indians--V. S. Srinivas! (a member of the Council of States),

Economic Impact of the British Raj CSS

dranath Mookerjee (an industrialist of itta) and Purshottamdass Thakurdas (a ay industrial magnate). The committee ruled your of state management and its recommenns were to form the basis of much of the later jjlopment of the Indian railways, ne of the committee's recommendations was âppointment of a Chief Commissioner of ays. He took the place of President of the ay Board and was solely responsible, for deci-^ on technical matters and on matters of railway Unlike the President of the Board, he was »be out-voted or over-ruled by his colleagues. |first incumbent, C.D.M. Hindley, was appoint-i1923. I question of separating general finances from ray finances was also debated by the Acworth littee which recommended that it be examined s first instance by the railway finance commit-|,and the Central Legislative Assembly, ntly both decided in favour of separation, |flom 1924-25 the railway budget was separated i the general budget.

iPhase(1924-48)

JJ932-33 a committee under the chairmanship of i Pope was set up to inquire into all aspects of ay operations. Some of the important recomitions of the report included an intensive use of notives, disposal of uneconomic wagons, com-ng reources between different railway^, ticket-I travel, methods of increasing earnings, etc. he Indian Railways Inquiry Committee was hinted in 1936 under Sir Ralph Wedgewood to i an improvement in net earnings and devise us to place railway finances on a sound and ative basis. Its report was submitted in June 1 to the Railway Board, which decided to impletsome of its recommendations. Finally the government appointed a Railway Committee in 1947 with K.C. Neogy as an. Owing to the then disturbed and uncerf conditions in the country, the committee soon

Fifth Phase (1948-52)

With the partition of the country, sections of the North-Western Railway in the west and the Bengal and Assam Railway in the east went to Pakistan; along with the Sind section of the Jodhpur railway, the total route mileage handed over to Pakistan was 6,958. The section of the Noi r -Vestern Railway left in India was now called the Eastern Punjab Railway; the broad guage of the Bengal-Assam Railway was added to the East Indian Railway, while its meter gauge formed a separate Assam Railway.

Conclusion

Prior to 1944, Indian railways fell into the following broad categories: (i) state-owned lines managed by the state; (ii) state-owned lines managed by private companies; (iii) company-owned lines managed by the companies; (iv) lines belonging to the Indian government; and (v) miscellaneous lines, company lines or district board lines. By 1944, second and third categories had been completely nationalised; almost all, barring some 533 miles, were either directly with the government or with its agencies. Thus, by 1944, the nationalisation of practically the entire railway mileage network in India had been completed. In 1946 the total railway mileage was: broad guage 20,686.60; meter gauge 16,004.23; and narrow gauge 3,827.08.

16.5 COMMERCIALISATION OF AGRICULTURE

Causes Commercial agriculture, that is, the production of crops for sale rather than for own consumption, grew because of a variety of reasons: One basic reason was the constant need of the peasants under the new land systems to find ways of getting money to meet the mounting demands upon them by the state. The peasants started growing only particular crops. The land in groups of villages was solely used, because of its special suitability, for the cultivation of a single agricultural crop such as cotton, jute, wheat, sugarcane, and oil seeds. Another basic reason for the rapid growth in the cultivation of cash crops was that the British government of India


encouraged this. With the rise of modem industries in England, the necessity of raw materials for those industries grew. The British government in India pursued economic policies which expanded the area for growth of such raw materials as needed by the British industries. The government gradually improved the means of transport which made commerce in agriculture more widespread. Thus the government accelerated the commercialisation and specialisation of Indian agriculture.

Results The commercialisation and specialisation of agriculture also disrupted the unity of agriculture and industry in the traditional Indian village. Thus the older rural framework of India, weakened by the new land system, was shattered by the spread of commercial agriculture. The commercialisation adversely affected even the economic position of the agriculturist. He now produced for the Indian and world market, and so he became subject to all vicissitudes of even the erratic market. He had te compete with formidable international rivals like the big agrarian trusts of America, Europe and Australia which produced on a mass scale by means of all modern agricultural machinery, while he himself cultivated his small strip of land by means of the labour power of bullocks and the primitive plough. Further, the commercialisation made him dependent, for the sale of his product, on the middlemen, the merchants. The merchant by his superior, economic position took full advantage of the poverty of the peasant. The poor peasant had to sell his prod-1 uct to the middleman at the harvest time to meet the revenue claims of the state and also the claims of the moneylender. This transaction originating in sheer necessity brought a less amount to . the peasant than it would have if he waited. The middleman thus appropriated a very large share of the profit.

16.6 RURAL INDEBTEDNESS AND GROWTH OF LANDLESS LABOUR

Causes of the impoverishment and indebtedness of the peasantry were:

Impoverishment of the peasantry in zamindari areas due to the oppression of the peasants by the zamindars.

Their impoverishment in i areas due to the excessive i government. Very little investment by; improve agriculture.

Rigid manner of revenue colS The impoverished peasant borrow money at high rates i moneylender. And this further
Causes for the rise of moneyle land were:

The new revenue policy. The new legal system. Frequent occurrence of faminessi food.

The growing commercialisation $

Due to the impoverishment of the I peasant proprietors, the class of 1 idly grew. The condition of even owners who still owned their lands, c was so bad that there was no apprecil between them and the land labou agricultural labourers combined with 1 of poor peasants formed the large agricultural population. Their nu enormously due to a process of ste ment of the upper peasantry and exp their land. Thus, on the one hand, the lands of:| tected proprietors began to be concent hands of a few moneylenders. And hand, the large masses of the peasantry 1 down the social ladder first as tenants-i then as agricultural labourers. In this political influence and the power of the 1 ernment played a major role, as the proti the moneylenders. The proportion of agricultural labou cultural population was the highest in areas and lowest in the joint or mahalwarii was so, because in the ryotwari areas it was <

Economic Impact of the British Raj i^Bi C57

9 moneylenders to usurp the lands of the cultivators ribrce them to become agricultural labourers due to s easiness in the transfer of land in these areas. But was more difficult in the mahalwari areas the 'joint village' was the owner of the ole estate, and the co-shares cannot get rid of the nsibility which is the condition of ownership.

|8.7 DEINDUSTRIALIZATION

industries which were worst affected by the iicies of the British were the cotton weaving and ling industries, silk and woollen industries, pot-y, glass, paper, metals, shipping, oilpressing, tan; and dyeing industries. The poor state of the Indian handicraft industry f can be ascribed to the following causes:

Influx of foreign goods with the adoption of the policy of one-way free trade by the British. The construction of railways which enabled the British manufacturers to reach the remotest villages of the country. The oppression practised by the East India Company and its servants on the craftsmen in forcing them to sell their goods below the prevailing wage. The loss of European markets to Indian manufacturers due to the imposition of high import duties and other restrictions on the import of Indian goods. The gradual disappearance of Indian rulers and their courts, who were the main customers of town handicrafts. Rise in the prices of raw materials due to the British policy of exporting raw materials.

The downslide in Indian industries resulted in the following:

Depopulation and ruin of towns and cities which were famous for their manufactures. Increase in unemployment due to the absence of the growth of modern industries.

Breaking of the union between agriculture and domestic industry in the countryside which in turn led to the destruction of the self-sufficient village economy. Overcrowding of agriculture by the ruined artisans, thus adding to the general pressure on land.

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture

Overcrowding of agriculture and increase in subinfeudation led to subdivision and fragmentation of land into small holdings, which in turn made it difficult to effect improvements in agriculture. Nonavailability of resources to improve agriculture was due to the extreme poverty of the peasantry. Absence of any incentive to improve agriculture for the cultivator, who was rack-rented by both the government and landlord; and neglect of peasant and agriculture by the government by giving step-motherly treatment to public works and agricultural improvement led to a further decline in the agriculture sector.

16.8 GROWTH OF MODERN INDUSTRIES

Machine-based industries The machine age began in India with the starting of cotton textiles, jute and coal mining industries in the 1850s. The development of other mechanical industries such as rice, flour and timber mills, leather tanneries, woolen textiles, paper and sugar mills, iron and steel works, and some mineral industries during the second half of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century contributed further to the growth of modem industries in India.

Plantation industries Growth of plantation industries such as indigo, rubber, tea and coffee during the 19th century was a significant development in the British Indian economic history. Factors that attracted foreign capital to India were:

Prospects of high profits. Availability of extremely cheap labour. Ready and cheap availability of raw materials.

Providing ready market by India and its neigh bours for many goods.


World demand for many Indian products such as tjhe jute and manganese. Willingness of the colonial government and offi cials to provide all help and show all favours.

The reasons for the domination of Indian modern industries by foreign capital and not Indian capital were:

British enterprisers' use of their close connec tions with British suppliers of machinery and equipment, shipping and insurance companies, banks, marketing agencies, government officials and political leaders. Government's policy of favouring foreign capital as against Indian capital. Government's railway policy of discriminating against Indian enterprises by fixing freight rates in such way which made the import and distribution of foreign goods easier and cheaper, and the distri bution of Indian goods more difficult and costly.

The advantages and disadvantages of the foreign-owned industries to Indians were:

The only advantage that the Indians got out of these industries was the creation of unskilled jobs. But the disadvantages far outweighed the advan tages. The Indian workers in these enterprises were extremely low paid and had to work under extremely harsh conditions for long hours. Moreover, most of their technical staff was for eign and hence the huge salaries earned by them went out of the country. And also these industries purchased most of their equipment abroad.

Main features of Indian industrial development were:

Slow and painful progress of Indian industries and their inability to compensate even for the displacement of the indigenous terms of production as well as The main reasons for this feature industrial development was the Briti^ of artificially restricting and slowing growth of Indian industries by not gh) any protection and financial help in 1 of infancy. Almost complete absence of heavy a goods industries, without which there d rapid and independent development of ito It also suffered from extreme regional! ness. Indian industries were concent a few regions and cities of the uneven economic development not wide regional disparities in income affected the level of national integratic Birth and growth of new social classes: , tant social consequence of even this limit! trial development of the country was the] . growth of two new social classes, the uj capitalist class and the modern workii which, though forrned a very small Indian population, represented new new system of economic organisation, ne relations, new ideas and a new outlook.

Development of means of transport and communications

The transport and communication network in 1 India was established with the following ments:

Introduction of steamships on the rivers. Improvement and construction of roads. Introduction of railways. Introduction of modern postal system telegraph.


SINKIANG Princely States of India

chin

SIKKIM(Prot.) ^4k>~^ l j *PVBHfero0 &*> \ ^^/Ai^ \ *N^ V "fiuft"1*^ -^^f\^ S

VJ I J U * ; MYANMAR v/

D British India Burma and Ceylon

Indian States Agencies and Protectorates

Present external boundary ^ q of India shown thus

INDIAN OCEAN


Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The internal boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. Theêrritorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base1 line.


Land Revenue Settler Under British

--Present external bounds of India shown thus.

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Types of settlement

Permanent Zamindari settlement Haiyatwan settlement Government Estates Temporary sertlen^nt (Zamindari. Mahalwan Malguzari and related forms) Amounyjf revenue payment (Payment to government per male agriculturist) """ High " Medium Low

OCEAN


Revenues paid to the British government are indicated for each province by proportional squares. Within each square the figures specify the amount of payment in thousands of rupees in 1872.

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India.

The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate I

QUESTIONS

;1. Who among the following governor-generals created the Covenanted Civil Service of India, which came to be known as the Indian Civil Service from 1861 onwards? (a) William Bentinck (b) Wellesley (c) Cornwallis (d) Warren Hastings 2.

Laissez Fa/re policy of the British in India aimed at

(a)

Establishing monopoly of the East India Company over Indian trade.

(b) Removing all restrictions on the export of Indian handicrafts and cottage goods to England. (c)

Exporting British capital to India in order to start modern industries here.

(d) Removing all restrictions on the export of Indian raw materials to England and on the import of British manufactured goods into India. 3. Who was responsible for the establishment of the College of Fort William at Calcutta to train young civil servants of India? (a) Wellesley (b) Dalhousie (c) William Bentinck (d) Cornwallis 4. During whose viceroyship did the high courts come into existence at the three Presidential cities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay? (a) Warren Hastings (b) John Lawrence (c) Dalhousie (d) Canning 5. Who passed the Widow Remarriage Act? (a) Canning (b) Dalhousie (c) Auckland (d) William Bentinck 6.

Jonathan Duncan founded the Sanskrit College in 1792 at

(a) Calcutta

(b) Allahabad

(c) Bombay

(d) Varanasi

7.

When did the British make English the medium of instruction in India?

(a) 1813

(b) 1833

(c) 1835

(d) 1844

8. Who among the following gave official sanction to the education of girls in India? (a) Dalhousie (b) William Bentinck (c) Hardinge I (d) Ellenborough 9.

Sir Charles Wood, who drafted the Education Despatch of 1854, was the then

(a) (b) (c) (d) 10.

Secretary of state for India President of the Court of Directors President of the Board of Control Prime minister of England Who was the president of the Indian Education Commission of 1882?

(a) Thomas Raleigh (b) W W Hunter (c) Macaulay (d) Sadler 11.

When did Indian universities assume teaching functions.

(a) 1857

(b) 1882

(c) 1897

(d) 1904

12. time? (a) (b) (c)

By which act did education officially come under Indian control for the first Indian Councils Act of 1892 Indian Councils Act of 1909 Government of India Act of 1919 "(d) Government of India Act of 1935

13. When was the 'Double Government' consisting of the Board of Control and the Court of Directors, created at the Home, Government level? (a) 1784

(b) 1813

(c) 1833

(d) 1853

14.

Which act was responsible for the ultimate death of the Presidency System?

(a) (b) (c)

Regulating Act of 1773 Pitt's India Act of 1784 Charter Act of 1813

(d) 15.

Charter Act of 1833 Who was the first to attempt decentralisation of financial administration?

(a) Ripon

(b) Mayo

(c) Curzon

(d) Lytton

C61


16.

Which act created the first 'official legislature' in India?

(a) Indian Councils Act of 1861 (b) Indian Councils Act of 1892 (c) Charter Act of 1833 (d) Charter Act of 1853 17. Who among the following did not belong to the so-called 'Indian School' which favoured a paternalistic role for the collector as opposed to his limited role of the 'English School'? (a) Thomas Munro (b) Elphinstone (c) Cornwallis (d) John Lawrence 18. Who is generally acknowledged as the pio neer of local self-government in modern India? (a) Ripon

(b) Mayo

(c) Lytton

(d) Curzon

19. When did the practice of holding ICS examina tions simultaneously in England as well as in India begin? (a) 1912

(b) 1922

(c) 1932

(d) 1935

20. During which period did India properly witness the process of 'deindustrialisatiov due to British economic policies? (a) 1600-1757 (b) 1757-1813 (c) 1813-1860 (d) 1860-1947 21. Warren Hastings' experiment of auctioning the right to collect revenue to the highest bidder is almost similar to

(a) Poligar system of Vijayanagara Empire (b) Iqta system of Delhi Sultans (c) Jagir system of the Mughals (d) Ijara system of the Mughals 22. The .British continued with the 'Downward Filtration Theory' till 1854 to justify one of their colonial policies in India. Pick it our from the following: (a) Social policy (b) Commercial policy (c) Industrial policy (d) Educational policy 23. Who was the president of the Board of Revenue when Lord Cornwallis introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Bihar? (a) Sir John Shore (b) Sir Metcalfe (c) Sir Charles Napier (d) Sir Denison

24. Who was mainly responsible for I tion of the ryotwari system in Madn (a) Elphinstone (b) Thon (c) Macartney (d) John I 25.

Which of the following is not one oft responsible for the rise of British India?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 26.

New revenue policy New legal system New educational system Commercialisation of agric The proportion of agriculture la cultural population was

(a)

The highest in the zamindd lowest in the ryotwari anas.

(b)

The highest in the mahalwari' lowest in the zamindari areas.

(c)

The highest in the ryotwari an est in the zamindari areas.

(d)

The highest in the ryotwari areasj est in the mahalwari areas.

27. Which one of the following is not a i destruction of the Indian handicraft I by the British? ^ (a)

Depopulation and ruin of cities

(b) (c) (d)

Rise of self-sufficient villege < Increase in unemployment Overcrowding of agriculture

28. Who was the founder of the 'Dn which, among others, exposed drain of wealth from India to Englari (a) Dadabhai Naoroj (b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale (c) RCDutt (d) S N Banerji 29. Which one of the following was not| earliest machine-based modern In come into existence in India? (a) (b) (c) (d) 30.

Cotton textile industry Jute industry Iron and steel industry Coal mining industry Which of the following was not ajj industry in British India?

(a) Indigo

(b) Tea

(c) Coffee

(d) Salt]


What is the historical sequence of the following viceroys? (i) Linlithgow (ii) Wavell (iii) Irwin

(iv) Mountbatten

(v) Wellingdon Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) v, i, iii, ii and iv (b) ii, iii, v, i and iv (c) iii, v, i, ii and iv (d) i, v, iii, ii and iv 38. Arrange the following events of Warren Hastings' period in the chronological order. (i) Begums of Oudh Affair (ii) Nand Kumar Episode (iii) Chait Singh Affair (iv) Rohilla War (v) Foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, iii, i and v (b) ii, i, iii, v and iv (c) iii, ii, v, iv and i (d) v, ii, iv, i and iii 39. What is the historical order of the following social and humanitarian events of the British period? (i) Prohibition of human sacrifice (ii) Prohibition of sati

(iii) Prohibition of female infanticide (iv) Passage of Native Marriage Act (v) Passage of Widow Remarriage Act Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i, iii and v (b) iii, i, ii, iv and v (c) i, ii, iii, v and iv (d) ii, iii, i, v and iv 40. What is the chronological order of the following developments in the field of education in India? (i) Establishment of the first three Universities in India, (ii) Establishment of the Indian Education Service, (iii) Establishment of provincial education departments, (iv) Sadler Commission, (v) Hunter Commission, (vi) Raleigh Commission. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)

i, ii, iii, vi, iv and v iii, i, v, ii, vi and iv ii, i, iv, iii, v and vi v, ii, i, iii, vi and iv

31.

The first telegraph line introduced by Lord 37 Dalhousie in 1853 ran between?

(a) Bombay and Thane (b) Calcutta and Madras (c) Bombay and Agra (d) Calcutta and Agra 32. During whose period did the European soldiers stage the so-called 'White Mutiny' in India? (a) Dalhousie (b) Canning (c) Mayo 33.

(d) Ripon

What is the chronological order of the following governor-generals?

(i) Minto

(ii) John Shore

(iii) Cornwallis

(iv) Warren Hastings

(v) Lord Hastings (vi) Wellesley Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, iii, ii, vi, i and v (b) iv, ii, iii, vi, i and v (c) iv, vi, ii, iii, v and i (d) iv, v, i, iii, vi and ii 34.

Arrange the following governor-generals in chronological sequence.

(i) Ellenborough I (ii) William Bentinck (iii) Canning (iv) Auckland (v) Dalhousie (vi) Hardinge I Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d) 35.

iv, ii, v, vi, i and iii vi, i, ii, v, iv and iii ii, iv, i, vi, v and iii v, ii, vi, iv, i and iii What is the historical order of the following viceroys?

(i) Northbrook (ii) Dufferin (iii) Lytton

(iv) Mayo

(v) Ripon Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, v, iii, i and iv (b) v, i, iii, iv and ii (c) iii, ii, iv, i and v (d) iv, i, iii, v and ii 36.

Arrange the following viceroys in chronological order.

(i) Hardinge II (ii) Reading (iii) Chelmsford

(iv) Curzon

(v) Minto II Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) v, iv, i, iii and ii (b) iv, v, i, iii and ii

(c) iii, iv, ii, i and v (d) ii, iv, v, i and iii


41. Arrange the following events in the evolution of the civil service in the India in the correct sequence. (i) Lee Commission (ii) Aitchison Commission (iii) Creation of UPSC (iv) Scholarship Scheme (v) Scheme of Statutory Civilians Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, ii, i, v and iv (b) ii, iv, v, i and iii (c) iv, v, ii, i and iii (d) v, iii, i, iv and ii 42. What is the chronological order of the following revenue systems in British India? (i) Ryotwari System (ii) Permanent Settlement (iii) Mahalwari System (iv) Auctioning System Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, i and iii



(d) i, iv, ii and iii

43.


(a) (b)

Wood's Despatch--Primary education Hunter Commission--Secondary educa-' tion

(c)

Raleigh Commission--University education

(d)

Sadler Commission--Rejection of filtration theory

44.


List I Cornwallis List II 0) (ii) Wellesley (iii) William Bentinck (iv) Dalhousie (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D

(A)

Subsidiary Alliance System

(B) (C)

Doctrine of Lapse Separation of judicial administration from revenue adm inistration

(D)

Abolition of the provincial courts of appeal and circuit

45.


List I List II (i) Bombay Presidency (A) William Benti (ii) Madras Presidency (B) Dalhousie (iii) Agra Province (C) Wellesley (iv) Public Works

(D) Hastings

Department

(E) Cornwallis

(a) i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E (b) i-B, ii-E, iii-CJ (c) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (d) i-C, ii-B, iii-D,| 46.

Which code gives the correct matching i following lists?

List II (A) Metcalfe (B) Hastings List I (i) GorkhaWar (ii) Suppression of thuggee (iii) Freedom of Indian (C) Dalhousie (D) William I

(b) i-B, ii-D, iii-C,| (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-i press (iv) Introduction of postal system (a) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A (c) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C 47.


List I List II (i) Mayo

Beginning of the i

of state railways (ii) Northbrook Visit of prince of' to India (iii) Lytton

Holding of the

Durbar (iv) Ripon

First census tak

India Which of the above are correctly Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv

48.


List I List II (i) Queen Victoria's

Lytton

Proclamation (ii) Statistical Survey Canning of India (iii) Strachey Famine Mayo Commission (iv) Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act

Ripon


['Which of the above are incorrectly matched? P Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv ^ Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below: List I List II " (i) Curzon (ii) Ripon

(A) Department of Agric ulture and Commerce (B) Famine Code

[ (iii) Mayo

(C) Durand Commission

(iv) Lansdowne (D) Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (b) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (c) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-D, ii-B, iiiC, iv-A 0. Match the following: |; List I List II jr (i) Scholarship

(A) Dufferin

Scheme (ii) Scheme of Stat-(B) John Lawrence utory Civilians (iii) Aitchison Comm-(C) Reading ission (iv) Lee Commission (D) Lytton (a) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B (b) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (c) iD, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A (d) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C

ertion and Reason

uctions

Mark (a) if only 'Assertion' (A) is correct. Mark (b) if only 'Reason' (R) is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and if 'R' is the correct explanation of 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and if 'R' is not the correct explanation for 'A'. 151. Assertion: In the Mercantile stage of British colonialism in India large scale export of British goods to India was absent. Reason: In the first stage of colonialism the British did not introduce any basic change in India's economy, society and culture. 52. Assertion: From 1813 onwards the economic as well as non-economic policies of the British in India were determined by the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie of England. Reason: In the second stage of British colonialism, India was made an equal trading partner with England. 53. Assertion: The Court of Directors established the East India College at Haileybury to replace the college of Fort William-at Calcutta. Reason: The Home Government did not want to leave the task of establishing and consoli dating British rule in India to the Indians. 54. Assertion: The British introduced a uniform civil code for all Indians irrespective of their differ ent religions. Reason: A law commission headed by Lord Macaulay codified all the available Indian laws. 55. Assertion: The British government in India gen erally followed a policy of only partial transfor mation and cautious modernisation of Indian society. Reason: All Englishmen, whether they were conservatives or radicals, desired the safety and perpetuation of British rule in India. 56. Assertion: English education made good progress in the three presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras after 1844. Reason: Lord Hardinge decided to give government employment to those Indians who were educated in English Schools. 57. Assertion: Mass education hardly made any real progress all through the period of British rule in India.

Reason: The British government in India generally followed a policy of opening a large number of elementary schools instead of a few colleges. 58. Assertion: Wood's Despatch of 1854 is gener ally known as the 'Magna Carta of English Education in India'. Reason: It outlined a comprehensive plan for the future development of education system in India. 59. Assertion: Under the zamindari system, the revenue collectors and other intermediaries in revenue administration were overnight con verted into landlords. Reason: Under this system, the zamindar could keep for himself only 1/11th of the rental that he got from the peasantry, while paying 10/11ths of it to the Government.


60. Assertion: The permanent settlement is said to have initially resulted in increased agricultural production. Reason: In this system the zamindar could keep for himself any increase in the rental of his estate. 61. Assertion: In the ryotwari areas, the peasant had to pay land revenue to the government even when his produce was partially or totally destroyed. Reason: Under the ryotwari system the land revenue demand of the government was fixed once for all. 62. Assertion: In the mahalwari areas each peas ant was individually responsible to the govern ment for the payment of revenue. Reason: In these areas the government reserved the right to revise land revenue demand periodically.

63. Assertion: Under the new terns, the peasant was in < ing ways to get money. Reason: The rise of England resulted in growing < materials from India. 64. Assertion: The commercial^ agriculture during the British \ affected the economic positic Reason: The commercialisati ing the peasant heavily dep dleman for the sale of his subject to all the vicissitud Indian as well as the world i 65. Assertion: After the acquisit Bengal, the company direc 'Drain of Wealth'. Reason: After 1765 the send to England the through what were called 'in

ANSWERS

(c) (d) (d) (d) (c) (c) (a) C67

2.(d) 12. (c) 22. (d) 32. (b) 42. (a) 52. (a) 62. (b)

3. (a) 13. (a) 23. (a) 33. (a) 43. (c) 53. (d) 63. (d)

4. 14. 24. 84. 44. 54. 64.

(b) (d) (b) (c) (b) (b) (c)

5.(b) 6.(d) 15. (b) 16. (d) 25. (c) 26. (d) 35. (d) 36. (b) 45. (c) 46. (d) 55. (c) 56. (c) 65< (c)

7.(c) 17. (c) 27. (b) 37. (c) 47. (a) 57. (a)

8. 18. 28. 38. 48. 58.

(a) (a) (a) (a) (b) (c)

9.(c) 19. (b) 29. (c) 39. (d) 49. (c) 59. (d)

10. (b) 20. (c) 30. (d) 40. (b) 50. (d) 60. (c)

chapter

CULTURAL ENCOUNTER Al SOCIAL CHANGES

17.1 INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN EDUCATION AND MODERN IDEAS

First Phase (1758-1812)

The English East India Company showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the only two minor exceptions being the Calcutta Madrasah set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects, and the Sanskrit College at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu law and philosophy (both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the courts of the Company).

Asiatic Society: It was founded on January 15, 1784 by Sir William Jones and thirty other members who had responded to his call for pursuing various branches of Asiatic studies. Membership was voluntary but, until 1829, no Indians were admitted. The first volume of its publication, Asiatic Researches, was brought out in 1789. Credit for widespread interest in the field of indological studies in England and the West is deservedly given to the work of this society.

Second Phase (1813-53)

Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Company by the Christian missionaries and many humanitari ans, including some Indians, to enc mote modern education in India, the< 1813 required the Company to sp lakh annually for encouraging le promoting the knowledge of mod India. Two controversies about the nature! arose during the first part of this were--whether to lay emphasis on the j modern western studies or on the exp ditional Indian learning and whether to ( languages or English as the medium i in modern school and college to sp learning?

Macaulay's Minute on Education

Thomas Babington Macaulay in his president of the Committee on Public 1 February 2, 1835, it was to fomuAe Company's educational policy in India. 1 the victory of the socalled 'Anglicists' ] 'progressive' Indians, who supported tion and popularisation of English edu the opposing school of thought rep 'Orientalists' who preferred to encourage< of traditional learning. In late January 1835, the two fac Committee--Orientalists (James Suthe Shakespear, the brothers James and He and Elliot Macnaghten) and Anglicists i

C68


CB Saunders, GA Bushby, JR Colvin and CE Trevelyan)--put forward their respective arguments before the Supreme Council. The Orientalists argued that any substantial reduction of Sanskrit and Arabic instruction would contravene the Charter Act of 1813. Macaulay, on the other hand, defended the views of the Anglicists on the Committee. On the basis of'Macaulay's Minute', Bentinck ruled that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone. Consequently, a resolution based on Macaulay's Minute and accepted by William Bentick's government on March 7, 1835 proclaimed English as India's official language. According to Macaulay, from the new system would emerge a class who though Indian in blood and the colour of the skin would be 'English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect'. These Indians would not only act as interpreters between the English rulers and the Indian subjects but also further help education gradually filter down to the masses by refining 'the vernacular dialects with terms of science borrowed from the western nomenclature'. In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give government employment to Indians educated in English schools. The success of English education was thus assured and it made good progress in the three presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras where a number of schools and colleges were opened between 1813 and 1853. Three other developments also took place during this phase.

A great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who did pioneering work in almost every field of modern education.

Establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges, which marked a beginning in professional education.

Official sanction accorded to the education of girls (Lord Dalhousie, in fact, offered the open support of government).

The government policy of opening a few English chools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools led to the neglect of the education of the masses. This was so because the government was not willing to spend more than an insignificant sum on education. To cover up this defect in their policy, the British took recourse to the socalled 'Downward Filtration Theory' which meant that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downwards from the upper classes. In other words, the few educated persons from the upper and middle classes were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas. This policy continued until the very end of the British rule in practical terms, though it was officially (in theory only) abandoned in 1854.

Third Phase (1854-1900)

The Educational Despatch of 1854, also known as Wood's Despatch (because it was drafted by Sir Charles Wood, the then president of the Board of Control, who later became the first secretary of state for India) and generally considered as the 'Magna Carta of English Education in India', formed a landmark in the history of modern education in India. It outlined a comprehensive plan which supplied the basis for the subsequent development of education system in India. This dispatch rejected the 'filtration theory' and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of vernaculars, and favoured secularisation of education and a coordinated system of education from the lowest level (primary school) to the highest stage (university). The second half of the 19th century witnessed the gradual implementation of the policies laid down by the Despatch of 1854. Creation of education departments in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, NorthWestern Provinces and Punjab in 1855 and later in the new provinces which were formed at a later date; organisation of the Indian Education Service in 1897 to cover the seniormost posts; and establishment of the Universities of Calcutta (January 1857), Bombay (July 1857), Madras (September 1857)v Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887) were some landmark developments of this period.


The Indian Education Commission of 1882, generally known as 'Hunter Commission' (Sir W W Hunter was its president) was appointed by Lord Ripon to enquire into the manner in which effect had been given to the principles of the Despatch of 1854 and to make the necessary recommendations with regard to the primary education (which was the chief object of its inquiry). The Commission recommended that the newly founded local bodies (district boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary schools. With regard to the private enterprise, the commission recommended that the government should maintain only a few colleges, secondary schools and other essential institutions, and the rest of the field should be left to private enterprise. These recommendations, along with others, of the Commission were accepted by the government and implemented.

Fourth Phase (1901-20)

Lord Curzon convened the first conference of Directors of Public Instruction in 1901 and initiated an era of educational reform based on its decisions. He appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas. Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy's Executive Council) in 1902, and based on its recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed. The Act enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), constituted syndicates for the speedier transaction of business, and provided for strict conditions of affiliation and periodic inspection of the different institutions. All these provisions led to a substantial measure of qualitative improvement in higher education, though the Act was severely criticised by the nationalist Indians for recommending tightening of government control over universities. In 1910 a separate Department of Education was established at the centre, and in 1913 the Government of India Resolution on Education Policy called for the opening of residential universities, and wanted to improve the training of teachers for primary and secondary schools.

The Sadler Commission (1917-19) was i by Lord Chelmsford to review the working Calcutta University. The commission recon that secondary education should be left to the! of a board of secondary education and that 1 tion of the degree course should be three ye By 1921 the number of universities iii increased to 12, the seven new ones being] Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknfl Osmania. Similar growth could be seen at I ondary and primary levels of education, the growth rate was hardly sufficient for the pu mass education. ^ It was also during this phase that the cori^ national education was coined for the first 1 leaders like Gandhi, Lala Lajpat Rai and$ Besant. According to them, the existing education was unhelpful and even antag national development, and hence a new capable of fostering love of the motherland^ be evolved. Accordingly, a number of natio tutions, such as Kasi Vidyapith and Jamia' Islamia, were established, and they worketfi pendently of the official system.

Fifth Phase (1921-47)

During this phase, education for the first tin cially came under Indian control in the sense-! became, under the provisions of the Montford'J 1919 (and the resultant dyarchical provincial^ ernments), a provincial transferred subject i tered by a minister responsible to the provincia islature. As a result, there was unprecedented < sion at all levels of education. Some signii developments of this period were--increase number of universities (20 in 1947); improven the quality of higher education due to the in tion of reforms based largely on the recon tions of the Sadler Commission; establishment1* Inter-University Board (1924) and beginn inter-collegiate and inter-university activities;nificant achievements in the field of wo education and the education of the backward cli due to the liberal concessions given to them b^| popular ministries.


Committee Report (1928-29) In May I the Simon Commission appointed a five-memrcommittee with Sir Philip Joseph Hartog as its an to report on the growth of education in i India and explore the potentialities of its fur-r progress. In its report, the Committee made the owing observations:

f Responsibility for mass education rests primarily I with the state, and provision of educational facilf ities for all should not be left entirely to the . mercy of the local authorities. i The general condition of secondary education was satisfactory but what was appalling was the |, large number of failures at the matriculation if examination. Unitary universities alone were not adequate and most of them contained a large number of undeserving students. There was a considerable wastage of manpower resources particularly in the primary system; hence various remedies for combating this were suggested. |t There was need to establish a centralised education agency at Delhi. The transfer of control over primary education to local bodies was not desirable, and larger powers were thus needed to be assumed by provincial governments. Finally, there was need for improvement in the salary scales of teachers, increase in the inspectorate, improvement of curricula, emphasis on tutorial work in colleges, adult education and other such cognate subjects.

Basic or Wardha Scheme of Education (1937) Basic education, also called Nai Talim, was not so much a methodology of education as the expression of an idea for a new life and a new society. The basic premise was that only through this system of education could India build an independent, nonviolent society. The scheme was first put forward by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937 in a series of articles in his weekly, the Harijan. He emphasised that the concept of free and compulsory primary education on a nationwide scale should centre around some form of

manual or productive work. All other aspects to be developed or training imparted should, as far as possible, be integrated with a central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child. The first conference on 'National Education', as it was called, was convened at Wardha on October 22-23, 1937. It appointed a committee under the presidentship of Dr. Zakir Husain to prepare the syllabus, which it did by December 1937. The Scheme was, in fact, the caping stone of Gandhi's socio-political edifice. After Independence, the scheme was accepted both by the union as well as state governments as the pattern of national education at the elementary stage.

Sargent Education Report (1944) The Central Advisory Board of Education, with Sir JP Sargent as its chairman, presented in 1944 its report on the post-war educational development in India. The report provided for:

pre-primary education for children between 3 and 6 years of age; universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children between the ages of 6 and 14; high school education for 6 years for selected children between the ages of 11 and 17; a university course of 3 years beginning after the higher secondary examination, for selected stu dents; technical, commercial and art education for full time and part time students on an adequate scale; liquidation of adult illiteracy and the development of a public libraries system in about 20 years; full provision for the proper training of teachers required for the implementation and continuation of the scheme; organisation of compulsory physical education, medical inspection followed by aftertreatment and provision of milk and midday meals for undernourished children; creation of employment bureaus; education of the physically and mentally handing capped children;


social and recreational facilities on a fairly liberal scale.

17.2 INDIAN RENAISSANCE: SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

BRAHMO SAMAJ

Rammohun Roy established the Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta in 1828 in order to purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism. The Samaj under him was based on the twin pillars of reason and the ancient Hindu scriptures (only the Vedas and the Upanishads), and incorporated the best teachings of other religions as well.

Rammohun Roy (1772-1833)

Born in 1772 at Radhanagar in Burdwan district in West Bengal, he is unanimously considered as the first 'modern man'. He was a pioneer of socioreligious and political reform movements in modern India. He passed away at Bristol in England in 1833. He was sent to England by the titular Mughal emperor to plead with the British crown for a larger sum of pension.

His religious ideas and reforms He studied different languages (Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc.) in order to study the various religious scriptures in their original. He believed in monotheism (Doctrine of the Unity of God-head) and opposed idol worship. In 1803 he published a Persian treatise called TuhfatulMuwahidin or 'A gift to monotheists' wherein he explains his concept of monotheism. He established the Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta (1815) in order to propagate monotheism and to fight against the evil customs and practices in Hinduism. Later in 1828 he established the Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta in order to purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism.

He laid emphasis on human reason and rationality in all religious matters. He also applied rationality to Christianity, by publishing in 1820 a book entitled The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness, which embodied the mori itual precepts of Jesus without the : miracles. Further, he defended Hind Vedanta philosophy, as found in the Vet Upanishads, from the ignorant attacks i missionaries.

His social ideas and reforms He led al crusade against the practice of sati and 1829 he succeeded 9in persuading Bentinck to abolish it. He champione rights, like right of inheritance and attacked polygamy and the degrade widows. He fought for the introduction and| modern education through the medium 'I He made Bengali the vehicle of intelle course in Bengal. \j

His political ideas and reforms He the unification of divergent groups of Ind in order to bring about national con India. He initiated public agitation on poll tions like the need for reforms in the i istration, trade and economic policies < pioneered Indian journalism in order to< public on current issues and to repp opinion before the government.

BRAHMO SAMAJ AFTER ROY

Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905)

He established the Tattvabodhini Calcutta to propagate Rammohun Formally he joined the Brahmo Samaj in reorganised it. He promoted the systematic 'study* past through the Tattvabodhini Patrikaj^ monthly. He remained the undisputed I Brahmo Samaj till 1866 and carried ob| religious reform work initiated by Roy.1 J

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84)

He joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857 i the right hand man of Debendranath.'


time differences developed between the older and conservative section led by Debendranath and the , younger and progressive section led by Sen over the issues of social reforms (particularly the caste system) and of the relationship between Hinduism and Brahmoism (while the latter group stood for the complete abolition of the caste system and maintained that Brahmoism is different from Hinduism, the former group wanted to retain caste system, though criticising its rigidity, and asserted that Brahmoism is Hinduism). This led to the secession [of Sen's group from the parent body (which had come to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj) in 11865 and formation of a new organisation, known as ["the Brahmo Samaj, of India, by it in 1866. He spread the message of Brahmo Samaj in other parts of India including Bombay and Madras by his tours (once in 1864 and again in 1868). He adopted a much more radical and comprehensive scheme of Asocial reform and infused bhakti into Brahmoism. Further, he formed the 'Indian Reform Association' | < (1870) and persuaded the British government to enact ithe Native Marriage Act of 1872 (popularly known as -the Civil Marriage Act) which legalised the Brahmo ^marriages and fixed the minimum age for the groom |» and the bride at 18 and 14 respectively.

Second schism in Brahmoism

The second schism in Brahmoism occurred in 1878 when a group of Sen's followers, under Ananda Mohan Bose and Shivanatha Shastri, left him and iformed the Sadharana Brahmo Samaj. The causes f; for this split were the question of management of the Samaj and the violation of the Native Marriage Act by Sen himself (he gave his eldest

daughter in marriage to the. ruler of Cooch Bihar, but neither of them had attained the marriageable age under the Act).

MANAV DHARMA SABHA

Durgaram Manchharam (1809-78) was a leading figure among the small group of educated Gujaratis | "who in the 1830s became strong critics of contem "iporary society. Participants in this group were Dadoba Panderung, Dinmani Shankar, Dalpatram Bhagubai, and Damodar Das. They founded the Manav Dharma Sabha at Surat in 1844 and held meetings every Sunday that were open to anyone who wished to attend. As part of its programme, the Manav Dharma Sabha challenged magicians and the reciters of incantations to demonstrate their skills. They also criticised caste, but took no direct action against this institution. The Manav Dharma Sabha had only a short career as an active organisation. It began to Shatter in 1846 when Dadoba Panderung returned to Bombay, and ceased to function in 1852 when Durgaram Manchharam left for Rajkot. Although its life was severely limited, this Sabha was directly linked to later developments in Maharashtra and Gujarat as its members carried with them the ideals of the movement and became leaders in similar organisations.

PARAMAHANSA MANDALI

Its history was closely linked to the Manav Dharma Sabha and to the leadership of Dadoba Panderung (1814-82). Dadoba outlined his doctrines in Dharma Vivechan (1848). He listed seven principles that became the basis for the new association. They are:

God alone should be worshipped; real religion is based on love and moral conduct; spiritual religion is one; every individual should have freedom of thought;

our daily words should be consistent with reason; mankind is one caste; and the right kind of knowledge should be given to all.

These principles denied the polytheism of popular Hinduism, the caste system, and the Brahmanical monopoly of knowledge. In 1849, Dadoba and his friends organised the Paramahansa Mandali at Bombay, a radical socio-religious society that met in secret. Ram Bal Krishna Jayakar became president of the Mandali. All members were required to pledge that they would abandon caste restrictions. Each initiate had to take food and drink prepared by a member of the lower castes. Meetings were held at set times in the homes of


various members and sympathisers. They read papers and discussed a variety of social and reli gious topics. The group soon came to an agreement on two major principles. First, they would not attack any religion and, secondly, they rejected any reli gion which claimed infallibility. Branches of this organisation were established in Poona, Ahmadnagar, and Ratnagiri. The Mandali, following the path of the Manav Dharma Sabha with its attempts to reject the caste system, idols, orthodox rituals, and Brahmanical authority, left little behind it in concrete achievements. Its insistence on remaining a secret organisation illustrated an unwillingness to openly challenge Hindu orthodoxy. Yet the ideas seen in the Manav Dharma Sabha and the Paramahansa Mandali appeared once more in the form of a new socio-religious movement.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ

An off-shoot of the Brahmo Samaj, it was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang (1823-98). In 1870 M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it and infused new strength in it. It was reform movement within Hinduism, and concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, intermarriage, remarriage of widows, and uplift of women and depressed classes.

ARYA SAMAJ

The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati at Bombay in 1875. The most distinctive feature of Arya Samaj was the suddhi movement, which means the reconversion of those Hindus who had once been willingly or forcibly converted into other religions, but were now willing to come back into the fold of Hinduism. It was considered by the Arya Samajists as a potent instrument for effecting socio-religious and political unity of India. The Arya Samaj, though founded in Bombay, became very powerful in Punjab and spread its influence to other parts of north India like Uttar Pradesh. Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc. Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824

Originally known as Mula Shankara, Day born in 1824 in the town of Tankara in < spent 15 years (1845-60) as a wandering i later received education from Swami Birajj Mathura. He founded the Arya Samaj at 1 1875.

His religious and social ideas and considered the Vedas as eternal and ir was against idolatry, ritual and priesthooj opinion priests had perverted Hinduism! help of the Puranas which were full of \ He attacked child marriages and caste sys on birth; encouraged inter-caste ma widow remarriage; favoured the spread sciences; and organised social services i ral calamities, etc. He started the shu ment. He wrote three books, viz. Satyartha i Hindi), Veda-Bhashya Bhumika (partly in 1 partly in Sanskrit) and Veda-Bhashya (ind and toured India extensively to spread his 1 After the death of Dayanand (1883), i ferences arose between two sections of 1 Samaj over the question of the system of < to be followed, resulting in a split in 1892.1 tion, known as the Gurukula section led! Shraddhanand, advocated the adoption" ancient system of Hindu education and i institutions for boys only, the most imp them being the one at Hardwar. The called the College section led by Lajpat Hans Raj, stood for the spread of English < and established a number of Dayanand * (DAV) schools and colleges both for girls i the most important being the one at Lahore;^

RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND RAMAKRISHNA MATH

The former is a social service and charitable] formed by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 at| with the objective of carrying on humanit and social work through the establish


ols, colleges, hospitals, orphanages, etc. The is a religious order or trust, founded by Vekananda in 1887 at Baranagar (Belur has ne the headquarters of both the Mission and iMath since 1898), with the objective of bring; into existence a band of dedicated monks who ild propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna amsa (the universal message of Vedanta). ugh legally two district entities with separate ds and finances, the Mission and the Math are in dice single body, with the members of the Math ning the principal workers of the Mission and the Ustees of the Math forming the governing body of I Mission.

akrishna Paramahamsa (1836-1886)

riginally known as Gadodhar Chattopadhyay, he i born in 1836 in Kamarpukur village in Hooghly ffistrict in West Bengal. He became a priest in the nple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar near ilcutta (1856). He married Sharadamani, a minor girl, in 1860 (she later came to Dakshineshwar and ved him till the end). He sought religious salvation in the traditional |way of renunciation, meditation and devotion. He [emphasised that there were several roads to god [and salvation and that service of man was service fofgod. f. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)

Originally known as Narendranath Datta, he was Thorn in 1863 in Calcutta. His first visit to I Ramakrishna, his future guru, was in 1881, and made frequent visits to him there after. He established a | monastery at Baranagar (1887) after the death of his guru.

He made an extensive tour of India which brought him into close contact with the people and enabled him to realise the true condition of India. He |also attended the World Parliament of Religions (1893) at Chicago (USA) and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high. From USA, he I visited Europe and returned to India in 1897. Meanwhile he started publishing two papers--the monthly Prabudha Bharata in English and the fortnightly Udbodhana in Bengali. Later he made his second visit to USA in 1899 and also spoke at the Congress of the History of Religions at Paris (1900). He returned to India in 1900 and soon expired in 1902 due to ill-health.

His socio-religious ideas and reforms He popularised his guru's religious message and tried to put it in a form that would suit the needs of contemporary Indian society. He stressed that social action was essential without which knowledge was useless in this world. Further, he condemned the caste system and the current Hindu emphasis on rituals, ceremonies, etc. and urged the people to imbibe the spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking. He proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions. Vedanta according to him was a fully rational system.

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

Founded in New York (USA) in 1875 by Madam H P Blavatsky (1831-91), a Russian lady, and H S Olcott (1832-1907), an American colonel, with three main objects:

To form a universal brotherhood of man. To promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies. To make a systematic investigation into the mys tic potencies of life and matter, which is called occultism.

They arrived in India in 1879 and, established their headquarters at Adyar, near Madras in 1882. Later Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India in 1893 and succeeded to the presidentship of the society after the death of Olcott in 1907. The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas. In order to provide Hindu religious instruction, she founded the Central Hindu school at Varanasi (1898), which was later developed into the Benaras Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.


YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT

Its founder was Henry Vivian Derozio, who was born in Calcutta in 1809 and who taught at the Hindu college between 1826 and 1831. He died of cholera in 1831. His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal movement.

Their socio-religious views They attacked old traditions and decadent customs. Also advocated women's rights and their education and educated the public on the current socio-economic and political questions through the press and public associations. They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of the press, trial by jury, protection of peasants, etc.

OTHER HINDU REFORMERS AND SOCIAL WORKERS

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

He contributed to the uplift of Indian women by struggling in favour of widow remarriage (his efforts bore fruit in 1856 when the British passed the Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act), by opposing child marriage and polygamy, and by campaigning in favour of education of women. He evolved a new technique of teaching Sanskrit and a modern prose style in Bengali. He also admitted non-Brahmin students into Sanskrit College at Calcutta (of which he became the principal in 1851) and introduced the study of Western thought in it.

Gopal Hari Deshmukh

A champion of new learning and social reform in Maharashtra, he was popularly known as Lokahitawadi. He made powerful rationalist attacks on Hindu orthodoxy, and preached religious and social equality.

M.G. Ranade

This famous socio-religious reformer of Maharashtra was one of the prominent members of the Prarthana Samaj as well as the source of inspir foundation of the Deccan Education So by Agarkar. He inaugurated the Ind Social Conference in 1887. G K Gok edged him as his guru.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar

One of the greatest rationalist thin Maharashtra, he advocated the power oft son. He was totally opposed to any blto ence on tradition or false glorification past. He founded the Deccan Education I Poona in 1884 in association with B G ' Chiplunkar and Madhavrao Namjoshi.

Jyotiba Phule

Belonging to a low caste from Maharashfi aware of the degraded position of the and non-Brahmins, he waged a life-lo against upper caste domination and Bn supremacy through his Satyashodak He pioneered the widow remarriage Maharashtra and worked for the education*

Tulsi Ram

Popularly known as Shiva Dayal Saheb, 1 the Radha Soami Satsang, an esoteric sect, i Agra, with the aim of propagating a mono trine. According to him, the only means < was the practice of surat sabdyoga (u human soul with the spirit-current or word)'! guidance of a Sant Satguru or sincere \o\ Supreme Being. His teachings were emb books, each named SarrBachan (Essential! The sect recognises no God of the Hindu ] nor any temples or sacred places except 1 fied by the presence of the guru or his relic

Shivanarayan Agnihotri

Hailing from UP, he was educated in the ] ing College at Rurki and later became member of the Lahore branch of the Br


I due to differences with the other leaders of the aj, he left it and founded the Deva Samaj in 87 at Lahore with aims similar to those of the no Samaj but with an additional element, ely the predominance of the guru. The religious t of this Samaj was Deva Shastra and the teach-devadharma. The guru, claiming supernatural vers, was practically regarded and worshipped as 1 by his disciples.

pala Krishna Gokhale

i famous moderate nationalist leader was also a nowned social worker. He founded the Servants of dia Society in 1905 at Bombay with the aim of ng Indians in different fields for the service of eir motherland. Earlier he was an active member Fthe Deccan Education Society (founded by G.G. in 1884 at Poona) but left it after some time I to serious differences with Tilak who was also i member.

IMJoshi

|Initially a member of Gokhale's Servants of India ciety, he founded the Social Service League at I Bombay in 1911 with the aim of securing for the |masses better and reasonable conditions of life and [work. He also founded the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920 at Bombay, but left it in 1929 [when it showed leaning towards the Soviet Union, [and started the Indian Trades Union Federation.

H N Kunzru i S He founded the Seva Samiti at Allahabad in 1914

i i with the objective of organising social service durling natural calamities, and promoting education, I sanitation, physical culture, etc. He was also a member of the Servants of India Society earlier. Baden-Powell Organisation, which at that time banned Indians from joining it. Though later BadenPowell, after a private visit to India, lifted the colour bar, Bajpai's organisation continued its separate existence, for it had the aim of bringing about the complete Indianisation of the Boy Scout movement in India.

Vireshalingam Pantulu

He was the most prominent social reformer of south India in the second half of the 19th century. He founded the Rajahmundri Social Reform Association in Andhra Pradesh in 1878 with the principal objective of promoting widow remarriage.

MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENTS

Aligarh Movement

It was a movement started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) for the social and educational advancement of the Muslims in India. Other prominent members of the movement were Altaf Hussain Hali, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, Nawab Mushin-ul-Mulk, Chirag Ali, etc. Sir Syed fought medieval obscurantism through his journal Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq, and advocated a rational approach towards religion. He rejected blind adherence to religious law and asked for a reinterpretation of the Quran in the light of reason to suit the new trends of the time. In order to promote English education among the Muslims, he founded in 1875 a modern school at Aligarh, which soon developed into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1877) and later into a fullfledged university. And in 1866, he founded the Muhammadan Educational Conference as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas among the Muslims. But unfortunately, this movement in the later stages became anti-Congress and anti-Hindu, and pro-British due to some misconceived fears of Hindu domination.

ShriRam Bajpai

Another member of the Servants of India Society, he founded the Seva Samiti Boy Scouts Association in 1914 at Bombay on the lines of the worldwide Deoband Movement

It was the movement that began after the foundation of the Dar-ul-Ulum (name of the institution) at Deoband in 1866 by Maulana Husain Ahmad and


others with the aim of resuscitating classical Islam and improving the spiritual and moral conditions of the Mvslims. The liberal interpretation of fa[am by its founders created political awakening among its followers, and some of them like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad played an important role in the national movement.

Ahrar Movement

It was a movement founded in the 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan and Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist politics of the Aligarh movement. Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated active participation in the nationalist movement.

Ahmadia Movement

Also known as the Qadiani movement, it was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (18371908) at Qadiani in Punjab, towards the end of the 19th century with the objective of reforming Islam and defending it against the onslaughts of Christian missionaries and the Arya Samajists. It gave religious recognition to modem industrial and technological progress. And it has become the most closely knit and the best organised Muslim group in India.

OTHER MUSLIM REFORMERS

Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938)

He emphasised the need for a reconstruction of Muslim religious thought in the light of the problems posed by the modern world; criticised those ascetic elements of religious thought which made man parasitic and indolent, and preached a life of self-assertion and self-realisation; influenced the contemporary Muslim religious attitude through his poetry.

Maulana Shibli Numani

He founded the institution of Nadwah-ul-Ulama at Lucknow in 1894 with the objectives of recasting Muslim educational system, developing religious sciences, reformi^ end to theologicaH

Syed Nazir Husain

He founded the sect of Ahlir hadis) in Punjab in the second half \ tury. This group considered only the 1 of the Prophet) and the Quran as the < ultimate authority on Islam, and refused t none of the existing four schools of juris

Abdullah Chakralavi

He founded the sect of Ahl-i-Quran (Pe Quran) in Punjab in the late 19th century.] hers, also known as the 'Chakralavis', only the Quran as the ultimate authority <

Ahmad Riza Khan

He founded the Barelwi school in Punjab in| 19th century. Its members, known as preached the revival of many old Islamic.] and vehemently opposed the Deoband scho preachings.

PARS! REFORM MOVEMENT

The refugee Zoroastrians from Iran, Parsis, are said to have reached Gujarat in I Their temples and dokmas (towers of silence),1| the dead were exposed, were closed to non-1 Over the period the Indian Parsis retained a 1 contact with those followers of Zoroastrianis living in Iran, known as the 'Gabars'. In 17
into Bombay where many of j became wealthy as merchants, shipbuilders," commercial brokers.


sides, the Parsi religion was frequently target-|fcy the Christian missionaries. In this background, oji Furdunji edited in the 1840s the Famishid, a journal aimed at defending the cause of strianism. He also wrote a number of pam-and published the book, Tarikha Farthest JI850), in which he convincingly argued that ster pre-dated Jesus Christ. All these events I to the formation of a socio-religious movement signed to codify the Zoroastrian religion and hape Parsi social life. In 1851,a small group of educated Parsis from pmbay founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan bha (Parsis' Reform Society), with funds provi-by K.N. Kama. Furdunji Naoroji became its sident and S.S. Bengali, the secretary. The latter i an ardent writer, whose main subjects were the lies of ancient Iran and popularising the new i knowledge. In 1850, he began publishing a nthly journal, Jagat Mitra (Friend of the World), I further the acceptance of his ideas among literate sis. In 1851, he started another journal, Jagat emi (Lover of the World), for spreading knowl-of ancient Iran. The Sabha also issued its i Journal, Rast Goftar (The Truth Teller), as the voice of their movement. The leaders of the bha criticised elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, riages, and funerals. They opposed both infant ge and the use of astrology. But the activities of the Sabha divided the Parsis two groups--those who advocated radical nge, and those who wished only limited alter-jtions in customs and rituals. The latter organised Raherastnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha in opposii to the radicals. In 1863 M.H. Kama founded the hodox journal, Suryodaya (Sunrise), edited by I.B. Minocheer. This division between radical and dox Parsis continued into the 20th century.

IkH REFORM MOVEMENT

aris

Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of us movement of purification and return. In the s, he called for the return of Sikhism to its ori gins and emphasised the worship of God as nirankar (formless). Such an approach meant a rejection of idols, rituals associated with idolatry, and the priests who conducted these rituals. Stressing the importance and authority of Guru Nanak and of the Adi Granth, he prohibited eating

meat, drinking liquor, lying, cheating, using false weights, etc. Before his death Dayal Das named his son, Baba Darbara Singh (1814-70), as his successor. Determined to cut all ties with Hinduism, Darbara Singh began to issue hukamnamas (statements describing both doctrine and approved rituals). Under him the Nirankaris had their most rapid period of expansion; for in fifteen years he opened forty new subcentres. Rattan Chand, younger brother and successor of Darbara Singh, also established new centres and appointed biredars (leaders) for each congregation or sangat. The biredars oversaw these groups and were charged with reciting the hukamnamas every fifteen days. Thus they provided a tie between the head of the Nirankari movement and its members. Between 1909 and 1947, Baba Gurdit Singh, son and successor of Rattan Chand, headed the movement. The Nirankaris laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur. In this they pursued a path open to both orthodox Sikhs, kesadharis, and to the non-baptised ranks of the sahajdharis, but drew members mainly from the urban non-Jat section of the Sikh community. Their dependence on Gum Nanak and early Sikhism for their model of 'pure' religion separated them from another movement, the Namdharis.

Namdharis

Baba Ram Singh (1816-85) was the founder of this movement. In 1841, he became a disciple of Balak Singh of the Kuka movement. Those who accepted Balak Singh's leadership saw him as a reincarnation of Guru Gobind Singh. Before his death, Balak Singh chose Ram Singh as his successor. In 1857, Ram Singh formally inaugurated the Namdhari movement with a set of rituals modelled


after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa. To initiate followers into the new community, Ram Singh used a recitation of gurbani (hymns from the Granth Sahib), ardas (the Sikh prayer), a flag, and baptism. Every baptised Sikh was required to wear the five symbols (kakkd). Instead of the sword, Ram Singh required them to keep a lathi. In addition the Namdharis wore white clothes with a white turban and carried a rosary to further set them apart from all others. The Namdharis were to abandon the worship of gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, trees, and snakes. They were also told to abstain from drinking, stealing, adultery, falsehood, slandering, backbiting and cheating. Further, the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden, since protection of cattle remained one of the Namdharis' most ardently held values.

Singh Sabhas

Amritsar Singh Sabha Shaken by Namdhari unrest, the speeches of Shraddha Ram of Arya Samaj, and by Christian conversions, a small group of prominent Sikhs decided to form the Singh Sabha of Amritsar, which held its first meeting on 1 October 1873. Thakur Singh Sandhawalia became its president and Giani Gian Singh its secretary. The aims of the Sabha were:

restoring of Sikhism to its past purity; publishing historical religious books, magazines and journals; propagating knowledge using Punjabi; returning Sikh apostates to their original faith; and involving high placed Englishmen in the educa tional programme of the Sikhs.

It was joined by members of the landed gentry, the aristocracy, and by various types of temple servants --pujaris (who conducted rituals), granthis (who recited the Sikh

scriptures), mahants (who administered the gurudwaras), gianis and descendants of the gurus. One of the main activities of the Sabha was the preparation of a definitive text of the Dassam Granth. When this task prov demanding, a separate organisation, the Granth Pracharak Sabha, was founded to 1 The Sabha published numerous tracts and 1 in 1894 organised the Khalsa Tract Society«1 larise Punjabi, the Gurmukhi script, andi monthly tracts on the Sikh religion.

Lahore Singh Sabha Soon the Amrit! was emulated and rivaled by a new viz. the Lahore Singh Sabha, which hel< meeting on 2 November 1879. The latter \ Professor Gurmukh Singh and Bhai Ditt! announced goals similar to those of the foi first president of the Lahore Sabha was Dij Singh, and Bhai Gurmukh Singh secretary. Differences between the two societies i to the forefront. The Lahore Sabha was i cratic and accepted members from all ca ing untouchables. Their programme of. j Sikhism directly opposed the vested inti Amritsar Sabha. The career of Bhai Ditt Sfi trates the type of friction that erupted two societies. Ditt Singh, coming from a 1 wanted to remove the evils of caste systi institution of guru from the Sikh co tract, Sudan Natak, ridiculed the religious! ment and resulted in a court case. The Lahore Sabha expanded with local] in many of the Punjab towns. The Arnriti developed its own societies, but its grov slower than the Lahore society.

Other Sabhas In 1880 a General founded at Amritsar to provide a central < tion for all Singh Sabhas. On 11 April 1883 renamed the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar. It ir to 37 different Singh Sabhas as well as 1 association. But this effort at unity was i In 1886 the Lahore Singh Sabha creat( Khalsa Diwan (Sikh Council). Only the I Faridkot, Amritsar, and Rawalpindi allied! original Diwan; the rest turned to the 1 ship and to its radical ideology of social j gious change. The Lahore Khalsa Diwan} assistance from the Maharaja of Nabha as it|


hile Sir Attar Singh served as its president and ai Gurmukh Singh as its secretary. The Singh Sabhas continued to expand, new aches were founded that, at times, created their distinct ideas and programmes. The Bhasur Singh Sabha became a hub of Sikh militancy under : leadership of Bhai Teja Singh It was aggressive i its missionary zeal and extreme in its ideology. In ne it developed into the Panch Khalsa Diwan and ompeted with other Khalsa Diwans. Not all deviai or enthusiasm by local Singh Sabhas proved as oversial. The low-caste Sikhs, particularly the Rahtias ntouchable weavers) from the Jullundur Doab, ded that the Singh Sabhas remove their social 1 religious liabilities, caste system. Since the Singh bha leaders did not respond to their pleas, they ned to the Arya Samaj, which welcomed them and ucted public ceremonies ofshuddhi for Rahtias. Thus, in the 20th century the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other organisations. In the first decade they were supplanted by the Khalsa Diwans and then in the second decade by the struggle for control over the Sikh places of worship.

Akali Movement

The next important Sikh reform movement was the akali movement in the 1920s. The main aim of the Akalis was to purify the management of the Sikh gurudwaras or shrines by removing the corrupt and selfish mahants (priests) from them. Their movement led to the enactment of a new Sikh Gurudwaras Act by the British in 1925, and with the help of this Act and sometimes through direct action, they removed the mahants from the gurudwaras and managed them through the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee (SGPC).

HINDU SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

Calcutta Calcutta Calcutta Calcutta Surat Bombay Agra

nlya Sabha

1815

hmo Samaj

1828

arma Sabha

1829

abodhini Sabha 1839

avDharma

1844 ha

amahansa

1849 dali

iSoami 1861 ang hmo Samaj {India

1866

^'a'?'',>(,»}*,*< " '" "" -''t&jMliSCsaL' .

Ramrnohun Roy Its aim was to attack the evils in Hinduism and to propagate monotheism. Rammohun Roy It was initially known as Brahmo Sabha and its aim was the same as above. Radhakanta Dev It was founded as a rival to Brahmo Samaj and its aim was to defend orthodox Hinduism.

Debendranath Tagore Durgaram Manchharam Dadoba Panderung Tulsi Ram Its aim was to propagate Rammohun Roy's ideas. Its main aim was to break caste restrictions. Its main aim was to break caste restrictions. Its aim was to propagate a monotheistic doctrine.

Calcutta Keshab Chandra A group of Brahmos under Sen established Sen

this new organisation after seceding from the

original Samaj (established by Roy) over the question of social reforms. After this secession, the old one came to be known as the 'Adi Brahmo Samaj'.


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1^ .

j -,j, . .. T_ . * « ... * « J*

7

^

îijugigit*-- aM#-ry$ «^*i w±j£Au2t. J»ii»

Bombay Dr. Atmaram Pandurang

Bombay Swami Dayanand Saraswati

New York Madame H P (USA) Blavatsky and Col. H S Olcott Calcutta Ananda Mohan Bose, Shivanatha Shastri, etc.

Poona G G Agarkar Swami Viveka nanda Bombay Gopalakrishna Gokhale Poona Mrs Ramabai Ranade and Mr G K Devadhar Bombay N M Joshi

Bombay Shri Ram Bajpai Madras Not available Bombay Naoroji Furdunji, Dadabhai Naoroji, SS Bengalee and others Prarthana Samaj 1867 1875

Arya Samaj

Theosophical Society 1875

Sadharan Brahmo 1878 Samaj

Deccan Education 1884 Society Bombay M G Ranade

Indian National

1887

Social Conference 1887 Dava Samaj

Lahore Shivanarayan Agnihotri

Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Belur

Servants of India 1905 Society Poona Seva Sadan 1909 Social Service League Seva Samiti

1911

1914 Allahabad H N Kunzru

Seva Samiti Boy 1914 Scouts' Association Women's Indian 1923 Association

Rahnumai

1851

Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious reform organisation of the Parsis) In 1870 it was joined by M G I Bhandarkar. Its aim was refi religious thought and practice. Its main aims were reform of Hir prevention of the conversion of ( religions. They came to India (1879) and j their head quarters at Adyar, i (1882). Its main aims werelj ancient religions and philosophk universal brotherhood of man, < As the result of a second schis Brahmos, a group of young folk Sen left him over the question i of the Samaj and social ref<

Its aim to remodel the educ in order to prepare them for I country. Its aim was to remove the social < in the Indian society and to fare of women. Its aim was same as that of the I but unlike the Brahmos, its I shipped their guru. Its main aim was to carry on hun and social work. Its aim was to train Indians in i for the service of their mothertan Its aim was to promote the weH

Its aim was to secure for the ma reasonable conditions of life i Its aim was to organise social natural calamities, and to pn sanitation, physical culture etc. Its aim was to bring about the < isation of the Boy Scout Mov Its aim was to promote the \ women (from 1926 All In Conference began to hold annu Its aims were to reform the Zon to modernise the Parsi women (X Sacred book of the Parsis, Ahural god, Zoroaster-founder of their I


nkaris 1840s Punjab Dayal Das,

Purification of Sikhism

Darbara Singh, Rattan Chand, etc. in succession dharis (Succes-1857 Punjab Ram Singh Same as above iof Kukas)

MUSLIM SOCIO-RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

irulUlum 1866 Deoband

ah-ul-Ulama 1894 Lucknow H-Hadis (People |.the hadis)

Second Punjab half of 19th century

-do-Punjab i-Quran (People f the Quran)

vis Second Punjab half of

19th century diani or Ahmadia nent End Qadiani of the in Punjab 19th century ammadan Edu-nal Conference

1886 Aligarh Maulana Hussain Ahmad and others

Maulana Shibli Numani and others

Maulana Syed Nazir Hussain

Maulavi Abdullah Chakralavi (his followers are also known as 'Chakralavis') Maulana Ahmad Riza Khan

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and others Its aims were to resuscitate classical Islam and to improve the spiritual and moral conditions of the Muslims. The liberal interpretation of Islam by its founders created political awakening among its followers. Some of them, like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, played an important role in the national movement. Its aims were to recast Muslim educational system, to develop religious sciences, to reform Muslim morals and put an end to theological controversies within Islam. This group of theologians refused to recognise the existing four schools of jurisprudence and considered only hadis (Sayings of the Prophet) and the Quran as the ultimate authority on Islam.

They considered only Quran as the ultimate authority on Islam.

They preached the revival of many old Islamic practices, and vehemently opposed the Deoband school and its preachings.

Its aim was to reform Islam and to defend it against Christian missionaries and Arya Samajists. It gave religious recognition to modern industrial and technological progress; it was the most closely knit and the best organised Muslim group in India. Its aim was to promote the education of Muslim masses on western lines (this and other educational and social service activities of Sir Syed and his followers are together known as the 'Aligarh Movement')


17.3 GROWTH OF INDIAN MIDDLE CLASS

By the Charter Act of 1833 the East India Company was transformed from a business organisation into a political institution. As the Company was debarred from functioning as a business organisation and trade in India was thrown open to the Europeans, many European capitalists came to India and invested their capital. This increased the Indian import and export trade manifold. In this commercial growth, the share of the Indians was negligible. Whatever share the Indians had, the major portion of it was in the hands of the Marwaris, Mughals and the Parsis. Next to these three communities came the Bengalis. With the spread of trade and commerce there was the rise of naibs, gomasthas, brokers and accountants and with the rise in the number of cases and spread of education there was increase in the number of the lawyers, teachers, doctors and other professionals. People of these different professions constituted the middle class which became a very strong section of the society. The most important effect of the British administration was the end of the importance, social status and power of the former ruling classes and the rise of new social divisions. As an inevitable result of the establishment of British rule in India, particularly as a result of close contact with European merchants and missionaries, there was a great change in the social attitude and mentality of the Indians. This change began from the second half of the 18th century and continued all through the 19th century. The impact of Western education and culture on Indian society continued to grow deeper and wider. The resultant change began at first in Bengal and then spread to other parts of India. In place of former social divisions new class divisions began to rise. Despite differences in wealth, education and profession, people belonging to different communities formed a new class which came to be known as the middle class. The middle class in the West had brought about the end of feudalism and the authority of the Church thereby establishing social, economic and individual liberty and economic individualism and freedom of competition. The Indian middle class had contributed to these fields in appreciable measure though they did not! equal measure. However, in the spread i ism among the Indians and in winning : the country the contribution of the middle < quite significant. There were two factors that contributed1! of the middle class in India, viz. (i) the i feudalistic mentality and behaviour due to \ tion of the former ruling class, and (ii) ris land-owning, mercantile and intelle The rise of the middle class was also due i commerce and industrial activities of the 1 in India. Naturally, Calcutta, Bombay were the first to see the rise of the mid

These cities were the first to get the op Western education and outlook as also Western city life. Merchants, industrial neurs, capitalists, technologists and were experts in the export and import made Calcutta the centre of their Naturally of the three presidencies Calc greatest importance. Though the middle class emerged first i| and cities, gradually this class also began 1 villages. As a result of the Permanent Settle number of large estate holders was only! thousand whereas that of small landholders! lakh thirty thousand in Bengal. The owne estates came over to towns for luxurio while the small landholders continued to i villages and they formed the nucleus of i class. To this class were added the naibs, go moneylenders and darogas of the villages. In order to meet administrative ne British had to encourage the spread of Eng cation and educated Indians were appoint! service of the Company. These service hol< contractors who undertook to construct i ings, etc. others who took to service under i added to this numbers to the urban mid Contractors, small scale business men, banias, etc., although not highly educated,1* enough money and came to be known as i class who lived a riotous life of lavish exp It has to be mentioned here that the Briti not desire the growth of statesmen, intelle


i who could give leadership to the nation, or i fit for high military posts. Rise of persons of i capabilities from among the Indians was unde-ble from the point of view of quiet British rule r India. owever equipped with a Western education and oldened by their exposure the middle class s conscious of their rights and status and of the for progress. The obstacles put in the way of self-expression by the ruling class made them conscious and set the stage for a national i It became clear to the middle class that the r means of social, political and economic emanciition of the Indians was the end of foreign rule.

17.4 THE PRESS AND ITS IMPACT

|in The press in India was largely an English ititution. The first newspaper that appeared in ilcutta in January 1780 was the weekly Bengal zette, though best known as 'Hicky's Gazette' the name of its founder, J A Hicky. The alcutta Gazette, which came into existence in |1784, later became the official gazettee of the jBengal government. The first vernacular newspaper, the Samachar fDarpan, appeared in 1818, in Bengali due to the f efforts of the famous Serampore missionaries-- [William Ward, Willam Carey and Joshua Marshman. 'Between 1835 and 1857 the press spread to other I metropolitan towns--Delhi, Agra, Gwalior and Lahore. But of the 33 popular publications on the eve of the 1857 Revolt, only six survived it. Next, : Lytton's Vernacular Press Act IX of 1878 muzzled the language press all over India.

Growth in the Late 19th Century The introduction of public postal service in 1870 provided for a uniform rate of payment irrespective of distance. Another positive development was the invention of a printing press operated by steam power. The Statesman was the first to import a rotary printing machine. Renter s office in India was established in 1866 itself. The formation of Associated Press of India was another landmark, though the APT reports were viewed as biased. The formation of the Congress ushered in a new era in the history of journalism. The Illustrated Weekly (1878) was started in Bombay and the Capital was set up in Calcutta as a commercial and financial weekly (in 1888).

Growth in the Early 20th Century The twentieth century witnessed further growth of the press. The Bombay Chronicle, inspired by Pherozeshah Mehta, was launched in 1913. The Leader was started at Allahabad by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. It was essentially a mouthpiece of the moderates To popularise the Home Rule Movement, Annie Besant bought the Madras Standard and renamed it New India. The Servant of India appeared in 1918 with V S Srinivasa Sastri as its first editor. In 1919, Motilal Nehru set up the Independent which survived only four years. Another newspaper to come into existence in 1919 was the Hindustan Times with KM Panikkar as its first editor. Later it became the official organ of the Swaraj Party. Gandhi also contributed to the growth of journalism India: In South Africa he started Indian Opinion, and later in India he began Young India (an English weekly) and Navajivan (Gujarati weekly). 1920 saw the foundation of a Hindi daily, the Aj, supporting the Congress programme. The first national news agency, the Free Press of India, was set up in 1927. It was sponsored by Annie Besant, M R Jayakar, Purshottamdas Thakurdas, G D Biria and Walchand Hirachand, with S. Sadanand as the managing editor.

Growth in the 30s The Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed the foundation of several nationalist papers. The Indian Express and Dinamani (in Tamil) were established in Madras in 1933. The Harijan, a weekly in English, also appeared in 1933. The Star of India was started in Calcutta to support the Muslim League, while the Dawn was founded by Jinnah. The Hindustan, a Hindi counterpart of the Hindustan Tunes, was set up in the late 30s while Blitz, a weekly, appeared in Bombay, in 1941.

Government Curbs From 1882 to 1907 there was no separate press legislation as such, sedition being


dealt with by the adoption of Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code. The Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act was passed in 1908. The Indian Press Act of 1910 was aimed at keeping the press generally within the limits of legitimate discussion. Together, however, both the 1908 and 1910 Acts caused the closure of several presses and newspapers. The Indian Press Ordinance of 19| curbed the freedom of the press, for the ( an offence was made more comprehe Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act of| hibited the publication of any kind of? propaganda. It was ultimately repealed'<( independence.

GROWTH OF INDIAN PRESS

Bengal Gazette (First paper from India) India Gazette Madras Courier (First paper from Madras) Bombay Herald (First paper from Bombay) Digdarshana (First Bengali monthly) Samachar Darpan (First Bengali newspaper) Miratul-Akhbar (First journal in Persian) Jam-i-Jahan Numah (First paper in Urdu) Bangaduta (A weekly in four languages: English, Bengali, Persian and Hindi) Bombay Samachar (First paper in Gujarat!) Bombay Times (It became the Times of India in 1861) Rast Goftar (A Gujarati fortnightly) Hindu Patriot

Somaprakasha (First Bengali paper to devote itself to politics) Indian Mirror Bengalee

National Paper Madras Mail (First evening paper in India) Amrita Bazar Patrika (Started as a Bengali paper but became English paper in

1878 to escape from the Vernacular Press Act) Bangadarshana (A Bengali monthly) Statesman

Hindu

Tribune Kesari (Maratha Daily) and Maharatta (English Weekly) (Before Tilak became the editor, Agarkar and Kelkar edited them respectively) Swadeshamitram (A Tamil paper) James Augustus Hicky

1780

Not available 1787 Not available 1784 Not available 1789 Not available 1818 William Carey and others

1818

Raja Rammohun Roy 1822 An English firm

1822

Rammohun Roy, Dwaraka Not available 1830 Not available 1838

Dadabhai Naoroji

1851

1822 nath Tagore and others

Girishchandra Ghosh (Later 1853 Harishchandra Mukerji became its owner-cumeditor) Dwarakanath Vidyabhushan 1858

Devendranath Tagore 1862 Girishchandra Ghosh (S N

1862 Banerji took it over in 1879)

Devendranath Tagore 1865 Not available 1868 Sisirkumar Ghosh

1868

Bankimchandra Chatterji

1873

Robert Knight (called the

1875

'Bayard of India' by the Indian press) G. S. Aiyarand1878 Viraraghavachari Dayal Singh Majeetia 1881 Tilak, Chiplunkar, Agarkar, etc.

G S Aiyar

Ma

Lah Ba

--

1881

Ma


'.5 RISE OF MODERN LITERATURE IN INDIAN LANGUAGES (1880-1960), Prabodhkumar Sanyal (b.1907), Sita Devi (1896-1974) and Santa Devi (b. 1894).

gali Literature

dodern Bengali literature was largely developed introduced by the missionaries of Serampore fjnd by the Fort William College. Nathaniel B. alhead published the Bengali grammar in 1778 and ^William Carey (1761-1834) translated the Bible into f Bengali in 1801. The Bengali prose thus developed fin the early 19th century was nothing more than a ? mixture of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian words. The first Bengali book of prose was Ramram Basu's Raja Pratapaditya Charita, published in 1801. The author later wrote another book Lipimala. In 1802, Batrisa Simhasana written by Mritunjaya Vidyalankar was published. The same writer also published three other books--Hitopadesh, Rajabali, (Vedanta chandrika) and Prabodh Chandrika. Raja Rammohan Roy published his first book of prose called Vedanta Grantha in 1815. During the period 1815-1830, Rammohan Roy wrote thirty books in Bengali. He translated some of the Upanishads and rendered the Bhagwat Gita in Bengali verse. Later on, other writers like Bankim Chandra, Sharad Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Pyarichand Mitra and Tekchand Thakur enriched Bengali prose with their pioneering works. Since then Bengali prose has gone through a complete course of evolution.

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar (1820-91), who is considered as the father of modern Bengali literary prose, wrote Sakuntala (1854), Sitar Vanavasa (1860) and Bhranti-vilasa (1869) based on the dramas of Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti and Shakespeare respectively. Other important Bengali writers and novelists of the 19th and the 20th centuries include Cham Chandra Banerjee (1876-1938), Indira Devi (18801922), Anurupa Devi (18821958), Nirupama Devi (1883-1951), Saurindramohan Mukherjee (18841966), Rakhaldas Banerjee (1885-1930), Gokul Chandra Nag (1895-1925), Sailajananda Mukherjee (1900-1976), Bibhutibhusan Banerjee (1899-1950), Rabindranath Maitra (1896-1933), Rajsekhar Basu Hindi Literature

The Modem Period in Hindi literature began in the middle of the 19th century. The most important development of this period was the evolution of khariboli prose and proliferation of the use ofkhariboli in poetry in place of braj bhasha. This period in the growth of Hindi poetry has been divided into four phases: the age of Bharatendu or the Renaissance (1868-1893), Dwivedi Yug (1893-1918), Chhayavada Yug (1918-1937) and the Contemporary Period (1937 onwards). Bharatendu Harishchandra (1849-1882), who brought in a modern outlook in Hindi literature, is described as the 'Father of Modern Hindi Literature'. Radhakrishna Das, Pratapnarayan Mishra, Balkrishna Bhatta, Badrinarayan Chaudhuri and Sudhakar Dwivedi were other important writers of this phase. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1868-1938), who brought in a refined style of writing in Hindi prose, is regarded as the architect of modern Hindi prose. During this phase, social, political and economic problems were portrayed through the medium of poetry. Other important writers of this period are Nathuram Sharma Shankar (1859-1932), Ayodhya Sinha Upadhyay (1865-1947), Maithali Saran Gupta (1886-1964), Ram Naresh Tripathi (18891962) and Gopala Sarana Sinha (1891-1960). Maithali Saran Gupta revived the epic tradition with his long narrative poems like Jayadrath Vadh (1910), Pancavati (1925), Saket (1931) and Yashodhara (1932). He also translated Madhusudan Dutt's Meghnadvadh-kavya into Hindi. This period, which has been described as 'the didactic' period, served as a bridge between the Bharatendu age and the Chayavad. The post-Dwivedi Yug witnessed a new romantic upsurge in the form of the Chayavad style of poet. This new poetic movement was described as 'an aesthetic, subjective movement that revolted against formalism and didacticism'. Makhanlal Chaturvedi (1888-1968), Balkrishna Shama 'Navin' (18971959), Siyaram Sharan Gupta (b.1895), Jayashankar


Prasad, Surya Kant Tripathi 'Nirala' (1897-1963), Sumitranandan Pant (1900-1977), Mahadevi Verma (b.1907) and Subhadrakumari Chauhan (1904' 1948) were the leading Chayavad poets. Makhanlal Chaturvedi's works include Hima-kiritni and Himatarangani. Nirala's powerful poetry is reflected in works like Juki Ki Kali, Parimala, Anamika, Archana and Aradhana. Sumitranandan Pant has several important works to his credit including Pallava, Gunjana, Yugavani, Gramya, Svarnakirana, Silpi and Lokayatana. The other important literary works of the Chayavad period include Jayshankar Prasad's Kamayani, Jharna, Amsu and Lahar; Mahadevi Varma's Rashmi (1932), Niraja (1934), Sandhyagita (1936), Yama (1940) and Dipasikha (1942); Navina's Kvasi and Apalaka; Gupta's Gandhi, Unmukta, Nakula and Mrinmayi and Subhadrakumari Chauhan's Jhansi Ki Rani, Mukul (1931) and Unmadini. The decline of the Chayavad movement saw the emergence of several different styles in Hindi poetry. One popular style known as Pragativada or progressive movement was popularised by the writings of Balakrishna Sharma Navin (1897-1960), Bhagvati Charan Varma (b.1903), Ramdhari Singh Dinkar (b.1908), Rameshwar Shukla 'Ancala' (b.1915) and Narendra Sharma (b.1916). Harivansh Rai Bachchan (b.1907) enriched the world of Hindi poetry with his three beautiful collections, Madhusala (1935), Madhubala (1936) and Madhukalas (1936). Bachchan's poetry was distinct from the romanticism of Chayavad and the enthusiasm of the Pragativad. His kind of poetry is sometimes referred as 'Hridayvad' or the poetry of passion. Then followed an experimental movement called Prayogavada, which came to be known in later times as the Nai Kavita. This movement brought about a new poetic content and talent that reflected modern insight. The pioneers of this trend were S.H.Vatsyayan 'Ajneya' (b.1911), Shivmangal Singh 'Suman' (b.1916), Girija Kumar Mathur (b.1917), Gajananmadhav Muktibodh (1918-1964), Dharamvir Bharati (b.1926), Nirmal Verma and others. The history of Hindi poetry, thus, extends over a period of almost one thousand years. The development of Hindi prose has been.< fied into three periods--the first phase (1868| the phase of growth (1918-1937) and the phase (1938 onwards).

Literating prose of the Bharatendu and 1 era covers the first phase. The writers of th| developed the drama, novel, short story,*) and literary criticism. Bharatendu Harish Bal Krishna Bhatt and Radha Krishna '. the prominent writers of this period.

This phase of growth is represented shankar Prasad (Chaya, Akash DeepJ>$ Krishna Das and Mahadevi Varma. (1880-1936) was the greatest stalwart inl of fiction. His works of fiction in Sevasadana, Premasrama, Nirmala, Ka Rangabhumi, Ghaban and Godan. His lasti Godan has been translated in all major Ind languages. Important fiction writers of the conten period include Jainendra Kumar (S Tyagapatra, Sukhada, Vivarta), PhanishwarJ Renu (Maila Anchal), Satchinanda Vat! (Sekhar EkJivani), Dharamvir Bharati (Sur, Satvan Ghoda), Yash Pal (Dada-comrade,', Drohi, Divya and Manusya He Rupa), Jagd Prasad Dikshit (Murdaghar) and Rahi Raza (Adha Gaon).

Urdu Literature

Modern Urdu literature covers the period fromi last quarter of the 19th century till the present) and can be divided into two periods: the perio the Aligarh Movement started by Sir Sayyid i Khan and the period influenced by Sir Moha Iqbal, followed by the Progressive movement i movements of Halqa-e-Arbab-e-Zouq, encon ing with Modernism and Post modernism. However, Altaf Hussain Hali (1837-1914) is j actual innovator of the modern spirit in Urdu j Hali lent showered a critical approach to the art) writing biographies as seen in his bic Hayat-e-Sadi and Hayat-e-Jaweed. Shibli No (b.1857) is considered the father of modern


iJrdu. He produced several works based on his-al research, especially on Islamic history, like fSeerat-un-Noman (1892) and Al Faruq (1899). tied Hussain Azad was an important writer P'poet of this period. He laid the foundation of the i poem in Urdu. |0ther leading poets of the modern period include yid Akbar Husain Akbar Allahabadi (1846-1921), i had a flair for extempore composition of satiric I comic verses, Khushi Mohammed Nazir (18724), Mohammed Iqbal (1873-1938), Durga Sahai or(d.!910), Mohammed Ali Jauhar(d.l931) and at Mohani (d.1951). Iqbal's poetry underwent veral phases of evolution from Romanticism to dian Nationalism and finally to Pan-Islamism. The short story in Urdu began with Munshi nchand's Soz-e-Vatan (1908). Premchand's short ries cover nearly a dozen volumes. Mohammed |!ussan Askari and Khwaja Ahmed Abbas are count1 among the leading lights of the Urdu short story. Novel writing in Urdu can be traced to Nazir tied (1836-1912) who composed several novels he Mirat-ulUrus (1869), Taubat-un-Nasuh (1877), Fasana-e-Mubtala (1885), Ayama (1891) and others, lândit Ratan Nath Sarshar's (1845-1903) FasanaeMzad, Abdul Halim Sharar's (1860-1920) Badruniflisa Ki Musibat and Agha Sadiq ki Shadi and Mirza [ Muhammed Hadi Ruswa's Umrao Jan Ada (1899) [are some of the great novels and novelettes written during this period. Niaz Fatehpuri (1887-1966) and Qazi Abdul Gaffar (1862-1956) were the other eminent early romantic novelists in Urdu. However, it was Premchand (1880-1936) who tried to introduce the trend of realism in Urdu novels. His important novels include BazareeHusn (1917), Gosha-e-Afiat, Chaugan-e-Hasti, MaidaneAmal and Godan. Premchand's realism was further strengthened by the writers of the Indian Progressive Writers' Association like Sajjad Zaheer, Krishn Chander and Ismat Chughtai.

Marathi Literature

The Modern Period can be divided into four ages. The first period spans 1800 to 1885, the second 1885 to 1920, the third 1921 to 1945, and the last 1946 to the present. This period witnessed the development of all forms of prose and poetry, including scientific and technical literature.

Several attempts were made to translate English works into Marathi. The first Marathi dictionary and the first treatise on Marathi grammar appeared in 1829, while the first newspaper was started in 1835. The starting of the newspaper Kesari in 1880-81 gave a boost to the development of Modern Marathi Literature. Keshavasuta (1866-1905) is credited with the launching of the Modern Marathi poetry movement in 1885. Around 1923 a group of poets led by Madhav Julian (1894-1939) formed a group called Ravikiran Mandali, which soon attainted eminence in the Marathi literary scene. Madhav Julian's poetic tale Virahatarang is a noteworthy work. B.R.Tambe (1874-1941), Chandra Shekar Gorhe (1871-1937) and Manorambai Ranade (1896-1926) were other prominent poets. Among the nationalist poets were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, V.D. Savarkar, G.T. Davekar (1874-1956), S.N. Ranade (1892-1984) and N.G. Deshpande. B.S. Mardhekar, P.S. Rage, N.C. Kelkar (1872-1947), S.K. Kolhatkar, C.V. Joshi, Vinda Karandikar, Vasant Bapat and Shanta Shelke are some of other well-known names of the last phase of the Modern Period of Marathi literature. Hari Narayan Apte's (1864-1919) Madhali Sthiti was the first novel to be published in Marathi. Baba Padamji's Yamuna Paryatan (1857) was the first Marathi novel written on social reform. Natha Madhav, C.V. Vaidya, Prof V.M. Joshi, V.S. Khandekar, Sane Guruji, Kusumvati Deshpande and Kamalabai Tilak are prominent novelists of the Marathi language. Daya Pawar's Baluta is one of the first Dalit autobiographies in Marathi.

Tamil Literature

The modem period witnessed the impact of Islam and Christianity on Tamil literature. Umaruppulavar (1605-1703 ad) was the earliest among the Muslim Tamil poets. He composed the Sirappuranam, which is a narrative in verse, on the life of Prophet Muhammad. Another work dealing with the Islamic faith was


Muhaidin Puranam (1845 ad) by Mohammad Ibrahim. Constanzio Beschi (1680-1747 ad), who adopted the pseudonym of 'Viramamunivar', wrote a classic Tembavani, on the life of Jesus Christ. Subramanya Bharati (1882-1921 ad) was one of the greatest modern Tamil litterateurs. He is renowned for his patriotic and devotional songs and intense prose writings on contemporary social affairs. His Panchali Sabadam is an epic poem based on a single episode of the Mahabharata. His other great works include Kalippattu, Kannanpattu and Kuyilpattu. Other renowned Tamil poetic works of modern times include Meyyarivu and Padal Tirattu of V.O. Chidambaram; Malarum-malaiyum and Umarkkayyam-padalkal of Desikavinayagam; Podumai Vettal, Tamiizhan Idayam and Sankoli of Kalyanasundaram; Avalum Avanum of N.K. Ramalingam; Azhakin Sirippu and Pandiyan Parisu, of Bharatidasan. Paramartta Gurukathai written by Viramamunivar in the 18th century affords the earliest specimen of Tamil novel writing. However, Vedanayagam Pillai (1824-1889) is credited with writing the first novel in Tamil, Pirataba Mudaliyarcharittiram in 1875. C.N. Annadurai has two important works to his credit-Nallatambi and Rangoon Radha (1952).

English Writing in India

The beginning of Indian literature in English is traced to the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, by which time English education was more or less firmly established in the three major centers of British power in India--Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. It may be mentioned that most Indian writers in English from the early period hailed from Calcutta, the first stronghold of the British. Ram Mohun Roy was the pioneer of Indian writing in English. Roy was followed in the early 19th century in Bengal by the poets Henry Derozio and Michael Madhusudan Dutt. Dutt started out writing epic verse in English, but returned to his native Bengali later in life.

The poems of Toru Dutt (1855-1876),] at a tender age of 21, and the novel Rajn by Bankimchandra Chatterjee have demic acceptance as the earliest example^ literature written in English. Toru DutfJ composed poetry in English, but more in translated French poetry as well. Her include Ancient Ballads and Legends off However, the most famous literary fig era was Rabindranath Tagore (1861-19 won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 19t book Gitanjali, which is a free rend Bengali poems. Sarojini Naidu (1879-1S great poetess whose romanticism charmed M India and Europe. Her Golden Threshold (\^ The Broken Wing (1917) are works of j ary merit. Aurobindo Gosh (1872-1950) i philosopher and sage, for whom poetry' a form of mediation. His epic, Savitri Divine (in 2 volumes.) are outstanding English literature. The freedom struggle resulted in a revol| brand of writing that voiced sentiments ag British Empire. Several political leaders i ent parts of the country such as Bal Tilak, Lala Lajpath Rai, Kasturi Ranga lye T. Prakasham emerged as literary fig English language became a sharp and strong1*! ment in the hands of Gandhiji, who edited ( for papers like Young India and Harijan. wrote his autobiography, My Experimen Truth, which is known for its literary| Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) stands another prominent leader who excelled in ] is particularly remembered for his Glin World History, Discovery of India Autobiography (1936). Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan and Raji were among the earliest Indian English nov who began to write in the early thirties. Mu Anand (b.1905), best known for his short! Lost Child, has written numerous works of;] poetry and drama. His novels Coolie (1!) Untouchable (1935) and The Woman and the\ (1960) reveal his concern for the downtrod underprivileged in India. R.K. Naraya


r prolific Indian English novelist. Most of his starting from his first novel Swami and (1935), is set in the fictional town of Bachelor of Arts (1937), The Financial f (1952) The Guide (1959) and Waiting for the (1955) are his other popular novels. The |'flf the harbingers of Indian English literature is Rao (b.1909), whose novel Kanthapura 8), set in rural India, established him as a major I on the Indian literary scene. His other novels iThe Serpent and the Rope (1960) and The Cat Shakespeare (1965). Nirad Choudhuri 7-1999) was another internationally renowned writer whose autobiography An Unknown i (1951) is a celebrated literary work.

[.6 OFFICIAL SOCIAL REFORM MEASURES BEFORE 1857

nan Sacrifice and Female Infanticide

Rie problems of human sacrifice and female infantis first attracted government action in 1802. After fc' investigation made by the Baptist missionary, William Carey, Lord Wellesley suppressed human rifice. Female infanticide was discovered to be ; widespread, existing not only among some so-llled primitive tribes but also among certain Rajput s. By a Bengal Regulation (XXI) of 1795 the tice was declared to constitute murder and the ritory to which the Regulation applied was extend-|edin!804. Although a number of states prohibited female I infanticide, it still proved impossible to stamp out [completely. As late as 1870, the government was [Compelled to pass yet another Act attempting to i enforce the registration of births and regular verifiJ cation of the fact that girl children were still alive. Gradually, however, the practice of infanticide was reduced.

Abolition of Sati

Among other abuses which offended the 'universal moral law' was 'suttee' or sati (meaning, virtuous one). The rite itself should properly be called

sahamarana or 'accompanying in death'. The practice was of long standing in India, and virtuous widows usually gave up their dead their lives husband's by allowing themselves to be burned to death on funeral pyre. In general, the rite was confined to high caste Hindus. Muslim invaders found it particularly objectionable, and the Mughal emperors tried to discourage it. Although a number of individual British officials interfered at various times to prevent particular cases of sati, there was no official policy. In 1803, Lord Wellesley proposed to abolish it in the Company's territories but he first referred the idea to the Supreme Court in Calcutta. The court's answer was cautious and pedantic. The government, it suggested, would be well advised to be guided by 'the religious opinions and prejudices of the natives'. The government therefore compromised with half measures. Understandably, the government's attitude was ineffective in reducing the number of satis. The Governor General Amherst was convinced that the time was not right for abolishing sati by legislative action. When William Bentinck arrived in 1828, however, there was a change of tempo. The Directors had instructed him to take steps to end the practice of suttee, gradually or immediately, using his personal discreation. Bentinck's own temperament inclined him towards instant reform. Though Ranf Mohun Roy and, H. H. Wilson a leading British orientalist, both submitted that gradual approach would arouse undiscontent and was much to be preferred, Bentinck himself could anticipate no such discontent from immediate abolition. On December 4, 1829, suttee was declared illegal in the Bengal Presidency (Regulation XVII). By this Regulation anyone assisting a voluntary sacrifice was to be held guilty of culpable homicide and anyone using violence to force a widow to burn herself was to be liable to the death sentence. A similar resolution was passed in Madras on February 2, 1830 and action was also taken to make it effective in Bombay. The Regulation aroused considerable agitation in Bengal, and a petition was submitted to Bentinck, protesting


strongly against it. The petitioners even went so far as to appeal to the Privy Council in London (January 1830). However, the appeal was dismissed and there were no disturbances in India.

Suppression of Thuggee

The campaign for the suppression of Thuggee was one act of the government that aroused no public hostility, because its practical advantages were plain to everybody. The word 'thug' was probably derived from the Sanskrit verb thagna (to deceive), and the men who were called Thugs should more accurately be .termed phansidars (nooseholders), because strangulation was the method they used for murdering their victims before robbing them. The practice of Thuggee was of considerable antiquity. It is mentioned in a Kth century historical account and probably dates back very much further. During the reign of Shah Jahan, the French traveller, de Thevenot reported that the road between Delhi and Agra was infested by Thugs. The British first realised the existence of these brigands towards the end of the 18th century, but they did not begin effective action against them until 1829. It was William Sleeman who proved the existence of the powerful Thug confederacy operating over the whole of northern India. In 1829, in the course of his reforms, William Bentinck authorised a special department to investigate and destroy the practice of Thuggee, and Sleeman was placed in charge of the whole operation in 1835. In 1839 he was appointed Commissioner for the Suppression of Thuggee and Dacoity. Thug gangs were often protected by petty rajas and landowners, as well as by revenue-farmers who shared their profits. But the British were determined to suppress Thuggee once they had grasped its proportions. They attacked the menace of Thuggee with single-minded energy and stamped it out. Between 1831 and 1837 more than three thousand Thugs were convicted. Five hundred of these saved their skins by becoming 'approvers', or informers. By 1860, Thuggee was no more, though the office of Superintendent of Thuggee and Dacoity was maintained until 1904. Emancipation of Women

The general movement of reform became i to the government's military preoccupatio the end of the 1830s, though there was litl tion in reformist pressures either in Brit India. Much of this agitation was concerned! position of women in Hindu society. The government was not willing to pro^ cation for women, and did not do so until I Company rule. Most schools for girls were 1 uct of missionary activity. In response both| sionary pressure and the infiltration of j of Western liberalism, a certain amount of e did, however, grow up over the status of i general and widows in particular. A number of Indians proposed legisl? raise the minimum marriage age, and to ] remarriage of Hindu widows. The gove although, preferred not to initiate legislatio and generally resisted attempts to pressuris enacting legislations, which it believed fj interfere in religious matters. Eventually it i itself to be persuaded by Ishwar Vidyasagar to pass the Hindu Widows Ren Act of 1856. Hindu polygamy was another matter»j brought many petitions to the government 1 1855 and 1857. The particular offenders % Brahmin cas;e in Bengal known as Legislation was drafted, but the outbreak, Mutiny held up proceedings. When the Lie Governor of Bengal later asked the Gove India to enact the legislation it refused grounds that it might set a precedent which | not be approved by others practicing poh (principally Muslims) outside Bengal. The period up to -1857 was one wherein < essential reforms were achieved as a result of I tive action stimulated by a positive desire for i The limits of security, however, made the gove distinctly reluctant to go further. Western id secular and religious, had their effect on India lectuals, and Hindu reform movements response to both governmental reforms and thef emment's unwillingness to do more.

QUESTIONS

1.

Who founded the Indian Reform Association in 1870?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 2.

Ram Mohun Roy Debendranath Tagore Keshab Chandra Sen Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Which of the following books was not written by Swami Dayanand Saraswati?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 3. ?

Satyartha Prakash Veda Prakash Satyartha Bhumika Veda Bhashya Bhumika When and where did the Theosophical Society establish its head-quarters in India

(a) 1882--Adyar

(b) 1885--Belur

(c) 1890--Avadi

(d) 1895--Vellore

4. Which socio-religious reformer from Maharashtra was popularly known as Lokahitawadi? (a) (b) (c) (d) 5.

Jyotiba Phule M G Ranade Gopal Marl G G Agarkar Deshmukh Who among the following was the founder of the Aligarh Movement?

(a) Muhammad Iqbal (b) Abdul Kalam Azad (c) Badruddin Tyabji (d) ChiragAli 6. Who was the Deoband scholar to have played a prominent role in the Nationalist Movement? (a) (b) (c) (d) 7.

Abul Kalam Azad Muhammad All Jinnah Badruddin Tyabji ChiragAli Who was Sharadamani?

(a) (b)

Wife of Ram Mohun Roy Wife of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

(c) Mother of Vivekananda (d) Daughter of Keshab Chandra Sen 8. What is the chronological Order of the founda tion of the following socioreligious organisa tions? (i) Brahmo Samaj of India (ii) Adi Brahmo Samaj (iii) Sadharana Brahmo Samaj (iv) Atmiya Sabha Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, ii and iv


(c) i, ii, iv and iii

(d) ii, iv, iii and i

9. Arrange the following socio-religious reformers in the chronological order of their birth: (i) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (ii) Swami Dayanand Saraswati (iii) Ram Mohun Roy (iv) Debendranath Tagore (v) Swami Vivekananda (vi) Keshab Chandra Sen Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, ii, vi, iv and v (b) ii, iii, i, iv, vi and v (c) iii, iv, ii, i, vi and v (d) iv, iii, i, ii, v and vi 10. What is the chronological order of the following events in the life of Swami Vivekananda ? (i) Speech at the Congress of the history of

religions at Paris (ii) First extensive tour of India (iii) Establishment of a monastery at Baranagar (iv) Speech at the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, ii, iv and i

(b) ii, iii, iv and i

(c) iii, i, ii and iv


11.

What is the historical sequence of the founda tion of the following associations ?

(i) Arya Samaj (ii) Tattvabodhini Sabha (iii) Prarthana Samaj (iv) Ramakrishna Mission

C93


(v) Deccan Education Society (vi) Indian National Social Conference Select the answer from the codes below: (a) Hi, iv, ii, i, v and vi (b) ii, v, iv, vi, i and iii (c) v, iv, ii, i, iii and vi (d) ii, iii, i, v, vi and iv 12. Arrange the following events in the life of Rammuhan Roy in the chronological order. (i) His publication of a book entitled The Precepts of Jesus, The Guide to Peace and Happiness. (ii) His visit to England as an ambassador of the titular Mughal emperor, (iii) His publication of a Persian treatise called Tuhfat-ul-Muwahidin (A gift to monothe ists). (iv) Establishment of the Atmiya Sabha. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, i and iii

(b) i, iv, ii and iii

(c) iii, iv, i and ii

(d) ii, iii, iv and i

13. Which of the following statements about the religious ideas of Rammohun Roy are true? (i) He believed in monotheism, the doctrine of the unity of godhead, (ii) He considered the Vedas to be eternal and

infallible, (iii) He laid emphasis on human reason and rationality in all religious matters, (iv) He opposed idol worship. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv 14.

Which of the following statements about Ram Mohun Roy are incorrect?

(i) His book on Christianity embodied the moral and spiritual precepts of Jesus as well as the narrations of the miracles. (ii) He defended Hinduism and its Vedanta philosophy from the ignorant attacks of Christians. (iii) In his Brahmo Samaj meetings, he allowed the Vedas to be read by all nonbrahmins. (iv) He incorporated the best teachings of other religions as well. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

15.

Ram Mohun Roy:

(i) Campaigned against the practice of and succeed in getting it abolished by I British Government, (ii) Championed women's rights like the rig of inheritance and property, (iii) Attacked polygamy and the degraded con] dition of widows, (iv) Fought for the spread of traditional educa*j tion' through the medium of Sanskrit, (v) Made Bengali the vehicle of intelle intercourse in Bengal, (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iii and v


16.

Ram Mohun Roy:

(i) Strove to bring about national consciou ness in India, (ii) Pioneered Indian journalism in order educate the public on current issues, (iii) Initiated public agitation on political qu tions like the need for reforms in the Bri administration. (iv) Passed away in India in 1833. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 17.

Which of the following statements ab Debendranath Tagore are not true ?

(i) He was the elder brother of Rabindran Tagore. (ii) He formally joined the Brahmo Samaj 1843 and reorganised it. (iii) He published a Bengali monthly, called' Tattvabodhlni Patrika. (iv) He remained the undisputed leader of the (| Brahmo Samaj till his death. Choose the answer from the codes given ^ below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iv

(d) ii and iv

18.

Which of the following statements about the first schism in Brahmoism are true?

(i) The first schism in Brahmoism occurred ; due to serious differences between the older section and the younger section. (ii) The younger section stood for the complete abolition of the caste system. (iii) The older section wanted to maintain caste system, though criticising its rigidity. you aismj oldfi

' hi ., * '

,ta>dj I ».--,

^*»i*#****


(iv) The younger section asserted that Brahmoism was Hinduism. (v) The older section maintained that Brahmoism was universal and hence different from Hinduism. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, Hi and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) All of them Which of the following statements about Keshab Chandra Sen are true? (i) He joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857. (ii) He seceded from it due to differences with the older members and formed a new organisation. (iii) He was the first social reformer to undertake extensive tours of India. (iv) He passed away in 1905. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i, ii and iii (d) All of them 20.

Keshab Chandra Sen

(I) Adopted a radical and comprehensive scheme of social reforms. (ii) Infused the concept of bhakti into Brahmoism.

(iii) Influenced the socio-religious reformers in Bombay and Madras. (iv) Opposed the introduction of western education in India. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i.iiiandiv

(d) All of them

21. Which of the following statements about the Native Marriage Act of 1872 are incorrect? (i) It was popularly known as the Civil Marriage Act. (ii) It was passed by Lord Lytton. (iii) It legalised the Brahmo marriages, (iv) It fixed the marriageable age for girls and boys at 18 and 20 respectively. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) ii and iv

22. Which of the following statements about the second schism in Brahmoism are true? (i) It occurred in 1870. (ii) A group of Keshab Chandra Sen's followers, including Ananda Mohan Bose and Shivanath Shastri left Sen's organisation. (iii) The splinter group formed a new organisation called the 'Sadharana Brahmo Samaj'. (iv) One of the main causes for the split was the marriage of Sen's minor daughter with the minor ruler of Cooch Bihar. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 23.

Which of the following statements about the Prarthana Sabha are true?

(i) It was an off-shoot of the Brahmo Samaj of India. (ii) M G Ranade and R G Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength in it. (iii) It was a reform movement outside Hinduism. (iv) It concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, intermarriage, remarriage of widows and upliftment of women and depressed classes. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 24. Which of the following statements about Swami Dayanand Saraswati are incorrect? (i) He was born in 1824 in a small town of Punjab. (ii) He belonged to the vaishya caste, (iii) He spent 15 long years as a wandering ascetic, (iv) He received education from Swami Birajananda at Mathura. (v) He passed away in 1890. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, ii and v 25.

Swami Dayanand

(i) Considered the Vedas to be fallible. (ii) Opposed idolatry, ritual and priesthood. (iii) Considered the Puranas to be full of falsehood. (iv) Considered the two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as nothing more than good literary pieces.

(v) Defended the caste system based on birth.


Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, Hi and iv (c) iii.iv and v (d) ii, iv and v 26.

Swami Dayanand

(i) Attacked child marriages and polygamy, (ii) Encouraged intercaste marriage and widow remarriage. (iii) Opposed the spread of western sciences, (iv) Organised social services during natural calamities like floods, droughts, epidemics and the like. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 27.

To which of the following places the Arya Samaj spread its influence?

(i) Punjab

(ii) Uttar Pradesh

(iii) Bengal

(iv) Rajasthan

(v) Gujarat

(vi) Madras



(c) i, ii, iv and v

(d) ii, iv, v and vi

28. Which of the following statements about the 'Great Split' in the Arya Samaj are true? (i) It occurred in 1892 over the question of the system of education to be followed, (ii) The 'gurukula section' advocated the adoption of the ancient system of Hindu education, (iii) The 'college section' advocated the spread of English education, (iv) The 'gurukula section' was led by Lala Lajpat Rai and the 'college section' by Lala Hans Raj. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 29.

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

(i) Became a priest in the temple of goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar. (ii) Sought religious salvation in the traditional way of renunciation, meditation and devotion; (iii) Emphasised that there was only one road to god and salvation. (iv) Maintained that service of man was service of god. Select the answer from the codes giverq (a) i. ii and iii (b) ii, iii andIV (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and Ivl 30.

Which of the following statements,j Swami Vivekananda are true?

(i) He popularised his guru's unive sage of Vedanta and tried to put it in that would suit the needs of conti Indian society. (ii) He stressed social action withou knowledge was useless in the \

(iii) He proclaimed the essential onen religions. (iv) He declared Vedanta Va be a fully i system. Choose the answer from the codesl below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv1' (c) iiiiandiv 31.

(d) All of therri1*

Which of the following were the main| lives of the Theosophical Society?

(i) To form a universal brotherhood of! (ii) To spread Christianity in the world, (iii) To promote the study of ancient and philosophies, (iv) To make a systematic investigation I mystic potencies of life and matter, I as Occultism. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i, Hand iii (b) ii, iii and iv ' (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 32. Which of the following were the founders of the Theosophical Society? (i) Madam H P Blavatsky (ii) Mrs. Annie Besant (iii) Colonel H S Olcott (iv) Colonel O P Wallburn. Choose the answer from the codes given I (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iii

(d) iii and iv

33. Who were associated with the four the 'Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha'? (i) GKDevadhar (ii) S S Bangali* (iii) Dadabhai Naoroji (iv) R G Bhanda Select the answer from the codes given $j (a) ii and iii (b) i and iv

(c) ii and iv

(d) i and iii


hich of the following statements about Mrs. nnie Besant are true? (i) She was one of the founders of the Theosophical Society. |t«) She became the president of the society in 1907. ff{iii) Under her, the society concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas. P(lv) She founded the Central Hindu school at Allahabad in order to provide Hindu religious instruction. hoose the answer from the codes given fe'below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

"(c) iii and iv (d) i and iii 5-Which of the following statements about Henry Vivian Derozio are true? (i) He was born in Calcutta in 1809. I (ii) He taught at the Sanskrit college between 1826 and 1830. He died of cholera in 1835. , (iv) His followers were known as Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal Movement. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (i) Struggled in favour of widow remarriage, (ii) Opposed child marriage and polygamy, (iii) Campaigned in favour of education of women, (iv) Evolved a new technique of teaching Sanskrit and a modern prose style in

Bengali, (v) Became the principal of Sanskrit college at Calcutta and admit non-Brahmin students into it. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) All of them : 37. Which of the following statements about Jyotiba Phule are true? (i) He came from a high caste family in Maharashtra. (ii) He waged a lifelong crusade against Brahmanical supremacy, (iii) He pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. (iv) He worked for the education of women. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 38.

Which of the following statements about Gopala Krishna Gokhale are true?

(i) He was a famous moderate nationalist leader as well as a renowned social worker. (ii) He was an active member of the Deccan Education Society. (iii) He left the Deccan Education Society due to serious differences with M G Ranade. (iv) He founded a new organisation with the aim of training Indians in different fields for the service of their motherland. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them

39.

Which of the following statements about N M Joshi are not true?

(i) He founded a social service organisation with the aim of securing for the masses better and reasonable condition of life and work. (ii) He founded the AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) in 19-10 at Calcutta. (iii) In 1929 he left the AITUC and started a new association, viz. Indian Trade Union Federation. (iv) He passed away in 1930. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

40.

Which of the following statements about Vireshalingam Pantulu are true?

(i) He was the most prominent, social reformer of south India in the second half of the 19th century, (ii) He founded the Rajahmundri Social Reform Association in Andhra Pradesh, (iii) Its principal objective was education of women.

C98 I^H Indian History: Modern India

(iv) Its principal objective was promotion of widow remarriages. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 41. Which of the following persons were the illus trious members of the 'Servants of India Society'? (i) Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (ii) N M Joshi (iii) H N Kunzru (iv) Shri Ram Bajpai (v) JyotibaPhule Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, iii and v 42.

Which of the following statements about the Ahrar Movement are true?

(i) It was founded in the first quarter of the 20th century. (ii) One of its founders was Maulana Muhammad Ali. (iii) It was begun in opposition to the loyalist politics of the Aligarh movement. (iv) Its members, moved by modern ideas of self-government, advocated active participation in the Nationalist Movement. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv

(c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 43. Which of the following persons were the promi nent members of the Ahrar Movement? (i) Hakim Ajmal Khan (ii) Syed Nazir Husain (iii) Hasan Imam (iv) Maulana Zafar Ali Khan (v) Chirag Ali (vi) MazharulHaq. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv


(c) i, iii, iv and vi

(d) All of them

44.

Which of the following statements about Sir Syed Ahmad Khan are true?

(i) He was born in 1817. (ii) He worked for the social and educational advancement of the Indian Muslims throughout his life. (iii) He published a journal called Tahz Akhlaq. (iv) He passed away in 1908. Choose the answer from the codes gi\ below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 45.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

(i) Fought against medieval obscurant!

and advocated a rational appn towards religion, (ii) Asked for a reinterpretation of the < the light of reason to suit the new I the time, (iii) Founded a modern school, at All; 1875, which became the Mur Anglo-Oriental college in 1877 and I full-fledged university, (iv) Founded the Muhammadan Educ Conference in 1886 as a general 1 spreading liberal ideas among Muslims. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i, ii and iii (b). ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 46. Which of the following are correct to de .the character of the Aligarh movement? (i) Anti-British (ii) Pro-British (iii) Anti-Congress (iv) Pro-Congr (v) Anti-Hindu (vi) Pro-Hindu Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) i, iii and v 47. Muhammad Iqbal (i) Emphasised the need for a reconsti of Muslim religious thought in the ligh the problems posed by the modem' (ii) Propagated the ascetic elements of i Muslim religious thought. (iii) Preached a life of self-assertion and i realisation. (iv) Influenced the contemporary Muslim i gious attitude through his poetry. (v) Was born in 1883 and passed 1948. (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and v (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them


(iv) Its founders gave liberal interpretation to Islam, which in turn created political awak ening among its followers. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E (b) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (c) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (d) i-C, ii-D, iiiB, iv-E 54.

Which of the following is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 55.

Atmiya Sabha--Radhakanta Dev Dharma Sabha--Debendranath Tagore Tattvabodhini Sabha--Rammohun Roy Prarthana Samaj--Dr Atmaram Pandurang Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below.

List I (iii) Brahmo Samaj of India (iv) Sadharana Brahmo (D) M G Ranade Samaj 48. Which of the following were the objectives of the Nadwah-ul-Ulama, founded by Shibli Numani in 1894? (i) Recasting the Muslim education system (ii) Developing religious sciences (iii) Reforming Muslim morals

(iv) Putting an end to theological controversies within Islam Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 49.

Which of the following statements about the Akali Movement are true?

(i) Its main aim was to purify the management of the gurudwaras or Sikh shrines, (ii) It led to the enactment of a new Sikh gurudwaras Act by the British in 1920. (iii) The Akalis removed the corrupt mahants or priests from the gurudwaras with the help of the new act and sometimes through direct action, (iv) They began to manage the gurudwaras through the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 50. Which of the following persons were the promi nent members of the Aligarh movement? (i) Altaf Husain Hall (ii) Dr Nazir Ahmad (iii) Abul Kalarn Azad (iv) Nawab MushinulMulk (v) Chirag Ali (vi) Badruddin Tyabji



(c) i, ii, iv and v


51.

Which of the following statements about Deoband movement are true?

(i) It was started in 1866 at Deoband. (ii) One of its founders was Badruddin Tyabji. (iii) Its aim was resuscitating classical Islam and improving the spiritual and moral conditions of the Muslims.

52. List I (i) Servants of India Society (ii) Seva Samiti (iii) Women's Indian Association (iv) Indian Reform Association (a) i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-A (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C 53. Match the following: List I (i) Rahnumai Mazdaya snan Sabha (ii) Dar-ulUlum (iii) NadwahulUlama (iv) Muhammadan Educational Indian Social Conference Brahmo Samaj (i) Conference List II

(A) Madras

(B) (C)

Bombay Calcutta

(D)

Allahabad

(b) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D

List II (A) Deoband

(B) (C) (D)

Bombay Aligarh Lucknow

(E)

Kanpur

List II (A) Rammohun Roy

(B)

Ananda Mohan Bose

(C)

Keshab Chandra Sen


(b) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (d) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D

List II (A)

Swami Vivekananda

(B)

Shivanarayana Agnihotri

(C)

Dayanand Saraswati

(D) (E)

G G Agarkar Bal Gangadhar Tilak

(b) i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D (d) i-E, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D (a) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B (c) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B 56. Match the following: List I (i) Arya Samaj

(ii) Ramakrishna Mission (iii) Deccan Education Society (iv) Deva Samaj

(a) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (c)

i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C

57.

Which code gives the correct pairing of the following lists?

List II H N Kunzru

(B)

Shri Ram Bajpai

(C) (D)

N M Joshi G K Gokhale List I

(i) Poona Seva Sadan (A) (ii) Social Service League (iii) Seva Samiti (iv) Seva Samiti Boy Mrs Ramabai Ranade (E) Scouts Association (v) Servants of India Society (a) (b) (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E, v-A i-E, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, vD i-A, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, vB (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, we

58.


59. (a) Ahl-i-Hadis--Maulavi Abdullah Chakralavi (b) Ahl-i-Quran--Maulana Ahmad Riza Khan (c) Qadianis--Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (d) Barelwis--Maulana Syed Nazir Hussain Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below: List II (A) (B) (C)

Tankara Calcutta Radhanagar

(D)

Kamarpukur List I

Ram Mohan Roy Dayanand Saraswati (iii) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (iv) Swami Vivekananda (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B

60, Which code gives the correct matching following lists: List I List II (i) Dayanand Saraswati (A) Tulsi Rami (ii) Ramakrishna (B) Mula Sh (C) (D) GadodhaM Chattop Narendn Datta Paramahamsa (iii) Swami Vivekananda

(iv) Shiva Dayal Saheb (a) (b) (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (d) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C 61. List II (A) (B)

Poona NewYo(^|

(C)

Calcutta Match the following: List I

(i) Brahmo Samaj (ii) Paramahamsa Mandali (iii) Deccan Education Society (D) (E)

Bombay Nagpur i-C, ii-D, iii-A, I i-C, ii-D, iii-E, I

(iv) Theosophical Society

(a) i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B (b) (c) i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B (d) 62. Consider List I and List II List I List II (i) Deva Samaj

Lahore

(ii) Tattvabodhini Sabha (iii) Arya Samaj

Calcutta

Belur

(iv) Ramakrishna Mission

Bombay Which of the above are correctly mati

Choose the answer from

the codes gi\ below:

(a) i and ii (b) ii and i (c) iii and iv (d)

i and ii

Assertion and Reason Instructions Mark (a) if the 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but t 'Reason (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct and f explains 'A. Mark (d) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, but'

does not explain 'A'.

Cultural Encounter and Social Changes ••• C101 Assertion: Ram Mohan is unanimously considered as the first modern Indian. Reason: He studied different languages, like Persian, Arabic, Hebrew and Sanskrit in order to study the various religious scriptures in their original. Assertion: Brahmo Samaj used the shuddhi movement for effecting socio-religious and political unity of India. Reason: Suddhi movement meant the reconversion of those Hindus who had once been willingly or forcibly converted into other religions, but were now willing to come back into the fold of Hinduism. Assertion: The Ramakrishna Math was formed as a social service society. Reason: Its objective was to bring into existence a band of dedicated monks who would propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Assertion: The Ramakrishna Mission is a charitable society. Reason: Its objective is to carry on humanitarian relief and social work. (67. Assertion: The Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission are legally two distinct entities with separate funds and finances. Reason: The members of the Math form the principal workers of the Mission and the trustees of the Math form the governing body of the Mission. Assertion: Lord Baden Powell, after a private visit to India, lifted the colour bar and admitted Indians into his world-wide organisation. Reason: The Seva Samiti Boy Scouts' Association merged itself with the Baden Powell Organisation after the latter removed the colour bar on Indians. Assertion: Avesta is the sacred book of Parsis. Reason: K R Cama made significant contribu tion in reforming the Parsi society and uplifting the Parsi women. Assertion: The enactment of Age of Consent Act of 1891 by the British government was opposed by Balagangadhar Tilak. Reason: According to Tilak the foreign government had no right to interfere with the religious and social customs of the Indians.

Assertion: The 'Gurukul' faction of the Arya Samaj started the Hardwar Gurukul in 1902. Reason: The 'Gurukul' faction was led by Swami Shraddhanand, whose original name was Lala Munshi Ram.

Assertion: The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 was also known as the Sharada Act. Reason: It was moved in the central legislature by Rai Sahib Harbilas Sharada. 73. Who remarked in the following way? "There is a danger of our religion getting into the kitchen. We are neither Vedantists, most of us now, nor Pauranics, or Tantrics. We are just "don't touchists". Our religion is in the kitchen. Our god is in the cookingpot, and our religion is "don't touch me, I am holy". If this goes on for another century, everyone of us will be in a lunatic asylum'. Ram Mohan Roy Debendranath Tagore Keshab Chandra Sen Swami Vivekananda 74. Who said: 'What we see around us today is a fallen nation—a nation whose primitive great ness lies buried in ruins'? Ram Mohan Roy Keshab Chandra Sen Swami Dayanand Saraswati Swami Vivekananda 75. Who remarked in the following way? 'What shall we revive? Shall we revive the old habits of our people when the most sacred of our castes indulged in all the abomina tions? The dead and the burnt once for all and the dead past can not, therefore, be revived'. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Gopala Krishna Gokhale M.G.Ranade Bal Gangadhar Tilak 76. Who said: 'So long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a trai tor, who having been educated at their expense, pay not the least heed to them, ? (a) Swami Vivekananda (b) M K Gandhi (c) B G Tilak (d) G K Gokhale

ANSWERS

1.(c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4.(c) 5.(d) 6. (a) 7.(b) 11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (c) 21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (c) 31. (d) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. (b) 41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (c) 51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (b) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (b) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. (b) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (d) 68. (a) 69. (d) 71. (d) 72. (c) 73. (d) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (a)

C102

8. 18. 28. 38. 48. 58.

(b) (a) (a) (b) (d) (c)

9.(c) 19.(c) 29. (c) 39. (c) 49. (c) 59. (d)

18

RESISTANCE TO BRITISH RULE

18.1 EARLY UPRISINGS AGAINST BRITISH RULE

on-tribal movements

^k^hs* ""'" ^BÛ^'ig.'^^P&tea r*^ , > *v7'* "*"" *^^*5"-~ î*^ V , .JKff*«{^S*Si" . '-we*-p»»i ':suyf? ^ "j&_ ' ' Revolt of Tirunelveli 1792-99 Veerapandya Attempts of the Bri- Defiance of the British by Kattttabomman in Tamil Kattabomman tish to force Katt abomman for 7 years; his final Nadu (Ruler of Pan- abomman to acc- capture and execution by the chalakurichi) ept their suzerainty British (1799); annexation of his and his refusal territory by the British (1799). Rebellion of Orissa 1804-06 First under the British occupation Unsuccessful attempt of the Raja the Paiks Raja of Khurda of Orissa (1803); of Khurda to organise a rebellion and later under resentment of the with the help of the Paiks, and Jagabandhu Paiks (a militia confiscation of his territory by class occupying the British (1804); continuous rent-free lands unrest among the Paiks between under the zamind1804 & 1806; rise of the Paiks ars) against British under Jagabandhu and their occland and land upation of Puri after defeating the revenue policies British force (1817); final suppres sion of the movement by force and conciliatory measures by British. Revolt of Travancore 1808-09 Velu Thambi Financial burden Beginning of the war between Velu Thambi (Dewan of imposed on the the two sides (December 1808); Travancore) state by the British fall of Trivandrum (capital of through the subsi Travancore) to the British (Febdiary system; ruary 1809); death of Velu the high handedThambi in forest due to serious ness of the British injuries. Resident there; and British demand

for the removal of Dewan. C103


^J NMMflf; atm

«Rd wHNBVwiiMWfl ffPlPwHPBI YiMff U»ttoit«) ''_""v w < ;* M* CoufMofttomovMjH and conceqiMnc** fl Revolt of Cutch and 1861-19 Rao Bharmal Anti-British feeling Final defeat and deposal Rao Bharmal Kathiawar (ruler of Cutch) due to British exp Rao Bharmal; imposition { ansionist policy Subsidiary Treaty on Cutfl and their interfer 1 ence in internal I affairs of Cutch. I Revolt of Poona 1822-29 Chittur Singh British annexation Revolt of the Ramosis und Ramosis and Umaji of Peshwa's terri Chittur Singh (1822-24); fl tory (1818), result- revolt under Umaji (1822-9 ing In large scale establishment of peace byl unemployment am- British by pardoning all them ong Ramosis (uncrimes of the Ramosis and der the Peshwa, also by granting them land they served in and recruiting them as hilltj inferior ranks police. 1 of police. 1 Kittur Rising Kittur (near 1824-29 Channamma Death of Shivalinga Revolt of Channamma (wig Dharwar in and Rayappa Rudra Desai (chief) of late Desai) in 1824 and 1 Karnataka) of Kittur (1824), murder of English officers 1 leaving no male to including Thackeray (coital recognise the of Dharwar); conquest of NJ adopted issue; refand its annexation by the 1 usal of the British British; revolt of the peoplM son as the Desai Kittur under Rayappa who « and assumption of declared independence ana administration of up the adopted boy as the Kittur by British.

Desai (1829); capture and , execution of Rayappa

by ^ British, and death of Chanrii amma in Dharwar prison. Sambalpur Sambalpur 1827-40 Surendra Sai Frequent inter-Death of Maharaja Sai (rule! Outbreaks (Orissa) ference of British and outbreak of civil war; ' in the internal succession of Mohan Kurrn affairs of Sambalpur, (widow of the late Raja) witt such as the issue the support of the British art of succession. revolt of other claimants u Surendra Sai; final arrest an

imprisonment of Surendra S British (1840). 1840-41 Dhar Rao Deposal and bani-

Satara DisSatara Revolt of the people of SaM turbances (Maha Pawar and shment of Pratap under Dhar Rao in 1840; oh -rashtra) Narsing Singh, the popular revolt under Narsing and Dattatreya ruler of Satara by seizure of Badami in 1841; Patkar the British defeat and capture of Narsir the British (he was transfx for life).


JBundela : Revolt

Gadkari rebellion

Satavandi Revolt

Raju Rebellion

Palakonda Outbreak

Gumsur Outbreak

Parlakimedl Outbreak Sagar & 1842 Damon (Bundelkhand) Kolhapur 1844-45 (Maharashtra)

Satavandi 1839-45 (Maharashtra)

Visakhapa-1827-33 tnam (A.P.)

Palakonda 1831-32 (Andhra Pradesh)

Gumsur 1835-37 (Ganjam District)

Parlakimedi 1829-35 (Orissa) Madhukar Shah and Jawahir Singh

Not Available

Phond Savant (leading noble) and Anna Sahib (heir apparent)

Birabhadra Raju

Zamindar of Palakonda

Dhananjaya Bhanja (zamindar of Gumsur)

Jagannath Gajapti Narayan Rao Resentment against British land revenue policy

Assumption of direct administration of Kolhapur by British and reforms of O.K. Pandit; resentment of the Gadkaris (a militia class who had earlier held revenue free lands in return for their services to the ruler) against the revenue reforms Deposal of Khen Savant (ruler of Satavandi) and appointment of a British officer to administer the state; resentment of the people against British system of administration Birabhadra was dispossessed of his estate by the British in return for a small amount of pension. Attachment of the property of the zamindar of nonpayment of revenue. His failure to clear the arrears of revenue to the British.

Attachment of his zamindari for arrears by the British in 1827.

Revolt of the Bundelas under Shah and Singh; murder of police officers and disruption of British administration; capture and execution of Madhukar Shah and Singh by British. Revolt of the Gadkaris, followed by a popular revolt in the city of Kolhapur and all other parts of the state of kolhapur; final suppression of the movement by the British.

Revolt of the nobles and their attempts to drive away the British; transformation of the revolt into a popular movement with the common people all over the state rising in arms against the British; proclamation of martial law and suppression of the movement by the British

Revolt of Birabhadra and his defiance of British authority till he was captured.

Revolt of the zamindar; suppression of the revolt and forfeiture of Palakonda estate to the British. Revolt of the zamindar; Appointment of Mr. Russel as the Commissioner; final suppression of the movement after large scale military campaign in 1837. Revolt of the zamindar, followed by a popular rising of the people; final suppression of the movement.


movement) Movement of pagal Panthis

t^&jjJgO&^S^Sm, ^f, .* ^^^^hbir^wf §tfctti 'Miilalf»rti'lt'a>iiil' wP^^ 'P^^SH^^R^WIW* Jjfjfjm^' !'''A itHiJif.'tfltf' r'" MMaû**is ^"f" t --^ ffdasa^fc^to ga^" TRHBHr * < lEsHMBHMEHB0t3 " WK&ffl&«Mi!&&ij&j^^$i. . ^ r f '.,» i/^-*flr ratt&i&U».JU~ V-. ..... HtfîiiiitffihJiiiyittttj^^m^l^^l »ft IMRf mm ^lpP^19V "Ww^H^M^M Movement East 1804-60 Shariatullah Degeneration of the Foundation of the movement of the Faraizis Bengal and Muham- Islamic society and by Shariatullah of Faridpur; ^ (In the later mad Mushin loss of power to the movement under him wd stages It was (better known the British (Hence mainly religious in character amalgamated as Dudhu its aims were to through he had declared Bra with the Wahabi Mian) remove abuses as enemies; his death in 183 movement) from Islamic socsuccession of Dudhu Main 4 iety as well as to the leader of the Movement;1 restore Muslim rule under him it became mainly* by expelling the political in nature; his succai British from India). in mobilising all the Muslim ' peasants of East Bengal < against zamindars and indigi planters; his arrest and contt ment in the Alipore jail. Wahabi North India 1820-70 Saiyad Ahmad Degeneration of Fight of the Wahabis against Movement (Founder of the Islamic society the British for 50 long year,! (for details and Deccan the Movement) and loss of power their final suppression by ^ see the Note to the British (Aims British after a series of trials

on Wahabi

-- same as above)

in the 1860s. '

1825-33 Sherpur (East Bengal) Karam Shah Resentment of the and Tipu peasants against the oppression of the zamindars. Kuka Movement (for details see the Note on Kuka movement) Degeneration of Sikh religion and loss of sikh sovereignty Bhagat Jawahar Mai (founder) Punjab 1845-72 Under Karam Shah (foun it was mainly a religious i ment, but under Tipu (son i successor of Shah) it I political movement against the oppressive zamindars i British; its final suppression t British after large scale milit operations. Though it started as a religio reform movement, it becan a movement for the resti of Sikh sovereignty after t annexation of Punjab by the'^ British.

WAHABI MOVEMENT Appearance of Wahabism in India in the early 19th century as a religio-political movement. In its religious aspect, it was a reform movement to remove the religious corruptions and abuses that had crept into Islamic society in India. In its political aspect, it was a movement to revive and restore Muslim power in India by bringing about the overthrow of the British. Founded in India by Ahmad of Bareilly in 18 it began in Rohilkhand and later spread to Bengal, Punjab, North Western Frontier Prov and the Deccan. Systematic organisation

ofj Wahabis and appointment of Vilayat Ali, Muhammad Hussain and Farhat Hussain (all Patna) as khalifas or spiritual vice-regents done by Saiyid Ahmad (1822). Training of the Wahabis in the use of arms i march of Saiyid Ahmad to North Western Fro

Resistance to British Rule a 07

Province to enlist the support of tribes in his holy war against Sikhs of Pubjab (Till the occupation of Punjab by British, Wahabi Movement was not only anti-British but also anti-Sikh); his war against the Sikhs (1826-31) and his death in the battle of Balakot in 1831 were the other major events of the early phase. Assuming leadership of the Wahabis, Vilayat Ali appointed Maulavi Nasiruddin as command-er-in-chief of the Wahabis in their fight against the British and the Sikhs. A part of Sikh territory was occupied by the Wahabis after the death of Ranjit Singh, but the occupation of Punjab by British led to their defeat and expulsion from Punjab (1847). Death of Vilayat Ali and succession of Inayat Ali as the leader of Wahabis in India (1852); preparations by Inayat to wage a full-scale war against British and open preaching of sedition by the Wahabis in Meerut, Bareilly, Delhi and in many districts of Bengal and defeat of Inayat by British in a major encounter in 1853 and his escape; death of Inayat due to illness at Swat in 1858 and succession of Maqsud Ali as the leader were some of the important developments of the mid-19th century. During the Revolt of 1857, the Wahabis did not play an important role, though at a few places the Wahabis did participate in the revolt. Death of Maqsud Ali (1861) was followed by the succession of Abdullah, son of Vilayat Ali, as the leader of the Wahabis at Sittana. (Sittana in North West Frontier Province was the head-quarters of the Wahabis from 1850 onwards). British expeditions against Wahabi camp at Sittana:

Failure of 16 British expeditions, sent between 1850 and 1857, to destroy the Wahabis at Sittana. British expedition under Sir Sydney Cotton and capture of Sittana (1858). Recovery of Sittana by the Wahabis (July, 1863), and failure of Sir Neville Chamberlain to recap ture it and crush the rebels (October, 1863). Defeat of the Wahabis by General Garvock (November, 1863).

State Trials and suppression of the Wahabi Movement in India:

Ambala Trial (May, 1864) and passing of the sen tence of transportation for life on Yahya Ali, Abdul Rahim, Muhammad Jaffer and many others. Patna Trail (1865) and transportation of Ahmadullah (leader of the Wahabis at Patna) for life, Malda Trial (September, 1870) and transportation of Maulavi Amiruddin of Malda for life. Rajmahal Trial (October, 1870) and transporta tion of Ibrahim of Islampore for life.

The suppression of the movement in India led to the end of the movement at Sittana also, for it used to receive all its supplies (men and material) from main-land India (particularly from Patna).

KUKA MOVEMENT

The Kuka movement in Punjab was also, like the Wahabi movement, a religio-political movement; religious aim--reformation of Sikhism; political aim--restoration of Sikh sovereignty in Punjab by driving the British away. It was founded by Bhagat Jawhar Mai, popularly known as Sian Sahib, in western Punjab in the forties of the 19th century. Jawhar Mai was succeeded by his disciple, Balak Singh, as the leader of the Kukas. After Balak Singh, Ram Singh (1863) became the leader of the Kukas. Under Ram Singh, the political aspect of the movement manifested itself at its best: appointment of subas and naib subas to organise the sect in different parts of Pubjab; recruitment of a large number of people (mainly Jats) as members and imparting of military training to them; destruction of idols and shrines, and murder of butchers of cows by the Kukas, bringing them into open conflict with the British authorities; open revolt of a group of Kukas and their attack on Malaudh and Kotla killing 10 people; surrender of 68 Kukas to the British and execution of all of them (49 of them were executed without trail by Mr. Cowan, Deputy Commissioner of Ludhiana, and the rest were tried and executed) by the British (January, 1872). Ram

C108 Indian History: Modem India

Singh was held responsible for the Kuka outbreak of 1872 and was transported to Rangoon where he died in 1885. Kukas recognised Guru Gobind Singh as the only true Guru of the Sikhs. Their religious reforms included prohibition of all worship, abolition of caste and of restrictions on intermarriage, abstinence from meat, liquors and drugs, and comparatively free intercourse between the sexes.

MAIN CAUSES FOR TRIBAL REVOLTS OR MOVEMENTS

The main causes for the tribal movements were:

Resentment of the tribals against extension of British rule to their areas, e.g. Revolts of Chuars (1768), Bhils (1818-48), Hos (1820-22), Khasis (1829-32), Singphos (1830), etc. Their resentment against penetration of their areas by outsiders from the plains such as moneylenders, traders, contractors, etc., and against the ] given to these outsiders by the British gove e.g. Revolts of Bhils (1818^48), Hos (18 Khasis (1829-32), Koyas, Santhals (1855-S Mundas( 1899-1900), etc. Their resentment against the tightening of c by the British over forest zones for revenue ] poses, e.g. Revolts of Thadoe Kukis (19i*j Oraons (1914), Chenchus (1921-22), etc. Reaction of the tribals to the activities of I Christian missionaries in their areas, e.g. Rev of Mundas (1899-1900). Their resentment against British efforts to i unpaid tribal labour for menial work, e.g. Revo of Thadoe Kukis ( 1917-19), Koyas ( 1922-2 etc. Their resentment against British efforts to press certain tribal traditions and practices (infi ticide, human sacrifices, etc.), e.g. Revolt; Khonds( 1846-48).

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS IN 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

p^teM'v*' eny

Khandesh Chuars

Bhils

Hos

Kolis

Khasis Nanbhum and 1768 & 1832 Not available Barabhum (West Bengal)

1818 to 1848 Not available Not available

Singhbhum and 1820, 1822 Chota Nagpur & 1832

Sahyadri Hills 1824,1828, Not available

(Gujarat and Maharashtra) Khasi Hills (Assam & Meghalaya) 1839 & 1844-48 1829-32 Tirut Singh and Bar Manik (Chiefs of Nounklow & Molim respectively) Defiance of British authority by Chuars; suppression of the Revolt by the British through use of force as well as conciliatory measures. Beginning of revolt of Bhils with I occupation of Khandesh (1818) their defiance of British for 30 final suppression through milit operations combined with conciliafa measures. Occupation of Singhbhum by British'] and revolt of the Hos (1820); its i pression after extensive military ( tions; their revolt again in 1832. Repeated revolts of Kolis and their final suppression after the capture of" all their leaders. Unsuccessful attempts of the Khasil^ to drive away the British from their territory; surrender of all Khasi chiefs,! including Tirut Singh, to the British irjj 1832.


Assam JSingphos

Kols Koyas

Khonds Santhals

Naikdas

Kacha Nagas Mundas

Bhils

Not available 1830-39 Buddho Bhagat

Chota Nagpur 1831-32

Rampa Region1840, 1845, Alluri Sitaramaraju (Chodavarm

1858,1861-62, (1922-24)

inAndhra

1879-80,

Pradesh)

1922-24

Khondmals

1846-48,

(Orissa)

1855 and

Chakra Bisayi

1914 Rajmahal Hills

1855-56

Sldhu & Kanhu

(Bihar) Rupsingh and Joria Bhagat

Ranch Mahals 1858-59 & (Gujarat) 1868

Sambhudan 1882 Cacher (Assam) Chota Nagpur 1899-1900 Birsa Munda

Govind Guru Banswara and 1913 Dungapur (southern Rajasthan) Suppression of 1830 revolt by Captain Neufville; murder of Colonel White (British political Agent of Assam) by Singphos in 1839 but their ultimate defeat by British. Suppression of the revolt after extensive military operations by British and death of Bhagat.

Repeated revolts of the Koyas, the major ones being the 1879-80 and 1922-24 revolts; capture and execu tion of Raju by British in May 1924. The first two revolts, led by Bisayi, were put down with great difficulty by the British. Revolt of Santhals and establishment of their own government (July, 1855); defeat of British under Major Burrough by Santhals; transfer of the disturbed area to the military and final suppression of the revolt by the end of 1856: creation of a separate district of Santhal Paraganas to prevent Santhals from revolting again in future. Revolt of Naikdas under Rupsingh in 1858 and conclusion of peace between British and Rupsingh in 1859; their revolt again in 1868, and establishment of a kingdom with Joria as the spiritual head and Rupsingh as temporal head; suppression of the revolt after the capture and execution of Rupsingh and Joria.

Foundation of a new religious sect, with Singh Bonga as the only true god, by Birsa (1895); British fears over Birsa's preachings among Mundas, and arrest and imprisonment of Birsa (1895-97); release of Birsa and revival of his doctrine (1898); revolt of Mundas and their attack of churches and police stations (1899); defeat of Mundas by British (Jan, 1900) and capture of Birsa (he died of cholera in jail in June 1900). It began as a purification movement, but later developed into a political movement; failure of their attempts to set up a Bhil Raj due to British armed intervention.


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Thadoe Kukis Chenchus Chota Nagpur 1914-15 1917-19 1921-22

Manipur

Nallamala Hills (Andhra Pradesh) Jatra Bhagat

Jadonang and his neice, Rani Gaidinliu Hanumanthu Launching of a monotheistic, ment by Jatra in 1914 and its I mation into a radical political i ment to drive away the British I its suppression by British repressive measures. Their rebellion and guerrilla \ nst British for two years. Their revolt against increasing British control over forests.

18.2 THE 1857 REVOLT CAUSES Grievances of native rulers

Dalhousie's annexation of states through Doctrine of Lapse. Satara in 1858, Jaitpur (UP) and Sambalpur (Orissa) in 1849, Baghat (a hill state south of the Sutlej) in 1850, Udaipur (the state in Central Provinces and not the one in Rajputana) in 1852, Jhansi in 1853, and Nagpur in 1854. The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur were, however, cancelled and they were restored to their ruling houses. When Dalhousie wanted to apply the Doctrine of Lapse to Karauli (Rajputana), he was overruled by the Court of Directors. Dalhousie's annexation of Awadh on the ground of misrule in 1856: Sir James Outram, who had been the British Resident there since 1854, was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner in 1856, but he was also replaced within matter of months by Sir Henry Lawrence (he was the Chief Commissioner when Revolt broke out). Abolition of titles and suspension of pensions: Dalhousie abolished the titles of the Nawab of Camatic and the Raja of Tanjore, and refused to grant the pension to the adopted son (Dhondu Pandit, better known as Nana Saheb) of the last Peshwa (Baji Rao II) after the latter's death in 1851. He also announced in 1849 that the successors of Bahadur Shah II would have to leave the Red Fort. Canning's announced in 1856 that the successors of

Bahadur Shah were to be known only as prin not as kings.

Grievances of sepoys

Discrimination in payment and promotion treatment of the sepoys by the British off refusal of the British to pay foreign allowance (batta) while fighting in remote i such as Punjab or Sindh; religious objection high caste Hindu sepoys to Lord Ca General Service Enlistment Act (1856) or recruits to be ready for service both within i side India (i.e. across the seas); encour given to the Christian missionaries by the I army officers.

All these led to disaffection among the which manifested itself on a number of occa the form of mutinies before 1857. They we

Mutiny of the sepoys in Bengal in 1764. Vellore Mutiny in 1806. Mutiny of the sepoys of the 47th Reg Barrackpurin 1824. Mutinies of the 34th Native Infantry (N.I; 22nd N.I., the 66th N.I. and the 37th N.I. in 1849, 1850 and 1852 respectively.

All these mutinies occurred due to the ab tioned grievances particularly the third and, grievances. And all of them were put downl British with terrible violence; the leaders ' cuted and the regiments were mostly disband

Resistance to British Rule cm

noes of orthodox and i people

of the Indians (both Muslim and Hindu) due to i activities of the Christian missionaries and the tion and encouragement given to them by the jfeitish government; resentment of the conservative orthodox elements against the social reforms humanitarian measures introduced by the gov-nent, e.g. abolition of sati (1829), legalization of remarriage (1856), protection of the civil Jjights of converts from Hinduism (by the Religious [Disabilities Act of 1856), spread of western educaftion, etc.; disaffection caused by the official policy tbf taxing lands belonging to temples, charitable |institutions, mosques, etc.-all of them alienated I these sections from British. \' [Grievances of the craftsmen, peasants and zamindars

[ Artisans and craftsmen--Destruction of village ' industries and handicrafts due to the one-way free | trade policy of the British. Peasants--Loss of their lands to the moneylend; ers due to the land and land-revenue policies of the ; British, particularly the ryotwari system, and their system of law and administration (which favoured the moneylenders at the cost of the peasants).

Traditional Zamindars--Many of them lost their zamindaris to the new class of urbanbased absentee landlords due to the introduction of the zamindari or the permanent settlement and the strict manner of revenue collection by the British.

Grievances of middle and upper classes

Due to their total exclusion from high administrative and military posts; ruin of those persons who depended on Indian rulers' patronage of arts and literature.

Basic foreignness of Britishers

They fundamentally differed from the other foreign conquerors of India like the Mughals or the Delhi Sultans, by not making India their home, and by their racial'superiority. Military causes

Jolts given to the British armed strength by certain events like the First Afghan War, Anglo-Sikh War, Crimean War and the Santhal Uprising; combined with these, the disproportionate ratio of the sepoys to the Europeans in the British Indian Army (6:1) and the faulty disposition of the troops (There was only an insignificant number of European soldiers compared to the strength of the sepoys at important military centres like Delhi and Allahabad) on the eve of the revolt gave sepoys some confidence.

Immediate cause

Introduction of the new Enfield Rifle (January, 1857) with greased (supposedly with the fat of cows and pigs) cartridge, whose end had to be bitten off before loading it into the rifle caused disaffection among the sepoys and led to disobeyal of orders by the sepoys of the 19th Native Infantry stationed at Berhampur on February 26,1857, and its disbandment by the British Government (Colonel Mitchell--its commanding officer). It also led to the mutiny of Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th N.I. stationed at Barrackpur, on 29th .March, 1857 (Pandey severely wounded It. Baugh, Adjutant to the C.O. of Barrackpur, General Hearsey); futile attempt to commit suicide, his execution and the disbandment of the unit. Then came the disobeyal of orders by 85 men of the 3rd cavalry at Meerut, their court-martial and imprisonment on 24th April. Refusal of the sepoys of the 7th Awadh regiment at Lucknow to use the greased cartridges on 2nd May 1857 and its disbandment were the other important events.

COURSE OF THE REVOLT

Beginning

On 1 Oth May, 1857, the Sepoys of the Third Cavalry at Meerut openly revolted by swarming the prisons and releasing their comrades (85 troopers of this unit were courtmartialled and imprisoned earlier due to their refusal to touch the greased cartridge). They were immediately joined by the men of the llth and


20th Native Infantries, and together they murdered some English officers (including Colonel Finnis of the 11th Native Infantry) and then marched to Delhi. Failure of General Hewitt, the C.O. of Meerut to pursue the mutineers; arrival of the Meerut sepoys at Delhi (where not a single European regiment was stationed at that time) on 11 th May and declaration of Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India; massacre of British civil and military officers; blowing up of the Delhi magazine by It. Willoughby, the officerin-charge of it, after defending it just for a few days, etc. where the other initial development of the outback of the Revolt.

Spread

Mutinies took place at a few places in Punjab (Naushera and Hoti Mardan), but they were easily put down by Sir John Lawrence, Chief Commissioner of Punjab (he maintained comparative peace in Punjab throughout the Revolt and the Sikh army rendered valuable service in suppressing the Revolt). More important were the like mutinies at other places Mathura and Lucknow, Bareilly and Shahjahanpur, Kanpur and Banaras, Jhansi and Allahabad, and at many other places in north India.

Important centres and their leaders

Delhi--Bahadur Shah II (nominal leader) and General Bakht Khan (who was an ordinary Subedar in the British army at Bareilly and who had led the revolt of the sepoys at Delhi). Kanpur--Nana Saheb, Rao Sahib (nephew of Nana), Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan (advi sors of Nana). Lucknow--Begam of Awadh (Hazarat Mahal) and Ahmadullah (advisor of the ex-nawab of Awadh). Jhansi--Rani Laxhmibai (widow of the ex-king of Jhansi). Bareilly--Khan Bahadur Khan (grandson of the last ruler of Rohikhand).

Arrah--Kunwar Singh (the dispossessed za dar of Jagdishpur in Bihar) and Amar (brother of Kunwar). Other leaders--Maulavi Ahmadullah Faizabad, Firuz Shah (a relative of the Mu Emperor).

Suppression

Delhi Its recapture by General John Nichols< September, 1857 (Nicholson died soon due to at tal wound received during the fighting); train the Mughal Emperor's sons and a grand son by Hodson; arrest and deportation of Bahadur Sh to Rangoon.

Kanpur Its defense by Sir Hugh Wheeler : Nana's forces till 26th June 1857 and surrend the British on 27th on the promise of safe cond Allahabad by Nana (murder of all Englishmen i they were leaving the place in boats on 27th Jl and murder of all English women and children, i a short period of confinement on 15th July)J^ recapture by Major General Havelock on 17th; after defeating Nana in a series of battles (Brig General Neill who arrived here soon took reve by butchering many Indians); its occupation byl mutinous Gwalior contingent under Tantia Topi November 1857; and its final recovery by Sir ( Campbell in December, 1857 (he became the : commander-in-chief of the Indian Army in Au 1857).

Lucknow Seizure of the British Residency Lucknow and death of Sir Henry Lawrence on I July 1857; arrival of Havelock, Outram and Neill \g reinforcements (25th September ) and death of Na relief of the besieged British by Sir Colin Campbell 17th November, death of Havelock in Decen 1857, and its occupation by Tantia Tope; its reoccupation by Campbell on 21st March, 1858.

Jhansi and Gwalior Jhansi's recaptured by Hugh Rose on 4th April, 1858 and the esc Rani Laxmibai; capture of Gwalior (whose sold revolted and drove out their ruler, Sindhia) by 1


Recaptured by Neill in Nature of the 1857 Revolt

(&'

Jifju iraj renderi 1 Tantia; death of Rani on 17th June, 1858 and pture of Gwalior by Rose on 20th June.

illy Its recapture by Campbell on 5th May,

ah Suppression of the Bihar movement under nwar Singh by William Taylor and Vincent Eyre orarily in August, 1857; escape of Kunwar to and his return to Bihar in April, 1858, to ht his last battle (he died on 9th May).

as and Allahabad 1857.

India T*,e whole of central India and indelkhand was brought under British control by rHugh Rose in the first half of 1858. But Tantia e, after losing Gwalior, escaped to Central i and carried on guerrilla war for 10 months, ally he was betrayed by Man Singh (a feudato-|of Sindhia) and was executed by the British on April 1859. Nana Saheb, Begam of Awadh, I Khan Bahadur escaped to Nepal in December $8 and died there. General Bakht Khan went to i after the fall of Delhi, and died fighting the jitish on 13th May, 1859. Maulavi Ahmadullah I treacherously murdered by Raja of Puwain in e, 1858.

i for the failure

Ûnsympathetic attitude and even hostility of ny native rulers and their ministers-Sindhia nd his minister Sir Dinkar Rai, the Nizam and his minister Sir Salar Jung, Holkar, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, Begam of Bhopal, Sir Jung Bahadur |Prime Minister of Nepal), Raja of Jodhpur jpndother rulers of Rajputana and many others, tfonparticipation of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, estem Punjab and Rajputana. Of modem eduated Indians. Hostility of moneylenders, merchants, a signifint number of traditional zamindars, and the hole new class of urban based absentee land-ds. Weaknesses of the rebels--Lack of organisation, discipline, common plan of action, centralised leadership, modern weapons and other materials of war; Selfishness and cliquishness of the leaders etc. Strong points of British--Immense resources, superior military weapons and techniques, able leadership, end of the Crimean war enabling them to get large reinforcements.

Divergent opinions have been expressed about its nature. These may be broadly divided into two categories. One section opines that it was primarily a mutiny of sepoys, the other expresses a feeling that the revolt was, indeed, the first war of Indian independence. British historians insisted that the rising was nothing more than a sepoy mutiny. The main pillars of this belief were that Sikhs remained loyal and that the native states which had escaped annexation were mostly neutral. The British concentrated on the greased cartridges and the activities of the rebellious sepoys. The civil unrest which accompanied the mutiny was ignored altogether. V.D. Savarkar called it the First War of Indian Independence. But a war of independence necessarily implies definite plan and organisation. The circumstances under which Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Jhansi Lakshmi and others cast their lot with the mutinous sepoys are sufficient to expose the limitations of the theory that it was a struggle for independence. The sudden and unexpected way in which the mutiny spread across the country has always excited the suspicion that it must have been planned in advance. The wide circulation of chapatis is regarded by many as an important evidence. But this mysterious circulation of chapatis does not provide any satisfactory explanation. It will be totally misleading to say that the revolt was the result of a careful and secret plan. It would also be a travesty of truth to describe the Revolt of 1857 as a national war of independence, for

r!i


the upsurge of the people was limited mainly to north India. Moreover, nationalism in the modem mould was yet to come. A large section of the people, in fact, actively cooperated with the British during the revolt. It was definitely something more than a sepoy mutiny but something less than a national revolt. The sepoys were undoubtedly the mainstay of the rebellion. But millions of ordinary citizens also participated in the rebellion. There are many indications testifying the insurrection to be not just a mutiny but a widespread uprising. It took place everywhere in the name of one sovereign and under his flag and it enjoyed strong mass support. The decisive evidence showing the broad character of the rebellion is the note of communal harmony it struck and the spirit of mutual accommodation it evoked in both the communities. Though religion heightened the appeal of the revolt, its content remained predominantly political. Its leaders were temporal, not spiritual, spokesmen of society. This revolution, however, was an attempt to return to the earlier and traditional relations. In fact, it can be said that it was the decaying reactionary elements, the discontented princes and feudal forces which led the opposition. They were joined by the common people who were groaning under the burden of over taxation, rack-renting and social humiliation. The revolt was a feudal upheaval. The rebellion, thus, could never become an authentic all encompassing popular uprising, though it supplied a vent to all those who were discontented or in debt.

Significance of the Revolt

The revolt was a glorious landmark in our history in as much as Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder against a common enemy. It left an indelible impression on the minds of the Indian people and thus paved the way for the rise of a strong movement. After the revolt, the British rule underwent a major transformation in its policy. It started protecting and fostering the princes as its puppets. Reactionary social and religious practices were jealously guarded and preserved against the demands of progressive Indian opinion for their reform. After the initial harsh treat Muslims, rulers began having a more attitude towards Muslim subjects.

The direct result of the revolt was the i Company's rule and the passing of the res of Indian administration into the hands British Queen.

18.3 CASTE MOVEMENTS

South India

Justice Movement It was an intermedia movement launched in Madras around 1915 C N Mudaliar, T M Nair and P Tyagaraja ( behalf of intermediate castes (like Tamil Jjj Mudaliars and Chettiars; Telugu Reddis, and Baliza Naidus; and Malayali Nairs): Brahmin predominance in education, gov service and politics. They founded a new political party, the 'Justice Party' which exhibited its la the British government in the hope of gettji government jobs and representation uu| legislatures.

Self-respect Movement It was a radical movement founded in 1925 in by E V Ramaswamy Naicker popularly i 'Periyar', against the Brahmin domination. \ cated weddings without Brahmin priests, temple entry, burning of the Manu Smriti \ right atheism at times. Periyar founded a| journal, Kudi Arasa, in 1924 in order to ] his ideas.

Nader Movement In the Ramnad district < Tamil Nadu, an untouchable caste of toddy 4 and agricultural labourers, originally $| 'Shanans', emerged as a prosperous me by the end of the 19th century, and began! themselves by the prestigious title of 'Nisi claim Kshatriya status. They organised a 'Nadar Mahajan 1910, imitated upper caste customs and (sanskritisatiori), and raised funds for and social welfare activities.


lent of the Pallis In northern Tamil Nadu, Pallis, a lower caste people, began to claim riya status from 1871. They called themselves jiya Kula Kshatriya' and imitated upper caste i like the taboo on widow remarriage.

Movement The untouchable Ezhavas of under the leadership of Nanu Asan (also i as Narayan Guru), began in the early 20th a movement, known as the 'SNDP yogam' iNarayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam). Its twin lives were to abolish untouchability and to i a simplified system of rituals regarding wor' marriage and funerals. They also imitated I of the customs of the higher castes. In the lat-I they became the firmest supporters of the nists in Kerala.

Movement In the state of Travancore the diate caste of Nairs (numerically the domit caste) started in the late 19th century a strong ent against the social and political dominaof the Nambudri Brahmins and the non-yali Brahmins (Tamil and Maratha). |C V Raman Pillai organised the Malayali Memil (1891) which attacked Brahmin predominance pvernment jobs. His historical novel Martanda na (1891) attempted an evocation of the lost lir military glory. His group was, however, easily nmodated within the official elite by the late I's. jrAfter 1900, however, a more energetic Nair lead-hip emerged under K Rama Krishna Pillai and M nabha Pillai. The former edited the Swadeshnanifrom 1906 till 1919 when its attacks on the and demands for political rights led to his ulsion from Travancore. Padmanabha Pillai the Nair Service Society (1914) which for the social and political advancement of JNairs.

i India

yashodak Movement It was a movement by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra. Phule, i his book Ghulamgiri (1872), and his organ-i Satyashodak Samaj (1873) , proclaimed the need to save the lower castes from the hypocritical Brahmins and their opportunistic scriptures. This movement was dual in character. That is, it had an urban elite-based conservatism (the trend representing the desire of the urban-educated members of the intermediate and lower castes to move upwards in the social ladder by sanskritisatiori) as well as a more genuine rural mass-based radicalism (the trend representing the desire of the rural Maratha peasants to do away with the evils of the caste system itself).

Mahar Movement It was the movement of the untouchable Mahars of Maharashtra, under the leadership of Dr B R Ambedkar (their first graduate), which gained momentum in the 1920's. Their demands included the right to use public drinking water tanks and enter temples, abolition of the mahar watan (traditional services to village chiefs), and separate representation in the legislative councils. From 1927, some of them even started burning the Manu Smriti as a symbol of a sharper break with Hinduism.

B R Ambedkar (1891-1956) Bhimarao Ramji was born in the Mahar untouchable community at Mhow in Madhya Pradesh. His father, a subedar in the army, hailed from Ambad in Ratnagiri district of the then Bombay presidency. He took his surname 'Ambavadekar' from the name of his native village; it was, however, changed to Ambedkar in the school records. In 1913 he joined Columbia University in New York, where two years later he took his M A in Economics. In 1926, he obtained a doctorate from the same university. Meanwhile, in 1916 he had moved to the London School of Economics and prepared for the Bar. A year later, however, he had to discontinue his studies owing to financial exigencies. In 1921 he resumed his studies in London and obtained an M.Sc. (1921) and D.Sc. (1923). 1924 saw Ambedkar returning home to start legal practice at the Bombay High Court. In the same year he established the Depressed Classes Institute ('Bahishkrit Hitkarnini Sabha') in Bombay for the moral and material progress of untouchables. In 1927, he started a Marathi fortnightly, Bahishkrit

C116 MHI Indian History: Modern India

Bharat and in November 1930, a weekly, the Janata. Another institution that Ambedkar founded, in 1927, was the Samaj Samata Sangh, its objective being to propagate the gospel of social equality among untouchables and caste Hindus. In 1927 Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert the right of untouchables to draw water from a public tank at Malad, in Kolaba district. In 1930 he led another satyagraha to claim his community's right to enter the famous temple of Kalaram at Nasik.

Meanwhile he was emerging as a leader of the depressed classes, in which capacity he continued to be a nominated member (1926-34) of the Bombay Legislative Council. He was also an official nominee to the Round Table Conference. Following the British government's 'Communal Award', Ambedkar and Gandhi signed an accord called the 'Poona Pact' which provided for reservation of seats for the community in the general (Hindu) constituencies. He founded the Independent Labour Party in 1936 which captured all the scheduled caste seats in Bombay presidency in the 1936-37 general elections. Later, in 1942, he organised the All-India Scheduled Castes Federation as a political party. To promote' the interests of his community he established the Peoples Education Society in July 1945. Ambedkar served on the Governor-General's Executive Council as member for Labour during 1942--46. Later, the Congress nominated him to the Constituent Assembly in whose deliberations he was to play a prominent role. Apart from being the law minister in Jawaharlal Nehru's Cabinet, he was also chairman of the Constituent Assembly's drafting committee. He also made a signal contribution towards the drafting of the Hindu Code Bill, which made him known as 'a modern Manu'. His prominent works include Castes in India: their mechanism, genesis and development (1916) and Pakistan or Partition of India (1946). In the late 19th century also the Mahars organised themselves under Gopal Baba Walangkar, an ex-serviceman and demanded more jobs in the army and other government services. Northern and Eastern India

Kaivartas Kaivartas of Midnapur in 1 belonged to a lower caste but were econci well off. They began calling thef 'Mahishyas', and started a 'Jati Nirdharantj (1897) and a 'Mahishya Samiti' (1901),' played a prominent role in the nationalist mov

Namshudras Namshudras of Faridpur in 1 forming an untouchable caste of poor started developing associations after 1901J initiative of a tiny elite of educated men i missionary encouragement.

Kayasthas Kayasthas of northern and India, having interprovincial professional tions, started the All-India Kayastha Associa a newspaper, the Allahabad based kq Samachar in 1919. But on the whole, in no eastern India, Brahmin domination was le cut, with other high-caste groups (like RajpiJ Kayasthas in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, and' and Kayasthas in Bengal) serving as buffers.J mobilisation along caste lines came much ' these regions than in western and southe Further, movements of the lower and inte castes in these regions were not as promin powerful as those in western and southern 1

Causes for the Rise of Caste Movements the major causes was the grievances of the < men belonging to the lower and intermediat< They raised their voice against a system wh criminated against them, as for instance in| movement in south India and Satyasho ment (its urban aspect) in Maharashtra. The desire of some of the lower castes -i upward in the social ladder through the ] sanskritisation (that is, castes asserting a hig tus for themselves through borrowing manners and taboos from groups tradition rior) also led to these movements, for movements of the Nadars and Pallis of Tan and those of the Ezhavas and Nairs of He Further, the desire of some radical ele improve the lot of the lower and intermedia by attacking Brahmin domination, and at tin


[challenging the very basis of the caste system, Iplayed a dominant role in these movements, for |instance. Self-respect movement in Tamil Nadu, and I the Mahar and Satyashodak movements (the latter in fits rural aspect) in Maharashtra. Finally, the British also contributed to the rise of Ithese movements. Their contribution was indirect I before 1901 (through their policy of divide and rule, [tthat is, turning caste against caste) and direct after U901 (the 1901 Census began the practice of classiIfying castes in a social hierarchical order which I encouraged a flood of claims and counter-claims by i different castes).

18.4 PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Indigo Agitation of Bengal (1859-60) The Indigo ' agitation of Bengal was the result of the oppression and exploitation of the peasants of Bengal by the 1 European monopolistic indigo planters. This was vividly portrayed by Dina Bandhu Mitra in his play. Nil Darpan enacted in 1869. Following this oppression the peasants refused to cultivate indigo and took to>armed resistance against : the planters. Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas played a prominent role in this resistance. Further, the intelligentsia of Bengal organised a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasants. This led to the appointment of the Indigo Commission of 1869 by the government and removal of some of the abuses of indigo cultivation.

Pabna Movement or Peasant Unrest in East Bengal (1872-76) In east Bengal the peasantry was oppressed by zamindars through frequent recourse to ejection, harassment, illegal seizure of property, arbitrary

enhancement of rent and use of force. Consequently, the peasants organised no-rent unions and launched armed attacks on the zamindars and their agents. Pabna district was the storm-centre of this movement, and hence the movement is known as the Pabna movement. The movement was suppressed only after armed intervention by the government. Later an enquiry committee was appointed to look into the complaints of the peasantry which led to the enactment of an act. Bengal Tenancy Act (1885) Under the new law, the peasant was given occupancy rights if he had held land in the same village for 12 years; the practice of shifting was stopped and no eviction was possible except for misuse of land or breach of contract. Thus occupancy rights were made hereditary; yet they were not transferable. Further, the peasant was denied the right to sub-lease without the landlord's consent. Limits on enhancement of rent were set aside, and the rent itself could now be increased by 12 per cent by a contract out of court. Compensation for improvement in cases of eviction was provided. Evidently the complexities of the act gave ample opportunities for resort to law and it was the zamindar, not the tenant, who was an adept at going to the law court. A mere threat to do so was enough to persuade a recalcitrant tenant to agree to an increase. Still there can be no denial of the gains made by the tenant, who had now secured his three F's--fair rent, fixity of tenure and free sale of occupancy rights. Tenant-farmers did receive protection, though limited in scope. The importance of the new law, thus, lay primarily in its recognition of their rights, and in setting a precedent for future legislation.

Deccan Riots (1875) Excessive land revenue demand of the British facilitating exploitation of peasants by moneylenders was responsible for the uprising in the Deccan. Social boycott of moneylenders by the peasants was later transformated into armed peasant revolt in the Poona and Ahmadnagar districts of Maharashtra. The peasants forcibly seized from the moneylenders debt bonds, decrees and other documents, and set them on fire. When the police failed to suppress the riots army help was sought to put down the riots. It was the appointment of a commission and the enactment of the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879 which prohibited the imprisonment of the peasants of the Maharashtra Deccan for failure to repay debts to the moneylenders.

Peasant Unrest in Punjab (1890-1900) Resentment of the peasants against the growing alienation of their lands to the moneylenders led to the assault and murder of moneylenders by the peasants. The government responded by the enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1902 which prohibited the transfer of


lands from peasants to moneylenders and the mortgages for more than 20 years.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917) The main reason behind this movement was the oppression of the peasants of Champaran (a district in Bihar) by the European indigo planters through the system of tin-kathia in which European planters holding thikadari leases from the big local zamindars made peasants cultivate indigo on part of their land at unremunerative prices and by charging sharahbeshi (rent-enhancement) or tawan (lump sum compensation) if the peasants wanted to be exempted from the obligation to grow indigo. This led to refusal of the peasants either to grow indigo or to pay the illegal taxes; arrival of Gandhi along with Rajendra Prasad, J. B. Kripalani, A. N. Sinha, MazharulHaq, Mahadev Desai etc. in order to conduct a detailed enquiry into the condition of the peasantry and to get their grievances redressed; initial attempt of the government to suppress the movement; success of Gandhi in forcing the government to appoint an enquiry committee with himself as one of its members; acceptance of the recommendations of the committee by the Government and the abolition of the tinkathia system.

Khaira Satyagraha (1918) Its course was as follows: failure of crops due to drought in the Khaira district of Gujarat; refusal of the government to exempt the peasants from the payment of land-revenue; launching of a no-revenue campaign by the Khaira peasants under the leadership of Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel; suspension of the land-revenue collection for the time being by the government.

Moplah Rebellion (1921) Oppression and exploitation of the Muslim Moplah peasants of Malabar (Kerala) by the Hindu zamindars (Jenmis) and British government was the main cause of this revolt. Its major events were: outbreak of the rebellion in August 1921 (after a police raid on Tirurangadi masque in search of arms) and widespread attacks on police stations, public offices, communications, and houses of oppressive landlords and moneylenders; total loss of control by the British over Ernad and Walluvanad taluks for several months; establishment of 'Re several places by the Moplahs under lea Kunhammad Haji, Kalathingal Mamma Musaliar, Sithi Koya Thangal, etc. bloody ( sion of the rebellion by the British, leavii; rebels killed, 1650 wounded, and mo

45,000 as prisoners. At Podnur 66 Mopla ers were shut in a railway wagon and die focation on 20th November 1921. It was anti-British as well as anti-zamia to some extent anti-Hindu also because: local zamindars were Hindus.

Bardoti Satyagraha (1928) Enhancement] revenue (by 22%) in the Bardoli district of ( the British government (1927) led to the < of a 'No Revenue campaign' by the Bardoli J under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai 1 their refusal to pay the land revenue at enhanced rates. Unsuccessful attempts oft to suppress the movement by large scale ati of cattle and land resulted in the appoint enquiry committee to look into the la assessment, and reduction of the land reve basis of the committee's Recommendations.

Emergence of Class-conscious Peasant sations The third decade of the 20th centi marked by the organisation of ryots and agricultural labour unions in the Guntur < of Andhra by N G Ranga (July-December^ and their gradual spread to Krishna and Godavari districts (1924-26); organisation i sabhas in Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and] (1926-27); organisation of the Andhra Ryots Association by N G Ranga and B V ] (1928). Then came the foundation of the" Indian Federation of Peasants and Agrid| Labour in 1935 with N G Ranga as Secretary and EMS Namboodripad as a| Secretary, followed by the holding of the : India Kisan Congress at Lucknow and the tion of the All India Kisan Sabha (1936). l| session was presided over by Swami Sahajl the peasant leader from Bihar. From 1936 < AllIndia Kisan Day was celebrated September, every year. The Kisan Manif


i demanded abolition of zamindari, a graduated jon agricultural incomes in excess of Rs. 500 in : of the present land-revenue, and cancellation fdebts. It included also a minimum charter of ds: 50% cut in revenue and rent, full occu-rights to all tenants, abolition of begar , labour), scaling-down of debts and interest and restoration of customary forest rights. It ched some heroic struggles in different parts of for instance the anti-settlement movement Mnst zamindari zulum in Andhra pradesh, the vement for the abolition of zamindari system in and Uttar Pradesh; the movement against the ssive forest laws in south India, etc.

1.5 TRADE UNION MOVEMENT

; for Rise and Growth

I Indian workers worked under intolerable work-conditions in the industries, factories, mines, ntations, etc. The industrialists, both Indian and foreign, as ell as colonial government were unwilling to owe the lot of the workers. | The outbreak of the World War I had produced a age of shipping facilities, and consequently the to India were restricted, while there was a ge demand from the allies as well as the neutral ntries for Indian products. There was an unprecented boom in Indian trade and industry. While the dees of essential commodities and services were sing at a fast rate, the wages could not catch with the rising cost of living. This made the kers to agitate. A proper guidance and leadership was provided some of the nationalist leaders, who wanted to ilist the support of the workers for their movement. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the estabnent of USSR held out the prospect of a new Isocial order to the workers.

The establishment of the International Labour I Organisation (ILO) in 1919 after the World War I |and its protection and preservation of the interests of :-workers and its tripartite constitution also helped Ithe growth of labour association in India.

Trade Union movement in India grouped through the following stages.

First Stage (1875-1918) But during the whole of the first stage, no trade unions were organised and no concrete steps were taken except that some enlightened leaders convened meetings to submit memorandum and representations before government appointed commissions and committees.

First Factory Commission and Act Due to the growing menace of all the evils of factory system, the first Factory Commission was appointed in Bombay in 1875 and the first Factory Act was passed in 1881. The main provisions of the act were as follows:

No child below 7 years of age should be employed; those between 7 and 12 were to work for only 9 hours a day; they were not to operate any dangerous machinery or be employed in two different factories on the same day. Four holidays a month and a break of an hour during working hours were provided for. Though no restrictions were placed on the employment of adult labour, provision was made to guard against such parts of machinery as could be dangerous if left unfenced, and for the report ing of accidents. xp Supervisors were to appointed by the provincial governments to ensure that the law was properly implemented. The term factory was defined as 'any premises (other than indigo, tea, coffee plantations) where in work was carried on for not less than four months in any year by any process utilising mechanical or steam power and wherein not less than 100 persons were employed.'

Though the act was 'a pioneering measure', it remained a dead letter in nearly all provinces due to an almost complete lack of adequate inspection machinery. Most factories worked from daybreak to sunset, Sundays being usually working days. While a few newspapers welcomed the act as a humanitarian measure, majority of them

condemned it as an effort to strangle the infant Indian cotton and jute industries. Further, the exemption


of British-dominated tea, coffee and indigo plantations from its operation was considered as a blatant example of racial discrimination.

Second Factory Commission and Act So another Factory Commission was appointed in 1884. Mr. Lokhande organised a conference of workers in Bombay and drew up a memorandum to be presented to the Factory Commission. This was the beginning of trade unionism in India. The memorandum included demands for a weekly rest, half an hour recess, compensation for disablement, payment of wages not later than 15th of every month, and limitation of working hours from 6 AM to 6 PM. But the second Factory Act (1891) which was passed on the recommendations of the second factory commission was another great disappointment, because it provided only a few improvements like a weekly holiday, fixation of working hours for only women and children, but the hours of work for men were still left unregulated.

Second Stage (1918-24) During the second stage, a good number of trade unions were organised. The Madras Labour Union (1918), was the first trade union of modern type in India. Its president Mr. B P Wadia, an active member of Home Rule Movement took pains to develop it. Many unions were organised in other places. In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was organised at Bombay by N M Joshi and others and 64 trade unions with a total membership of about 1,40,000 were affiliated to it. Its first session (1920) was presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai. While the interests of workers of different industries were looked after by the concerned unions, the AITUC looked after the interests of labour in general. The rise of trade unions was accompanied by a large number of strikes. The demands of the workers were an increase in wages, grant of bonus, rice allowance, reduction of working hours and extra holidays. Another important feature of trade unionism in India during this period was its inability to make much headway in the well established manufacturing industries like mining, textile, jute, etc. But it was strong and stable among those who are < 'white coloured employees'.

Third Stage (1924-34) The Gaya session (if of the Congress adopted a resolution enabling] workers to participate in trade union activitie after 1925 communist influence became strongj leading members, Dhundiraj Thengdi and Ghate, both strongly oriented towards Moscow^ emerged, while older leaders such as N.M. Diwan Chaman Lall and V.V. Giri established j links with the Trade Union Congress and the 1 Party in UK, and

other social democratic ] Europe. In 1928 the communists made a pov bid to capture the AITUC. Their candidate for j identship, B D Kulkami, however, lost narrow Jawaharlal Nehru. This reverse notwithstandin Bombay textile strike of 1928 registered a greatf tory for the communists and their Mumbai < Kargar Union. Thus, during this stage the influence of co nist ideology was clearly seen at work. Comn had begun to infiltrate into the trade unions as i as 1925. Their infiltration had brought ab change in the pattern of strikes. Harsh and in language, and brutal methods were quite con used. Trade unionism during this stage received i back due to the ideological conflicts among the I unionists. Radical elements with an intention I the trade union movement to further their motives towed the line of the fraternal political? at Moscow. On the contrary, the moderates in 1 unions desired to keep the movement away 1 communists. Consequently the struggle to and strengthen their respective positions in* AITUC began widening the gulf between | Congress and the Communist followers. The ideological differences led to the divisiof the AITUC in 1929 when the moderate faction 1 and formed a new organisation, viz. Indian Union Federation (ITUF). A farther split occ the AITUC, and a section under the influenc M. N. Roy formed the 'Red Tuc'. All these i opments occurred when the country was under I impact of Great depression and Civil Disobedi^ Movement. ;ii


One important achievement of the trade union ovement during this period was the enactment of s Trade Union Act in 1926. This Act made provi-for voluntary registration and gave certain hts and privileges to registered trade unions in for certain obligations. Towards the end of his period attempts were made to forge unity among rious trade unions. The attempts of people like fc M. Joshi, R.R. Bakhale, etc. resulted in the founition of National Trades Union Federation (NTUF) 11933.

hitley Commission (1929-1931) The Whitley nmission on Labour, or more accurately the oyal Commission on Labour, under the chairman-hip of John Henry Whitley, was set up in 1929. he commission, which submited its report in 1931, onsisted of eleven members, six of them being |Indians, viz. Srinivas S. Sastri, Ibrahim Rahirntoola, beerud-Din Ahmed, G. D. Birla, N. M. Joshi land D. Chaman Lall. It was to inquire into the exist|ing conditions of labour in industrial undertakings nd plantations in India. The commission made the following recommenidations: A policy of standardised wages should be adopted in the Bombay cotton mills, and in the jute industry also early steps should be taken in that direction both for time and piece workers. I In order to promote cordial relations between managements and employees, three measures were suggested--the development of stable I trade unions, appointment of labour officers, and formation of works committees. It also recommended the appointment of conciliation officers to bring about settlements between parties in the earlier stages of disputes. Other subjects dealt by the commissions were transport services; public works contracts; fines and deductions; compensation; recruitment of labour for tea gardens in Assam, in mines as well as the railways; labour legislation; working conditions in factories and unregistered factories. | | Except for the appointment of conciliation officers,

I for which provision was made in the Trade Disputes (Amendment) Act, 1938, nothing was done for a long time to implement the recommendations of the commission.

Fourth Stage (1935-39) In the fourth stage union activities were revived and there was also an increase in strikes. There are some reasons for the revival of the union activities during this period: The Provincial Congress Ministries, which had come into existence with the Government of India Act of 1935, had adopted a policy of keeping industrial peace not by suppressing the labour organisations and denying their demands, but by prescribing minimum standards of living and general rights of citizenship. The Act of 1935 provided for the election of labour representative through labour or trade union constituencies. A change of attitude of the employers also encouraged the growth of trade unionism. It had been suggested by the ILO that the employers should not be hostile but friendly towards the trade unions. Unity moves were also initiated which resulted in the merger of Indian Trades Union Federation (ITUF) with the National Trades Union Federation (NTUF), the merger of the Red Tuc with AITUC and finally the affiliation of NTUF with AITUC in 1938.

Fifth Stage (1939-45) The fifth stage corresponds with the war period. The World War II indirectly offered unprecedented protection to Indian Industries. The supply of foreign goods was denied to the Indian market partly because there was shortage of shipping facilities and partly because the peace time British industries in India and abroad switched over to war production. As a result Indian industries stepped up their activity. Industrial production in India increased and established new records. However, prices rose sharply and inflation prevailed on account of the continuous purchase by Great Britain in India against sterling securities. There was rapid increase in profits but not in the wages. Strikes were, however, very few and wherever they were, they brought concessions to workers. The


decline in the number of strikes was due to certain factors:

The communist leaders who supported war did not favour strikes. Other sections of trade unions did not have the right type of leaders to guide the movement and to formulate the grievances of the workers. The attitude of the employers was not that hos tile. The government of India, under the Defence of India Rules, assumed powers to prevent strikes and refer any dispute for adjudication and enforce the award.

On the whole, the importance given to trade unions was enhanced. A permanent tripartite collaborative machinery was formed consisting of government representatives, labour union leaders and employers. And under the National Service Ordinance of 1940, the rights of the workers were protected, while it was made clear that it was their duty to work. Likewise the Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance of 1941 prohibited the employers from dismissing the workers without valid reasons.

Sixth Stage (1945-47) The sixth stage i.e., the post-war period was also marked by a further growth in trade unionism, since the end of war brought no material benefits to the workers. The rise in prices and the cost of living showed no signs of abatement in the post-war period. The political developments in the country during this period also promoted the growth of trade unionism. Every political party wanted to secure a foothold in the labour movement. Moreover, the attitude of the government was also helpful in this rega the central and state governments, far fro pressing the labour movement, have realis labour has to play a valuable role in the circumstances. So the Trade Union Ac amended in 1947 to secure compulsory re of trade unions by the employers, provide fulfilled certain requirements. Another important feature of trade union i ment during this period was the increase number of women members of the trade Due to this, their position in trade unions as vjf society enhanced considerably.

A large number of smaller unions came i organised. But these small and local unions < carry out effective collective bargaining and i the effective implementation of awards and 4 ments, while the employees' organisations powerful and centrally organised. This ne the formation of new interstate, regional tions among the workers. As a result, the strikes increased in Bombay and West Bengal, followed by Uttar Pradesh were the leading states so far J industrial disputes were concerned. The Gov of Independent India was greatly worried, 1 rising unrest caused a decline in the in duction. Therefore, in December 1947, an 1 Truce Conference was held and attended by 1 resentatives of government, workers and empll This conciliated the workers, who accepted the| ciple of compulsory conciliation and arbit the government and the Industrial Disputes 1947 (which provided for the appointment of c ation machinery, was passed.

QUESTIONS

, 1. What is the chronological order of the annexa tion of following Indian States by Dalhousie between 1848 and 52? (i) Jaitpur(UP) (ii) Udaipur(MP) (iii) Satara (Maharashtra) (iv) Baghat (Punjab) Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i and iii


(c) i, iii, ii and iv


2.

Arrange the following sepoy multinies in the historical order:

(i) Vellore mutiny. (ii) First mutiny of the sepoys in Bengal. (iii) Mutiny of the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur. (iv) Mutiny of the 47th Regiment at Barrackpure. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and iii (b) ii, iii, i and iv (c) ii, i, iv and iii

(d) iii, ii, i and iv

3. Match the following states annexed by Dalhousie with their respective years of annex ation with the help of the codes given below: List II (A) 1849 (B) 1853 (C) 1854 (D) 1856 i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C Indian states by by the Court of List I

(i) Jhansi(MP) (ii) Sambalpur (Orissa) (iii) Awadh (UP) (iv) Nagpur (MP) (a) i-D, iiA, iii-C, iv-B (b) (c) i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B (d) 4. The annexation of some Dalhousie was cancelled Directors. Which were they? (i) Sambalpur (ii) Baghat (iii) Nagpur

(iv) Udaipur

(v) Jhansi Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and v (c) i and ii

(d) ii and iv

5. At Delhi the Mughal Emperor's wife is said to have sabotaged the work of the rebels by acting as the informer to the British. What is her name? (a) Hazarat Mahal (b) Zinnat Mahal (c) Mumtaz Mahal (d) Fatima Begam 6.

Which of the following statements about Nana Saheb are true?

(i) Nana Saheb was the adopted son of the last Peshwa. (ii) The original name of Nana Saheb was Dhondu Pandit. (iii) The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was murdered by Nana Saheb. (iv) Dalhousie refused to recognise Nana Saheb as the Peshwa and suspended his pension. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) I, iii and iv 7.

Which of the following statements about Dalhousie are incorrect?

(i) He annexed Karauli in Rajputana by applying the Doctrine of Lapse, (ii) He abolished the titles of the ex-rulers of the Carnatic and Travancore after their death, (iii) He declared that the successors of

Bahadur Shah II would have to leave the Red Fort, (iv) He also announced that the successors of Bahadur Shah II would be known only as princes and not as kings. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv 8.

(d) i and iv

Which of the following were the grievances of the sepoys?

(i) Discrimination in payment and promotions, (ii) Mistreatment of the sepoys by the British officials.

C123

C124 ••• Indian History: Modern India (Hi) Refusal of the British to pay batta while fighting in remote regions. (iv) British Government's order requiring the Sepoys to serve overseas when required. (v) Encouragement given to Christian missionaries by British army officers. Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and v (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) All of them 9. Which of the following Acts were passed by the British Government in 1856? (i) Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (ii) Abolition of sati (Regulation XVII) (iii) Religious Disabilities Act (iv) General Service Enlistment Act Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i, iii and iv (d) i, ii, and iii 10. Which of the following were the grievances of the conservative and orthodox sections of Indians? (i) Protection and encouragement given to the Christian missionaries by the British Government. (ii) Resentment against the social reforms and humanitarian measures introduced by the British Government.

(iii) British official policy of taxing-lands belonging to temples, mosques, and charitable institutions. (iv) Neglect of Indian culture by the British government. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i and iii 11.

(d) ii and iv

Arrange the following chief commissioners of Awadh in chronological order:

(i) Sir Henry Lawrence (ii) Sir James Qutram (iii) Coverly Jackson • (iv) Brigadier Inglis (a) i, iii, ii and iv


(c) iii, iv, i and ii

(d) i, iii, ii and iv

12. Which of the following events before the Revolt of 1857 gave jolts to the British armed strength? (i) First Afghan War (ii) Anglo-Sikh Wars (iii) First Anglo-Burmese War (iv) Crimean War (v) Santhal Uprising (vi) Third Anglo-Maratha War (a) i, ii, iii and vi

(b) ii, iii, v and


(d) i, ii, iv and

13. What was the ratio of the Indian sepoys! Europeans in the British Indian Army eve of the outbreak of the Revolt of 1

(a) 4:1 (b) 5 : 1 (c) 6 : 1 14.

(d) 7 : 1

When was the new Enfield Rifle with cartridges introduced in the British Army?

(a) November 1856 (b) December (c) January 1857 (d) February! 15.

Which of the following statements Mangal Pandey are not correct?

(i) He was a sepoy in the 19th Native stationed at Berhampur. (ii) In March 1857, he single-handedly and killed two English officers, (iii) He made a futile attempt to commit when he realised the hopelessness situation. (iv) He was executed by the British. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) i and iv

(d) i and iii

16. What is the chronological sequence in the following places witnessed sepoy (i) Naushera (ii) Delhi (iii) Meerut

(iv) Hoti Marian

Select the correct answer from the codes below: (a) ii, iii, i and iv

(b) iii, ii, i and Iv

(c) iv, iii, ii and i

(d) i, iii, iv and II

17.

Which code gives the correct pairing of lowing lists?

List I List II (i) Colonel Mitchell (A) Commanding|

Officer of on the eve < Revolt


(B)

Commanding Officer of the 34th Native Infantry at Barrackpur

(C) Commanding Officer of the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur (D) Commanding Officer of Meerut on the eve of the Revolt. i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A (ii) General Hearsey

(iii) General Hewitt

(iv) Sir Hugh Wheeler (b) (d)

(a) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D 18. Arrange the following places of revolt in chronological order: (i) Mathura (ii) Jhansi (iii) Bareilly

(iv) Kanpur

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, iv and ii (b) ii, iv, i and iii (c) iii, ii, i and iv (d) iv, ii, iii and i [ 19. Match List-l with List-ll and select the answer using codes the given below: List I It. Baugh List II

Col. Finnis (iii) It. Willoughby (iv) It. Hodson (A) The officer who blew up the magazine at Delhi so that It would not fall into the hands of sepoys. (B)

The officer who murdered Mughal Empe rors' sons after the recapture of Delhi

(C)

The officer who was severely wounded by Mangal Pandey.

(D) The officer who was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Native Infantry at Meerut and who was killed by the sepoys. (a) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (c) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B 20. Consider the following pairs: (i) Nana Saheb--Kanpur (ii) Begam Hazarat Mahal--Lucknow (b) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (d) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A (iii) Rani Laxmibai--Jhansi (iv) Khan Bahadur Khan--Arrah (v) Kunwar Singh--Bareilly Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) iii, iv and v 21.

Which of the following statements about Bakht Khan are true?

(i) He was an ordinary subedar in the British army, (ii) He led the revolt of the sepoys at Meerut and brought them to Delhi, (iii) He was the de facto leader of the sepoys at Delhi, the nominal leader being the Mughal emperor, (iv) After the recapture of Delhi by the British,

he went to Awadh and died fighting the British in May 1859. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii, iii, and iv 22.


List I List II (i) Azimullah (A) A relative of Mughal Khan emperor (ii) Ahmadullah (B) Nephew of Nana Saheb (iii) Amar Singh (C) Adviser of Nana Saheb (iv) Firoz Shah (D) Adviser of the ex-nawab of Awadh (v) Rao Saheb (E) Brother of Kunwar Singh (a) (b) (c) (d) 23.

i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B, v-A i-E, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A, vB i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-A, vB i-C, ii-D, iii-E, iv-A, vB Which of the following statements about Maulavi Ahmadullah are true?

(i) He was a native of Delhi. (ii) Just before the outbreak of the Revolt of 1857, he led a minor revolt of the people against the British at Faizabad. (iii) He was one of the main leaders of the rebels at Lucknow and after its fall at Bareilly during the revolt, (iv) He was captured and executed by the British after the revolt.


Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii (b) i and iv (c) i and ii 24.

(d) iii and iv

Match the following with the help of the codes given below:

Places Britishers who recap tured them (i) Delhi

(A) Sir Colin Campbell

(ii) Kanpur (B) Sir Hugh Rose (iii) Lucknow (C) Major General Havelock (iv) Jhansi (D) General John Nicholson (v) Allahabad (E) Brigadier General Neill (a) (b) (c) (d) 25. true?

i-C, ii-E, iii-D, iv-A, vB i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, we i-B, ii-E, iii-D, iv-C, v-A i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E, vC Which of the following statements about Kanpur during the Revolt of 1857 are

(i) The besieged British surrendered to the rebels after a few days of resistance. (ii) Despite Nana Saheb's promise of safe conduct to Allahabad, all the Englishmen were murdered by the rebel sepoys while the former were leaving Kanpur in boats. (iii) After a brief period of confinement, all the English women and children were put to death by the followers of Nana Saheb. (iv) The British, after defeating Nana Saheb, reoccupied Kanpur in July 1857. (v) The mutinous Gwalior regiment under Tantia Tope tried to capture it from the British in November 1857, but failed. Choose the answers from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, and iv

(b) i, ii, iv and v



26. Match the following places with the Britishers who recaptured them using the codes given below: List I List II (i) Gwalior

(A) Sir Colin Campbell

(ii) Bareilly

(B) William Taylor

(iii) Arrah

(C) Brigadier General Neill

(iv) Banaras

(D) Sir Hugh Rose

(E) General Nicholson (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-E (b) i-A, ii-C, iit-B, iv-D (c) i-E, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B (d) i-D; ii-A, iiiB, iv-C

Match List I with List II and select the . using the codes given below: 27. List II Died fightin British at i Died in his i tral home injuries. Murdered I of Puwain Escaped to I List I Kunwar Singh (A)

Nana Saheb

(B)

(iii) Bakht Khan

(C)

(iv) Maulavi (D) Ahmadullah (v) Rani Laxmibai

(E) Died figh British in, (a) (b) (c) (d) 28.

i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-C, vB i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, v-A i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, we Which of the following statements about;1 Tope are true?

(i) He was the brother of Nana Saheb.M (ii) After the fall of Kanpur to the Brifll joined Rani Laxmibai against the I (iii) After losing Gwalior, he escaped to i India and carried on guerrilla war j months, (iv) He was betrayed and handed over) British by Man Singh, a feudati Sindhia. (v) He was transported for life by the I April, 1859. Choose the answer from the codes given t (a) i, ii, and v (b) ii, iii, and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) ii, iv and v 29.

Who among the following British offic their lives at Lucknow?

(i) General John Nicholson (ii) Brigadier General Neill (iii) Major General Havelock (iv) Sir Henry Lawrence Select the answer from the codes given I (a) all of them (b) i, ii, and i (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 30.

Which of the following statements^ Lucknow are true?

(i) When the revolt broke out, the under Sir Henry Lawrence took the residency at Lucknow.


(ii) Havelock and Outram arrived at Lucknow with reinforcements, but they were also besieged, (iii) The besieged British at Lucknow were relieved by Sir Hugh Rose, (iv) In December 1857 it was again occupied by the supporters of Tantia Tope, (v) It was finally reoccupied by the British under Colin Campbell in 1858. Select the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii, iv and v 31.


Which of the following classes participated in the Revolt of 1857?

(i) Peasants

(ii) Capitalists

(iii) Artisans (iv) Old Zamindars (v) Dispossessed rulers Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and v (b) ii, iv and v (c) i, ii, iv and v 32.


Which of the following classes did not partici pate in the Revolt of 1857?

(i) Moneylenders (ii) Merchants (iii) Modern intelligentsia (iv) Agricultural labourers

(v) Urban-based absentee landlords Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and v



(d) i, ii, iii, and iv

33. Which of the following rulers of Indian states cooperated with the British in suppressing the Revolt of 1857? (i) Nizam of Hyderabad (ii) Sindhia of Gwalior (iii) Holkar of Indore (iv) Ex-Nawab of Rohilkhand (v) Gulab Singh of Kashmir (vi) Raja of Jodhpur Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv, v and vi (b) i, ii, iii, v and vi (c) i, iii, iv, v and vi (d) ii, iii, iv, v and vi 34. Which of the following prime ministers of native states cooperated with the British in suppress ing the Revolt of 1857? (i) Sir Dinkar Rao (ii) Sir Khan Bahadur (iii) Sir Salar Jang (iv) Sir Jang Bahadur Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 35. Which of the following regions/presidencies did not participate in the Revolt of 1857?

(i) Bengal

(ii) Madras

(iii) Bombay (iv) Central India (v) Western Punjab (vi) Rajputana Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, v and vi (b) ii, iii, iv, v and vi (c) ii, iii, v and vi (d) ii, iv, v and vi 36.

Which of the following were the causes for the failure of the rebels in 1857-58?

(i) Disorganisation (ii) Indiscipline (iii) Participation of the masses (iv) Common interests (v) Decentralised leadership (vi) Use of traditional weapons Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and v

(b) ii, iv, v and vi

(c) i, ii, v and vi

(d) ii, iii, iv and vi

37. Which of the following were the main factors for the success of the British in suppressing the Revolt of 1857? (i) Immense resources (ii) Superior military weapons and techniques (iii) Able leadership (iv) Assistance of some of the Indian rulers, (v) End of Crimean War which enabled them to concentrate most of their troops in India. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and v (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them


Instructions

Mark (a) if the 'Assertion' (A) is correct, but the Reason' (R) is wrong. Mark (b) if the 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if the 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A.


Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A'. 38. Assertion: The faulty deployment of troops on the eve of the Revolt of 1857 may be consid ered as one of the main causes for the revolt. Reason: There was only an insignificant num her of European soldiers compared to that of the sepoys at important military centres like Delhi and Allahabad on the eve of the revolt. 39. Assertion: The British, though introduced a unitary or highly centralised system of Government in India, continued to follow the policy of divide and rule. Reason: British refused to pay foreign service allowance to the Indian sepoys while they were fighting in remote regions like Punjab or Sind. 40. Assertion: The British followed a policy of reli gious persecution of Hindus and Muslims in the army in order to forcibly convert them into Christians. Reason: The British government gave full protection and encouragement to the Christian missionaries in India. 41. Assertion: The immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857 was the introduction of the new Enfield rifle in the British Indian army. Reason: The sepoys were required to, before loading the cartridge into the new rifle, bite off its end which was feared to have been greased with the fat of cows and pigs. 42. Assertion: The Sikh army rendered valuable service to the British in the suppression of the Revolt of 1857. Reason: Sir Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner of Punjab during the revolt, failed to maintain peace in Punjab. 43.

Assertion: The British remained as perpetual foreigners in India.

Reason: Some of the foreign conquerors of India, like Mughals and Delhi Sultans, made India their home. 44. Assertion: The Indian middle and upper classes were totally excluded from high administra tive and military posts by the British. Reason: Many of the traditional zamindars lost their zamindaris to the new class of urban-based absentee landlords. 45. Assertion: In some places artisans and craftsmen participated in the Revolt of 1857.

Reason: The British policy of 'one-way' trade destroyed village industries and crafts in India. 46. Who was the famous Urdu poet who witi the massacre of male civilians of Delhi I British soldiers after it was recaptured? (a) Firaq Gorakhpuri (b) Josh Malih (c) MirzaGhalib (d) MirBabarAlU 47. Who was the British general who esti Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi as 'the best bravest military leader of the rebels'?

(a) Sir Colin Campbell (b) Major General Havelock (c) Sir James Outram (d) Sir Hugh Rose 48. Who wrote the following passage? 'In instance is a friendly glance directed white man's carriage...Oh? that langu the eye! Who can doubt? Who can misin it?' (a) G B Malleson

(b) J W Kaye

(c) W H Russell

(d) T R Holmesy

49. Match the following lists of books with' authors and select the answer from the i given below the lists: Books Authors (i) History of Indian (A) G B Mall Mutiny (ii) A History of the (B) Sir J WI Sepoy War in India (iii) Indian Mutiny

(C) S N Sen

of 1857 (iv) The sepoy Revolt, (D) H Mead its Causes and its Consequences (v) Eighteen Fifty

(E) T R Holn

Seven (a) (b) (c) (d) 50.

i-E, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, vC i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C, we i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-E, vB i-D, ii-C, iii-E, iv-B, v-A Who was the author of the book, The In War of Independence, 1857?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan V D Savarkar S R Sharma R C Majumdar


'way'' and

best

1*? 'In to juage Jsint

'Kay»l 151. Which of the following statements about Virapandya Kattabomman are true? (i) He was the ruler of Panchalakurichi in the Tirunelvelli district of Tamilnadu. (ii) He revolted because of British attempts to impose their suzerainty over him. (iii) In the end he was captured and executed r by the British. (iv) His territory was restored to one of his minor sons. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them(b) ii and iv only (c) i, ii, and iii (d) iii and iv 52.

What is the chronological order of the following revolts?

(i) Kittur Rising

(ii) Ramosi Revolt

(iii) Paik Rebellion (iv) Satavandi Revolt Choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

(a) ii, iv, i and iii


(c) i, iii, iv and ii

(d) iii, ii, i, and iv

53.

Which of the following statements about the Paiks are true?

(i) They were militia class in Orissa occupying rent-free lands under the zamindars. (ii) After the British occupation of Orissa, they were also required to pay land revenue to the British, (iii) They revolted first under the leadership of the Raja of Parlakimedi. (iv) In their second revolt, they defeated the British forces and occupied Puri for a short period. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 54.

Arrange the following revolts in the correct sequence:

(i) Satara disturbances (ii) Sambalpur outbreak (iii) Bundela revolt (iv) Gadkari rebellion Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, iv and i


(c) i, iii, ii and iv

(d) ii, i, iii and iv

55.

Which of the following statements about Velu Thambi are true?

(i) He was the Raja of Travancore state.

(ii) He revolted because of British demand for his removal, (iii) Despite of the stiff resistance put up by his forces, Trivandrum, the capital of Travancore, fell to the British forces, (iv) He was captured and executed by the British. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) Hand iii

(b) i, and ii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

56.

Which of the following statements about Rao Bharmal are not true?

(i) He was the ruler of Mandu in central India. (ii) He revolted due to the frequent interference of the British in the internal affairs of his state. (iii) He was defeated and killed in a battle with the British. (iv) The British imposed a subsidiary treaty on his successor. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) i and iii

(d) ii and iv

57.

Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following?

(i) Revolt of Rao Bharmal (ii) Revolt of Velu Thambi (iii) Rebellion of Birabhadra Raju (iv) Rebellion of Kattabomman Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, i and iii


(c) iii, i, ii and iv 58.



List II (A)

Leader of Kittur Revolt

(B)

Leader of Satara outbreak

(C)

Leader of Bundela Rebellion

(D)

Leader of Ramosi revolt

List I (i) Chrttur Singh (ii) Channamma (iii) Dhar Rao Pawar (iv) Madhukar Shah


(a) i-D, ii-6, iii-A, iv-C (b) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (c) i-A, ii-6, iii-D, iv-C (d) i-B, ii-C, iiiA, iv-D 59.

Which of the following statements about Ramosis are true?

(i) Under the Peshwa they served in the ranks of police, (ii) After the annexation of Peshwa's territory, the British dispensed with their service, (iii) Their revolt created serious disturbances in Poona and the surrounding areas for quite some time, (iv) All the Ramosis who participated in the revolt were finally captured and executed by the British. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 60.

Which code gives the correct pairing of the fol lowing lists?

List I List II (i) Umaji

(A) Leader of

Bundela revolt (ii) Rayappa

(B) Leader of Ramosi

revolt (iii) Narsing Dattatreya (C) Leader of Kittur

Petkar revolt (iv) Jawahir Singh (D) Leader of Satara (a) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (b) (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A (d) 61. Which of the following statements about Kittur are true? (i) Kittur was a small chiefdom in Kathiawar. (ii) Its chief, known as the Desai, died without having any male issue of his own. (iii) The British refused to recognise an adopted boy as the Desai of Kittur and assumed its administration, (iv) The supporters of the late Desai revolted and murdered some English officers, (v) The British suppressed the revolt, but restored Kittur to a descendant of the late Desai. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and v (d) i, ii and v disturbances i-B, ii-C, iiiTA, iv-D i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A 62.

Which of the following is con

(a)

Sivalinga Rudra--The ruler 1 was deposed by the British.

(b)

Pratap Singh--The ruler of who was deposed by the British.3'

(c)

Mohan Kumari--The Desai of I died without leaving any male i

(d)

Khen Savant--The ruler of.' was deposed by the British.

63. Which of the following staten Satara Disturbances are incorrect? (i) The Satara disturbances were i to the disposal and banishment < ular ruler by the British, (ii) In 1840 the people of Satara;)

against the British, (iii) The people of Satara revolted t time in 1845 and seized Badan (iv) Satara was conquered and anne British in 1845. Choose the answer from the below: (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) ii only

(d) iv only

64.

Which of the following statemen Gadkaris are true?

(i) Gadkaris, a militia class, held i lands in the state of Kolhapur in i their services to its ruler. (ii) The British assumed direct admii of Kolhapur, and appointed D K I member of the Bombay Civil Sen Minister of Kolhapur. (iii) D K Pandit was made responsible! ruler of Kolhapur, who continuecy recognised as its lawful ruler by the} (iv) Gadkaris resented the revenue i O.K. Pandit because his reform?] their land holdings also liable to bet Select the answer from the codes given 1 (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) i, ii and iii (d) i, ii and iv 65.

Which of the following statements Satavandi are true?

(i) Satavandi was a small stati Maharashtra, (ii) The British deposed its ruler and took j its administration.


(iii) The nobles of Satavandi resented the British system of administration and revolted, (iv) The revolt of nobles was followed by a popular revolt of the common people against the . British. (v) The British reinstated the deposed ruler. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv (b) ii, iii, iv, and v (c) i, iii and v (d) ii, iv and v 66.

Which of the following were the leading per sonalities of the revolt of Satavandi?

(i) Ram Kumar (iii) Appa Sahib

(ii) Phond Savant (iv) Anna Sahib

(v) Karan Savant Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iii and v

67. The British attached the zamindaris and property of a number of zamindars for nonpayment of revenue, resulting in the revolt of those zamindars against the British. Which of the fol lowing zamindars fall under this category? (i) Zamindar of Palakonda (ii) Zamindar of Kurnool

(iii) Zamindar of Parlakimedi (iv) Zamindar of Gumsur Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 68. lists:


List II (A) (B) (C)

Karam Shah Shariatullah Bhagat Jawahar Mai

(D)

Saiyid Ahmad (b) A-3.B-1.C-4, D-2 (d) A-1,B-3,C-2,D-4

List I (i) Faraizi movement (ii) Wahabi movement (iii) Pagal Panthi movement (iv) Kuka Movement (a) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1 (C) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 69. Which of the following statements about the Faraizi movement are true?
(d) iii and iv

70. Which of the following statements about the movement of the Pagal Panthis are true? (i) It began as a political movement against the oppressive zamindars and the British, but later became a religious reform movement.

(ii) Its period is placed between 1825 and 1833. (iii) It was confined to Sherpur in West Bengal. (iv) The movement under Tipu was finally suppressed by British after large scale military operations. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) ii and iv

(d) i and iv

71. Arrange the following leaders of the Wahabi movement in the chronological order? (ii) VilayatAli (iv) Saiyid Ahmad (i) InayatAli (iii) Abdullah (v) Maqsud Ali Choose the answer from the codes given below: ii, iii, i, iv and v iv, ii, i, v and iii (b) (d) (a) iv, i, ii, iii and v (c) i, v, iii, iv and ii 72.

Which of the following statements about Wahabi movement are true?

(i) It was founded in India in 1810 as a religio-political movement, (ii) In its religious aspect, it was a reform movement to remove abuses from the Islamic society, (iii) In its political aspect, it was a movement to

revive and restore Muslim power in India, (iv) The movement first began in Rohilkhand. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 73.

Which of the following areas were affected by the Wahabi Movement?

(i) Bihar

(ii) Bengal

(iii) Assam

(iv) Punjab

(v) North-Western (vi) Rajasthan Frontier Province (vii) Deccan


Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, v and vi (b) i, ii, v, vi and vii (c) i, ii, iv, v and vii (d) i, iii, iv, vi and vii 74.

Which of the following statements about the Wahabis are true?

(i) The Wahabis occupied a part of Punjab after the death of Ranjit Singh. (ii) After the occupation of Punjab by the British, the Wahabis were defeated and expelled from Punjab by the British. (iii) The Wahabis under Inayat AN were defeated in a major encounter by the British. (iv) Inayat All was captured and executed by the British. Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 75.

Arrange the following state trials of the Wahabis in the chronological sequence:

(i) Patna trial (ii) Rajmahal trial (iii) Malda trial

(iv) Ambala trial

Choose the answer from the codes given below: iv, ii, i and iii iv, i, iii and ii (b) (d) (a) ii, i, iii and iv (c) iii, ii, i and iv

76.


Wahabi leaders (A) (B) (C) (D)

YahyaAli Ahmadullah Maulavi Amiruddin Ibrahim Mandal (b) i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B (d) i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D

State trial (i) Malda trial (ii) Patna trial (iii) Rajmahal trial (iv) Ambala frial (a) i-A, iiD, iii-B, iv-C (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A 77.

Which of the following statements about the Kuka Movement are true?

(i) It was founded in western Punjab in the sixties of the 19th century. (ii) Its religious aim was reformation of Sikhism. (iii) Its political aim was restoration of Sikh sovereignty. (iv) Its founder was popularly known as Sian Sahib. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 78. Which of the following stater leaders of Kukas are incorrect? (i) Sian Sahib was succeeded I (ii) Balak Singh was captured by the British. (iii) Balak Singh was succeeded I (iv) Ram Singh was the last le (v) Ram Singh was transported! the British. Select the answer from the codes'! (a) i and iii (b) ii an (c) i and v 79.

(d) ii an

Ram Singh

(i) became the leader of the Kuk (ii) appointed subas and naib.

ise the sect in different parts i (iii) recruited a large number of Ja hers of his sect. (iv) imparted military training to hia (v) died in 1885 at Ludhiana. Select the correct answer from the t below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ii an (c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii, iv an 80.

Which of the following statements 1( Kukas are true?

(i) Destruction of idols and shrin der of butchers by the Kukas I into open conflict with the British,! (ii) In Jan, 1872 a group of Kuk revolted and attacked Malaudh killing some people, (iii) 68 rebellious Kukas surrende British unconditionally. (iv) All the surrendered Kukas were'f general pardon by Mr. Cowan,!] Commissioner of Ludhiana. Choose the answer from the below:
Which of the following were included In gious reforms of the Kukas?

(i) Prohibition of all worship (ii) Abolition of caste (iii) Prohibition of intermarriage (iv) Abstinence from meat, liquor and i


(v) Prohibition of free intercourse between the sexes Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and Hi (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) i, ii and iv Which one of the Sikh gurus was recognised as the only true guru of the Sikhs by the Kukas? (a) Guru Angad (b) Guru Amar Das (c) Guru Hargobind (d) Guru Gobind Singh p3. Which of the following tribes live in the Chota Nagpur area? (i) Hos (ii) Garos (iii) Kols

(iv) Mundas

(v) Angamis (vi) Oraons Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, iv and v

(b) ii, iii, v and vi

(c) i, iii, iv and vi (d) ii, iii, iv and vi , 84. Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below. List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Sahyadri hills West Bengal Meghalaya Khandesh

(b)

i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C

(d)

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B

List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Andhra Pradesh Orissa Bihar Assam (b) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (d) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C

List I (i) Chuars (ii) Bhils (iii) Kolis (iv) Khasis (a) i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C (c) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A ; 85. Match the following: List I (i) Singphos (ii) Koyas (iii) Khonds (iv) Santhals (a) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C 86. Consider List I and List II: List II Assam Gujarat Manipur Andhra Pradesh Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) ii and iii

(d) iii and iv

List I Naikdas Kacha Nagas (iii) Thadoe Kukis (iv) Chenchus 87.

Which of the following statements about the Revolt of the Bhils are true?

(i) The Bhils revolted in 1818 due to the occupation of their territory by the British. (ii) They defied British authority for 50 years from 1818. (iii) Their revolt was finally ended by the British through military operations as well as conciliatory measures. (iv) The leader of the Bhil revolt was Ram Charan. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) i and iii

(c) ii and iii

(d) ii and iv

88.

Who were the leaders of the Revolt of Khasis in 1820-32?

(i) Tirut Singh (ii) Shambu Singh (iii) Bar Manik

(iv) Vir Manik

Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) i and iii

(d) ii and iv

Consider List I and List II: 89. List I Colonel White List II Major Burrough Suppressed a Singpho revolt in 1830 Was murdered by Singphos in 1839 (iii) Captain Neufville Was defeated by the Santhals in 1855

(iv) Mr. Bastian Provided the immediate cause for the Koya revolt of 1922-24. Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 90. Which of the following statements about the Santhal Revolt are true? (i) The Santhals of Rajmahal hills revolted against the British in 1855. (ii) They set up their own government and defeated a British force under Colonel White, (iii) The British suppressed the revolt by transferring the disturbed area to the military in 1856.


(iv) The British crated a separate district of Santhal Paraganas to prevent santhals from revolting again in future. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv 91. Which code gives the correct pairing of the following lists: Leaders

Tribal Revolts

(i) BuddhoJagat

(A) Khond revolt of

Alluri Sitarama Raju (iii) Chakra Bisayi 1846-48 (ii) Alluri Sitarama

(B) Kol revolt of

1831-32. (C) Kacha Naga revolt of 1882 (iv) Sambhudan

(D) Koya Revolt of

1922-24. (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (c) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C 92. Which of the following persons played a prominent role in the Santhal revolt? (b) i-A, ii-D, iii-C, iv-B (d) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (i) Sidhu (iii) Kanhu (v) Jagat Select the given: (a) i and ii (c) i and iii (») (iv) Shambhu Birsa

correct answer from the codes

(b) ii and iv (d) iii and v 93.

Which of the following statements about the Naikdas of Ranch Mahals are true?

(i) They revolted against the British in 1858 under Rupsingh. (ii) Rupsingh concluded peace with the British in 1859. (iii) They revolted again in 1868. (iv) They setup an independent kingdom with Rupsingh as the spiritual head and Joria Bhagat as the temporal head. (v) The British suppressed the revolt, but pardoned Rupsingh and Joria Bhagat. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) ii, iv and v 94.


List I List II (i) Revolt of Oraons (A) 1899-1900 (ii) Revolt of Chenchus

(6)1914-1915

(iii) Revolt of Mundas (C) 1? (iv) Revolt of Thadoe Kukis (D) IS (a) i-D, il-A, iii-C, iv-B (b) i-A, i (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A (d) i-B, ii-E 95.

Which of the following statements i Munda are true?

(i) He founded a new religious: Bonga as the only true God. (ii) He was arrested and impris British for his preachings Mundas. (iii) After two years of imprisc escaped from the British

revived his preachings an Mundas. (iv) The Mundas under him rev attacked churches and police i (v) He was killed in a battle with the I Select the answer from the codes I (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and i (c) i, ii and iv (d) iii, iv i 96. Which of the following statements Bhils of Banswara and Dungarpur in I Rajasthan are true? (i) Gobind Guru began a purific ment among them, (ii) It soon developed into a politic ment against the British, (iii) They set up a Bhil Raj with Gobindlj the head, (iv) The British suppressed their movement through quick military i Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and hi (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and i 97.

Who was the leader of the Re Oraons?

(a) Jatra Bhagat

(b) Joria I

(c) Kanhu Bhagat (d) Buddho I 98.

Which of the following were the main^| for the tribal revolts against the Bri

(i) Resentment of the tribals agaii sion of British rule to their areas. (ii) Resentment against penetration areas by outsiders from the against the protection given to siders by the British.

Resistance to British Rule cm

(Hi) Resentment against the tightening British control over forest zone, (iv) Resentment against British efforts to recruit unpaid tribal labour for manual work. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them . Which tribe revolted due to British efforts to suppress the practice of human sacrifice? (a) Thadoe Kukis (b) Khonds (c) Oraons (d) Naikdas . Which tribal revolt is the best example of the reaction of the tribais to the activities of the Christian missionaries in their areas? (a) Chenchu Revolt (b) Koya Revolt (c) Munda Revolt (d) Chuar Revolt |101. Who among the following is popularly known as 'Periyar'? (a) (b) (c) (d) 102.

C V Raman Pillai C N Mudaliar E V Ramaswamy Naicker K Ramakrishna Pillai Who was the first important leader of the untouchable Mahars?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 103. 1889?

Gopal Baba Walangkar Jyotiba Phule Gopal Hari Deshmukh B R Ambedkar Who is the author of the first modern novel of Kerala, Indulekah, written in

(a) (b)

M Padmanabha Pillai Chander Menon

(c) (d) 104.

K Ramakrishna Pillai C V Raman Pillai When and by whom was the book Ghulamgiri written?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 105.

1925--BR Ambedkar 1872--Jyotiba Phule 1900--Gopal Hari Deshmukh 1895--M G Ranade Tamil Journal, Kudi Arasu, was founded by whom?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 106.

Anna Durai P Tyagaraja Chetti TMNair E V Ramaswamy Naicker When and by whom was the 'Nair Service Society' founded?

(a) 1905--Narayana Guru (b) 1910--TMNair (c) 1914--M Padmanabha Pillai (d) 1916--K Ramakrishna Pillai 107. Which of the following were among the per sons who launched the Justice movement? (i) Chander Menon (ii) C N Mudaliar (iii) T M Nair (iv) C V Raman Pillai (v) P Tyagaraja Chetty Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, ivandv (d) ii, iii and V 108.

Which of the following statements about Justice Movement are true?

(i) It was a movement of the intermediate castes against Brahmin predominance in government service and politics. (ii) It was launched around 1915-16. (iii) It was a lower caste movement against Brahmin supremacy.

(iv) It was anti-British in nature. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

109.

Which of the following statements about the Self-respect movement are true?

(i) It was a populist movement against Brahmin domination. (ii) It was founded by E V Ramaswami Naicker in 1925. (iii) It was a radical alternative to 'Justice Elitism'. (iv) E V R founded an English journal to propagate his ideas. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i.iiandiv 110.

(d) All of them

Self-respect movement advocated:

(i) Weddings without Brahmin priests. (ii) Forcible entry into temples. (iii) Burning of the Manu Smriti. (iv) Outright atheism at times. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All of them

C136 ••• Indian History: Modern India 111.

Which of the following statements about the Nadar movement are true?

(i) Nadars of the Ramnad district were originally called 'Shanans', and belonged to an untouchable caste of toddy tappers and agricultural labourers. (ii) They emerged as a prosperous mercantile class by the end of the 19th century. (iii) They began to claim Vaishya status for their caste. (iv) They began to sanskritise themselves, and raised funds for educational and social welfare activities. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 112.

Which of the following statements about the movement of the Pallis are correct?

(i) Pallis belonged to a lower caste. (ii) From 1871 they began their movements in northern Tamilnadu (iii) They called themselves 'Vanniya Kula Kshatriya'. (iv) They imitated upper caste customs like the taboo on widow remarriage. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 113.

Which of the following statements about the Ezhavas are incorrect?

(i) They belonged to an untouchable caste. (ii) They began to attack Brahmin domination in the beginning of 20th century. (iii) Their leader was Shankar Nair. (iv) Later they became the strongest opponents of the communists.

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

114.

Which of the following statements about the novel Martanda Varma, are true?

(i) It was a historical novel. (ii) It'was written by C V Raman Pillai in 1891. (iii) It attacked Nambudri social domination and tarvad constraints on romantic love, (iv) It attempted an evocation of the lost Nair military glory through its hero, Ananda Padmanabhan. Select the answer from the codes! (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii; (c) i, iiandiv

(d) All of I

115. Which of the following statemen movement of the Nairs are true? (i) The Nairs were numerically caste in the princely state of Trs (ii) In the late 19th century they lau lentless campaign against the political domination of the ml small Nambudri Brahmins and Malayan Brahmins, (iii) C V Raman Pillai organised an i and attacked Brahmin predc government jobs, (iv) K Ramakrishna Pillai attacked 1 Travancore state through hi$
(a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii andij (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All oft 116.

Which of the following statemen Jyotiba Phule are true?

(i) He came from the lowly caste of ^ Maharashtra, but was well > (ii) He founded the Satyashodak mo 1870's. (iii) He proclaimed the need to save 1 castes from the hypocritical Brah their opportunistic scriptures. (iv) He founded a newspaper, New\ 1880. Select the answer from the codes giv (a) i and ii

(b) iii and iv

(c) ii and iii

(d) i and iv j

117.

Which of the following statements Satyashodak movement are true?

(i) It was dual in character, contaii elitebased conservatism and radicalism. (ii) Elite-based conservatism could b0| the trend representing the desin urban educated members of the in ate and lower castes to move up the social ladder by sanskritisati (iii) Mass-based radicalism could be 4 the trend representing the desire!


rural Maratha peasants, to do away with the evils of the caste system itself, (iv) Both the trends were, however, anti-British. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 118.

Which of the following statements about the Mahar movement are true?

(i) Mahars were the untouchables of Maharashtra. (ii) In the late 19th century they organised themselves for the first time under Gopal Baba Walangkar, and demanded more jobs in the army and other government services. (iii) From the 1920's they developed an autonomous movement under Dr B R Ambedkar, their first graduate. (iv) They held their first political conference in 1927. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 119.

Which of the following were the demands of the Mahars?

(i) Right to use tanks and enter temples, (ii) Abolition of the mahar watan or traditional services to village chiefs, (iii) Grant of revenue-free lands to its members by the government, (iv) Separate representation in the Legislative councils. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv

(c) ii, iii and iv (d) All of them 120.



1891 1897 1906 1910 1912

List I (i) Nadar Mahajan Sangam (ii) Jati Nirdharani Sabha (iii) Malayali Memorial (iv) Vokkaliga Sabha (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-E i-A, ii-E, iii-D, iv-B i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C i-E, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D 121. Match the following:

List II (A)1873 (B) 1901 (C)1905 (D)1917

i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A List I (i) Mahishya Samiti (ii) Mysore Praja Mitra Mandali (iii) Satyashodak Samaj (iv) Lingayat Education (b) (d) Fund Association (a) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B (c) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D 122. Which code gives the correct pairing of the following? Organisations (i) Mysore Praja

Mitra Mandali (ii) Satyashodak Samaj (iii) All-India Anti-Untouchability League (iv) Malayali Memorial (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A 123. Match the following: Movements (i) Self-respect movement (ii) Nair movement (iii) Mahar movement Founders (A) Jyotiba Phule

(B)

C V Raman Pillai

(C)

CRReddy

(D) MK Gandhi (b) i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D (d) i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B

Regions (A) Maharashtra

(B) (C)

Tamil Nadu Karnataka (iv) Mahishya movement (D) Travancore state

(E) Bengal (a) i-A, ii-D, iii-B, iv-C (b) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-E (d) i-D, ii-E, iiiC, iv-B 124. Consider List I and List II: List II Maharashtra Kerala Southern Tamil Nadu Northern Tamil Nadu Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv

(c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them List I (iv) Palli movement (i) Satyashodak movement (ii) Ezhava movement (iii) Nadar movement


125.


(a) (b) (c) (d)

Justice movement--North India Kayastha movement--Kamataka Lingayat movement--South India Namshudra movement--Bengal


Instructions

Mark (a) if'Assertion'is correct, but'Reason'is wrong. Mark (b) if A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R1 explains'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A'. 126.

Assertion: By 1927 some of tneMahars started burning the Mann Smriti.

Reason: tt demonstrated the sharp break of the Mahars with Hinduism. 127. Assertion: In southern and western India the lower and intermediate caste movements were very powerful and prominent. Reason: In northern and eastern India Brahmin domination was less clear-cut, with other high caste groups serving as buffers.

128.

Assertion: The Justice Party steadfastly fol lowed a pro-British policy.

Reason: It hoped to get for its members and supporters more government jobs and more representation in the new legislatures. 129. Assertion: From 1901 the British made a direct contribution to the growth of caste movements in India. Reason: From the 1901 census onwards, the British tried every 10 years to classify castes on the basis of 'social precedence as recognised by native public opinion'. 130. Assertion: The main cause for the Justice movement was the desire of some radical ele ments to improve the lot of the lower castes by attacking Brahmin domination and at times by challenging the very basis of the caste system. Reason: The movements of the Nadars, Pallis, Ezhavas and Nairs were mainly due to the social desire of these castes to move upward in the ladder through the process of sanskritisation. 131. Who was the first President Provincial Ryots Association! 1928? (a) BVRatnam (t>H (c) Dr Pattabi Sitaramaiah (d)-' 132.

When and where was the Federation of Peasants and,-! Labour founded?

(a) 1930--Guntur (b) 15 (c) 1935--Madras (d) 1£ 133.

When and where was the Sabha formed?

(a) 1935-Bornbay (b) , H (c) 1938-Cateutta (d) U 134.

Who presided over the first India Kisan Sabha?

(a) Swami Sahajanand (b) KM (c) InduteJ Yajnik (d) P< 135.

Which day is celebrated as the i Day?

(a) first April (b) first! (c) first November (d) first I 136.

The minimum charter of demands, i in the Kisan Manifesto of 1936, i

(i) Fifty per cent cut in revenue an (ii) Full occupancy rights to all tend (iii) Abolition of begar or forced labou (iv) Scaling down of debts and interest1! (v) Restoration of customary forest i Select the answer from the codes! below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iiiandivf (c) iii, ivandv (d) All of then 137. Which of the following struggles were I by the All-India Kisan Sabha? ^| (i) Anti-settlement movement against' dari zulum' in Andhra. (ii) The movement for the abolition zamindari system in Bihar.

;

(iii) The movement against the oppres est laws in south India, (iv) The Anti-Razakar movement in the i Hyderabad. Choose the answer from the codes
(d) All of them

to British fob C1W

138.

Which of the following statements about the play NH Darpan are true?

(i) It was written in 1860. (ii) Its author is Premchand. (iii) Its author is Dina Bandhu Mitra. (iv) It portrayed the exploitation of Deccan peasants by moneylenders, (v) It portrayed the oppression of Bengal peasants by the European indigo planters. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, iii and v (c) i, ii and v (d) i, iii and iv 139.

Arrange the following events in chronological order.

(i) Enactment of the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act. (ii) Appointment of the Indigo Commission, (iii) Enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act. (iv) Enactment of the Bengal Tenancy Act. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, iv and ii (b) i, iii, ii and iv (c) iv, ii, iii and i 140.


Which of the following statements are true about the Indigo agitation of Bengal?

(i) The peasants refused to cultivate indigo and put up armed resistance against the oppressive European planters. (ii) Bishnucharan Biswas and Dtgambar Biswas played a prominent role in their resistance. (iii) The Bengal intelligentsia organised a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasants. (iv) Despite this agitation all the abuses of indigo cultivation' continued unabated in Bengal. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 141.

Which of the following statements about the Pabna movement are true?

(i) The main cause of this movement was the oppression of the peasantry by the zamin dars. (ii) The peasants organised no-rent unions, and even made armed attacks on the zamindars and their agents. (iH) It was fioaity put down by the use of force, (iv) The government on the basis of the rec ommendations of a committee, passed an act conferring permanency of tenure upon some classes of tenants. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, Hi and iv (c) i, iiandiv 142.

(d) All of them

Which of the following statements about the Deccan riots are true?

(i) Moneylenders were the main targets of attack by the peasants in these riots. (ii) Surat and Kolhapur were the main centres of these riots. (iii) After the failure of the police to suppress these riots, the army was called in to put them down.

(iv) The British passed an Act in 1879 prohibiting the imprisonment of the peasants of the Maharashtra Deqcan for failure to repay debts to the moneylenders. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, N and iii (b) i, it and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 143.

The Punjab peasants

(i) Resented the growing alienation of their lands to the moneylenders. (ii) Assaulted and mufdered a good number of moneylenders during the lest decade of the 19th century. (iii) Revolted against the zamindari oppression and exploitation in the first decade of the 20th century. (iv) Succeeded in getting an act passed by the British government in 1902, prohibiting the transfer of lands from peasants to moneylenders. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) Alt of them 144.

Which of the following statements about the Champaran satyagraha are true?

(i) The main cause of this movement was the oppression of the peasants of Champaran by the European indigo planters. (ii) Gandhi was invited by the peasants of Champaran to come and help them.

C140 ••• Indian History: Modern India (Hi) Gandhi finally succeeded in forcing the government to appoint an enquiry committee with himself as one of its members, (iv) The government accepted the recommendations of the committee and redressed the grievances of the peasants of Champaran. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii and iv (b) i, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) All of them 145.

Which of the following persons accompanied Gandhi to Champaran?

(i) Rajendra Prasad (ii) Jawaharlal Nehru (iii) J B Kripalani (iv) Vallabhbhai Patel (v) Mazhar-ul-Haq (vi) Mahadev Desai Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and vi (b) i, iii, v and vi (c) ii, iii, iv and vi 146.

(d) i, ii, iv and v

Which of the following statements about the Khaira movement are true?

(i) It arose in protest against the government refusal to exempt the peasants of Khaira from revenue payment despite the failure of crops due to drought. (ii) The Khaira peasants launched a no-revenue campaign under the leadership of Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel. (iii) The movement succeeded in getting the revenue collection suspended for the time being. (iv) The movement failed completely due to the repressive measures of the government. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) i, iii and iv 147.

Which of the following statements about the Moplah Rebellion are true?

(i) The Muslim Moplah peasants resented their exploitation by the Hindu zamindars

and the British government, (ii) The immediate cause of the rebellion was the police raid on Tirurangadi mosque in search of arms in August, (iii) The Moplahs established their total control over some areas for a while and also set up their 'republics' in some places, (iv) The rebellion resulted in the death of the more than 2,399 Moplahs. Select the answer from the codes < (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, ii andt (c) ii, iii and iv (d) All oft 148.

Which of the following were the;i attack of the rebel Moplahs?

(i) Police stations (ii) Public offices and communicati (iii) Christian houses and churches (iv) Houses of oppressive Hindu Ian (v) Temples and priests Choose the answer from the code below: (a) i, iii and iv (b) ii, iv and' (c) i, ii and iv (d) iii, iv and< 149.

Which of the following persons were I ers of the Moplah rebellion?

(i) Kunhammad Haji (ii) Kalathingal Mammad (iii) Ali Musaliar

(iv) Sithi Koya Thangal

',

(v) Yakub Hasan Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iii, iv and v]


(d) i, iii, ivandv

150.

Which of the following statements abou Bardoli movement are true?

(i) It was launched against the enhanc of the land revenue by the governn the Bardoli district, (ii) Under the leadership of Vallabhbhai I the Bardoli peasants refused to pay| land revenue at the enhanced rates, (iii) The British succeeded in suppressing! movement by large scale attachmen cattle and land, (iv) The land revenue continued to be coll< ed at the enhanced rates. Select the answer from the codes given be (a) i and iii (b) ii and iv (c) i and ii'

(d) iii and iv

151. Which of the following statements about emergence of class conscious peasant on isations are true? (i) The first ryots association was organis by B V Ratnam in the Krishna district Andhra Pradeshin 1922.


(ii) The first ryots association was founded by N G Ranga in the Guntur district of Andhra in 1923. (iii) Ryots associations and agricultural labour unions were organised in the Krishna and West Godavari districts of Andhra between 1924 and 1926. (iv) A number of kisan sabhas were organised in Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab between 1926 and 1927. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv What is the chronological sequence of the following movements? (i) Deccan riots (ii) Indigo agitation (iii) Movement against land alienation in Punjab (iv) Pabna movement Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i and iv (b) i, iii, iv and ii (c) ii, iv, i and iii


What is the historical order of the following movements? (i) Moplah rebellion (ii) Bardoli movement (iii) Champaran movement (iv) Khaira satyagraha Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i and iv (b) i, iii, iv and ii (c) iv, ii, i and iii

(d) iii, iv, i and ii

Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below: List I List II (i) (») (iii)

Pabna movement (A) Maharashtra Moplah rebellion (B) East Bengal Deccan riots Bardoli movement iv (C) (D) (E)

Gujarat Malabar Uttar Pradesh

i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-E i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B

List II Bengal Gujarat Bihar Telengana (a) i-E, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B (b) (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C (d) Consider List I and List II List I (i) Indigo agitation (ii) Khaira satyagraha (iii) Anti-Razakar movement (iv) Champaran satyagraha Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv


Instructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is

wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A'. Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R' does not explain 'A. 156. Assertion: The Anti-Zamindari Movement in East Bengal was popularly known as the 'Pabna Movement'. Reason: Pabna district was the storm-centre of this movement. 157. Assertion: Before the outbreak of the Deccan riots the peasants organised a social boycott of the moneylenders. Reason: During the Deccan riots the peasants forcibly seized from the moneylenders debt-bonds, decrees and other documents, and set them on fire. 158. Assertion: The European indigo planters exploited the peasants of Champaran through the tinkathiya system. Reason: According to the tinkathiya system, the peasants were compelled to grow indigo on part of their land at unremunerative prices. 159. Assertion: The Moplah rebellion was antizamindar as well as anti-British in nature. Reason: Most of the local zamindars were Christians. 160. Assertion: The peasants participated in the Noncooperation movement of 1921-22 on a very large scale. Reason: The sudden withdrawal of the movement by Gandhi had tragic consequences for the majority of them. 161. Who was responsible for the organisation of the first conference of workers in Bombay? (a) N M Joshi (b) B P Wadia (c) Aruna Asaf Ali (d) Lokhande


162. Which was the first modern trade union In India and when did it come into existence? (a) (b) (c) (d) 163.

Bombay Trade Union--1919 Calcutta Labour Union--1914 Madras Labour Union--1918 Ahmedabad Trade Union--1919 When was the All India Trade Union Congress established at Bombay?

(a) 1929

(b) 1925

(c) 1929

(d) 1939

164. When was the first Trade Union Act, providing for voluntary registration, enacted? (a) 1924 (b) 1926 (c) 1928 (d) 1939 165. Which act provided for the election of labour representatives through labour constituencies for the first time? (a) Indian Councils Act of 1909 (b) Government of India Act of 1919 (c) Government of India Act of 1935 (d) Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 166. By which act/ordinance was the compulsory recognition of trade unions by the employers secured? (a) (b) (c) (d) 167.

Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 Defence of India Rules, 1939 National Service Ordinance of 1940 Trade Union (Amendment) Act of 1947 Which of the following statements about factory commissions and acts are true?

(i) The first Factory Commission was appointed in 1875. (ii) On the basis of the recommendations of

the first commission, the first Factory Act was passed in 1876. (iii) The second Factory Commission as appointed in 1886. (iv) The second Factory Act, based on the report of the second commission, was passed in 1891. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iv only

(b) ii and iii only

(c) i, ii and iii (d) All of them 168.

The second Factory Act provided for (i) A weekly holiday.

(ii) Half an hour recess. (iii) Compensation for disabl (iv) Fixation of working hours children, (v) Fixation of working hours Select the answer from below: (a) i, Hand iii (b) ii, (c) i, iiandiv

(d) i, I'll

169. Which one of the following union movement in India influence of communist id unionism for the first time? (a) 1918-24 (b) 1 (c) 1934-39 (d) 1 170.

Which of the following trade ui from the AITUC in 1929?

(i) NTUF

(ii) I

(iii) RedTuc

(iv) H

Choose the answer from the (a) i and ii only (b) i, ii

(c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii ai 171. Which of the following statei Trade Union Movement in 1938 (i) Indian Trades Union F merged into the National Federation (NTUF). (ii) Red Trade Union Congi into the All India Trade (AITUC). (iii) NTUF got itself affiliated to (iv) AITUC was finally rep! Hindustan Mazdoor Sangh. , Choose the answer from the below: (a) i, Hand iii (b) ii,iii (c) i, ii and iv (d) All 172. What is the minimum strength required for a trade union to tered under the first Trade Union (a) Five (b) (c) Ten (d) T\ 173. When were the Payment of Minimum Wages Act passed (a) 1920 and 1926 (b) (c) 1936 and 1948 (d) 1 174.

In the postwar period, indi became very frequent in


India. Arrange the following states in the descending order in the matter of industrial disputes. (i) Bengal

(ii) Bombay

(iii) Uttar Pradesh (iv) Madras Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and iii (b) ii, iv, I and iii (c) i, ii, iH and iv

(d) it, i, iv and iii

|6. Wh|ch of the following ordinance Acts were passed by the British during the war period (1939-45) to preserve industrial peace? (i) Defence of Realm Act (ii) Defence of India Rules (iii) National Service Ordinance (iv) Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, iii and iv

tion and Reason

if»sfrucf/ons

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'A' is wrong, but 'R' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, and 'R' explains 'A'.

.

Mark (d) if both 'A' and 'R' are correct, but 'R1 does not explain 'A. 176. Assertion: The first Factory Act was a great disappointment for the workers in general. Reason: It provided for the protection of only child labour. 177. Assertion: There was an unprecedented boom in Indian industry and trade during the period of the World War I. Reason: There was a tremendous improvement in the real wages of the workers in India during this period. 178. Assertion: In the first phase of trade union movement in India, covering 1875 to 1918, two Factory Acts were passed. Reason: This phase was marked by the absence of trade unions in India. 179. Assertion: Trade unionism initially failed to make much head way in the wellestablished industries like jute, textiles, mining, and the like. Reason: These wellestablished industries were scattered over wide parts of India. 180. Assertion: There was a drastic fall in the number of strikes during the period of the World War II. Reason: The communist support to the British in the war, among others, was of crucial importance in the maintenance of industrial peace during the war period.

ANSWERS

l.(d) 2.(c) 5-(b) -6.(b) 7. 11. (b) 12. (d) 21. (c) 22. (d) 31. (d) 32. (a) 41. (c) 42. (a) 51. (c) 52. (d) 61. (b) 62. (d) 71. (d) 72. (b) 81. (d) 82. (d) 91. (a) 92. (c) 101.(c) 107. 111. (c) 117. 121. (b) 127. 131. (a) 137. 141. (d) 147. 151.(b) 157. 161. (d) 167. 171. (a) 177. C144

3.(d)

4.

(d)

-- i

(d) 8.(d) 9. (c)I 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (a) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (a) 43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (c) 53. (b) 54. (d) 55. (a) 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (a) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (d) 83. (c) 84. (b) 85. (d) 93. (a) 94. (b) 95. (c) 102. (a) 103. (b) (d) 108. (a) 109. 112. (d) 113. (c) (a) 118. (d) 119. 122. (d) 123. (c) (d) 128. (c) 129. 132.(c) 133. (d) (a) 138. (b) 139. 142. (c) 143. (b) (d) 148. (c) 149. 152. (c) 153. (d) (d) 158. (c) 159. 162. (c) 163. (a) (a) 168. (c) 169. 172.(b) 173. (c) (a) 178. (d) 179.

16. (b) 26. (d) 36. (c) 46. (c) 56. (c) 66. (c) 76. (c) 86. (d) 96. (b) 104. (a) 1| 114. (b) 1S 124. (c) | 134. (d) ft 144. (a) 11 154. (a) 1( 164. (b) M 174. (a) 11

17. 27. 37. 47. 57. 67. 77. 87. 97. (b)

(d) 18. (a) (c) 28. (b) (d) 38. (c) (d) 48. (c) (a) 58. (b) (d) 68. (c) (b) 78. (d) (b) 88. (c) (a) 98. (d) 105. (d)

19. (c)'l 29. (c) 1 39. (d) I 49. (a) I 59. (a) i 69. (c) J 79. (c) J 89.
(c)

115. (d)

116. (c)

(d)

125. (d)

126. (c)

(a)

135. (b)

136. (d)

(d)

145. (b)

146. (a)

(c)

155. (a)

156. (c)

(b)

165. (c)

166. (d)

(d)

175. (c)

176. (c)

chapter

INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE --THE PIRST PHASE

1.1 GROWTH OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

jflia came under British rule mainly because, there : lack of the spirit of nationalism in the modern : in India at that time. The country was divided i a number of independent states, and there was regional patriotism or loyalty to a local chief, first attempt at a national revolt against the itish in 1857 failed because the whole country did Iparticipate in the revolt. So it was only after the of this revolt that several factors or causes ributed to the rise and growth of freedom strug-! or of nationalist movement in India.

ances of Different Sections of the Indian CWty The economic policies of the British industrial and revenue policies) adversely cted the interests of almost all sections of Indian feiety such as the peasants, workers, middle classes ularly the educated section, industrialists, etc. i among those classes with vested interest in the nuance of British rule such as the native rulers, (lords, zamindars, village moneylenders, etc., was some amount of resentment due to the itish racial superiority and discrimination.

ninistrative and Economic Unification of India s British had gradually introduced a uniform and i system of government throughout the coun-(Sand thus unified it administratively. The destruci of the rural and local selfsufficient economy and the introduction of modern trade and industries on all-India scale had increasingly made India's economic life a single whole and interlinked the economic fate of people living in different parts of the country. Besides, introduction of the new means of transport and communications (Railways, Telegraph and Postal system) had brought the different parts of the country together and promoted mutual contact among the people, especially among the leaders. This unification was, of course, done by the British in their own interest. Yet it did facilitate the rise and growth of nationalist movement in India.

Spread of Western Education and Thought

English language, which was made the medium of instruction in schools and colleges in 1835, became the language of the educated people of India, irrespective of their region. It provided the best means of understanding and developing close contact among them. These Indians came into contact with the Western ideas and thought (Liberty, Equality, Democracy, Socialism, etc.), and some of them had even direct contact with the Western Civilization. It is these English educated Indians who developed, organised and led the nationalist movement.

Introduction of Printing Press After its introduction in India, the Press became the chief instrument through which the nationalist Indians spread the message of patriotism and modern liberal ideas, and thus created an all-India consciousness. From the second

C145


half of the 19th century a large number of newspapers and journals were published in different regional languages of India, apart from in English. Both the so-called vernacular and the English papers and journals constantly criticised the official policies, put forward the Indian point of view, and asked the people to unite and work for national welfare, besides popularising modern ideas of self-government, democracy, etc. Nationalist literature in the form of novels, essays, and patriotic poetry also played an important role in arousing national consciousness.

Socio-religious Reform Movements Reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, etc. by pointing to the rich cultural heritage of India, created among the Indians self-confidence in themselves and respect for their own religions and culture. In this way they were able to counter the British propaganda that the Indians had never been able to rule themselves in the past, that Hindus and Muslims had always fought one another, and that Indians were destined to be ruled by foreigners. Swami Dayanand, for instance, was the first to use the word, swaraj. Many Arya Samajis were in the fore-front of the national movement, and were primarily responsible for the rise of extremism in the Indian National Congress. The work of the Theosophical Society was also responsible for restoring self-confidence and self-respect among the Indians.

Racial Superiority of the British and their Practice of Social Exclusiveness Racial discrimination came to be practised quite openly in each and every respect in eligibility to public posts, in the administration of justice, in payments to the employees, and even in personal matters. All these practices and happenings were given wide publicity in the Indian newspapers, which in turn created a feeling of national humiliation among the Indians. Thus the feelings of Indians were inflamed against the British, facilitating the growth of national consciousness.

Reactionary Regime of Lord Lytton (1876-80) and the llbert Bill Controversy (1883) The former gave Indian Nationalism a visible form, while the latter gave it an organised form. Lord Lytton's regime is notorious for the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian press, the Arms Act which disarmed the Indians i scale, the second Afghan War which economy of India badly, holding of i Durbar in Delhi at a time of terrible fai the abolition of import duties on British \ reduction in the maximum age limit examination thus reducing the chances further, etc. All these events fed the discontent against British rule, while thaj Controversy provided the necessary sp

llbert Bill (1884) Officially called Procedure Amendment Code Bill, the 1 (popularly known so after Sir llbert, then] her in the Governor-General's Executive was introduced in February 1883. Its ah{ give Indian district magistrates and sessio the right to try European and British.! Further, it also aimed at authorising the 1 ernments to appoint Justices of the Pe among the Indian civil servants on the basil alone. The concurrence of even the sec was obtained for the proposed changes. But the bill provoked an unprecedenb indignation and protest from European ( nonofficials alike. By forming a 'En Anglo-Indian Defence Association', sought to protect their rights and privik Indians, on the contrary, welcomed the i organised an all-India campaign in bill. The stage was thus set for an open < tion. Though Ripon refused to withdraw I agreed to a compromise. The amended passed in January 1884. Under the new law all district magis sessions judges would be ex-officio Justic Peace, authorised to try European and jects, and pass a sentence. But, and he compromise, a European or British-bora could claim the right to trial by jury, half < was to consist of Europeans or Americ compromise was thus a virtual negation essential part of the original bill. The success of the European organised» against the original bill hastened the develo Indian national consciousness, resulting soorl«i in the foundation of the Indian National Co


FORMATION OF ASSOCIATIONS

KpHfcft*--' '" W-V: ' <-"* '; :

l&ff ;..yMw* j

jdtioiders' Society Dwarakanath Tagore 1830 Calcutta teh India Society William Adam 1839 London igal British India Society Not available 1843 Calcutta Ish India Association (Result of the Devendranath Tagore 1851 Calcutta rger of the first two organisations) dras Native Association Not available 1852 Madras nbay Association Jagannath Shankershet 1852 Bombay it India Association Dadabhai Naoroji 1866 London tonal Indian Association Mary Carpenter (biographer of 1867 London 1870

1872 1876 1884 i Sarvajanik Sabha

i Society i Association ; Mahajan Sabha

' Presidency Association Poona

London Calcutta Madras 1885 Bombay

Rammohun Roy) S H Chiplunkar, G V Joshi, M G Ranade, etc. Anandamohan Bose Anandmohan Bose and S N Banerji G S Aiyer, M. Viraraghavachari, Anandacharlu, etc. Pherozeshah Mehta, K T Telang, Badruddin Tyabji, etc.

1.3 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

ough a good number of nationalist organisations into existence prior to the foundation of the dian National Congress, the most important among i was the Indian Association of Calcutta, founded ' Surendranath Banerji and Anandamohan Bose in S876. The association organised agitations over sev-al issues such as the reform of the system of the pivil service examinations, the protection of the rights fthe tenants against the zamindars and those of the plantation workers against the foreign tea planters, c. It also opened branches in different towns and ^Villages of Bengal, and in many cities outside Bengal, t even tried to become an all-India body byconven-; two all-India conferences in 1883 and 85. All the pre-congress nationalist organisations ave served a useful purpose. Yet, all of them, Including the Indian Association of Calcutta, were ntially local in their scope, membership and Ifunctioning. Hence the politically conscious Indians Iwere increasingly becoming aware of the need for an all-India organisation. So, when A O Hume, a retired English civil servant took the initiative in organising such an association, all of them cooperated with him. Thus came the foundation of the Indian National Congress. Its first session was held in Bombay in December, 1885 under the Presidentship of W C Bonnerji, and it was attended by 72 delegates from all over India. Its second session was held in Calcutta in December, 1886. The history of the Indian nationalist movement from now onwards can be seen in three different phases or periods--the Moderate phase or the period of the Early Nationalists (1885-1905), the Extremist phase or the period of the Militant Nationalists (1905-18), and the Gandhian Era (1918^7).

19.4 MODERATE PHASE (1885-1905)

Changing Nature of Congress under Moderates

At first the Congress passed resolutions criticising some of the actions and policies of the British government and demanding reforms. In criticising the


government's policies, the Congress used dignified and moderate language. Every year it passed resolutions expressing loyalty to the British Crown. The attitude of the British government towards the Congress was also favourable in the beginning, but soon the government regarded the Congress as representing only a small minority. Due to this change in the attitude of 'the British, changes also started appearing in the demands as well as in the methods of agitation of the Congress by the close of 19th century. And by the beginning of the 20th century, the moderate nationalists put forward the claim of self-government within the British empire as in the colonies of Australia, New Zealand and Canada. This demand was first made from the Congress platform by Gokhale in 1905 and then by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906.

Important Moderates

The important moderate leaders were Dadabhai Naoroji, M G Ranade, Surendranath Banerji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, Dinsha Wacha, Anandamohan Bose, Rashbehari Ghosh, and others. The main demands

Main Demands of Moderates of the moderates were:

Expansion and reform of the legislative councils, leading to popular control of administration. Greater opportunities for Indians in the public services by holding ICS examinations simultane ously in England and India. Reimposition of import duties on cotton goods. Reduction of military expenditure.

Spread of technical and general education. Separation of the judiciary from the executive. Grant of self-government to India within the British Empire as in the colonies of Australia, Canada, etc. (1905).

Methods of Moderates

The methods of the Moderates can best be described as 'Constitutional agitation'. They confined themselves to meetings, speeches, resolutions and petitions. On rare occasions only, they i to the boycott of foreign goods and the Indian goods (swadeshi). They believed in ] and bloodless struggle. They confined their j cal activity to the educated classes only, notn to involve the masses in the national move Moreover, they wanted to attain political rig self-government in a prolonged stage-by^ evolution, and not all of a sudden.

Achievements of Moderates

The main achievements of the moderates we

Creation of a wide national awakening amo people and training them in the art of ] work. Popularisation of the ideas of democracy! nationalism among the people. Exposition of the exploitative character of I imperialism and the consequent evil resu India, for example Dadabhai Naoroji's Theory. Creation of a common political and econ programme around which the Indians gafl and waged political struggle. Providing a solid base and foundation on' the Indian national movement built up moif rum and vigour in later years. Providing impetus to the campaign medieval obscurantism and authoritarianism.! Succeeded in getting the Indian Councils . 1892 passed by the British.

FAILURES OF MODERATES

They failed to realise the importance of mass! gle, and hence their confinement of the move the educated middle classes. Also most of failed to realise the true nature of the British : considerable time. It was only by the end of the 1 century that they realised that their faith in 4 fairmindedness of the British was mispla Finally, they failed to get anything substantial; the British through their constitutional methods.ij

r'srtrl


19.5 GROWTH OF EXTREMISM (1906-18) I Causes for Rise of Extremism ii [Growing Consciousness among the Indians {.There was a growing consciousness among the [Indians of the exploitative character of the British fcolonial rule in India. The evil economic conse-I | quences of British rule manifested themselves in the f disastrous famines between 1896 and 1900.

Failure of the Moderate Methods of Agitation jiThe failure of the moderate methods of agitation li (meetings, resolutions, petitions, and speeches in the i legislative councils) to get anything substantial from ' the British government led to the demand for more vigorous political action and radical methods. The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was, for instance, a great disappointment for the Indians.

Repressive Policies of the British Government Some of the repressive policies of the British government also led to the rise of extremism. For instance, the enactment of a law making it an offence to preach nationalism (1898) and the enactment of the Indian Official Secrets Act to restrict the freedom of the press (1904). Also, the imprisonment of Tilak and some other editors for preaching nationalism (1897) and the deportation of Natu brothers without trial (1897) aggravated the Indian sentiments.

Realisation of the Need for Mass Action The realisation of the need for mass action (by extending the movement to the masses) and of the need for continuous political activity, instead of just annual conferences, in order to attain swaraj or independence awakened the people to radical action.

Growth of Self-respect among the Indians Growth of self-respect among the Indians and their attainment of self-confidence in their own capacity to govern themselves and to guide the future of their own country generated the need for extremist actions. That is why Tilak declared that swaraj was the birth right of every Indian and not a gift which would be granted to the Indians by the British after the former had passed all the tests prescribed by the latter.

Influence of Western Education and Ideas Influence of western education and ideas, and the problems created by large-scale unemployment also led to the rise of extremism. The growth of western education resulted in a large number of educated Indians who were very receptive to western ideas of democracy, nationalism and radicalism, and hence receptive also to the objectives and policies of militant nationalism. Besides, these educated Indians began to face the problem of unemployment increasingly, which they realised could not be solved under British rule.

Realisation of the Social and Cultural Evils of British Rule There was a strong realisation of the social and cultural evils of British rule. For instance, in the field of education there was no balanced growth (primary and technical education recorded insignificant growth), and also the British system of education was held to be antinational. Hence, efforts were made to promote national education particularly from the time of Anti-Partition and Swadeshi Movement (eg. Rabindranath Tagore's Shantiniketan and Satischandra Mukherji's Dawn Society in Bengal).

Existence of a Militant Nationalist School of Thought The existence of a militant nationalist school of thought from the beginning of the nationalist movement (represented by Rajnarain Bose and Ashwini Kumar Dutt in Bengal and Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in Maharashtra) and the emergence of eminent extremist leaders in the beginning of the 20th century, e.g. Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh in Bengal, Lala Lajpat Rai and Azit Singh (uncle of Bhagat Singh) in Punjab, T. Prakasham and M. Krishna Rao in Andhra, V.O. Chidamabaram Pillai in south Tamil Nadu, etc.

Influence of International Events Influence of certain international events like the rise of Japan and its defeat of Russia in 1905 and the defeat of an Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 (these events shattered the myth of European invincibility), and the revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey and China and Boer war in South


Africa (these events inspired the Indians to step up their struggle for swaraj).

Immediate Cause: Curzon's Rule

The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of Lord Curzon (1889-1905) and his partition of Bengal (1905). Curzon's eventful tenure as viceroy was to mark the end of an epoch in the British period. His viceroyalty falls broadly into two uneven halves with the Delhi Darbar (1903) serving as a dividing line. During the first four years, he was not only admired in India but also supported at home; in the last two, however, his popularity in India began to wane while his relationship with Whitehall got increasingly strained. During the first half he launched a programme of administrative reform covering twelve major fields. Commissions were constituted to deal with irrigation, railways, agricultural banks and police. His financial reforms soon began to bear fruit while the currency reform was widely applauded. His Calcutta Municipal Act (1899) sought to officialise municipal administration and diminish the Indian control. The measure proved to be extremely controversial and was ultimately undone in 1923. The widespread famine of 1897-8 made him to revise the earlier Famine Code. Through the Punjab Land Alienation Act (1901) he sought to protect cultivators from eviction. To promote agricultural production, he set up an Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa in Delhi. He also ordered a land survey under Sir Colin Scott MonoriefFwho recommended widespread irrigation. A new department of commerce and industry was started to promote, among other things, railway construction. The Police Commission (1901) under Sir Andrew Fraser was appointed to inquire into all facets of the force. On the basis of its recommendations a new covenanted police service was constituted and a criminal intelligence department established. During Curzon's viceroyship a coronation Darbar was held at Delhi (1903) to mark the accession of King Edward VII (1902-12).

Curzon partitioned Bengal, i istrative convenience, but in realif growing nationalism. Consequent! up passive resistance in the formi movement. Curzon thus sought toi with bureaucracy. In fact in his sin aided rather than deterred the the British position in India.

Main Objective of Extremists

It was the attainment of swaraj' complete autonomy or ind selfgovernment as in the colonies i Zealand, etc. (aim of the moderates), ( be as soon as possible and not I

Methods of the Extremists

The methods used by the extremists wf

Passive resistance, i.e. non-coop British government by boycotting service, courts, schools and colleg Promotion of swadeshi and boyC goods. Building up a new nation through I tion and promotion of national i

A very significant role was played by I extremist leaders.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)

He was known as 'Lokmanya' to the 1 the 'Father of Indian Unrest' to the Britid his political career as a moderate and i the fag end of the 19th century, but by I of the 20th century became an extremist, i He was a pioneer in many ways, fbr*f the use of religious orthodoxy as a: contact through his organisation of the I tival (1893). Also he was the first to i otic-cum-historical cult through his the Shivaji festival (1895). Further, he i with a kind of no-revenue campaign famine stricken peasants of Maharashtra inl


|is view on social reforms: Though a radical in dcs, he was a conservative in social reforms. Considered social and political reforms to be and not interlinked and advocated that Meal freedom should precede social reform. He |osed initiative by the British government pse it was an alien government) as well as by Congress party (because it would estrange the i from it). fe was a prominent member of the Deccan cation Society and helped to found the New jlish School, which later became the Fergusson ge. He was the editor for two newspapers, that [the Maharatta in English and the Kesari in hi. He also founded the Home Rule League in jril 1916 and declared 'Swaraj is my birth right, 11 will have it'. |He was imprisoned twice by the British for his ttionalist activities--once in 1897 for 18months I again in 1908 for 6 years (in the Mandalay jail |3urma). He played a prominent role in the anti-tition movement of 1905-08, and was mainly nsible for making it an all-India movement.

i LaipatRai (1865-1928)

ularly known as the 'Punjab Kesari', he was the er of the 'college' faction of the Arya Samaj and orked for the social and educational reforms in the rly period of his life. He became an extremist in the beginning of the 20th century and ayed in important role in the Anti-Partition move-for which he was deported to Burma by the jritish in 1907. After his release, he visited the \., founded the Indian Home Rule League there [1914. He edited a newspaper, called the Punjabee, and hored a book, viz. Unhappy India. While leading kprotest procession against the Simon Commission i was severely wounded and died of injuries.

Chandra Pal (1858-1932)

pularly known as the 'father of revolutionary ought in India', he belonged to the extremist trio 'Lal-Bal-PaF. He began his journalistic career when 'he started the Paridarsak (a weekly), and later became the assistant editor of Bengal Public Opinion and the Tribune. Another journalistic venture, New India, was started in 1901 to propagate his brand of nationalism.

Though Pal began his political career as a moderate, the impending failure of the constitutional methods made him to drift away. After the Partition of Bengal Pal switched over to radical protest. Along with Aurobindo Ghosh he was recognised as one of the chief exponents of a new national movement revolving around the ideals of swaraj, swadeshi, boycott and national education. The Bande Mataram, started in 1906 and edited by Aurobindo Ghosh as well as Pal, became a powerful organ propagating the extremist' ideology. In 1907 he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment on account of his refusal to tender evidence against Aurobindo during the latter's trial in the 'Bande Mataram' sedition case. After his imprisonment (March-August 1908) his political thinking took on a different shape and form precipitating during his self-imposed exile (1908-11) in England. During the remaining 20 years of his life, he did not play any active role in the nationalist movement.

Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

He launched a systematic criticism of moderate politics through a series of articles entitled 'New Lamps for Old' (1893-94), while serving as a lecturer in Baroda. He also advocated the doctrine of 'Passive Resistance' in a series of articles in 1907 in Bande Mataram, of which he was the editor. He played an important role in the Anti-Partition movement. Later he became the principal of the Bengal National College started in Calcutta in 1906 as part of the scheme of national education. He was arrested by the British in 1908 due to his involvement in the Kennedy murders, following which he escaped to Pondicherry in 1910 and concentrated on philosophical, spiritual and literary activities. Some of his books were Savitri (the longest epic poem in English), The Life Divine, etc.

C152 § Indian History: Modern India

19.6 ECONOMIC NATIONALISM AND SWADESHI MOVEMENT

Partition of Bengal (1905) The Whitehall rejected a proposal of the government of India to give the lieutenant-governor of Bengal an executive council, because it meant delegation of power and authority. Another suggestion to divide the province on ethnic and linguistic grounds met the same fate apparently in deference to the wishes of its Bengali-speaking civil servants. The more popular interpretation, however, is that partition was the most effective way of checking the rapid growth of nationalism by breaking the unity of the Hindus, widening the gulf between them and the Muslims and weakening the already emboldened public press. The partition, officially announced on July 4, 1905, came into effect on October 16, 1905. On the same day the people of Bengal reacted in an unprecedented way by observing it as a day of mourning and organising protest meetings. At a meeting held at the so-called 'Federal Hall, a resolution was adopted to launch the Swadeshi movement and adopt the slogan of 'Bande Mataram'.

The Anti-Partition Movement (1905-08) Began in Bengal under the moderate leaders, but soon spread to other parts of India under the extremist leaders. It involved programmes like boycott of government service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods, promotion of swadesbi goods, promotion of national education through the establishment of national schools and colleges, etc. Its initial objective was the annulment of the partition of Bengal, which was, however, soon superseded by the greater objective of attainment of India's independence. The movement was suppressed by the British through repressive measures like imprisonment and-deportation of many of its leaders in 1908.

Surat Split and Lucknow Merger The Surat session of the Indian National Congress in 1907 witnessed the split between the moderate and the extremist groups. The extremists, though enjoying much more popular support than the moderates, were in a minority in the Congress and were kept out of it successfully by the moderates till 1916. At the Lucknow session in 1916, the extremists were,! ever, welcomed back into the Congress by theflj crates due to the rapidly changing political siti in the country as well as the sincere efforts of Annie Besant to forge unity among the natio

19.7 THE ACT OF 1909 AND BRITISH POL OF DIVIDE AND RULE

Background of 1909 Act

Popularly known as the Minto-Morley Ref they took their name after their official sp Minto, the Governor-General and John Secretary of State for India. In 1908, the Parliament appointed a Royal Commissio Decentralisation to inquire into relations the Government of India and the provinces^ suggest ways and means to simplify and im(| them. More specifically, it was asked to 'how the system of government could be 6| adapted both to meet the requirements and ] the welfare of the different provinces.' Later! year, on the basis of its recommendations a \ was introduced in Parliament which, in May j emerged as the new scheme of constituti reform.

Provisions of 1909 Act

Its authors claimed that the chief merit of thel lay in its provisions to further enlarge the legis councils and at the same time make them mon\ resentative and effective. This was sought done under two main heads--constitutional, functional. Constitutionally, the councils were j bigger, their numbers doubled in some casess more than doubled in others. Thus, wher Indian Councils Act of 1892 had authorized » maximum of 16 additional members, that was now raised to 60. In much the same i number of additional members for the Presid of Madras, Bombay and Bengal were raised1, | 20 to 50. The proportion of official to non-official me in the Governor-General's Council was subs


ed, the new figures were 36 to 32. Of the latter were to be elected and 5 nominated. In this way, f Council continued to have the official majority. I was a deliberate policy. In the Provinces, there I to be a non-official majority for the first time. In al there was even an elected majority, outnumng both the official as well as nominated non-cial blocs--28 to 20 and 4 respectively. system of election was introduced in an aious manner. The Act enabled certain recog-I bodies and associations to recommend candi-: who, even though there was no obligation to ept them, were in practice rarely rejected, vision was also made for some members to be in accordance with regulations made under : Act with regard to the principle of representan. A necessary corollary of this was the provision separate electorates for Muslims, landholders, iibers of commerce and universities on the plea 'with varying and conflicting interests, reprebtation in the European sense was an obvious sibility'. The separate electorates thus intro-ed for Muslims were later viewed by the Simon nission as 'a cardinal problem and ground of ntroversy at every revision of the Indian electoral stem'. P Apart from their constitution, the functions of the ^funcils also underwent a change. They could now, r instance, discuss the budget before it was finally ^ttled, propose resolutions on it and divide upon I resolutions. The budget apart, members could ass matters of public importance through resolu-and divisions. Additionally, the right to ask stions was enlarged and supplementaries plowed. It may be noted that the resolutions were in ; nature of recommendations and were not binding i the government. A much trumpeted change was the appointment an Indian to the Executive Council of the vernor-General; Indians were also appointed to councils. in Madras and Bombay. Satyendra Sinha, later Lord Sinha, was the first Law Member. Two Indians were appointed to the Council f the Secretary of State in London. In Madras and nbay, the Executive Councils were enlarged 12 to 4. Such councils were also to be formed in provinces ruled by Lieutenant Governors. An executive council was thus constituted in Bengal (1909) Bihar, Orissa (1912) and the United Provinces (1915).

Evaluation of the Act

The 1909 Reforms did not envisage a responsible government. The executive could not be driven out of office by an adverse vote of the legislature and the Governor-General in Council remained responsible to the British Parliament through the Secretary of State for India. It was this bottleneck which made the authors of the Montagu-Chelmsford Report confess that the 1909 reforms 'afforded no answer and could afford no answer, to Indian political problems'. Morley however was quite clear as to what his objective was--'If I were attempting to set up a parliamentary system in India, or if it could be said that this chapter of reforms led directly or indirectly to the establishment of a parliamentary system in India, I for one would have nothing to do with it.' The idea of India emerging as a self-governing colony was, Morley noted, 'a mere dream'.

British Policy of Divide and Rule

The British adopted different policies to counter and contain the rapidly growing nationalist movement. They encouraged pro-English individuals like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Siva Prasad to start an anti-Congress movement. Later, they fanned the Hindu-Muslim communal rivalry, first among the educated Indians and, then, among the common people through the introduction of communal electorates. They even exploited the controversy around Hindi and Urdu and the cow-protection movement. Relentless efforts were made to create a split in the nationalist ranks by adopting a more friendly approach towards the more conservative or moderate sections. In the 1890's efforts were made to separate the radicals of yesterday like Justice Ranade and others from leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji who came to be considered extremists. Similarly, in the first two decades of the 20th century moderates were sought to be played against extremists.


The British also succeeded in turning the traditional feudal classes like princes and zamindars against the new intelligentsia and the common people. Princes were won over by the creation of the Chamber of Princes in 1921. Zamindars were already won over by the introduction of the Permanent Settlement. Attempts were also made to turn one caste against another even among the Hindus. For example, the Communal Award of 1932 attempted to treat Harijans as a separate political entity.

Policy of Carrot and Stick: The British also followed the policy of apparent concession or conciliation, on the one hand, and ruthless repression on the other to check the growth of nationalism. Some were appeased by making concessions in recruitment of the Indian Civil Service, passing the Indian Councils Act of 1892 and 1909, Acts of 1919 and 1935. Simultaneously, a policy of repression was followed to frighten the weakhearted. This policy was relentlessly pursued throughout the freedom struggle and knew no bounds particularly during the Anti-partition, Non-cooperation, Civil Disobedience and Quit India Movements.

Policy of Appeasement of Reactionary Forces: The British authorities felt that the spread of modern education had been a major cause of the growth of nationalism. So, they deliberately followed a policy of joining hands with the socially and intellectually reactionary forces in order to prevent the spread of modern ideas. Plans were now set afoot to impose greater government control over education and to change its modem liberal character into a conservative and reactionary one. Modem secular education was sought to be replaced by a system based on religious and moral training. This new system was reactionary as it did not cultivate a forward looking modern spirit among the Indian youth.

19.8 CONGRESS-LEAGUE PACT OF 1916

Signed by the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League at Lucknow in 1916, the Lucknow Pact marked an important step forward in the

Hindu-Muslim unity. The pact, which res largely due to Tilak's efforts, enabled the two ] ical organisations to demand a common sche political reforms from the British governme in fact succeeded in getting the Montford Refcj It was, however, based on the acceptance communal electorates which was to prove trous for the country later. Against some minor losses in the Muslim i ity provinces, in the Muslim minority provinces! obtained a representation almost double of' they would have got on a purely numerical 1 Similarly, at the centre they obtained 1/3 i tion in the legislative council from separate Mfl constituencies. Subsequently, most of these ] pies as well as other constitutional provisions^ vided for in the pact were incorporated later il MontagueChelmsford Reforms of 1919. The significance of the pact was that it was;jj sidered to be a mutually acceptable solution < Hindu-Muslim problem. In retrospect, how is necessary to realise that it contained seeds of the country's future discord and dis While the Muslims became dissatisfied will fixed and disproportionate percentage of the^ they had earlier accepted, by recognising the I rate political identity of the Muslims the had unintentionally committed themselves idea of a separate state for them.

Evaluation of Extremism

Achievements The main achievements extremists can be summed up as follows:

First to demand swaraj or independence jjj matter of the birth right of every Indian. First to advocate the involvement of the i in the freedom struggle, and thus br social base of the nationalist movement. Evolved a higher concept of the forms of st (passive resistance) in order to improve the! niques of political action. First to organise an all-India political mov viz. the Anti-Partition movement.

Indian Freedom Struggle--The First Phase a 55

The extremists met with the following ) main failures:

(Though they believed in mass agitation, they ifailed to reach and mobilise the real masses, viz., Ithe peasants, agricultural labourers and workers. [Despite evolving a higher concept of the forms of I struggle, they could not implement it fully.

t.9 HOME RULE MOVEMENT (1916-17)

lishment of two Home Rule Leagues Two ne rule leagues were established, one by B G in April 1916 and the other by Mrs Annie nt in September 1916. The idea of starting a Rule League originated with Mrs Besant as irly as 1914 and she announced it publicly in ptember 1915 though Tilak started the league sfore Besant could.

Bin Causes for their Foundation The main es for their foundation were the nature of the iian National Congress, which continued to am under the moderates as purely deliberative r unsuitable for any sustained political agitation the inspiration derived from the Irish Home lie movement. Mrs. Besant moved a resolution for ting a Home Rule League in the Bombay Session [1915) of the Congress, but it was overruled by its esident.

am Objective The main objective was to attain tie-rule for India within the British Empire (on : lines of the autonomous colonies of Australia, Zealand, etc). For instance, Tilak, who had oanded complete independence for India during he Anti-Partition

movement had, however, made it clear in 1916 when he declared: 'The swaraj F today is within the Empire and not independent If it'.

tivities of the Leagues They consisted in nising discussion groups and reading-rooms in jfities, mass sale of pamphlets and lecture tours. ese were not very different in form from the older ate activities, but significantly new in so far as eir intensity and extent. Cooperation between the two Leagues The two leagues cooperated with each other as well as with the Congress and the Muslim League (after the Lucknow Reunion and the Lucknow Pact) in putting forward their demand of home-rule for India. While Tilak's League concentrated on Maharashtra and Central Provinces, Mrs. Besant's League carried on the movement in the rest of the country.

Significance The real significance of the two leagues and their movement lay in the extension of the nationalist movement to new areas and groups; (urban professional groups like the Kayasthas and Kashmiri Brahmins in the United Provinces; the Hindu Amil minority in Sind; younger Gujarati industrialists, traders and lawyers in Bombay city and Gujarat) and to a new generation (Jawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad, Satyamurti in Madras, Jitendralal Banerji in Calcutta, Jamnadas Dwarakdas, Umar Sobhani and others in Bombay and Gujarat).

End of the Movement The Home Rule movement soon died because Mrs. Besant overnight became a pro-British in late 1917 after Montague's promise of responsible government, and Tilak became increasingly involved in a libel suit against Valentine Chirol and left for England to fight his case in September 1918. Above all, emergence of Gandhi totally eclipsed the Home Rule movement.

August (1917) Declaration On August 20, 1917, Montague, then secretary of state for India, made a momentous declaration in the House of Commons on the British policy towards future political reforms in India. Growing pressure from Indian militant nationalists and the advocates of Home Rule made the British government to consider some political concessions for India. According to the declaration, the policy of the British government was that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of'responsible government' in India as an integral part of the British empire. The declaration, in effect, signified the transformation of the empire into a commonwealth of nations.

QUESTIONS

1.

Who founded the Amrita Bazar Patrika?

(a) Sisirkumar Ghosh (b) Girishchandra Ghosh (c) Harishchandra Mukherji (d) S. N. Banerji Bengali monthly Bankimchandra 2. What is the name of the founded and edited by Chatterji in 1873? (a) Somaprakasha (b) Bangaduta (c) Bangadarshana (d) Bengalee 3. Who was the secretary of state for India at the time of the foundation of Indian NationaJ Congress? (a) Lord Morely

(b) Lord Elgin

(c) Lord Hamilton (d) Lord Cross 4. Who among the following did not attend the first session of the Congress at Bombay? (a) W C Bonnerji

(b) S N Banerji

(c) Badruddin Tyabji (d) KTTelang 5; Who among the following viceroys became a victim of one of the convicts during his visit to the Andamans? (a) Lytton

(b) Ripon

(c) Mayo

(d) Curzon

6.

Which the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Amrita Bazar Patrika was originally a Bengali paper, but became a full-fledged English paper in 1878 in order to circum vent the Vernacular Press Act. (b)

Hindu was founded by G S Aiyar and Viraraghavachari.

(c)

Sanjibani, started in 1883, was a Marathi paper.

(d)

Bombay Times became the Times of India in 1861.

7. Which of the following statements is not true? (a) Kesari (a Maratha daily) and the Maharatta (an English weekly) were edited by Agarkar and Prof. Kelkar before Tilak became their editor! (b) Harishchandra Mukherji, one > est Indian editors of the 19th i the editor of the Hindu Patriot^ time. (c) Robert Knight, one of the few E nalists who had sympathy cause, was called the "Bayard i the Indian press. (d)

The Bengalee was foun Surendranath Banerji.

8.

Which of the following was not an i the Indian National Congress founded?

(a) Attainment of complete indep from the British, .(b) Promotion of cordial relations nationalist workers from different^ the country. (c)

Development and consolidation off ing of national unity.

(d)

Formulation of the popular dema their presentation before the Government.

9.

Which of the following is/are, true? (i) Before 1857 the British while

India treated it as one nation, (ii) The British justified their conquest ( on the pretext of benefiting its | (iii) After 1857 also they continued India as one nation because they I useful to do so. (iv) After 1857 they pursued the policy < ing Indians with less vigour, (v) After 1857 they found the usefulne

existence of the native princely stati Choose the answer from the codes; below: (a) i, iii, iv and v


(c) i, ii and .v (d) only i and ii

C156

Indian Freedom Struggle—The First Phase ••• C157 10.

Which of the following is/are not true?

(i) British scholars maintained that India was never a nation (ii) Indian scholars argued that though India had remained politically divided, culturally it has always remained united. (iii) Britishers refused to accept the Indian contention that the factors which contribute towards the formation of Nationalism were already existing in India even prior to the coming of the British. (iv) Indians rejected the British contention that nationalism in the modern sense developed in India fully only during the British rule. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii

(b) only i

(c) ii and iv

(d) only iv

11. One of the main causes for the rise and growth of the Indian National movements was the grievances of several sections of the Indian society, except a few, against the British. Which of the following sections were the exceptions? (i) Peasants and artisans (ii) Native rulers and landlords (iii) Middle classes and modern intelligentsia (iv) Workers and industrialists (v) Moneylenders and traditional intellectuals Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iv only (b) iii and v only (c) iv and v only (d) ii and v only 12. The administrative and economic unification of India by the British also paved the way for the rise of Indian National movement. Which of the following statements is/are incorrect in this regard? (i) The British unified India administratively by introducing a uniform and modern system of government throughout the country.

(ii) The destruction of local self-sufficient economy had increasingly atomized India's economic life. (iii) The introduction of modem trade and industries had interlinked the economic fate of people living in different parts of India. (iv) The introduction of the modern means of transport and communications had promoted mutual contact among the people. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii (b) only ii (c) only iii

(d) iii and iv

13. The Indian press played an important role in spreading the message of patriotism and mod ern ideas among the people. Which of the fol lowing is/are not true about its activities? (i) Criticising official policies. (ii) Urging the people to unite and work for national welfare. (iii) Putting forward the view of Indians as well as those of the British Government. (iv) Popularising modern ideas of self-government, democracy, and the like. (v) Enabling nationalist workers to exchange views with one another. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) only iii

(b) only i

(c) i and iii

(d) iv and v

14.

Which of the following statements about the Indian press is/are not true?

(i) The Bengal Gazette, a weekly paper, was started by James Augustus Hicky an English-man, in 1780. (ii) Hicky, a pioneer in the history of journalism in India, had very cordial relations with Warren Hastings, the then governor-general. (iii) The Calcutta Journal was started by J S Buckingham in 1818. (iv) The Bengalee and the Amrit Bazar Patrika were the first vernacular papers in India

Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iii

(b) ii and iv

(c) i and iii

(d) iii and iv

15.

Who are known as the 'Liberators of the Indian press'?

(i) Sir Charles (ii) Lord Minto Metcalfe (iii) Sir Thomas Munro (iv) Lord Macaulay (v) Lord Wellesley Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iii

(b) ii, iv and v

(c) i and iv

(d) iii and iv

16. Which of the following statements is/are true about the Vernacular Press Act, 1878? (i) It was passed by Lord Mayo. (ii) It came to be known as the 'Gagging Act'.


(Hi) It liberated the Indian press from restrictions, (iv) It was replaced by Lord Rip on in 1882. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iv (c) i and iii

(d) iii and iv

17. Which of the following statements about the regime of Lord Lytton (1876-80) is/are incorrect? (i) The reactionary regime of Lord Lytton gave a visible form to the Indian nationalism, (ii) The second Afghan war during his period improved the economic position of India, (iii) He arranged the, Delhi Durbar to declare Queen Victoria as the empress of India, (iv) His Arms Act permitted Indians to keep arms. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and iv (b) only ii (c) only iii 18.

(d) i and iii

Which of the following statements about the llbert Bill is/are not true?

(i) The controversy around the llbert Bill helped Indian Nationalism to take up an organised form, (ii) According to the original bill, Indian judge could try Europeans also, (iii) It was passed without any amendment despite the vehement opposition of the British residents in India, (iv) The Indians did not organise any campaign in favour of the bill. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and iv (b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv 19.

(d) iv only

Which is the correct chronological sequence of the following associations:

(i) Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (ii) Indian Association of Calcutta (iii) Bombay Presidency Association (iv) Madras Mahajana Sabha Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv and iii


(c) i, iv, ii and iii


20.

Arrange the following organisations in chrono logical order.

(i) East India Association in London (ii) Landholders' Society at Calcutta (iii) Madras Native Association (iv) Bengal British Indian Society (v) British Indian Association Choose the answer from the codes given (a) ii, iii, i, iv and v (b) i, iv, iii, v and (c) iii, v, iv, i and ii (d) ii, iv, v; iii and 21.

Arrange the following events in the chronological order.

(i) Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act. (ii) Appointment of the first Famine (iii) Passing of the llbert Bill. (iv) Passing of the first Indian Factory Act.i Select the answer from the codes given (a) ii, iv, i and iii

(b) ii, i, iii and iv

(c) iv, ii, i and iii


22.

Match List I with List II and select the from the codes given below the lists:

List I List II

(a) (b)

Digdarsana (1818) 1. First paper in Samachar Darpan 2. First Bengali (1818)

monthly

(c)

Mirat-ul-Akhbar 3. First journal i (1822)

Persian

(d) Bombay Samachar 4. First Bengali (1822)

newspaper

(a) a-4, b-2, c-1,d-3 (b) a-2, b-4, cU (c) a-4, b-2, c-3, d-1, (d) a-2, b-4, c-3, j 23.


List II 1. 2.

First paper Bombay First paper Madras

3.

A weekly pap four langua

4.

First papefj Gujarat

First paper Bengal a-3, b-2, o-1, < a-3, b-2, c-1, i List I (a) Bangaduta 5. (b) (c) (d)

Madras Courier Bombay Herald Bombay Samachar

(a) a-5, b-2, c-4, d-1 (b) (c) a-4, b-2, c-1,d-3 (d) 24. Consider List I and List II: List I List II (i) Hindu Patriot

Girishchandra i

(1853) (ii) Rast Go/far (1851) Dadabhai Naoroji (iii) Akhbar-o- Dabadhi Kavasji Saudagar (1852)

(iv) Indian Mirror (1862)

Devendranath Ta


Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) ii, iii, and iv

(d) i, iii and iv

125. Which of the following are correctly paired? (i) Statesman (1875)--Devendranath Tagore (ii) National Paper (1865)--Robert Knight (iii) Tribune (1862)--Dayal Singh Majeetia (iv) Bengalee (1881)--Girish Chandra Ghosh Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(iii) iii and iv (iv) i and iv 26.


List I List II 2.

Gokhale

3.

Mary Carpenter

4.

Ananda Mohan Bose

(a) National Indian

1. William Adam Association (1867)

(b) (c)

Indian Society (1872) Servants of India Society (1905)

(d)

British India Society (1839)

(a) (b) (c) (d) 27.

a-1,b-3, c-2, d-4 a-3, b-4, c-2, d-1 a-4, b-1,c-2, d-3 a-3, b-1, c-2, d-4 Which code gives the correct matching of the following lists?

List II

Phorozeshah Mehta List I (A) (i) Second session of the Congress (B)

Dadabhai Naoroji

(C)

Sir William Wedderburn

(D)

Badruddin Tyabji

(E)

George Yule

(Calcutta) (ii) Third Session (Madras) (iii) Fourth Session (Allahabad) (iv) Fifth Session (Bombay) (v) Sixth Session (Calcutta) (a) (b) (c)

i-B, ii-D, iii-E, iv-C, v-A i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, we i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, v-E (D) i-A, ii-E, iii-C, iv-B, vD


Instructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'Assertion' is wrong, but 'Reason' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, and 'Reason' explains 'Assertion'. Mark (d) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, but 'Reason' does not explain 'Assertion'.

28. Assertion: The introduction of western system of education and English language was an important cause for the rise and growth of nationalism in India. Reason: The Indian National Movement would not have been possible without the English language as the medium. 29. Assertion: The Indian political leaders from the second half of the 19th century onwards agi tated for a bigger role for the Indian languages in the educational system. Reason: Modern ideas spread faster and deeper in countries where they were propagated through indigenous languages rather than English. 30. Assertion: Arya Samajis were responsible for the rise of extremism in the Indian National Congress. Reason: Many of them were in the forefront of the National Movement. 31.

Assertion: Swami Dayanand was the first to recommend swadeshi.

Reason: He was the first to use the word swaraj. 32.

Assertion: British residents in India vehemently protested against the llbert Bill.

Reason: The bill proposed to establish social equality in the administration of justice. 33. Assertion: In the second half of the 19th century several political associations were estab lished by the modern Indian intelligentsia. Reason: This period witnessed the flowering of national political consciousness. 34. Assertion: Raja Rammohan Roy was one of the first Indian leaders to start an agitation for political reforms. Reason: He founded the Landholders' Society at Calcutta in 1838.


35. Assertion: Most of the pre-Congress nationalist organisations were not real representative bodies. Reason: Their leadership as well as membership was confined to a few people, and they dealt mostly with local questions. 36.

Assertion: Dadabhai Naoroji organised the East India Association in London.

Reason: He wanted to influence the British public opinion. 37. Assertion: Dwarakanath Tagore was one of the founder-members of the Landholders' Society of Calcutta. Reason: The society was the first example of an organised constitutional agitation of redress of grievances. 38. Assertion: In 1851 the Landholders' Society and the Bengal British India Society merged to form the British Indian Association. Reason: Surendranath Banerji played an important role in this merger. 39. Assertion: The Bombay Association founded in 1852 was the first political association in the Bombay presidency. Reason: The Madras Native Association was at first a branch of the British Indian Association of Calcutta, but later became an independent organisation. 40. Assertion: Indian Association of Calcutta was the most important of all the preCongress nationalist organisations. Reason: It was the only pre-Congress organisation which seriously tried to become an all India body through convening two all-India conferences. 41.

Who was the first woman president of Indian National Congress?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sarojini Naidu Sucheta Kripalani Rajkumari Amrit Kaur Annie Besant

42.

Who was the first Muslim president of the Indian National Congress?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 43.

Muhammed All Jinnah Badruddin Tyabji Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Abul Kalam Azad Who presided over the Surat Indian National Congress?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Dadabhai Naoroji Gopala Krishna Cokhale Rashbehari Ghosh S N Ranerji

44. When did the British pass a law j offence to preach nationalism? (a) 1890 (b) U (c) 1898 (d) 19041 45.

Who described Bal Gangadhar "Father of Indian Unrest"?

(a) Valentine Chirol (b) Dis (c) Minto II (d) Chelfl 46.

When did Tilak declare "Swara£| right, and I will have it"?

(a) 1905

(b) 1907,

(c) 1914

(d) 1916s!

47. Who was the first propounder oft "passive resistance"? (a) BG Tilak (b) Aun (c) GKGokhale 48.

(d) MKI

Which of the following statements;! are incorrect?

(i) Believed that political freedom;! cede social reform, (ii) Favoured initiative by the matter of social reform, (iii) Opposed British Government1 the matter of social reforms, (iv) Did not consider social reforms to be interlinked, (v) Separated religion from politick Choose the answer from the codes { (a) Only v (b) ii and v|

(c) ii, iv and v (d) Only I 49.

Which of the following staten Gokhale are not true?

(i) He was a moderate in politics, I in matters of social reforms, (ii) He wanted political progress reform to go on simultaneously (iii) He was opposed to 'passive i India as well as in South Africa., (iv) He was totally opposed to sation.


Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) Only v (b) iii and v (c) ii and v 50.

(d) ii, iii and v

The extremist method of "passive resistance" did not include

(i) Refusal to co-operate with the government. (ii) Sending petitions to the government. (iii) Boycott of government service, courts, schools and colleges, (iv) Refusal to pay rents to the zamindars. Choose the answers from the codes given below: (a) Only ii

(b) i and ii

(c) Only iv

(d) ii and iv

51. Who has written the following passage? "I say, of the Congress, this that its aims are mistaken, that the spirit in which it proceeds towards their accomplishments is not a spirit of sincerity... and that the methods it has chosen are not the right methods, and the leaders in whom it trusts, not the right sort of men to be leaders; in brief, that we are at present the blind-led, if not by the blind, at any rate by the one-eyed..." (a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) Bipinchandra Pal (c) Tilak (d) Aurobindo Ghosh 52. Who said: "The Congress movement was neither inspired by the people not devised or planned by them"? (a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) Sir Syed Ahmed (c) Lord Curzon (d) Lord Dufferin 53. Who exclaimed: "When the queen desires that none should die, when the governor declares

54. (i)

55. that all should live., will you kill yourselves by timidity and starvation?" (a) Bipinchandra Pal (b) Dadabhai Naoroji (c) Bal Gangadhar (d) Gokhale Tilak ; Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below the lists: List I Hindu Mahasabha Indian Liberal Federation (iii) Muslim League (iv) Home Rule Leagues (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C, i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C, i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, i-D, ii-A, iii-C, iv-B, Match the following:

List I Foundation of List II (A) (B)

(C) (D) 1906 1915

1916 1918

List II (A) Lord Lansdowne Women's University (ii) Creation of govern-(B) Lord Curzon orship of Bengal (iii) Ancient Monuments (C) Lord Hardinge II (D) Lord Chemlsford Preservation Act (iv) Indian Councils Act of 1891 (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A, i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A

ANSWERS

1.(a) 11. (d) 21. (a) 31. (b) 41. (d) 51. (d) C162

2. 12. 22. 32. 42. 52.

(c) (b) (d) (c) (b) (a)

3.(d) 13. (a) 23. (b) 33. (c) 43. (c) 53. (c)

4. 14. 24. 34. 44. 54.

(b) (b) (a) (a) (c) (a)

5.(c) 15. (c) 25. (c) 35. (c) 45. (a) 55. (d)

6. 16. 26. 36. 46.

(c) (b) (b) (c) (d)

7.(d) 17. (a) 27. (a) 37. (d) 47. (b)

8. (a) 18. (c) 28. (a) 38. (a) 48. (b)

9.(c) 19. (a) 29. (c) 39. (d) 49. (b)

chapter 20

GANDHI AND HIS THOUGHT

20.1 GANDHI (1869-1948)

Accepting an offer from a firm of Muslims, Gandhi went to Pretoria, capital of Transvaal in South Africa, in 1893. Influenced by Thoreau's essay 'Civil Disobedience', in 1909 he started corresponding with Leo Tolstoy whose Kingdom of God is within you had moved him deeply, as had John Ruskin's Unto This Last. But in 1901 itself he moved to Johannesberg to practise law and soon became a leader of the Indian community in South Africa. He also established his Phoenix Farm near Durban. In 1907 when the Transvaal legislature passed a law requiring all Asians to take out registration cards, he launched a campaign of passive resistance, coining the phrase, satyagraha. He also set up the Tolstoy Farm (1910) for all those taking part in the movement. His principal mouthpiece was Indian Opinion (1903). The peaceful march of men, women and children that he led to Transvaal was remarkable. Despite its initial reign of terror, the government finally yielded ground. A settlement was reached through the Gandhi-Smuts Agreement (June, 1914) which enabled Gandhi to return to India. On his way home, Gandhi raised an Indian ambulance unit in England for which, on return, he received a Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal. After arriving in India he established a Satyagraha Ashram on the banks of the Sabarmati near Ahmedabad. During the next two years (1916-18) he organised the peasant movements of Champaran (Bihar) and Khaira (Gujarat). To redress the wrongs inflicted by the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat, the Gandhian-led Congress organised the Noncooperation Movement. After a trial in 1922 he was sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment, but was released in February 1924 for an emergency appendicectomy. During the next 5 years Gandhi concentrated on the 'constructive programme'--spinning and khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, prohibition, village uplift, and the like. His Civil Disobedience Movement was temporarily suspended by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and he attended the second session of the Round Table Conference in England. On returning home, he resumed the movement but was again imprisoned. When the

Communal Award was announced in August 1932, he started a fast and signed the Poona Pact. After release from prison, he launched the weekly, Harijan (1933), which took the place of his earlier paper, Young India (1919-32). Gandhi formally left the Congress in 1934, but continued, until his death, to be the party's moving spirit. Setting up a new ashram at Sevagram, near Wardha, he made it the nerve-centre of his 'constructive programme' which now came to include among others an active scheme of Basic Education. In 1940, he briefly assumed leadership of the Congress but gave it up the following year.

C163

Gandhi and His Thought C165

, 'n"J'. i U%; I. iftl ,f

' t!i>! h//«,b'j NiCli iAt« short-circuit the due process of law so as to check terrorist activities. In the Imperial Legislative Council all the 22 elected Indian members, irrespective of their political alignments, opposed the bill. Yet it was passed ; with 35 official members voting in favour, the only i Indian among them being Sankaran Nair, then a j member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. Called the Black Act, it came to be widely I opposed. An all-India hartal was organised on April 6,1919, which was to mark the beginning of a satyaIgraha campaign. Meetings were held all over the country to signify popular disapproval of the Act. But unfortunately there were several violent inci| dents in the Punjab, Gujarat and Bengal. Deeply

upset, Gandhi admitted that in launching his move-I ment without prior preparation he had committed a 'i 'mistake of Himalayan magnitude' and decided to i call off the movement. But already this Rowlatt satyagraha set into motion a chain reaction culmi-I nating in the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the subsequent developments.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

I Jallianwala Bagh was developed as a garden by one I of Maharaja Ranjit Singh's courtiers, Pandit Jalla and icame to be known after him. When the Congress I called for a hartal on April 8 (1919), it received I Unprecedented support. Facing a violent situation, the I civil government handed over the administration to § the military authorities under Brigadier-General Dyer. Dyer not only banned all public meetings but also Idetained all the important political leaders. In this fvolatile situation a public meeting was called at Ilianwala Bagh (April 13) in open defiance of the , and a crowd had gathered at the Bagh. Apprised |of the situation, Dyer marched in and, without warn , opened fire on the crowd. The crowd converged |toward the exits on either side in a frantic effort to get ay, but shooting was directed straight at them. An oximate 20,000 people were caught beneath the all of bullets. The firing, which continued for 10 to 15 utes, stopped only after the ammunition ran out. §* This massacre was not an isolated incident, and nilar atrocities, though of lesser magnitude, were repeated at other places in the Punjab. But, on the other hand, it gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle. Thousands of hitherto uncommitted people were drawn into the vortex of political activism, and the freedom movement had at last acquired a national character.

Khilafat Movement

Causes To begin with, it was caused by the resentment among Indian Muslims over the defeat in World War I of the Ottoman Turkish empire. Secondly, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) with Turkey further added fuel to the fire. Thirdly, revolts in Arab lands engineered, at British instigation, against the Sultan's empire made the Muslim sentiments in India to flare up. The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph was the religious as well as the temporal head of the Muslim world.

Background At the Muslim League's 1918 annual session in Delhi, M.A. Ansari demanded the restoration of the Arab lands to the Caliph. The Congress under Gandhi echoed Ansari's sentiments and gave full support to the Muslim cause. In April-May 1919 the All-India Khilafat Conference was brought into being. At a conference in Lucknow in September 1919, an All-India Khilafat Committee was set up with Seth Chhotani of Bombay as President and Maulana Shaukat Ali as Secretary. The Khilafat Conference held in Calcutta (February 1920) under the presidentship of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad passed a resolution in favour of non-cooperation and decided that a Khilafat day would be observed. In the succeeding months a number of other meeting were held. When the Treaty of Serves with Turkey was announced on May 15, 1920, the Central Khilafat Committee meeting at Bombay annouced its decision to start its non-cooperation movement from August 1.

Course The Nagpur session of the Congress (December 1920) passed a resolution in support of the Khilafat movement. The Congress as well as the Khilafat Committee had agreed upon the triple purpose of non-cooperation--redressal of the Punjab


grievances, rectification of the Khilafat wrongs and the establishment ofswaraj. The movement, though had thoroughly roused the country, drew little response from the British. Consequently, the All-India Khilafat Conference held at Karachi on July 8, 1921 called upon Muslim soldiers in the Indian army to quit their jobs. Gandhi's decision to suspend the Noncooperation movement early in 1922 sharply divided the Khilafatists. But it was the Kemalist revolution in Turkey ( 1922) that took the wind out of the agitation's sails and made it redundant.

NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1921-1922)

Causes

The main causes which led to the noncooperation movement were:

Annulment of the Rowlatt Act and remedying the 'Punjab wrong', i.e. the British government should express its regret on the happenings in the Punjab, particularly in Amritsar. Remedying the 'Khilafat wrong', i.e. the British should adopt a lenient attitude towards Turkey, which was one of the defeated countries in the first World War. Satisfying the nationalist urge for swaraj by offering a new scheme of meaningful and sub stantial reforms.

Launching

When the British refused to meet anyone of the main demands of the Congress, an AllParty Conference was held at Allahabad in June, 1920 and a programme of boycott of government schools, colleges and law courts was approved. The Congress met in a

special session in September, 1920 at Calcutta, and agreed to start the non-cooperation movement, unless the British met its demands. This decision was further endorsed at its Nagpur session held in December, 1920. The Congress, therefore, under the leadership of Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation movement in right earnest in January, 1921. Programmes

The movement included certain negative i positive programmes. The negative were:

Boycott of government or semi-go^] schools, colleges, courts, elections to I the councils as suggested by the refo and finally of foreign goods. Surrender of titles and honorary offices < ignation from nominated seats in local I Refusal to attend government or sen ment functions. Refusal by the military, clerical and classes to offer themselves as recfl Mesopotamia.

Through these negative programmes, the sought to refuse to cooperate with the BrS administering and exploiting their motherli The positive programmes were:

Establishment of national schools and and private arbitration courts, known as; ats, all over India. Popularisation ofswadeshi and khadi by i hand-spinning and hand-weaving. Development of unity between Hind Muslims. Removal of untouchability and other for Harijan welfare. Emancipation and upliftment of women. ,.jj

The first two sought to remove the hardships \ to the people by the negative programmes, i last three ensured the participation of Md Harijans and women in the movement in make it a success.

Different Phases

The first phase (January-March, 1921) was i by the boycott of government schools and < by teachers and students, and of courts lawyers. During the second phase (April-June, 192 focus was on raising funds (Rs one crore)


I'Tilak Swaraj Fund', enrolling common people as Imembers of the Congress, and installing charkhas \ (spinning wheels) on a large scale. The third phase (July-November, 1921) was Iced by a focus on the boycott of foreign goods 1 on organisation of volunteer bands to organise a Iflafon-wide hartal on the eve of the visit of the nee of Wales. The fourth phase (November, 1921February, 1922) witnessed certain developments which nearly |>brought the government to its knees. Some militant Iwctions, angered by the repressive policy of the (British, were demanding complete independence pnd were in favour of giving up the nonviolence Idogma. The general mood of the people also was iiite rebellious. But unfortunately the whole move-piflient was abruptly called off on llth February, 11922, at Gandhi's insistence, following the news of [the burning of 22 policemen by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district of UP on :Februahy 5,1992.

Significance

The Indian Nationalist movement, for the first time in history, acquired a real mass base with the participation of different sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers, students and teachers, women, merchants and so on. However, the big industrialists, capitalists, and zamindars still remained hostile. Secondly, the movement witnessed the spread of I nationalism to the remotest corners of the country. Thirdly, it transformed the Indian National .Congress from a deliberative assembly into an ôrganisation for action, as evident from the various

^programmes of the movement. Fourthly, it marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity which could be seen in the merger of the Khilafat movement with this movement. j.1 Finally, the movement demonstrated to a remark : able degree the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships and make sacrifices in the cause of national independence.-Thus, though the movement failed to achieve any of one of its three main demands, it was, nevertheless, a great step forward in the course of the Indian nationalist movement.

20.4 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT: SIMON COMMISSION (1927)

On November 8, 1927 the British government announced the setting up of the Indian Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. It consisted, apart from the chairman, of six members. Partywise, there were four Conservatives, two Labourites and one Liberal. This all-white Commission with no Indian representation caused a great controversy even before it began its task of enquiring into the working of the system of government in British India, and reporting on the desirability and extent of establishing the principle of responsible government. Its impending visit to India provoked a popular political and even social boycott. All the maior political parties--the Congress, the All-India Liberal Federation, the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha--as well as the Federation of the Indian Chambers of Commerce and the Mill-owners' Association were signatories to a statement calling for a boycott of the Commission. Those who welcomed it were either splinter groups, such as a section of the Muslim league, or representatives of special or sectarian interests, like Europeans, Anglo-Indians and the Depressed Classes. The Commission, nevertheless, completed its task. Its report, submitted in 1930, omitted any mention of Dominion Status even as a distant goal and rejected all ideas of transfer of power at the centre. Autonomy in the provinces, which was to replace the Montnford version of Dyarchy, was nothing but a camouflage. Predictably these proposals were completely rejected by the major political parties in the country, including the Muslim League. Even Lord Irwin found its findings as 'lacking in imagination' and sought to divert attention by stressing the independent role of the forthcoming Round Table Conference. Besides, the Commission's findings were outpaced by events like the Nehru Report as well as the viceroy's declaration of October 31,1929 promising Dominion Status for India in the future.

C168 § Indian History: Modern India

BUTLER COMMITTEE (1927)

Along w.ith the Simon Commission, the British government also announced the setting up of a three member committee consisting of Harcourt Butler, W S Holdsworth and S C Peel to inquire into the relationship between the Indian States and the Paramount Power and to suggest ways and means for a more satisfactory adjustment of the existing economic relations between them and British India. Officially called the Indian States Committee, it visited 16 Indian States. Its report, submitted in 1929, observed that the relationship of the Paramount Power with the States was not merely a contractual relationship, but a living, growing relationship shaped by circumstances and policy, and resting on a mixture of history and theory. Further, it maintained that in view of this historical nature of the relationship, the States should not be transferred without their own agreement to a relationship with a new government in British India responsible to an Indian legislature. Later the Simon Commission substantially endorsed the Butler Committee's findings and agreed that the viceroy, and not the governor-generalin-council, should be the 'agent of the Paramount Power' in its relations with the Princes. And the Government of India Act 1935 even stipulated that the two offices of the governor-general and the viceroy were indeed separate and distinct in their functions.

NEHRU REPORT (1928)

In opposition to the appointment of the Simon Commission, an all-parties conference was convened at Delhi on February 12, 1928, which was attended by representatives of 29 organisations. At the Bombay meeting on May 19, 1928, the All-Parties Confernce appointed a committee with Motilal Nehru as its chairman to consider and determine the principles of the constitution for India. The Nehru Committee presented its report to the fourth session of the All-Parties Conference at Lucknow in August 1928. The central theme of the Committee's recommendations was the I that the country's new constitution wouldj solid base of Dominion Status. Other important recommendations of I were as follows: (i) provision for science, profession and practice of one*! (ii) lower houses in the central legisl; provincial councils to consist of members ] joint mixed electorates with reservation of Muslims or

Hindus wherever they were ill ity; (iii) no reservation of seats for Musli Punjab and Bengal; (iv) reservation of s basis of population and for a fixed years; and (v) provision for adult unive When it was placed before the Convention at Calcutta, there was a vio between Jinnah (representing the Muslin and M R Jayakar (who put forth Mahasabha view point). The former among others, one-third of the total seats ihf posed central legislature for Muslims. Thei the other hand, questioned Jinnah's locus i a representative of the Muslims and wa Convention against going back on the Consequently, Jinnah's proposed amending overwhelmingly outvoted. Thus, the Re to be a non-starter and became a mere document.

THE FOURTEEN POINTS (1929)

At a meeting of the Muslim League in March 28, 1929, M A Jinnah annou 'Fourteen Points'. Rejecting the Nehru maintained that no scheme for the future ment of India would be acceptable to Mu and unless the following basic principles we effect to. They were as follows:

1.

The future constitution should be fede the residuary powers vested in the prov

2. All legislatures and other elected bodies i be constituted on the principle of respresentation of minorities in every ] 3.

A uniform measure of autonomy sho guaranteed to all provinces.

Gandhi and His Thought a 69

4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation should not be less than one-third. f 5. Representation of communal groups should be continued through separate electorates. | 6. Any future territorial redistribution should not affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). 7.

Full religious liberty should be granted to all communities.

8. No bill should be passed in any elected body if three-fourths of the members of any commu nity in that particular body were to oppose such a bill. 9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.

10. Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Baluchistan as in other provinces. 11. 12.

Muslims should be given an adequate share in all the services. Adequate safeguards should be provided for the protection of Muslim culture.

13.

No cabinet should be formed without at least one-third Muslim ministers.

14. No change should be made in the constitution except without the concurrence of the federat ing states.

NATIONALIST MUSLIM PARTY

The rise of the nationalist Muslims as an organised group may be traced to the formation of the Congress Muslim Party at Bombay on July 29, 1929. At the same time Maulana Abul Kalam Azad who presided over the first All-India Nationalist Muslim Conference at Allahabad pledged to develop among Muslims a spirit of nationalism. Even earlier, at the Muslim League session at Delhi in March 1929, leaders of the Khilafat Conference had supported the Nehru Report. But the hall was stormed by some outsiders and

supporters of the Report were thrown out, some of whom decided to form the Nationalist Muslim Party. Initiative also came from the Congress, which was naturally anxious that nationalist Muslims should have an independent organisation to support its programme and the Nehru Report. Finally, Khaliquzzaman, some representatives from the Punjab and Bengal, as well as Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Alam formed the new Muslim Nationalist Party. Dr. M A Ansari became its president and Khaliquzzam its secretary. Though Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Rafi Ahmad Kidwai did not oppose the formation of the new party, they kept aloof from it. Almost simultaneously there was the emergence in the North-West Frontier Province of the Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan and Dr Khan Sahib, giving a great boost to the nationalist Muslim cause.

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-34)

Demands and Launching

Before starting the movement, Gandhi served on the British government a '11 Point Ultimatum', which, though did not include the demand for complete independence, represented the specific grievances of the Indians. The ultimatum included the following demands:

50% reduction in land revenue. Abolition of the salt tax and government salt monopoly. Reservation of coastal shipping for Indians. Lowering of the rupee-sterling exchange ratio. Protection of indigenous textile industry. 50% cut in military expenditure. 50% reduction in expenditure on civil adminis tration. Total prohibition of intoxicants. Release of all political prisoners.

Changes in the Central Intelligence Department. Changes in the Arms Act enabling citizens to bear arms for self-protection.

Of the demands the first two were essentially peasant demands, three to five were bourgeois in nature, while the last six represented the common grievances of the Indian people. After waiting in vain for the government response to his ultimatum for 41


days, Gandhi started the movement with his famous Dandi march (March 12 to April 6, 1930) from the Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast.

Dandi (March

The Lahore session of the Congress (December 1929) witnessed the unfurling of the flag ofpurna swaraj (complete independence). 26 January, 1930 was observed as 'independence day' throughout the country with Gandhi's call to the people that 'it was a crime against God and man' to submit to the 'satanic British rule' (Gandhi's words). Next, Gandhi decided to start his campaign by breaking the Salt Laws. On 12 March, Gandhi along with his group of 78 or 79 volunteers started his trek from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast Of the satyagrakis, who were drawn from all parts of India, two were Muslims, one Christian and the rest Hindus. On April 5, Gandhi and his party reached Dandi. Next morning Gandhi and his volunteers picked up salt lying on the coast, symbolically breaking the Salt Laws. With this, salt became the symbol of India's will to freedom. This Salt Satyagraha lasted another two months, petering out as soon as the monsoon arrived.

Different Phases

The first phase (March to September, 1930) witnessed the high point of bourgeois participation in towns and peasant mobilisation in the villages on issues like salt, norevenue, picketing of liquor shops, and non-payment of chaukidari tax. The second phase (October 1930 to March 1931) was marked by a clear decline in the participation of the urban bourgeoisie (merchants and industrialists) and also by their attempts to bring about a compromise between the government and the Congress, which finally resulted in the Gandhi-irwin Pact of March 1931. The third phase (January 1932 to April 1934) saw ruthless repression practised by the government on the people and the eventual withdrawal of the movement by the Congress.

GandhMrwin Pact

The ceaseless efforts of Sir Tej Bahadur I Jayakar and others to bring about a between the government and the Congres&J in the signing of a pact by Gandhi and . the Governor-General, in March 1931. Ac the Pact, the government agreed to:

Withdraw all ordinances and end pros Release all political prisoners, except t of violence. Restore the confiscated property of grahis. Permit peaceful picketing of liquor andj cloth shops. Permit the free collection or manufa to persons residing within a specific from the sea coast.

The Congress, in its turn, consented to lowing:

To suspend the civil disobedience move To participate in the second session of the! Table Conference. Not to press for investigation into excesses.

Gandhi accordingly attended the second se the Round Table Conference in London, but ii ure and revival of the oppressive policy by the} ernment led to the revival of the Civil Disob movement in January 1932.

Comparison between CrvH Disobedience Movement and Non-Cooperation

The Civil Disobedience movement (1930-34)i step further over the Noncooperation (1921-22) in several respects:

The former had an objective (the achieve complete independence) much greater than] of the latter (the remedying of two 'wrongs' and the demand for a vague: As the very names of the movements sug methods adopted during the former (invo

GondfciandHwTtought C171

deliberate violation of law) were evidently more militant than those of the latter (involving only noncooperation). Participation in the former involved greater risk for the people than in the latter. For the govern ment adopted a policy of ruthless repression from the very beginning in the case of the former movement. The participation of women, business groups and peasantry was much greater in the former than in the latter. The former resulted in the Congress becoming organisationally much stronger than the latter.

However, the Civil Disobedience movement was a retrograde step in comparison to the Noncooperation movement in certain other aspects:

The former was not marked by the same Hindu-Muslim unity as was the latter. This was evident from the low Muslim participation in the Civil Disobedience movement. The participation of the labour in the former was insignificant when compared to the latter.

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

The Indian Round Table Conference held three session which are sometimes referred to, albeit erroneously, as the First, Second and Third Round Table Conferences.

First Session (November 12,1930 to January 19,1931)

It was Sir John Simon, the Chairman of the Simon Commission (appointed in 1927 by the conservative ministry headed by Mr. Baldwin to report on the working of the reforms of 1919 and to recommend further constitutional reforms for India), who suggested in a letter from India on 16th October, 1929, to the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald (his Labour Party came to power in 1*929) to convene a conference of the representatives of both British India and the Indian States to take a final decision on the question of constitutional reforms for India. His suggestion was accepted by the British Cabinet, and subsequently Lord Irwin, the Governor-General of India, made his famous declaration, known as the 'Deepavali Declaration' (October 31, 1929) according to which the objective of British policy was to grant Dominion Status to India and a round table conference would be held in London after the Simon Commission had reported. It was attended by 16 representatives of the three British political parties, 16 delegates from the Indian States, and 57 delegates from British India. The Congress, which was unhappy with the report of Simon Commission, boycotted the conference but other political parties and interest groups were well represented--Muslim League by Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Shafi, Jinnah, the Aga Khan and Fazul Haq; Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and Jayakar; Indian Liberal Federation by Tej Bahadur Sapru, C Y Chintamani, M R Jayakar and Srinivas Shastri; and Depressed Castes were represented by B R Ambedkar. The conference ended with the Indian princes agreeing for a federation with a weak responsible central government (the British saw to it that the promise of central responsibility was hedged in a series of reservations and safeguards), but the communalist parties could not come to an agreement on the question of minority representation. The British realised the futility of holding a conference on the question of constitutional reforms for India without the representatives of the Congress.

December 1931)

It was attended by Gandhi as the sole representative of the Congress (according to the terms of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931) along with all the representatives of other political parties, interest groups, etc. Before any progress could be made, the conference was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue, with separate electorates being demanded now not only by Muslims but also by the Depressed Castes, Indian Christians, AngloIndians and Europeans


Gandhi desperately fought against the concerted move to make all constitutional progress conditional on a solution of the communal problem, and even offered to accept all Muslim claims provided they supported the Congress demand for independence, but the Muslim delegates rejected the offer while the Hindu Mahasabha and the Sikhs strongly opposed it. With regard to the question of federation too, the Indian princes were less enthusiastic than in the first session. The Conference ended with Ramsay MacDonald announcing the formation of two new Muslim majority provinces (North Western Frontier Province and Sind) and the setting up of an Indian consultative committee, and three expert committee (on franchise, finance and states), and holding out the prospect of a unilateral British communal award if the Indians failed to agree on the minorities issue. An out manoeuvred and dejected Gandhi returned to India and was immediately arrested and imprisoned by the British.

Third Session (1932 November 17 to December 24)

It was held without Congress representation, and was attended by a far smaller number of representatives than that of the first two. In this session, the delegates agreed on almost all the issues. The British government, on the basis of the discussion at the three sessions, drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian constitution, which were embodied in the White Paper published in March 1933. The White Paper was examined and approved by a joint committee of the British Parliament (October, 1934) and a bill, based on the report of this committee, was introduced and passed in the British Parliament as the Government of India Act of 1935.

THE COMMUNAL AWARD (1932)

On August 16, 1932, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement in the British Parliament about the representation of Indian communities in the provincial legislatures. Popularly known as the 'Communal Award', it provided for separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs.SJ Anglo-Indians and Europeans. Se

Depressed Classes were assured se constituencies with a right to vote in i general constituencies also. Thirdly, stituencies with separate communal ele to be constituted for women in all provifl the NWFP. Lastly, seven seats were to 1 for the Marathas in certain selected plu constituencies in the Bombay Presidencj^j The provision about Depressed Cl: the subject of a serious controversy, was then in jail was vehemently oppos decision (September 1932) to go on a fast | brought about negotiations with B R * minating in the Poona Pact, which ; modification of the original provision, the pact came to be included as an integ the Communal Award.

20.5 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

August 8,1940 Offer

The outbreak of World War II and India's i involvement in it without consultation byl made the Congress to demand a clear-cut < of the British government's war and peace] applicable to India. In July 1940 the Congress formally England to affirm its adherence to the goal i pendence for India and to induct immedia office, at the centre, a national gove governor-general, after holding consult1 several political leaders, issued a stateme Simla on 8 August. It promised--(i) an in expansion of the Viceroy's Executive inducting a number of Indians; (ii) the esti of a War Advisory Council comprising lives of British India and the Indian States;H promotion of steps to arrive at an agreement;! Indians on the form which the postwar ; tive body would take. Not surprisingly, nationalist reaction to ' called 'August Offer' was hostile. For it efl


nt more than the addition of a few more Indians the Governor-General's Executive Council with-transferring responsibility from the British irliament to the Indian legislature. The British, vever, went ahead with its implementation, ordingly, in July 1941 the Viceroy's Executive ncil was enlarged from 7 to 12 members, of horn four were British and eight Indians as against (Indians) earlier. But no member of the ngress or the League joined the new council.

SIPPS MISSION (1942)

hrough the mission of Sir Stafford Cripps, a mem-of the British War Cabinet, England made a rious attempt to break the political impasse in dia. The Cripps scheme was in two parts. The first art laid down the procedure for framing the ominion Status constitution. The initial step in his direction was the holding of fresh elections to (II the provincial legislatures. Along with the reprentatives of the Indian States they were to constijte an electoral college which would, in turn, elect ; constitution-making body. It also prescribed that I a province expressed its unwillingness to accept constitution, it could refuse accession to the dian Union and instead formulate its own constiition. The second part of the scheme related to tiediate and interim arrangements during the ir, which however did not propose any major nge either in the Government of India Act of j|35 or in the British government's control over the jpfence of the country. With regard to the first part, the Congress took ption to the provision for the provincial option, hich, it argued, implied acceptance of the principle f Pakistan. It was also unhappy with the mode of ction of representatives of the princely states by ieir rulers. In the second part, controversy arose the question of the status of the Executive ncil and especially its defence minister. The ngress, though conceded that Indian independ|ce could be recognised only after the war, argued without the transfer of de facto power and responsibility the change contemplated would not be of any significance. Therefore, it demanded satisfactory assurances on the question of the proposed 'National government'. When none of the demands was met, Gandhi finally rejected it by terming it as 'a postdated cheque on a crashing bank'. Ultimately, Cripps was repudiated by his own government both on the question of a 'National' government and on Defence. It Would, in fact, appear that in sending him the

principal objective had been to win over public opinion. For it had no intention to transfer power to Indian hands, but felt impelled to take the risks in response to heavy pressures from their wartime allies. It is not surprising that only the Muslim League welcomed the Cripps scheme, while most of the other political parties--the Akalis, the Hindu Mahasabha, the National Liberal Federation and the Indian Christians--were opposed to it.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT OR REVOLT OF 1942

Causes

The new popular mood of August 1942 was caused by the rout of the British by the Japanese in South East Asia. The people came to believe firmly that the British rule was ending. The steeply rising inflation and the acute short age of foodstuffs caused by the war had a major role. The British, who were successfully manag ing the war economy at home, did not make any serious effort to do the same in India. The arro gant behavior of most of the foreign soldiers (British, American and Australian) stationed in India added fuel to me fire. Calculations by the Congress leaders, a majority of whom including Gandhi, began to calculate India's national interest in the event of an Allied defeat, which was very much on the cards in. the mid-1942. British provocation before the passage of the Quit India resolution and their policy of whole sale repression after its passage by the congress were equally responsible for the Revolt of 1942.

C174 Indton History: Modem India

Outbreak

The failure of the Cripps Mission left no meeting ground between the Congress and the British government. The Congress now decided to take active steps to compel the British to accept the Indian demand for independence. The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on August 8, 1942, and passed the famous 'Quit India' resolution, proposing to start non-violent mass struggle to achieve this aim. On the night of this day, Gandhi gave his call of 'Do or Die'. But before the Congress could start its nonviolent movement, the government rounded up all the important leaders, including Gandhi in the morning of August 9. This unwise act of the government unleashed an unprecedented and country-wide wave of mass fury. Left leaderless and without any organisation, the people reacted in any manner they could.

Different Phases

The first phase (August 9 to 15), which was massive and violent but quickly suppressed, was predominantly urban in nature, and included hartals, strikes and clashes with the police and army in most cities. The second phase (August 15 to September 30) saw the focus being shifted to the countryside, with militant students fanning out from urban centres to rural areas in order to lead peasant rebellions and to destroy communications on a large scale. The third phase (October to December), which was the least formidable phase, was characterised by terrorists activity by educated youth directed against communications and police and army installations. But such activities, however, no longer posed a serious threat to the British rule or its war plans.

Significance

The British, though succeeded in suppressing the revolt, realised the advantages of trying for a negotiated settlement rather than risk another confrontation as massive and violent as this revolt. The imprisonment of the Congress leaders proved beneficial to them in an indirect way. For it helped them to avoid taking a clear public stand on the Japanese war issue, something whic would have been very embarrassing months in 1944 when S.C. Bose's INAi the borders of Assam at a time when i scale the Allies were clearly winning i The revolt weakened the leftist ties in India considerably. The 1 followers charged the Communists with? (the Communists did not participate in| because of their support to the Allietjj Soviet Union) and the latter charged the i 'fifth-columnist' activity (because of i plan to win freedom for India with the 1 Axis powers).

20.6 OTHER STRANDS IN NATIONAL MOVEMENT--REVOLUTIONARY

Formation of Secret Societies in India i Abroad

Anushilan Samiti The Anushilan Calcutta was formed by Barindrak Jatindranath Banerji and Pramotha MitteH The Anushilan Samiti of Dacca was fa Pulin Das in 1902. These were the first i ary secret societies in Bengal.

Mitra Mela The Mitra Mela was for Savarkar brothers in 1899. This society was] one in Maharashtra as well as in India.

Abhinava Bharat Ganesh Savarkar (ek of V. D. Savarkar) founded the Abhitiava 1 1907.

Hindustan Republican Association The] Republican Association was formed in j| Sachin Sanyal and Jogesh Chandra Chatterj| the first association at the all-India level.

Ghadar Party The Ghadar Party was fo Har Dayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna in 1913 USA (San Francisco).

Indian Independence League The

Independence League was founded by Bose in 1942 in Japan.


cation of Newspapers and Journals

important newspapers and journals published ring this period were:

Yugantar (1906) by Barindrakumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta in Bengal. Sandhya (1906) by Brahmobandhab Upadhyay in Bengal. Kal (1906) in Maharashtra. Indian Sociologist by Shyamji Krishna Varma from London. Bande Mataram by Madam Cama from Paris. Talvar by Virendranath Chattopadhyay from Berlin. i Free Hindustan by Taraknath Das from Vancouver. Ghadar by Ghadar party from San Francisco. Langal and Ganabani (1927) by Gopu Chakravarti and Dharani Goswami in Bengal. Kirti (1926) by Santosh Singh in Punjab. Kranti (1927) by S S Mirajkar, K N Joglekar and S V Ghate in Maharashtra. Bandi Jivan by Sachindranath Sanyal in Bengal. Atmashakti, Sarathi, Dhumketu, Bijoli, etc. in Bengal.

i of Oppressive Officials During this riod several attempts were made by the revoluries to assassinate oppressive officials. Some of ; important ones, successful or not, are listed below:

Assassination of two unpopular British officials (Mr Rand and It Ayerst) by the Chapekar brothers (Damodar and Balkrishna) at Poona in 1897. Unsuccessful attempt on the life of the It. Governor of East Bengal (Fuller) by Barindrakumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta in 1906. Kennedy murders in 1908 by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki; though the original target in this, the sadistic judge of Muzffarpur, Kingsford, escaped unhurt. (Many revolutionaries, including Aurobindo Ghosh, were arrested by the British immediately after the Kennedy murders). Attempt on the life of Lord Hardinge by Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal in 1912 when the Viceroy was making his official entry into the new capital (Delhi).

Assassination of Curzon-Willie, a bureaucrat in the India Office, by Madanlal Dhingra in 1909 in London. Murder of Saunders by Bhagat Singh, Azad and Raj Guru in Lahore in December 1928, as revenge for the assault on Lajpat Rai. Throwing of a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutta in April 1929. An attempt to blow up Lord Irwin's train near Delhi in December, 1929 by some members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Murder of Mr Steven, district magistrate of Tippera in Bengal, by two school girls, Shanti and Suniti Chaudhuri, in December, 1932.

Komagata Maru Incident (1914-15)

The Komagata Maru was a Japanese steamer, commissioned by Gurdit Singh, to transport Indian immigrants to Canada. A total of 376 passengers reached Vancouver on May 23, 1914; but they were prevented by the Canadian authorities from disembarking. Consequently the steamer was forced to retrace its steps, starting back on its voyage. The hapless passengers, all except 25 of whom were Sikhs, fared no better on return. The British, on their arrival at Calcutta, herded them into waiting trains and bundled them off to the Punjab. Canada's policy of racial discrimination combined with the British Indian government's apathy aroused the nationalists at home and abroad. By this time the, Ghadar party's activties had also reached a climax. Thirsting for revenge, the Ghadarites returned home to drive out their alien masters.

Other Activities of Revolutionary Terrorists

Other activities of the revolutionary terrorists were:

Plan of Bengal revolutionaries under Jatin Mukherji (popularly known as Bagha Jatin) to organise disruption of rail communication, seizure


of Fort William etc. Its failure due to poor coordination and death of Jatin near Balasore (Orissa) while fighting the British in September, 1915. Plan of Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal and some Ghadarites to organise a coordinated revolt on February 21, 1915, based on mutinies by Ferozpur, Lahore and Rawalpindi garrisons. It failed due to treachery and Rash Behari Bose had to escape to Japan, and Sanyal was deported for life. Setting up of the Indian 'Independence Committee' in Berlin in 1915 under Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, Har Dayal, etc. in collaboration with the German for eign office under the 'Zimmerman Plan'. Setting up of a Provisional Government of Free India at Kabul in 1915 by Mahendra Pratap, Barkatullah (a Ghadarite) and Obaidulla Sindhi (a Deoband Mullah). Seizure of the Chittagong armoury by revolution aries under Surya Sen in 1930, and the issuing of an independence proclamation in the name of the Indian Republican Army. Martyrdom of Jatin Das who died in jail on the 64th day of a hunger strike in 1929 for improve ment in the status of political prisoners. Execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Raj Guru by the British on March 23, 1931. Death of Chandrasekhar Azad in 1931 in a shoot ing encounter with the police in a public park at Allahabad. Arrest of Surya Sen in 1933 and his execution soon after. Jatindranath Bandopadhyay ended his days as a Ramakrishna Mission Swami.

20.7 SWARAJISTS

Origin and Objectives The origin of the Swaraj Party can be traced to the Gaya session of the Congress in December 1922, when some leading members including C R Das, Motilal Nehru, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Ali Brothers and others, declared that the Noncooperation Movement had been a failure. They proposed an alternative programme of diverting the

movement to a restricted one which wo Congress members to enter the legislatfl established under the Montford Reforms j to use moral pressure to compel the the Indian demand for self-government. 1 and powerful section under C Rajago ever, opposed any diversion from objectives and programmes. The former] known as the 'pro-changers', while referred to as the 'no-changers'. On January 1, 1923 C R Das formally! the formation of the new party within thq[ Its aims were identical to those of the | namely, the achievement of self-gover methods to be employed were to be dif of all, they wanted to prevent all reg tion as well as that which was inimical i interests and retarded the country's prog the attainment of its goal. Secondly, if planned to ensure that the constitutiq adopted would be suited to the conditio country. Thirdly, if the government was i live, they would obstruct normal through the councils.

Relationship with the Congress As February 1923, Maulana Abul Kalam , narrow down the differences between Congress factions. Finally in May, the Working Committee endorsed the Swa demand to contest elections on its own. Ga relented by 1925 and accepted the Swaraj'. the political wing of the Congress.

Activities In the general elections November 1923, the Swarajists successfully! the Moderates as well as the Liberals. In thef Provinces, they gained an absolute' majority\ while in Bengal, the United Provinces, Bomb Assam their gains were sizeable. Fortyeig hers of the party were returned to the Legislative Assembly, where they joined Independents, under M A Jinnah, to Nationalist Party. They voiced grievances and demand release of political prisoners and IndianisatipnTj civil as well as the defence services. They


attacked government policies, and exposed its various acts of omission and commission. In the Central Legislative Assembly the finance bill was rejected and thrown out in 1924. To pacify the Nationalists and Independents, the government set up the Muddiman Committee to inquire into the working of die Reforms of 1919.

Decline But gradually differences began to appear among the Swarajists, and in the elections of 1926 the party lost much ground--faring especially badly in the Punjab and the United Provinces and not much better in Madras, Bengal and Assam. Finally in 1930, the Swarajists boycotted the legislatures and returned to the parental Congress fold.

MUDDIMAN COMMITTEE (1924)

A nine member Reforms Enquiry Committee under the chairmanship of Sir Alexander Muddiman was set up to examine the working of Dyarchy of the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. Its report, submitted in 1925, consisted of two parts. The majority consisting of officials and loyalists felt that the system had not been given a fair trial and hence recommended only minor changes. The minority (consisting of only non-official Indians), on the other hand, felt that Dyarchy had clearly failed. It also opined that what was needed was a constitution framed on a permanent basis with a provision for automatic progress in the future. It, therefore, recommended the appointment of a royal commission or any other agency with i more free terms of reference and a broader scope of inquiry. But Lord Birkenhead, then secretary of state for India, made the expected statement that action would be taken on the basis of majority report.

20.8 THE LEFT

Causes of Their Rise

Radical sections were not satisfied with the ideals and attitude of Gandhi. Agrarian and labour policies of the Congress also caused disappointment among them. The Rise and growth of independent peasants' and workers' organizations was, in fact, partly due to a very moderate stand taken by the Congress towards genuine grievances of peasants and workers. They began to be gradually attracted towards socialism. Though not all of them were convinced of violent struggle, many of them seriously thought that national independence should be pursued wi,th ultimate object of establishing a socialist or at least socialistic pattern of society. Adverse effects of World Depression gave a further boost to growth of the left. Workers and peasants asked for better working conditions, while government and employers were in no mood to .do"so. Progress of the USSR also raised many hopes in them.

Socialists

Congress Socialist Party (1934) was founded by Acharya Narendra Dev, Jai Prakash Narayan and other Congressmen who broke away from INC in order to establish a socialist order by nonviolent means. CSP's quick advance in provinces like UP was illusionary. Much of the support was purely opportunistic. Yet CSP's propaganda did help in stimulating thinking in Congress ranks and leadership on questions like radical agrarian reform, problems of industrial labour, etc.

Communists

First Stage (1920-28): In 1920, M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji and some Mujahirs founded the Communist Party of India in Tashkent, but nothing came off it. Mujahirs trying to re-enter India were tried in five Peshawar Conspiracy Cases (1922-27). In 1924 Muzaffar Ahmed, S.A. Dange, and Nalini Gupta were jailed in the Kanpur, Conspiracy Case. The Indian Communist Conferenc6vwas held mKanpur in 1925. Its skeleton organisation was soon taken over by determined Communists, and it was later acknowledged to be the formal foundation. During 1925-27, four workers' and peasants' parties were set up. But these could achieve nothing till some communists like Spratt arrived in India from Britain. On the whole they followed a unity-cum-struggle policy with regard to Congress, criticising its limitations but striving to build an antiimperialist united front.


Second Stage (1929-34): It began with adoption of a new ultra-leftist policy dictated by the Sixth Comintern. They launched an all-out attack on Cpngress, leading to its isolation. The only success of CPI during this period was the capture of the leadership of AITUC. It called for a general strike, which succeeded, but government took its revenge by declaring CPI along with a dozen other trade unions illegal.

Third Stage (1934-40): It began with the adoption of a policy by communists to infiltrate into the Congress, CSP, Forward Bloc and different students organizations. They gained large success, but their game could not continue for long and were thrown out.

Fourth Stage (1941-47): World War II created another problem for CPI. Russia asked Indian communists to support the British Indian Government. Since they agreed to it, the party was declared legal by the government, which, in turn, secured its loyalty. This again brought down image of party among Indians.

20.9 SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE AND THE INA

Early Life

Born in 1897, Subhas Chandra Bose was deeply influenced by the intellectual and cultural milieu of Bengal at the turn of the century. In school and college he was a pure humanitarian, social reformer and eventually a political activist. By the time he graduated from Calcutta University, studied philosophy in Cambridge and qualified for the Indian Civil Service, his sense of mission was not in doubt. Subsequently he resigned from the ICS as he did not want to wear "the emblem of servitude".

Role as Congressman

Subhas' acceptance of Chittaranjan Das as his political guru during the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements was a surrender to a man similarly dedicated to the cause of

India's freedom, based on Hindu-Muslim unity. His exile in Burmese prisons witnessed the transformation of a lieutenant to a leader. A leader, along with Jawaharlal Nehru, of the left-leaning younger generation of anti-colonial nationalists. Between his numerous spells inj played a major role in the student, youth and I movements. India, he believed, should independent federal republic". He warned nationalists not to become "a queer mixture of| cal democrats and social conservatives". His demand at the Calcutta Congress ofj that "complete independence", instead of "d status", should be the goal of Indian natio was a sign that he was a step ahead of his i poraries. He repeatedly spoke on behalf of the1! of three large communities--women, de classes and the labouring masses. When the Civil Disobedience Moveme launched, Subhas was in prison. He was mayor of Calcutta, while in jail, in 1932. It' the Karachi Congress and the second sessionj Naujawan Bharat Sabha in the previous year i spoke of the need for a new Indian variant of s ism. Eventually in February 1933 he was after being put on a ship setting sail for Eu greater part of his enforced exile was spent 1 unofficial ambassador of India's freedom.' the period which saw the transformation of a 1 into a statesman. Despite being hi poor Subhas travelled tirelessly, spreading India'! sage almost all across Europe and north< Back home as president of the Indian Na Congress, Subhas provided an incisive the strengths and weaknesses of the worldwide-s rure of British imperialism and an egalitarian i of the socio-economic reconstruction of free 1 Towards the end of his first term as presid rift with the Gandhian right-wing of the grew wider over the issues related to his unc mising opposition to the federal part of the Act, due mostly to his socialistic leavings and u| tence on inner-party democracy. In 1939f defeated Gandhi's nominee Pattabhi Sit be re-elected Congress president. Faced with a ( paign of non-cooperation against him launch the Mahatma, he resigned months later. Throughout this political crisis he strong support, as ever, from his brother Chandra Bose and from Rabindranath Tagdre.'j poet who regarded Subhas as "DeshnayaK'.ji


confident that his apparent defeat would turn into a permanent victory.

Escape and Association with INA

On July 2, 1940 Subhas was arrested for the llth time. He was sent home on December 5 after he had been on a fast-unto-death for 10 days. The government had worked out "acat-and-mouse policy" of taking him back to prison as soon as he had recovered his health. On the night of January 16-17,1941 Subhas, however, made a planned escape. He was driven from his Elgin Road home in Calcutta, by his nephew Sisir, to Gbmoh in Bihar from where he went on to Peshawar. He finally reached Germany. Subhas went to Europe primarily to gain access to Indian soldiers in the British Indian Army, who were being held as prisoners of war. He had long believed that subverting the loyalty of Indian soldiers to the Raj was a crucial part of the final phase of the antiimperialist movement. The German invasion of the Soviet Union upset his plans for an armed thrust from the north-west in support of India's unarmed freedom fighters at home. Disappoined, he left Europe for Southeast Asia by submarine, a journey which too him 90 days to complete. Netaji assumed leadership of the Indian National Army (INA) as its supreme commander. More than two million Indian civilians living in Southeast Asia responded to his call for "total mobilization". In his army of liberation Punjabi, Muslim, Sikh and Pathan professional soldiers fought side by side with Tamil and Malayalee rubber plantation workers. In his Azad Hind Movement Netaji was able to demonstrate, by example, how to achieve Hindu-Muslim unity and amity and also give women their rightful role in public affairs. He proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India in Singapore and with "Chalo Delhi" on their lips the INA crossed the Indo-Burrna frontier. The promised march to Delhi was halted at Imphal and Netaji was forced to retreat on foot with men and women to Malaya. "The roads to Delhi are many", he wrote, "and Delhi still remains our goal." Estimate

"* In the winter of 1945 Netaji's soldiers were brought to the Red Fort of Delhi. The trial of some of their officers and the saga of the INA reached every Indian home. Netaji had hailed the Mahatma as "the father of our nation"; Gandhi now returned the compliment by describing Subhas as "the prince among patriots". Long after his mortal end, he remains deathless in the form of an alternative vision.

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA)

Between the revolt of 1942 and the end of the war in 1945, there was scarcely any political activity in India. The Indian nationalist movement, however, found a new expression outside the country's frontiers in the form of the Indian National Army or the Azad Hind Fauj. The INA, though founded by Captain Mohan Singh with the help of the Japanese in 1942 in Singapore, remained in a state of suspense till it was taken over and reorganised by S.C. Bose in 1943. The INA joined the Japanese army in its march to India, and in fact, captured Kohima in May 1944. But with the defeat and final surrender of Japan in 1945, the INA also surrendered to the Allies. And S.C. Bose was believed to have died in an aeroplane accident on his way to Tokyo. Though INA failed in achieving its objective, it did acquire great significance in the history of Indian national movement. Following are the achievements of the INA:

The INA internationalised the question of Indian independence, and thus speeded up the process. It proved that the Indian soldier was not merely a mercenary, but a patriot too, and hence the British could no longer depend on him for the subjuga tion of his own country. . It also demonstrated that the non-violent methods of the Congress did not exhaust the armoury of the struggle for freedom. Its organisation set a brilliant example of com munal harmony and comradeship.

QUESTIONS

1.


List I List II (i) Death of Tilak

(A) 1918

(ii) Death of Gokhale (B) 1904 (ill) Resignation of

(C) 1920

S N Banerji from the Congress (iv) Col. Young-husband's (D) 1915 expedition to Tibet (a) (b) (c) (d) 2.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, i-D, ii-A, iii-B, iv-C, i-D, ii-C, iii-A, iv-B, i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B, Which of the following is currently paired?

(a)

Anti-Partition and Swadeshi movements-- Lord Lansdowne

(b) (c)

Factory Act of 1891--Lord Curzon Establishment of an Agricultural Research Institution at Pusa--Lord Minto

(d) 3.

Rowlatt Act--Lord Chelmsford Consider List I and List II:

List I List II (i) Sandhya

Brahmobandhab

Upadhyay (ii) Bande Mataram Satishchandra Mukherji (iii) New India Bipinchandra Pal (iv) Dawn

Aurobindo Gosh

Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answers from the codes given below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) i and iii

4.


(a)

Panjabee--T Prakasam and M Krishna Rao

(b) (c) (d) 5.

Bharath Mata--Ajit Singh Krishna Patrika--M G Ranade Quarterly Journal-- Lajpat Rai Find out the correct pairing of the fotl with the help of the codes given below)

List!

Llst«|

(i) Comrade

(a) MrsAnntol

(ii) AI-Hilal

(b) Muhan

(iii) Zamindar (c) Abul Kala (iv) Commonwealth (d) Zafar Ali I (a) (b) (c) (d) 6.

i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C, i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, Match the following:

List I List II (i) Rabindranath

(A) Nil Darpanj

Tagore (ii) Dadabhai Naoroji (B) Economic) of India (iii) Dinabandhu Mitra (iv) R C Dutt (C) (D)

Gora Poverty ami\ British rule i India

(a) (b) (c) (d) 7.

i-C, ii-D, iti-B, iv-A, i-C, ii-B, iii-D, iv-A, i-C, ii-B, iii-A, iv-D, i-C, H-D, iii-A, iv-B, Which of the following novels was/were \ by Bankimchandra Chatter)!?

(i) Sitaram (ii) Debt Chaudhurani (iii) Anandmath (iv) Ghare Baire Select the correct answers from the given below: (a) Only iii

(b) i, Hand iii

(c) iii and iv

(d) only iv

8.

Which of the following statements Dadabhai Naoroji are incorrect?

(i) Faith in the good intentions of the Brl and their fair sense of justice;

C180


(ii) The Congress should not leave the question of social reforms to the people; (Hi) Belief in the adoption of constitutional methods for getting demands fulfilled; (iv) Did not consider the British rule as a curse for India on any occasion in any matter; (v) Was in favour of making the British reforms work, instead of boycotting them Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) only ii (b) ii and V (c) ii and iv

(d) only iv

9. "Arrange the following events in chronological order. (I) Champaran Satyagraha (ii) Launching of the Khilafat Movement (iii) Reunion of the Congress (iv) Nagpur Session of the Congress Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, i, ii and iv

(b) Hi, i, iv and ii


(d) i, iv, Hi and ii

10.

What is the chronological sequence of the fol lowing happenings?

(i) August Declaration (ii) Lucknow Pact (iii) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (iv) Khaira Satyagraha Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iv, ii, iii and i

(b) Hi, i, ii and iv

(c) ii, iv, iand iii


tion and Reason

Înstructions

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'Assertion' is wrong, but 'Reason' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, and 'Reason' explains 'Assertion'. Mark (d) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, but 'Reason' does not explain 'Assertion'. 11. Assertion: In the life of Dadabhai Naoroji, there was a slow transition from liberalism and mod ernisation to some form of radicalism and extremism. Reason: He was gradually disillusioned with British politicians and their policies. 12. Assertion: Till the fag end of the 19th century, Tilak did not advocate "passive resistance". Reason: Till his death, his idea of self-govern ment, meaning to him complete autonomy, did not change. 13. Assertion: Gokhale claimed self-government not as a matter of right but as a reward by the display of wisdom, experience and moderation. Reason: He was greatly influenced by British ideas of moderation and peaceful evolution. 14. Assertion: Aurobindo Gosh was the most typical representative of extremist nationalism in its intense metaphysical and religious form. Reason: Nationalism, to him, was not a mere political programme, but a religion that had come from God. 15.

Assertion: Bipinchandra Pal was a moderate till 1904.

Reason: Bipinchandra Pal along with Ajit Singh, was deported by the British in 1907 for his extremist views. 16. Who was the author of Father Daft/, a novel which glorified the path of violent revolution and which was banned by the British Government? (a) (b) (c) (d) 17.

Premchand Saratchandra Chatterji Bankimchandra Chatterji Ajay Ghosh Who was the founder of the secret society, Abhinava Bharat?

(a) Naren Bhattacharji (b) Jatin Mukherji (c) Ganesh Savarker (d) Damodar Chapekar 18. Who was the revolutionary terrorist who ended his days as a Ramakrishna Mission Swami? (a) Aurobindo Ghosh x (b) Hemachandra Kanungo (c) (d) 19.

Ajit Singh Jatindranath Bandopadhyay Which one of the following newspapers/jour nals was from Maharashtra?

(a) Kranti

(b) Atmashakti

(c) Sarathi

(d) Sandhya


20.

Which of the following newspapers/journals was not from Bengal?

(a) Yugantar (b) Kal (c) Bandi Jivan

(d) Dhumketu

21. Which of the following were the causes for the emergence and growth of revolutionary terror ism in India? (i) Frustration of the youth with the constitutional methods of the moderates and the passive resistance of the extremists; (ii) Failure of the Swadeshi and Anti-partition movements to get the partition of Bengal repealed; (iii) Protection and cooperation given by the masses to the terrorists; (iv) Growing hatred among the youth for foreign rule due to racial arrogance of the British and the repressive measures adopted by the government; (v) Influence of the Irish terrorists and the Russian Nihilists. Select the answers from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) ii, iii and v (c) i, ii, iv and v


22. Which of the following statements about the activities of the revolutionary terrorists are true? (i) Organisation of secret societies in India and abroad; (ii) Publication of newspapers and journals, pamphlets. (iii) Assassination of oppressive British officials as well as those Indians who were traitors;

(iv) Organisation of military conspiracies; (v) Organisation of raids on banks, police stations and government armouries; (vi) Organisation of mass public meetings. Choose the answers from the' codes given below: (a) i, ii, iv, v and vi (b) i, ii, iv and v (c) i, iii, v and vi 23.

(d) i, ii, Hl-lv and v

Which of the following statements about the revolutionary terrorists are true?

(i) They came mainly from the lower classes; (ii) Most of them belonged to upper castes; (iii) Most of them came from rural areas; (iv) They neglected the real demands of the > peasants and workers. Select the correct answer from 1 below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) (c) ii, iii and iv (d) 24. Which of the following was ble for the failure of the revolutio (i) Class and caste limitations; (ii) Lack of central leadership < plan; (iii) Secular beliefs of the te (iv) Lack of communication facilt (v) Ruthless and repressive polk Select the correct answer from t below: (a) onlyii

(b) only]

(c) i and iii

(d)

25. Which of the following wa tributed by the revolutionary ten (i) Setting a rare example of heroism in the cause of the i (ii) Being the first to deman

Status", much before the i (iii) Production of a wealth of i and creation of a new in and local history and folk I (iv) Establishment of worldwide i Choose the answer from the < (a) only ii (b) only I (c) iiandiv

(d)

26. Which of the following persons ' involved with the foundation of I Samiti of Calcutta in 1902? (i) Promotha Mitter (ii) Abani Mukherji (iii) Barindrakumar Ghosh (iv) Jatindranath Banerji (v) Putin Das Select the correct answer from the^ below: (a) ii and iv

(b) iii an

(c) ii and v

(d) iii and i

27. Which of the following statements i about the Hindustan Republican / (i) It was founded by Sachin Jogeshchandra Chatterji. (ii) It was the first revolutionary I elation at the ail-India level.


(iii) It was renamed as Hindustan Communist Republican Association by Chandrashekar Azad. (Iv) It was later joined by Bhagat Singh, (v) In 1929 some of its members tried to blow Lord Reading's train near Delhi. Choose the answers from the codes given below: (a) only iii

(b) iii and iv

(c) only v

(d) iii and v

Match List I with List II and select the answers from the codes given below the lists: (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C, i-C, ii-A, iii-B, iv-D, i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C, i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, 30. Which code gives the pairing of the following lists?

. List I (i) Indian Sociologist

28. List! (i) Mitra Mela (1899) (ii) Anuishilan Samiti of Dacca (1902) (iii) Ghadar Party (1913) (iv) Indian Independence League (1942) (a) (b) (c)

i-C, ii-D,iii-A, iv-B, i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A, i-C, ii-D, iii-B, iv-A,

(d)

i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D, 29. Match the following:

List I (i) Yugantar (ii) Sandhya

(iii) Klrti (iv) Bandi Jivan

(ii) Bande Mataram (iii) Talvar

(iv) Free Hindustan (v) Ghadar List II (A) HarDayal (B) Rashbehari Bose (C)

Savarker Brothers

(D)

Pulin Das

List II (A) (B)

Santokh Singh Barindra Kumar Ghosh

(C) (D)

Sachin Sanyal Brahmo Bandhab Upadhyay

List II (A) Virendranath Chattopadhyay (B) (C)

Taraknath Das Shyamji Krishna Varma

(D) Madame Cama (E) Sohan Singh Bhakna

(a)

i-B, ii-A, iii-E, iv-C, vD

(b) (c) (d) 31.

i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, we i-A, ii-C, iii-D, iv-B, we i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C, we Which one of the following is correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 32. lists.

Chapekar brothers--Day Madanlal Dhingra--Rand and It Ayerst Gopinath Saha--Curzon Wyllie Bhagat Singh--Saunders Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the

List I List II (i) Martyrdom in jail (A) Chandrashekhar while on a hunger

Azad

strike (ii) Arrest and execu(B) Jatin Mukherji tion by the British (iii) Death in a shooting (C) Jatin Das encounter with police in a public park (iv) Arrest and trans-(D) Bhagat Singh portation for life (v) Death in Balasore (E) Sachin Sanyal while fighting with the police (a) i-B, ii-E, iii-C, iv-D, (b) i-D, ii-E, iii-A, iv-B, (c) i-C, ii-B, iii-E, iv-D, (d) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B, 33. Arrange the following in chronological order, (i) Throwing of a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B K Dutta; (ii) Attempt on the life of lieutenant-governor of East Bengal, Fuller, by B K Ghosh and

Bhupen Dutta (iii) Attempt to blow up Lord Irwin's train near Delhi (iv) Attempt on the life of Lord Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal. Choose the answers from the codes given below: (a) ii, i, iii and iv





34.

Which of the following statements is/are not true?

(i) Khudiram Basu and Prafulla Chaki assassinated Mr Kingsford, the judge of Muzaffarpur. (ii) Stevens, the district magistrate of Uppers in Bengal, was murdered by Santi and Suniti Chaudhuri. (ill) Many revolutionaries, including Aurobindo Ghosh, were arrested by the British immediately after the Kennedy murders. (iv) Saunders was assassinated by Bhagat Singh and others as a revenge for the police assault on Bipinchandra Pal. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) only i

(b) i and iv

(c) only iv

(d) ii and iv


Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'Assertion' is wrong, but 'Reason' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, and 'Reason' explains 'Assertion'. Mark (d) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, but 'Reason' does not explain 'Assertion'.

35.

Assertion: The Chittagong armoury was seized by Surya Sen and his group.

Reason: Surya Sen escaped to Japan along with his followers. 36.

Assertion: Rashbeheri Bose was captured and executed by the British.

Reason: He, along with Sachin Sanyal, planned to organise a coordinated revolt in February 1915. 37. Assertion: Bengal revolutionaries under Jatin Mukherji planned to organise disruption of rail communications and seizure of Fort William, in Bengal. Reason: Jatin Mukherji was popularly known 'Bagha Jatin'. 38. Assertion: In the early stages of revolutionary terrorism in India, Muslims kept aloof or remained hostile to it. Reason: Most of the early were marked by intense religiosity. <| 39. Assertion: The daring plans and.* deeds of the revolutionary terrorists J a lasting place in the memory of t Reason: Most of the politically i pie did not agree with their political) 40. Assertion: The worldwide contacts t olutionary terrorists established in arms and shelter had important consequences. Reason: A good number of the terrorists got converted to socialists^ munists in the later period. j 41. The masses were attracted to Gan his certain simple and saintly hab of the following was/were not them? (i) Nature-therapy (ii) Experiments in sexual restraint (iii) Use of English in preference to I (iv) Travelling by third class (v) Wearing only a loincloth onwards

Choose the answer from the codes { (a) only ii (b) ii and ill (c) only Hi

(d) land III

42. Gandhi distinguished his technique graha from the extremist method of! resistance'. Which of the following is/are not such distinction? (i) Passive resistance is an act of c while satyagraha is a moral weap on the superiority of the soul-physical force. (ii) The former is the weapon of the \ the latter is that of the bravest. (iii) The former is static, but the latter is ( (iv) The former is negative in approach, I latter is positive in approach. (v) The former aims at wearing the i away from error by love and patient^ ing, while the latter aims at emban the opponent into submission. Select the answer from the codes given I (a) ii and iii

(b) only v

(c) ii and v

(d) only ii


;'?Sl ipea.

Vfyft iifev|

i tori Wchfj ir

ibuti

I the 43. The technique of satyagraha included various methods. Which of the following was/were not included by Gandhi in those methods? (i) Fasting (ii) Hijrat or voluntary migration (iii) Scorched-earth policy (iv) Strikes and hartals (v) Underground activities Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii and v

(b) only iii

(c) only v

(d) iv and v

44. Gandhi attracted the masses also by his socioeconomic programmes. Which of the following was not one of those programmes? (i) Programme of khadi (ii) Programme of industrialisation (iii) Programme of village reconstruction (iv) Programme of Hindu-Muslim unity (v) Programme of Harijan welfare Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) v

(b) iv

(c) ii

(d) i

45. The Non-cooperation Movement was started by Gandhi to pressurise the British to concede certain demands. Which of the following was/were not included in those demands? (I) Remedying the 'Punjab Wrong' (make amends for the atrocities in the Punjab) (ii) Remedying the 'Khilafat Wrong' (offer more lenient terms to Turkey) (iii) Satisfy the nationalist urge for poorna swaraj (iv) Annulment of the Rowlatt Act. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) only iii

(b) iii and iv

(c) onlyiv

(d) ii and iii

46. Which of the following statements about the Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre is/are true?

(i) The crowd had gathered in the garden at Amritsar to protest against the arrest and deportation of their popular leaders, Dr Satyapal and Dr Kitchlu. (ii) General Dyer was lieutenant-governor of the Punjab at that time. (iii) Micheal O' Dwyer was the person who ordered police firing on the unarmed crowd. (iv) Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest against the massacre (v) Gandhi returned the Kaiser-i-Medal in protest against the massacre. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i, iv and v (c) i, iii and iv (d) i and iv 47. Which of the following was/were not included in the positive programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement? (i) Establishment of national schools, colleges and private arbitration courts (ii) Popularisation of swadeshi and revival of khadi (iii) Development of harmony between Hindus and Christians (iv) Removal of untouchability for Harijan welfare (v) Emancipation and upliftment of women Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) only v (b) iii and v (c) only iii

(d) ii and iv

48. Which of the following social groups and classes did not participate in the NonCooperation Movement? (I) Students and teachers (ii) Peasants and labourers (iii) Landlords (iv) Merchants (v) Big capitalists and industrialists

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, iv and v (b) iii and v (c) ii, iii and v (d) ii and iv 49. An Anti-Non-cooperation Association was started in 1920 by a group of industrialists. Which of the following persons did not belong to that group? (i) Purushottamdas Thakurdas (ii) Jamanlal Bajaj (iii) Jamunadas Dwarakadas (iv) Setalved (v) GDBirla Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii and v

(b) i and ii

(c) iii and iv

(d) iv and v

C186 ••• Indian History: Modern India 50. Which of the following statements is/are not true about the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements? (i) At the Vijaywada session of AICC (April, 1921), the Tilak Swaraj Fund was started to finance the Non-Cooperation Movement. (ii) At the same session, it was decided to enroll one crore members in the congress by the end of June 1921. (iii) At the Karachi Khilafat Conference in July 1921 the Ali brothers called on the Muslims to resign from the army, and hence they were jailed by the British in November 1921. (iv) Some Khilafat members like Hasrat Mohani began demanding complete independence by the end of 1921. (v) The Jamia Millia Islamia was started in Delhi in 1921. Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) only iv

(b) iii and iv

(c) only v

(d) iv and v

51. Gandhi sent an eleven point ultimatum to Lord Irwin before starting the Civil Disobedience Movement. Which of the following was/were not included in it (i) Fifty per cent reduction in land revenue, and abolition of the salt tax and government salt monopoly; (ii) Lowering of the rupee-sterling exchange ratio, giving textile protection, and reservation of coastal shipping for Indians; (iii) Fifty per cent cut in military expenditure and expenditure on civil administration; (iv) Prohibition of cow slaughter; (v) Release of all political prisoners and change in the Anns Act. Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) Only ii

(b) ii and v

(c) iv and v

(d) only iv

52. Who among the following,played an important role in the signing of the Gandhilrwin Pact? (i) Motilal Nehru (ii) Tej Bahadur Sapru (iii) Madanmohan Malaviya (iv) Jayakar (v) Chintamani Select the correct answer from the* below: (a) i and ii

(b) ii and!

(c) Hand iii

(d) ivan

53. Which of the following clauses included in the Gandhi-lrwin Pact?! (i) Withdrawing all ordinances prosecutions (ii) Release of all kinds of political | (iii) Restoration of the confiscated ] the satyagrahis (iv) Permitting peaceful picketin opium and foreign cloth shops ,j (v) Permitting all the Indians to < ufacture salt, free of duty. Choose the answer from the. below: (a) only ii

(b) i and ii'

(c) ii and v

(d) only i

54. The Civil Disobedience Moven advance over the Non-Cooperativej in many respects, except a few. those exceptions? (i) Stated objective (ii) Methods adopted

(iii) Participation of women and I (iv) Hindu-Muslim unity (v) Response from business gn (vi) Participation of labourers Select the correct answers from given below: (a) iii, iv and vi (c) iv and v 55.

(b) iv and'

(d) iii and \

Which of the following were the the Quit India Movement or the 1942?

(i) The popular mood of August 1£ by the rout of the British by an / (Japan) in SouthEast Asia (ii) The condemnable behaviour of f foreign troops stationed in India :


(iii) Shooting up of prices and shortages of certain essential commodities like rice and salt

(iv) Calculations by the Congress leaders with an Allied defeat very much on the cards in 1942 (v) British provocation before the passage of the Quit India resolution and their policy of wholesale repression after its passage. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and v (b) i, ii and v (c) i, iii and v (d) All of them

ANSWERS

1.(a) 11. (c) 21. (c) 31. (d) 41. (c) 51. (d) C188

2.(d) 12. (a) 22. (d) 32. (d) 42. (b) 52. (b)

3. 13. 23. 33. 43. 53.

(d) (c) (b) (b) (a) (c)

4. 14. 24. 34. 44. 54.

(b) (c) (b) (b) (c) (b)

5.(c) 15. (a) 25. (a) 35. (a) 45. (a) 55. (d)

6. 16. 26. 36. 46.

(d) (b) (c) (b) (d)

7.(b) 17. (c) 27. (d) 37. (d) 47. (c)

8. (c) 18. (d) 28. (a) 38. (c) 48. (b)

9. (a) 19. (a) 29. (a) 39. (d) 49. (a)

chapter

SEPARATIST TRENDS IN INDIAN NATIONALIST POLITICS

21.1 SEPARATIST TRENDS

Causes

The primary cause for separatist trends in Indian nationalist politics was the grievances of the Muslim minority against the Hindu majority, due to the latter's domination of trade, industry, government service, education and professions. When the company supplanted the Muslims, they suffered loss of wealth and social status along with that of political power. The Revolt of 1857 dealt a heavy blow to the aspirations of the Muslims and made their position still worse. Western education as a pre-condition for government office also resulted in a gradual decrease in the percentage of Muslim government employees. Their avoidance of western education, keeping away from trade and industry and adherence to feudal ways were also responsible for their backwardness in the field of politics and economics. The economic backwardness of the country in general also contributed to the rise of separatist trends. Unemployment was an acute problem. There was, in consequence, an intense competition for the few available jobs. Many thought of such shortsighted and short-term remedies as communal, provincial, or caste reservations in jobs. The educational movement of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan added fuel to the fire by arousing Muslims to a sense of degradation as a community. Politically conscious Hindu intellectuals began to claim India for Indians which, in effect, meant for the majority community. The majority of the Muslims did not accept this nationalistic future of Indian democracy which did not include adequate safeguards for them. As a result, a new phase of anti-national, rather anti-Hindu, activity commenced. The method of teaching Indian history in schools and colleges also contributed to the growth of com-munalist feelings. British as well as Indian historians described the medieval period as Muslim period and the ancient period as the Hindu period. This communal approach of history came to generate divisive tendencies. Extremism and revolutionary terrorism were a great step forward in almost every respect except in that of the growth of national unity. The speeches and writings of extremists and revolutionaries had a strong religious and Hindu fervour. They emphasized ancient Indian culture to the exclusion of medieval Indian culture. This does not mean that

militant nationalists were anti-Muslim or even wholly communal. Most of them, favoured Hindu-Muslim unity. Still there is no denying the fact that there was a certain Hindu tinge in their political works and ideas.

C189


Course and Nature

The separatist tendency among a section of the Muslims reached a climax in 1906 when the all-India Muslim League was founded. The League supported the partition of Bengal and demanded special safeguards for the Muslims. Later it secured the acceptance of the demand for separate electorates. The League soon became one of the main instruments with which the British hoped to fight the rising national movement. Though no organized party of Hindu communal-ists was formed alongside the Muslim League, there was a rise in communal ideas. Many Hindu writers and political workers talked of Hindu nationalism and declared that Muslims were foreigners in India. Hindu communalism came to acquire an organized form in 1915 with the formation of the Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malaviya. Again, in 1925, Hindu communalism found another organized expression in the foundation of the RSS. Hindu communalists echoed the Muslim communalists and accepted the two-nation theory of the League. The two communities, thus, developed a narrow self-centred mentality in matters relating to material welfare and social and political status, which was accentuated by the British policy of Divide and Rule. British statesmen were apprehensive about the safety and stability of their empire in India. To check the growth of a united national feeling in the country, they decided to divide the people along religious lines. The partition of Bengal (1905) and the grant of communal electorates by the Reforms of 1909 fully exemplify the British policy of Divide and Rule. Communal groups did not hesitate to join hands against the Congress. Another characteristic was their tendency to adopt pro-government political attitudes. In fact, none of the communal groups or parties took part in the struggle against foreign rule. Above all, they shied away from the specific demands of the masses. They began as elite organisations and continued to remain so. Results

Separatist groups weakened nationalist foi due to divisions created by communal feelings^

They led to the rise and growth of cornmu organisations. They even delayed the achievement of ind ence at least by a few years. The demand for a separate state for Muslims il hence the eventual partition of India was also ^ to them. Above all, separatist groups resulted in the I social problem of communal riots and the < quent senseless massacre of numerous innd people, which has become almost a pen feature of independent India.

21.2 RISE AND GROWTH OF MUSLIM I

It was formed at Dacca in December IS Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk who also presided first session. After the Muslim deputation to| at Simla in October 1906, the Aga appealed to the Muslims to establish a s political organisation of their own. From 1910 the party's central office remained at H and was nothing more than an adjunct of fti tional institution. But after its headqu been shifted to Lucknow, its political increased. Led by the Maulanas (Mohamed 4 Shaukat AH), Fazlul Haq, Mazharul HM Fazli-i-Hussain, by 1912 it was join only many young Muslims but also son members of the Congress who, howeve their membership of the latter. Khilafat Movement (1920-24), the only nominally, holding its sessions' Khilafat Conference met. Till Jinnabl in 1934, the League's fortunes did much. For instance, in 1927, the membership was 1,330 only; in H Allahabad session, when Dr Muha presented his historic address de

Separatist Trends in Indian Nationalist Politics C191

Idishment of a north-western Muslim state in the annual general meeting did not have i its quorum of seventy five members. l parliamentary board was nominated by Jinnah 936 to contest elections to the provincial assemi as well as the Central Legislative Assembly. In unjab, Jinnah could not get any support, for jl-i-Hussain, having retired from the Governor al's Executive Council, returned to his home s to revive the Unionist Party. Jinnah's electoral pects appeared so bleak even the Aga Khan financial support to the Unionist Party rather i the League. Soon after, however, the League succeeded in vanising Indian Muslims into a political force and only to the Congress. Despite the initial bitations, the League did not fare too badly in 1937 general elections. It contested altogether Flittle more than half the seats reserved for luslims in separate constituencies and won ound 60 per cent of these. Yet, except for ngal, it drew almost a blank in the Muslim-iajority provinces. The Lucknow Session (1937) reaffirmed the lie's two-nation theory, but only the Lahore sion (1940) passed a resolution demanding parti-of the country. The Lahore Resolution was ned by the Indian nationalist press as the kistan resolution', although the word itself was of mentioned either in the speeches made or in the xtof the resolution. The League became really strong during the World War II partly due to the political wilderness the Congress and partly due to the govern-nent's covert support. By 1946 the League had a nembership of some three million and its organijiation had penetrated the countryside. In the genal elections to the legislatures in 1946, it fared very well and captured almost all the Muslim feats both at the centre and in the provinces. The [J,eague polled about 4.5 million or 75 per cent of [the Muslim vote in the elections, winning 460 out [of 533 Muslim seats in the central and provincial {legislatures. 21.3 PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

Background

During the 1930s the forces that were to shape the final form of independent India became increasingly clear. Certainly the British did not commit themselves during this decade to leaving India nor was it at all apparent that the struggle to achieve independence was anywhere near being won. However, there was a crystallization of the

Indian forces that would need to be reckoned with in achieving any settlement. If the trend of events in the 1920s and Gandhi's influence upon them had made the Congress position and its demands unmistakable, the 1930s were to provide the background against which the Muslim League was to formulate its objectives and to begin establishing itself as an organisation with some pretensions to a mass base. By the end of the decade, it had become clear who were the major protagonists on the Indian scene and what were the problems that would need to be solved once the British were forced to take the decision of conceding independence. A prospect that seemed to be in the disturbingly near, rather than the comfortingly distant, future. The framework for many of the significant developments of the decade was provided by the latest British exercise in constitution making. This was the Government of India Act of 1935. It had the doubtful distinction of being the largest piece of legislation, the most voluminous law, in the history of the British Parliament. Its size matched the length of time it had been in the making. The first stage of its creation had been the appointment of the Simon Commission in 1927 and its subsequent, and largely ignored, Report. The second was the Round Table Conference in London in 1930-32 at which Britons and Indians had jointly hammered out the recommendations to be laid before Parliament. Subsequent stages included the publication of a White Paper summarising the Government's version of the proposals and extended debates in Parliament on the new advance, towards responsible government, that would be magnanimously granted to India.

C192 IM1 Indian History: Modern India

The Ministries formed by the Congress were on the whole successful. Their capacity to govern surprised even hostile and prejudiced observers while the energy with which they implemented a wide range of legislation proved refreshing. They were able to undertake matters that had been avoided by the British administration. They tackled the problems of basic education and adult literacy; became involved in rural reconstruction and agrarian legislation; they concerned themselves with matters of public health and implemented items such as prohibition, from Gandhi's programme. On the whole their record was impressive and made even more so by control from the Congress headquarters. This gave their legislative activity in the various provinces a degree of unity, otherwise not possible while the federal part of the scheme was not in operation. There was of course some political infighting within the Ministries at the provincial level and charges, largely unfounded, were made that their activities had a communal and anti-Muslim bias. The center of the political scene was held fairly firmly by the Congress during the thirties. Undoubtedly it was the major organisation in the country and it had no effective contenders at the all-India level, despite some opposition from specific parties and bodies in particular provinces. Nevertheless, during the elections and during the formation of Ministries, it ran into problems with Muslims and particularly with the Muslim League. Partly as a result of these confrontations and partly in response to other developments, the League began to reform and by 1940 had emerged as a significant force on the political scene and one, moreover, that had come to demand a national territory for Muslims. This marked a major re-orientation. No longer was protection of Muslim interest and assertion of their separate identity enough, there was now a national demand for a separate Muslim homeland.

Genesis of the Movement

It is perhaps possible to find precedents in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries for such a demand. There were occasional Muslim thinkers and leaders who did speak of Muslim territory carved out of India.! carried little weight and had even le course of events. The community's! and interests that had been urged by! entombed in the MorleyMinto decade later, in the MontaguCheli were sufficient for the needs of the < the first half of the 1920s it seemed i cient. The President of the 1921 Maulana Hasrat Mohani, suggested-) Muslim-majority provinces be usedy weight to the seven Hindu-majority! British India, with the provinces st ter weak. Although this view move idea of a separate territory it did not 1 its conclusion; Muslims were still to i united India. Such an approach was j increasing currency and was, in IS with some force by the Aga Khan in his sovereign regions united in a voluntary, J free states.

It was not until 1930 that Muha clearest and ultimately the most ir nent of the twonation theory, publicly] position. Even then, he was somewh Muhammad Iqbal was the President of J League 1930, and probably India's and influential Muslim poet. In his maintained that the religious ideal of 1 organically related to the social order. To meant rejecting the other. In India group, each religion and each commu ous of the others existence, a future should aim not at integrating or assin values but rather of harmonising them.'. time, provided that the separate rights '$ were permitted and they were allowed;'l freely along their own lines, Iqbal i tie for the freedom of India. He also ; resolution of the All-Parties Muslim held in Delhi the previous year that the 1 of an independent India should be based ( model, with the provinces possessing aui and residuary powers. So far in his had been nothing new or startling. But hei


add: "Personally, I would go further than the demands embodied in it (i.e. the Muslim Conference resolution). I would like to see the Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims at least of north west India." Precisely what he envisaged is somewhat unclear--subsequent commentators have maintained that he foreshadowed a separate, free, Muslim nation. This seems somewhat doubtful; more likely he was advocating a virtually autonomous united Muslim north western India within a weak federation. Whatever their precise meaning, the views remained his own and were not formalised in any League Resolution nor did they become popular even among Muslim intellectuals for some time. By the mid-thirties, however, Iqbal's position was clearer. By then he considered Muslims 'a nation' and 'a distinct political unit' and was attempting to bring Jinnah around to his viewpoint-ultimately with considerable success. In the meantime, the debates surrounding the Government of India Act of 1935 had reinforced Muslim separatism since the Act reaffirmed the representation of interests rather than of numbers. It not only gave the Muslims separate seats, a convention which was by then firmly established, but also virtual perpetual majorities in the new full provinces of Sind and the NWFP, the Punjab and 48.6 per cent of seats in Bengal. But fears of Hindu domination would continue since the proposed federation would be strong rather than loose and residuary powers would rest with the center and not with the provinces. Though the movement towards a Muslim state had been advanced by a constitutional discussion, it had still not been taken to its logical conclusion. In 1933 Rahmat Ali, a Muslim student at Cambridge, published a pamphlet in which he advocated a separate Muslim State in the north-west of India. He named it Pakistan which meant 'the land of the pure' and was coined from the first letters of Punjab, Afghania (i.e. NWFP), Kashmir, Sind and the final part of Baluchistan. Again, the territorial area was delimited and did not include Bengal, where Muslims were concentrated. The idea of a separate nation, of Pakistan, had thus achieved definite shape and was mooted but, in 1935-6, it had little support and was not at all an important issue of the day. Muslim opinion accepted the reality of the community's separate interests and identity but was not prepared to go further and

consider the Muslims as a separate national entity. Within five years the opinion changed.

Growth of the Movement

Even in 1934 Muslim politics were in the doldrums. The League was disunited, its organisation was minimal and its membership sparse and elitist in nature. It had little influence upon Muslim politics which in the NWFP were dominated by the Congressoriented 'Red Shirts', the Khudai Khidmatgar, under Abdul Ghaffar Khan; in the Punjab by the Unionist Party (which also had non-Muslim members) led by Sir Fazil-i-Husain; in the Sind there were three different Muslim organisations and in Bengal too the most important and intransigent was the Krishak Praja Samiti, led by Fazlul Haq. In Muslim minority provinces like the UP and Bombay its position was slightly better but only marginally so. The League's fortunes took an upturn after 1934 when Jinnah, then permanently residing in England, was persuaded by the UP politician Liaqat Ali Khan to return to India and take charge of the virtually moribund organisation. He did so, was elected Permanent President in March 1934 and soon began to make his presence felt. At this stage, though, he still seems to have wanted to co-operate with the Congress and to work with it on the basis of equality. Communal feeling at the time was not generally pronounced, either at the leadership level or amongst the masses. There was little tension and comparatively little rioting. The elections of 1937 were to alter the picture somewhat. As part of his general programme of revitalising the League and giving the Muslims greater influence, Jinnah felt that a specifically Muslim


party should attempt to play a role in legislation. The 1936 League session at Bombay accepted his view and decided to contest the elections. A Central Parliamentary Board was established and Jinnah was charged with implementing a three point programme. The conclusions that the League drew from the elections and from the logistics of the situation created by the Act of 1935 were far-reaching. In the minority provinces, it seemed that they were fated never to form a government and would always be dominated by the Congress with its strong grip over non-Muslim India. If the federation ever came into operation, the pattern would be repeated at the center where Muslims would only have one-third of the seats allotted to British India. In the majority provinces the weightage of seats worked to their disadvantage and gave them just under a majority of the total in Bengal and Punjab. In any case, 1937 demonstrated that their hold on these provinces was tenuo. The conclusions were inescapable even though not immediately evident or acceptable. It was clear that the League would have to seek to capture the Muslim majority provinces, preferably by bringing non-League Muslim leaders into the fold; in addition, it would have to oppose a constitutional scheme that doomed it to political ineffectiveness while, as the final resort, it would have to be prepared to change its self-image and no longer consider itself merely as a separate minority within the Indian polity, but as a separate nation. One of the crucial factors in promoting this change of attitude was brought about by the aftermath of the elections. The Congress and the League had not really been rivals during the campaign and, at least in UP, a gentleman's agreement seems to have existed between them to co-operate with one another. The success of Congress, however, made it decide to form governments on its own. It did admit, and in fact include, Muslims in its Ministries provided they accepted the Congress creed and the view that the Congress was the only organisation in the struggle against the British. It did not allow members of the Muslim League to enter cabinets. The decision alienated the League and probably marked the turning point in its attitude. In 1937, at Lucknow, the League decid tinue its 1936 programme and did so hitherto lacking. Jinnah re-emphasised ' build up the organisation and to gain : the masses rather than the intellige three months, 170 branches were opened J claimed, 1,00,000 new members enroll alone. Mullahs and priests spread the| among rural and urban masses while an ( made, with some success, to capture Muslim politicians in the provincial legislf An anti-Congress propaganda drive mounted. Muslims were told they could i fair play or justice under a Congress raj plaints were made of Congress mala In the Pirpur Report and the Shareef 1 instances of the Ministries' persecution of I were cited and, generally, of the injustice I them. It was claimed that the new adminis encouraged the playing of music in mosques, did not permit the sacrifice of i that mosques had been desecrated. The truth < charges is doubtful but they did serve to I

Muslim feelings against the Congress and| improve the position of the League. When, in) the Congress Ministries resigned, Jinnah pr a Day of Deliverance. Concurrently, the idea of Pakistan had wider currency. In 1938 the Sind Provincial League used the term 'nation', in League ] for the first time while in the same year the annu sion of the League authorised Jinnah to examine ij native forms of government. It was at this Iqbal's pressure on Jinnah reached its height. In.I the Working Committee of the League formed J committee to examine various schemes and, l 1940 the Lahore Session of the League adopted! olution known as the Pakistan Resolution. In other words, the League decided that must be divided along religious lines and nations created. There were at least two natio India and each must have its homeland, its i and its own State. The problem of India wasi internal, it was international. Congress opposed I view and took up the position that being itself as ular and unified body it represented all sections«


oups within the country, that there was one Indian ition and that free India must equally be secular nd united. The two approaches were incompatible land it was another seven years before a 'solution' twas found to the problem.

[Conclusion

fit is easy to overemphasise the inevitability of the ''formulation of the demand for Pakistan and to view f it as the logical outcome of forces going back per; haps to 1937, perhaps to 1934, to 1920, to 1919 or even to the days of Sir Sayyid. The events of these years may have been significant milestones but they did not inevitably lead to Pakistan. Nor indeed did the Lahore Resolution itself inexorably foreshadow the formation of an Islamic state. In 1940 the Pakistan demand seemed somewhat quixotic, an unreal objective. It was still not widely accepted seriously even by Muslim intellectuals and leaders, much less by the middle class or by the masses. Some writers have interpreted the formulation of the demand not as a serious objective but rather as a bargaining point which the League could use to exact the maximum concessions from any future constitutional settlement. If so, then even after 1940, Pakistan was not inevitable and it does seem that Jinnah was prepared at certain later stages to accept something significantly less than Pakistan. The issue as a whole provides one of the major controversies in South Asian history.

21.4 THE POST-1945 DEVELOPMENTS: PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE

C R Formula (1944)

C. Rajagopalachari, realising the necessity of a settlement between the Congress and the Muslim League for the attainment of independence by India, evolved in 1944, a formula, called the C R Formula. Its main contents were:

The Muslim League should cooperate with the Congress in the formation of provisional interim government for the transitional period.

After the close of war, a commission shall be appointed to demarcate the boundaries of the Muslim-dominated districts in the north-west and east of India. The people of these districts shall decide, by plebiscite, the issue of separation from India.

In the event of separation, a mutual agreement shall be entered into between the two governments for jointly safeguarding defence, commerce, com munications and other essential sectors, etc.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1944)

The talks began on September 9, 1944 in Bombay, and continued up to September 27, when Jinnah announced their termination and failure to reach agreement. Gandhi maintained that since the 'C R Formula', conceded the substance of the Muslim League demand, he wanted the League to renounce its Lahore Resolution which, in his opinion, was based on the two-nation theory. But Jinnah argued that Gandhi should accept this premise and recognise that Hindus and Muslims were two independent nations.

Desai-Liaqat Pact (1945)

Talks between Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai and Liaqat Ali Khan, leaders of the Congress and the League respectively, were meant to find a way out of the 1942-45 political impasse. After Desai's declaration at Peshawar on April 22, 1945, Liaqat Ali published the gist of the agreement. According to it, the Congress and the League would form the interim government at the centre on the following lines: (i) nomination of equal number of persons by both in the central executive; and (ity representation of the minorities, in particular of the scheduled castes and the Sikhs. Known as the Desai-Liaqat pact, it was never formally endorsed either by the Congress or the League.

Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (1945)

After the failure of the Gandhi-Jinnah talks based on the C R Formula, Lord Wavell, the then governor-general, offered a new plan to end the Constitutional


deadlock. He summoned a conference of the leaders of all the Indian political parties and interest groups at Simla in 1945 to discuss it. His plan proposed to leave the executive council completely in charge of the Indians, excepting the commander-in-chief, and to give equal representation to the Muslims and Hindus in the council. This was to be an interim arrangement till a new constitution was drafted for India. But the plan as well as the conference ended in failure due to the unreasonable attitude of the Muslim League, headed by Jinnah. He wanted that the League alone should choose the Muslim members of the Executive Council, which was, however, not acceptable to the Congress.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

In the 1945 general elections of England, the Conservatives under Churchill were routed by the Labour Party under C R Attlee who took over as The new prime minister. Soon after Lord Wavell was summoned to London and informed that Britain had made up its mind to quit India. Later, in the same year (1945-46) elections were held in India also to the provincial assemblies and the legislative assembly at the centre. In these general elections, the Congress won 57 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. The Muslim League captured all the 30 seats reserved for Muslims. In the provinces, while in 1937 the Congress had 714 seats, in 1946 it won 923. The League did even better: in 1937, its representatives numbered a bare 109 out of the Muslim quota of 492; in 1946, it won 425 seats, its percentage going up to eighty-six. On March 24, 1946, a special mission of cabinet ministers consisting of Lord PethickLawrences, Sir Stafford Cripps and A V Alexander came to India to help her to achieve freedom as speedily as possible. The mission spent nearly five weeks in discussions with the representatives of the Indian States as well as those of British India. Finally, a conference of leaders of the Congress and League was begun at Simla on May 5 to consider the grouping of

provinces; character of the federal union; setting up of a constitution-making machinery. When the Congress and League differences \ found to be irreconcilable, the conference! closed. On May 16 the mission published a i ment putting forward their recommendations, wl came to be known as the Cabinet Mission Pla main provisions were as follows:

1. A Union of India, comprising both British 1 and princely states, should deal with three i viz. foreign affairs, defence and communicatio It should have an executive as well as a leg 2. ture. 3. All subjects other than the Union subjects i residuary powers should vest in the provinc British India. 4.

The princely states would retain all subjects < than, those ceded to the Union.

5.

Provinces should be free to form groups (sub$ eral).

6. The constitution of the Union and the should contain a provision whereby any prov could by a majority vote of its legislative i bly call for a reconsideration of the terms of j constitution after an initial period often ye 7. The formation of a constituent assembly on 1 basis of the recently elected provincial leg tures by allotting to each province a total nu of seats proportional to its population. Elec were to be held by a method of proportional i resentation with single transferable vote. 8. To carry on the country's administration wh the constitution-making was proceeding, j| interim government having the support of i major political parties should be set up.

The proposed Constituent Assembly was to con of 292 members from British India and 93 from I Indian States. The British India members were toj divided into 210 General (viz., all those who not Muslims or Sikhs), 78 Muslim and 4 Sikh i In the preliminary meeting, the Assembly was elect not only a chairman and other office bearers 1 also an advisory committee. Next it divided


) three sections consisting of groups of Provinces K, 'B', 'C'. Provinces, thus, put in group 'A' were Bombay, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Provinces and Orissa; Group 'B' consisting Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province and pind; and Group 'C', Bengal and Assam. Further, it was provided that any decision about he secession of any province from a group would be ken by the legislature of that province after the st general election under the new constitution. Both the Congress and the League were quite nbivalent in their reaction to the Cabinet Mission oposals. And about the issue of filling posts in the oposed interim government, there was more disement. Thus Cabinet Mission got exasperated in its (tempts to find a meeting ground between the two lajor political parties. For members of the Mission ieould satisfy neither the Congress nor the League. |Finally they left for England on 29 June. The Congress agreed to contest the election and Itake part in the constituent assembly, but refused to tjoin the interim government. The Muslim League [[approved the plan and expected the viceroy to call on it to form the interim government. But the (viceroy refused to do so. There upon the Muslim [league withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet [Mission plan. On August 12, 1946, Wavell called upon the | Congress to form the interim government. The (Congress reversed its original decision and agreed to I form the interim government. At first the League did Inot take part in the interim government, but later it ijoined the government. The League refused to par-I ticipate in the constituent assembly that met to draft I the constitution. It continued its insistence on Pakistan and called upon the British government to dissolve the constituent assembly.

1 Direct Action Day

[ The League decided on July 30 that August 16 would I be observed as 'Direct Action Day' throughout the i country. In this tense situation, the viceroy's decision to invite the Congress to form the interim government at the centre added fuel to the fire. In Calcutta, on August 16, the League organised public demonstrations and hartals,

resulting in clashes and rioting all over the city. The mob fury continued for four consecutive days, after which normalcy was gradually restored. The Bengal government led by the League leader, H S Suhrawardy had declared August 16 a public holiday which made things worse. Nor did it call the army until the situation had got completely out of hand.

Interim Government (1946-47)

The personnel and portfolios of the composite fourteen member government were-Jawaharlal Nehru (vice-president of the Executive Council, External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations); Valabhbhai Patel (Home, Information and Broadcasting); Baldev Singh (Defence); Dr John Matthai (Industries and Supplies); C Rajagopalachari (Education); C H Bhabha (Works, Mines and Power); Rajendra Prasad (Food and Agriculture); Asaf Ali (Railways); Jagjivan Ram (Labour); Liaqat Ali Khan (Finance); T T Chundrigar (Commerce); Abdur Rab Nishtar (Communications); Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Health); and Jogendra Nath Mandal (Law). The first nine represented the Congress, while the last five belonged to the League.

Constituent Assembly (1946-50)

Elections to the Constituent Assembly were over by the end of June 1946. Out of a total of 292 seats allotted to British Indian, 4 remained vacant because of the Sikh refusal to join the Assembly. The remaining 288 were divided into three sections: 'A', 'B' and 'C'. In Section 'A' Congress won 162 general and two Muslim seats, the League 19 and the Independents one. In group 'B' the Congress won 7 general and 2 Muslim seats; the League 19, the Unionist Party 3, Independents one. In group 'C', the Congress won 32, the League 35, the Communists 1, the Scheduled

C198 ^Hi Indian History: Modern India

Castes 2 and the Krishak Praja Party 1. Thus totally the Congress won 201; the Muslim League 73; there were 8 independents and 6 members from other parties. The Assembly held its first meeting on December 9 in the Library of the Council Chamber and 205 members attended. The League representatives abstained, as did those from the Indian States. As part of the preliminary business, the Assembly elected a committee of 15 to frame the rules of procedure, and Dr Rajendra Prasad as Chairman. The most important resolution known as the 'Objective Resolution' was adopted by the Assembly on January 22, 1947. It was later to be incorporated substantially into the Preamble of the Indian Constitution. After nearly three years of strenuous work, the constitution was finally adopted by the Assembly on November 26, 1949 and came into force on January 26, 1950.

Mountbatten Plan and Achievement of Freedom (1947)

Lord Mountbatten, who replaced Lord Wavell as the Viceroy in March 1947, resolved to effect the transfer of power at the earliest opportunity, and worked out a compromise plan after long discussions with the leaders of the Congress and the League. According to his plan, India was to be free but not united. The main contents of the plan were:

June Third Plan (1947)

1. Though the work of the existing Constituent Assembly was to be continued, the constitution framed by it was not applicable to those parts of India unwilling to accept it. 2. For ascertaining the wishes of the different parts of the country, two alternative suggestions were made, viz. (i) through the existing Constituent Assembly which would be joined by the repre sentatives of the dissident parts; or (ii) through separate constituent assemblies representative of the dissident parts.

3. In the case of provinces, the following'a ments were made: (i) in the Punjab and| the legislative assembly would be divid sections, one for members belonging Muslimmajority districts and the others non-Muslim districts. If they opted for ] of the provinces, each section would jo constituent assembly preferred by the ] (ii) the

legislative assembly of a provinc decide which constituent assembly the would join; (iii) in the NWFP this choice^ be exercised through a referendum; (if district of Sylhet in Assam would also i its choice by means of a referendum; governor-general would prescribe the and mode of ascertaining the will of the ] Baluchistan; (vi) there would be elections il of the Punjab, Bengal and in Sylhet to < representatives for their respective assemblies. 4. Negotiations were to be held--(i) successor governments concerning the subjects; (ii) between the successor gove and England for treaties in regard to mail ing out of the transfer of power; (iii) betwfl parts of the partitioned provinces cc administration of provincial subjects. 5. With regard to the Indian States, the Britia eminent would cease to exercise the paramduntcy. It would then be open to thel to enter into political relations with the! governments.

Indian Independence Act (1947)

A bill was rushed through the British Parlia the short span of 12 days (4-16 July) and i Royal assent on July 18 to become an act.' fixed August 15, 1947 as the date for setting \ two Dominions. It specified the territorial di| of India and the constitution of two provinces! in the Punjab and Bengal. It provided for a i governor-general for each Dominion and a le ture each.

Separatist Trends in Indian Nationalist Politics CONGRESS SESSIONS

C199

Syed Badruddin Tyabji George Yule Sir William Wedderburn Sir Pherozeshah Mehta Anandacharlu W C Bonnerji Dadabhai Naoroji A Webb Surendranath Banerji M Rahimtullah Sayani C Sankaran Nair Anandamohan Bose Romesh Chandra Dutt N G Chandravarkar E Dinsha Wacha Surendranath Banerji Madanmohan Malaviya Sir William Wedderburn Bishan Narayan Dhar R N Mudhalkar Syed Mahomed Bahadur Bhupendranath Bose Syed Hassan Imarn Madanmohan Malaviya 1885

WCI Bombay

1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 189£ 18§5 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905

Calcutta Madras Allahabad Bombay Calcutta Nagpur Allahabad Lahore Madras Poona Surer Calcutta Amraoti Madras Lucknow Lahore Calcutta Ahmedabad Madras Bombay Banaras

Dada Syed Georj SirW SirPf Anam WCI Dada A We MRa CSai Anani Rom* NG( EDin Surer Lalmc SirH* GKC

1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1918

Calcutta Dada Surat Rash Madras Rash Lahore Mada Allahabad SirW Calcutta Bisha Patna RNf Karachi Syed Madras Bhup Bombay SirS Lucknow Acr Calcutta Mrs. / Bombay (special) Syed Delhi Mada

Attended by 72 delegates to Number of delegates increased 436 First Muslim president First English president Number of delegates rose to 1889

The word swaraj used for the first time by the president Congress split and session broke up. A constitution for the Congress

Congress merger & pact with Muslim League First Woman President

Resignation of moderates like S N Banerji


1919 Amritsar Pandit Motilal Nehru 1920 Calcutta (special) Lala Lajpat Rai ,^^H 1920 Nagpur C Vijaya Raghavachariyar Change in the constitution ofjH Congress ^1 1921 Ahmedabad Hakim Ajmal Khan President C R Das was in prisoriH (acting president) 1 1922 1923 1923

Gaya CRDas Formation of Swaraj Party Delhi (Special) Abul Kalam Azad Youngest president Coconada Maulana Muhammad AN 1

1924

Belgaon

1925 Cawnpore 1926 Gauhati 1927 Madras the insistence off

Mahatma Gandhi

1

Mrs. Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman president JB Srinivas Ayangar 1 M A Ansari Independence Resolution passeiB the first time at

Nehru 9 1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru First All India Youth Congress m 1929 Lahore 'Jawaharlal Nehru Pooma Swaraj Resolution M 1930 No session But J L Nehru continued as the President. 1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on Fundamental Rial and National Economic Policy 1 1 1932 Delhi R D Amritlal 1933 Calcutta Mrs. NeHie Sengupta 1 1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad Formation of Congress SocifH Party 1 1935 No session But R Prasad continued as the President ;:1 1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru 1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First session to be held in a villagd 1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra Bose 1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose Resignation of Bose (Rajana Prasad took over) and formation] Forward Bloc ,1 1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad 1941-1945 No session But Azad continued to J be the president

1

I 1946 1947

Meerut J B Kripalani ? Delhi Rajendra Prasad .^

QUESTIONS

|1. All the establisned political partiesand groups, except two, boycotted the Simon Commission. Which were those two? (i) Hindu Mahasabha (H) Justice Party (iii) Muslim League (iv) Punjab Unionists Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) only ii

(b) only iii

(c) ii and iv

(d) iii and iv

j-2. Who among the following capitalists served as a AICC treasurer for many years and went to jail in 1930? (a) GDBirla (b) Jamanlal Bajaj (c) J R D Tata (d) Walchand Hirachand ; 3. Which of the following novels were written by Premchand? (i) Premashram

(h) CharAdhyay

(Hi) Rangbhumi

(iv) Godan

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iv (b) i and iv (c) i, iii and iv (d) ii and Hi 4.

Who made the 'Deepavali Declaration' and when?

(a) Lord Irwin in 1929 (b) Lord Linlithgow in 1940 (c) Gandhi in 1930 (d) Subhas Bose in 1941 5. Who said: Tjjte Muslims were fools to ask for safeguards, t»nd the Hindus ware greater fools to refuse them'? (a) JawaharlaJ Nehru (b) Abul Kalam Azad (c) Muhammad Ali (d) Subhas Bose 6. Who said: This orderly disciplined anarchy should go, and if as a result there is complete lawlessness I would risk it? (a) Jawaharlal Nehru (b) Gandhi

(c) Rajagopalachari (d) Vallabhbhai Patel 7. When was the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) founded? (a) 1905 (b) 1907 (c) 1917 8.

(d) 1927

What is the name of the newspaper published by the Indian Muslim League?

(a) Quam

(b) Inquilab

(c) Star of India 9.

(d) Bombay Chronicle

Match List I List II and choose the answer from the codes given below the lists:

List I List II (i) Formation of the

(A) 1922

Swaraj Party (ii) First meeting of

(B) 1925

the All India Youth Congress (iii) Foundation of the (C) 1927 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) (iv) First convention of (D) 1928 the AH India States Peoples' Conference (a) (b) (c) (d)

i-B, «-0, Wi-C. iv-A i-A, ii-B, iii-D, iv-C i-A, u-D, jji-B, iv-C i-B, K-A, Ki-C, iv-D 10. Match the following:

LMI

Ltet II

(i) Appointment of the (A) Lord Reading Simon Commission (ii) Government of (B) Lord Irwin

India Act of 1935 (iii). Repeal of the

(C) Lord Wellingdon

RowtattAct (iv) Cripps Mission (D) Lord Linlithgow (a) (b) (c) (d) m

C201

i-B, ii-C, iii-A, iv-D i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D i-C, ii-A, iii-D, iv-B i-B, ii-D, Hi-C, iv-A


11.


(a)

Formation of the All India Kisan Sabha-- 1935

(b)

Foundation of the Congress Socialist Party--1934

(c) (d)

Foundation of the Forward Block--1936 Foundation of the Communist Party of India--1939

12.

Which of the following are correctly paired?

List I List II (i) Separation of

Lord Reading

Burma from India (ii) Appointment of

Lord Irwin

Indian States Commission (iii) Holding of exami-

Lord Wellington

nations for the ICS in England and India simultaneously (iv) August Offer

Lord Linlithgow

Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) ii and iv 13.

(d) iii and iv


List I List II (i) Death of Motilal Nehru

1925

(ii) Death of Lajpat Rai

1928

(iii) Death of C R Das 1931 (iv) Death of Rabindranath Tagore 1941 Which of the above are incorrectly matched and choose the answer form the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) i and iii (c) ii and iv 14. lists:

(d) iii and iv

Match List I and List II and select the answer from the codes given below the

List I (i) Nagpur Session (1920)

(ii) Madras Session (1927)

(iii) Calcutta Session (1928) List II (A)

Changes in the constitution of the Congress

(B)

Return of Gandhi to active politics after six years

(C) Independence Resolution passed for the first time at the instance of Jawaharial Nehru

(iv) Lahore Session (1929) (D) Re Fuun Rights i

Natic ec (v) Karachi Session (E) Poomal (1931) Resell (a) (b) (c) (d) 15.

i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, vD i-D, ii-B, iii-C, iv-E, v-A i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, vD i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-E, v-A Find out the correct pairing of the from the codes given below the Ii:

List I (i) First session of

(A) Lord I

Round Table Conference (ii) Beginning of

(B) Lord I

Indianisation of the officer cadre in the Indian Army (iii) Cabinet Mission (C) Lord I Plan (iv) Formation of

(D) Lord1!

Congress Ministries in the provinces (a) i-B, ii-A, iii-D, iv-C (b) i-A, (c) i-B, ii-A, iii-C, iv-D (d) iC, 16. Arrange the following in chronologi (i) Second session of Round Table1 (ii) Gandhi-lrwin Pact (iii) Communal Award (iv) Third session of Round Table (v) Poona Pact Select the correct answer from the"6 below:

(a) ii, i, iv, v, and iii (b) ii, i, iv, (c) ii, iii, i, iv and v (d) ii, i, iv; 17. Arrange the following in historical (i) Escape of Subhas Chandra (ii) Celebration of the "Del the Muslim League (iii) Resignation of the Congress (iv) Lahore resolution of the Li ing separate state for Muslims (v) "Quit India" Resolution by the


Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, iv, ii, i and v (b) iii, i, ii, iv and v (c) iii, ii, iv, i and v (d) iii, iv, i, ii and v Which is the correct chronological order of the following events? (i) Simla Conference (ii) Formation of the Azad Hind Fauz (iii) Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (iv) 'Naval Mutiny (v) INA Trials Choose the answer from the codes given below the lists: (a) i, iii, ii, iv and v (b) ii, iii, i, v and iv (c) ii, i, iv, iii and v (d) i, iii, ii, y and iv Which is the correct sequence of the following events? (i) Formation of the Interim Government by the Congress (ii) Cabinet Mission

(iii) Direct Action Day by the Muslim League (iv) Recall of Lord Wavell and appointment of Lord Mountbatten as the viceroy (v) Joining of the Muslim League in the Interim Government Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, i, v and iv (b) ii, i, iii, iv and v (c) ii, iii, i, iv and v (d) ii, i, iii, v and iv Arrange the following viceroys in chronological order: (i) Lord Linlithgow (ii) Lord Irwin (iii) Lord Wellington (iv) Lord Wavell (v) Lord Reading Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iii, v, i and iv (b) v, iii, ii, i and iv (c) v, ii, iii, i and iv (d) ii, v, iii, i and iv

Brtion and Reason

Mark (a) if 'Assertion' is correct, but 'Reason' is wrong. Mark (b) if 'Assertion' is wrong, but 'Reason' is correct. Mark (c) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, and 'Reason' explains 'Assertion'. Mark (d) if both 'Assertion' and 'Reason' are correct, but 'Reason' does not explain 'Assertion'. 21. Assertion: Gandhi's technique of satyagraha was based on the twin concepts of truth (safya) and non-violence (ahimsa). Reason: The literal meaning of satyagraha is holding on to truth. 22. Assertion: According to Gandhi, civil disobedi ence was a strong and extreme form of politi cal agitation.

Reason: Civil disobedience, in Gandhi's opinion, could be more dangerous and powerful than armed rebellion. 23. Assertion: The bill which later became the Rowlatt Act was opposed unanimously by all the non-official Indian members in the Imperial Legislative Council. Reason: The bill proposed to give unlimited power to the government to arrest and imprison anyone without trial. 24. Assertion: An important feature of the Non-Cooperation Movement was the large number of strikes by the labourers. Reason: Gandhi himself included strikes in the various programmes of the NonCooperation Movement. 25. Assertion: The Indian nationalist movement for the first time in its history acquired a real mass base during the Non-Cooperation Movement. Reason: A large number of peasants and workers participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement. 26. Assertion: Gandhi's eleven point ultimatum to Lord Irwin in January 1930 was considered by many Congressmen as a sad climb-down from the Poorna Swaraj Resolution. Reason: It included, among others, the demand for only 'Dominion Status' and not complete independence. 27. Assertion: The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FCCI) opposed the Civil Disobedience Movement. Reason: G D Biria donated between one to five lakh rupees to the Civil Disobedience Movement. 28. Assertion: The second session of Round Table Conference failed to achieve anything. Reason: The British refused to commute the death sentence on Bhagat Singh and his


comrades to life imprisonment, and carried on their execution. 29. Assertion: Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in the Yeravadajail in protest against the Communal Award of Ramsay Mac Donald. Reason: The Communal Award proposed to introduce, among others, separates elec torates for the untouchables. 30. Assertion: Civil Disobedience Movement marked a major step forward in the emancipa tion of Indian women. Reason: A large number of women took active participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement. 31. Assertion: C Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai resigned from the Congress in July 1942. Reason: They had differences with Gandhi on the question of starting a mass movement dur ing the course of the war. 32. Assertion: The Revolt of 1942 or the August Rebellion attained its maximum popular inten sity in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western and northern Bihar. Reason: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar J imum concentration of British 1 outbreak of the Revolt. 33.

Assertion: Gandhi started an Untouchability League in 1932 to I untouchability.

Reason: He also started Young In paper in 1933, to campaign again bility. 34. Assertion: The 'August Offer' of Lin posed to give 'Dominion Status' tol diately. Reason: The Congress rejected ' Gandhi Started his programme satyagraha, with Vinoba Bhave satyagrahi and Nehru as the secon 35. Assertion: Subhas Chandra Pattabhi Sitaramayya in his president of the Congress at the TiJ sion on 1939. Reason: Sitaramayya's candidati election was supported by Gandhi.

ANSWERS

1.(c)

2.(b)

11. (b) 12. (c) 21. (d) 22. (c) 31. (c) 32. (a)

3.(c) 13.(b) 23. (c) 33. (a) 4. (a) 14. (c) 24. (a) 34. (b) 5.(b) 15. (a) 25. (c) 35. (d) 6.(b) 16.(d) 26. (a) 7.(d) 17. (c) 27. (b) 8.(c) 18. (b) 28. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a) 19. (a) 20. (c) 29. (c) 30. (c)

C205

chsptor

INDIA INDEPENDENT TO 1964

22.1 INTRODUCTION

Freedom arrived at midnight for the new India. As August 14, 1947 drew to a close, Jawaharlal Nehru, the man about to become India's first prime minister, uttered these words: "Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom...A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance...We have to build the noble mansion of free India where all her children may dwell." Noble words, lofty ambitions. But, even as Nehru moved his listeners with those sentiments, he knew the mountains that lay ahead would be formidable and perhaps insurmountable. Consider the scenario at the time. A vast and poor country, economically in a shambles, unable to feed itself, its people overwhelmingly illiterate, torn by caste and religion, and--with the population already at 350 million--on the verge of becoming seriously overcrowded. Added to that was the formation of Pakistan, a chunk of the subcontinent that had broken away, shattering the dream of a unified India. Building a democratic government

However, the dark clouds had a few silver liij India was rich, in raw materials and resources. The British had left behind a solid i system. The judiciary and legal system were j ally efficient. The civil services were held in jj regard. And, of course, there was the ex Britain's own parliamentary system of gove for India to follow. Indian intellectuals and i cians alike admired that system and eve adopted it, with some modifications. On January 26, 1950, India changed its from a dominion in the British Commonwealth! full-fledged republic, albeit still a member of Commonwealth. In the same year India's co tion was completed. Reflecting the vision of I and his colleagues, it defined the new India; "democratic socialist secular republic." Ea those adjectives is laden with significance i better or for worse, they have helped shape into what it is today. The democracy that modern India's fou fathers envisaged was one in which each citj would have a say, by way of free speech and i ballot box. The secular nature of the fie

nation would ensure that all religions and were equal, despite the fact that the overwheh majority of Indians were Hindu.

C206

India Independent to 1964 C207

Benevolent socialism, controlled capitalism

[ The socialist aspect was harder to define and adhere | to. The Congress party was too fractious even then [ to adopt an out and out socialist platform. Even dur-I ing its most left-wing period, in the 1950s, the party included a vocal conservative faction. The prime |minister himself was a Fabian, with his democratic ^socialist beliefs shaped by the policies he was [exposed to during the 1920s and 30s. But Nehru had talso seen the damage that Marxist-Communist poli|cies had caused to political rights and sustained ecofnomic growth in the Soviet Union. Hence, in the Jnational interest he tried to wield a form of socialism |in which the flow of capital would be controlled by Ithe central government. I, Nehru's vision of a vast public sector, idealistic Chough it was, ultimately gave rise to a host of probs. Red tape, inefficiency and corruption, long anifest in the system, became even more ntrenched. State-owned industries, protected from npetition, became complacent and churned out dy products. Scarce capital was wasted on propping up failures in the public sector. Bribery became >way to get around cumbersome bureaucracy at all vels.

ilia's non-aligned policy

all his commitment to economic and social iicymaking, perhaps Nehru's greatest passion lay l the realm of diplomacy and international policy. I'the 1950s, along with President Nasser of Egypt President Tito of Yugoslavia, Nehru helped I the Non Aligned Movement, whose members flwed not to take sides in the Cold War. Nehru saw the non-aligned philosophy as a force peace and an opportunity to inject the pacifist Js of Mahatma Gandhi in situations of conflict, t.to the United States and some of its allies, India ired to be favoring Moscow over Washington. , Then there was the question of aid. India cejved food shipments from the United States, I help it through periods of drought and famine. (Washington was reluctant to provide technical and industrial assistance, prompting New Delhi to turn to Moscow. With the help of the Soviets India built steelworks and other projects in the 1960s and bought military hardware and warplanes from Moscow. These strong economic and military ties aroused

further suspicion in the U.S., souring relations between the world's two largest democracies.

The Himalayan blunder

However, Nehru's biggest foreign policy crisis, rather blunder, arose not in his dealings with the West, but with India's giant northeastern neighbor, China. For years, both countries had wrangled over two border areas--one in the Aksai Chin plateau where Kashmir meets China, and the other in an equally remote, mountainous area northeast of India. Even as diplomats behind the scenes tried to settle the dispute, the Indian government's official slogan to describe Sino-Indian ties was "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai" (Indians and Chinese are brothers). The mask of rhetoric was ripped off in 1962, when border dispute flared into a full-scale war. Wave upon wave of Chinese troops crossed over the northeast frontier, overwhelming Indian troops. China soon withdrew its troops, having accomplished its objectives. India was humiliated, and its military was shaken to the core. Valuable resources had been diverted to boost the war effort, and that--coupled with two years of poor harvestsweakened the economy and jeopardised the third five-year plan. The alarming increase in population further aggravated the crisis, swiftly negating much of the economic gains that had been achieved until then. Jawaharlal Nehru never recovered from what became known as "the Himalayan blunder." He died in May of 1964. His legacy remains a matter of debate to this very day. His innumerable admirers point to his noble ideas and his undoubted love for India. His detractors instead highlight the dismal results of many of his economic policies--the consequences of which haunted India for long after wards.


22.2 THE NEW REPUBLIC AND THE 1950 CONSTITUTION

The Constitution-Making

The Constituent Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on December 9, 1946 in the Constitution Hall which is now known as the Central Hall of the Parliament House. Two hundred and seven representatives, including nine women were present. The inaugural session began at 11 a.m. with the introduction of Dr Sachchidananda Sinha, the temporary Chairman of the Assembly, by Acharya Kripalani. The Constituent Assembly took almost three years (two years, eleven months and seventeen days to be precise) to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution of Independent India. During this period, it held eleven sessions covering a total of 165 days. Of these, 114 days were spent on the consideration of the Draft Constitution. The assembly had members chosen by the members of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies through an indirect election, according to a scheme recommended by the Cabinet Mission. The arrangement was: (i) 292 members were elected through the Provincial Legislative Assemblies; (ii) 93 members represented the Indian Princely States; and (iii) 4 members represented the Chief Commissioners' Provinces. The total membership of the Assembly thus was to be 389. However, as a result of the partition under the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, a separate Constituent Assembly was set up for Pakistan and representatives of some Provinces ceased to be members of the Assembly. As a result, the membership of the Assembly was reduced to 299. On December 13,1946, Jawaharlal Nehru moved the Objectives Resolution. This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947. Late in the evening of August 14, 1947 the Assembly met in the Constitution Hall and at the stroke of midnight, took over as the Legislative Assembly of an Independent India. On August 29, 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr B. R. Ambedkar to prepare a Draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the | Constitution, the Assembly moved, discussedj disposed off as many as 2,473 amendments i total of 7,635 that were tabled.

The Constitution of India was adopte November 26, 1949 and the members app their signatures to it on January 24, 1950. In all,| members actually signed the Constitution. The Constitution of India came into fon January 26, 1950. On that day the Assembly < to exist by transforming itself into the Provisj^ Parliament of India, until a new Parliament' constituted in!952.

The 1950 Constitution of India

The Drafting committee attempted to combine^ best elements of the "British theory of parliame sovereignty and the American theory of supremacy." While the Indian Constitution proV for a central Parliamentary role in numerous i the law, fundamental rights limit the powe Parliament and are explicitly incorporated within| body of the Constitution. The fundamental rig the Indian Constitution are positive in nature, j merely negative restrictions upon goven action, and their violation gives rise to a con tional remedy, namely judicial review. Unlike the U.S. model, the theory of rights < ing the Indian Constitution gives an important i to rights of communities and groups, in additio rights of the individual. The limitations upon i incorporated in the Indian Constitution are of { importance in the interpretation and applicatio the rights. The Indian Constitution incorporates^ language of limitations as a part of many of ^ Articles that define fundamental rights. Limit! of rights are therefore more often specific than general, much more so than in many rightsoriented constitutions of the world. One i cific example is Article 19, which in its first ] lays out a number of fundamental freedoms : its second through sixth part provides a specific i of limitations for each of these freedoms. In provisions the Indian Constitution ????? to itly provide for police power and other limit!

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i rights, that U.S. courts have found necessary to velop in case law. The sources of Indian Constitutional rights elude the U.S. Constitution and the French claration of 1789, as well as the special social ds and problems of India's population. For exam-e, there are special provisions on citizenship made ary by the confusion and turmoil during India's h, caused by partition into India and Pakistan. o, there are rights directed at lessening the nega-social effects of the caste system and the reli-and social divide between Hindus, Muslims, I other religions making up India's population. The Constitution of India contains both civil, polit-economic and social rights. Many of the ecooic and social rights, however, were included as tive principles." Under Article 37, the state xecutive and legislative branches) has a duty to ply these principles in making the law. This duty of be enforced by the courts. However, it seems his duty and the principles themselves are justiciable, ithe sense that the courts may take note of them.

2.3 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU'S VISION

ii's Contribution

a time, during the heady years just after World Var II, Nehru attained a kind of oracular status. His nouncements were universally reported; his trays'to Western capitals were almost regal proces-ns; his writings were widely admired. Nehru was uly a world figure. He seemed to symbolise the nise of newly liberated nations and personify the ntial of India--ageless wisdom and modern ospects blended in the largest democracy in i history. The euphoria soon faded. Nehru's esteem clined in inverse proportion to the intensity of the old war. Western opinion-makers became increasgly disenchanted with his refusal to take sides in jlis struggle. Policies of semi-socialism failed to swer India's economic needs. Indeed, far from ling a dynamic exemplar, India stumbled into the ern world--its population poor and oversized, i unity fragile, its society still lodged largely in

antiquity. Nehru earned little credit for consolidating democracy, establishing the structure of a modern state, or maintaining responsible government. For new generations, Nehru gradually dimmed into a distant icon largely belonging to an era which began with lofty ideals and ended in unfulfilled aspirations. In many ways, this retreat into shadowy memory is unwarranted. Nehru was one of the few genuine philosopher-statesmen of our century, both an intellectual visionary of enormous erudition and a politician of considerable skill. He was also an inspired and fearless freedom fighter, a distinguished author of global and personal history, an international leader with significant influence in global diplomacy and Prime Minister of India from its independence in 1947 until his death in 1964. As regards Nehru's commitment to socialism and economic planning, it may be pointed out that Nehru was not exclusively wedded to the promotion of the public sector in the Indian economy--many Indian businesses were encouraged to expand. Nehru saw modern technology and a modern infrastructure as fundamental to the improvement of Indian society. Private enterprise would not or could not undertake these investments. It was also not politically possible or desirable, in those days, for a newly independent state to solicit multinational capital. So, the government remained the only-vehicle by which to uplift a nation where 70 percent of the people still live in villages and 30 percent live below a minimal poverty line. Non-alignment as foreign policy was a Nehru innovation in the early cold war years. Indian diplomacy assembled a large group of third world countries and gave this movement a high profile. However, after a brief moment in the limelight of world politics, the reality of international relations imposed its coarse truth: size is not strength and power rarely resides in the poor. Many member-states have since found alliances with the superpowers more remunerative than occupancy of an impoverished moral high ground. Consequently, the Non-Aligned Movement has steadily diminished. Its once vaunted summits have become triennial talk-fests or worse. In a post-cold war world its relevance has come to be seriously debated.


Nehru's vision of a developed, socialist society

Nehru was not only the architect of modem India but was also responsible for framing policies and programs for the phased development of the country. Jawaharlal Nehru's economic philosophy is indent from the speech he gave at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in 1936. He said, "I am convinced that the only key to the solution of world's problems and India's problems lies in socialism ... In short it means a new civilisation... If the future is full of hope it is largely because of Soviet Russia and what it has done and I am convinced that if some world catastrophe does not intervene, this new civilisation will spread to other lands and put an end to the wars and conflicts which capitalism feeds." The elements of the Nehru model are: Planning, dominant public sector, full utilisation of all productive forces, full utilisation of science and technology as instruments of change and growth, radical land reforms, modernisation of agriculture and reduction of disparities. His contribution in making India a secular democratic republic is of paramount significance. The common perception among most Indians today is that the only blind spot in Nehru's thinking lay in what has been referred to as 'the socialistic pattern of society', proudly proclaimed at the Avadi session of the Indian National Congress in 1955. The policy decisions taken at this session were land reforms and planned economic development, with a rapid expansion of the public sector into key industries and services, mineral resources, railways and other means of public transport and, much later, then banks. But, while agreeing that socialism was Nehru's blind spot, Bipin Chandra argues persuasively, in his recently published India After Independence, that while maintaining a functioning democracy, Nehru provided the economic base and the physical and human infrastructure from which the country could take off into rapid independent industrialisation. Unlike other post-colonial countries, India did not get pushed into a neo-colonial situation with its economy continuing to be dominated by foreign interests. Nehru recognised the need for State pla State participation in the production through the public sector. Along with the i on heavy industry, Nehru also promoted \ intensive small and cottage industries for^) duction of consumer goods, through development programs and agricultural < He gave considerable attention to the sti growth with equity and the issues of < and distribution in industry and agricu giving priority to rapid growth. But, in respects his policies were not altogether! In the rural sector he received Panchayat J view to growth from the grassroots level,! again his bold initiatives failed to involve ] full participants in developmental activity. ^

Unfortunately, these processes involved^ ting up of an elaborate and complicated sy| controls and industrial licenses. As a import substitution industrialisation strafo heavy protection given to indigenous indu tain structural features developed over the; led to inefficiency and technological back The large public sector controlling 'the con heights of the economy' began to be ch major source of industrial inefficiency, shortage of foreign exchange in 1956-57 1 imposition of stringent import and foreign < controls. In Bipan Chandra's words: "The i Kafkaesque web of license quota rules tions were thus laid and in later years it' that it was not easy to dismantle a system I acquired a vicious stranglehold over thfr| economy. The bureaucracy-politician certain sections of business that were of the system resisted such a change."

22.4 PLANNING AND STATE-CONTROL INDUSTRIALISATION

Background of Planning and First Plan '

The central concern in the beginning i,j articulate and determine a broad planned development, on behalf of the in nation that had come into being on Au


1947, while putting into place the necessary institutions and structures consistent with such a ; broad framework. The quest for such a framework rhad begun much earlier and the formation of a national planning committee was a serious early venture in this regard. A planning committee of 15 : eminent men, drawn from different walks of life and led by Jawaharlal Nehru as chairman started its work in December 1938. The work of this committee came to a standstill soon after the outbreak of World War II. However, the birth of a new nation state gave an urgency and primacy to the task of articulating, with reasonable clarity, the broad framework of development and the national leadership took up the challenge in all seriousness. Through the deliberations of experts drawn from a broad spectrum of the intelligentsia and professions such a framework was put in place. The planning commission was set up in 1950 with Nehru as its chairman. The commission, which soon became the cynosure of many economists of the day, was entrusted with the task of devising an appropriate development strategy through five-year plans. It may be worth stressing here that around the time the country gained independence, planning per se, as distinct from specific frameworks and strategies, had already come to enjoy wide acceptance. It was considered absolutely necessary to break free from the prevailing stagnation and backwardness. Thus the debate was not about the need for planning but about the kind of planning. The alternative suggestions offered ranged from the Bombay Plan to the People's Plan to a Gandhian Plan and covered a huge ideological spectrum. Around this time, a strong advocacy for planning, not only for India but also in the case of any post-colonial backward country, came from the emerging powerful sub-discipline of economics called development economics. The perceived spectacular economic successes of the then USSR only added to this controversy. The broad framework of planned development that got the official nod hinged on the central importance of rapid industrialisation for ushering in an era of prosperity and modernisation. One of Nehru's statements brings this out quite categorically--"We are trying to catch up, as far as we can, with the Industrial Revolution that occurred long ago in western countries." Such an emphasis was again very much in line with the dominant view in development economics, as well as related disciplines, and had support from the overwhelming majority of the

professional intelligentsia in the country. It was also very much in line with what one presumed was the explanation for the success of the USSR. Moreover, and again consistent with the dominant voices and perceptions in the intellectual climate of the time, the role of the state in promoting economic development was considered absolutely central. The public sector was accorded the pride of place in carrying forward the onward march of rapid industrialisation in an overall mixedeconomy framework. Finally, there was a clear recognition that this task could be achieved not by integrating with world capitalism but by maintaining a degree of relative autonomy. In other words, self-reliance was not an end in itself, as has often been interpreted by many commentators, but was viewed as a strategic necessity. There are several other economic concerns that were enunciated explicitly as part of this framework. These included the objectives of bringing about the regional dispersal of growth, checking the concentration of economic power and reduction of economic inequalities, promotion of small and cottage industries, rapid growth of employment opportunities and, most important of all, a sharp reduction if not elimination of poverty within a definite foreseeable future (30 years as per the first five-year plan launched in 1951). Clearly such objectives are not mutually exclusive, rather, many are interrelated. However, it is not clear whether the policy-makers of the day had strung together these objectives in an ad hoc manner, as they sounded nice and fitted into the presumed grand and ultimate aim of achieving a 'socialistic pattern of society', or whether these were indeed viewed as serious objectives backed by adequate thinking and analysis. Three other points that need to be considered one:

First, although the contours of the broad development framework were already quite clear by the early 1950s, these were articulated with much greater vigor during the second half of the 50s,


especially through the industrial policy resolution of 1956 and the second five-year plan. Second, the main thrusts of this framework found wide support among the intelligentsia (and oth ers). However, the left perspective was quite emphatic on the need for comprehensive and effective land reforms, both to facilitate better realisation of the above thrusts and for other rea sons such as removal of poverty. In contrast to the left position, the official framework, while paying lip-service to the need for land reforms, was quite ambivalent on this critical issue. Third, the official framework represented a most decisive rejection of the economic ideas of Gandhiji. It is one of those ironies of history that the economic ideas central to the political strat egy of building up a mass movement against British colonial rule were rendered irrelevant by the disciples of the great man as soon as inde pendence was achieved.

Moreover, we need to seriously examination whether some of Gandhiji's ideas could have found a place in the post-independence development paradigm and whether their application would have led to better outcomes (than were actually achieved), not only in terms of ecological indicators but also from the point of view of decent livelihood options for substantial sections of the Indian population. The first plan (1951-56), in terms of a simple model, emphasised the importance of raising the level of savings in the economy to accelerate the rate of growth. However, as has been noted often enough, beyond this simple model, it was a sort of a loose affair to put together a set of important projects and not an analytically rigorous formulation in terms of coordinating investment decisions in different sectors. The projects in infrastructure and agriculture, in particular public irrigation, received emphasis. The fact that the increase in national income during this plan actually surpassed the modest target that the planners had set must have been a most pleasing and encouraging experience for them, particularly in the light of the pre-independence long-term record. State-controlled Industrialisation and Second Plan

According to most commentators, intellect! most exciting moment in India's planning j came with the second five-year plan. This j also been called the Nehru-Mahalanobis sti development as it articulated Nehru's visio C. Mahalanobis happened to be its chief i The central idea underlying this strategy^ conveyed by recalling the following stat< the plan document--"If industrialisation if rapid enough, the country must aim at basic industries and industries which machines to make the machines needed forj development."

The Mahalanobis model showed that, gi\| tain assumptions, the higher the allocation of ment in the investment goods sector, the 1 investment rate at the margin, which would {j higher rate of growth of output. The emph on expanding the productive ability or pov system, through forging strong industrial as rapidly as possible. It is worth repeatis that such an emphasis enjoyed tremendous 1 cal/intellectual legitimacy although there we dissenting voices. The third five-year pl( essentially a continuation of the second terms of the broad thrust and emphasis on in such as machinery and steel. In terms of the core objective of steppir rate of growth of industrial production, the i started showing quick and impressive instance, the machinery index increased i 1955-56 to 503 in 1960-61 and the rate of f overall industrial production during this ] also very impressive. To put it simply, the i during those two plans laid the found well-diversified industrial structure within 81 ably short period, and this was a major achie However, as the strategy was unfolding,! its key shortcomings were also becoming i The latent disproportion between the growth| heavy industry sector and other industries; shortfalls in achievements compared to


owth rates for industrial output, both during the Isecond and the third plan, were among the most lobvious indicators of the problems underlying the (strategy in operation. Consequently, as could be [expected, the Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy became a [subject of increasing criticism. A variety of diagfnoses relating to what was wrong with the Indian | economy and a plethora of prescriptions were [ offered. It needs to be stressed here that the performance [prospects of the development strategy in operation : had suffered during the 1960s not only because of its internal weaknesses but also because of the major exogenous shocks that the economy was subjected to. The two military engagements in quick succession (in 1962 and 1965) had led to severe cutbacks in public investment, contributing to the emergence of significant excess capabilities in the heavy industry sector. The other major exogenous shock came in the form of two successive monsoon failures in 1965 and 1966 leading to drastic falls in food production and availability, which also had obvious negative consequences for the overall growth prospects. This came as a rude reminder of India's vulnerability in the area of its most basic need. In fact, even before these droughts, India had already come to depend partly on a ship-to-mouth policy, mainly in the form of wheat imports from the US under PL-480 and the droughts were catastrophic jolts that highlighted failure in this critical area. The immediate impact of these exogenous shocks was so powerful that the government temporarily abandoned five-year planning in favor of annual plans, for the next three years. These annual plans were so limited in their scope, essentially being budgetary exercises, that this period (from 1966-1969) is also known as that of "plan holiday". However, one must note that this period continued to witness sharp cut-backs in public investment with obvious adverse consequences for industrial and overall growth prospects. It was mentioned earlier that the NehruMahalanobis strategy came under increasing criticism during the 60s and early 70s from several quarters. These ranged from a rejection of the planning process itself to pointing out specific shortcomings, such as underestimation of the import-intensity, the indigenous industrialisation drive, unnecessary export-pessimism, over-extended regulatory

structures, over-optimism with regards to the potential performance of the agricultural sector etc.

22.5 AGRARIAN REFORMS

Land reform, which had enjoyed a high priority with Nehru ever since he worked for the cause of the peasantry in the campaign of 1930, remained more or less at the level predetermined by British Indian Tenancy Acts. These Acts had secured the rights of those peasants who held their land directly from the zamindar, but had left subtenants and other categories of the rural poor unprotected. With the only effective land reform, zamindari abolition, the already rather extenuated rights of these superior landlords were done away with and they joined the ranks of their former tenants, who now emerged as a kind of peasant landlord with perfect freedom to exploit the rural poor. There were, of course ceilings on landholdings imposed by legislation and a prohibition on the subletting of land. But in the absence of a proper record of rights, breaches of the law were hard to prove and this type of legislation remained a mere eyewash. Moreover, the substantial peasantry which had been the beneficiary of earlier British legislation and then also of Congress-sponsored zamindari abolition, was politically powerful and constituted the social base not only of the Congress but also of all other parties which tried to get a foothold in the countryside. The political mobilisation of poor peasants holding tiny plots of land or of landless labourers has so far hardly been attempted and in the stray cases never succeeded. The web of rural dependence and servitude is so complex and tightly knit that it is difficult to unravel, especially since poor people are usually much too weak in every respect to put up much resistance. Wellmeaning reformers like Vinobha Bhave and his Bhoodan

C214 MM Indian History: Modern India

(land gift) movement had not made much of an impact on the rural scene. Although inaugurated with high hopes, Community Development has become just another government department and its officers usually turn into petty bureaucrats. The essence of the agrarian transition in post-Independence India has been the development of a socially narrow-based agrarian capitalism. While there has been some change in the composition of the top land-owning stratum (with the decline of the erstwhile zammdars and the moving up of a section of the rich peasantry), land concentration, as measured for instance by the proportion of land owned by the top 15 percent of the landowners, has shown no decline. This relatively more homogeneous class of top landowners has been provided with, a plethora of incentives to convert itself into a class of capitalist farmers. We thus have a combination of capitalist and precapitalist forms of exploitation in the countryside which is particularly oppressive for the rural poor and which also restricts the sweep of capitalist development. Nonetheless, as will be seen below, it has brought about a certain measure of output expansion in agriculture in contrast to the absolute stagnation in output that prevailed over the last half-century of colonial rule. To see matters in a proper perspective, a very brief historical discussion is necessary. Trade in agricultural goods was not always subject to restrictions. On the contrary during the colonial period, not only was the economy as a whole subject to more or less free trade (until the inter-war years when a limited number of industries received tariff protection), but agriculture in particular remained totally free of any restrictions throughout (so much so that during the very years of the Great Bengal Famine, rice was being exported out of Bengal). As a result of this freedom, cash-crop production for exports expanded, and since very little investment in irrigation took place to increase gross cropped area (except in the canal colonies of Punjab), this expansion was at the expense of acreage under food crops. Since yields in agriculture were not rising (on the contrary they were declining in the absence of any

changes in the methods of production), 1 sharp decline in per capita foodgrain total foodgrain output during the period If increased at an annual rate of 0.11 per < nonfoodgrains increased at the rate of 1.31 per capita incomes remained virtually stag since the decline in per capita foodgrain ] was not made up for by any imports, per < grain availability declined sharply. In Beng the inter-war period it declined by 38 ] in the most prosperous state, Punjab, it i as much as 20 percent. It is this declin increased poverty and pushed people to the I starvation, that formed the backdrop of thelj famine. In a situation where the people's ability had been severely eroded, the additio den of war expenditure literally proved to 1 straw.

The food policy of the government in independence period emerged out of this < While no radical land reforms were resulting in the productive potential of Indul culture not being fully realised a plethora oi ures ranging from public investment in irrig the spread of extension services and the prov cheap credit and inputs ensured that agricull duction, especially foodgrain production, he tionally ahead of population growth. *At time starting from the mid-sixties, which acute food-shortage, an elaborate system of fa curement-cum-distribution was set up. It is i the growth in production was undertaken on t of an emerging tendency towards capitalist ] tion, superimposed on an unreformed and i tive agrarian structure. Also true is the fact I public food management system had only a Ik presence in rural areas, except in states like 1 and West Bengal, and did not make any dent id massive poverty existing in the Indian cou Nonetheless, the terrible famines that had cH terised British India were done away with, j decline in per capita food availability which'! characterised the last half-century of colonial I was arrested and even marginally reversed. Witf

*In contrast in China despite a far more adverse land-man ratio, per capita food output rose faster than in India.


[its limitations this has been an important achieve-nent. In a country with such vast poverty where ven a marginal disturbance in the food economy lean cause havoc, there has been a more or less suc|cessful avoidance of disaster, even in the darkest Itimes of terrorism and violence; and this has been [achieved not by leaving things to the market but pre-Icisely by purposeful State intervention in the food |economy. The inadequacy on the agricultural front came to I be viewed as the most significant gap in the past I effort. Consequently, the formulation of a new strat(egy of agricultural development became the overrid-I ing objective. The fourth five-year plan, launched in 1969, adopted what is popularly, known as the 'Green Revolution'. Thus, with the fourth plan, | there is a marked shift in development strategy from | an emphasis on heavy industry to pulling up agrii culture. It may be recalled that the Left opinion in India had been quite critical of the earlier strategy for not taking up comprehensive land reforms. The 'agriculture-first' strategy that came into being with the fourth plan, and also happened to be the hallmark of the fifth plan, continued to negate the issue of land reforms and focused on technological modernisation and 'betting on the strong'. A variety of support-mechanisms including credit and price-support, were devised to this effect. The new strategy, in spite of its distributional limitations, delivered good results, so much so that the dependence on frequent imports of food became a thing of the past after the mid-1970s, and the government could claim that finally India had become self-sufficient in this respect.

22.6 INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY OF NONALIGNMENT

Principles and Ideals

The foundations of India's foreign policy were laid during the freedom movement when our leaders, even when fighting for independence, were engaged with the great causes of the time. The principles of India's foreign policy, that emerged then, have stood the test of time. They include a belief in friendly relations with all countries of the world, the resolution of conflicts by

peaceful means, the sovereign equality of all states, independence of thought and action as manifested in the principles of non-alignment, and equity in the conduct of international relations. Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, India was the founder member of the NonAligned Movement. India has played an active role in strengthening the Movement and making it an effective voice in representing the collective aspirations and interests of the developing countries on such vital issues as development, peace and stability. India has also been at the forefront of the world community in the struggle against colonialism. Indeed, the independence of India itself played the role of a catalyst in removing the vestiges of colonialism in other parts of the developing world, particularly in Africa. India was also the first country to raise the question of racial discrimination in South Africa in 1946. A notable feature of Indian foreign policy has been its strong advocacy of general and complete disarmament, with nuclear disarmament being accorded the highest priority. Towards this end, India has taken several initiatives within the United Nations and outside. As a founder member of the United Nations, India has been firmly committed to the purposes and principles of the United Nations and has made significant contributions to its various activities, including peace-keeping operations. India has been a participant in all UN peace-keeping operations including those in Korea, Egypt and Congo in earlier years and in Somalia, Angola and Rwanda in recent years. India has also played an active role in the deliberations of the United Nations on the creation of a more equitable international economic order. Other issues, such as environmentally sustainable development and the promotion and protection of human rights, have also been an important focus of India's foreign policy in international forums. Commensurate with national interests and security, the improvement of bilateral relations is an important component of any foreign policy,


and India has succeeded in establishing a network of mutually beneficial relations with all countries of the world. In particular, improvement of relations with its neighbors has always been one of the pillars of India's foreign policy. India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighborhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalties. From this point of view, it has always given due priority to the development of relations with South East Asia. In 1947, India organised the Asian Relations Conference. It chaired the International Control Commission in 1954 and was a major player in the organisation of the Bandung Conference in 1955. Today, India is implementing a 'Look East' policy which is underpinned by important economic considerations.

Foreign Policy of Nonalignment

Non-alignment is the peacetime policy of avoiding political or ideological affiliations with major power blocs in international relations. It was pursued by countries such as India, Yugoslavia, and many of the new states of Asia and Africa during the period of the Cold War (1945-90). They generally refused to align themselves with either the communist bloc, led by the USSR, or the Western bloc, led by the USA. Though neutralist in this sense, they were not neutral or isolationist, for they participated actively in international affairs and took positions on international issues. Non-alignment must also be distinguished from neutrality, which is a term in international law referring to rules that states are obliged to follow during a legal state of war in which they are not belligerents. The movement was conceived at the Bandung Conference (1955) of 29 Afro-Asian nations, but the first meeting of the nonaligned nations was held at Belgrade in 1961. A growing number of nonaligned nations met again in 1964, 1970, and roughly every three years thereafter. The 100-odd states that eventually became involved in this movement justified their position on a number of grounds. They declined to assume that the United States, the Soviet Union, or any other country necessarily intended to embark upon aggressive action designed to violate their torial integrity, and therefore they refused to!^ into alliances or collective defense arrang directed against particular states. The new i Asia and Africa, which made up the largest >j of non-aligned states, were mostly former colo the western European powers. These new were, on the one hand, wary of permanent i alignments with these powers in the Western I fear of being drawn into a newer form of c on the other hand, though generally atl offers of economic assistance from (and off anti-Western rhetoric of) various communist^ tries, they feared that intimate ties with the I Union could also threaten their independence.^ practical

matter, a non-alignment policy"4 enabled them to get much needed economic ij tance from both power blocs. With the end i Cold War and the breakup of the Soviet (1991), the policy lost much of its usefulne guiding principle in many nations' foreign i

Evaluation of Nonalignment

How did non-alignment shield India from the i of the Cold War that swallowed up other cou Asia and Africa? First, the importance of 1 War as a determining factor in western, ] American, policy-making cannot be sti much. The Cold War was only the "nuclear" J of the total war concept that gripped the world after the First World War. Total war i all society would be affected by war and its i; and that the whole nation as a unit would 1 mobilised for warfare. In this light, ind India's decision to align itself with neither bl< truly remarkable, given that the post World1 deological struggle was ferociously directed i newly-decolonising nations, in order to get I line up on one side or the other of the ideoli divide. It was precisely against such milita^j and against the Cold War that India fashio foreign policy after independence, altho often India could not control specific develi in the fifty year east-west conflict. -'I tf'i


Stepping out of war had dramatic consequences or India. For one thing, it meant that peace could ow. As could democracy; for India's democracy as the direct result of this free space created by he first leaders of the independent nation. Its exisnce drew puzzled responses from most observers, ho were astounded by this anomaly in the Third World and could not explain it. Although there was no shortage of criticism, both on the left and right, Of a democracy that could not provide everything |for everybody--in other words, one that was not ufficiently committed to either western or Soviet imodels. But the fact that this democracy existed at fall, however imperfect or incomplete was because of India's decision to stay genuinely committed to Imon-alignment as a worldview. Had this vision not linformed the politics of independent India, the jicountry would long have gone the way of other .South Asian Cold War participants where East and I West nodded and winked and even encouraged horrendous violence and military dictatorship, all in the name of preventing the other side from winning. Most of all, non-alignment also meant that India escaped the social and political militarisation of all Cold War participants. The militarisation could be [ overtly political as in Pakistan and Bangladesh who, plunging themselves into the Cold War on the side of the United States, landed up with military dictatorships as a result. Or it could be cultural and social, as happened in the western and Soviet blocs. Even the two chief protagonists did not escape the consequences of their deeds. In the United States and the Soviet Union, society paid a terrible price for leadership positions in opposing camps. Every single intrusive law of the United States originates from after the First World War, including the income tax. Society was purged of creativity in both countries, leading to the persecution of countless intellectuals and artists in the name of anticommunism or anti-capitalism. India, thanks to the much-maligned non-alignment of its founding fathers, escaped this violent militarisation--the emergency being a notable exception--precisely because it opted out of the war game altogether. 22.7 BORDER CONFLICT WITH CHINA AND CHINESE AGGRESSION

Background of the Conflict

After Indian independence in 1947, India had maintained missions in Lhasa and Gyangtse. Due to the close relations that existed between India and Tibet, going back

centuries beyond the British trade treaties, and also because of the unsettled conditions of China enwrapped in a bitter civil war, Tibet's transactions with the outside world were conducted mainly through India. Well into 1950, Tibet was regarded as a free country. Indeed, China also had a mission in Lhasa, underlining the fact that Tibet was nominally independent. On July 8, 1949, following the defeat of Chiang Kai Shek's Nationalist Government in the Chinese civil war, the Tibetan Government asked the Chinese mission to vacate, calling upon its rights as an independent country to request the expulsion of diplomats. Tibetan records show that they had planned this expulsion of the Chinese agents for more than a year. China invited Tibetans early in the 1950s to "accede peacefully" and backed up this emphatic plea by stationing an army in East Tibet. An anxious Tibetan delegation hurriedly agreed to go to Peking to talk to the PRC itself in an effort to defuse the sudden tension. On October 7, 1950, the day the Tibetan delegation was scheduled to arrive, 80,000 soldiers of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of China attacked Tibet and announced its 'peaceful liberation'. The Dalai Lama was forced to sign, under duress, the "17Point Agreement of May 23,1951", surrendering to the Chinese attack. The PRC claimed that the Agreement imposed on the Tibetan government... shows that Tibetans not only agreed to, but actually invited Chinese Communist troops to "liberate" Tibet. This action, and the systematic devastation of the Tibetan people and culture, naturally, took both Tibet and India completely by surprise. Nehru complained that he had beep "led to believe by the Chinese Foreign Office that the Chinese would


settle the future of Tibet in a peaceful manner by direct negotiation with the representatives of Tibet." The huge public outcry in India, protesting the Chinese invasion, mainly dealt with the political and cultural facets of this issue. Prior to Indian independence, the British had earmarked Tibet as a neutral buffer zone in view of British India's defense environment vis-a-vis the similar imperialistic leanings of China and Russia. Barring a few percepting people most Indian politicians, along with the common man, failed to anticipate the strategic ramifications of the Chinese aggression and the loss of this buffer. Nehru, following his foreign policy of trying to establish mutual, non-aligned relations on the international scene, held the view that India could ill afford a confrontation over Tibet at a nascent point in India's history, especially so during the ongoing Korean War. Patel, however, wanted a strong line to be adopted against the Chinese aggression. Moreover, India had international support in this matter, with world opinion strongly against the Chinese aggression in Tibet. It would be instructive to examine the Chinese claims on Tibet in brief at this juncture, since the dispute over the McMahon Line that demarcated the border between India and China owes its origins to these claims. The ostensible reason given by China when the PLA entered Tibet was to "liberate three million Tibetans from imperialist aggression, to complete the unification of the whole of China, and to safeguard the frontier regions of the country". It is generally surmised that the reason behind China's invasion was to gain control of the highly strategic crossroads of Tibet that lead to the heart of Western, Central, South and South East Asia, and can be used as a springboard for engaging the same. In 1842, the autonomous Tibetans and the Dogra rulers of the kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir signed a non-aggression pact on respecting the "old, established frontiers." The boundary was not specified. To clarify this, in 1847 the British delineated a' boundary from the Spiti river up to the Pangong lake. The area further north up to the Karakoram Pass was left out. The first boundary alignment here was recorded in 1865 when W. H. Johnson of the

Survey of India trekked across the Aksai i drew a map including this in Jammu and ] Johnson was soon appointed Kashmir's sioner in Ladakh. The Foreign Office came I of the view that the border should be push to the Kuen Lun range to absorb Aksai put a British controlled buffer in between to i the presumed Russian advance, as the Bril| with Afghanistan, though nothing came oft In 1892 the Chinese put a boundary i Karakoram Pass and told the British of adventurer, Captain Young, that Chine began there and that the boundary ran Karakoram range. The reasons given for i that Aksai Chin is an "integral" and "sacred"| Tibet, which the

Chinese claimed. Sadly, has no credible historical, or legal, Historically, Tibet has always had varying.i of freedom I has been variously autonomo grated into a larger China, or allied with India doms. In 1904, a British military expedition wasj China, under the leadership of Colonel Yo prevent China from falling under the infill foreign powers. An Anglo-Tibetan treaty was| with China, granting Britain trading rig marking the origin of direct British influ Tibet. An Anglo-Chinese treaty of 1906 folio the previous treaty. In 1913, Tibet decli pendence, and a conference was held in 18 Simla regarding Tibetan independence. It was agreed that the Simla Conference i tripartite, in which the Tibetans were an i ner in the talks with the Chinese and Legalities of the Tibetan independence standing, this cast many doubts on the nature! Chinese position which stated that Tibet was \ a Chinese province. Tibet demanded : their de facto sovereignty--a proposal intolerable to the Chinese, as China did not' give up their claim to Tibet, though they actually control it. In the end, the only legally binding oufo the 1914 conference was that Britain and Tib resented by Sir Henry McMahon and Shatra respectively, reached an agreement on i


Jcsai Chin i : and air's coi came to i bushed jlju Chin tentofo he British ic of this. marker at 1 t officer lese terril an along., for this

lly, the bac King pmoi f Indian king-j '"*3 i was sentito| ^1 Young, .*S| .luence 5 was signed | i rights «|d| iluence,«i! allowed tip I klared ind**I [m 191
twis did oet;

*d >of| ibekwpv tLonchen ton a bor der settlement binding the between themselves, bringing the McMahon Line into being. The Chinese delegate was not invited to this meeting, as the McMahon line was the agreement on the official demarcation of the border between Tibet and India; this highlights the fact that all the parties--China included--recognised that Tibet had full authority to negotiate its boundary with India. It is of crucial importance to note that the McMahon line had legally nothing to do with China. To this date, the Chinese claim to the Indian areas is based upon the non-recognition of the McMahon Line and their illegal claim to Tibet, regardless of the recognition of Tibetan autonomy and Tibet's acceptance of the McMahon Line. Seizing the opportunity to expand, in the late 50s, they played upon the quirky logic that would have been legally binding had Tibet been a legal part of China. Thus, the territories that came in dispute between India and China due to Chinese claims to Tibet are listed as follows:

The Eastern sector: 90,000 sq. km under Indian control, then called the North East Frontier Agency, or NEFA. The Middle sector: 20,000 sq. km on either side of the Himalayan watershed and passes. The Western sector: 30,000 sq. km of high plateau country known as the Aksai Chin in the district of Ladakh of Jammu and Kashmir state, bordering Tibet and Xinjiang province of China.

Sino-lndian Relations in 1950's

Under the Sino-lndian Agreement of 1954, otherwise known as the Panchsheel, or the "Five Principles" agreement, India gave up all the extra-territorial rights and privileges it enjoyed in Tibet, which it had inherited from the British colonial legacy, formally recognising Tibet to be a region of China. The five points agreed upon were:

1.

Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty

2. 3.

Mutual nonaggression Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs

4. 5.

Equal and mutual benefit working relationship Peaceful coexistence

By the agreement, it was recognized that six passes (Shipki La, Mana, Niti, Kungribinri, Darma, and Lipu Lekh) were border passes and "traders and pilgrims of both countries" could travel by them. China's success in promoting these principles at the 1955 Bandung Conference helped China emerge from diplomatic isolation. Unfortunately, by the end of the 1950s, China's foreign policy stance became more militant, and the Chinese went back on this treaty within three months of its signing.

Border Conflict

The period from 1955 to 1960 was marked by increasing tension and clashes on the border between India and China. Yet India failed to evolve and formulate a comprehensive foreign policy vis-a-vis China, tending to treat them as isolated incidents. The Chinese, wishing to consolidate their gains in Tibet and the surrounding areas, implemented a plan for developing the infrastructure in those regions. A ring road was constructed leading from China to Tibet and from there via the Karakorum Range to Sinkiang, Mongolia and then back to China. The Aksai Chin region in the Indian Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir obstructed the construction of this road, leaving the Chinese with the option of cutting through the harsh Takla Makan desert--not the most favorable terrain. *The PRC decided to take the shortcut through Indian territory rather than the desert route. Taking advantage of the historical quirk that they had not actually signed the agreement at the Simla Conference, China published maps showing that Aksai Chin belonged to them, and refused the de-facto McMahon line, in the East of India, that demarcated the border and control of the land. In October 1958 the road was discovered, creating a flurry of diplomatic messages from both sides, chastising the other for their territorial transgressions. When the public came to know about the Chinese roads, Nehru was faced with increasingly vocal criticism in the Indian Parliament, and he once angrily asked his critics whether they wanted him to go to war on this issue.


Before these border incidents, Nehru recommended that the Indian and Chinese governments sift through historical evidence and recommend where the border should be. Chou en-Lai's suggestion, made on November 7, 1959, was to complete demilitarise the entire border to a depth of 20 km, using the McMahon line in the East and the "line of actual control" in the West. This would effectively have jeopardised India's defensive positions in the East, while legitimising Peking's land grab in the West. Essentially, China wanted a solution based on military and strategic positions, while India wanted only a strict adherence to boundaries that had been agreed upon for between the last forty and two hundred years. Tensions increased further following India's warm welcome to the Dalai Lama, who, crossed into India with 20,000 followers in March 1959. Mao felt it was a loss of face, and that China "needed a victory in some sphere." The Chinese claim of NEFA was thus voiced in the aftermath of the 1959 Tibetan revolt. In 1959, at a meeting between Nehru and China's foreign minister, Chou En-Lai, both countries agreed not to send patrols within two miles of the McMahon Line in NEFA. However, On August 7, 1959, about 200 Chinese troops intruded into the Indian border at Khenzemane in the Kameng frontier division at east of Thagla Ridge. When challenged by the Indian patrol and asked to withdraw, they pushed the Indian party consisting of 10 men to the bridge at Drokung Samba. China considered the sector as within Chinese territory, and stated that the international border ran through the Drokung Samba bridge. On 25th August 1959, around 300 Chinese troops crossed into the Longju region of the Subashin Frontier division and opened fire at the Indian post there. The post was completely surrounded and was captured, but the Indian garrison was later released. In both cases the Chinese heavily outnumbered the Indians. The Indian posts were isolated and solely dependent on air supply. They were typically manned by 12-15 men and with no chances of reinforcements, since there were no access roads leading to them. This was a glimpse of things to come, unfortunately all that transpired were a fe notes from the Ministry of External Affairs.! By late 1959, Chinese excursions in Territory were getting more and more : as a result the Army was finally given < Indian border in NEFA. The 4th Indian Div ordered into Assam, from Punjab. It was | task of defending the entire McMahon line i Bhutan tri-

junction to the Burma j| Unfortunately, it was a task that it was ill] and equipped to handle. India's plans of j settlement were momentarily shattered by 1 of aggression. India again seized on an opportunity < when Chou En-lai visited Delhi in April IS Enlai, however, wanted to reopen the wh mile-long border. He had earlier indicated 1 would agree to India's claim in the northe tor, but went back on this when the In would not agree to the Chinese clain Ladakh. An opportunity to settle the problem lost. While unconfirmed rumors flew, not' some credibility, in the Indian press that thei were training Maoist guerrillas in India's i Chou left for Nepal and made an anti-Ii ment there, inflaming passions on both Sid making the situation even more tense, tried to extend its actual line of control and 1 der question became a matter of prestige i strength for both. After much protest by India, to these1 aggression on its territory, the Chinese i that the Sino-India border had never been : delimited and that it is making claims to < tors of the boundary in dispute. China we accusing India of trying to unilaterally ch state of the border by "pressing forward1 across the eastern section of the Sino-India 1

Chinese Aggression of 1962

Given the above statement by the Chine ernment, it was clear to India that Chintef to claim areas that it believed to have belo it and was willing to use force if necess


ation reached its peak in the form of the 1962 no-India Border War that began with the înese invasion of Indian territory. kThe 1962 Chinese invasion was termed by the (linese as a "self-defense counterattack" and justiition for their behavior was provided on the basis pthe disputed areas being their own territory. The ritorial dispute concerns the Aksai Chin area, hich at that time was thought by India to be a part its territory due to the delineation by the ilcMahon line. China, however, does not recognize : Sino-Indian border as having been delineated by : McMahon line and thus believes that it has claim ) territory that surpasses the McMahon line, namely he Aksai Chin area. The controversy over the issue of whether the dcMahon line serves as the Sino-Indian border lies the legal status of Tibet as a signatory to the ritish-Tibetan agreement of July 3, 1914. This eement between Britain and Tibet established the iMcMahon line as the Sino-Indian border but China pas denied the binding force of the agreement due to rite conviction that Britain had no right to negotiate [and sign a treaty with Tibet without China's consent lor participation. According to the Anglo-Chinese I convention of 1906 and the Anglo-Russian treaty of : 1907, Britain agreed that it would not enter into any I negotiations with Tibet except through the interme[ diary of the Chinese government. The Chinese gov! eminent was unwilling to sign the British-Tibet I agreement of 1914 and explicitly stated prior to the signing that it "would not recognize any treaty or I similar document now or hereafter signed between I Great Britain and Tibet." The 1962 Border War was clearly won by the Chinese, but they gained none of the territories they had so strongly claimed. China currently occupies the western sector of the Aksai Chin area and India controls the eastern sector but it is unlikely that either side will simply agree to give up the disputed areas that it now holds. China claims that the war was fought only to "demonstratively assert its territorial claims". India, on the other hand, accuses China of an "ungrateful betrayal". The causes of the 1962 Sino-India war differ depending upon which side one looks at. On the Indian side, the belief is that India's reaction to the Tibetan revolt, and more specifically granting asylum to the Dalai Lama, is what angered the Chinese and thus caused them to make territorial claims to the Aksai Chin area as retaliation. However, the Chinese feel that while India's response to the Tibetan revolt was a catalyst to the war, the primary and direct cause of the war was the border dispute. Regardless of which view is correct, one thing will always hold true and that is that India's response to the Tibetan revolt and its subsequent granting of asylum to the Dalai Lama was definitely a contributing factor in prompting the war. The fact that Chinese acts of aggression against India occurred shortly after the

granting of asylum to the Dalai Lama appears to be more than just a matter of coincidence.

Impact of the Conflict

The 1962 war highlighted several critical failures in India's military strategy. First, and perhaps most significantly, the conflict highlighted political naivety and ignorance toward strategies of warfare and international relations. During the entire conflict, Indian diplomatic actions remained flaccid and fluctuated between being confrontational or being manhandled. For example, intelligence reported that the Chinese were building a road through Aksai Chin, yet the Government, apart from a few angry condemnations, chose to ignore the strategic significance of it for almost a decade, instead repeating to itself the mantra of Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai. Even upon discovery of this transgression, India's protests were weak-kneed. The war also highlighted the fact that the army was acutely under-equipped, out-dated, and ill-trained to deal with sustained conflict in the Himalayas. The acclimatisation of troops was of critical import in this mountain war. Though Indian kill ratios were very favorable, the damage caused by non-acclimatisation of troops, particularly in the eastern sector, compared to the troops in Ladakh, who were better equipped and acclimatised, is very evident. The psychological and political effects of the war were far-reaching. Because of the war, India's


image, especially among the "Third World" nations remaining non-aligned during the Cold War, suffered. But internally, the shock galvanised the people into one united nation. Krishna Menon resigned and Nehru's dream of Sino-Indian friendship was shattered, but India did ndt relinquish its independent policy of non-alignment, though a shadow was shed on India's position as the leader of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). However, statements by the PRC promoting the Chinese revolution as a'l and Beijing's actions in the Taiwan Strait and the 1962 Sino-Indian War alarmed many I World nations. Third World appreciation for < assistance coexisted along with growing : of China's militancy. These increasingly tendencies, contradictory to the much Panchsheel, destroyed the active influence I had on the NAM.

QUESTIONS

1. Which one of the following documents was the first to contain a catalogue of fundamental rights? (a) Nehru Report of 1928 (b) Simon Commission Report of 1929 (c) Karachi Resolution of 1931 (d) Gandhi-lrwin Pact of 1931 2. 'Mixed Economy' was envisaged for the first time in the: (a) (b) (c) (d) 3.

Preamble of the 1950 Constitution First Five Year Plan Second Five Year Plan Bombay Plan Who served as India's first ambassador to the Soviet Union?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 4.

V. P. Krishna Menon Vijayalakshmi Pandit K. M. Pannikkar Prof. Mahalanobis When was the Bandung Conference of Afro-Asian leaders held?

(a) 1951

(b) 1953

(c) 1955

(d) 1957

5. The panchashila (five principles) of peaceful coexistence, embodied in the 1954 treaty with China, included: (I) mutual respect for each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity (ii) nonaggression (iii) non-interference in the affairs of others (iv) non-alignment with either of the super powers (v) equality and mutual benefit (vi) peaceful coexistence Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and vi (b) i, ii, iv, v and vi (c) i, ii, iii, v and vi (d) i, iii, iv, v and vi 6. Who designed the National Flag of India, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on July 21,1947?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 7.

Badr-ud-din Tyabji Rabindranath Tagore Abanindranath Tagore Abul Kalam Azad When were the first Asian Games held in New Delhi?

(a) 1950

(b) 1951

(c) 1952

(d) 1953

8. Who among the following was not one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement at Brioni in Yugoslavia in 1956? (a) Nehru

(b) Tito

(c) Suharto

(d) Nasser

9.

Which area was the target of Chinese aggres sion?

(a) Takla Makan (c) Sikkim 10.

(b) Bhutan

(d) Aksai Chin

Who was the chief planner of the first two five-year plans of India?

(a) B. R. Mehta

(b) V. N. Gadgil

(c) Mahalanobis

(d) S. N. Sen

11.

What is the correct chronological order of the following?

(i) Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (ii) Presentation of the First Railway Budget (iii) Accession of Kashmir to Indian Union (iv) Nationalisation of the RBI Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iv, iii and i

(c) iii, ii, iv and i


12.


(a) (b) (c) (d)

1948--Police action in Hyderabad State 1949--Devaluation of Indian Rupee 1950--Setting up of the Planning Commission 1951--Establishment of Atomic Energy Commission

C223


19. 13.

Arrange the following events in the chronologi cal order:

(i) Nationalisation of Private Airlines (ii) States Reorganisation Commission (iii) Incorporation of Chandernagor with India (iv) Inauguration of Bhakhra Dam Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) ii, iv, i and iii (b) iii, i, ii and iv (c) iv, ii, iii and i 14.


What is the correct chronological order of the following Acts?

(i) Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Act (ii) Hindu Succession Act (iii) Untouchability Act Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii and ii (b) ii, iii and i (c) i, ii and iii (d) iii, ii and i 15.

Which of the following is wrongly paired?

(a) (b) (c)

1954--Sino-lndian Agreement 1957--Dalai Lama's flight to India 1959--Military confrontation with China in Aksai Chin

(d) 16.

1962--Sino-lndian War Consider the following events: (i) Setting up of ONGC

(ii) Passing of Wealth Tax Bill (iii) Nationalisation of Insurance Companies (iv) Mundhra LIE share scandal What is their chronological order? Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) i, ii, iii and iv

(b) ii, iv, iii and i

(c) iii, ii, iv and i

(d) iv, i, ii and iii

17.


List I List II (I) (II) (III) (IV)

1959 1961 1962 1963

(A) Third General Election (B) Kamraj Plan (C) Television Transmission (D) Liberation of Goa

(a) (b) (c) (d) 18.

I-C, II-D, III-B, IV-A I-D, II-C, III-B, IV-A I-D, II-C, III-A, IV-B I-C, II-D, III-A, IV-B Consider Lists I and II:

List I List II (I) 1953 (A) Bifurcation of Gujarat (II) 1956 (B) Hindu Succession Act (111)1960 (C) Afro-Asian Conference at ( (IV)1961 (D) Arrival of Queen Elizabeth Which of the above are correctly Choose the answer from the codes given I (a) All of them (b) II, III and IV (c) I, III and IV

(d) I, II and III

Match List I with List II and select the an from the codes given below:

Listl List II I (I) Bimal Roy (A) Garm Hava (II) M. S. Sathyu (B) Father Panchali] (III) Satyajit Ray (C) Megfte Dhaka Taj (IV)RitwikGhatak (D) Do Bigha Zarmn* ABC D .. < (a) IV I III II (b) I IV III II (c) IV I II III (d) I IV II III 20. In 1947 all but three of the 532 princely i voluntarily acceded to the Indian Union, one of the following was not one of those 1 (a) Bhavnagar (b) Hyderabad

(c) Junagarh

(d) Kashmir

21. Who was the first recipient of the highest ga lantry award, 'Param Vir Chakra', instituted i 1947?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 22.

Captain Vikram Singh Major Somnath Sharma Major Vijay Rathor Captain Sanjay Sharma Who coined the word 'Khalistan', referring an independent Sikh state, in 1947?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 23.

Master Tara Singh Sardar Kartar Singh Professor Kapur Singh Sardar Baldev Singh Which was the first public corporation formed | in July 1948?

(a) Life Insurance Corporation of India (b) Food Corporation of India (c) State Trading Corporation (d) Damodar Valley Corporation 24. What was the name of Press Trust of India before 1949, when it was owned and operated by Reuters? (a) (b)

Inter Press Service Associated Press of India

India Independent to 1964 United News Information Associated News Service 125. Who founded the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu in 1949? E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker M. Karunanidhi C. N. Annadurai Kumaraswami Kamaraj 26. Who was hanged along with N. V. Godse, in the Ambala Jail in 1949, for Gandhiji's murder?

27.

Narayan Dattatreya Apte Damodar Ghorpade V. D. Savarkar Vishnu Chiplunkar Consider the following statements:

(i) Jana Gana Mana... was adopted as the National Anthem of India, (ii) Vande Mataram... was adopted as the National Song of India, (iii) Sare Jahan Se... was adopted as the National Theme of India, (iv) Herbert Murril's orchestra tune was selected for the National Anthem. Which of the above are correct? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) i, iiandiv

(d) i, iii and iv

28. Who became the first Chief Justice of India when the Supreme Court of India was inaugu rated on January 28, 1950? (a) Dilip Bose (b) Hiralal J. Kania (c) S. P. Mukherji (d) Nandlal Bose 29. Who was the first to give 80 acres in Telengana to Vinoba Shave's Bhoodan Movement?

30.

N. Sanjiva Reddy T. Prakasam J. Vengal Rao V. Ramachandra Reddy What is the chronological order of the demise of the following personalities?

(i) Vallabhbhai Patel (ii) Sarat Chandra Bose (iii) Abanindranath Tagore (iv) Aurobindo Ghosh (v) Maharshi Ramana Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, iv, i, v and ii (b) iv, iii, i, II and v (c) ii, v, iv, i and iii (d) v, i, iv, iii and ii 31.


Prem Mathur—First woman pilot Ha Majumdar—First woman doctor Anna R. Malhotra—First lady IAS officer Vijayalaxmi Pandit—First woman President of UN General Assembly 32.

Who produced 'Jhansi ki Rani', the first techni color film to be made in India?

(a) V. Shantaram

(b) Raj Kapoor

(c) G. Nagi Reddy (d) Sohrab Modi 33.

For the attainment of which state did Potti Sriramulu undertake a fast unto death?

(a) Maharashtra

(b) Karnataka

(c) Andhra Pradesh (d) Kerala 34.

Who was the first Indian to get Lenin Peace Prize in 1952?

Jawaharlal Nehru Saifuddin Kitchlu C. Rajagopalachari S. Radha Krishnan 35. K. D. Yadav won a bronze .medal in the Helsinki Olympic of 1952. This was India's first official Olympic medal in: (a) Wrestling (b) Swimming (c) Weight-lifting 36.

(d) Shooting

Who was the first Indian to be appointed as a Cardinal by the Vatican?

(a) A. J. Kuriokose (b) C. H. Francis (c) Valerian Gracias (d) Mammen Mathew 37.

Match List I and List II:

List I List II

January, 1953 (A) Sahitya Akademi March, 1954 (B) Lalit Kala Akademi November, 1954 (C) Sangeet Natak Akademi (IV)

May, 1955

(D) Children's Film

Society Choose the answer from the codes given below: ABCD III I IV II I III IV II I III II IV III I II IV


38.

Who was the first Indian to become Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces?

(a) Subroto Mukherji (b) K. M. Cariappa (c) F. J. Manekshaw (d) R. D. Katari 39. Who among the following was not a recipient of the Bharat Ratna in the year 1954? (a) B. R. Ambedkar (b) C. Rajagopalachari (c) S. Radha Krishnan (d) C. V. Raman 40. Which was the first film to get the President's Gold Medal for Best Film in the National Film Awards introduced in 1954? (a) (b) (c) (d) 41.

Shakuntala by V. Shantaram Father Panchali by Satyajit Ray Shyamchi Aai by P. K. Atre Jhansi ki Rani by Sohrab Modi Which one of the following pairs is not correct?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

R. D. Katari--First Indian Chief of Navy Subroto Mukherji--First Indian Air Chief K. M. Cariappa--First Indian Army Chief Debi Prasad Chowdhury--First Joint Chief of Staff

42.

'Apsara' was the name given to the first:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 43.

Commercial aircraft of the Indian Airlines Nuclear research reactor of India Thermal power project of India Luxury cruise liner of India Which was the first university In India to start a two-year MBA course?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 44.

Banaras Hindu University Allahabad University Andhra University Madras University Match List I with List II and select the answer using codes given below the lists:

List I List II (I) (II)

1954 (A) State Bank of India 1955 (B) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

(III)

1956 (C) All India Institute of Medical

Sciences (IV)

1957 (D) National Development

Council Codes: A IV IV (a) (b) (c) (d) III

IV IV I I

45.

Who was the first recipient of the Award?

(a) B. R. Ambedkar (b) Vinoba BM (c) Jawaharlal Nehru (d) S. Radha I 46. Who founded the Swatantra Party in 18 (a) S. P. Mukherji (b) B. R. AmU (c) C. Rajagopalachari (d) Narendra I 47.

Who among the following was communist?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 48.

P. C. Joshi N. M. Joshi Ajoy Ghosh E. M. S. Namboodripad Which one of the following pairs correct?

(a)

Usha Sapre--First woman to Everest

(b)

Anna Chandy--First woman judgtf^ high court

(c)

Arati Saha--First Asian woman across English Channel

(d) IAF

Gita Chanda--First woman par il

49.

Who was the first American President 1 India in 1959?

(a) F. D. Roosevelt (b) J. F. Ken (c) D. D. Eisenhower (d) Richard Nix 50. Nehru's first cabinet included five-Congressmen. Pick them out from the following: (i) Ajoy Ghosh (ii) B. R. Ambedk (iii) S. P. Mukherji (iv) John Mathai (v) C. H. Bhabha (vi) Shanmukham ( Choose the answer from the codes below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and v (b) i, ii, iv, v an (c) i, ii, iii, iv and vi (d) ii, iii, iv, v an

ANSWERS

1.(a) 11. (c) 21. (b) 31. (a) 41. (d) C227

2.(d) 12. (d) 22. (c) 32. (d) 42. (b)

3.(b) 13. (b) 23. (d) 33. (c) 43. (c)

4. 14. 24. 34. 44.

(c) (a) (b) (b) (a)

5.(c) 15. (b) 25. (c) 35. (a) 45. (b)

6. (a) 16. (c) 26. (a) 36. (c) 46. (c)

7. 17. 27. 37. 47.

(b) (d) (c) (d) (b)

8.(c) 18. (b) 28. (b) 38. (b) 48. (a)

9.(d) 19. (c) 29. (d) 39. (a) 49. (c)

10. (c) 20. (a) 30. (c) 40. (c) 50. (d)

REVISION

*

A Glossary of Economic Terms of Medieval and Modern India

Personalities *

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A GLOSSARY OF ECONOMIC TERMS OP MEDIEVAL AND MODERN INDIA

10-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

]agar System It was a Socio-economic system which originated first in the Karnataka region in ancient period and then spread to Tamil and Andhra regions in the medieval period. It meant that the requirements of the rural population in certain goods and social services were met by a staff of professionals, who were remunerated not with the payment for work done, but summarily with a fraction of gross agricultural produce, called Ayam. All village artisans and menials together with the community administrative staff were therefore known by the common name of ayagars (receivers of the ayarri). \Baluta System Similar to the ayagar system, it was prevalent in western India and Deccan during the medieval period. Under this system a fixed annual share of each peasant family's corn and garden produce, called baluta, was permanently assigned for the subsistence of about 12 village servants and artisans called balutadars (carpenter, blacksmith, potter, barber, washerman, shoemaker, rope-maker, mahar, etc.). They were not employed by individual peasant families (as under thejajmani system) but by the village as a whole and were expected to serve the villagers whenever required in their respective capacities fixed by their castes. Jajmani System It was a reciprocal system of prescribed rights and obligations between specific rural families. Under this system jajmani families, generally the landowners, received goods and services from the kamin families of village artisans and servants, and made customary payments to them. It was characteristic of medieval India's rural economy though with several regional variations. It was a system primarily oriented towards subsistence production and customary distribution of the produce rather than to production for the market. An important economic rationale for its prevalence and persistence seems to be the security it provided against the frequent famines.

REVENUE SYSTEMS AND PRACTICES

Batai It was one of the several methods of revenue calculation and collection that were prevalent in medieval India. In this system the

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Bhagdari

Dahsala

Danabandi

Ijara crop was divided between the cultivator and the government in different ways either before or after the harvest. It was also known as Kankut the galla-bakshi system. It was a system under which bhagdars (sharers or partners) were collectively, not individually, responsible for the payment of revenue to the government. A revenue system in which the average produce of different crops Mahalwari as well as the average prices of the past 10 years were calculated and one-third of the average produce in terms of cash was collected by the state as the land revenue. It was introduced by Akbar in his 24th regnal year. It was a revenue system in which not the actual crop (as in the batai system) but the estimated crop was divided between the cultivator and the government or its agents. During the British period the Nasaq zamindars under the permanent settlement increasingly demanded payment of their share of esti-Ryotwari mated crop not in kind, but in cash at market rates of certain periods of year which proved disastrous to the cultivators. It was the practice of revenue farming. According to this practice, the right to farm or collect revenue was granted temporarily to the highest bidder in an auction by the government through the Zabti zamindar. In return for this function, the ijaradar (revenue farmer) was rewarded with a commission of 4 to 6 per cent and few other benefits. Having its origins in the reign of Shah Jahan, it became common during Aurangzeb's period and widely practised under the Later mb also used this time in eastern 1

It was method < tion in which! government of] general estimate the basis of a1-mutual agree Government's ingly fixed. It was a sys assessment in assessment was ii not an individual; the system the the payment of i lective, and the! reserved the right revise the revenue i introduced by the Gangetic valley, North-Western prov of central India. In this method the i by the cultivator was \ the basis ofpastexp It was the system off ment with the individ (ryot) recognising owner of his plot of 1 system the gove the right to reassess 1 demand periodically. It| duced by the British in i Presidency and lat< Bombay Presidency. The system in which i land revenue was basis of measurement of I the help of a tanab, a instrument made of I joined by iron rings. Als as the bandobast systi introduced by Akbar in regnal year.

A Glossary of Economic Terms of Medieval and Modern India D5

ENUE OFFICIALS AND COLLECTORS

Amil Common name for revenue collec tors during the medieval period and early British period. sai or He was the Principal hereditary shmukh revenue officer of a district (sarkar) or subdistrict (pargana) in Western India and Deccan. \Deshpande Hereditary accountant of revenue collection at the district or subdistrict level in western India and Deccan. Ijaradar

Revenue farmer of eastern India.

\Iqtadar

Holder of an iqta under the Delhi

sultans. Also known as muqti. [Jagirdar Holder of a Jagir under the Mughals. Kulkarni

Village accountant in western

India and Deccan. Malguzar Holder of malguzari, that is, a rev enue engagement right, in northern and central India under the British. Mamlatdar Non-hereditary revenue official incharge of a district or a subdistrict in western India and Deccan under the Marathas. Muqaddam Village headman in north India, also called khot. Palegaroi Petty chieftan or zamindar who

Poligar enjoyed hereditary right of rev enue collection in south India. Patel or Patil Village headman in western India and Deccan. Patwari

Village accountant in northern and

central India. Thikadar

Holder of a thika, that is, a lease or

sub-lease of land from a big zamindar in eastern India during the British rule. DIFFERENT TAXES

Abwab

Miscellaneous cesses and imposts levied by zamindars and public officials. Chauth One-fourth of the land revenue of an undefined belt land paid to the Marathas by the Mughals and the native rulers so that those areas would not be subjected to Maratha raids. Jizya A religious tax paid by all the zim mis (non-Muslims) in an Islamic state to the government. Kharaj Land revenue in the Muslim ruled states of medieval India. Khums Traditionally one-fifth share of the state in the war booty and treasure troves, mines, etc., but became four-fifths from the time of Alaud-din Khalji. SairorSayir Taxes other than land revenue; mostly transit duties. Sardesh mukhi An additional levy of 10 per cent on those lands of Maharashtra over which Marathas claimed hereditary rights. Zakat A religious tax paid by all the wealthy Muslims in an Islamic state for the maintenance of their unfortunate brethren.

AGRARIAN CLASSES

Bargadar

Share cropper in eastern India.

Having the status of a tenant-at-will, he occupied the land only as long as the landowner allowed. Bhagdar

Partner or shareholder of a joint

village in some parts of western India. Also called patidars and narwadars. Grantidar

Person holding land tenure

(granti) directly under the government or the zamindars in some parts of eastern India (e.g. Jessore District). In other parts of eastern India, these tenure-holders were known by different names such as jatedars in Rangpur District, haoladars in Bakaraganj District,


gatchdars in Purnea District and mandals in Midnapur district. These people were mostly big tenure-holders who depended considerably on hired labour for the cultivation of their lands. Their origins were largely associated with large-scale reclamation of wasteland particularly during the early part of British rule. Mali or Haliya Bonded agricultural labourer of western India. Kamiya

Bonded agricultural labourer of

eastern India. Kanamdar Holder of land tenure under the zamindars (jenmis) in Kerala. During the term of the tenure (usually 12 years) the kanamdar paid the jenmi a lower rent than other tenants. At the beginning of the termhe paid the jenmi a lump sum (the kanani) and the rent he had to pay was accordingly reduced. The kanamdar either cultivated the land himself or let them out to other tenants such as pattadars. Khudkasht A peasant who was a permanent resident of the village and had ownership rights of his lands and implements and paid land revenue to the state directly in Mughal India. In Maharashtra he was called mirasdar (holder of miras lands), and in Rajasthan as gharuhala or gaveti. Korfa A tenant with certain customary rights in his land in eastern India. Muzarian

Share-cropper in Mughal India.

Nattar A person belonging to the local ruling class and dominating local land and people in Tamil Nadu. Pahi

A peasant who was basically an

'outsider' but cultivated the rented lands in a village either while staying in the neighbouring village or by staying in the same village in

Mughal India. In was known as upari* Patnidar Holder of a patni or I a zamindari in somel ern India (e.g. Bu

COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS AND I

Cartaze System A system in which ship sailing to a reserved by the Po own trade had to (cartaze) from the1 viceroy of Goa if it the seizure and conn's merchandise. Dadni System The system in which41 (both Indian and Eu cash and raw mate (dadari) to the artis bought the finished5 Though it originated I Bengal, later it spr parts of India as well.! the same as the 'puttin|f term insofar as the tran covered were still salq artisan retaining con independence. Damdupat

A rule under which no I

liable to pay an amount < exceeding the principal < loan itself prevalent in^ India. Hundi An indigenous bill of < Mughal India, it promised] after a specified perio months or less) at a partic allowing a discount which i interest, insurance charges i of transmission of money.; increasingly became the,! form of payment in major c cial transactions in the 18 tury. In the long distance I not only met the requireme

A Glossary of Economic Terms of Medieval and Modern India 07

expanding demand for credit, but reduced the risks involved in the transmission of cash to distance places. Their business was mainly in the hands of professional money changers or bankers, called the sarrafs. Khatbandi Indenture regulations which bound the artisans of eastern India to sell their products exclusively to the English East India Company from the late 1770s onwards.

COMMERCIAL CLASSES

Bania Merchant throughout the subconti nent, in some area he also acted as banker or moneychanger. Banjara

Merchant who specialised in the

carrying (caravan) trade, particulary in grain, salt, and cattle, throughout India. Chetti or

Merchants of south India.

Chettiar Dalai Broker or middleman in commer cial transactions. Goldar Wholesale merchant owning a warehouse (gola). Mahajan

Wholesale merchant or big banker

in eastern, northern and western India. Marwari

Native of Marwar in Rajasthan

who followed the business of banker, merchant or broker.

Paikar Merchant's agent concerned with buying goods from artisans in eastern India. Sahukar India.

Banker and moneylender in west ern

Saudagar

Big merchant involved in long dis tance trade in eastern India.

Seth

Banker and moneylender in east ern, western and northern India.

Sarraf A professional banker who pro vided specialised service as supplier of credit through the hundis. MISCELLANEOUS TERMS

AurangDepot for manufactured goods or localised manufacturing area. Bhaichara property.

Brotherhood holding lands or cer tain rights and privileges as common

Bhiga Measure of land area, varying widely but never more than an acre. Chowki

Customs outpost.

Cowries

Conch shells used as a medium of

exchange. Daroga Head of police , customs or excise outpost. Diwani Right to collect revenue of a province. Farman Ganj

Royal order or decree

Mart or trade centre or market.

Hasil Land revenue actually collected or realised from an estate or area. Hat

Periodic village fair.

Inam Revenue-free land or some gift from a person in authority to someone for a service. Iqta

Unit of land whose revenues were

assigned to government officials in lieu of their salaries in the Delhi Sultanate. Jagir

Mughal equivalent to the iqta of

the Delhi Sultans. Jama Total land revenue levied or expected from an estate or area. Jamabandi Settlement of the amount of revenue assessed upon an estate or village or district. Kharkhana Royal factory where different types of goods were manufactured for the royal court and the army under the Delhi Sultans and Mughals. Kaulnama Written voucher granted to rev enue payers specifying the terms of their payments and the amounts. Khalisa

Crown-land or land held and man aged directly by the state.


Madad-i-Maash Land whose revenues were Pattidari assigned by the state to religious and learned persons or religious Qubuliyat and benevolent institutions. Malikana

Special allowance assigned to the

zamindar by the state out of the Takkavi land revenue because of his superior right over the land. Mandi Wholesale market.

Tmkathia

Manotidar A banker or moneylender who provided guarantee or stood security to the intermediary revenue collector after receiving a premium (manoti) for that purpose from the latter. Milki Proprietorship or ownership espe cially in land. Mohur Gold coin. Maufi Revenue-free holdings. Nazrana Gift usually from inferior to supe rior; forced contribution. Watan Tenure at fixed rates or rent or Zerat Mukarari revenue. Patta Document given by the revenue official to the revenue payer stating terms on which land is held and the amount payable. Joint ov estate. >! Document payer ace tions laid do Cash adva the cultivator^! for produce. A system iffl indigo plant< leases from dars in easte mandatory for 1 tivate indigo on j unremunerative i wanted exemp cultivation they.^ sharahbeshi (e tawan

(lump suing or sometimes both,"; Hereditary lands. ^ A system in wh indigo planters holi leases in Eastern direct cultivation of the help of very low-j rural labourers.

PERSONALITIES

dul Gaffar Khan Popularly known as the Frontier Gandhi', he was a prominent nationalist der of the North-western Frontier Province, and unded a nationalist organisation, called the hudai Khidmatgars' (Servants of God), popularly ferred to as the 'Red Shirts'. He began a movent for 'Pakhttoonistan' in post-independent Pakistan, for which he was imprisoned by the Pakistani government. Awarded the 'Bharat Ratna' vard posthumously by the Indian government.

bdul Hamid Lahori Shah Jahan's official historian and the author of Padshah Namah.

{Abdullah Barha Sayyid The elder of the two [famous Sayyid brothers, the younger being Hussain, [played the role of king-makers in the Mughal empire between 1713 and 1722.

fAbdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan Son of Bairam I Khan, he became a prominent noble and military I commander of Akbar, and contributed to literature I by his translation of Babur's Memoirs into Persian 1 and other such activities.

' Abdur Razzak Lari General of the last Qutab Shahi ruler of Golconda (Abul Hasan), he defended the fort very bravely for a long time before its final conquest by Aurangzeb (1687) who later took him into his 'employment.

Abul Fazl Son of Shaik Mlubarak and brother of Faizi (poet), he was the official historian and close adviser of Akbar. Wrote Ain-i-Akbari (a statistical account of Akbar's empire) and Akbar Namah (an authoritative account of his reign). Assassinated by Bir Singh Bundela in 1602 at the instigation of Prince Salim (later Jahangir). Adham Khan Son of Maham Anaga (foster mother of Akbar), he became powerful for two years (1560-62) after the fall of Bairam Khan, but was executed by Akbar for murdering the then wazir, Shams-ud-din Atga Khan (1562).

Afzal Khan Bijapuri general sent to suppress Sivaji, but was outsmarted and killed by Sivaji with his baghnakh (tiger claws) when the two met for negotiations (1659).

Aga Khan The title of the religious head of the Borah Ismailian community of the Muslims in India. It was first conferred on Hasan AH Shah who claimed descent from the Prophet through his daughter.

Ahalya Bai The widowed daughter-in-law of Malhar Rao Holkar of Indore, who ruled the state between 1764 and 1795. Famous for her construction of temples and public works like the Annapuma and Vishnu temples at Banaras and Gaya respectively and the Grand Trunk road from Calcutta to Banaras. She was succeeded by Tukoji Holkar.

Ahmad Shah Abdali Belonging to the Durrani clan of Afghanistan, he initially worked under Nadir Shah. During his independent rule of Afghanistan (1747-1773), he invaded India eight times, scoring a spectacular victory over the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat (1761).

Ahmad Shah Wali The ninth Sultan of the Bahmani kingdom, he came to power by murdering his brother Firoz Shah Bahmani. Transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.

Ahmad Shah The greatest ruler (1411 -41) of the Sultanate of Gujarat, he founded" the city of

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Ahmadabad near the old Hindu town of Aswal and made it his capital.

Ahmad Nizam Shah Bahri Founder of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, he built the city of Ahmadnagar and made it his capital.

Ahsan Shah, Jalaluddin One of the governors of Muhammad bin Tughluq, he rose in rebellion and founded the Sultanate of Madurai in 1335 which was, however, annexed by the Vijayanagar ruler in 1377.

Ajatasatru Son of Bimbisara, he was the second ruler (516^480 bc) of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha. He conquered the Lichchhavi state, defeated the Kosala king (Prasenjit) and married his daughter. The First Buddhist Council was held at Rajagriha during his reign.

Ajft Singh The posthumous son of Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, he was imprisoned by Aurangzeb as an imposter but was rescued from Delhi by the Rathors under Durgadas. The Rathors, supported by the Ranas of Mewar, fought against the Mughals for the cause of Aj it till 1709 when Bahadur Shah I finally recognised him as the ruler of Marwar.

Akbar (Prince) Third son of Aurangzeb, born to Dilras Bano Begum, he revolted against his father in 1681, but was defeated and had to take refuge with Sambhaji. Failing to achieve anything in the Deccan due to the personal presence of the emperor, he finally retired to Persia.

Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah Founder of the Bahmani kingdom with Gulbarga as his capital, he was originally an officer in Deccan in the employment of Muhammad bin Tughluq. During his reign (1347-1358), he extended his control overall the territory from the Wain Ganga in the north to the Krishna in the south. His kingdom consisted of

four provinces (tarafs), viz. Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar. His reign is known to us from a contemporary account, BurhaniMaasir.

Alauddin Hussain Shah Founder of the Hussain Shahi dynasty of Bengal with Gaur as the capital, he ruled for 24 years (1493-1518). Alam Khan Third son of 1 of Ibrahim Lodhi, he joined '. inviting Babur to invade India.^

Alamgir II Son of Jahandar emperor), he was made the 1( (1754-59) by the powerful ImadulMulk.

Alberuni Originally a native of Asia, he came to Ghazni and thenfl wake of Mahmud's raids. Abu was his original name, but 'Alberuni', meaning the 'Master"! scholar himself, he learnt Sanskrit)! ough study of Indian sciences famous work, Tariq-i-Hind or Kitt scientific treatise and gives us an i India on the eve of the Turkish i

AI-Hajjaj The Arab governor of! caliphate of Walid, he sent three ( to conquer it. But only the last one i and son-in-law, Muhammad bin ' in defeating King Dahir in the (ad 712) and established Arab rule ipjji

AI-Masudi An Arab visitor to the .' dom in ad 915 during the time of ] praised the competence of Pratihara ea

Alexander of Epirus He is referred 1 suddara' by Asoka in his Major Rock 1

Ali Adil Shah I The fifth ruler of Bija bined with Rama Raya of Vijayanagar ii Ahmadnagar (1558) but later joined Muslim rulers in the combined attack of > and its defeat in the battle of Bannihatti i (1565). He was married to Chand Ahmadnagar.

Ali Barid Founder of the Band Shahi Bidar, an off-shoot of the Bahmani kingd

Ali, Muhammad A prominent nationalist^ and brother of Shaukat Ali, he was a leader! Khilafat Movement and the Non-Coop Movement. He became the President of the.! National Congress in 1923.

Personalities D11

ammad Ruhela Founder of the power of jlohillas or Ruhelas in Rohilkhand lying at the |of the Himalayas to the north-west of Awadh. 74 they were defeated and their last ruler, Hafiz Khan, was murdered by the Nawab of i with the help of the British.

r Singh Son and successor of Rana Pratap of ir, he continued the fight against the Mughals Akbar and later under Jahangir. But in 1614 ; was patched up when Jahangir stopped insist-f on the personal attendance of the Rana at the I court.

ir, Malik An Abyssinian slave who settled in nagar and became the prime minister of the i Shahi rulers. He introduced a number of rev: reforms, trained the Nizam Shahi forces in the rilla tactics of warfare, employed a large num-[of Marathas in the army, and foiled the attempts âhangir to complete Mughal annexation of the Shahi kingdom. But in 1616 he was com-I by Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) to sur the fort of Ahmadnagar to the Mughals.

Ruler of Taxila when Alexander invaded , he voluntarily surrendered to Alexander and help in the latter's war against Porus or hottam.

' Khusrau Known as the 'Parrot of India', he a famous poet, historian and musician of the hi Sultanate. Writing in Persian, Urdu and Hindi, enjoyed the patronage of successive rulers of hi from Balban to Ghiyasuddin Tughluq and 1 away in 1324.

avarman Choda Ganga The most important ; of the Eastern Gangas of Orissa, he built the nous Jagannath temple at Pun in the 12th century.

ari, Dr (1880-1936) A medical doctor by ofession, he was initially involved in the Muslim ague politics and presided over its 1920 session, later he became a Congressman and was the sident of the Madras Session (1927) of the
participated in the Civil Disobedience ovement and was imprisoned twice in 1930 and 932. Antialcidas An Indo-Greek King of Taxila (140-130 bc), he sent Heliodorous as ambassador to Kasiputra Bhagabhadra of Vidisa, the fifth Sunga ruler. He is mentioned in the Besnagar Pillar Inscription, near Vidisa in MP.

Antigonous Gonatas King of Macedonia (277-239 bc), he is referred to as 'Antikini' in the Major Rock Edict XIII of Asoka. He was one of the Greek rulers with whom Asoka maintained friendly relations.

Antiochus I Son of Seleucus Nikator, he was the king of Syria and sent Deimachus as his ambassador to the court of Bindusara. When Bindusara requested him to send sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist, he replied that wine and figs would be sent but not a sophist, for the laws prohibited a sophist to be sold.

Antiochus II Theos The Greek King of Syria (261-246 bc) who is referred to in the Major Rock Edict XIII of Asoka as 'Antiyoko' with whom he maintained friendly relations.

Anuruddha The son and successor of Udayin of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha, he was the last ruler of the dynasty according to the Ceylonese Buddhist chronicles.

Appolodotos An Indo-Greek king, he came to power by murdering his own father, Eucratides, in about 156BC.

Aquaviva, Father Ridolfo A Jesuit missionary working at Goa, he was sent to Fatehpur Sikri along with Father Monserrate by the Portuguese government on the request of Akbar who wanted to know the fundamental tenets of Christianity.

Arjun, Guru The fifth guru of the Sikhs (1581-1606), he was the son and successor of Guru Ramdas. He compiled the Adi Granth and built the famous Harmandir Sahib in the city of Amritsar. In 1577 Akbar had donated the site to Ramdas who founded the city there. Guru Arjun required the Sikhs to pay a 'spiritual tribute', a sort of religious cess, thus laying the foundation of the wealth of the Sikh gurus. He was executed by Jahangir for helping Prince Khusrau, who was in revolt against his father.


Vs Asaf Khan Akbar's general who conquered Garhkatanga from Rani Durgavati and helped Raja Man Singh in defeating Rana Pratap in the battle of Haldighati.

Asaf Khan Son of Mirza Ghiyas Beg (Itimaduddaula) and brother of Mihr-un-nisa (Nur Jahan), he gave his daughters, Anjuman and Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal), in marriage to Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) and helped him to capture the throne after Jahangir's death. Later he served his son-in-law as the wazir.

Asanga A prominent Buddhist scholar, saint and author, he belonged to the fourth century ad and was the brother of Vasubandhu (teacher and minister of Samudragupta). He was the author of the Sutralankam (the earliest text of the Yogachara school of Mahayanism) and the Yogachara Bhumi Sastra.

Asvaghosha A Buddhist (Mahayana) saint and scholar of Kanishka's period, he played an active part in the Fourth Buddhist Council. He was the author of Buddhacharita (a biography of the Buddha), and Rashtrapala and Sariputra Prakasha (dramas).

Atisha Dipankara A renowned Vajrayana Buddhist monk and preacher (ad 981-1054) of the Pala period, his original name was Chandragarbha. He served as the principal of the Vikramasila University for about 18 years, and later went to Tibet and preached there for 12 years.

Avantivarman A Maukhari ruler of Kanauj, he was the father of Grahavarman, who married Rajyasri, the sister of Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

Azim-ud-daula The last nawab of the autonomous state -of the Camatic, he was pensioned off and his state was annexed by Lord Wellesley in 1801.

Badal and Gora The Rajput heroes of Mewar, who died fighting while defending Chittor from Alauddin Khalji's forces.

Badauni A prominent historian of Akbar's period, he is the author of Muntakhab-ulTawarikh, which contains a rather critical account of j reign.

Bahadur Shah Ruler of Gujarat (I defeated his neighbours like the Sura and Rana of Mewar, and extended : their cost. Though he was defeated; his kingdom by Humayun in 1535, hej| ered it by driving out the occupying ] But in 1537 he is said to have been i holding discussions with the Portug one of their ships.

Bahar Khan Lohani The Afghan ruler J! patron of Farid Khan (later Sher Shah J ferred the title of 'Sher Khan' on the 1 appointed him as his deputy.

Bairam Khan Guardian and la (1556-1560) of Akbar, he helped the ' ning the second battle of Panipat and a! quering Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur. assumed the direct charge of administl age of 18, Bairam revolted but was def doned. On his way to Mecca, he was ; some of his enemies at Patan in Gujarat {

Ballala Sena The second independent^ (ad 1158-79) of Bengal, he expanded 1 considerably. He was protific writer if I authoring Danasagara and Adbhutasaga patron of orthodox Hinduism, he found or a system of nobility among the fir; Kayasthas of Bengal.

Banda Bahadur The disciple of the 1C Sikh Guru, Govind Singh, he was the polfl! of the Sikhs between 1708 and 171 j revenge he took on a Mughal official,' who had executed the sons of his hunted down by the Mughals who could 1 ture and executed him in 1715.

Barani, Ziauddin A conservative histor Shah Tughluq's period, his Tarikh-it gives us information about the rule of the' up to Firoz.

Barwell, Richard An official of the Company, he was made a member of the I

Personalities D13

neral's Council by the Act of 1773. Unlike the : three members of the Council, he gave his full ort to Warren Hastings.

I Bahadur Ruler of Malwa with Manda as his al, he was famous for his patronage of architec-and music. Akbar annexed his kingdom but took him into Mughal service. His wife, pmati, was known for her beauty.

, Captain Commander of an English ship, the agon', he defeated the Portuguese fleet at Swally Surat) in 1622 which made Jahangir to grant nission to the English to erect a factory at Surat.

line, JED Law Member of the Governor neral's Council, he is famous for promoting edupation among the Indian women. He was the founder f the Bethune School for Girls at Calcutta.

agwan Das Kachhawaha ruler of Amber and on of Raja Bihari Mai (who voluntarily submitted > Akbar), he rose very high in the service of Akbar. .aja Man Singh who served Akbar with distinction i his son.

ani The powerful noble of Thanesvar who ayed a significant role in the accession of Harsha >

the throne.

An early Sanskrit dramatist of ancient ndia he is said to have composed 13 dramas, the ost famous being Swapnavasavadatta, Charudatta 'ratima.

askaracharya A celebrated Indian astronomer land mathematician of the 12th century ad, he was Iborn at Bijapur and was the author of Siddhanta \Siromani, also known as Lilavati. | [Bhaskaravarman Famous ruler of Kamarupa ((Assam), he was a contemporary and close friend of iHarshavardhana of Kanauj, who took his help to Icheck the power of Sasanka of Gauda (Bengal). He [attended the two assemblies held at Kanauj and iPrayag by Harsha. His court was visited by the I Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang.

[Bhavabhuti Sanskrit poet and dramatist of the I early eighth century, he was at the court of King Yasovaraman of Kanauj. His works include Uttaracharita and Malatimadhava.

Bhimal Solanki ruler of Gujarat when Mahmud of Ghazni raided the famous Somnath temple (of Siva) in 1025.

Bhima II The Solanki ruler of Gujarat who was the first Indian to defeat Muhammad of Ghur when the latter tried to penetrate India from the western sector in 1178.

Bhoja I (Mihira) He was the greatest of all the Gurjara-Pratihara kings of Kanauj. According to Sulaiman, an Arab traveller, he had the best cavalry in India.

Bhoja II The grandson of Bhoja I, he ruled the Pratihara kingdom for a very brief period of two or three years in the first decade of the 10th century ad.

Bhoja (of Malwa) The Paramara or Pawar ruler of Malwa between ad 1018 and 1,060 with Dhar as his capital, he was a great patron of learning and wrote several books in Sanskrit. He was also responsible for building the famous Bhojpur lake (250 sq. miles), which lasted till the 15th century.

Bihari Lai Next to Tutsi Das, he was the most eminent Hindi poet of the 17th century and wrote Satsai.

Bilhana The court poet of Vikramaditya VI (1076-1127), the Chalukya ruler of Kalyan, he was the author of Vikramankacharita.

Bir Narayan The minor ruler of Garhkatanga whose mother, Rani Durgavati, died fighting along with him in trying to defend their kingdom against Akbar.

Bir Singh Bundela He was the Bundela chief who murdered Abul Fazl at the instigation of Prince Salim (Jahangir). He built the famous Kesava Deva Temple at Mathura at a cost of Rs 33 lakh.

Birbal, Raja A Rajput chief in the employment of Akbar, he was the favourite of the emperor who honoured him with titles of 'Raja' and 'Kavi Priya' (for his Hindi poetry). He lost his life in 1586 while campaigning against the Yusufzai tribe in the northwestern India.


Bird, R M A British revenue officer in charge of land revenue settlement of the NorthWest Provinces, he took ten years (1830-40) to complete the work which came to be known as the Mahalwari System.

Brydon, Dr A British army surgeon, he was the only survivor of the regiment that fought the first Afghan War (1839^2).

Bussy, Marquis De A prominent French general under Dupleix, he acted as the military adviser of Salabat Jang (Nizam of Hyderabad) for seven years (1751-58). With his recall from Hyderabad by Count de Lally (who succeeded Dupleix), the French influence in the Nizam's court was destroyed.

Butler, Sir Harcourt First a member of the Viceroy's Executive Council and then the governor of the United Provinces and of Burma, he was appointed the chairman of the Indian States Committee (1927) set up to inquire into the relationship between the British government and the Indian States and to suggest measures for improvement. The committee submitted its report in 1929.

Carey, William A Baptist missionary of the early 19th century, he propagated'Christianity in Bengal, promoted Bengali prose by publishing a number of books and by helping in the publication of two Bengali journals (Digdarsana and Samachar Darpari), advocated the spread of western sciences and English literature, and condemned the practice of sati. He greatly influenced Bentinck's educational and social policies.

Chart Singh The Raja of Benaras who was harassed by Warren Hastings for more and more tributes and contributions till the demands became too heavy for him to comply. Ultimately Hastings confiscated his kingdom, while the Raja escaped to Gwalior. Later this episode was one of the serious charges against Hastings in his impeachment proceedings.

Champat Rai The Bundela chief who rebelled against Aurangzeb. He committed suicide to escape capture by the Mughals. His son, Chhatrasal, however, carried on the fight against Aurangzeb. Chamunda Raya A minister of the '\ Gangas of Mysore, he built the famous S Gomatesvara or Bahubali (56.5 feet in Jaina monk, on the top of a hill at Sravanal in ad 982.

"-M

J Chand Bardai The court poet of Prithvirajf of Ajmer, he was the author of Prithviraj I called Chand Raisa) which dealt with his marriage with Samyukta, his life and achie Chand Bibi: The daughter of Hussain NiT of Ahmadnagar and wife of Ali Adil S Bijapur, she acquired fame for her deffl Ahmadnagar against Akbar.

Charaka The celebrated physician of 1 period, he was the author of Charaka book on pathology and medicine.

Charnock, Job One of the early English I India, he laid the foundation of Calcutta in '.

Charvaka Founder of the earliest philosophy in India, the Lohayata School, 1 the existence of an imperishable soul, reje doctrine of rebirth and asked men to be happy J life, for the body once cremated can never be fd again.

Charumati One of the daughters of became a Buddhist nun, accompanied her 1 his visit to Nepal and remained there afw father's departure.

Chhatrasal Son of Champati Rai Bundeli revolted against Aurangzeb and founded all. pendent kingdom in eastern Malwa with his \ at Panna in 1671. Later he was taken into : service by Bahadur Shah I.

Child, Sir John President of the English 1 Surat, he defied Aurangzeb's authority, who their factory. After a while the English were] doned and permitted to return to Surat.

Child, Sir Josiah Chairman of the Con Directors of the East India Comapny, he wan capture some territories in eastern Indian by which resulted in the temporary expulsion or English from Bengal in 1688.

Personalities D15

Clavering, Sir John The member of the Governor I General's Council between 1773 and 1777, he always opposed Warren Hastings along with his colleague Philip Francis.

Coote, Sir Eyre The British general who scored the decisive victory over the French in the battle of Wandiwash (1760). He also won the battle of Porto Novo (1781) against Haidar Ali. But later in another battle with Haidar at Palilur, he lost one of his legs.

Cotton, Sir Arthur Thomas The famous English engineer, who built irrigation works on the Kaveri, Krishna and Godavari rivers and improved the irrigation system in south India in general. He was the author of Public Works in India, a comprehensive book on the subject.

Cotton, Sir Henry An English ICS officer, he occupied several important positions before his retirement in 1902. A leading champion of Indian Nationalism, he became the president of the 20th Session of the INC held in Bombay in 1904.

Cunningham, Sir Alexander An engineer by profession, he served in various capacities in engineering department till 1861 after which he became the first archaeological surveyor to the government of India and later the director of that department (1870-85). His contribution to Indian archaeology has greatly promoted our knowledge of ancient Indian history, and his works (The Ancient Geography of India, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicanum, the Stupa of Bharhut, etc.) still continue to be of great value.

Dadu Dayal A prominent Nirgurltt saint of Medieval India, he was the son of a cottoncarder of Ahrriadabad but lived mostly in Rajasthan during the reign of Shah Jahan. He composed a number of poems which promoted Hindu-Muslim unity. His followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis.

Dahir Son of Chach, he was the ruler of Sind at the time of the Arab conquest. Though he repulsed the first two Arab attacks, he was defeated and killed in the battle of Raor

by the Arabs under Muhammad bin Qasim (ad 712). Soon the whole of Sind with its capital, Alor, passed under Arab rule. Dara Shikoh The eldest son and favourite of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz, he was interested in Sufism and tolerant of all religious faiths. He was with his father when the latter fell ill in 1756, but his claim to the throne was contested by his three younger brothers (Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad) which resulted in the war of succession (1656-58) among the brothers. Though he had the backing of his father, he was defeated successively by Aurangzeb in the three battles of Kharmat, Samugarh and Deorai. Thereafter he became a fugitive and took shelter with Jiwan Khan, the Afghan chief of Dadar (Sind), who however betrayed him to the forces of Aurangzeb. He was ultimately tried on the charge of apostasy and executed by Aurangzeb in August 1659.

Das, Chfttaranjan An eminent lawyer who first distinguished himself by successfully defending Aurobindo Ghosh in the famous Alipore Bomb Case. He gave up his lucrative practice to join the Non-Cooperation Movement. He presided over the 1922 Session of the INC, but soon realised the futility of the policy of keeping out of the legislative councils. Along with Motilal Nehru he formed the Swaraj Party within the INC with the declared policy of entering the councils and disrupting their functioning (also known as the policy of 'responsive cooperation'). His party captured a number of seats in the legislatures and was implementing its policy when he suddenly passed away in June, 1925. Because of his great contribution to the cause of the nation, he came to be called 'Deshbandhu' (friend of the country) by the people.

Daulat Khan Lodhi The Lodhi governor of Punjab, he nursed a deep grievance against Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi for the latter's harsh treatment of his son (Dilawar Khan) and joined Alam Khan (Ibrahim's uncle) and Rana Sangram Singh of Mewar in inviting Babur to invade India.

Dawar Baksh Son of Prince Khusrau (Jahangir's eldest son who had died in 1622), he was put on the throne by Asaf Khan in 1627 as a stop-gap arrangement till Shah Jahan came from Deccan and claimed the throne.


Devabhuti (or Devabhumi) The last Sunga who was murdered in 75 bc by his own minister, Vasudeva, who founded the Kanva dynasty.

Devanampiya Piyadassi The title by which Asoka, the Great, is referred to in almost all his inscriptions, except the one at Maski which refers to him as 'Asoka Piyadassi' and thus settles the question of the identity of the title with Asoka. The title means the 'Beloved of the Gods who looks after the welfare of all."

Dhoyi He was court poet of Lakshmana Sena of Bengal (the last Sena who was defeated by Bakhtiyar Khalji). He wrote Pavanadutam which describes an adventures of his patron.

A celebrated Buddhist monk and teacher, he probably lived in the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.

Digby, John Collector of Rangpur under whom Ram Mohan Roy worked as a sheristadar (clerk) and learnt English between 1809 and 1814.

Dilras Bano Begum The eldest and dearest wife of Aurangzeb who built a tomb for her after her death at Aurangabad, which is considered as a replica of the Taj Mahal.

Duff, Alexander A Scottish Presbyterian missionary, he did much to promote western education and social reform in Bengal between 1830 and 1863. With Rammohun Roy's help, he started an English school in Calcutta (1830) which later on became the famous Duff College. He also played an important role in persuading the government to establish universities in India.

Dundas, Henry The first president of the Board of Control (set up by the Pitt's India Act of 1784), he made the Board a powerful body in the affairs of India.

Durand, Sir Henry Mortimer An ICS officer of distinction, he was the foreign secretary to the government of India between 1884 and 1894 and was the Chairman of a commission which drew up the famous 'Durand Line' to mark the boundary between India and Afghanistan. Durlabh Rai One of the generals of Sirajudi he joined Mir Jafar and other conspirators in 1 ing his master to the British in the battle of Pli

Durlabhavardhana Founder of the Ka dynasty (seventh to ninth century) of Kashn which belonged the famous Lalitaditya i Jayapada Vinayaditya. The dynasty was supph by the Tupala dynasty in the ninth century.

Dutt, Romesh Chandra One of the earliest In to get into the ICS, he played a prominent role iti Indianisation of the Civil Services and in ] the cause of nationalism and social reform in i After retiring from service, he actively particip in the Indian national movement and presid the Lucknow Session of the INC in 1899.^ Economic History of British India (1757-1900); the first authoritative and scholarly exposition < economic exploitation of India under British i

Dyer, General The military general who'| responsible for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre^ deaths and 1208 wounded) on 13th April, 1919 the subsequent imposition of martial law and] iation of the Punjabis, he was ultimately ce and removed from service by the government < basis of the report of an enquiry committee the chairmanship of Lord Hunter.

Faizi Son of Shaikh Mubarak and elder 1 Abul Fazi, he vas a prominent poet in Akbar'si

Fakhr-ud-din The kotwal of Delhi and a friend of Balban, he was responsible for ] the Sultan to rescind the orders for the resu land grants If about 2000 shamsi horsemen i become old and ceased to perform the military^

Ferishta, Muhammad Kasim A famous of Bijapur (late 16th and early 17th centurie lived at the court of Ibrahim Adil Shah II and} Tarikh-i-Ferishta, an authoritative account of Muslim rule in India.

Forde, Colonel A talented English military off he defeated the French in the battle of ( (1759) and captured Masulipatnam, thus i French control over the Northern Circars.

Personalities my

ne year he defeated the Dutch in the battle of i which ended Dutch pretensions in Bengal.

cis, Sir Philip Named by the Regulating Act ne of the four members of the Governor al's Council, he ganged up with Monson and ring in opposing Warren Hastings in his whole and method of government. Ultimately he : a gun battle with Hastings (1780), was dis-and went back to England where he took a ninent part in organising and conducting the chment of Hastings.

A Brahmin astrologer, he was (according pFerishta) the master of Hasan and foretold the greatness of the founder of the Bahmani gdom.

h, Rashbehari A leading lawyer of Calcutta, I was elected president of the Surat Session of the (1907) which ended with the split of the ess. Next year (1908) he presided over the ; Session of the moderate INC.

ilam Hussain Khan A famous historian of ngal during the later Mughal period, he was the |thor of Siyar-ul-Mutakherim, an authoritative and (liable account of the decline of the Mughal empire hich also traces the progress of the English in ngal up to 1780).

badan Begum A daughter of Babur, she was a dented lady and wrote Humayan Namah, an author-itive account of the reign of her brother, Humayun.

Br, Sir Maurice Linford He was the first chief itice of India (Federal Court) from 1937 to 1943

t he retired arid became the vice-chancellor of elhi University. He also made a significant contriition to the drafting of the constitution of India.

liday, Sir F J He was the first lieutenant goverr of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Assam, the admination of which had been the additional charge of he governor general till 1853 when the Charter Act Ibf that year relieved him of it.

iHamida Banu Begam Wife of Humayun and jtoother of Akbar, she exercised a great influence in I shaping the personality of Akbar. Hare, David A watchmaker by profession, he was specially interested in the spread of western education in India. It was largely due to his efforts that the Hindu College was opened in 1817 at Calcutta. He also founded the School Book Society for printing and publishing English and Bengali books.

Hari Vijaya Suri A prominent Jaina teacher of Akbar's period, he was invited by the latter to participate in the religious debate held in the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri.

Hemachandra A prominent jaina author of the 12th century, he was the author of Trisastisalaka Purushacharita, an enormous work dealing with the lives of 126 Jaina saints. The Parisistaparvan (which deals with, among other things, the conversion of Chandragupta Maurya to Jainism) is its supplement.

Huvishka The son and successor of Kanishka, he issued a large number of coins which suggest that he ruled over the extensive empire built by his father.

llbert, Sir Courtney A law member of the Viceroy's Executive Council between 1882 and 86, he sponsored the famous llbert Bill and steered it with some fundamental modifications (due to European protest) through the legislature. Later he served as the vice-chancellor of the Calcutta University.

Impey, Sir Elijah He was appointed the first chief justice of the Supreme Court in Calcutta by the Regulating Act ofl773.In!775he convicted Nanda Kumar for forgery and sentenced him to death, probably under the influence of Warren Hastings (a class-mate of Impey). In 1779 the Supreme Court under his leadership entered into a most disreputable quarrel with the Governor-General's Council over the question of its jurisdiction.

Islam Shah Sur Son and successor of Sher Shah Sur, he ruled Delhi from 1545 to 1554 and maintained the efficiency of the army and preserved many of the reforms introduced by his father.

Jahannara Elder of the two daughters of Shah Jahan, she supported Dara in the war of succession and after the succession of Aurangzeb she voluntarily devoted herself to the service of her imprisoned father. She was also a great poetess and died a spinster.

P18 Indian History: Revision

Jayadeva An eminent poet and contemporary of Lakshmana Sena (late 12th century), he wrote the famous lyric, Gita Govinda.

Jaimal A valiant fighter of Mewar, he was left in charge of Chittor by Rana Lidai Singh when it was attacked by Akbar. He heroically defended the fort fo~r four months before falling to the Mughal forces.

Jai Singh The Kachhawaha ruler of Amber, he played a prominent role in the later part of Shah Jahan's reign and early part of Aurangzeb's reign. In the war of succession he was sent against Prince Shuja whom he defeated and pursued to the borders of Bengal. Later Aurangzeb pardoned him and employed him in the Deccan where he carried on a successful campaign against Sivaji and compelled him to sign the treaty of Purandhar (1665).

Jaipal Hindushahi ruler of Waihind (Lidabhandapur) in north-western India, he was defeated convincingly by Mahmud of Ghazni in a battle near Peshawar in ad 1001. He is said to have committed suicide out of humiliation, leaving his son Anandapala on the throne. But the latter was also defeated by Mahmud in ad 1008, thus ending the Hindushahi dynasty.

Jaswant Singh The Rathor ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur--capital), he was sent against Aurangzeb by Shah Jahan in the war of succession, but was defeated in the battle of Dharmat near Ujjain (1658). Later he was pardoned by Aurangzeb who retained him in Mughal service. While serving in the northwest he passed away in 1678, and his followers raised a banner of revolt against Aurangzeb due to the latter's refusal to recognise the posthumous son (Ajit Singh) of Jaswant as the legal heir.

Jinnah, Muhammad AM Founder of Pakistan, he was born in Karachi, studied law and set up a roar-ing'practice in Bombay. He joined Indian politics as a follower of moderate Congress leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and G K. Gokhale, and became a member of the Central Legislative Council in 1910. But soon he joined the Muslim League (1913) and

became its president in 1916 (Lucknow Session). After the ascendancy of Gandhiji in the national politics, he completely broke away from the Congress and started reorganising the League and de the partition of India on a religious basis (IS Known as the 'Qaid-i-Azam' (Great Leader),; became the First Governor General of Inde Pakistan.

Jones, Sir William A famous British Orie and jurist, he founded the Asiatic Society of Be in 1789 and served it as its president till his death^ Calcutta in 1794. During his stay in India (1784 he also served as a judge of the Supreme Cou Calcutta. Being well-versed in Persian and Sa languages, he translated a number of Hindu Muslim law books and other treatises into Eng

Kadphises I The founder of the Kushana dy in India, he lived in the first century ad. His < included Bactria, Afghanistan and north-wes part of India.

Kafur, Malik Originally a Hindu, he was ca and converted to Islam by Alauddin Khalji his Gujarat campaign (1297). He proved himself if be a capable general and most trusted official of t Sultan, conquering the kingdoms of Devag Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Malabar and Madura! f his master. After Alauddin's death, however, he j up one of the late Sultan's minor sons on the i with all powers concentrated in his own Ultimately all his opponents combined together i murdered him.

Kalhana The author of Rajatarangini which is] chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, he lived in i 12th century ad.

Kamran, Prince Second son of Babur, he given Afghanistan by his elder brother, Humay But he failed to give shelter to his brother in his < of wilderness. Finally Humayun capti Afghanistan from his younger brother with the 1 of the Persians before his reconquest of India.

Karan Singh Son of Rana Amar Singh and; son of Rana Pratap of Mewar, he was given. mansab of 5000 by Jahangir in 1614 when his i made up with the Mughals. Later he succeeded 1 father and maintained friendly relations with Mughals.

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Personalities D1*

Matanga The first Indian Buddhist : to visit China and introduced Buddhism there : second half of the first century ad on the invii of a Chinese mission sent by Emperor Ming.

flinya According to Cambodian tradition, he an Indian Brahmin who established the king-i of Kambuja Desa in modem Cambodia.

Khan The pen name under which ad Hashim wrote his famous historical prk, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, on the reign of ngzeb in total secrecy because of the emperor's sition to it. He was highly impartial and truth-enough to record the victory of Sivaji and to ciate some of his merits.

aravela The greatest of the early kings of ilinga (Orissa), his reign and achievements are hown to us from a single inscription, known as the higumpha Inscription, found in a Jaina cave in s Udayagiri Hills in the Puri District. Belonging to Cheta dynasty, he is said to have brought the ole of Kalinga under his rule and even scored vicries over most of his neighbours. He patronised |ainism and constructed a number of public works.

husrau, Prince The eldest son of Jahangir !{Salim), he staked his claim for the throne against pis father after the death of Akbar (1605). Despite fthe support given to him by his maternal uncle, Man [Singh of Amber, he was not successful against his Ifather who defeated him but pardoned him later. IDuring Jahangir's reign also he made anumber of I unsuccessful attempts to capture the throne, and was [ finally handed over to the custody of his younger j. brother, Khurram (Shah Jahan), who is said to have I caused his death.

Khwaja Jahan The title conferred on Malik Sarwar, who was appointed in 1394 by Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughiuq as Lord of the East, 'Malik-us-Sharq', with his headquarters at Jaunpur. His son extended his authority over the whole of GangaYamuna Doab and founded the independent Sharqi dynasty.

Kirat Singh The Raja of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand, he incurred the displeasure of Sher Shah Sur by giving shelter to Bir Singh, Raja of Rewah. Despite his stiff resistance, Sher Shah took the fort in 1545 but was mortally wounded and died shortly afterwards.

Kumbha The Rana of Mewar, he was one of its greatest rulers and fought successfully against the Muslim rulers of Malwa and Gujarat. He was also a great builder, being responsible for the construction of about 32 forts within the state of Mewar and the 'Kirtistambha' or victory tower within Chittor.

Liquat Ali Khan Born in UP, he was an important leader of the Muslim League. He was the finance minister in the Interim Government (1946-47) and after the partition became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. He was assassinated by an unknown murderer in a public meeting.

Macaulay, Thomas Babington A renowned English scholar, essayist, historian and politician, he came to India in 1834 as the first law member of the Governor-General's Executive Council. He drafted the Penal Code which later became the basis of the Indian Criminal Code and maintained the equality of Europeans and Indians before the law. He was also responsible for inaugurating the system of liberal education on western lines through the medium of English.

Mac Donnell, Sir Anthony He was the chairman of the Famine Commission appointed by Lord Curzon in 1900.

MacMohan, Sir Henry He was the chairman of the Commission which drew up the famous 'MacMohan Line' that marks off the North-Eastern Frontier Agency (India) from the frontiers of Tibet and China.

Madhava Rao, Peshwa The second son of the third Peshwa (Balaji Baji Rao) whom he succeeded at the age of 17 in 1761, he was responsible for the near revival of the Maratha power and glory after their rout in the third battle of Panipat. He defeated all his neighbours, including the nizam and Haider Ali. In north India, he reoccupied Malwa and Bundelkhand, crushed the Jats and Rohillas, reoccupied Delhi and restored to the imperial throne of Delhi the fugitive Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, who had long beenia prisoner of the English at Allahabad.


Mahabat Khan Originally known as Zamana Beg, the title of Mahabat Khan was conferred on him by Jahangir. He proved to be a very capable general and was sent to Mewar to fight against Rana Amar Singh whom he defeated. But under Nur Jahan's influence, Jahangir neglected him for 12 years which resulted in his frustration and ultimately revolt during which period (1626) he even kept the emperor as his prisoner for a short while. On the accession of Shah Jahan whom he supported for the throne, he was given a high post and was responsible for the completion of the conquest of Ahmadnagar.

Mahmud Begarha One of the greatest rulers of Gujarat, he ruled for a long period of 52 years (ad 1459-1511) and defeated many of his neighbours and checked the expansion of the Portuguese on the Gujarat coast. The Italian traveller, Varthima, makes a mention of Mahmud's great appetite in his records.

Malhar Rao Holkar The founder of the Holkar family of Indore, he rose into prominence by rendering efficient and loyal service to Peshwa Baji Rao I and was rewarded with large territories in central India which were held by his successors till their merger in the independent India in 1948.

Mataviya, Madanmohan A leading nationalist leader, prominent educationist and social reformer, he edited three journals (Hindustan, Indian Union and Abhyudaya) between 1885 and 1907, and joined the Indian National Congress becoming its president twice (1909 and 1918). His greatest achievement was the foundation of the Banaras Hindu University in 1915. In religious matters, he was an orthodox Hindu but believed in the suddhi (movement of reconversion) and the removal of untouchability. He was thrice elected the president of the Hindu Mahasabha.

Mayurasarman The founder of the Kadambas of Banavasi (Mysore region), he probably revolted against the Pallavas of Kanchi in the fourth century ad and established his independent kingdom.

Meghavama Ruler of Ceylon and a contemporary of Samudragupta, he sent an embassy to Samudragupta with presents and obtained the latter's permission to build a monastery to the north of Bodh Gaya for the use of Ceylonese Bu pilgrims.

Mihirakula The son and successor of the King, Toramana, who ruled over on exti dominion comprising a large part of the we frontiers of the Gupta empire and central Malv the last quarter of the fifth century ad. As the throne around ad 500, he had Sakala (Sia the Punjab as his capital. In about ad 528 he? defeated and driven out of his kingdom by a < nation of Baladitya (king of Magadha) Yasovarman (king or Mandasor).

Minhaj-i-Siraj A famous historian of the the Slave sultan, Nasiruddin Muhammad, he wa author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, a reliable account of j early period of the Delhi Sultanate.

Mir Path AH Khan Belonging to the Talpura I of Baluchistan, he overthrew the rule of the 1 over Sind in 1783 and ruled it till 1802. After"! death, his descendants became divided into families and ruled like a confederacy with i power at Hyderabad, Mirpur and Khairpurtill,] annexation of Sind by the British in 1843.

Mir Jumla A Persian merchant-adventurer^ began his career in Golconda as a successful (i mond merchant, entered into the service of Ab Qutab Shah and became his chief minister, joined the service of Shah Jahan with the hel] Aurang/eb to whom he presented the Kohinoor Diamond. During the war of sue he supported Aurangzeb and was rewarded by,\ latter who appointed him as the governor of I Subsequently he led an expedition against ruled by the Ahoms, defeated its ruler and pelled him to cede a large part of lower Assam I pay a huge indemnity to the Mughals (1662). passed away in 1663 on his way back to Dacca.

Muhammad Ali Along with his brother, AH, he led the Khilafat Movement in 1920 and I joined the Non-Cooperation Movement. He was} president of the Gaya Session of the Cong (1922) and brought about an understanding 1 Gandhi's followers and members of the formed Swaraj Party.

Personalities D21

Reza Khan He was appointed at the of the English as the deputy nawab of [in 1765 and helped them fully in exploiting through the system of Dual Government M772).

Asutosh Eminent lawyer and educa-, he served as ajudge and later as chief justice ilcutta High Court. He became the VC of the i University for four terms and was associated t till his death. Through his untiring efforts, he Jthe university one of the best in the East.

He was the founder of the Solanki king-j^with Anhilwara as his capital and ruled i ad 942 and 997.

D, Sir Hector A general in the company's e, he won the famous battle of Buxar (1764) British against the forces of Mir Qasim of I and Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh.

0, Sir Thomas A distinguished British rev| official, he rose from the rank of distinct magCollector) to be the governor of Madras -27). His greatest achievement was the intro-of the Ryotwari System in the Madras cy.

arab Khan An energetic military officer of ngzeb, he was responsible for surprising and iring Sambhaji at Sangamesvar (1689) and later uting him.

u, Mrs Sarojini A freedom fighter, poet and she presided over the Kanpur Session of the : in 1925 and was, thus, the first Indian woman fcident of the Congress (Mrs Annie Besant being ^-first woman president). She was also the first to be appointed as state governor (of UP 1947^9).

i Phadnavis A Maratha Brahmin, he became | guardian and chief minister of the minor Peshwa, ava Rao Narayan, and practically ran the affairs s Marathas from 1774 till his death in 1800.

Pandit Motilal Father of Jawaharlal and a patriot, he began his career as a successful and joined the Congress Party in 1919. He started a journal, Independent, to support the cause of Indian Nationalism. He participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement after giving up his lucrative practice and membership of the Indian legislative assembly. Along with C R Das, he formed the Swaraj Party in 1922 to carry out the programme of disruption of legislative work. He became the president of INC twice (1919 Calcutta Session and 1928 Amritsar Session). He was also the chairman of the committee which submitted are port, known as the Nehru Report (1928), on the future constitution of India. He passed away in the course of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931.

Nivedita, Sister A famous disciple of Swami Vivekananda, she was an Irish lady and originally known as Margaret Noble. Arriving in India at the invitation of Vivekananda, she devoted herself to social service and promotion of girl's education.

Nizam-ud-din Ahmad A famous historian of Akbar's reign, he wrote Tabaqat-i-Akbari, an authoritative account of the contemporary period.

Padmini, Rahi The queen-consort of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar, she was so famous for her beauty that Alauddin Khalji is said to have invaded Chittor (1303) to take forcible possession of her. Due to the failure of the Rajputs to defend the fort, she committed jauhar along with other royal ladies.

Paramardi (or Parmal) The last Chandella King <1166-1203) of Jejabhukti to enjoy the status of an independent king of the dynasty, he was defeated first by Prithviraj Chauhan and later by Qutbud-din Aibak who captured his capital, Kalinjar.

Pigot, Lord Governor of Madras (1775-78), he tried to check corruption among the officials of the Company, but had the most unhappy experience of being actually deposed and imprisoned by his own subordinates. He died in prison in Madras.

Pir Muhammad Khan He began his career as a servant of Bairam Khan, but soon joined the anti-Bairam faction. His arrogant behaviour with his former master is said to be partly responsible for the revolt of Bairam. After Bairam's fall, he occupied some important positions and was drowned when


recrossing the Narmada after his aborted attempt to capture Khandesh (1562).

Prasad, Rana Ruler of Amarkot in Sind, he gave shelter to the fugitive Humayun and his wife, Hamida Banu. Their son, Akbar, war born here in 1542.

Prasenjft King of Kosala, he was a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira, both of whom visited his kingdom. He married Bimbisara's sister and gave his sister in marriage to the latter. Despite the marriage alliance, hostility continued to prevail between Magadha and Kosala, and Aiatasatru even forced him to surrender a village (near Kasi). After Prasenjit's death, Kosala declined gradually.

Purushottam A Hindu philosopher, he was invited by Akbar to take part in religious debates held at the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri.

Pushyagupta Mentioned in the Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I, he was the brother-in-law of Chandragupta Maurya and the Mauryan governor (rashtriyd) of Saurashtra where he constructed the famous Sudarsana lake by damming a stream for irrigation purpose.

Qasim Khan A Mughal noble, he was appointed by Shah Jahan as governor of Bengal with orders to exterminate the Portuguese traders who had settled in Bengal but had been abusing their right to trade. He captured Hughli in 1632 and succeeded in checking the Portuguese.

Radhakanta Deb A well-known leader of the orthodox Hindu community in Bengal in the 19th century, he liberally patronised Eastern as well as Western learning. He cooperated with David Hare in his educational activities, but was opposed to social reforms (including sati) and the activities of the Brahmo Samaj of Rammohun Roy.

Raghuji Bhonsle Founder of the Bhonsle family of Nagpur he was given a freehand by Peshwa Baji Rao I to consolidate Maratha power in Berar. The Bhonsles ruled it till 1853 when Berar with its capital at Nagpur was annexed by Lord Dalhousie on the death of the childless Raghuji III. Rahmat AH Chaudhury An Indian Mu ing at Cambridge, he coined the term 'F 1933. It was a development of Iqbal's con a union of Indian provinces with a Muslims in their population. The idea-!: taken up by Jinnah who made Pakistan a i

Rajasekhara A famous poet and dr court of the Pratihara king, Ma (890-910). He wrote three dramas in one in Prakrit (Karpura Manjari).

Ramanand One of the earliest bhakti' north India (15th century), he was born at i in a Brahmin family. Though he belong north, he spent a significant part of his south and was influenced by Ramanuja^ worshipper of Rama and preached to all w| tinction of caste and sex. Amongst his.j were Kabir, a Muslim weaver and Padma\{

Roshanara The younger and second Shah Jahan (born to Mumtaz Mahal), she'jj Aurangzeb during the war of succession i him by passing on secretly all the impori mation to him.

Rudrama Devi A daughter of Kakati Ganapati Deva of Warangal, she succ father and was ruling in the last decade o^ century when Marco Polo visited the east I

Rupmati The mistress of Baz Bahadun their love figures prominently in IndoIsla tion, and two beautiful palaces still exiting! are attributed to the lovers.

Salima Begum Daughter of Babur's dau cousin of Akbar, she was first married Khan and after the latter's fall and death,! ried by Akbar himself.

Sanga, Rana The ruler of Me war (150 son of Rayamalla, he was the greatest India in his time. Expecting Babur to imitat| he extended an invitation to him, but his < did not materialise. So the Rajputs under hi| ship met the force of Babur in the battle i (1527), but were routed despite their ri!

Personalities D23

rity. Sanga who escaped with injuries is said been killed by his own sardars when he I to fight Babur for a second time.

>i-Siraj Afif A famous historian as well as peer during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughluq, he I author of TarikhiFirozshahi.

Sir Satyendra Prasanna Born in Bengal I lawyer by profession, he was the first Indian to ointed as a governor (of Bihar and Orissa 1920 to 24) by the British. He was also the Indian to be appointed as a member of the oy's Executive Council (1909), and the only i to be honoured with a peerage. Taking to pol-! quite late in life, he presided over the Bombay [»on(1915)oftheINC.

ore, Dwarakanath Founder of the famous : family of Jorasanko in Calcutta, he earned a of money in business and started the Union Bank ich was the first Bengali venture in the banking je. He supported the liberal movements of the day !was one of the earliest supporters of the Brahmo aj-ire, Satyendranath The first Indian to pass I ICS examination (1864), he was the second son Devendranath Tagore and elder brother of bindranath Tagore.

Bn A famous musician, he was partronised by ar. His arrival at the Mughal court was such a narkable event that Akbar had it portrayed in ilours in 1562. Earlier he was patronised by Man i of Gwalior (Tomar dynasty).

ara One of the sons of Asoka, he was born to oka's second queen, Karuvaki. He is mentioned lone of the inscriptions of Asoka, but nothing else I known about him.

hril Khan A Turkish noble, he was appointed governor of Bengal by Balban. He revolted in J1278, but was suppressed and killed by the Sultan a three year campaign.

aspa The governor of Gujarat or Kathiawar ring the reign of Asoka, he was a Persian in rtauryan service. He is credited with building conduits to the famous Sudarsana lake built in the period of Chandragupta Maurya.

Uday Singh, Rana The ruler of Mewar, he was the son and successor of Rana Sanga and the father of Rana Pratap. When his capital, Chittor, fell to Akbar, he built a new capital at Udaipur.

Umdut-ul-Umara The nawab of the Carnatic on whose death in 1801 Lord Wellesley took over the administration of the Camatic on the ground that Umdut was in treasonable correspondence with Tipu Sultan.

Upagupta A famous Buddhist monk, he is believed to have converted Asoka to Buddhism. He is also said to have accompanied Asoka on a tour of Buddhist holy places and pointed out to him the place of the nativity of Buddha which came to be marked by the Rummindei Pillar Inscription of Asoka. He is also referred to as Moggaliputta Tissa in the contemporary Buddhist texts.

Ustad Isa He was probably the architect who designed the Taj Mahal at Agra and supervised its construction.

Vijnesvara (Vijnanesvara) A celebrated Hindu lawyer and jurist, he belonged to the reign of Vikramanka (ad 1076-1126) of the Kalyani Chalukyas. His work, the Mitaksdra, is considered as one of the most authoritative expositions of the Hindu law of succession.

Vishnuvardhana (or Bittideva) The Hoyasala king of Dwarasamudra (1110-41), his reign is of great religious and cultural significance. He was originally a Jaina, but came under the influence of Ramanuja and was converted to Vaishnavism. It was after his conversion that he changed his name from Bittideva to Vishnuvardhana. He promoted his new faith by the construction of temples of unsurpassed magnificence some of which are still existing at Belur and Halebidand of which the best example is the temple of Hoyasalesvara at Halebid.

Viswas Rao The eldest son and prospective heir of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, he was the nominal head of the Maratha army that was defeated by Ahmad


Shah Abdaliin the third battle of Panipat. He, along with his uncle (Sadasiva Rao Bhao) who was the actual commander of the army, were killed in this battle.

Wedderbum, Sir William An English ICS officer of distinction, he took a leading part in the Congress politics after his retirement. He attended the first session of Congress and later presided over two Congress sessions in 1889 and 1910.

Yajnavalkya A famous ancient Hindu philosopher and sage, he is associated by tradition with the renowned philosopher--king, Janaka of Mithila.

Yasomati The queen of Prabhakaravardhana, the Pushyabhuti ruler of Thanesvar, and mother of Marsha, she committed sati on the i band, as described by Bana in his Har

Yule, George One of those rare nom merchants who sympathised with the ] tions of the Indians, he supported the INCl over its fourth session held at Allahabad i

Zain-ul-Abidin The eighth Sultan o| (1420-1460), he is famous for his religio and patronage of literature. He had the J and Rajatarangini translated into Persian!! 'I Zeb-un-nisa One of the daughters of A she was a very talented lady, well readj and Arabic, and was an expert callig maintained a fine library of her own.

MODEL TEST PAPERS

Model Test--I No. of Questions: 120 Time: 2 hours Instructions:

(A) (B)

All questions carry equal marks Do not waste your time on any particular question

(C) Mark your answer clearly and If you want to change your answer, erase your previous answer completely.

1. Pot-making, a technique of great significance in human history, appeared first in a few areas during: (a) Early Stone Age (b) Middle Stone Age (c) Upper Stone Age (d) Late Stone Age 2.

Which one of the following pairs of Palaeolithic sites and areas is not correct?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 3. lists:

Didwana--Western Rajasthan Sanganakallu--Kamataka Uttarabaini--Jammu Riwat--Pakistani Punjab Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below the

Listl Chalcolithic Cultures (I) Banas Culture (II) Gandhara Culture (III) Malwa Culture (IV) Savalda Culture Codes: I II III (a) A B C (b) CAB (c) A C D (d) CAD IV D D B B List II

Type Sites (A) Ghaligai (B) Inamgaon (C) Gilund (D) Navdatoli

4. Where do we find the three phases, viz. Paleolithic, Mesolittiic and Neolithic Cultures in sequence? (a) Kashmir Valley (b) Godavari Valley (c) Belan Valley (d) Krishna Valley 5.

Excellent cave paintings of Mesolithic Age are found at:

(a) Bhimbetka (b) Atranjikhera (c) Mahisadal (d) Barudih 6.

In the upper Ganga valley iron is first found associated with

(a) (b) (c) (d) 7.

Black-and-Red Ware Ochre Coloured Ware Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware Ten sites, associated with dunes of reddened sand, are found in:

(a) Assam

(b) Madhya Pradesh

(c) Tamil Nadu 8.

(d) Andhra Pradesh

Which one of the following is not a megalithic burial?

(a) Dolmenoid (b) Intrado (c) Menhir

(d) Cairn

9. Which Chalcolithic site of Maharashtra has shown evidence of an irrigation canal and an embankment? (a) Daimabad (b) Inamgaon (c) Jorwe 10.

(d) Sonegaon

The Ochre Coloured Pottery is closely con nected with:

(a) Aryans

(b) Early Harappans

(c) Late Harappans (d) Mature Harappans 11. At only one of the Indus sites have archaeolo gists discovered a middle town, as distinct from the citadel and the lower town. Identify the site from among the following: (a) Surkotada (b) Daimabad (c) Dholavira (d) Lothal

D25


128. 12. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): A distinctive feature of the house construction of the Harappans was that the roadward side of a block presented a plain blank facade. Reason (R): The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which were set at right-angles to the main streets. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following \s correct? (a)


(b)


(c) (d)

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Match List I with List II and select the correct

13. answer using the codes given below the lists: List II (Burial Customs) (A) (B) (C) (D)

Brick chamber Coffin burial Pot burial Double burial

(b) i-D, ii-B, iii-A, iv-C (d) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D List I (Harappan Sites) (i) Harappa

(ii) Lothal (iii) Kalibangan (iv) Surkotada Codes: (a) i-B, ii-D, iii-C, iv-A (c) i-B, ii-D, iii-A, iv-C 14. From which of the following regions do we get the report of 21 sites, some of which are very large in size, concentrated in an area of approximately 50 x 25 km.? (a) Kirtar piedmont (b) Kohistan (c) Bhatinda (d) Kutch 15.


(a) Mundigak--Ochre Coloured Ware Culture (b) Rangpur--Lustrous Red Ware Culture (c) Kudwala--Cemetry H Ware Culture (d) Ghaligai--Gandhara Grave Culture 16. Panchavimsha Brahmana is also known as (a) Tandyamaha (b) Jaiminiya (c) Satapatha (d) Kausitaki 17. Which of the thinkers is said to have charac terized the Self as "neti, net!" in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad? (a) Uddalaka (b) Svetaketu (c) Yajnavalkya

(d) Janaka

18. Which one of the following assemblies also called narishta, meaning a resolution! many that cannot be broken? (a) Gana

(b) Vidatha

(c) Sabha

(d) Samiti

19. Which one of the following deals with the i trine of the transmigration of soul in a systi atic manner for the first time?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 20.

Aitareya Upanishad Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Chandogya Upanishad Kena Upanishad What is the descending order of the folk punch-marked coins?

(i) Masha

(ii) Satamana

(iii) Kakani

(iv) Pada

(v) Karshapana Choose the answer from the codes giv below: (a) ii, i, iv, v, iii

(b) iii, iv, i, ii, v

(c) iv, ii, i, iii, v

(d) ii, v, i, iii, iv

21.

Which one of the following pairs is not con matched?

(a) Chedi--Asmaka (b) Kuru--Panchala (c) Kasi--Kosala (d) Matsya--SurasenaJ 22. The Buddhist social division ukkattha (exc lent) did not include one of the following. Pick I out. (a) Bahamanna (c) Vessa 23.

(b) Khattiya

(d) Gahapati

Consider the following:

The six great cities mentioned in the earlyj Buddhist texts include: (i) Pataliputra (ii) Champa (iii) Vaisali

(iv) Rajagriha

(v) Varanasi

(vi) Kausambi

(vii) Sravasti (viii) Indraprastha

(ix) Kusinagara Choose the answer from the codes given' below: (a) i, ii, iv, vi, vii, ix (b) ii, iii, v, vi, vii, viii (c) i, iii, iv, vi, vii, ix (d) ii, iv, v, vi, vii, ix 24. The Buddhist doctrine of patichchasamupl pada or dependent origination is contained in which of the four Noble Truths? (a) First

(b) Second

(c) Third

(d) Fourth

Which about San Manemadfl (a) Pan (c) Rup The four located at j (a) Khan (c) Gn , What is 1 town off

(a) (c) As Cons "Sc tance.j the I their i This! (a) (c) ^29.

As byt in I

I*"-(a $ $ fcO.f

30.

31-^pfi'Ay : Jpri.

Model Test Papers D27

Which Minor Rock Edict of Asoka informs us about Samba, a kumara being in charge of Manemadesa? (a) Panguraria (b) Ahraura (c) Rupnath

(d) Maski

The fourteen Major Rock Edicts of Asoka located at Shabazgarhi and Manshera are in: (a) Kharoshti Script (b) Aramaic Script (c) Greek Script (d) Brahmi Script What is the name Megasthenes gives to the town officials of Mauryan administration? (a) Agranomoi (b) Agrasenoi (c) Astynomoi (d) Astysenoi Consider the following statement: "Sovereignty can be carried on only with assistance. A single wheel does not move, hence the king should employ the ministers and hear their advice." This has been attributed to: (a) Asoka (b) Kautilya (c) Megasthenes (d) Manu 29. Consider the following statements. One labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Niyoga was definitely practised by the Sudras, through not by the Dvija Vamas, in the early centuries of the Christian era. Reason (R): According to Manu, Niyoga can not take place in marriages which are per formed according to the mantras. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A.

(c) (d) 30.

A is true but R is false. A is false but R is true. Which one of the following mixed castes was a result of tribal associations?

(a) Nishadas (b) Abhiras (c) Gonds

(d) Mallavas

31.

Which one of the following pairs is wrongly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 32.

Murugan--Hillmen Varuna--Merchants Krishna--Shepherdesses Korravai--Hunters The four castes of Tudiyan, Panan, Paraiyan and Kadamban are mentioned in the:

(a) Tolkappiyam

(b) Pattinappalai

(c) Purananuru (d) Silappadigaram 33.

Shariputraprakarana, the oldest extant drama in Sanskrit, was written by:

(a) Asvaghosa (b) Dignaga (c) Vasumitra (d) Asanga 34.

Jaina philosophy is knows as:

(a) Pudgala

(b) Samkhya

(c) Samachari (d) Syadvada 35.

What is the chronological order of the following foreigners?

(i) Arrian (ii) Hippalus (iii) Pliny, the Elder (iv) Strabo (v) Anonymous author of the Perlplus Choose the answer from the codes given below:

(a) ii, iv, iii, i and v (b) iii, v, iv, i, and ii (c) iv, ii, v, iii and i (d) v, i, iii, ii and iv 36.

Vadagalai and Tengalai were the:

(a) (b) (c)

sacred texts of the Alvars and Nayanars legendary sages of Vaikhanasa cult founders of the Kapalika and Kalamukha sects

(d)

northern and southern branches of Sri Vaishnavas

37.

The Sunyasampadane was the main scriptural text of:

(a) Kanphatas (b) Kapalikas (c) Lingayats (d) Aghoris 38.

Which one of the following terms does not stand for a guild?

(a) Nigama

(b) Jetha

(c) Puga

(d) Sartha

39.

The largest number of copper coins were issued by the:

(a) Kushanas (b) Satavahanas (c) Guptas

(d) Sakas

40. The well-known trade route Uttarapatha, in the time of Kushanas, was running between the following two urban settlements: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Ujjain to Mathura Purushapura to Mathura Mathura to Taxila Purushapura to Taxila


41.


List I List II (I) (II) (III) (IV)

Akaradhaksha (A) Mines Sutradhyaksha (B) Weaving Khanyadhyaksha (C) Digging Sltadhyaksha (D) Agriculture Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 42.

I-A, II-B, III-C, IV-D I-B, II-A, III-C, IV-D I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C I-A, II-B, III-D, IV-C Land grants, using the term abhyantarasiddhi, armed the donees with:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 43.

fiscal powers police and judicial powers powers to extract forced labour powers to levy extra taxes The earliest epigraphic reference to visti or forced labour is found in the:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 44.

Nanaghat inscription of Naganika Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela Junagarh inscription of Asoka Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman I The legendary names of Lilavati and Khana are connected with:

(a) Mathematics and Astronomy (b) Music and Dance (c) Medicine and Metallurgy (d) Language and Literature 45. The title Utharapathaswamin was assumed by: (a) Dharmapala (b) Mihira Bhoja (c) Mahindrapala (d) Prithviraj Chauhan

46.

The famous Uttaramerur Inscription belongs to the reign of:

(a) Parantaka I (b) Parantaka II (c) Rajaraja I (d) Rajendra I 47. lists:


List I List II (I) Sulaiman (A) Indra III, Rashtrakuta (II) AI-Masudi (B) Dharmapala, Pala (III) Marco Polo (C) Bhoja, Pratihara (D) Rudramadevi, Kakatiya Codes: (a) I-B, II-C, III-D

(b) I-D, II-A, III-B

(c) I-C, II-A, III-D

(d) I-C, II-D, III-B

48.

Which Chola emperor, as evident form? inscription, intervened in the dynastic i

of South East Asia in 1068-69 ad? (a) Rajadhiraja (b) Virarajendra (c) Kulottunga I

(d) Kulottunga II

49.

Samarangana Sutradhara, written by ruler Bhoja, deals with:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 50.

art and architecture music and dance mathematics and astronomy war and peace Which one of the following pairs is matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 51. right;

Rajasekhara--Karpuramanjarl Dhoyi--Pavanaduta Jinasena Suri--Prithviraj Raso Sri Marsha--Naisadha Charita "Raziya was endowed with all qualities I a king, but she was not born of the Who was the author of these lines?

(a) Alberuni

(b) Amir Khusrau

(c) IbnBattutah

(d) Minhaj Siraj

52. How mayy/Ya/s made up a tanka? (a) 44 (c) 48 (d) 46

(b) 40

53.

What was araghattal

(a) (b) (c) (d) 54. sions?

a machine to break forts a big tank a device to lift water a type of cloth What was the name of the Jaina saint' whom Muhammad bin Tughluq held dis

(a) Hemachandra (b) Bhadrabahu (c) Harisena (d) JinaprabhaSu 55.

Which Vijayanagar ruler sent an embassy | China?

(a) Harihara I (b) Sri Krishna Deva Raya (c) Bukka I (d) Saluva Narasimha 56. Which among these foreign travellers, visited India during the medieval period, is I correctly matched? (a) (b)

IbnBattutah--1333-34ad Nicolo Conti--1420 ad

Model Test Papers Mf

(c) (d) 57.

Abdul Razaak--1443 ad Domingo Paes--1535 ad Who among the following was greatly influ enced by Islam?

(a) Namdev

(b) Chaitanya

(c) Ramananda

(d) Ramanuja

58.

Who translated Tuzuk-i-Baburi into Persian?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 59.

Abul Fazl Amir Khusrau Abdur Rahim Khan-iKhanan DaulatKhan Which Persian ruler helped Humayun with 14,000 troops?

(a) Chengiz Khan (b) Timur (c) Nadir Shah (d) Shah Tahmasp 60.

Who was the head of the first Jesuit mission that had discussions with Akbar?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 61.

Rudolf Aquaviva Antony Monserrate Sir Thomas Roe Bernier Akbar is reputed to have been a good player of the:

(a) Veena

(b) Sitar

(c) Pakhawaj (d) Nakkarah 62. Why was the treaty between Hussain AN and the Marathas considered a landmark in Maratha history? (a) Marathas were recognised as copartners in Channa the revenue of the imperial provinces and a partner in political power.

(b) Marathas were recognised as an independent entity and given the right to collect revenue in certain Mughal provinces. (c)

Marathas were recognised as a powerful fighting unit.

(d)

For the first time Marathas started paying revenue to Mughals.

63. The practice of Mughal nobles playing the role of king-makers began during the reign of: (a) Farukh Siyar

(b) Muhammad Shah

(c) Jahandar Shah (d) Bahadur Shah I 64. year:

The battle of Wandiwash between the English and the French was fought in the

(a) 1755

(b) 1759

(c) 1760

(d) 1762

65. Who among the following native rulers attempted to set up a state trading company on European lines? (a) Tipu Sultan

(b) Mir Qasim

(c) Siraj-ud-daula (d) HyderAli 66. Which one of the following was not a signatory to the Tripartite Treaty signed in 1838? (a) Ranjit Singh

(b) Lord Auckland

(c) Zaman Shah

(d) Shah Shuja

67. The rulers of which one of the following autonomous states were known as the Nawab Wazirs? (a) Bengal

(b) Hyderabad

(c) Awadh

(d) Carnatic

68. Who was the author of the SiyarulMutakherim, a contemporary historical account of the conquest of Bengal by the British?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 69.

Ahmad Hussain Khan Arif Muhammad Nazir Hussain Ghulam Hussain Who elaborated the Drain Theory, founded by Dadabhai Nauroji?

(a) M. G. Ranade (b) Balagangadhar Tilak (c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (d) Ferozshah Mehta 70. Which region of India was known for the culti vation of the poppy plant during the British period? (a) South India(b) Gujarat (c) Bihar 71.

(d) Assam

Aitchison Commission of 1886 was concerned with:

(a) educational reform (b) financial reform (c) civil services reform (d) judicial reform 72.


List I List II (i) Dalhousie System of State Railways (ii) Mayo

Public Works Department

(iii) Lytton

First Famine Commission

(iv) Ripon

First Census of India

Which of the above are correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) iii and iv (c) i, ii and iv (d) ii, iii and iv


73.

The system of zerat in British India was related to:

(a) (b) (c)

revenue administration indigo cultivation irrigation system

(d) 74.

craft production Which one of the following is not correctly paired?

(a)

1858 Act--Creation of an 'official legislature'

(b) (c)

1861 Act--Introduction of the Portfolio System 1909 Act--Creation of separate electorates

(d) 1919 Act--Bicameralism at the centre 75. Which act required the secretary of state for India to draw his salary from the British Exchequer? (a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

India Councils Act of 1892 India Councils Act of 1990 Government of India Act of 1919 Government of India Act 1935 The growing land alienation from peasents was due to the:

(i) new legal system (ii) new revenue policy (ill) growth of agricultural labour (iv) commercialisation of agriculture. (a) i and ii are true (b) ii and iii are true (c) i, ii and iii are true (d) i, ii and iv are true 77. Who among the following may be regarded as the forerunner of Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 78.

Rani Channamma of Kithur Rani Ourgavati of Garh Katanga Rani Gaidinliu of Jessore Rani Chandravati of Satavandi Who among the following Englishmen was not killed at Lucknow?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 79.

Sir Henry Lawrence Brigadier General Neill General Nicholson Major General Havelock Arrange the following popular revolts in the correct chronological order:

(i) Ramosi Revolt (ii) Paik Revolt (iii) Satavandi Revolt (iv) Kithur Revolt Choose the answer from the codes given | below: (a) iv, ii, iii and i

(b) i, iv, iii and ii



80.

Which British commander was defeated by the I Santhals in 1855?

(a) Major Burrough (b) Captain Neufville (c) It. Bastian (d) Colonel White 81. Who was the leader of the Forest Satyagraha by the Chenchus of Palanadu in 1921-22? (a) Ambula Reddy (b) Papanna Dora (c) Hanumanthu (d) Adisheshu 82. Gopal Hari Deshmukh, the famous social reformer from Maharashtra, was also known as: (a) Lokamanya

(b) Atmabandhu

(c) Lokahitavadi

(d) Lokapriya

83. What is the correct chronology of the following ,| events in the life of Ram Mohan Roy? (i) publication of the Precepts of Jesus, the guide to peace and happiness (ii) his visit to England as an ambassador of Akbar II

(iii) publication of TuhfatulMuwahiddin (iv) establishment of the Atmiya Sabha Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, iv, i and ii


(c) iv, ii, i and iii


84. E. V. Ramaswami Naicker was the founder of: (a) Swadeshabhimani (b) Kudi Arasu (c) Swadeshimitram (d) Somaprakasa Consider List I and List II: 85. List I (i) Jyotiba Phule (ii) C. R. Reddy (iii) M. K. Gandhi (iv) Raman Pillai List II Satyashodak Samaj Mysore Praja Mitra^ Mandali All India Anti-untouchability League Malayali Memorial Which of the above are correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i and ii (b) ii and iii (c) i, iii and iv (d) All of them 86. What is the minimum strength of members required for a trade union to get itself registered under the Trade Union Act of 1926?


(a) Ten (b) Fifteen (c) Twenty

(d) Twenty Five

87. Mahratta, the English weekly, was edited by: (a) M. G. Ranade (b) V. D. Savarkar (c) B. G. Tilak (d) Phule 88.

Which session of the Congress adopted a constitution for itself?

(a) Lahore Session (1900) (b) Bombay Session (1904) (c) Madras Session (1908) (d) Allahabad Session (1910) 89. When did Subhas Chandra Bose resign from the Congress Party's presidentship as well as membership? (a) 1936

(b) 1937

(c) 1938

(d) 1939

90.

The doctrine of 'Passive Resistance' was pro pounded by:

(a) M. K. Gandhi

(b) Aurobindo Ghosh

(c) B. G. Tilak (d) Bipinchandra Pal 91.

Which of the following are correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Rabindranath Tagore--Nil Darpan Dadabhai Naoroji--Indian Unrest Dinabandhu Mitra--Gora Romesh Chandra Dutt--Economic History of India

92.

Which was the first revolutionary terrorist organisation in India?

(a) Abhinava Bharat (b) Anushilan Samiti

(c) Mitra Mela (d) Ghadar Party 93.

Which one of the following was not a technique of Gandhian Satyagraha?

(a) scorched-earth policy (b) strikes and hartals (c) voluntary migration (d) fasting unto death 94. Arrange these events related to the freedom struggle in their correct chronological order: (i) Formation of the Interim Government by the Congress (ii) Cabinet Mission (iii) Direct Action Day by the League (iv) League's participation in the Interim Government Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, iii, iv and ii (b) ii, iii, i and iv (c) iii, ii, i and iv


Directions: The following items consist of two statements one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled the Reason (R). You have to examine these two statements carefully and mark on your answer sheet accordingly. Codes: (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 95. Assertion (A): Buddha challenged the impor tance of birth as the principal determinant of one's social status. Reason (R): He proclaimed that one did not become a brahmana by the mere fact of one's birth. 96. Assertion (A): Iron played an important role in state formation and urbanization of the Ganga valley in the 6th century bc. Reason (R): The contemporary Deccan and the far South did experience iron technology too. 97. Assertion (A): Absence of large scale sacrificial rituals made brahmana varna redundant in gana-sangha areas.

Reason (R): Gahapatis dominated the socioeconomic structure of the ganasanghas. 98. Assertion (A): During the Satavahana period, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda emerged as important Buddhist centres. Reason (R): The queens of almost all Satavahana rulers extended patronage to Buddhism. 99. Assertion (A): Economic deterioration and decline was indent in the Gupta empire from the time of Skandagupta. Reason (R): The coins of Skandagupta and his successors are highly debased and not very artistic. 100.

Assertion (A): The buildings of the Tughluqs have minimum decoration.

Reason (R): The grey stone that was mostly used in the Tughluq buildings was cheaper than the red stone, but was very difficult to carve on. , ,1,;? 101.

Assertion (A): Increasing European, trade resulted in depression in India. ; t>srii


Reason (R): The beginning of European commerce was accompanied by an increase in the inflow of bullion to India. 102. Assertion (A): In the Mughal period, jagirs were normally not granted on the basis of heredit. Reason (R): Under the Mughals, there were no mansabdars, with hereditary jagirs, known as watan jagirs. 103. Assertion (A): Mahalwari system was a modified version of the zamindari settlement. Reason (R): It was introduced in the Gangetic valley, North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and parts of central India. 104. Assertion (A): Under the later Mughals the practice of ijara came into existence for the first time. Reason (R): The ijaradars caused great dam age to agriculture in general and to agricultur ists in particular. 105. Assertion (A): In the dual system of government in Bengal, the British had all the power, but no responsibility. Reason (R): In this system of government the Bengal Nawab had neither power nor responsibility. 106. Assertion (A): The growth of modern industries in India was slow and painful and they failed to compensate even for the displacement of indigenous handicrafts in terms of production and employment. Reason (R): An important social consequence of even this limited development was the birth and growth of two new social classes, namely the industrial capitalists and the industrial workers. 107. Assertion (A): The Arya Samaj used the sudd/ movement for effecting socioreligious and political unity of India. Reason (R): Sudd; movement meant the reconversion of those Hindus who had once been willingly or forcibly converted into other religions, but were now willing to come back into the fold of Hinduism.

108. Assertion (A): The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 was also known as the Sarda Act. Reason (R): It was moved in the Central Legislature by Rai Sahib Haribilas Sarda. 109. Assertion (A): An important feature of trade unionism in India between 1918-24 was its inability to make much headway in well-established manufacturing industries like mining, textile, jute, etc. Reason (R): During the same period, trade unionism was very weak and feeble among the 'white-collared' employees as well in these industries. 110. Assertion (A): The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy for the first time in India. Reason (R): The act itself made a clear-cut division of powers between the centre and the provinces. 111. Which one of the following documents was the first to contain a catalogue of fundamental rights? (a) (b) (c) (d) 112.

Nehru Report of 1928 Simon Commission Report of 1929 Karachi Resolution of 1931 Gandhi-lrwin Pact of 1931 'Mixed Economy' was envisaged for the first time in the:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 113.

Preamble of the 1950 Constitution First Five Year Plan Second Five Year Plan Bombay Plan Who served as India's first ambassador to the Soviet Union?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 114.

V. P. Krishna Menon Vijayalakshmi Pandit K. M. Pannikkar Prof. Mahalanobis When was the Bandung Conference of Afro-Asian leaders held?

(a) 1951

(b) 1953

. (c) 1955

(d) 1957

115. The panchashila (five principles) of peaceful coexistence, embodied in the 1954 treaty with China, included: (i) mutual respect for each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity (ii) nonaggression (iii) non-interference in the affairs of others (iv) non-alignment with either of the super powers (v) equality and mutual benefit (vi) peaceful coexistence Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii, iii, iv and vi (b) i, ii, iv, v and vi (c) i, ii, iii, v and vi (d) i, iii, iv, v and vi


[m. StUty tafc»OIKN^\teS«. m.^j5j^

given below were the regions ruled respectively by:

The site plans numbered as A and B respectively are those of: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Harappa and Mohenjodaro Harappa and Dholavira Kalibangan and Banwali Kalibangan and Mohenjodaro 117. Study the map given below:

(a)

Shah Mirs, Sharqis, Ahoms and llyas Shahis

(b)

llyas Shahis, Sharqis, Ahoms and Shah Mirs

(c)

Shah Mirs, llyas Shahis, Ahoms and Sharqis

(d)

Sharqis, Shah Mirs, Ahoms and llyas Shahis

Note: Study the map given below and answer questions 119 and 120.

w.

The places marked as I, II, III and IV represent:

(a)

Gumla, Eran, Kesarpafli and Pallavoy of the Chalcolithic Age

(b)

Taxila, Ujjain, Sisupalgarh and Adicanallur of the Early Iron Age

(c)

Takshasila, Ujjayani, Tosali and Suvamagiri of the Mauryas

(d)

Gandhara, Avanti, Kalinga and Vidarbha of the Age of Buddha

119.

120.

The place marked as A identifies the battle of: (a) Plassey (b) Buxar (c) Wadgaon (d) Taligaon The area marked as B represents: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Battle of Wandiwash Revolt of Khonds Revolt of Kattabomman Rampa Rebellion

ANSWERS

i.(d) 6.(c) 9-(b) J 11. (C)

2.(b) 7.

3. (C)

(d) 8.(b)

4. ^

12. (a) 13. (c) 19. (b) m 21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. 1 31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. J 41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. 51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (c) 54. 61 61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. 71 71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (b) 74. 8| 81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (a) 84. 9| 91. (d) 92. (a) 93. (a) 94. 1CHJJ 101. (d) 102. (c) 103. 107. (a) 108. (a) 111. (a) 112. (d) 113. 117. (c) 118. (a)

(c)

-- rnmmm 5. (a)

14.

(c)

(b)

25. (a) 26. (a) 27.

(c)

28. (b) 29. (a)

(d)

35. (c) 36. (d) 37.

(c)

38. (b) 39. (a)

(a) (d)

45. (a) 46. (a) 47. 55. (c) 56. (d) 57.

(c) (a)

48. (b) 49-(a) i 58. (c) 59. (d)

(c)

65. (a) 66. (c) 67.

(c)

68. (d) 69. (c)

(a)

75. (c) 76. (d) 77.

(a)

78. (c) 79. (d)

(b)

85. (d) 86. (a) 87.

(c)

88. (c) 89. (d)

(b)

95. (a) 96. (b) 97.

(c)

98. (a) 99. (a)

(b) 104. 109. (c) 1tl (b) 114. 119. (b) 12|

--

15. (a) 16. (a) 17.

(a)

18. (c)

(d)

105. (c)

106. (b)

(c)

115. (c)

116. (c)

ii v( ' f< A li D34


Model Test--II

to. of Questions: 120 Time: 2 hours

[instructions:

I (A) All questions carry equal marks ' (B) Do not waste your time on any particular question (C) Mark your answer clearly and if you want to change your answer, erase your previous answer completely.

1.

Which of the following terms does not indicate a tool tradition?

(a) Mousterian (b) Acheulian (c) Groutian 2.

(d) Oldowan

Which of the following is not a principal tool of the Early Stone Age?

(a) Scrapper

(b) Handaxe

(c) Cleaver

(d) Chopper

3.

Which one of the following pairs is not properly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Burzahom Culture--Jhelum Valley Ganeshwar Culture--N. E. Rajasthan Jorwe Culture--Maharashtra Ahar Culture--Madhya Pradesh

4. Which Chalcolithic site of eastern India has revealed the most impressive evidence of crops? (a) Senuar (b) Chirand (c) Taradih 5.

(d) Pandu Rajar Dhibi

Which of the following do not belong to the same category?

(a) Lunates

(b) Rhomboids

(c) Trapezes (d) Triangles 6.


List I List II Cultures (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)

Pottery

Malwa (A) Blackon-Red Eastern Neolithic (B) Brownish-red Burzahom (C) Grey Jorwe (D) Red Southern Neolithic (E) Burnished-grey Codes: A B C

D

E

(a) III II IV I V (b) IV V II III I (c) II III IV I V (d) I II III IV V 7. At which site of the Malwa culture was evidence of a rampart along with a ditch found? (a) Navdatoli (b) Eran (c) Nagda 8.

(d) Kayatha

An Elaborate gold ear-ornaments come from: (a) Nagarjunakonda (b) Maski

(c) Paiyampalli

(d) Tekkalakota

9.

The Harappan bricks were mainly:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

cut with the help of a saw-like instrument made in an open mould hand-made cut with the help of a chisel

10.

Which one of the following Indus cities lacks a granary?

(a) Lothal

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Harappa

(d) Mohenjodaro

11. Which one of the following metals made an early appearance in India, before any other place in the world? (a) Copper

(b) Gold

(c) Tin (d) Silver 12. The practice of placing domestic dogs in graves along with their masters, which was for eign to the Indian tradition, has been found to be in use at: (a) Mehrgarh (b) Burzahom (c) Lothal

(d) Kalibangan

13. Given below are two statements--one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Assertion (A): During the Rig Vedic period the doctrine of divine kingship was unknown. Reason (R): Rig Veda describes king Purukutsa of Purus as ardhadeva or semi-divine. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 14. Which one of the following Vedic goddesses personified decay, destruction and death? (a) Aditi

(b) Nirrti

(c) Savitri

(d) Aranyani


15.


List I List II (i) Bhishaka

medicine man

(ii) Rathakara chariot marker (iii) Kulala

potter

(iv) Ishukrit

maker of bows

(v) Dhamvakrit

maker of arrows

Which of the above are not correctly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) i,ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iv and v 16.

(d) i, ii and v

Sulva Sutras, attached to the Srauta Sutras, were the oldest books on:

(a) Astronomy (b) Chemistry (c) Geometry (d) Medicine 17.


List I List II (i) Rig praise (ii) Saman

melody

(iii) Yaju

magical formula

(iv) Atharvan ritualistic formula Which of the above are incorrectly matched? Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) All of them (b) i, ii and iii (c) iii and iv

(d) i and iv

18. According to Ptolemy, anonymous author of the Periplus and Sangam texts, particularly Maduriakkanji, a pearl-fishery was located at: (a) Muziris (b) Arikamedu (c) Korkai 19.

(d) Kaveripattinam


List I List II (i) Kadaisiyar Ruling class (ii) Kalabhras Evil rulers (iii) Pulaiyans Rope-makers (iv) Vallalas

Agricultural labourers

(v) Arasar

Agriculturists

Which of the above are not correctly matched? Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and iii (c) i, iv and v (d) iv and v 20. Which one of the following events in Buddha's life did not take place on a full moon day? (a) Birth

(d) Death

(c) Enlightenment (d) Renunciation 21. Bhadrabahu, the contemporary of Chandi Maurya was the--thera of the Jaina Chi (a) Third (b) Fourth (c) Fifth

(d) Sixth

22.

Which is the chronological order of th9jj Buddhas of Mahayanism?

(i) Gautama Buddha (ii) Kanakamuni (iii) Maitreya (iv) Krakuchand (v) Kasyapa Choose the answer from the codes given (a) iv, ii, v, i and iii (b) v, iv, ii, iii and (c) ii, iii, iv, v and i (d) iii, iv, v, i and 23. Which unorthodox teacher of the 6th centui opined that transmigration proceeded ing to a rigid pattern controlled by an all ful cosmic principle, called niyatior Fate? (a) (b) (c) (d) 24.

Sanjaya Belathipura Ajita Kesakambalin Gosala Makkali Purana Kassapa Match List I with List II and select the an; using the codes given below the lists:

List I (I) (II)

Rupa Vedana (lll)Sanna

(IV) (V)

Samkhara Vinnana Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) List II

I-B, II-A, I I-C, II-D, I-D, II-E, I-C, II-D,

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Perceptions Consciousness Form and matter Sensations Psychic dispos

-E, IV-C, VD I-A, IV-E, VB I-B, IV-A, VC

I-E, IV-B, VA 25. Which one of the following doctrines does i belong to Jainism? Sunyavada (b) Anekantavada (c) Nayavada (d) Syadvada 26.

The followers of Gorakhnath of East Ben are also known as:

(a) Aghoris

(b) Kanphatas

(c) Suddhasaivas (d) Agamantins 27.

What was the most important tenet of Pancharatra cult?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Avatara or incarnatory theory Vyuha or emanatory theory Karma or right action theory Bhakti or devotion theory

» (a)


28. Who were jangamas? (a) followers of Kashmiri Saivism (b) priests of Virasaivism (c) female members of Kapalika sect (d) dancing girls attached to Siva temples ;29. Which one of the following is correctly matched? (a) Prasenjit--Magadha (b) Pradyota--Kosala (c) Kalasoka--Avanti (d) Udayana--Vatsa . Which one of the following literary works refers to a famine in Magadha lasting for 12 years? (a) Vamsathapakasini (b) Parisistaparvan (c) Divyavadana (d) Kalpasutra [31. The akshapataladhyaksha of the Mauryan state was the: (a) (b) (c) (d) 32.

Superintendent of Mines Controller of Royal Household Accountant General Chief of the Royal Body Guards Which one of the following Asokan Edicts is known as the Queen's Edicts?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 33.

Major Pillar Edict V Minor Pillar Edict III Minor Pillar Edict I Major Pillar Edict II Which son of Asoka was the only one to be mentioned by name in the edicts?

(a) Mahendra (b) Tivara (c) Kunala

(d) Jalauka

34.

Which one of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?

(a)

Suvarnabhumi--Malay Peninsula

(b) (c) (d) 35.

Suvarnadvipa--Indian Archipelago Kambuja--Vietnam Champa--Annam Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched?

(a) Arrian--Indica (b) Strabo--Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (c) Pliny--Indicopleausteus (d) Anonymous Greek--Geography 36. Whose coins were restruck by Gautamiputra Satakarni in commemoration of his victory? (a) Rudradaman I (b) Ushavadata (c) Nahapana (d) Moga 37.

Agnimitra, the second Sunga ruler, was the hero of a book written by:

(a) Kalidasa

(b) Patanjali

(c) Asvaghosa (d) Bana 38. Who among the following was the first to discontinue the practice of issuing bilingual coins? (a) Kanishka (b) Rudradaman I (c) Menander (d) Nahapana 39.

Whose coins bear the figure of the typically Indian deity, AbhisekhaLakshmi7

(a) Kanishka (b) Nahapana (c) Azilises

(d) Vima Kadphises

40. Consider the following statement by Manu: "The acceptance of an unfilled field by a Brahmin is less blamable than that of a tilled one". It points to the fact that: (a)

Brahmins should not accept either tilled or unfilled land

(b)

land grants to Brahmins were disapproved by lawmakers

(c)

land grants to the Brahmins comprised only unfilled lands

(d)

land grants to the Brahmins also served the purpose of exten doing cultivation.

41.

The children born to a Brahmin father and a Sudra mother are categorised as:

(a) Vratyas

(b) Nisadas

(c) Abhiras

(d) Pulindas

42. Which of the following was not included in the chaturvargas of life by the classical Indian liter ature? (a) Artha

(b) Dharma

(c) Kirti

(d) Moksha

43.

Which of the following pairs is wrong?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 44.

Simantonnayana--parting the hair Chudakarana--tonsure Samvartana--graduation Antyesti--natal rites Minakshi, the 'fish-eyed' goddess of the Pandyas of Madurai, is identified with:

(a) Laxmi

(b) Parvati

(c) Saraswati (d) Savitri 45.

Which one of the following is incorrectly paired?

(a) (b)

Rajaraja I--Rajakesari Rajendra I--Pandita Chola


(c) Kulottunga I--Sangam Tavirtta (d) Rajadhiraja--Ahalanka 46. Who founded kulinism, i.e. the system of nobil ity among the Brahmins and Kayasthas of Bengal? (a) Dharmapala

(b) Gopala

(c) Ballale Sena

(d) Vijaya Sena

47.

The Rajavamsavalis were:

(a) royal grants to temples (b) royal decrees to guilds of artisans (c) royal palaces and buildings (d) chronicles of dynasties 48. Which of these rulers collected a tax, called turushkadanda, to defray expenses of war against Muslim invasions? (a) (b) (c) (d) 49.

Chandradeva, the Gahadvala ruler Nagabhatta I, the Pratihara ruler Prithviraja III, the Chauhan ruler Karnadeva, the Solanki ruler Who was the founder of the old city of Delhi, called 'Dhillika'?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 50.

Paramardi Chandella Anangpal Tomar Jayachandra Gahadvala Ajayaraja Chauhan Who destroyed the Jagannath temple at Puri?

(a) Muhammad Tughluq (b) Firuz Tughluq (c) Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (d) Alauddin Khalji 51. The most serious sectarian conflict between the Sunnis and the Shias occurred during the reign of:

(a) Raziya

(b) Balban

(c) Alauddin Khalji (d) Firuz Tughluq 52. Which of the following modern tools in the cot ton textile industry was not introduced in India by the Turks? (a) weaver's treadles (b) spinning wheel (c) cotton-carder's bow (d) water frame 53.

Which one of the following pairs is wrong?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 54.

Nizam Shahis--Ahmadnagar Adil Shahis--Bijapur Band Shahis--Berar Qutub Shahis--Golconda What is the chronological order of the following foreign travellers?

(i) Marco Polo (ii) Nikitin (iii) Ibn Battutah

(iv) Nicolo di Cc

(v) Abdur Razaak (vi) Barbosa Select the answer from the codes given I (a) i, ii, iii, iv, v and vi (b) i, iii, iv, v, ii an (c) iii, iv, vi, i, ii and v (d) iv, vi, ii, i, iii < 55.

Which one of the following Bhakti Saints 1 joined the Sufis, but later left them?

(a) Namdev

(b) Tukaram

(c) Kabir

(d) Nanak

56. According to a legend whom did Sikandar I the Sultan of Delhi, try to kill by various mead (a) Nanak (b) Mira (c) Kabir 57.

(d) Chaitanya

Which one of the following places was kn as the Shirazi-Hind?

(a) Malwa

(b) Khandesh

(c) Sonargaon (d) Jaunpur 58. Which Sufi saint adopted yogic breathing < cises and was called Sidh or perfect? (a) Nizamuddin Auliya (b) Farid

(c) Salim Chisti

(d) Muhammad Jit

59. Who was the Turkish gunner who help Bahadur Shah of Gujarat to storm the Chittorf (a) Amir Khan (b) Hindal (c) Rumi Khan(d) Khusrau Khan 60. Which Sikh guru helped the rebel princ Khusrau with money and prayers against I father Jahangir? (a) Hargovind (b) Arjun Dev (c) Tez Bahadur

(d) Govind Singh

61. Who chose to live voluntarily with Shah Jah and later was accorded great honour Aurangzeb? (a) Jahanara

(b) Zebunnisa

(c) Zeenat Mahal (d) Roshanara 62. During the reign of which Great Mughal wa tobacco introduced in India? ~>. (a) Jahangir (b) Akbar (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 63. Mir Jumla, who was appointed the Governor c Bengal by Aurangzeb, originally belonged to: (a) Ahmadnagar (b) Bijapur (c) Gujarat

(d) Golconda

64. Who imposed taxes like jaribana (surveyor's | fee), mahasilana (tax collector's fee) and insuM ance tax on cultivators?


(a) SherShah (b) Akbar (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb The only type of yag/r which could not be transferred was the: (a) Khidmatjagir

(b) Watanjagir

(c) Milkiyat jagir

(d) Tanjagir

Muraqqas of the Mughal period were: (a) albums of the miniature paintings (b) revenue officials at the Paragana level (c) hired soldiers of the Mughal nobles (d) musical compositions by the Sufis 67. Which was the only settlement of the Portuguese on the south east coast of India? (a) San Thome (b) Armagaon (c) Karaikal 68.

(d) Pulicat

Who were the 'Interlopers'?

(a) dismissed employees of the EICO (b) middlemen engaged by the EICO to negotiate with the merchants and traders in India (c) 'free merchants' who traded independently in Asia in spite of the monopoly of the EICO (d) It was a factious term used in company barracks to describe the Englishmen who kept Indian mistresses 69. The fleet built by Sivaji was stationed at: (a) Salselte (b) Surat (c) Bassein

(d) Kolaba

70.

What was saranjam in the Maratha kingdom?

(a) (b)

a tax levied on traders and merchants tributes paid by Maratha chiefs to the king

(c) (d)

a system of measuring and assessing land revenue a unit of land revenue which was assigned to an official in lieu of his salary

71.

Arrange the following events in the correct chronological order:

(i) Capture of Delhi by the British (ii) Nadir Shah's invasion of India (iii) Sikh revolt under Banda Bahadur (iv) Ahmad Shah Abdali's first invasion of India Select the answer from the codes given below: (a) iii, ii, iv and i




72. Who was the first Mughal emperor to receive help from the famous Sayyid brothers, popu larly known as 'King makers' in Indian history? (a) Muhammad Shah (b) Jahandar Shah (c) Farukh Siyar (d) Ahmad Shah 73.

Who were the ijaradars'?

(a) holders of revenue-free lands (b) revenue farmers (c) recipients of royal benevolences (d) collectors of revenue arrears 74. The founder of one of the autonomous states committed suicide in 1739 for some unknown reason. Pick him out from among the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) 75.

Murshid Quli Khan Saadutullah Khan Sadat Khan BurhanulMulk NizamulMulk Treaty of Alinagar was signed between:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

Nizam Ali and the French Siraj-ud-daula and the English Nizam-ul-Mulk and Peshwa Baji Rao I Mir Jafar and the Dutch Where did Tipu Sultan build his two naval dockyards?

(a) Goa

(b) Mahe

(c) Cochin

(d) Calicut

77. What is the chronological order of the following events in the reign of Ranjit Singh? (i) Metcalfe's Mission (ii) Acquisition of the Kohinoor (iii) Assumption of the title of Maharaja (iv) Meeting with Bentinck Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) ii, iv, i and iii

(b) iii, i, ii and iv

(c) iv, i, iii and ii

(d) i, iii, ii and iv

78. Whose signature did Robert Clive forge in order to please Omichand, one of the conspir ators for the overthrowal of Sirajuddaula? (a) Admiral Watson (b) Mir Jafar (c) Manik Chand

(d) Drake

79. Which one of the following is known as the 'Magna Carta of English Education in India'? (a) (b)

Charter Act of 1813 Indian Education Commission's Report of 1882

(c) (d)

Indian Universities Act of 1904 Educational Dispatch of 1854


80.

When was local self-government established in British India?

(a) 1853 (b) 1861 (c) 1875 (d) 1882 81. Who among the following Britishers were associated with the introduction of the Mahalwari system? (a) R.M.Bird (b) Sir John Lawrence (c) William Carey (d) -Sir Alexander Cunningham 82. Who among the following was the first to attempt decentralisation in financial administration? (a) Ellenborough (c) Ripon

(b) Lytton

(d) Mayo

83. Indenture regulations which bound the artisans of eastern India to sell their products exclu sively to the English company from the late 18th century were known as: (a) Dadni

(b) Damdupat

(c) Khatbandi (d) Kamiya 84. Which of the following groups did not get sep arate electorates by the Act of 1935? (a) Anglo-Indians (b) Indian Christians (c) Europeans (d) Depressed Classes 85. Which of the following results of the Zamindari system was not an advantage to the British? (a) (b)

creation of political allies minimisation of revenue administrative expenditure

(c) permanent fixation of revenue demand (d) provision of financial security 86. The single-handed revolt of Mangal Pandey of the 19th Native Infantry took place at: (a) Berhampur (b) Balasore (c) Basamavadi

(d) Barrackpur

87.

Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 88.

Banaras--Sir Colin Campbell Jhansi--Sir Hugh Rose Kanpur--Brigadier General Neill Lucknow--Major General Havelock Who was the author of the book 'Eighteen Fifty Seven'?

(a) S. N. Sen (b) R. C. Mazumdar (c) Syed Ahmed Khan (d) R. C. Bhandarkar

89.

Which one of the following are correctly pain

(a) Faraizi Movement--Shariatullah (b) Wahabi Movement--Duddu Mian (c) Kuka Movement--Karam Shah (d) Pagal Panthi Movement--Jawahar Mat | 90. Which tribal revolt was mainly caused tribal resentment of activities by Christian i sionaries? (a) Khond Revolt

(b) Chenchu Re

(c) Munda Revolt (d) Bhil Revolt 91. Who among the following was the your President of the Indian National Congress?^ (a) (b) (c) (d) 92.

Abul Kalam Azad Muhammad AN Jinnah Jawaharlal Nehru Subhas Chandra Bose Legalisation of widow remarriage in India\ first secured by:

(a)

Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar

(b) (c) (d) 93.

Maharshi Karve K. Natarajan Pandita Ramabai Who founded the Indian Reform Associatic 1870?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 94.

Ram Mohan Roy Debendranath Tagore Keshab Chandra Sen Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar Swamy Dayanand:

(i) considered the Vedas to be fallible (ii) opposed idolatry, ritual and priesthood (iii) considered the Puranas to be full of fals hood (iv) considered the two epics, the Ramayanf and the Mahabharata as nothing than good literary pieces (v) defended caste system based on birth Select the answer from the codes given below: J (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii, iii and iv (c) iii, iv and v (d) ii, iv and v 95.


(a) (b) (c) (d) 96.

Atmiya Sabha--Radhakanta Dev Dharma Sabha--Debendranath Tagore Tattvabodhini Sabha--Ram Mohan Roy Prarthana Samaj--Atmaram Pandurang Which day is celebrated as the All India Kisan Day?

(a) April 1 (c) Noveml Match List from the co Listj (I) Digdai\

v (II)

(III)

Miratj

(IV)

f Codes:

(a) ID.1 (c) lDj

. Which; egates^ (a) (b) (c) 699.

Fo Fif

(d) Ma froml

(I) (II) In (111)1 (IV)» Coc too. (a) (c) W fo

(iv)J (v)j

(a| (4 101.

Model Test Papers Ml

(a) April 1

(b) September 1

(c) November 1

(d) December 1

Match List I with List II and select the answer from the codes given below the lists: List I List II (I) Digdarsana (A) First paper in Gujarati (II)

Bengal Gazette

(III)

MiratulAkbar

(B)

First Bengali monthly

(C)

First Persian journal

(IV) Bombay Samachar (D) First Indian paper Codes: (a) I-D, II-B, III-A, IV-C (b) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-C , (c) I-D, II-B, III-C, IV-A (d) I-B, IID, III-C, IV-A 3. Which session of the Congress had 1889 delegates? (a) Third Session at Madras (b) Fourth Session at Allahabad (c) Fifth Session at Bombay (d) Sixth Session at Calcutta 3. Match List I with List II and choose the answer from the codes given below the lists: List I List II (I) (II) (III) (IV)

Hindu Mahasabha (A) 1906 Indian Liberal Federation (B) 1915 Muslim League (C) 1916 Home Rule Leagues (D) 1918 Codes:

(a) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-C (b) I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C (c) I-C, II-B, III-D, IV-A (d) I-D, IIA, III-C, IV-B 100.

Which is the correct chronological order of the following events?

(i) Simla Conference (ii) Formation of the Azad Hind Fauz (iii) Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (iv) Naval Mutiny (v) INA Trials Choose the answer from the codes given below the lists: (a) i, iii, ii, iv and v (b) ii, iii, i, v and iv (c) ii, i, iv, iii and v (d) i, iii, ii, v and iv 101. Who designed the National Flag of India, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on July 21, 1947? (a) (b)

Badr-ud-din Tyabji Rabindranath Tagore

(c) (d) 102.

Abanindranath Tagore Abul Kalam Azad When were the first Asian Games held in New Delhi?

(a) 1950

(b) 1951

(c) 1952

(d) 1953

103. Who among the following was not one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement at Brioni in Yugoslavia in 1956? (a) Nehru

(b) Tito

(c) Suharto

(d) Nasser

104.

"Which area was the target of Chinese aggres sion in 1964?

(a) Takla Makan (c) Sikkim 105.

(b) Bhutan

(d) Aksai Chin

Who was the chief planner of the first two five-year plans of India?

(a) B. R. Mehta

(b) V. N. Gadgil

(c) Mahalanobis

(d) S. N. Sen

Directions: The following items consist of two statements one labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled the Reason (R). Examine these two statements carefully and mark on your answer sheet accordingly. Codes: (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true but R is false. (d) A is false but R is true. 106. Assertion (A): In comparison to the Egyptians and Sumerians, Indus people made greater use of their script and language. Reason (R): The pictographic script of the Indus people has no resemblance to either the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians or the cuneiform writing of the Sumerians. 107. Assertion (A): Iron technology played a crucial role in the expansion of the Aryans into the middle and lower Gangetic valley. Reason (R): The middle and lower Gangetic valley had thick vegetation which could be cleared only by implements made of strong metal. 108.

Assertion (A): Under Asoka Mauryan monar chy became a military despotism.

Reason (R): Major rock edict VI shows Asoka remarking--'All men are my children'.


109. Assertion (A): Hinayanists believed in individ ual salvation through selfdiscipline and medi tation. Reason (R): Mahayanists believed in the salvation of all with the help and grace of the Buddha. 110.

Assertion (A): Jainism did not become very popular among agriculturists.

Reason (R): Jainism laid excessive emphasis on ahimsa and austerity. 111. Assertion (A): The flourishing trade during the post-Maurya period affected even contempo rary economic laws. Reason (R): The smrlti laws of the period encouraged trade associations and partnerships. 112. Assertion (A): The Gupta period is rightly called the Golden Age of Sanskrit grammar and literature. Reason (R): The Sakas and Kushanas and even the Mahayana Buddhists patronised Sanskrit much before the imperial Guptas. 113.

Assertion (A): Harsha issued a very large num her of gold and silver coins.

Reason (R): The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officials with grants of revenue bearing lands on a large scale had begun under Harsha. 114. Assertion (A): The Chalukyas of Badami exer cised paternalistic control over the village administration. Reason (R): In village affairs, the Chalukyan royal officials acted only as observers. 115. Assertion (A): The dravida style of architecture was perfected by the imperial Cholas. Reason (R): In later Chola temples gopurams or gateways eclipsed the or towers.

116. Assertion (A): Firuz Tughluq collected a I number of slaves for economic as well as I ical purposes. Reason (R): He employed the slav karkhanas and also trained some of them i special corps of soldiers who would be I him. 117. Assertion (A): Akbar dispensed with practice of maintaining revenue local languages in addition to Persian. Reason (R): By Akbar's time, most lit) Indians became familiar with the Persian:\ guage. 118. Assertion (A): The proportion of agri labourers to agricultural population wasff highest in the mahalwari areas and lo the ryotwari area. Reason (R): In the ryotwari areas, unit mahalwari areas, it was quite easy for the r eylenders to usurp the lands of the cult due to ease in transfering land. 119. Assertion (A): The tribes in different India resented the penetration of their i outsiders from the plains. Reason (R): They also resented the tij control of the British over forest zones. 120. Assertion (A): Lord William Bentinck was) first to be called the Governor General of I Reason (R): During Bentinck's time, additional charge of the governorship Bengal was taken away from the General.

ANSWERS

1 1(°) 2. (a) 3.(d) 4. (a) 111. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 20. (d) §21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (c) 30. (b) 131. (c) 32. (b) 33. (b) 40. (d) 141-(b) 42. (c) 43. (d) 50. (b) f51.(a) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. 61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. 171. (a) 72. (c) 73. (b) 80. (d) 81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (c) 84. 91. (a) 92. (a) 93. (c) 94. (b) 101. (a) 102. (b) 107. (a) 108. 111. (a) 112. (b) 117. (a) 118. 043

5. (a) 6.(d) 14. (b)

7.(b) 8. (d) 9.(b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18.

10. (b) (c) 19. (c)

24.

(b)

25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28.

(b)

29. (d)

34.

(c)

35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (a) 38.

(a)

39. (c)

44.

(b)

45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48.

(a)

49. (b)

(b) (a) 74.

55. (b) 56. (c) 57. (d) 58. (a) 65. (b) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (c) (c) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78.

59. (c) 60. (b) 69. (d) 70. (d) (a) 79. (d)

(d) (b)

85. (c) 86. (d) 87. (b) 88. 95. (d) 96. (b) 97. (d) 98.

89. (a) 90. (c) 99. (a) 100.

103. (c) 104. (d) 109. (b) 113. (d) 114. (d) 119. (b)

(a) (c)

(d) 105. (c) 110. (a) (c) 115. (b) 120. (c)

106. (d) 116. (a)

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS Ippl

Decline of Mughal Empire

1. Who among the following were the sons and grandson of Bahadur Shall II and played a prominent role in the Rebellion of 1857, and were captured and shot? (a) (b)

Bakht Khan, Ahsanullah Khan and Mahbub All Mirza Moghul, Mirza Khawaja Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakr

(c) (d)

Prince Azam, Azim-ush-Shan and Muazzam Asad Khan, Kam Bakhash and Jahandar Shah

East India Company and Bengal Nawabs

2. Which one of the following cities was renamed Alinagar after its capture by Siraj-ud-daula in 1756? (a) Murshidabad (c) Calcutta

(b) Falta

(d) Kasimbazar

Autonomous State (Mysore)

3.

Hyder AN consolidated his position after being appointed the faujdar of

(a) Arcot

(b) Budikota

(c) Dindigul

(d) Devanhalli

Autonomous States (Punjab)

4. Ranjit Singh belonged to the Sikh misl of (a) Kanhaiya (b) Sukerchakia (c) Ahluwalia (d) Bhangi

East India Company and Bengal Nawabs

5. The abuses of the dastaks in Bengal by the officials of the East India Company led to an estrangement of its relationship with (a) Alivardi

(b) Sirajuddaula

(c) MirJafar

(d) MirQasim

D44 6.

Clive introduced dual government in because

(a)

he was afraid of hostile reaction 1 people of Bengal

(b) the authorities of the East India in England did not allow him to the direct rule of the Company in I (c) the Mughal emperor was establishment of de jure authority I East India Company in Bengal /] (d) he wanted to avoid the responsib ing out of the establishment of authority of the East India Bengal

Freedom Struggle

7.

Which one of the following is correctly r

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sorabjee Bengali: Business magna Sir George Birdwood: Sheriff of I Dinshaw Wacha: Founder of the! C R Das: Educationist

East India Company

8.

Match List I with List II and select the answer by using the codes given below t

Listl (Period) (A) 1833 (B) 1793

List II 1 (Revenue SeWerl 1. Ryotwar 1 2. Mahalwari |

(C) 1792 (D) 1769 Codes: (a) A B 1 2 (b) A B 2 .3

3. Zamindari J 4. Quinquennial] 5. Decennial I CD1 34 | CD | 141

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1996)

z iRW

(C) A B C D 2354 (d) A B C D 3215

Itish Economic Impact

B. The Whitley Commission was concerned with (a) labour (b) education (c) public health (d) reorganisation of civil service 0. The British government introduced the Portfolio System for the first time in (a) 1853 (b) 1858 (c) 1861

(d) 1892

dom Struggle

|,11. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I (a)

Vernacular Press 1. Lord Chelmsford Act of 1878

(b)

Indian Universities 2. Lord Curzon Act of 1904

(c)

Indian Councils

(d)

RowlattActof 1919 4. Lord Minto Codes:

3. Lord Lytton Act of 1909

List II

(a)

A B C D 1432

(b)

A B CD 2314

(c)

A B CD 3214

(d)

A B CD 3241

Revolt of 1857

12. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Despite initial victory the Sepoy Mutiny could not succeed in overthrowing the Raj. Reason (R): The rising middle class sided with the Raj. In the context of the above two statements which one of the following is correct? (a)

Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A

(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true 13. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Lakshmi Bai 1. Deported to Rangoon Tantia Tope 2. Fled to Nepal Nana Saheb 3. Captured and executed Bahadur Shah 4. Killed in a battle Codes:

(a)

A B C D 1234

(b)

A B C , D 2 3 4*1

(c)

A B C D 4321

(d)

A B C D 4231

Freedom Struggle

14. The Indian Association played an important role in arousing national consciousness through the formation of the (a) (b) (c) (d)

Indian National Congress Bengal British Indian Society Indian National Conference British India Association

Peasant and Trade Union Movements

15. The Moplah Rebellion (1921) took place in (a) Telengana (b) Malabar (c) Marathwada (d) Vidarbha 16. Who among the following was the first leader to organise labour movement in India? (a) B P Wadia (b) Lala Lajpat Rai ,^(c) N M Lokhandy (d) N G Ranga

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1996) '^jjjf''

lich one of the following was essentially a ithpiece of the Liberals? [a) New India i) Leader fa) Young India (d) Free Press Journal Who among the following were associates of Bal Gangadhar Tilak? 1. Vishnu Krishna Chiplunkar \ 2. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 3. 4.

Madhavrao Namjoshi Rao Bahadur Madhavarao Wasudeva Barve

Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1,3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,2 and 3 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I (A) Bal Gangadhar Tilak List II 1. The British rule is a roller formidable in its weight and power having its uses, but it does not help the soil to become fertile.' 2. (B) Sri Aurobindo Ghosh 'Nationalism is a divinely appointed Shakti of the internal and must do its God given work before it returns to the bosom of the Universal Energy from which it came.' (C) Rabindranath Tagore

(D) Mahatma Gandhi 3. 'A true Nationalist desires to build on old foundations. We don't want to angli cise our institutions and denationalise them in the name of Social and Political Reforms.' 4.

'I am not a visionary; I claim to be a prac tical idealist.'

Codes: (a) A B C D 4 3 1 2 (b) A B C D 1 2 3 4 (c) A B C D 3 2 1 4 (d) A B C D 3 4 2 1 27. In the committee which prepared the Nehru Report (1928) the Liberal Federation was rep resented by (a) M R Jayakar (b) Tej Bahadur Sapru (c) V S Srinivasa Sastri (d) MSAney 28. The immediate cause which led to the launch ing of the Non-Cooperation movement was the (a) (b) (c) (d)

Khilafat Wrong RowlattAct Jallianwalla Bagh massacre dissatisfaction with the Government of India Act, 1919

29.

What proposal was made in the 'August Offer' of 1940?

(a)

Complete independence for India gradually

(b) (c) (d) 30.

Dominion status Provincial autonomy Representative government at the centre A concrete outcome of the Wavell Plan was the

(a)

holding of a referendum in the North-West Frontier Province

(b)

absorption of the State of Hyderabad with the Indian Union

(c) (d)

summoning of the Simla Conference the constitution of the Constituent Assembly

Indus Civilisation

31. Which one of the following was the most west erly outpost of the Hai-appan Culture? (a) Lothal

(b) Sutkagen Dor

(c) Rangpur

(d) Manda

32. The most common type of Harappan seals is (a) square (b) round (c) cylindrical (d) oval


List II (Modem i 1. Ravi 2. Beas 3. Sutlej 4. Jhelum 5. Gha 33. Consider the map given below showing some sites of the early Indus period.

The places marked 1,2,3 and 4 are respectively \ (a) Mehrgarh, Kot Diji, Surkotda and Kalibangan (b)

(d) 34.

Mehrgarh, Kalibangan, Kot Diji and Surkotda (c) Rana Ghundai, Banavali, Surkotda and Kot Diji Rahman Dheri, Banavali, Kulli and Tharro A terracotta replica of a plough has been found at

(a) Banavali

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Rakhigarhi (d) Rangpur 35.

Consider the map given below:

36.

Which one of the following cities extensive in area?

(a) Mohenjodaro

(b) Har

(c) Dholavira (d) Kaliban

Vedic Culture

37.

Which one of the following is not true the Rig Vedic God Indra?

(a)

He was fond of feasting and drinl juice

(b) (c)

He was the destroyer of Puras The largest number of h' addressed to him

(d) 38.

He was the upholder of the Match List I and List II and select answer by using the codes given lists:

List I (Ancient names of rivers) (A) Sarasvati (B) (C) (D)

Parushni Shutudri Vipas

Codes: (a) A 3 (b) A 5 (c) A 3 (d) A 5

B 2 B 1 B 1 B 4

C 4 C 3 C 2 C 3

D 1 D 2 D 4 D 1

Which one of the following cultures flourished in the area shaded in the map? (a) Banas Culture (b) Painted Grey Ware (c) Malwa Culture (d) Jorwe Culture 39.

During the period of the Sutras, the 1 were allowed to marry

(a) (b) (c) (d)

only brahmana girls brahmana and kshatriya girls brahmana, kshatriya and vaisya { brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya an girls

40.

'A bard am I, my father is a leech, mother grinds corn.' This passage the

I (a) Rigveda

(b) Yajurveda

(c) Dhammapada (d) Mrichchh

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1996) D49

§41. Sudas, the victor of the Battle of Ten Kings belonged to the tribe of the (a) Anus (b) Druhyus (c) Bharatas

(d) Sivis

142. The Vedangas consist of the (a)

Kalpa, Siksha, Nirukta, Vyakarana, Chandas, Jyotisha

(b)

Kalpa, Siksha, Brahmana, Vyakarana, Chandas, Jyotisha

(c)

Kalpa, Siksha, Nirukta, Aranyaka, Chandas, Jyotisha

(d)

Kalpa, Upanishad, Nirukta; Vyakarana, Chandas, Jyotisha

: Sangam Age

43. The early Tamil poet who makes a reference to the Nandas and Mauryas in his work is (a) Sattanar

(b) llango Adigal

(c) Kapilar

(d) Mamulanar

44.

The term Nadukal mentioned in the Sangam literature

(a) (b) (c) (d)

is a reference to a Velir chief means memorial stone was a tax on nadus was an item of export in Indo-Roman trade

Religious Movements (Buddhism, Jainism, Bhagavatism and Brahmanism)

45. What is the correct chronological order in which Buddhist Councils were held at the fol lowing four places? 1. Vaisali

2. Rajagriha

3. Kundalavana

4. Pataliputra

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2,3,4

(b) 4,3,2,1

(c) 2,1,3,4

(d) 2,1,4,3

46.

Mahakachchayana, traditionally the founder of the Theravada sect, hailed from

(a) Simhala

(b) Avanti

(c) Gandhara (d) Magadha 47.

According to the Mahasanghikas, a being is composed of

(a) five dharmas

(b) seven dharmas

(c) nine dharmas (d) eighteen dharmas 48. Which one of the following was a Buddhist sect which held that constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form? (a) Sautrantika (b) Sthaviravadin (c) Sarvastivadin (d) Sammitiya 49.

Which one of the following worshipped Chakresvari among other deities?

(a) Bhagavatas (b) Saivas (c) Jainas

(d) Buddhists

50.

Which of the following are true of Jainism?

1.

It has affinity with the Vedanta system of philosophy

2.

It has affinity with the Sankhya system of philosophy

3.

It completely rejected the concept of the soul

4. According to it the world consists of two eternal categories, viz. conscious (jiva) and unconscious (ajiva) Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 3

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4

(d) 2 and 4

51.

Which of the following were important charac teristics of early Bhagavatism?

1. Devotion

2. Action

3. Knowledge 4. Social rigidity (5) Self-sacrifice (Tyaga) Select the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 3

(b) 1, 2, 3 and 5

(c) 1,2, 4 and 5

(d) 2, 3 and 5

52. The historical site wherein an early inscription referring to the five heroes of the Vrishnis is found is (a) Ghoshundi (b) Besnagar (c) Dwaraka

(d) Mathura

53.

Ambika is mentioned as the sister of Rudra in

(a) (b) (c) (d) 54.

Vajasaneyi Samhita Satapatha Brahmana Taithriya Aranyaka Siva Purana Salaka-purusha is a concept associated with the

(a) Pasupatas (b) Jainas (c) Bauddhas (d) Bhagavatas


Maurya Empire

55.

During the reign of Bindusara there was unrest at

(a) Ujjayini

(b) Pushkalavati

(c) Takshasila (d) Rajagriha 56. Chandragupta figures prominently in a work of (a) Bhasa (b) Visakhadatta (c) Asvaghosa (d) Bhavabhuti 57. The Kharosthi script was derived from (a) Pictographs (b) Cuniform script (c) Aramaic 58.

(d) Brahmi

Which of the following were in the vijita of Asoka?

1. Yona

2. Satiyaputa

3. Gandhara

4. Bhoja

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,2 and 4 (c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 2,3 and 4 59.

During the Mauryan period Lakshanadhyaksha was

(a)

an officer possessing knowledge of characteristics of animals

(b) (c) (d)

a professional astrologer an official in charge of road marks an official in charge of mint

Trade and Commerce in the Pre-Gupta and Gupta Periods

60.

The term Chitrapata used in some historical sources denotes

(a) painted pots (b) textiles from Kamarupa (c) canvas for Sastri (d) wall paintings 61. Official stamping of weights and measures and their periodical inspection are prescribed by (a) Manu (b) Narada (c) Brihaspati (d) Parasara 62. That ginger and cinnamon were produced in large quantities in the Pandya country is men tioned by (a) Megasthenes (c) Ibn Said 63.

(b) Ptolemy

(d) Marco Polo

Which one of the following denoted a i coins?

(a) Gajasataka (b) Gadhiya (c) Hiranyadama 64.

(d) Katisama

Which of the following were parts of the ( kingdom?

1. Korkkai

2. Musiri

3. Puhar

4. Saliyur

5. Tondi Choose the correct answer from the given below: (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 2 and 5

(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 3, 4 and 5 65.

Pratishthana, an important trading centre \ on the river

(a) Cauvery

(b) Krishna

(c) Godavari (d) Narmada

Agrarian Structure in the Post-Gupta Period

66. (a) (b) (c) (d) 67. of pa

The term Chora rajju used in some sourSj means a unit of land measurement a class of police officials a kind of tax rope of thieves During the period of the Cholas and their! cessors in south India the association ants was known as

(a) Alunganam (b) Nanadesi (c) Cittirameli (d) Ainnurruvar 68.

Which one of the following pairs is not con matched?

(a) Kshauma : Textile (b) Pada : Coin denomination (c) Adhaka : Architectural fragn (d) Drona : Measure of rainfall 69. Which of the following terms were used to r to rural land holders in eastern India during 1 Gupta period? 1. Agraharin 2. Kutumbin 3. Mahattara 4. Bhogika Choose the correct

answer from the given below:

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 3 and 4

(c) 1 and 4

(d) 2 and 3

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Anal/sis (Prelims 1996) 051

in the Social Structure

170. Which of the following were antya-jatis accord ing to some Brahmanical texts? 1. Venas 2. Medas 3. Lokayatikas 4. Nastikas Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2, 3 and 4

(b) 1,2 and 3

(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 ,71. The Valangai (right hand) and Idangai (left hand) division of south Indian society is first noticed in the (a) Sangam period (b) Pallava period (c) Chola period (d) Nayaka period 72. 'No one is allowed to marry outside his own caste, or to exchange one profession or trade for another or to follow more than one busi ness.' This observation was made by (a) Megasthenes (b) FaHien (c) Hiuen Tsang (d) AI-Biruni 73. The expression anyavrata (following other practices) is used in the Rigveda with refer ence to the (a) Oasas

(b) Dasyus

(c) Mlecchas (d) Yadus 74.

'Service was his portion in life.' This was appli cable to

(a) Buddhist bhikshu (b) Vaisya vama (c) Sudra varna

Political and Social Conditions (800-1200) and the Cholas

(d) Chandala

75.

Which one of the following pairs does not match?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 76.

Rajasekhara : Kavyamimamsa Uddyotana : Kuvalayamalakaha Ballalasena : Dayabhaga Lakshmidhara : Krityakalpataru Malatimadhava of Bhavabhuti is an important source for the study of the

(a) Digambara Jainas (b) Kapalikas (c) Buddhist Tantriks (d) Bhagavatas 77. The Gurjara king and others are said to have worked as doorkeepers in the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice performed by (a) Dharmapala

(b) Devapala

(c) Dantidurga (d) Amoghavarsha 78. Didda, the queen of Kashmir ruled in the (a) seventh century (b) eighth century (c) ninth century (d) tenth century 79.

The celebrated author Kshemendra lived in (a) Bengal (b) Kashmir

(c) Maharashtra (d) Gujarat 80.

Kosalai-nadu, conquered by Rajendra Chola, was located on the banks of the

(a) Godavari (b) Sarayu (c) Mahanadi (d) Tapti 81.

In early medieval south Indian polity the word Udan-kuttam meant

(a)

a group of small villages in the Chola kingdom

(b) (c) (d) 82.

a body of officers under the Cholas a tax levied in the Hoysala kingdom the navy maintained by the Cholas Which of the following were centres of Chahamana rule?

1. Lata 2. Sakambari 3. Naddula

4. Dhavagarta

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 83.

Dhvanyaloka is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

an epic poem a work on poetics a play a work on Buddhist epistemology

84. The Pala king Devapala claims to have defeated a Dravida king who is usually identified with (a) Oantidurga (b) Amoghavarsha (c) Dhruva (d) Krishna II 85.

Mahakshapatalika was an official in charge of (a) chariots (b) navy

(c) accounts

(d) infantry

86. The Chandella dynasty was founded by (a) Vakpati (b) Nannuka (c) Jayasakti (d) Harsha 87.

Who was the ruler who was elected to the throne according to the RajataranglnR

(a) Gopala

(b) Yasaskara

(c) Nandivarman (d) Karikalan


Trade and Commerce in the Pre-Gupta and Gupta Periods

88.

According to Brihaspati, the grades of artisans were

(a) two (b) four (c) six (d) eight

Religious Movements (Buddhism)

89.

Which one of the following statements regard ing the stupa is incorrect?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

It has an umbrella at the top It has a sanctum sanctorum It has a circumambulatory path (pradakshinapatha) It has a fence surrounding it

Delhi Sultanate

90. Which one of the following iqtas was held by Sultan lltutmish as its muqta'i immediately before his accession? (a) Kalpi

(b) Lakhnauti

(c) Kalinjar

(d) Budaun

91.

Amir Khusrau's Khazain-ul Futuh gives an account of the military campaigns of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 92.

Malik Kafur in south India Sultan Balban in the Mewat region Muhammad Tughlaq in Gujarat Feroz Tughluq in Orissa The title Sultan-us Sharq was assumed by the rulers of

(a) Assam

(b) Bengal

(c) Jaunpur

(d) Orissa

93.

Which one of the following sultans introduced a rural lax canea haqq-i sharb?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

lltutmish Alauddin Khalji Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Feroz Tughluq

Indo-lslamic Culture and Religious Movements

94.


A

B

(Saints)

(Mystic order)

1. Shaikh Nasiruddin --Suhrawardi Chirag Delhi

2.

Shaikh Bahauddin

3.

Shaikh Sharfuddin --Firdausi Yahya Maneri

4. Shaikh Nuruddin 5. Shaikh Baqi Billah below:

--Chisti Zakaria

--Rishi --Naqshbandi Choose the correct answer from the given

(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 5 (d) 3, 4 and 5 95. Given below are two statements, one lab as Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R): Assertion (A): After the Kushans, the To brought the technique of constructing the I arch on a massive scale. Reason (R): The Turks introduced into In the technique of preparing lime-motar. In the context of the above two staten which one of the following is correct? (a)

Both A and R are true and R is the i explanation of A

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a i explanation of A

(c) (d)

A is true but R is false A is false but R is true

Provincial Dynasties

96. Which one of the following writers has contemporary account of the Vijayanagar En (a) Shams Siraj 'Afrf (b) Linschoten (c) Domingo Paes (d) Pietro Delia' 97.

Krishnadeva Raya was the ruler of Vijayanagar Empire between

(a) ad 1485 and 1502 (b) ad 1509 and 1£ (c) ad 1533 and 1545 (d) ad 1550 and 1£ 98. Who among the following Bahmani rul< established a matrimonial alliance with one i the rajas of Vijayanagar? (a) Alauddin Bahman Shah (b) Feroze Shah Bahmani (c) Mahmud Shah I (d) Ahmad Shah 99. The Bahmani Kingdom and Vijayanag Empire clashed frequently over the territory < (a) Madurai (b) Warangal (c) Malabar

(d) the Raichur <

The Empirej (a) rait (c)

hall

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1996) tiHt 0§9

\ 100. The principal governors of the Vijayanagar Empire were known as (a) rautas (b) nayakas (c) poligars

(d) naiyars

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4

(d) 1 and 3

Mughal Empire

101. In the succession issue of which one of the fol lowing Rajput states Emperor Jahangir inter vened and gave tika to the person of his choice? (a) Amber (b) Marwar (c) Bikaner 102.

(d) Jaisalmer

The Mughals lost out Qandahar to the Safavids forever in

(a) ad 1606

(b) ad 1617

(c) ad 1622

(d) ad 1632

103. Which of the following two kingdoms in the Deccan were conquered by Aurangzeb? (a) (b) (c) (d) 104.

Bidar and Bijapur Bijapur and Golconda Golconda and Ahmadnagar Ahmadnagar and Bijapur Sher Shah Sur took only one-fourth of the pro duce as land tax in

(a) Sahsaram (b) Agra

(c) Multan

(d) Lahore

105. Abul Fazl gives names of a few Mughal artists in the Ai'n-iAkbari who worked at the Mughal atel ier. The number of painters mentioned by him is (a) 17 (b) 22 (c) 28 (d) 34 106. Which of the following Biblical and Christian themes were attempted by the Mughal painters under the impact of European schools? 1. God the Father 2. Adam and Eve 3. Expulsion from Paradise 4. Trial of Jesus at Pilate's Court 5. Crucifixion Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,2 and 4 (c) 1 and 5 107.

(d) 4 and 5


Tombs at Kabul Fatehpur Sikri Lahore Delhi Mughal emperors 1. 2. 3. 4.

Babur Akbar Jahangir Bahadur Shah Zafar Indo-lslamic Culture

108.

Sher Shah Sun's Mausoleum at Sahsaram is . (a) surrounded by a tank

(b) (c) (d)

entirely made of marble distinguished by four domes decorated with pietra dura

European Commerce

109. Which one of the following articles of technol ogy was not brought by Europeans to India during 16th and 17th centuries? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Horse-drawn carriages Seed-drill Iron anchors Looking-glasses

Mughal Empire

110.

Abul Fazl refers in his writings to the

(a) (b) (c) (d)

methods of distillation working of telescope principle of gravitation technique of metal casting

European Commerce

111. Which one of the following European trading groups first established its factory at Surat? (a) the Portuguese (b) the Dutch (c) the English (d) the French 112. Which one of the following was well known for the production of indigo during the seventeenth century? (a) Balasore

(b) Kalpi

(c) Lahore

(d) Sarkhej

113. 'Malacca cannot live without Cambay, nor Cambay without Malacca, if they are to be very rich and very prosperous.' This comment was made in the context of Asian trade by (a) Tome Pires (b) Linschoten (c) Varthema (d) Barbosa


114. The Portuguese conquered Goa and Hormuz respectively in (a) (b) (c) (d)

ad 1505 and 1598 ad 1510 and 1605 ad 1510 and 1622 ad 1515 and 1618

Indo-lslamic Culture

lost Mughal Empire

117.

Which one of the following was written | Prince Dara Shikoh?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 118.

Fuwaid-ul Fawad Chuhar Gulshan Chahar Chaman Majma'-ul Bahrain Which of the following are correctly ma

115. Which one of the following is an example of Hindu architecture showing Islamic influence? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Lotus Mahal, Vijayanagar Thousand pillared mandapa, Madurai The King's Audience Hall, Vijayanagar Pillared Corridor, Ramesvaram

1. Akbar : Shahabuddin Khan i 2. Jahangir : Jujhar Singh Bund 3. Shah Jahan : Jagat Gosain 4. Aurangzeb : Qazi Abdul Wahab Choose the answer from the codes given I (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 2 and 4

Marathas

116. The third battle of Panipat took place during the reign of

(a) Muhammad Shah (b) Alamgir II (c) Shah Alam II (d) Jahandar Shah (b) Akbar 119. The silver coin rupaya was first issued by (a) Sikandar Lodhi (b) Humayun (c) SherShahSuri (d) Akbar 120. After Feroz Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate t Mughal ruler who paid attention to the sup of water from canals was (a) Humayun (c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan

':&&'-, ^m:

ANSWERS

i.(b) 2.(c) 3. (c) 4.(b) M1.(d) 12. (c) 13. (c) 20. (a) !21.(5) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (b) 31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (c) 41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (b) 51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (c) 54. (b) 61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (b) 71-(c) 72. (d) 73. (b) 74. (c) (c) 81. (b) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (b) 91. (a) 92. (c) 93. (d) 94. (d) (b) 101. (c) 102. (c) 103. 107. (d) 108. (a) 111. (c) 112. (d) 113. 117. (d) 118. (a) D55

5. (d) 14. (c) 15.

6.(d) (b)

7.(b) 8.(c) 9-(a) 10. (c) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a)

25. 35. 45. 55. 65. 75.

(d) (a) (d) (c) (c) (c)

26. (c) 36. (a) 46. (b) 56. (b) 66. (b) 76. (b)

27. (b) 37. (d) 47. (c) 57. (c) 67. (c) 77. (c)

85. 95.

(c) (a)

86. (b) 87. (b) 88. (c) 89. (b) 90. (d) 96. (c) 97. (b) 98. (b) 99. (d) 100.

(b) 104. (a) 105. 109. (a) 110. (d) (c) 114. (c) 115. 119. (c) 120. (b)

28. (d) 38. (b) 48. (c) 58. (c) 68. (c) 78. (d)

29. (b) 39. (d) 49. (c) 59. (d) 69. (a) 79. (b)

30. (c) 40. (a) 50. (d) 60. (b) 70. (a) * 80.

(a)

106. (c)

(a)

116. (c)

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS 1997)

Religious Movements

1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists. List II 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. List I

Kerala Bengal Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Orissa

(A) (B) (C) (D) A 4 A 2 A 3 A 2

Chaitanya Shankara Jnanadeva Thyagaraja B C 1 2 B C 3 1 B C 2 4 B C 1 4

D 3 D 4 D 1 D 3

Codes:

(a) (b)

(c)

(d) 2.

Who among the following is said to be the founder of the Pasupata Cult?

(a) Basava

(b) Lakulisa

(c) Kusika 3.

(d) Gorakhnatha

The doctrine of transmigration does not find mention in the

(a) Aranyakas (b) Jataka literature (c) Upan/shads

(d) Vedas

Maurya Empire

4.

Most of the Asokan inscriptions are in Prakrit language because it was

(a) (b) (c) (d) 5.

the language of the State understood by a majority of the people used by the Tathagata Buddha the only language known at that time Which one of the following is not known from Asokan inscriptions?

(a)

He appointed followers of Buddhist reli{ to high government posts

(b) He warned the monks and nuns that I would be punished if they created! schism in Buddhism (c)

He categorically expressed his faith in I Buddha, Dharma and Sangha

(d) 6.

He made pilgrimages to holy Buddhist [ In which of the following is the name found?

1. 2.

Nittur edict of Asoka The Allahabad Pillar Inscription Samudragupta

3. Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman 4. Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela Select the correct answer from the codes gh below: (a) 1 and 2

(b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 4

(d) 3 and 4

7.

The inscriptions of Asoka are found in

(a) (b)

Kharoshthi and Brahmi Kharoshthi, Brahmi and Greek

(c) Kharoshthi, Brahmi and Aramaic (d) Kharoshthi, Brahmi, Greek and Aramaic 8. Megasthenes states: There was no slavery I India. This statement must have been because (a) (b)

there was absence of slavery in India slavery was not prevalent in India in extreme form as he had seen in Greece

(c)

he moved only with the king and elites \ the capital

(d) he wrote this on hearsay 9. The most important source of information I the municipal administrative system of city of Pataliputra in the Mauryan empire I (a) Indika (b) Mudrarak (c) Asokan inscriptions (d) Arthasastra

D56

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1997) .MA OST

nO. Which one of the following refers to the Mauryas as Kshatriyas? (a) The Mudrarakshasa (b) The Greek writers (c) The Arthasastra (d) The Divyavadana f 11. Which one of the following is the most reliable and accurate evidence for fixing the date of Asoka? (a)

Ceylonese chronicles mentioning his contemporaneity with Devanampiya Tissa

(b)

Asoka's inscriptions referring to foreign kings

(c) The Puranic literature referring to the genealogy and chronology of the Mauryan rulers (d)

Pali canonical literature referring to the holding of Buddhist Councils

[Trade and Commerce in the Pre-Gupta and [Gupta Periods

12. Which of the following kings have left inscrip tions mentioning the Sudarsana lake? 1. Asoka

2. Rudradaman

3. Samudragupta

4. Skandagupta


(b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 2 and 4

13.

The earliest images of the Buddha were made almost simultaneously at

(a) (b)

Gandhara and Ajanta Mathura and Amaravati

(c) (d) 14.

Mathura and Gandhra Ajanta and Amaravati Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c)

Pliny -- Natural History Ptolemy -- Geography Strabo -- Periplus of Erythrean Sea

(d)

Cosmos

-- Christian

Topography 15. With which of the following regions did India have the closest contact during the Gupta period? (a) South-East Asia (b) Central Asia (c) Iran(d) Western Asia 16. Which one of the following most suitably defines the term sren/7 (a)

An organisation of people of one caste following the same vocation

(b)

An organisation of people of one caste following different vocations

(c)

An organisation of people of one or more castes following one vocation

(d)

An organisation of people of -different castes following different vocations

Sangam Age

17. There was brisk commercial contact between Rome and Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period. Many articles were exported form Tamil Nadu to Rome. Which one among the following items was not included in the export? (a) Spices (b) Beryl (c) Ivory

(d) Wine

Trade and Commerce

18. Which of the following made a new contribution to India's maritime trade in the early centuries of the Christian era?

(a) (b)

Manufacture of better type of vessels Knowledge of the depth of sea at various points

(c) Better training in navigation (d) Knowledge of monsoon winds 19. Which of the following was not characteristic of the period that followed the Gupta rule? (a) (b) (c)

Decrease in trade Increase in the use of coins Increase in the use of local weights and measures

(d)

Multiplication of feudatories

Agrarian Structure in the Post-Gupta Period

20.

The rise of the Brahmin aristocracy in the post-Gupta period was facilitated by

(a) (b) (c) (d)

donation of land to priestly class growth of ritualistic practices advent of foreigners decline of Buddhism


21. A new sort of social structure called Vnejajmani system became prevalent in India during the (a) later Vedic age (b) the Maurya empire (c) the Gupta* age (d) the postGupta period 22. Which one of the following is not related to the feudal formation in the Gupta and post-Gupta times?

(a) Emergence of landed intermediaries (b) Growth of a class of subject peasantry (c) Localised village economy developed with little scope for functioning of the market system (d)

Emergence of strong centralised political authority

Sangam Age

23. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Many Roman gold and silver coins, belonging to First and second centuries ad, have been discovered in South India. Reason (R): Some parts of South India were under Roman occupation during this period. In the context of the above two statements, , which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) (d)


Changes in the Social Structure of Ancient period

24. The unusually excessive proliferation of castes in the early medieval period was mostly due to (a) (b)

increasing varnasamkara increasingly greater absorption of tribes as castes

(c) (d) 25.

occupational groups turning into castes religious sects being converted into castes The hierarchy of the tour vamas described in many of the early Buddhist texts is

(a) vessa, sudda, khattiya, bahamanna , (b) sudda, vessa, bahamanna, khattiya

(c) (d)

khattiya, bahamanna, vessa, sudda vessa, bahamanna, khattiya, sudda

Political and Social conditions (800-1200) and the Cholas

26. Which one of the following Chola rulers is] reported to have destroyed Anuradhapura, ] once the capital of Ceylon? (a) Rajaraja I (b) Rajendra I (c) Rajadhiraja I

(d) Kulottunga I

Changes hi the Social Structures

27. AI-Beruni states that the antyajas, who were not: reckoned amongst any of the four vamas, were composed of eight groups or guilds of craftsmen or professionals. Which one of the following dttrj not belong to any of the eight guilds? (a) Shoemaker (b) Weaver (c) Fisherman (d) Blacksmith

Political and Social Conditions

28. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R):

Assertion (A): The Cholas were the inheritors and continuers of the Pallava traditions in temple construction. Reason (R): They built numerous monolithic temples throughout their kingdom following the Pallava styles. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) (d)


Changes in the Social Structure

29. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R):

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1997) D99'

Assertion (A): According to the Mitaksara school, a father could divide his property among his sons during his lifetime. Reason (R): The Mitaksara recognised a son's right of ownership by birth in ancestral property. In the context of the above statements, which one of the following is correct? (a)


(b)


(c) (d)

A is true but R is false A is false but R is true.

Indus Civilisation

30. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists. List I List II (Archaeological sites) (Characteristic features) (A) (B) (C) (D)

Brahmagiri 1. Mesoliths Kupgal 2. Pit dwellings Burzahom 3. Urn burials Adichchanallur 4. Megaliths 5. Ash mounds Codes:

A

BCD

(a)

5

2 1 4 AB C D

(b)

1

524 A B C D

(c)

4

2 5 3 AB C D

(d)

4

5 23

i Maurya Empire

31. 'Among other nations it is usual, in the contests of war to ravage the soil; among the Indians, the tillers of soil, even when battle is raging in their neighbourhood, are undisturbed by any sense of danger and remain unmolested.' This statement is attributed to (a) Hiuen Tsang

(b) Herodotus

(c) Megasthenes (d) Fahien Political and Social Conditions

32. After the disappearance of the Chalukyas at the end of the twelfth century and the Cholas at the beginning of the thirteenth, the four king doms that dominated the political history of southern India were the (a) (b)

Pandya, Hoysala, Kakatiya and Yadava Rashtrakuta, Kadamba, Eastern Ganga and Bana

(c)

Western Ganga, Pandya, Vishnukundin and Hoysala

(d)

Chera, Mahameghavahana, Salankayana and Vijayanagara

33.

The Chalukyan capital was shifted from Manya-kheta to Kalyani by

(a) Somesvara I Ahavamalla (b) Vikramaditya VI (c) Perma Jagadekamalla II (d) Tailappa III 34. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Merchants 1. Craftsmen 2. Federation of guilds Caravan Chief 4.

Jithhaka Setthis 3. Satthavaha Bhandagarika Codes:

A

B

CD

(a)

2

1

43A B

CD

(b)

2

1

34 A

CD

(c)

1

234 A B

(d)

1

2

B CD

43

Delhi Sultanate

35. The noble serving Sultan Naseeruddin Mahmud who lost the top post due to the machinations of Balbanb was (a) (b) (c) (d)

AmirYaqut Imaduddin Raihan Tughril Beg ZafarKhan


36.

The troops directly under the royal service in the Delhi Sultanate were known as

(a) lashkar

(b) hashm qalb

(c) sipahi

(d) muqta'i

37. The system of itlaq, a sort of draft enabling a royal soldier to collect his salary from the state revenue officials, was introduced by (a) lltutmish

(b) Balban

(c) Alauddin Khalji (d) Firoz Shah Tughluq 38.

Qismat-i khote in the Delhi Sultanate was

(a)

a cash payment made by the state to the village headman

(b) (c)

a village assigned to a khot a small cess collected by the village headman from the peasants

(d) the revenue assessed on the land cultivated by the khots and muqaddams 39. 'Every pearl in the royal crown is but the crys tallised drop of blood fallen from the tearful eyes of the poor peasant.' The above remark about the poverty of the Indian peasants during the Delhi Sultanate was made by (a) Barani

(b) Ibn Battutah

(c) Minhajuddin Siraj (d) Amir Khusrau 40.

The sashgani coin was introduced during the reign of

(a) Allauddin Khalji (b) Balban (c) Firoz Shah Tughluq (d) Sikandar Lodhi

44.

The main trading port of the Vljayan empire on the western coast was

(a) Bhatkal

(b) Calicut

(c) Cannanore (d) Goa

Indo-lslamic culture and Religious Movementsj

45. To which one of the following sufi silsilahs did| Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria belong? (a) Qadriya

(b) Naqshbandi

(c) Suhrawardi (d) Chisti 46. Match List I with List II and select the correct 1 answer by using the codes given below the lists: List II 1. 2. 3. 4. List I

Nizam-ul mulk Tusl'; Hamid Qalandar >'H Amir Khusrau Yahya Sirhindi

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Siyasatnama KhazainulFutuh Khair-ul Majalis Tarikh-i Mubarak Shahi

Codes: C

D

2 C

4 D

1 C

4 D

3 C

2 D

2

3

AB (a)

13AB

(b)

23AB

(c) 41

14AB

(d) '(I I*> "ni -&.g* cc-i1 i».af?

53.,


for 41.

The Vijayanagar rulers are remembered promoting agriculture by

(a) (b) (c)

building dams, tanks and wells reducing tax on cultivated land providing market facilities for agricultural products

(d) purchasing food grains for the army 42. Which one of the following Vijayanagar rulers was the author of Amuktamalyada'? (a) Bukka I

(b) Harihara II

43. (c) Krishna Deva Raya (d) Deva Raya II Which one of the following kingdoms was not in the alliance that crushed the Vijayanagar empire in the Battle of Talikota (1565)? (a) Berar (b) Ahmadnagar (c) Bijapur

(d) Golconda

Mughal Empire

47. The total number of Mughal subas in 1605 was (a) 12 (b) 15 (c) 17 (d) 19 48. Which one of the following Mughal officers was not associated with religious affairs? (a) Sadr

(b) Mufti

(c) Muhtasib (d) Mustaufi 49. Who among the following defined a sovereign or sovereignty as farr-i izdi in contrast to the concept of zil al-Allah? (a) Badauni (b) Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (c) Abul Fazl (d) Shaikh Abdul Haq Muhaddis 50. In the terminology of the Mughal revenue admin istration, the term zamin paymudah denoted (a) (b) *C

barren land land left unmeasured for ghalla bakhshi


(c) land cultivated every two years (d) measured land [51. Which of the following regions was/were well known during the seventeenth century for simultaneous production of saltpetre, indigo and opium? (a) Burhanpur and Sindh (b) Gujarat (c) Bengal and Orissa (d) Bihar 52. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Event)(Date) (A) (B)

Battle of Haldighatr 1.1611 Marriage of Jahangir 2. 1576 with Nurjahan

(C)

The capture of 3. 1680 Qandahar by Safavids

(D)

Death of Sivaji

4. 1622 Codes:

European Commerce

55.

Which one of the following correctly defines the term cartaz?

(a) A Mughal royal farman issued in French (b) Permission paper from the Mughal governors of Surat to allow European ships to anchor at Cambay (c) A document permitting non-European traders for maritime activities in the Asian waters. (d)

Letters exchanged between European trading companies

56. Under the supervision of which one of the following European trading companies the town of Qasimbazar produced the largest amount of silk yarn during the seventeenth century? (a) Danes

(b) English

(c) Dutch

(d) French

(a) (b) (c) A 2 A 1 A 2 A 4

B 1 B 3 B 1 B 1

C 4 C 2 C 3 C 3

D 3 D 4 D 4 D 2 (d)

53. The rulers of which of the following was/were called tarafdar by the Mughal monarchs? (a) Bijapur and Golconda (b) Golconda (c) Gujarat (d) Ahmadnagar 54. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): Mahabat Khan rebelled and made Jahangir and Nurjahan prisoners. Reason (R): Mahabat Khan wanted to instal Prince Khurram on the Mughal throne. In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is/correct? (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true and R is not a correct explanation of A

(c)

A is true but R is false

(d)

A is false but R is true

Marathas

57. Which one of the following ruling lines of the Marathas defeated Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa? (a) Scindhia

(b) Holkar

(c) Bhonsle

(d) Gaikwar

58. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B)

Sumant Amatya

1. Religious affairs 2. State correspondence

(C)

Sachiva

3. Revenue depart ment

(D)

Panditrao

4. Foreign affairs Codes:

A

B

C

D

(a) A

4

3

2

1

B 4 2 3

C 2 4 1

D 3 1 24

1A 3A

(b) (c) (d)

B B

C C

D D


Mughal Empire

59. Who among the following was sent to Persia by Jahangir to draw portraits of Shah Abbas for Mughal album? (a) Mansur

(b) Bichitr

(c) Bishandas (d) Basawan 60.

In which part of a large Mughal monument would one usually find a Spandrel?

(a) Dome

(b) Gateway

(c) Minaret

(d) Rampart

61.

The mausoleum of Rabia-ul Dauran was built at

(a) Lahore

(b) Delhi

(c) Aurangabad

(d) Gulbarga

62. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Books) (A)

(Authors)

lyar Danish

1. Abdul Hamid

Lahori (B) (C)

Humayun Nama 2. Khwafi Khan Badshahnama 3. Gulbadan Begum

(D)

Muntakhab-ul-Lubab 4. Abul Fazl Codes:

ABCD (a)

1 243 A B C D

(b)

4312ABCD

(c)

4 1 32 A B C D

(d) 1432 63. Who among the following took interest for the First time in the European movable metal type printing? (a) (b) (c) (d) 64.

Mir Fathullah Shirazi Jahangir Muqarrab Khan Bhimji Parekh Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

1. 2. 3. 4.

Rabbeting Flintlock 'Wootz' Filatures

-----

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 4

(d) 3 and 4

Shipbuilding Gun-making Textile Metallurgy Codes:

Decline of Mughal Empire . "This site was granted to the French East! Company in 1674 by Shaista Khan, a! under the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. I the Seven Years' War (1756-63) this town ij captured (1757) by the John Company but! (1763) restored to the French. Recaptun the English in 1778, after the outbreak ofj American War of Independence (1776 was restored to the French by the Tr« Paris (1785). Wrested again by the Bri 1793, on the outbreak of the revolutionary v in Europe, it was finally restored to the Fn in 1815 and remained part of their empire until its transfer to the Indian repub 1951." The reference here is to (a) Pondicherry (b) Karaikkal (c) Chandernagore (d) Mahe

East India Company

66. The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by (a)

Robert Clive, Mir Jafar and Raja Singh

(b)

Robert Clive, Najm-ud-Daula and Sh udDaula

(c) (d)

Robert Clive, Siraj-ud-Daula and Mir I Shah Alam, Mir Jafar and Shujaudl

Autonomous States (Mysore)

67.

The First native state to introduce military t ing on the European model was

(a) Golconda (b) Mysore (c) Oudh

(d) Kashmir

68. Mangalore, Parambakkam and Porto were places where major battles took during the (a) (b) (c) (d)

First Anglo-Mysore War Second Anglo-Mysore War Third Anglo-Mysore War Fourth Anglo-Mysore War


t India Company

The East India Company began to use the term 'investments in India' for (a)

their bullion imports to purchase Indian goods

(b)

the loot from Buxar for purchasing Indian goods

(c)

the profits made from duty free inland trade and the surplus from diwani revenue

(d)

the borrowed money from Indian moneylenders for purchases in India

Madras was restored to the English by the French by (a) (b) (c) (d)

the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1749) the Treaty of Pondicherry (1754) the Treaty of Salbai (1782) the Treaty of Mangalore (1784)

[British Colonialism and its Economic Impact f on India

71. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Acts passed for the

(Year in which

relief of agriculturists)passed) (A)

Punjab Land 1. 1879 Alienation Act

(B)

Deccan Agricultural 2. 1904 Relief Act

(C)

North West Provinces 3.1916 Land Alienation Act

(D)

Central Provinces

4. 1900 Land Alienation Act

Codes: A

B

C

D

(a)

1

4

2

3A

B

C

D

(b)

1

4

3

2A

B

C

D

(c)

4

1

3

2A

B

C

D

(d) 4 1 2 3 72. The remittance problems from India was ini tially tackled by the East India Company gov ernment through the (a)

development of more exports of grains from India

(b)

exports of more cotton and silk goods to Europe

(c)

development of indigo and export of opium to China

(d)

development of jute and promotion of its export to Europe

'

73. The high courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras to replace the 'sadar courts' of Diwani and Nizamat were established in the year (a) 1793

(b) 1831

(c) 1833

(d) 1865

74. Which of the following statements about the Indian Councils Act of 1892 are correct? 1. It raised the number of additional members to a maximum of 16 for the Supreme Council, 20 for the legislative councils of Bombay, Madras and Bengal and 15 for the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. 2. It conceded the Congress demand of the principle of direct election to the legislative councils 3. It conceded to the members of the legislative councils the right of discussing the Budget

4. It allowed the members of the legislative councils the right of asking questions on matters of public interest. Choose the answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,2 and 4

Social and Cultural Awakening

75. The report of the Arundel Committee (1906) dealt with (a) proposed changes in the Age of Consent to Marriage Bill (b) (c) (d)

political reforms higher education the need to reunite Bengal which had been partitioned in the previous year


Revolt of 1857 and other Movements

76. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

VD Savarkar 1. The Sepoy

Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857 (B)

Ashok Mehta 2. The Indian War of

Independence (C)

SN Sen

3. 1857--The Great

Rebellion (D)

RC Majumdar 4. Eighteen Fifty

Seven Codes: ABCD (a)

4321ABCD

(b)

1 234 A B C D

(c)

1 342 A B C D

(d) 77.

1432 The tribal rebellion against the British known as Ulgulan was organised by

(a) Korra Mallaya (b) Ranade

(c) Birsa Munda

(d) Konda Dora

78. Consider the following four popular move ments that took place against the British rule. 1. Bhils Revolt 2. Rebellion of Dhananjaya Bhanja 3. Gujjar Revolt 4. Kolhapur Revolt The correct chronological order of these movements is (a) 1,3,4,2

(b) 3, 1,4,2

(c) 3, 1,2,4

(d) 1,3,2,4

Freedom Struggle

79. The Congress Nationalist Party was formed to act as a powerful pressure group within the Congress by (a) (b) (c) (d)

Motilal Nehru and Tej Bahadur Sapru Mrs Annie Besant and C P Ramaswami Iyer Madan Mohan Malaviya and M S Aney Surendranath Banerjea and C R Das Peasant and Trade Union Movement

80. Which of the following reasons intensifi labour movement in India in the first qu the 20th century? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Influence of British labour movement Russian Revolution of 1917 Rise in cost of living Legislative measures of the British aga Indian labour

Select the correct answer from the codes giw below: (a) 2 and 3

(b) 1 and 4

(c) 2 and 4

(d) 1 and 3

81. Given below are two statements, one lab as Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R):

Assertion (A): There was an upsurge of | ants in Telangana in the erstwhile state (| Hyderabad in 1942. Reason (R): It was an extension of the India Movement of 1942. In the context of the above two stateme which one of the following is correct? (a)

Both A and R are true and R is the < explanation of A

(b)

Both A and R are true but R is not a con explanation of A

(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true 82. Who among the following were associated with'i the Trade Union Movement in India? 1. BPWadia

2. N M Joshi

3. Dhundiraj Thengdi 4. K Kamaraj 5.

Vithalbhai Patel

Choose the correct

answer from the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 1,2 and 3

(c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 3, 4 and 5

Freedom Struggle

83.

What is the correct chronological sequence of the following?

1. 2. 3. 4.

The founding of the Ghadr Party The Chauri-Chaura incident The execution of Khudiram Bose Moplah Rebellion in Malabar


Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,3,2,4

(b) 2, 1,4,3

(c) 3,4, 1,2

(d) 3, 1,4,2

[-84. The Congress president who conducted negotiations with Cripps in 1942 and Wavell at the Simla Conference was (a) Abul Kalam Azad (b) Jawaharlal Nehru (c) J B Kripalani (d) C Rajagopalachari 86. Which one of the following is correctly matched? (a) Nibandhamala -- Vishnusastri (b)

Sudharak

--

(c) RaftGoftar -(d) Sambad Prabhakar -- Chippulankar Sisikar Kumar Ghosh Agarkar Bal Gangadhar Tilak 86. Who among the following were the Indian Liberals who attended the first session of the Round Table Conference? 1. Tej Bahadur Sapru 2. V S Srinivasa Sastri 3. M R Jayakar

4. C Y Chintamani

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,2 and 4

(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 87. Which one of the following adumbrated princi ples and constitutional provisions which were later incorporated in the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms? (a) Nehru Report

(b) Wavell Plan

(c) Lucknow Pact (d) Poona Pact 88. The leaders of the Home Rule Movement bor rowed the term 'Home Rule' from a similar movement in (a) Ireland

(b) Scotland

(c) United States

(d) Canada

of America 89.

The Simon Commission of 1928 was boy cotted by the Congress because it

(a)

did not include a representative of the Congress

(b) included a member of the Muslim League (c) definitely negated the claim of the Indian people to determine their own constitution (d) was appointed one year before itwas due 90. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B)

Young India Hindustan

1. Surya Sen 2. Chandra Shekhar Prajatantric Sangh Azad

(C)

Hindustan Socialist 3. Vinayak Damodar Republic Association Savarkar

(D)

Indian Republican 4. Sachindra Sanyal Codes:

ABCD (a)

1 234 A B C D

(b)

1 342 A B C D

(c)

3 1 24 A B C D

(d) 1 324 91. The Communal Award (1932) announced by Ramsay Macdonald spoke of special constituen cies with separate communal electorates to be constituted for women in all provinces except (a) NWFP (b) Bengal (c) Punjab

(d) Bombay

Presidency 92. Which of the following were reasons for the Congressmen all over the country offering indi vidual satyagraha in 1942? 1.

The Congress demand for a national government had been rejected.

2.

The freedom of speech against the war effort was denied

3. The British rulers were not prepared to admit that India was a belligerent not of her own free will 4. Gandhi offered satyagraha himself to cause greater embarrassment to the government Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 1,2 and 3 93. Which one of the following statements regarding the Constituent Assembly is not correct? (a) The constitution of the constituent assem bly was an integral part of the Cabinet Mission Plan


(b) The 'Objective Resolution' adopted by the Constituent Assembly was later incorpo rated into the preamble of the constitution both in its spirit and as far as possible, the language (c) The members of the Constituent Assembly were directly elected by the people (d) The rulers of Indian States who acceded to the Union as provided in the constitution accepted the premise that sovereignty resided in their people--not in themselves 94.

In 1946 there was a mutiny of Indian Naval Ratings in

(a) Calcutta

(b) Madras

(c) Visakhapatnam (d) Bombay 95. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R): Assertion (A): In 1946, the Council of the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan Reason (R): The Muslim League joined the Interim government formed in 1946 In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct? (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A (c)

A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true Indus Civilisation

96.

.Which of the following metal (s) was/were not used by the Harappans?

(a) Copper

(b) Gold and Copper

(c) Iron and Tin 97.

(d) Silver and Bronze

Which one of the following is the most impor tant feature of Harappan cities?

(a) Large size (b) Huge buildings (c) Planned layout (d) Wide roads 98. Which one of the following statements is not confirmed by the evidence of archaeology? (a) People of the Bahrain island acted as middlemen in the trade between Indus and Sumerian people in the third millenium bc

(b) Lothal played an important role in the! borne trade between the Indus culture art Western Asia (c)

The Harappans were supplanted by Aryans

(d)

The Harappans knew the lost-wax nique of manufacturing metal images

99. Match List I and List II and select the answer by using the codes given below lists:

(A) (B) (C)

(D)

Listl Harappa Lothal Kalibangan

3.

List II I 1. Cemetery R 37 J 2. Dockyard 1 Figure of danc J

Mohanjodaro 4. A B C

girl Ploughed field Codes: J D I

(a) 1 A

4 D

2 B

3 C

(b) 2 1 4 3 A B C D (c) 3 4 1 2 A B C D (d) 1 2 4 3 100. Match List I with List II and select the correct : answer by using the codes given below the lists: ' Listl List II (Name of the site) (Associated culture) (a) Rangplir 1. Palaeolithic (b) Soan 2. Neolithic (c) Adichchanallur 3. Chaleolithic (d) Burzahom 4. Mesolithic 5. Megalithic Codes: A B C D (a) 1 4 5 2 A B C D (b) 3 1 5 2 A B C D (c) 3 1 5 4 A B C D (d) 2 3 4 5 101. Which one of the following statements about the Indus culture is the least possible?

(a)

Thej K£ "

(b)

Th ar

(c)Th

fe(d)

102.

(b* (c),

1P3-104.

105.


(a)

The Indus culture originated from the Kalibangan I culture

(b)

The Indus culture originated from the peasant cultures of Sind and Baluchistan

(c) The Indus culture is an expansion of Sothi culture (d) The Indus culture sprang directly as an urban culture without passing through the stage of village culture anywhere

102. There was no regular tax from land in the early Vedic period, because (a)

the people were not settled permanently in one locality

(b) (c)

the expenditure of the government was low the king was not considered as the proprietor of the land

(d)

the people were not accustomed to paying land tax

1103. The four vamas are mentioned for the first time in the (a) Prithvi Sukta

(b) Purusa Sukta

(c) Taittiriya Samhita (d) Vajasaneyi Samhita 104. The chief form of property in the Rig Veda was (a) gold (b) cattle wealth (c) house

(d) land

105.

The Aryan gods invoked in an inscription from Boghaz Kui are

(a) (b) (c)

Indra, Vishnu, Varuna and Nasatyas Rudra, Mitra, Indra and Nasatyas Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nasatyas

(d) Mitra, Vishnu, Varuna and Indra 106. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Asvalayana 1. Samhita Apastamba 2. Grihyasutra Maitrayana 3. Nirukta Yaska 4. Dharamasutra Codes:

ABCD (a) 1423 ABCD

(b)

3 1 2 4 A B C D (c) 2 3 1 4 A B C D (d) 2 4 1 3 107. Which of the following were Vedic assemblies? 1. Sabha 2. Vidatha 3. Samiti

4. Parishad


(b) 3 and 4

(c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 1,3 and 4

Sangam Age

108.

During the Sangam age the Mahabharata in Tamil was composed by

(a) Perundevanar (b) Villiputhur Alvar (c) Kamban (d) Kuttan

Religious Movements (Buddhism, Jainism, Bhagavatism and Brahminism)

109.

Which of the following did the Buddha not believe in?

1. 2. 3. 4.

The authority of the Vedas Superiority of the Brahmin The efficacy of sacrifices The theory of rebirth Select the correct answer from the codes given

below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 110. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Event)* (Place) (A)

First Buddhist 1. Vaisali Council

(B)

Second Buddhist 2. Rajagriha Council

(C)

Third Buddhist

(D)

Fourth Buddhist 4. Kashmir Council

3. Pataliputra Council


Codes:

111.

A B C D (a) 2 3 1 4 A B C D (b) 3 1 4 2 A B C D (c) 1 4 3 2 A B C D (d) 2 1 3 4 In Buddhist terminology, the word Dharmachakrapravartana indicates the

(a) belief in the cycle of life and death (b) attainment of nirvana by Buddha (c) first sermon by Buddha (d) the personal religion of the chakravarti 112. Which one of the following, according to the Buddha, would lead to nirvana? (a) To be constantly in the state of a stithaprajna (b) Pursuit of the ashtangika marga (c) Observance of asceticism and penance (d) Adoration of stupa 113. 'Decay is inherent in all component beings. Work out your own salvation with diligence.' These words are attributed to (a) Krishna

(b) Mahavira.

(c) the Buddha (d) Sankaracharya 114.

Which one of the following was introduced by Mahavira?

(a) Ahimsa

(b) Aparigraha

(c) Brahmacharya (d) Satya 115. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists:

List I (Name of they'/nas) (A) (B) (C) (D)

Parsvanatha Adinatha Mahavira Santinatha

Codes: List II (Their cognizance) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bull Lion Snake Goat

(a) (b)

A 3 A 3 A

B 2 B 1 B

C 4 C 2 C

D 1 D 5 D Deer

(C) 2 4 1 3 A B C D (d) 5 2 4 1 116.

Which one of the following statements] correct?

(a) (b)

There are Jaina temples at Khajun There are Jaina caves at Uday Orissa

(c) There was a Jaina stupa at Mathura \ (d) There are Jaina monsteries at Vais 117. The two Indian deities describ Megasthenes as Dionysus and Heracle identified respectively with (a) Surya and (b) Siva and I Kartikeya (c) Indra and Yama (d) Agni and'

118. Which one of the following is mentioned I Besnagar Pillar inscription as Bhagavata7\ (a) Dion (b) Heliodoros (c) Antialkidas (d) Kasiputra Bhagabhadraj 119. lists:

Match List I with List II and select the answer by using the codes given below J

List II f wore*

1.

Bhagavatism,

1 »Vald :Five 'Of hip B 1 B 2 B 2 B 4

2. Smartas 3. Jainism 4. Saivism D 4 D 3 D 1 D 1 List I

C 3 C 1 C 3 C 2

(A)

Concept of Ardham

(B)

Worshif deities

(C)

The theory of 'May be'

(D)

Hero worship Codes:

A (a) (b) (c) (d) 120.

2A 4A 4A 3 Which one of the following is the most in tant feature of Bhagavatism?

(a) (b)

Stress on devotion to a personal God Stress on penance

(c) (d)

Stress on rituals Stress on knowledge

ANSWERS

Ud) 2. (b) 1. (b) 12. (d) ll.(d) 22. (d) 31. (c) 32. (a) 41. (a) 42. (c) 151. (d) 52. 60. (b) 161. (c) 62. 70. (a) f71.(d) 72. (c) f81.(a) 82. (b) 191. (a) 92. 100. (b) 101. (d) 102. 107. (c) 111. (c) 112. 117. (b) D69

3.(d) 13. (c) 23. (c) 33. (a) 43. (a) (a)

4. (a) 14. (c) 24. (b) 34. (9) 44. (c) 53. (a)

5. (a) 15. (a) 25. (c) 35. (b) 45. (c) 54. (c)

6.(b) 16. (a) 26. (a) 36. (b) 46. (a) 55. (c)

7. 17. 27. 37. 47. 56. (c)

(d) (d) (d) (c) (b) 57.

(b)

63. (d) 64. (a) 65. (c) 66. (b) 67.

73. (d) 74. (b) 75. (a) 76. (c) 77. (c) 83. (d) 84. (a) 85. (a) 86. (b) 87. (c) (d) 93. (c) 94. (d) 95. (d) 96. (c) 97.

8.(b) 18. (d) 28. (c) 38. (c) 48. (d) (b)

9. (a) 19. (b) 29. (b) 39. (d) 49. (c) 58. (a)

10. (d) 20. (a) 30. (d) 40. (c) 50. (b) 59. (c)

(b)

68. (b) 69. (c)

78. (d) 79. (c) 80. (a) 88. (a) 89. (c) 90. (d) (c) 98. (c) 99. (d)

(a) 103. (b) 104. (b) 105. (c) 108. (a) 109. (a) 110. (d) (b) 113. (c) 114. (c) 115. (b) 118. (b) 119. (c) 120. (a)

106. (d) 116. (c)

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPE) TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIM!

Indus Civilisation

1. At which one of the following sets of Harappan sites, have structures with fire altars been dis covered? (a) Chanhudaro and Amri (b) Banawali and Kalibangan (c) Harappa and Mohenjodaro (d) Alamgirpur and Daimabad 2. A bronze chariot of Harappan times yoked to a pair of bullocks and driven by a nude human figure has been discovered at (a) Sanghol

(b) Rojdi

(c) Kunal

(d) Daimabad

3. A highly advanced water management system of Harappan times has been unearthed at (a) Dholavira (b) Lothal (c) Kalibangan (d) Alamgirpur 4.

Which one of the following is more probable regarding the Harappan script?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

It is distinctly protoDravidian It is distinctly Sanskritic It is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic The language used by these scripts has definite Sumerian connections

5. at

An anthropomorphic figure of copper has been reported from the Harappan levels

(a) Lothal

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Harappa

(d) Rojdi

Vedic Culture

6.

'Brahma' emerged as the Supreme entity dur ing the times of the

(a) Rig Veda (b) Brahmanas (c) Aranyakas (d) Upanishads 7. The material culture of the Later Vedic people in the Ganga-Yamuna valley maybe gleaned from (a) (b)

Ochre-coloured pottery Painted grey ware D70

(c) (d)

Black and red ware Northern black polished w4

Sangam Age

8. Match List I (Sutra literatu (Subject they dealt with) and answer by using the codes gi' lists: List I ListJ A 3 A 3 A 2 A 2 (A) (B) (C) (D)

B C 2 1 B C 2 4 B C 3 4 B C 3 1 Kalpa 1. Et Siksha 2. Ph Nirukta Chhanda

D 4 D 1 D 1 D 4

3. Ritual 4. Metre. Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 9. Match List I with List II and select thei answer by using the codes given below t List II 1.

HangoAdh

2. 3. 4.

Sathanar> Tolkappiyar Tiruvalluvar

D 3 D 2 D 2 D 3 List I (A) (B) (C) (D)

Tirukkural Silappadikaram Manimekalai Tolkappiyam Codes:

ABC (a)

4 1 2 ABC

(b)

1 4 3 ABC

(c)

4 1 3 ABC

(d)

1 42

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1998) DW

|10. The earliest available work of the Sangam Tamils is (a) (b) (c) (d)

Pattinappalai Tirumurugarruppadai Maduraikanchi Tolkappiyam

uddhism

111. Which one of the following factors was most responsible for the origin of Buddhism? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Change of tibal state into territorial state Impact of the increasing use of iron Growth of the guild system Challenge of the kshatriyas to the dominance of the brahmanas

12. Which one of the following Buddhist sects insists on the necessity of the monastic life, worship of the relics of Lord Buddha, attain ment of salvation by oneself alone and in the belief that Lord Buddha will no more be born? (a) Hinayana (b) Mahayana (c) Vajrayana (d) Lamaism

Jainism

13.

The Jain temples known for the finest marble carvings in India are situated at

(a) Gwalior

(b) Kiradu

(c) Modhera

(d) Dilwara

14.

Which of the following kings of ancient India were patrons of Jainism?

1. Srenika Bimbisara 2. Chandragupta Maurya 3. Kharavela Choose the answer using the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3

Bhagavatism and Brahmanism

15. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) Balarama 1. Battle axe (B) Rama Dasarathi 2. Dwarf (C) Kalki 3. Bow and arrow (D) Vamana 4. Horse and sword Codes: 5 ABCD (a)

1 243 A B C D

(b)

2314ABCD

(c)

1 342 A B C D

(d) 3142 16. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Visvanatha 1. Puri Vasudeva 2. Madurai Minakshi 3. Kasi Eknamsa or Bhadra 4. Mathura Codes:

ABCD (a)

2 1 34 A B C D

(b)

3 1 24 A B C D

(c)

3421ABCD

(d)

2 34 1

Maurya Empire

17. Which one of the following formed the basis of the material culture in the Maurya period? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Intensive use of iron Abundance of punch-marked coins Plenty of NBPW Use of burnt-bricks (5) Use of ring-wells

Select the answer by using the codes given below: (a) 1,2, 3 and 5

(b) 1,3 and 4

(c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1,2, 3, 4 and 5 18.


(a)

Fourteen Major

(b)

Seven Pillar

(c)

Bhabru inscription

-- Various Principles Rock Edics

-- Appendix to Rock Rock Edicts

Edicts

-- New Administration by Asoka

(d) BarabarCave -- Asoka's Inscription Tolerance

of Dhamma


Trade and Commerce

19.

During the Gupta period the term Bhagakara meant

(a) land tax

(b) sales tax

(c) tax on waste lands (d) tax on mines 20. Which one of the following can be inferred from the paucity of coins in the later Gupta period? (a) Decline of trade (b) Decline of money economy (c) Non-availability of gold (d) Self-sufficient village economy 21. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B)

Setthi 1. Gold coin Sreni 2. Bronze and copper coin

(C) (D)

Nikkha 3. Chief of a guild Kamsa 4. Guild Codes:

A

B

C

D

(a)

3

4

2

1A

B

C

D

(b)

4

3

1

2A

B

C

D

(c)

3

4

1

2A

B

C

D

(d)

4

3

2

1

Agrarian Structure

22. Which one of the following statements is not true of the post-Gupta agrarian structure? (a)

It was marked by the emergence of landed intermediaries

(b) (c)

It saw the growth of subject peasantry It was rooted in the absolute royal ownership of land

(d)

There were growing evidences of agrarian expansion

23. Which of the following are marked by the agrarian structure in the post-Gupta period? 1.

Large-scale grants of land in different parts of India

2. Undermining of communal rights over land 3. Subjection of peasants Select the answer by using the codes given below j (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3

(d) 1,2 and 3

24. Which of the following statements explain the j aspects of Feudalism in Ancient India? 1.

The king granted lands to his officers in lieu j of salaries

2.

The work of cultivation was carried out by] sudra peasants

3.

Some of the powerful feudatories had their j own sub-feudatories

Choose the answer from the codes given below: j (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3

800-1200 ad and Cholas

25.

In the early medieval period, the system of land grants did not exist in

(a) Orissa

(b) Uttar Pradesh

(c) Punjab

(d) Rajasthan

Changes in the Social Structure

26.

The place at which the first Sati pillar dated 510 ad was found is

(a) Eran

(b) Chotegaon

(c) Lothal

(d) Dangvada

27. Which one of the following ancient Smritikaras gave the widow a position next to that of the son in the matter of inheritance? (a) Yajnavalkya

(b) Manu

(c) Brhaspati (d) Katyayana

Vedic Culture

28. To which category can works such as Jyotisha Vedan'ga and Surya-Prajnapti be assigned? (a) Cosmology(b) Astrology (c) Astronomy (d) Horoscopy


29. Which one of the following places is known for its monumental temple architecture? (a) (b)

Arikkamedu Amaravati

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1998) wsftt

(c) (d)

Gangaikondacholapuram Uttirainerur

Which one of the following Chaityas is circular? (a) Bhaja (b) Bidsa (c) Junnar

(d) Karle

-1200 ad and Cholas

|1. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List II Temples built by the Chandela rulers List I (A) Ajanta

1.

(c)

4 1 52 ABCD

(d)

3 4 52

Agrarian Structure

33. Who among the following had referred to the lost glory and splendour of Pataliputra? (a) Cosmas

(b) Fahien

(c) Huien Tsang

(d) Megasthenes

Maurya Empire 34. Who was the Provincial Governor of the area marked 'X' at the time of Chandragupta Maurya?

I (B) Ellora

2. Cave paintings

(C) Khajuraho

3. Kailasha temple

(D) Elephanta 4. Brahmanical sculptures Codes: ABC D (a) 2 3 1 4 ABC D (b) 2 4 1 3 ABC D (c) 1 34 2 ABC D (d) 3 2 1 4 32. Match List 1 with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: Listl List II (A) Rudramal Temple 1. Khajuraho (B) Kandareya 2. Bhuvaneswar Mahadeva Temple (C) Udayesvara Temple 3. Kanchipuram (D) Lingaraja Temple 4. Siddhapur 5. Udaipur Codes: ABC D (a) 3 1 4 2 ABC D (b) 4 5 3 1 ABC D /

(b) Pushyagupta (d) Rudradaman

(a) Menander (c) Tushaspha

Trade and Commerce

35. The earliest inscription in Sanskrit is found at (a) Sanchi (b) Gimar (c) Lumibini (d) Sarnath


36.

Before the Ghorian conquest Muslim rulers were found in

(a) Oudh

(b) Katehar

(c) Sind

(d) Delhi


37.

Evidence regarding Chola paintings has been found at

(a) Uraiyur

(b) Puhar

(c) Thanjavur (d) Kanchipuram 38. What is the correct chronological order in which the following Chola kings ruled? 1. Rajaraja III 2. Rajendra III 3. Rajadhiraja II

4. Vikrama Chola

Choose the correct answer by using the codes given below: (a) 4, 3, 2, 1

(b) 3, 4, 2, 1

(c) 3,4,1,2

(d) 4,3, 1,2


39. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Deccan State) (Founder) (A) (B) (C) (D)

Bidar 1. Yusuf Adil Shah Ahmadnagar 2. Qutub Shah Bijapur3. Amir Ali Barid Golcunda 4. Malik Ahmad Codes:

A

B

C

D

(a)

1

234 A B

C

D

(b)

4

3

2

1A

B

C

D

(c)

3

2

1

4A

B

C

D

(d)

3

4

1

2

Delhi Sultanate

40.

Which one of the following Sultans brought the Ashokan pillar to Delhi?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 41.

Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq Fimz Tughlaq Ala-ud-din Khilji Muhammad Tughlaq The Delhi Sultan who established a ministry of agricultural development was

(a) Balban (b) Muhammad Tughlaq (c) Ala-ud-din Khilji (d) Firoz Tughlaq 42. Which of the following measures were t Balban for re-establishing the presti power of the Crown? 1.

He claimed his descent from the mt here Afrasiyab

2. 3. 4.

He copied the court etiquettes of the ( Court He instituted rigid formalities in the I He reorganised the boundaries of pn of the kingdom

Select the correct answer by using the < given below: (a) 2 and 3

(b) 1 and 2

(c) 3 and 4

(d) 2 and 4 ;)|

43.

In the Delhi Sultanate, the highest rural i ity for land revenue was

(a) Chaudhari (b) Rawat

(c) Rana

(d) Malik

44. The fixation of land revenue on the measurement of land and estimation of .y per biswa was done first under (a) (b) (c) (d) 45.

Ala-ud-din Khilji Muhammad Tughlaq Firoz Shah Tughlaq Sikandar Lodi Amir Khusrau composed his Nuhsip praise of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Ala-ud-din Khilji India Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti Prophet of Islam


46. The Vijayanagara Emperor who made greatest contribution to Telugu and Sanskrit) erature was (a) Devaraya I (b) Devaraya II (c) Krishnadevaraya (d) Ramaraya 47. The Vijayanagara ruler who tried to streng his military position by recruiting in his an 10,000 Muslim mounted bowmen, was (a) Bukka I

(b) Devaraya II

(c) Virupaksha Raya (d) Vir Narsimha 48.

The chronological order in which the follc foreign travellers, viz.

1. Nicolo Conti

2. Abdur Razzaq

3. Ibn Batuta 4. Barbosa


(b) 3,1,2,4 (d) 1,3,2,4 visited India is: (a) 1,3,4,2 (c) 3, 1,4,2

Islamic Culture

9. The following Sufi Silsilas (orders) 1. Naqshbandi 2. Chishti 3. Qadiri, and 4. Suhrawardi appeared in India at different times. Their chronological order is: (a) 4,2,3, 1 (b) 2,4, 1,3 (c) 2,4,3, 1

(d) 4,2, 1,3

f 50. Which one of the following medieval Bhakti saints was patronised by Raja Lakshman Sen of Bengal as one of the 'Five Gems' of his Court? (a) Vallabhacharya (b) Jaidev (c) Chaitanya (d) Narsi Mehta

[Mughal Empire

51.

According to Moreland, the jama signified

(a) (b) (c) (d) 52.

total revenue assessment total land revenue assessment land revenue realised net income of the ruling class In the Mughal Empire, the land revenue was stated mainly in

(a) Copper dams (b) Silver rupees

(c) Goldmuhrs (d) Maunds 53.

Consider the passage given below:

"No one should interfere with the people's religious beliefs, for no one deliberately chooses an incorrect religion." This view was expressed in (a) advice to Bughra Khan (b) advice to Humayun (c) letter to Shah Abbas (d) message to Khusrau 54. Which of the following accounted for agrarian crisis during the late seventeenth century? 1. 2. 3. 4.

Inbuilt weaknesses in jagir system Monetary fluctuations Natural calamities Administrative failure Choose the correct answer by using the codes

given below: (a) 1 and 2

(b) 3 and 4

(c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4 55. Which one of the following sets of officers was not found in the Provincial Administration of the Mughals? (a) (b) (c) (d) 56.

Subehdars, Faujdars, Karoris Faujdars, Diwan, Bakhshi Muhtasib, Wazir, Amil Wazir, Bakhshi, Mir Saman Which one of the following pairs is not matched?

(a) 1560 Fall of Bairam Khan (b) 1564 Conquest of Gondwana (c) 1570 Fall of Ranthambor (d) 1576 Battle of Haldighati 57. The first English Captain to disembark at Surat and who also visited the Court of Emperor Jahangir at Agra was (a) Thomas Stephens (b) Hawkins (c) Ralph Fitch

(d) John Mildenhall

58. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using, the codes given below the lists: List I (Period) (A)

1645 ad

(B) (C) (D)

1637 ad 1630 ad 1666 ad Codes:

List (I (Event) 1.

2. 3.

4. 5. Aurangzeb was appointed Viceroy of Deccan Gujarat famine Transfer of capital to Shahjahanabad Death of Shahjahan A 3 A 3 A 4 A

B 1 B 1 B 3 B

C 5 C 2 C 1 C

D 4 D 4 D 2 D

1 3 2 5 Capture of Kangra fort

(a) (b)

(c)

(d) 59. Which one of the following statements is not correct? (a)

The vakil was a prestigious office in rank and dignity

(b)

Akbar separated the revenue and Financial powers from the office of vakil


(c)

Office of vakil assumed importance during the later part of Aurangzeb's reign

(d)

Jahangir ruled without a vakil for a long time

60. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (a) (b) (c)

Arif Qandahari Nizamuddin Ahmad Abdul Qadir Badaoni

TarikhiAkbari TabaqatiAkbari Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh (d) Mutamad Khan Khulast-ut Tawarikh 61.

Khwaja Mansur, the court painter of Jahangir was a celebrated painter of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 62.

portraits of birds and animals portraits of Mughal nobles landscapes frescoes Khwaja Abdus Samad was the court painter of

(a) Babur

(b) Akbar

(c) Jahangir

(d) Shahjahan

63. The Fatawai Alamgiri compiled at the order of Aurangzeb In 1663 by six persons headed by Shaikh Nizam, was a

(a) book of administrative rules (b) set of military regulations (c) set of religious regulations (d) collection of sayings of Aurangzeb 64. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was imprisoned by (a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Jahangir

(d) Shahjahan

65. The statement that "both Agra and Fatehpur Sikri are bigger than London" was made by (a) Bernier (b) Ralph Fitch (c) Hawkins

(d) Manucci

Marathas

66.

The author of the Das Bodh written during the Maratha period was

(a) Dadaji Konddeva (b) Ramdas (c) Tukaram (d) Eknath 67. Who among the following sons of Aurangzeb sought the help of Marathas against his father? (a) Akbar (b) Muazzam (c) Azam

(d) Kambakhsha

68. Match List I with List II and select the answer by using the codes given below the I List I List II (Officials in Shivaji 's (Designation) administration) , (A) (B) (C) (D)

Amatya 1. Ecclesiastical I Dandadhyiksha 2. Home : Sachiv 3. Foreign: Sumant 4. Finance Mink Codes:

ABCD (a)

1 432 A B C D

(b)

4123ABCD

(c)

4132 A B C D

(d)

1 423

European Commerce

69. As a part of dowry on the marriage of I Catherine of Braganza with Charles I, I was given to the British by the (a) French

(b) Danes

(c) Spaniards (d) Dutch 70. During the 17th Century, the trade India and Java was dominated by the (a) Portuguese (b) Dutch (c) English (d) French 71. In the given map, the largest port of the I Empire in the 17th Century was the one shown!

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1998} ifM

(a) A (c) C (b) B (d) D

[Decline of Mughals: Autonomous States

72. The effects of revenue reforms introduced by Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal raised the annual revenue to nearly (a) eighty lakh rupees (b) one and half crore rupees (c) one crore rupees (d) two crore rupees 73. Which of the following territories were restored to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II by the English? (a) 24 Paraganas (b) Kara and Allahabad (c) Bihar and Orissa (d) Avadh and Orissa

Marathas

74. Which one of the following statements cor rectly defines the term Hindu PadPadshahi? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Maratha Swarajya Maratha Empire Maratha Imperialism Hindu Swarajya

Decline of Mughals: Autonomous States

75. In the succession conflict after Ranjit Singh's demise, power was usurped by (a) Dhian Singh (b) Nao Nihal Singh

(c) Sher Singh (d) Kharag Singh 76.

Consider the following statements about Tipu Sultan:

1. 2. 3. 4.

He made no treaty with the British He had no quarrel with the Marathas He sought French alliance He fell fighting against the British Of these statements

(a) (b) (c) (d) 77.

1,2 and 3 are correct 2, 3 and 4 are correct 3 and 4 are correct 1 and 4 are correct Raushan Akhtar ascended the throne with the title

(a) Jahandar Shah (b) Shah Jahan II (c) Mohammad Shah (d) Alamgir II EICO and Bengal Nawabs

78. What was the main cause of conflict between Mir Qasim and the East India Company? (a)

Mir Qasim's alliance with the Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Oudh

(b) (c) (d)

Abuse of Dastaks by the English Mir Qasim's conspiracy with the French Mir Jafar's. conspiracy with the East India Company

79.

Siraj-ud-daula lost his Masnad because of

(a) (b) (c) (d) 80.

his weak army his religious policy widespread economic distress intrigues and treachery at home What is the correct chronological order of the following British officials in India?

1. Sir John Shore 2. Marquis Cornwallis 3. EariofMinto 4. Marquess of Wellesley Select the answer using the codes given below: (a) 2, 1,4,3 (b) 1,2,3,4

(c) 1,2,4,3

(d) 2,1,3,4

81. Which one of the following statements correctly describes the Dual Government arrangement made by the East India Company in Bengal? (a)

Executive and judicial authority were separated

(b) Revenue collection was entrusted to the deputy nawab, while military affairs were retained by the Company (c) Revenue administration and the administration of criminal justice were separated and were with the British and the Nawab respectively (d)

The new arrangement was made to encourage agriculture

British Economic Impact

82.

The economic policy of the British in India was to

(a) (b) (c)

industrialise India bring India to the level of Western countries promote the material prosperity of the Indians

(d)

convert India into an agrarian satellite of metropolitan capitalism


83. Which one of the following Acts abolished the trading rights of the East India Company? (a) Regulating Act of 1773 (b) Charter Act of 1813 (c) Charter Act of 1833 (d) Charter Act of 1853 84. Under the Permanent Settlement, the zamindar's share in the collected land revenue was (a) 1/4 (b) 1/3 (c) 1/11

(d) 1/6

85. Foreign capitalists were attracted by Indian industry for a variety of reasons. Which one of the following reasons was not one of them? (a) (b)

Labour was extremely cheap Raw materials were readily and cheaply available

(c)

Indian capitalist class was well developed but unable to compete

(d)

For many Indian products there was a ready demand the world over

Freedom Struggle

86. Who among the following was not a member of the Congress Socialist Party, although he encouraged and blessed its formation? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Achyuta Patwardhan Jawaharlal Nehru Jayaprakash Narayan Acharya Narendra Dev

1857 Revolt and Other Popular Movements

87.

Rani Gaidiliu, a rebel leader against the British, was from

(a) Tripura

(b) Assam

(c) Nagaland (d) Manipur 88. was

The author who described the Revolt of 1857 as the 'First War of Independence'

(a) Ashok Mehta (c) S N Sen

(b) R C Majumdar

(d) V D Savarkar


89.

The-Widow Remarriages Act was passed dur ing the Governor-Generalship of

(a) Bentinck

(b) Dalhousie

(c) Canning

(d) Lawrence

90. Match List I with List II and select the answer by using the codes given below lists: List II Observed tha Brahmoism; become a universal relic Identified Hinduism with I religion as f in the Vedas Emphasised I there are mart roads to God Proclaimed 1 the purest I Hindu religion was to be I in Upanlshads List I (A) Raja Rammohan 1. Roy

(B) Keshab Chandra 2. (C)

Dayanand Saraswati

(D)

Ramakrishna Paramahansa

3.

4. Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

A 1 A 1 A 4 A 4

B 4 B 4 B 1 B 1

C 2 C 3 C 3 C 2

D 3 D 2 D 2 D 3

Freedom Struggle

91. The cultural background of Revolution Terrorism in Bengal had been strengthened I the writings of (a) Michael Madhusudhan Dutt (b) Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar (c) Bankim Chandra Ghattopadhyay (d) Rabindranath Tagore Trade Union Movement

92. The Bombay Mill Hands' Association of 1£ was the first of a kind of trade union in IndiaH was founded by (a) Sadipada Banerjee (b) N M Lokhanda ' (c) M N Roy (d) S M Joshi

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1998) w*

or Caste Movement?

93. The lower castes tried to assert themselves by borrowing arid imitating customs and manners of the upp^r castes. This was termed as Sanskritisation by (a) M K Gandhi

(b) Bernard Conn

(c) B R Ambedkar (d) M N Srinivas

Freedom Struggle

94. In the elections of 1937, the Muslim League's electoral performance in-the Muslim majority provinces such as Sindh, Punjab and North West Frontier had been (a) extremely good (b) very good (c) good (d) very poor 95. Subhas Chandra Bose fought the Congress Presidential elections in 1939 on the ground that (a) (b)

he did not like the nomination of Sitaramayya he pleaded for elections instead of nominations

(c) (d)

he was opposed to Gandhiji he favoured an aggressive policy which was opposed by the Congress leaders

96. During the later half of the nineteenth century, the Indian intelligentsia started protesting against the policies of the colonial rule by varied ous means. Which one of the following was not a part of that protest? (a) (b)

Writing books and articles on the subject Publishing newspapers for articulating their views

(c)

Forming societies, associations and organisations to voice their grievances

(d)

Resorting to armed resistance

EICO

97.

Lord Macaulay was associated with

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Reforms in the army Abolition of sati Codification of laws Permanent Settlement

Freedom Struggle

98. was

The President of the Indian National Congress at the time of Indian independence

(a) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (b) Jawaharlal Nehru (c) Dr Rajendra Prasad (d) J B Kripalani 99. Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood because of (a) (b)

Jallianwalla Bagh tragedy brutal suppression of Civil Disobedience Movement

(c) execution of Bhagat Singh (d) Chauri Chaura incident 100. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

A O Hume 1. "Hindus and Muslims

were two eyes of India" (B)

Sir Syed

2. Enacted Seditious Ahmad Khan

(C)

Minto 3. It Governor of East Bengal and Assam

(D)

Fuller 4. Secretary of Indian

Meeting Act

National Congress Codes: ABCD (a)

4132ABCD

(b)

1 324 A B C D

(c)

4213ABCD

(d)

4123


101.

Modernisation of Muslims in India was initiated by

(a) (b) (c) (d) 102.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Abdul Latif Badruddin Tayabji Syed Amir Ali Which one of the following pairs is nol correctly matched?

(a)

Deoband School -- Saiyyad Ahmad

Madani (b)

Majlis-i-Ahrar -- Maulana Azad


(c)

Khaksar

-- Inayat Ullah

Mashriqui (d)

Khudai Khidmatgar -- Abdul Ghaffar

Khan Reason (R): References to these schools are to be found in! Brahmanical works on | ophy.

Trade and Commerce

109. Assertion (A): Agrarian Structure

110. Assertion (A):' The post-Gupta structure is marked J ing feudal setup. Freedom Struggle

103. "There was little sympathy in spite of loud pro fessions of loyalty. Moderate and Extremist alike leamt with satisfaction of German victo ries. There was no love for Germany of course, only the desire to see our rulers humbled." Who among the following wrote this?

(a) C R Das

(b) Jawaharlal Nehru

(c) Gandhi

(d) Rabindranath Tagore

104.


(a)

Gokhale

-- British Indian

Association (b)

Narayan Malhar -- All India Trade Joshi

(c)

Annie Besant -- Servants of India Society

(d)

Dadabhai Naoroji -- Home-Rule

Union Congress

League Directions: The following 16 (sixteen) items consist of two statements, one labelled the 'Assertion A' and the other labelled the 'Reason R'. You are to examine these two statements carefully and decide if the Assertion A and the Reason R are individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answers to these items using the codes given below and mark your answer sheet accordingly. (a)


(b)


(c) (d)


Buddhism

105. Assertion (A): Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were divided into four speculative Schools, Vaibhashika, Sautrantika, Madhymika and Yogachara. Vedic Culture

106. Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Bhagavatism

107.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Maurya Empire

108.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Reason (R):

The Indo-Aryans can India from somewhere Central Asia, possibly the region south of the and east of the Caspian! They had been de their Indo-European bours.

The Bhagavata spread to western India^ northern Deccan. The YadavaSatvataV people of Mathura mig different regions.

Patanjali attests that the Mauryan times, new i and superstitions were duced for the sake of i The treasury needed adequately filled to meet| unforeseen economic* the kingdom.

The Kushanas carried i trade through the Gulf and the Red Sea.'; They maintained a organised navy. '


Reason (R): It saw the emergence of landed intermediaries and subjected peasantry on a large scale. 111. Assertion (A): Reason (R): Some Pallava grants prohibited the entry of royal officers in the granted village. The granted villages were directly administered by the king.

Changes in Social Structure

112. Assertion (A): Anuloma marriages were in vogue during the Gupta period. Reason (R): The Gupta monarchs wanted to absorb the foreigners into the Hindu fold.

Trade and Commerce

113. Assertion (A):

Pushyamitra had signalled his success by performing the Asvamedha. Reason (R): Vasumitra had inflicted a defeat on the Yavanas.

800-1200 ad and Cholas The Chola ruler Rajendra's atrocities during his conquest of Sri Lanka have been highlighted in the Mahavamsa. The author had a strong sympathy tor Buddhism.

114.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Indo-lslamic Culture The Bhakti saint Vallabha charyaprofessed Suddhavaita philosophy. He completely identified the individual soul with Brahman

115.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Mugfyal Empire 116.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 117.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

118.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Marathas

119. Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Freedom Struggle

120. Assertion (A):

Reason (R): and did not subscribe to the distinction between the two.

The agrarian crisis began in the later part of the seventeenth century. The oppressed peasantry joined the local rebel leaders and zamindars. The Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri was built by Akbar in 1602. He wanted to commemorate his conquest of Gujarat. Sulhkul, namely, peace with all became the state policy of Akbar. He removed religious disabilities of the Hindus by abolishing the pilgrim taxes, jiziyah and opening state services to them.

Jaisingh succeeded in persuading Shivaji to come to Aurangzeb's court and enter imperial services. The attempt at reconciliation failed because Shivaji was dissatisfied with the terms offered.

Soon after the resignation of the Congress ministries in the provinces in 1939, the Muslim League observed a 'Deliverance Day'. Ambedkar supported and jointed it.

ANSWERS

l.(b) 2.(d) 3.(b) 4.(c) 11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (d) 31. (a) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (b) (b)!| 41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (a) t1 51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (a) 1 61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (c) 64. (c) i 71. (c) 72. (c) 73. (b) 74. (b) 81. (b) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (c) 91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (d) 94. (d) (d) 101. (a) 102. (a) 107. (a) 108. 111. (c) 112. (c) 117. (d) 118. D82

5. 15. 25. 35.

(a) (c) (d) (b)

6.(d) 16. (c) 26. (a) 36. (c)

7.(b) 17. (d) 27. (a) 37. (c)

8. 18. 28. 38.

(a) (c) (c) (d)

9. (a) 19. (a) 29. (c) 39. (d)

45.

(b)

46. (c) 47. (b) 48.

(b)

49. (c) 50. (b)

55.

(d)

56. (c) 57. (b) 58.

(b)

59. (c) 60. (d)

65.

(b)

66. (b) 67. (a) 68.

(b)

69. (c) 70. (b)

75. 85. 95.

(a) (c) (d)

76. (c) 77. (c) 78. 86. (b) 87. (c) 88. 96. (d) 97. (c) 98.

(b) (d) (d)

79. (d) 80. (a) 89. (b) 90. (d) 99. (a) 100.

(c)

106. (c)

(a)

116. (b)

103. (a) 104. (b) 105. (d) 109. (c) 110. (a). 113.(c) 114. (d) 115. (a) 119. (c) 120. (c)

10.(d)| 20.(b)| 30.(c)1 40.

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS 1999)

Mughal Empire

1. The longest canal of its time which is still used and is most beneficial to North India was built by (a) Sher Shah Suri (b) Babur (c) Firuz Shah (d) Shahjahan 2. Manucci says that the re-imposition of Juziya was strongly opposed by a group of nobles headed by (a) Jaswant Singh (b) Jahanara (c) Rana Raj Singh (d) Shayista Khan 3. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Events) (A) (B) (C) (D)

Conquest of Malwa 1.1956 Formation of Subas 2. 1574-5 Annexation of Kashmir 3. 1580 Establishment of the 4.1586 Department of News Reporting

A B 3 1 A B 1 3 A B 3 1 A B 1 3 Codes:

(a) (b)

(Years)

C 2 C 2 C 4 C 4

D 4 D 4 D 2 D 2

(c)

(d) 4. 'Amongst his great nobels he (the king) was so predominant that none dared lift his head too high. But with the humbler classes he was benevolent and debonair, willingly giving them audience and hearing their petitions. He was pleased to accept their presents, taking them into his hands and holding them to his breast.' Consider the quotation given above and indicate who it is attributed to and who was the king referred to in it (a) (b) (c) (d) 5.

Monserrate; Akbar Tavernier; Jahangir Fitch; Shahjahan Hawkins; Aurangzeb Who among the following rulers was very pro ficient in dancing and music?

(a) Adil Shah Sur (b) Babur (c) Akbar (d) Jahangir 6.

In the Mughal Empire, the salaries of the nobles were fixed

(a) arbitrarily in each case by the Emperor (b) according to their mansab number (c) on the basis of the size of their contingent (d) on the basis of their race and competence 7. Which of the following were the main features of the imperial Mughal land revenue system? 1. 2. 3. 4.

It varied according to the crop grown It varied from region to region It varied according to farming bids received It varied according to individual contracts with village headmen

Select the answer using the codes given below: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 2

(d) 1 and 3

8.

Abul Fazl justifies the realisation of revenues by Akbar as it was the

(a) (b)

remuneration of sovereignty divine right of the king

(c)

cost of maintaining the army for the protection of borders

(d) hereditary proprietary right of the king 9. The Satnamis who rebelled in the time of Aurangzeb and occupied the town of Namaul, were followers of (a) Kabir

(b) Dadu

(c) Guru Nanak

D83

(d) Ravidas


Delhi Sultanate

10. 'So complete was the ruin that not a cat or dog was left among the buildings of the city, in its palace or its suburbs. The above statement about the transfer of capital by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq was made by (a) Amir Khusrau

(b) Isami

(c) Ibn Batuta (d) Ziauddin Barani European Commerce

13.

The founding Charter of the English East Indiaf Company was granted by

(a) Henry VIII (b) Elizabeth I (c) James I 14.

(d) Charles I

The first Danish settlement of trade at Tranqu was established in the year

(a) 1620

(b) 1630

(c) 1660

(d) 1616

Mughal Empire

11.


In the 1560's Akbar began to patronise the formation of the Mughal school of painting with the illustration of Dastan-i-Amir Hamza because 1. 2.

Akbar inherited Humayun's taste for painting Akbar was especially interested in book illustration

3.

Akbar was persuaded to take interest in painting by Abul Fazl

Of these statements (a) 1,2 and 3 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct (c) 1 and 2 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct 12. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II (Monuments) (Features) (a)

Taj Mahal

1. Extensive use of

trabeate forms (b) Fatehpur Sikri 2. Largest dome palace complex built in premodern India (c)

Gole Gumbad 3. Surrounded by

water (d)

Sher Shah's Tomb 4. Bulbous dome Codes:

A

B

C

(a)

1

432 A B

C

D

(b)

4

1

3

2A

B

C

D

(c)

1

4

2

3A

B

C

D

(d)

4

1

2

3 Marathas

D

15. Marathi chronicles were known as (a) Khyat (b) Bakhar (c) Burunji (d) Bahi 16. During the second Maratha invasion of Bengal, at| the request of the Mughal Emperor Muh Shah, who among the following came to support ti Bengal Nawab against Raghuji Bhonsle's forces?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao Nizamul Mulk Holkar Jai Singh Sawai

Delhi Sultanate

17. Match the places market A, B, C and D on I given map with the descriptions given:

/' ..'

Xi

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1999) D*5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Capital of the Sharqi kingdom Important centre of production of indigo Site of first true dome Capital of Adil Shahis The place to which Muhammad Tughluq transferred his capital

Select the answer using the codes given below: Codes: ABCD (a)

4132ABCD

(b)

2345ABCD

(c)

2135ABCD

(d)

4312


18.

The founder of the autonomous kingdom of Avadh was

(a) (b) (c) (d) 19.

Ahmed Shah Abdali Safdar-Jung Saadat Khan BurhanulMulk ZulfiqarKhan A modern arsenal was established in 1765 with French assistance at

(a) Bidnur

(b) Sera

(c) Sunda

(d) Dingigul

20. Who planted the Tree of Liberty1 at Srirangapatnam? (a) Hyder Ali Chikka Krishna Raj (c) Tipu Sultan (d) Devraj

(b)

21. Who among the following rulers of the Travancore kingdom extended his dominion, organised a stand ing army and a rational administration and encour aged foreign trade in the middle of 18th century? (a) Rama Varma (b) Zamorin of Calicut (c) Martanda Verma (d) Nanjaraj 22.

The Jat State of Bharatpur was set up by (a) Churaman

(b) Surajmal

(c) Boi Singh (d) Sawai Raja Jai Singh 23.

Which of the following are associated with Ranjit Singh?

1. 2. 3.

Sukerchakia misl and the capture of Lahore Battle of Ambala and the defeat of Lord Lake Signing subsidiary alliance with East India Company

4. Employing Faqir Azizuddin and Dinanath Select the answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4

(d) 3 and 4

Marathas

24. Who was the woman leader of the Marathas who carried on struggle against the Mughal Empire from 1700 AD onwards following the death of Raja Ram? (a) Ahalyabai (b) Muktabai (c) Tarabai

(d) Rukminibai

25. The Maratha who helped the Sayyad brothers in overthrowing Fanikh Siyar in 1719 was (a) Shivaji II (b) Sahuji (c) Balaji Vishwanath (d) Baji Rao I

EICO and Bengal Nawabs

26.

What is the correct chronological sequence of the following rulers of Bengal?

1. Suja-ad-din 2. Murshid Quli Khan

3. Sarfaraz Khan 4. Alivardi Khan Select the correct (a) (b) (c) (d)

2, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2,

answer using the codes given below:

3, 4 4, 3 4, 3 3, 4

British Economic Import

27.

Consider the following British officers:

1. James Grant 2. John Shore 3. Warren Hastings 4. Macnaughten Those well-known in connection with the revenue settlement include (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4

(d) 2 and 3


28.


The Diwani rights assured the East India Company the power of 1. 2. 3.

levy tariffs collect land revenue administer civil justice


Of these statements (a)

29.

1 alone is correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct (c) 1,2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct The Supreme Court at Calcutta was estab lished by

(a) (b) (c) (d)

North's Regulating Act of 1773 Pitt's India Act of 1784 Charter Act of 1793 Charter Act of 1813


30. Dayal Singh Majithia was associated with 1. Newspaper 2. Education 3. Banking

4. British Army

Select the correct

answer using the codes

given below: (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,3 and 4


31.

Identify the British territories as on 1765, in the given map:

(a) 1 and 3

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 2

Revolt of 1857 and Other Movements

32.

Dewan Velu Thampi of Travancore organii the Revolt in

(a) 1800

(b) 1805

(c) 1809

(d) 1811

33.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the I

List I List II (a) (b) (c) (d)

Bhil uprising 1. 1841 Kittur uprising 2. 1844 Satara uprising 3. 1818-31 Gadkari uprising 4. 1824 Codes:

(a) A B C D 4312 (b)

A B C D 3412

(c)

A B C D 3421

(d)

A B C D 4321

34.

Which one of the following rebellions is ass ated with Sido and Kanho?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 35. and i

The Santhal Rebellion, 1855 The Kol Uprising, 1820-37 The Munda Rebellion, 1899-1900 Orissa Zamindars'Rebellion, 1804-1817 Match List I (Personalities connected with uprising of 1857) with List II (Places)

the correct answer

using the codes givenf below the lists:

List I List II (a) (b) (c) (d)

Kanwar Singh 1. Delhi Maulavi Ahmadullah 2. Bihar Mangal Panday 3. Faizabad Zeenat Mahal 4. Barrackpore

Codes: (a) A 3 (b) A 2 (c) A 2 (d) A 3

B 2 B 3 B 3 B 2

C 1 C 1 C 4 C 4

D 4 D 4 D 1 D 1

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1999) Mnr;

dine of Mughals: Autonomous States

136. Nizam-ul-mulk established the independent State of (a) Hasanpur (b) Hyderabad (c) Kandahar (d) Burhanpur

Revolt of 1857

37.

General Windham was defeated by the rebel forces in 1857 near

(a) Gwalior

(b) Agra

(c) Bhopal

(d) Kanpur


38. The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by (a) Ram Mohan Roy (b) Sir William Jones (c) W W Hunter (d) William Bentinck 39.

Satyashodak Samaj was founded by,

(a)

40.

Jotiba Phule (b) Sri Narayan Gum (c) Gopal Babu Walong (d) Bhaskarrao Jadav The Young Bengal Movement in the 19th cen tury was inspired by

(a)

Rasik Kumar Mallick

(b) Ramtannu Lahiri (c) Henry Vivian Derozio (d) Peary Chand Mitra 41. The Rajmundri Social Reform Association to encourage widow re-marriage was founded in 1871 by (a) Virasalingam

(b) K T Telang

(c) Behramji (d) Gopalachariar 42. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

Listl List II (A) Dayanand Saraswati 1. Gurukul (B) Lala Munshi Ram 2. Dev Samaj (C) Pandit Shiv Narayan 3. Anglo-Vedic Agnihotri Colleges (D) Lala Hansraj 4. Satyarth Prakash Codes: (a) A B C D 1 4 2 3

(b) A B C 4 1 3 (c) A B C 4 1 2 (d) A B C 1 4 3 43. Match List I with answer using the codes Listl (A) Digdarshan 1. (B) MiratulAkhbar (C) Statesman 3. (D) Hindu Patriot 4. (a) A B C 3 4 2 (b) A B C 4 3 1 (c) A B C 3 4 1

D 2 D 3 D 2 List II and select the correct given below the lists: List II Robert Knight 2. Harischandra Mukherjee J C Marshman Ram Mohan Roy Codes: D 1 D 2 D 2

(d) A B 4 3

C 2

D 1

Trade Union and Peasant Movements

44. In which one of the following conspiracy cases in India was an Englishman named Mr Philip Spratt tried? (a) (b) (c) (d) 45.

Lahore Conspiracy case Kanpur Conspiracy case Meerut Conspiracy case Chittagong Conspiracy case Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association (ATLA) was founded by

(a) Mridula Sarabhai (b) N M Joshi (c) VV Giri (d) M K Gandhi 46. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Punnapara Vayalar

1.

(B) (C) (D)

Tebhaga movement 2. Telengana movement 3. Eka movement 4.

UP movement Kerala Bengal Andhra


List II Muslim I

Forward Block! Indian Ne Congress Congress Socialist Party!

Codes: (a) A B C D 4 2 3 1 (b) A B C D 3 2 4 1 (c) A B C D 2 3 4 1 (d) A B C D 2 3 1 4 47. Match the individuals given in List I with the movements given in List II and select the cor rect answer using the codes given below the lists-List I List II (A)

Malati Choudhury 1. Surma Valley

no-rent struggle (B)

Karuna Sindhu Roy 2. Utkal Provincial

Kisan Sabha (C) Bhagwan Singh

3. Patiala Muzara Longowalia

(D) Yadunandan Sharma 4. Bihar Kisan Sabha Codes: (af A B C D 1234 (b) A B C D 2134

Movement

(c)

A B C D 2143

(d)

A B C D 1243

Freedom Struggle

48.

What is the correct chronological order of the following movements of Gandhi?

1. Rowlatt Act agitation 2. Kheda movement 3. Champaran movement 4. Ahmedabad Mills strike Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Codes: (a) (b)

(c)

3, 2, 4, 1 3, 2, 1, 4 2,

3,

1, 4

(d)

2, 3, 4, 1 49. Har Dayal, Baba Hamam Singh Tundilat, I Sohan Singh 'Bhakna' and Gurdit Singh ' associated with (a) (b) (c) (d) 50.

India Independence League Nowjawan Bharat Sabha Ghadar movement Akali movement What is the correct chronological sequ the following events?

1. 2. 3. 4.

Guru-ka-Bagh agitation Vaikom Satyagraha Kakori case Nehru Report Select the correct answer using the given below:

Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d) 51. Comri

1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 4, 3 2, 1, 3, 4 2, 1, 4, 3 'We have now an open conspiracy to free I country from foreign rule and you, and all our countrymen and countrywomen i invited to join it.'

Who among the following made this decla tton? (a) M N Roy (b) Jayaprakash Narayan (c) Subhash Bose (d) Jawaharlal Nehru 52. How many seats were given to the 'de classes' under the Communal Award Poona Pact? (a) (b) (c) (d) 53.

74 and 79 respectively 71 and 147 respectively 78 and 80 respectively 78 and 69 respectively Match list I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the li;

List I (A)

Sardul Singh 1. Kaveeshar

(B) (C)

Yusuf Meherally T. Prakasam 3.

(D)

Chowdhary

2.

4. Khaliquzaman


Codes: ' (a) A B C D 2 4 1 3 (b) A B C D 4 2 1 3 (c) A B c D 2 4 3 1 (d) A B C D 4 2 3 1 54. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List II (Authors) Birinchi Kumar Barua Fakir Mohan Senapati Visram Bedekar List! 1. (Works) 2. 3. 4. Sivaram Karanth (A) Cha Mana Athaguntha(0r\ya, 1921) (B) Jiwanara Batat (Assamese, 1945) (C) Marali Mannige (Kannada, 1942) (D)

Ranangan (Marathi, 1939)

Codes:

(a) (b)

A 1 A

B 2 B

C 3 C

D 4 D

2 1 3 4 (c) A B C D 2 1 4 3 (d) A B C D 1 2 4 3 55. Match List I (Personalities) with List II (Special interests) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

Listl (A) Shambhu Mitra (B) Ram Kinkar (C) Ravi Varma (D) Pramathesh Barua List II 1 . Painting 2. Theatre 3. Films 4. Sculpture Codes: (a) A B C D 2 4 1 3 (b) A B C D 4 2 1 3 (c) A B C D 2 4 3 1 (d) A B C D 4 2 3 1 56. Match List I (Events) with List H (Y&**0pH select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: '"' List I List II (A)

Founding of Federation 1.1938 of Indian Chambers

of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) (B) (C) (D)

Lee-Modi Pact 2. 1927 Bombay Plan 3. 1944 National Planning 4. 1934 Committee

Codes: (a) (b)

A B C D 4231 A B C D 2431

(c)

A B C D 2413

(d)

A B C D 4213

Directions The following 10 (ten) items consist of two statements, one labelled as 'Assertion A and the other labelled as 'Reason R' You are to examine these two

statements carefully and decide if the Assertion 'A and the Reason 'R' are individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answers to these items using the codes given below and mark your Answer Sheet accordingly.

Codes: (a)


(b)

Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A

(c) (d)



57. Assertion (A): Reason (R): Malik Ambar was the first to employ successfully and on a large scale the Maratha light-horse as guerrillas. He wished to weld the Marathas into a nation.


Mughal Empire

58. Assertion (A): Reason (R):

Akbar claimed divinity for himself. He thought that in a country of many beliefs such as India, the sovereign should not be associated with any one particular religion.


59. Assertion (A): The invasions of Krishna-devaraya into the territories of Prataparudra were inconclusive. Reason (R): Krishnadevaraya invaded the territories of the Gajepathi not for the latter's extinction but only for the recovery of lost territories.

British Economic Impact 60.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Maurya Empire

61.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Cottage industries and handicrafts of India flourished due to the development of railways. Railways helped movement of commodities and goods.

The Arthashastra of Kautilya provided for the office of the superintendent of trade. The State engaged in extensive trade. 62.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 63.

Assertion (A):

Trade and Commerce

The Kushanas issued a large number of gold coins. The period was marked by flourishing trade. Urban centres in the Gangetic plains declined during the Gupta period. Reason (R): Trade languished. Agrarian Structure

64.

Assertion (A): Society became increasing!)

agrarian during the post-f Gupta period. Reason (R): Small peasants could notf claim any rights to land. 65.

Assertion (A): The post-Gupta period wit]

nessed the expansion of the$ Kayastha caste in North India. Reason (R): The number of land grants1 substantially increased. 66.

Assertion (A): The Shudras were largely

peasants during post-Gupta times. Reason (R): The Vaishyas gave up agriculture completely.

Indus Civilization

67.

Which one of the following Harappan sites is NOT located in Gujarat?

(a) Surkotada (b) Rangpur (c) Sutkagendor

(d) Desalpur

68. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Mohenjodaro Lothal 2. Banawali Kalibangan

1. Twin-burials Corbelled drain 3. Furrows 4. Terracotta replica of a plough Codes:

(a)

A B C D 1234

(b)

A B C D 2143

(c)

A B C D 1243

(d)

A B C D 2134

69.

Who among the following has worked on the decipherment of the Indus Script?

(a) H.D. Sankalia (b) B B Lai (c) I Mahadevan (d) Vincent Arthur Smith 70.

The copper hoards are associated with the

(a) (b)

lustrous red ware ochre-coloured ware


(c) black and red ware (d) painted grey ware 1. Which one of the following sites contains the evidence of cemetery H culture? (a) Chanhudaro (b) Harappa (c) Mohenjodaro

(d) Kalibangan

die Culture

^2. Which one of the following statements regarding Purushasukta is INCORRECT? (a)

It occurs in the seventh mandala of the Rigveda.

(b)

It mentions the Brahmana as emanating from the mouth of the Primeval Being.

(c) (d)

It shows the rise of hierarchy. It accords religious sanction to the then emerging social structure.

73. The Vaishya is characterized as a tributary to another (anyasya balikrita) and to be eaten or lived upon by another (anyasyadya) in the (a) (b) (c) (d) 74.

Vajasaneyi Samhita Aitareya Brahmana Atharvaveda Shatapatha Brahmana Which one of the following is NOT true of women in the Rigveda?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The attended the proceedings of the Sabha They performed the sacrifice They took an active part in battles They were married before puberty

Indus Civilization

75.

Along with the 'Late Harappan' artefacts, painted grey ware has been found at

(a) Ropar

(b) Bhagwanpura

(c) Banawali (d) Daulatpur


76.

Caste is NOT characterized by

(a) endogamy (b) division of labour (c) equity

(d) heredity

77. The concept of Vamasamkara occurs first in the (a) Brahmanas (b) Upanishads (c) Dharmasutras (d) Smritis 78. The niravasita (excluded) and aniravasita (not excluded) shudras have been referred to by (a) Yaska in the Nirukta (b) Panini in the Ashtadhyayi (c) Kautilya in the Arthashastra (d) None of the above 79. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Kautilya

1. The householder should

not quarrel with a slave (B)

Manu 2. There are fifteen kinds

of slaves (C) Yajnavalkya 3. No Arya can be a slave (D) Narada 4. Nobody can be enslaved without his consent Codes: (a)

A B C D 1342

(b)

A B C D 1324

(c)

A B C D 3142

(d)

A B C D 3124

Vedic Culture

80.

Which one of the following combinations is true of the Rigvedic culture?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Nature worship, vama system, image worship Rural, pastoral, monarchical Barter system, sati system, sacredness of cow Matriarchy, monogamy, defensive weapons

Sangarn Age

81.

Which of the following characterized the Tamil society of Sangam Age?

1. 2.

Complex caste system Prohibition of intermarriage between the kings and the velalas

3. Vegetarianism among the Brahmanas 4. Gradual Aryanisation Select the answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 4 alone


82. What is the correct chronological order in which the following appeared in Tamil land? 1. Damili Inscriptions 2. Sangam Age 3. Rock-cut Temples Select the answer using the codes given below: (a) 1,2,3 (b) 2, 1,3 (c) 3, 1,2 83.

(d) 3,2, 1

The first translator of Mahabharata into Tamil was (a) Perundevanar (b) Kamban

(c) Sundaramurthi (d) Bharavi

Bhagavatism and Brahmanism

84. Who among the following was the earliest known Greek follower of Bhagavatism? (a) Demetrius (b) Antialkides (c) Heliodorus (d) Menander

Sangam Age

85.

Which one of the following pairs is NOT cor rectly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Udiyanjeral Nedunjeliyan Senganan Pari :

: Chera king : Pandya king : Chola king Pallava king

Jainism

86.

The Jain text which contains the biographies of the Tirthankaras is known as

(a) Bhagavati Sutra (b) Adi Purana (c) Kalpasutra (d) Uvasagadasao

Buddhism

87.


In the second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali, Buddhism was divided into 1. Sthaviravadins 2. Mahasanghikas 3. Vajrayana 4. Kalachakrayana. Of these statements (a) (b) (c) (d)

1,2,3 and 4 are correct 1,3 and 4 are correct 2, 3 and 4 are correct 1 and 2 are correct Bhagavatism and Brahmanism

88.

The earliest epigraphical evidence Bhagavatism in India comes from

(a) (b) (c)

Ghosundi Stone inscription of king! Besanagar inscription of Heliodorus Nanaghat Cave inscription of Satavahana queen Naganika

(d) Mehrauli Pillar inscription of Chandra ' 89. That Bhagavatism first grew up around;! Yamuna in Mathura district is evident fromi account of (a) Justin

(b) Arian

(c) Megasthenes

(d) Strabo

Trade and Commerce

90.

Which one of the following is NOT true off punch marked coins?

(a) (b) (c)

They are the earliest extant coins in In They bear stamps of more than one pu Symbols of different types are repres on them

(d) They always bear inscriptions of the is 91. Which one of the following objects of Roman r ufacture has been most abundantly found in In (a) Pot-sherds (b) Bronze icons (c) Lamps (d) Coins

Maurya Empire

92.

Four sites have been labelled as A, B, C andf in the given map


Inscription detailing Samudragupta's con quests in the South has been found on an Ashokan Pillar at the site labelled (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D 93. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List II (Nature of their work) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Courtesans Wandering spies Secret emissaries Stationary spies

D 1 D 2 D 1 D 2 List I (Type of spies) (a) (b) (c) (d) (A)

Gudhapurushah

(B) (C)

Samsthah Sancharah (D) Rupajivah Codes:

B 3 B 4 B 4 B 3 C 2 .C *1 C 2 C 1 A 4 A 3 A 3 A 4 94. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List II (Their capitals) List I (Names of the territories) 1. 2. 3. 4. Tosali Pataliputra Takshashila Ujjayini (a) (b) (c) (A)

Uttarapatha

(B) (C) (D)

Avantirattha Prasti Kalinga Codes:

A 4 A 3 A 4 A 3 B 3 B 4 B 3 B 4 D2D 1 D 1 D2 C 1 C 2 C 2 C (d) 1 95. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: * List I List II (Kings who presented gifts (Gifts) to their contemporaries) (A) Sandrocottus

1. 80 talents of

stamped silver

(B)

Seleucus

(C)

Ambhi

2.

Alargeportqei of Ariana

3.

Sweet wine and dried figs

4.

500 elephants (D) Antiochus (I, Soter) Codes:

(a)

A B C D 2413

(b)

A B C D 2431

(c)

A B C D 4213

(d)

A B C D 4231

96.

The medium of exchange prevalent during the Mauryan period was

(a) Kapaddaka-purana (b) Churni (c) Pana (d) Dinara

Trade and Commerce

97.

What is the correct chronological sequence of the following?

1. 2. 3. 4.

Geography of Ptolemy Ctesias' account of India Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopllustes Pliny's Natural History Select the correct answer using the codes

given below: (a) 4,2,3, 1

(b) 2,4,1,3

(c) 2,4,3,1

(d) 4,2,1,3

98.

In his account, Fa-hien does NOT refer to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

peace and order in the Middle kingdom severity of criminal justice Chandalas as social outcastes vegetarianism of the common people


99.

Which one of the following is NOT true of the Rajputs?

(a)

Their rise was an important social phenomenon of the early medieval period

(b) (c) (d)

They comprised the ruling and warrior chiefs They were a landed aristocracy The Medas were denied entry to their ranks


Agrarian Structure

100. Which one of the following rulers granted land to high officials for their maintenance? (a) Bimbisara (b) Chandragupta Maurya (c) Ashoka (d) Harshavardhana


101. Who among the following had written a treatise on fanciful technological devices? (a) Bhoja

(b) Govindaraja

(c) Chandravarman (d) Mahipala 102. Which one of the following communities of peas ants revolted against the Pala rulers of Bengal? (a) Jats (b) Gurjaras (c) Kaivartas (d) Doms 103. A very important source for the political struc ture and social conditions of Gujarat from the 9th to the 13th centuries is the text known as (a) Rajatarangini (b) Panchatantra (c) Lekhapaddhati (d) Sukraniti 104.

The Chola inscriptions are found in the follow ing languages:

1. Sanskrit

2. Telugu

3. Tamil

4. Kannada

Their correct sequence in terms of the extent of which they were used (most frequent first, least frequent last) is (a) 1,3,4,2

(b) 3, 1,4,2

(c) 1,3,2,4

(d) 3, 1,2,4

105. Match the temples in List I built by the Chola monarchs with the places in List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

The Koranganatha 1. Tiruvalisvaram Temple

(B)

The Rajarajeswara 2. Dharasuram Temple

(C)

The Airavatesvara 4. Srinivasanallur . Temple

(D)

The Shiva Temple 4. Tanjore Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3412

(b)

A B C D 3421

A 4 A 4 B 3 B 3 D 1 D 2 C 2

C 1 (c) (d) 106.

The capital-seat Gangaikondacholapuram \ founded by

(a) Rajendra I (b) Rajaraja the Gn (c) Kulottunga I

(d) Parantaka


107.

Which one of the following pairs is con matched?

(a) (b)

Krishnadevaraya : Manucharita Bukka I : Vaidikamanc avartaka

(c) (d) 108. came i

Allasanipeddanna : Amuktamalyada Gangadevi : Amarasataka Abdur Razzaq who left a detailed account i the Vijayanagara Empire in Persian, the Vijayanagara court as the envoy of Mil Shah Rukh during the reign of

(a) Harihara II (b) Bukka II (c) Deva Raya II (d) Krishnadeva Ray 109.

What was the nature of the Nagaram set) ments in South India?

(a) (b)

Villages inhabited by peasant castes Villages settled and dominated by combHJ nations of traders and merchants

(c) (d)

Villages granted to the Brahmanas Villages having the local administrative un

Delhi Sultanate

110.

The territorial revenue assignment in the Delhlf Sultanate was known as

(a) tuyul

(b) milk

(c) iqta (d) jagir

111.

Sultan Alauddin Khalji claimed land revenue on '.

(a) one-fourth of the produce (b) two-thirds of the produce (c) one-half of the produce (d) two-fifths of the produce 112. Which one of the following was the reason for : the great rebellion in Doab against Muhammad Tughluq? (a) (b)

Transfer of capital from Delhi Issue of token currency

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 1999) 095

(c)

113.

Increase in rural taxation (d) Enslavement of rural population Yahiya Sirhindi, the author of TarikhiMubarakshahi lived during the period of

(a) Lodis

(b) Sayidds

(c) Tughluqs (d) Khaljis 114. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (C) (D)

Silver tanka 1. Alauddin Khalji (B) Diwan-i-Kohi 2. Feroze Tughluq Dar-ul-Shafa 3. lltutmish Shahan-i-Mandi 4. Muhammad Tughluq Codes:

(a) A B C D 4321 (b) B C D 3412 (c) B C D 3421

A

A

(d) B C D 4312

A

115. 'When he attained kingship, he was quite inde pendent of the rules and orders of the shariat.' Ziauddin Barani made the above statement regarding ( (a) lltutmish (b) Alauddin Khalji (c) Mubarak Khalji (d) Muhammad Tughluq


116. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Author) (A)

(Works)

Minhaj Siraj 1. TarikheFiruz

Shahi (B) (C) (D)

Amir Khusrau 2. Tajul Ma'asir Hasan Nizami 3. Khazainul Futuh Shams-i-Siraj Afif 4. TabaqatiNasiri

Codes: (a) A B C D 3 4 2 1 (b) A B C D 3 4 1 2 (c) A B C D 4 3 1 2 (d) A B C D 4 3 2 1 117. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq is marked by (a) a bulbous dome sloping walls (c) the absence of marble (d) high towers

(b)

118. Who among the following were prominent members of the Nirguna cult of Bhakti Marg? 1. Kabir 2. Nanak 3. Raidas

4. Mira

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2, and 3 (c) 1,3, and 4 (d) 1,2, 3, and 4


119. Which of the following places were captured by Krishnadevaraya from Prataparudra? 1. Raichur

2. Udayagiri

3. Penukonda 4. Kondapalli Choose the answer using the codes given below: (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3

(d) 2 and 4


120. Which one of the following Sufi saints saw the rule of seven Sultans but visited the Court of none? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki Baba Farid-ud-din Chishti Shaikh Nizamuddin Chishti Nasiruddin 'Chiragh' Delhi

ANSWERS

1.(c) 2. 11. (c) 12. 21.(c) 22. 31. (d) 32. 41. (a) 42. 51. (c) 52. 61. (c) 62. 71. (b) 72. 81. (d) 82. 91. (d) 92. (d) 101. (a) 107. 111. (c) 117. D96

(c) (d) (a) (c) (c) (b) (a) (a) (a) (b)

3.(d) 13. (b) 23. (c) 33. (b) 43. (c) 53. (c) 63. (a) 73. (c) 83. (a) 93. (c)

4. (a) 14. (a) 24. (c) 34. (a) 44. (c) 54. (c) 64. (b) 74. (d) 84. (c) 94. (b)

5.(b) 15. (b) 25. (c) 35. (c) 45. (d) 55. (a) 65. (a) 75. (b) 85. (d) 95. (c)

6.(b) 16. (b) 26. (a) 36. (b) 46. (c) 56. (b) 66. (c) 76. (c) 86. (c) 96. (c)

7. 17. 27. 37. 47. 57. 67. 77. 87. 97.

(c) (c) (d) (d) (a) (c) (c) (c) (d) (b)

8. (a) 18. (c) 28. (b) 38. (b) 48. (a) 58. (b) 68. (b) 78. (d) 88. (b) 98. (b)

102. (b) 112. (b)

(c) 103. (c) 104. (d) 105. (b) 108. (c) 109. (b) 110. (c) (c) 113. (b) 114. (c) 115. (b) 118. (b) 119. (d) 120. (c)

9.(b) 19. (d) 29. (a) 39. (a) 49. (c) 59. (d) 69. (c) 79. (b) 89. (c) 99. (d)

10. (d) 20. (c) 30. (b) 40. (c) 50. (a) 60. (d) 70. (b) 80. (b) 90. (d) 100.

106. (a) 116. (d)

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS lOOo)

ughal Empire

1.

Babur established Mughal rule In India through this victory in 1526, over

(a) Rana Sanga

(b) Sikandar Lodi

(c) Daulat Khan Lodi (d) Ibrahim Lodiv^ 2.


Hemu, who was defeated at the Second Battle of Panipat by Akbar's army, was a 1. minister and general of Adil Shah. 2. trader or Baniya by birth. 3. governor of Agra. 4. general of Sikandar Shah. Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? (a>1 and 2 (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 3.

(d) 1 alone

In the Mughal empire, the unit of land revenue assessment was

(ay individual peasant (b^village (c)

pargana

(d) zamindar

4. The painter of the Mughal school particularly celebrated for his paintings of birds, animals and flowers was (a) Bichitr

(b) Miskin

(& Abdus Samad (d) Mansur 5.

Babur introduced in India,

(a) (b)

the art of Persian painting royal court poetry ($r four-square gardens

(d)

buildings with sloping walls


6.

The earliest surviving building in India contain ing a true dome is the

(a) Gol Gumbad (bÂrhai Din ka Jhopra (c) Tomb of Sultan Garhi (d) Alai Darwaza Mughal Empire

7.

The largest Mughal period bridge in India was built in Akbar's time at

(a) (b) (c)

Delhi (Barapula) Jaunpur Jajau ( Nurpur


8.

The Turks brought with them musical instru ments

(aJ^Rabab and Sarangi ,(b) Sitar and Flute (c) (d)

Veena and Tabla Tanpura and Mridanga

Mughal Empire

9.

Consider the following professions:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Spinning Weaving Weeding and transplanting Rubble making and carrying bricks and plaster, materials

Which of the above professions were largely carried on by women workers in Mughal India, as is evident from the Mughal miniatures and glossaries? (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (0^1,2 and 3

(d) 3 and 4

10. The contemporary source that provides statistical data immensely valuable to the study of economy of the Mughal Empire is the (a) TabaqatiAkbari (W AiniAkbari (c) (d) 097

TuhfahiAkbarshahi Badshahnama


11. Match the places marked as A, B, C and D on the given map with the descriptions given below:

*

1.

Buddhist University functioning until the 13th century.

2.

Site of famous temple built in the form of a chariot.

3. 4.

Site of important diamond mines. Site of battle of Samugarh where Dara Skikoh was defeated by Aurangzeb.

Select the answer using the following codes: Codes:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

A 4 A 3 A 4 A 2

B 3 B 1 B 2 B 3

C 1 C 4 C 3 C 1

D 2 D 2 D 1 D 4

Marathas

12.

The cavalry of Shivaji was known as

(a) Risala

(b) Sir-iNaubat

(&> Bergir

(d) Paga

Mughal Empire

13.

Bahadur Shah I did NOT

(a) (b)

abolish Jazia release Shahu (c) restart playing Holi at the court (d> support the practice of sati

14.

Zakat under the Mughals signified

(a) (b) (c)

a tax on trade amounting to 2y% of vali war booty land tax on Muslims amounting to 10%j produce

(d) tax imposed on non-Muslims 15. The complaint that lakhs had been colle under Jaziya but hardly anything reached 1 imperial treasury was made by which one i the following historians of Aurangzeb's reign? (a) Muhammad Kazim (b) Isardas Nagar | (c) KhafiKhan (d) Bhim Sen


16.

In the Battle of Takkolam

(a) the Cholas defeated the Rashtrakutas (b/the Rashtrakutas defeated the Cholas (c)

the combined forces of Cholas andf Rashtrakutas defeated the Chalukyas

(d) 17.

the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas Consider the following statements about tem-| pies built by Cholas:

1. The earliest Chola temple dating from 10th| Century is the one at Dadapuram in South j Arcot. 2. The huge Chola temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda-Cholapuram are marked by their lofty towers. 3.

The later Chola temples have mighty gopu-rams or gateways.

Which of the above statements are correct? (a) None (b) 1 and 2 (c>2and3 18.

(d) 1,2 and 3

Ramanuja was obliged to leave Srirangam owing to the hostility of

(a) (b) (c)

Rajaraja Rajendra Choladeva I Adhirajendra (dj^Kulottunga I

Delhi Sultanate

19. Firuz Tughluq may be said to have brought about the decline of the Delhi Sultanate because he (a) conducted a very large number of military campaigns

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2000) 099

(b) spent too much money on canals (§} allowed nobility to become hereditary (d) provoked peasant rebellions by his oppression

rlarathas

[ 20. Match the places marked as A, B, C and D on the given map with the descriptions given below:

3. Film 4. Painting D 1 D 2 D 1 D 2 (C)

Rukmini Devi Arundale

(D)

Allauddin Khan Codes:

B 4 B 3B 3 B 4 (a)

A3

(b)

A4

(# A 4 A 3 (d) 22. Consider the following pairs of authors and their works: 1. Munshi Prem Chand : SozeVatan 2. Sri Sri : Desa Caritralu Kalindi Marthanda Varma 3. Rabindranath Tagore 4. C V Ramana Pillai Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1,2 and 4 (tf,2 and 3 (d) 1,3 and 4 23. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

1. 2. 3.

Capital of the Peshwas Place where Kabir lived Famous centre of production of chintz (printed cloth)

4. Famous site of early medieval sculpture Select the answer using the codes given below: Codes:

(a) A 2 (bT A 3 (c) A 1 (d) A 3

B 1 B 1 B 3 B 4

C 4 C 2 C 2 C 1

D 3 D 4 D 4 D 2

Freedom Struggle

21. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Gaganendranath 1. Hindustani Tagore

(B)

Devika Rani 2. Classical dance

classical music

List 1 List II (Buildings) (Architects) (A) Victoria Memorial 1. Herbert Baker Hall, Calcutta (B) Central Secretariat, 2. W Emerson New Delhi (C) Gateway of India, 3. R F Chisholm Mumbai (D) Madras University 4. George Clarke Senate House, Chennai Codes: (a) A BC D 213 4 J>f A B C D 123 4 (c) A B C D 2 1 4 3 (d) A BC D 1 2 4 3 24. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B)

Condition of India 1. Edward Thompson Mother India 2. E M Forster


List II, Quit India "I Movement^ RIN revolt

Indian I Army Quit India Movement In Satara (C) Farewell to India 3. India League (D) Passage to India 4. Katherine Mayo Codes: (a) A B C D 2143 (bj, A B C D

"V (c)

25.

3 4 1 2 A B C D 3 1 2 4 A B C D 4 2 1 3 Consider the following events:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cabinet Mission Plan Bombay Plan Wavell Plan Mountbatten Plan The correct chronological order of these

(d)

events is ^2,1,3,4

(b) 2,1,4,3

(c) 1,2,3,4

(d) 1,2,4,3

26.

Consider the following events:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Cripps Mission Quit India Movement Individual Satyagraha August Offer The correct chronological order of these events is

(a) 4, 3, 2,1

(b) 4, 3, 1,2

(c/3,4, 1,2

(d) 3,4,2,1

1857 Revolt and Other Movements

27.

"Indian War of Independence, 1857" was writ ten by

(a) S N Sen

(b) R C Majumdar

^J^V D Savarkar

(d) S B Choudhuri

Freedom Struggle

28. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

FazllHusain 1. Shahid Suhrawardy Ibrahim Rahimtullah Abdul Bari 4.

Bombay 2. U.P. 3. Punjab Bengal Codes:

B 2 B 1B4B3 C 3 C2C1 C 2 D1 D 4D2 D 1 (a)

(b)

W (d)

29,

Match List I with List II and answer using the codes given I

List I LIstR

(A)

P S Sivaswami 1. Me Iyer

(B)

Munnuswami 2. National I Naidu

(C) (D)

Madeleine Slade 3. Justice I Narasimha 4. Industry Chintamani

Fe

(a) (b) (c/ (d) Codes: A B C D 1 2 34 A B C D 3214 A B C D 2.3 1 4 A B C D 4321 30. 1

Match List I with List II and select the < answer using the codes given below the

List! (A)

Prati Sarhar and

(B)

Mohan Singh and 2. Niranjan Singh Gill

(C)

B C Dutt

(D)

Jatiya Sarkar and 4. Vidyut Vahini

Codes: A 1 {bTA 4 (c) A D 4 D 1 D B 3 B 3 B C 2 C 2 C (a)

1. Nyayadan Mandal

3.


2 3 1 BCD 234 with List II and select the correct (d) 4 A 1 Match List I 31. answer using the codes given below the lists:

List 1 List II (A) Bardoli Satyagraha 1. Swami Sraddhananda Saraswati (B) Indian Kisan School 2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (C) Bengal Praja Party 3. FazlulHuq (D) Bakasht struggle 4. N G Ranga Codes: (a) A B C D 2 3 4 1 (b) A B C D 2 43 1 ^; BC D 3 12 4 (d) A B C D 4 32 1 32. Consider the following events: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Round Table Conference II Formation of Congress Socialist Party Dandi March Ordinance Rule of Willingdon The correct chronological sequence of these

events is (a) 1,3,2,4

(b) 3,1,2,4

(c) 3,1,4,2

^,3,4,2

33. Match List I (events) with List II (Years) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Lahore session of the Indian 1. 1928 National Congress adopting

puma swaraj (B)

Formation of Naujawan

2. 1931 Bharat Sabha

(C) Karachi session of the Indian 3. 1927 National Congress adopting Fundamental Rights (D) Brussels conference against 4. 1929 Colonialism and Imperialism

Codes: (a) A B C D 1 2 3 4 49 A B C D 4 1 2 3 (c) A B C D 4 3 2 1 (d) A B C D 3 2 4 1 34. Match the personalities in List 1 with the cases in List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Prafulla Chaki 1. Lahore Conspiracy

Case (B) (C)

Sukhdev 2. Kakori Case Ashfaqullah Khan 3. Chittagong armoury raid case

(D)

Ganesh Ghosh 4. Bomb assault in

Muzaffarpur, 1908 Codes: (a)

A B C D 1 432

(b)

A B C D 4132

ê>-A B C D 1 B 4 4 A 1 3 D 3 (d) 2 C 2

Trade Union and Peasant Movements

35.


1. Girni Kamgar Union 2. Surma Valley peasant movement 3. Tuticorin strikes 4. Guruvayur temple entry jatha 5. Jaito Morcha The correct chronological order of these events is (a) 3,5,4,2,1 (b) 5,3, 1,4,2 (c) 3,5,1,4,2

(jj#*5, 3, 2, 4, 1

36. Who among the following was the president of All India Trade Union Congress in 1929? (9) M N Roy (t>f SADange (c) (d)

Jayaprakash Narayan Jawaharlal Nehru


List II 1. Gadkaril 1844 2. Faraizi Movement, 1838 and select the correct given below the lists: List II . Vaikom Satyagraha Tinnevelli Conspiracy case The Hindu Progressive Improvement Society Self-Respect movement 37. Match List I with List II answer using the codes List I (A)

Vanchi Iyer

1

(B)

T K Madhavan 2.

(C) Srinivas Pillay 3.

(D) E V Ramasami 4 Naicker Codes:

(a) A B 2 4 (b)/ A ^ 3 2 C 4 D 1 (c) A B 2 1

C 3 B

D 1

C 3

D 4

(d) A B 1 2

C 4

D 3


38. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

Listl List II (A) Tattvabodhini 1. Debendranath Sabha Tagore (B) DarulUlum 2. Ganesh Vasudev Deoband Joshi (C) Delhi-Urdu 3. Rashid Ahmed Renaissance Gangohi (D) Sarvajanik Sabha 4. Zaka Ullah Codes: iaK-A B C D 2 4 3 1 (b) A B C D 1 3 4 2 (c) A B C D 2 1 4 3 (d) A B C D 12 3 4 39. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) Bhagat Jawahar 1. Wahabi Movement Mai

(B) (C)

Vilayat All 2. Sayyid Fadl 3. (D) Khoodi Mallah 4. Codes: ;
(a) A 2 (b) A 1 (cXA 2 (d) A

B 1 B 2 B 1 B

C 4 C 3 C 3 C

D 3 D 4 D 4 D

1 lists:

2

4

3 40. Match List I with List II and i answer using the codes gh

List I

(A) (B)

(Individuals) Baba Ramsingh

Mirza Ghulam Ahmed 1. 2. (Mos Satyl Dh% Maz< Sabf (C)

Mukund Das 3.

The Movi

(D)

Naoroji

Furdunji

4.

The'

M/\\/i IVIWV1 Codes:

B C

(a) A 3 (b) A 4 (c) A ôTA 2 1D 3

B 4" B 3 B 3

C \ C 1 C

D 2 D 2 D

4

2

1

1857 Revolt and Other Movements

41. Match List I with List II and select the < answer using the codes given below the I Listl

(A)

Chinnava

(B)

Haji Shariatulla


(C) Alluri Sitaram Raju (D) Krishna Daji 3. Rampa Uprising, 1922 4. Kittur Uprising, Pandit 1824 Codes: (a) A B C D 423 1 (b) A B . C D 234 1 (c) A B C D 1 43 2 ( b c D 324 1 42. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List! List II (A) James Outram 1. Delhi (B) John Nicholson 2. Lucknow (C) Colin Campbell 3. Jhansi (D) Hugh Rose 4. Kanpur Codes: (a) A B C D 1 23 4 (b) A B C D 2 14 3 (c) A B C D 2, 1 3 4 (dlXA B C D '/ 1 2 4 3 43. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes

given below the lists:

List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Nana Sahib 1. Delhi Nawab Hamid All Khan 2. Kanpur Maulavi Ahmadullah 3. Awadh Mani Ram Devan 4. Assam Codes: (b)

(c)/ (d) (a) A 1 A 1 A 2 A 2

B 2 B 2 B 1 B 1

C 4 C 3 C 3 C 4

D 3 D 4 D 4 D 3 Trade Union and Peasant Movements

44. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (Acts) (Year) (A) Bombay Trade Disputes 1. 1936 Conciliation Act \JB) The Payment of Wages Act 2. 1934 (C)

Bombay Industrial

3. 1946 Disputes Act

(D)

Bombay Industrial

4. 1938 Relations Act

Codes: (a) A B C D /2 1 4 3 ty( A BCD 1234 (c)

A B C D 1243

(d)

A B C D 2 134


45. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C)

Tata Iron and Steel Company 1. 1915 Bengal Iron and Steel 2. 1907 Company Tata Hydroelectric Power 3.1889 Supply Company

(D)

Katni Cement Company

4. 1910 Codes:

(a)/A BCD ^ 2 3 4 1 (b)

A B C D 3214

(c)

A ,£ C D 2314

(d)

A B C D 3241

46.

Consider the following Famine Commissions in India:

1. 2.

MacDowell Commission Lyall Commission


3. Campbell Commission 4. Strachey Commission The correct chronological order of the appoint ment of these Famine Commissions is (a)3,4,1,2 (b) 3. 4, 2,1 (c) 4,3,1,2

(41)4,3,2,1

47. The Bombay Survey System, introduced in the Bombay Presidency and British Gujarat, was framed by (a) James Grant (b) Sydenham Clarke (c) Sir John Shore {dy&. Wingate and Goldsmid 48.


1. Between 1757 and 1857, north India witnessed important economic developments as a consequence of its linking with the metropolitan economy via Calcutta and the Ganges river system signified by the growth of towns. 2. There was a decline in the employment opportunities among artisans in the luxury trade with the disappearance of the Indian courts with a marginal impact on the econ omy as a whole. 3. In the Punjab, Kashmir and Rajasthan, changes were slower and less dramatic than those in the Ganges valley as distin guished by inconspicuous development in urbanization. Whidjeof the above statements are correct? <$Hand3 (b)2-and3 (c) 1 and 2

^\, 2 and 3

El Co and Bengal Nawabs

49.


1. Comwallis Code 2. North's Regulating Act 3. Pitt's India Act The correct chronological sequence of these events is (a) 3, 2, 1

(b) 2, 3, 1

(c) 1,2,3

4$/2, 1,3

50. of

Ghasiti Begam, Shaukat Jang, Rajballabh and Yar Latif Khan were sore enemies

(a) (b)

Nawab Alivardi Khan Nanda Kumar (c^Sirajuddaulah (d) Shujauddaulah

51.

Which one of the following i stituted the anti-British front inl

(a) Nizam, Mysore, Berar aneM (b) Nizam, Berar, the Rohilas i (cX^The Marathas, Mysore, I (d) Mysore, the Marathas, the Berar 52.

The British East India Cc zamindar in Bengal after renting t

(a)

Govindpur, Sutanati and kg ^b>^Chandranagar, Sutanati and K|

(c) Chandranagar, Sutanati and< (d) Kolikata, Govindpur and I 53. Which one of the following did the Charter Act of 1833? (a)/fhe East India Company lost i of China trade. (b) The territorial possessions oft were left in its control for a furl twenty years in trust for His I (c)

The number of Directors of the.')! was reduced from 24 to 18 of v

to be the nominees of the Crown.'

(d) The superintendence, direction i of the whole civil and military tion of the Company's ten vested in the Governor-General of I Council having four members.


54. Who among the following rulers of the! century introduced new systems of coinage and weights and measures, i disciplined standing army, removed cesses, built up modern arsenal and | sericulture and trade? (a) Ranjit Singh

(b) MjrQuasim

(c) Saadat Khan

(dl/npu Sultan

55.

Consider the following personalities:

1. SurajMal

2. Charhat Singh

3. Budh Singh 4. Badan Singh Those connected

with the kingdom Bharatpur included

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4

(d)/fand4


Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A A is true but R is false A is false but R is true 56. In the given map, certain areas have been labelled as 1, 2, 3 and 4. As on 1805, the British territory included areas labelled as

?

(B>-1,2and3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 1,2, and 4 57. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Hyderabad 1. NizamulMulk Bengal 2. Alivardi Khan Avadh 3. Saadat Khan Travancore 4. Martanda Varman Codes:

(a)

A B C D 2134

(b)

A B C D 2143

(c)

A B C D 1243

^dXA BCD 1234

Directions: The following 13 (Thirteen) items consists of two statements, one labelled the 'Assertion A' and the other labelled the 'Reason R'. You are to examine these two statements carefully and decide if the Assertion A and the Reason R are individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answers to these items using the codes given below and mark your answer sheet accordingly. Codes: (a)

(b)

(c) (d) 58. Assertion (A): Reason (R): 59.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 60.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

61. Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 62.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

63.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 64. Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 65. Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 66. Assertion (A): In south india, agriculture was the principal occupation of the Megalithic people. They introduced tank irrigation. Rigveda was never a popular text. It was a ritual text. The Buddhist nuns were under the supervision of the .monks. There was a special code for the nuns called the Bhikkunipatimokkha. The Jainas follow the practice of worshipping images of Tirthankaras. They denied the existence of a Supreme being. Bhagavatism became popular in the Gupta period. Gupta rulers were great devotees of Krishna. Varieties of coins bearing legends in Greek and Brahmi have been discovered from North-Western India. India carried out extensive trade with the Greek world. Varnasanskara was greatly favoured by the authors of Dharmsastras. It helped in the proliferation of mixed castes. Nizamuddin Auliya approved the conduct of a Sufi in releasing his woman slave and allowing her to return to her Hindu parent. This was strictly i.n accordance with the Muslim law. Alauddin Khalji imposed price control in Delhi.

Indian History: Revision 71. Match the sites A Burzahom, B Chirand, C Nagarjunakonda and D Paiyampalli with their locations marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the given map and select the correct answer using the following codes: Codes: (a) A B C D 1 2

4 3 BCD 234 BCD 1 4 BCD 324

D106 Reason (R): 67.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

68.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 69.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): 70.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R): (c) (d)

Indus Civilization

He wanted to pay lower wages to artisans building his palaces in Delhi. The first split in the All India Trade Union Congress took place in 1929. The Great Economic Depression resulted in differences of opinion among the AITUC leaders.

Akbar's official historian Abul Fazl neither gives the prices of slaves nor does he mention slave markets. Akbar prohhibited slave trade in his empire. The direct result of Shah Alam's farman (1765) was the establishment of the Dual Government in Bengal. The famine of 1770 was the result of misrule by the East India Company through Shitab Rai and Raza Khan. The Treaty of Amritsar was signed between Ranjit Singh and East India Company on 25th April, 1809. Ranjit Singh wanted to expand his empire with the help of the Company.

"I

8,

v-72. The granary discovered at Harap located (a> within the citadel (d) in the 'Lower town' (c) near the river Ravi (d) beside the western gate of the city'lf 73. A scene reminiscent of the well-known 1 "The Clever Fox" from the Panchs depicted on a pot from an Indus site. Tntf was discovered from -(a) Harappa (b^xCothal (c) Chanhudaro

(d) Kalibangan

74. Archaeological evidence from Katpalon, Dhadheri and Bhagwanpura indk that the late Harappans and the Painted Ware using people (a) never lived together (bjxdame into contact, but never lived together"' (c)

came into contact, but lived in different settlements in the same area

(d)

came into contact and lived in the same settlements

Vedic Culture

75. Two versions known as the white and the black are available in the (a) Rigveda and Yajurveda j(b^ Yajurveda alone (c) (d)

Samaveda and Atharvaveda Atharvaveda alone


76. The Vedic term Rta stands for the (a) moral order (b)^ seasons (c) priest (d) debt

Sangam Age

77. List I contains names of scholars and List II, the chronology, each has suggested for Tamil Sangam literature. Match the two lists and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B)

S Vaiyapuri Filial 1. 300 bc to 300 ad K A Nilakanta 2. 500 bc to 500 ad Sastri

(C)

V R Ramachandra

(D)

N Subrahmanian 4. 1st ad to 300 ad Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3421

(b)

A B C D 1324

3. 300 ad to 500 ad Dikshitar

(^/A BCD (d) 4312 A B C D 3 124 78. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Kurinchi

food producing

1. Cattle rearing and

(B)

Mullai 2. Fishing and salt

manufacturing (C)

Marudam

3. Hunting and food

gathering (D)

Neydal 4. Food producing

and hoarding Codes: (a)

A B C D 3124

(b)

A B C D 3142

(cy A B C D V2314 (d) A B C D 1423 79.

In Tamil poetry, the agam group of poems

(a) (b)

dealt with love was in praise of kings .^cX-was in praise of nature

(d) was in praise of Lord Siva

Religious Movements

80. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A)

Shramanas 1. Known for kindness

and mercy (B)

Upasakas 2. "Space-clad"

(C)

Digambaras 3. Ascetics of unorthodox sects

(D)

Bodhisattvas 4. Lay worshippers Codes:

1 C 2 C 2 3 A 3 A 4 4 B 4 B 3 2 D 1 D 1 (a) A B C D 4312 /(bJ/A BCD

(c) (d) 81. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Sanchi Stupa 1. Kanishka Pagoda at Purushapura 2. Kharavela Hathigumpha inscription 3. Asoka Shinkot inscription 4. Menander 5. Antialkidas Codes:

(ay/A BCD V 3 2 4 1 (b)

A B C D 3124

(c)

A B C D 4152

(d)

A B C D 5324

82. Excepting two Jaina Tirthankaras, all the others mentioned in tradition are mythical. The two exceptions include (a) Santinatha and Vardhamana


(by Parsvanatha and Vardhamana (c) Santinatha and Adinatha (d) Parsvanatha and Adinatha 83. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C)

Ajivikas 1. "Free from Bonds" Arhants 2. "Ford makers" Nirgranthas 3. "A community of religious men"

(D)

Tirthankaras 4. "Worthy" or "Conqueror" Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3214

(b)

A B C D 4321

(c)

A B C D 3412

(d)

A B C D 2134

Maurya Empire

84.

Which one of the following statements is not found in Megasthenes' Indica?

(a)

"India produces fruit and grain twice a year"

(b)

"Indians neither invade other men, nor do the other men invade the Indians"

(eJXThe Indian tribes number in all 118" (d) "The skins of gold-mining ants are like those of leopards" 85.

The tree-in-railing symbol appears in (ajxthe seals of Harappan culture

(b) (c)

the pottery from Buddhist centres the punch-marked coins of the Mauryan age

(d) 86.

The copper plates of the Gupta dynasty Consider the following scripts:

1. Brahmi

2. Kharoshthi

3. Greek

4. Aramaic

Scripts used in Asokan inscriptions include (a) 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1,2 and 3
The Mauryan king who wanted a Soph Greece in his court was

(a) Chandragupta (fyxBfndusara J (c)

Asoka (d) Kunala

88.

Which one of the following sculptures NOT belong to the Mauryan period?

(a) (b)

Samath lion capital Dhauli elephant

(d)

Rampurva bull

tj| (cj/Standing Buddha from Mathura

Religious Movements

89.

Consider the following vaisnavite concep

1. Chaturvyuha 2. Paftchavrismvira 3. Dashavatara The correct chronological sequence of' concepts is 4ft 1,3, 2 (b) 1,2,3 (c)

3,1,2 (d) 2,1,3

90.

Match List I with List II and select the answer using the codes given below the I

List I List II

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Acharanga sutra Anguttara nikaya Pancharatra samhita Vajasaneyi samhita

1. 2. 3. 4.

Vedic Bha Jaina Buddhist a| Codes:

(a) A B C D 4312 (b)/A BCD ^3421 (c)

ABCD3412

(d)

A B C D 43 2 1

91. Match List I with List II and select the corn answer using the codes given below the! lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Rock-cut Rathas Kailasa Temple Brihadisvara Temple Parvati Temple

1. 2. 3. 4.

Ellora Mahabalipuram Nachnakuthara Tanjavur


Codes: (a) A 1 A 1 A

B 2 B 4 B

C 4 C 2 C

D 3 (b) D 3 (c). D

2 A 2

4 B 1

3 C 4

1 (d) D 3 Codes:

A 4 A 1 A 3 A 4

B 2 B 3 B 1 B 1

C 1 C 4 C 4 C 2

D 3 (b) D 2 (c) D 2 , D 3

/

(a)

N/

Trade and Commerce

92.

Evidence of Roman trade with South India is available from the excavations at

(a) Arikamedu and Kanyakumari (tyf Alagangulam, Arikamedu and Kodungallur

(c) Arikamedu and Alagangulam (d) Kanyakumari and Kodungallur 93. "The Periplus of Erythraean Sea" bearing on India's trade in the early centuries of the Christian era was written by (a) Rolemy

(b) An unknown author

(tjKPIiny

(d) Strabo

94. Which one of the following statements is not true in respect of some features associated with the production of commercial goods in the post-Mauryan period? (a) Considerable technological advancement was reached in the production of commer cial goods (b) Production and distribution of commercial goods was organised effectively through gujJds (c)/The producers worked under rigid state control (d) The guilds used hired labour for production 95. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I (Ports) (A) (B) (C) (D) List II

Barygaza Muziris Sopara Suvamabhumi

(Location) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Malabar coast Present day Mumbai coast The eastern coast of India At the mouth of the Narmada river

Maurya Empire

96.

Consider the following rulers:

1. Bimbisara 2. Chandragupta Maurya 3. Asoka 4. Rudradaman Who among them are associated with the Sudarsana Lake? (a) 1 and 3

(b) 2^Mid 4

(c) 1,2, 3 and 4

<^2, 3 and 4

Agrarian Structure

97. Consider the following inscriptions of Marsha: 1. Nalanda 2. Gaya 3. Banskheda 4. Damodar The inscriptions which record Marsha's land-grants to religious institutions would include
(d) 2 and 4

98. Match List I (the types of land mentioned in early medieval land-grants) with List II (the type of land) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List 1 List II (a) Kshetra 1. House site (b) Khila 2. Forest land (c) Audakabhumi 3. Barren land (d) Jangalabhumi 4. Cultivable land 5. Marshy land

Codes: (a) ABC D v413

5

(b) ABC

D

L


(c) (d)

2 A 4 A 1

3 B 3 B 3

1 C 5 C 5

4 D 2 D 2

3 99. The early copper plate grants of the Pallavas are in " (a) Sanskrit (b) Prakrit (ci/Tamil (d) Telugu


100.

Which one of the following statements about untouchability is not correct?

(a)/It was widely practised in the Indus Valley \s civilization (b)

The Rigveda does not show any acquaintance with it

(c)

It is clearly referred to in the Buddhist Jatakas

(d)

It came to be applied to several castes only in the post-Gupta period

101. The Mitaksara Commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti, an important source of Hindu law, was written by (a) Apararka (b) Kulluka (eyVijnanesvara

(d) Visvarupa

102. The following Chinese travellers visited India: 1. I'tsing 2. Fahien 3. Wang-Hieun Tse 4. Huen Tsang The correct chronological order of their visit is ^^2,4, 1,3 (b) 4,2,3,1

(c) 4,2,1,3

(d) 2,4,3,1

103. Which one of the following inscriptions refers to the invasion of the Hunas during the reign of Skandagupta? (a) Mathura (b) Bhitari (O/Junagarh

(d) Sanchi

Religious Movements

104. Match the sites marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the given map with the following monuments: (A) (B) (C) (D)

Buddhist stupa Cave temples Jaina temple Vaikunthanathaperumal temple N

2 5 Select the correct answer using given below: Codes: D 1 D 2 D 2 D 1 .*$$ (a)

A B C 432

(b)

A B C 4 3 1 tejÂ B C

341 (d) A B C

342


105. List I contains the names of eletiMB grants from early medieval South hufili Ill II contains the recipient of each. Match*! lists and select the correct answer iofcB codes given below the lists: (m List I LlstB J (A) Devadana 1. Centre of il (B) Brahmadeya 2. Sangha "™| (C) Pallichanda 3. Priest '<;m (D) Salabhogam 4. Temple 1 5. Brahmana i Codes>'-.m la) A B C D :a| 45 2 1 ."3$ (b) A B C d -:
Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2000) Mtf

-40) A B C D 3451 106. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List I List II (A) (B) (C) (D)

Paramars 1. Gujarat Chalukyas 2. Modern Uttar Pradesh Senas 3. Bengal Gahadavalas 4. Malwa Codes:

(a)

A B C D 4213

(b)

A B C D 1432

(C) A B C D 3124 M/A BCD ^4 1 32 107.

Consider the following statements: Alberuni's Kitab-ul-Hind is

1. 2. 3.

a sympathetic study of Indian Civilization. mainly a political history of India. critical of Mahmud Ghaznavi's plundering raids of India.

4.

mainly a study of India's cultural, social and Intellectual history.

Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? (a) 1,3 and 4 ^H and 4

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 4 alone

Delhi Sultanate

108. The minister in charge of organisation of mili tary contingents In early Delhi Sultanate was known as (a) Sadrus Sudur

(b) Rawatiarz

(c) Naib-i-mumlikat ^dÂmiriKohi 109. Who among the following historians does not give information on Alauddin Khalji's price con trol measures? (a) Ziya Barani

(b) Ibn Batuta

(c^/linhaj Siraj (d) Amir Khusrau 110. The Muslim conqueror who continued to issue coins with the figure of a Hindu Goddess was (aj/Qutubuddin Aibak (b) Babur (c) Mohammad Ghori (d) Mahmud Ghaznavi 111.

Alauddin Khalji levied land revenue on the basis of

(a) (b) (c)

crop sharing arbitrary assessment measurement (aêTfixed money tribute


112.

Consider the following foreign travellers:

1. NicolodeConti 2. Ferhao Nuniz 3. Barbosa . Among these travellers, those who gave a vivid description of Sati in the Vijayanagara Society included Ja^2and 3

(b) 1 and 2

(c) 1 and 3

(d) 1,2 and 3

Delhi Sultanate

113.

Consider the following pairs:

1.

Forty Turkish slaves : Successors of

lltutmish 2. 3.

Khot : Village headman Amiran-i-sada : Muhammad Tughlaq

Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? Ja^l and 2

(b) 1,2 and 3

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3


114.

The Poet Laureate of Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara was

(a) Nandi Timmanna ,^-Allasani Peddanna (c) Dhurjati (d) Bhattu Murti 115. The ruler of which one of the following Deccan Sultanates did not join the grand alliance against Rama Raja in the battle of Talikota in 1565? (a) Bijapur

(c) Golkunda (d) Bidar 116.

The revenue department of Vijayanagara Empire was known as


(bXAthavana (d) Bhandar (a) Malkhana (c) Sangarahni


117.

Which one of the following statements about Adi Granth Saheb is not correct?

(a)

It was compiled in the first decade of the 17th century

(b) (c)

It contains verses of Kabir It contains verses generally from saints of Sagun Bhakti

(dj/lt contains sayings of Baba Farid 118.

The present Vrindaban near Mathura, was identified as such by

(a/Chaitanya (b) Mira Bai (c) Vallabhacharya (d) Jiv Goswami Mughal Empire

119. In the Mughal administration I (a) Mint Master i:?«; (bJxPaymaster cum inchargen services

r ti

(c) (d) 120.

Treasurer In charge of revenue mini! Consider the following stab the Mansabdari system of the I

1. 2.

Akbar introduced the Mans Mansabdars were ranked number of zats and sawars I

3. Mansabdars were military i Which of the above statements ami (a) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) land! "f

;«| d>|

(l^fand?!

ANSWERS

l.(dT ,2^6). ucgr 1*3^ 21.7ef 22. (b) 31:(b) 32. Jj^ 41. (a) 42. (b) 51 ^r 52. (a) 61. (b) 62. (c) 71.,(t>T 72. (c) 81. (b) 82.<{bf 91. (d) 92. (c) 101.(cLJ02.(d) 111. (cT 112.ja)

3JfefT 4. (b) 1^. (d) 14, (a) 23,v(feJ 24^bf 33.^b) 34./c 43. (0X 44(a) 53. (c) 54. W 63. (b) 64. (d) 73.^ 74. (d) 83. (c) 84^T 93. ft) 94.,(e) 103. (b) 104. (t^ 113. (b) 114^

Sujrf 6,(d) 7, (a) 8.^ 15êf 164l>r 174eT 18. J^ 25.âK 26, (b) 27êf 28.M-35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. |£) 45. (c) 46.^dT 47.^ 48. (b) 55. (cJK 56. (#r 57.4df /fc8. (a) 65. (c) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c) 75. (b^ 76. (a) 77. (a) 78. (b) 85. (b) 86. 88.^-9&J& 96.^Jf 97. (c) 98. (c) 105. (a) 106A(dr 107. (a) 108. (b) 115Jbf 116. ^ 117. (c) 118. (c)

M^ 1^(c) 2K(^r 39. (a) 49. (b) 59. (c) 69. (d) 79. .(a) 89. .(d) 99. (b) 109JC) 119.^bX

toT(b) vgMb)

scufeT 40. (a) 50^ 60. (d) ^70. (c) 80. (c) 90xj^ 100. (a) 110. (c) 120^

D113

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS 1O<

Chapters 14 fr 15

1.

The first English factory in India was estab lished at

(a) Bombay

(b) Hooghly

(cJ/sWat

(d) Calcutta

Chapter 13

2.

Who among the following were the pioneers in opening oceanic trade with India?

(a) Dutch

(b) English

(c)/Portuguese (d) French

Chapter 10

3. Who among the following had observed--The Hindus believe that there is no country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no science like theirs'? / -(a) AmirKhusrau (ty/Alberuni (c) Ziauddin Barni (d) Hasan Nizami 6. Match List I (Officials) with List II (Fu and select the correct answer using the < given below the Lists:

(A)

List I Peshwa

(B)

Amatya

fl (C)

Sachiva

(D)

Sumant (a) A B 2 1

List H 1 1. General Administrate I 2. In charge of Expenditure ' *(

i 1 Income and

3. King's ,] Correspond* and Home A m 4. Foreign Affaire Codes: C 3

D 4

x(b/A 1 (c) A 2 (d) A 1

B 2 B 1 B 2

C 3 C 4 C 4

D Xy 4 D 3 D 3

Chapter 13

4. The city of Agra was founded by (a/Sikandar Lodi (b) Khizra Khan (c) Bahlol Lodi (d) Firoz Tughluq

Chapter 16

5. The common feature between Shivaji and Baji Rao-l that ensured their successes in battles was (a) (b)

Hindu Padpadshahi Support from Hindu Rajas (§}Guerrilla Warfare

(d) Organised and Trained Army Chapter 13

7. Which one of the following pairs is not correctty J matched? (a) Marco Polo (b) Nikitin ,{# Nicolo Conti (d) Barbosa : Pandyan kingdom : Bahmani kingdom : Rashtrakuta kingdom : Vijayanagara kingdom

Chapters 11 fr 12

8. The Delhi Sultan who imposed uniform rate of land tax on all, from the smallest cultivator to the rural intermediaries was

D114

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2001) I'll 15

(a) Balban (bj'Alauddin Khalji (c) Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (d) Muhammad bin Tughluq 9. Who among the following Sultans of Delhi favoured rotation of crops? (a) (b) (c)

Balban Alauddln Khalji Muhammad bin Tughluq (d)/Ffruz Shah Tughluq

Chapters 14 & 15

10. Which one of the following trading centres was not used as a sea-port by the Mughals? (a) Lahiri Bunder (c) Cambay 11.

(b^ Thatta

(d) Surat

The Aln-i-Dehsala was introduced as a method of assessment of land revenue by

(a) SherShah (toj/fikbar (c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb 12. The Timariots, Governors and Revenue Contractors, on their part reason in this manner: 'Why should the neglected state of this land create uneasiness in our minds and why should we expend our money and time to render it fruitful? We may be deprived of it in a single moment, and our exertions would benefit neither ourselves nor our children.' The above statement was made by (a) Monserrate j$P) Tavernier

(c) Manrique (d) Bernier 13. Akbar divided the empire into Subas in his (a) 18th regnal year ($f'24ih regnal year (c) 32nd regnal year (d) 40th regnal year 14. Who among the following rulers subscribed to the view that sovereignty was a divine light communicated directly from God to the emperor? (a) Alauddin (b) Babar (c) SherShah '^4$ Akbar 15.

Who among the following Jat leaders looted Akbar's tomb?

(a) Gokla

^j^r^Churaman

(c) Raja Ram (d) Ram Chehra 16.

Consider the following events: 1. Din-illahi

2. Ibadat Khana 3. Mahzar The correct chronological sequence of these events is (&£, 3, 1

(b) 3, 2, 1

(c) 1, 2, 3

(d) 2, 1, 3

Chapter 19

17.

Consider the following pairs of authors and their works:

1. Ananda Kanda : Virahini 2. V. D. Savarkar: Uttarakriya 3. Rabindranath Tagore : Ganadevata 4. Muhammad Iqbal : Bal-e-JIbril Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 2 and 3

18. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Subbarayulu Chetty 1. Veda Samaj

B.

Swami Narayana Guru 2. Upasana

Sabha C.

Raghunathaya 3. Jati Mimamsa

D.

Gajalu Lakshmanarasu 4. Crescent Chetty

Codes: (a) 2314

ABCD

(b) ABCD ,1324 &f A BCD 4123 (d) A B C D 1243 19. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Sarala Devi

1. The High Caste

Hindu Woman B.

Pandita Ramabai 2. Stree Darpan

C. Rameshwari Nehru Sabha D.

3. Kanya Hitkarini

Hukumo Devi 4. Jibaner Jhara Pata


Codes: (a) A B 4 1 (b) A B 2 1 (c) A B 4 3 (dÂ B 2 C

C 2 C 3 C 2

D 3 D 4 D 1

4 D 3 20. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Sayyad Ahmed 1. Dar-ululum Bareilvi

B.

Muhammad

C. D.

Mirza Gulam 3. TariquahiAhmed ZakaUllah 4. Delhi Urdu

Renaissance Codes: (a)

A B C D 1342

(b)

A B C D 3124

(cL^T BCD 1324 (d) A B C D 3142

Deoband

2. Barahim Qasim Nanautawi Muhammadiyah

21.

Consider the following persons:

1.

Sir Attar Singh

2. 3. 4.

Bhai Teja Singh Sohan Singh Bhakna Kartar Singh Jhabbar Who among these were not the organisers of

the Singh-Sabha Movement? (a) 1 and 4

to^3and4

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 2

Chapter 17

22.

The Confederates against Tipu Sultan in the Third Mysore War included

(a)

the Nizam, the Nawab of Carnatic and the English

(b)

the Marathas, the English and the Nawab of Camatic

(p)/fhe English, the Marathasl (d) the Raja of Travancore, f the English 23. Which one of the following forces conspired to rob the I their wealth? &| (a) Hastings and Chet Singh ® Qy Hastings and the Nawab' (c) (d) 24.

Hastings, the Nawab Singh Hastings, Chet Singh and Mirl Consider the following Generals:,

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Ventura Vansitartt Deva Singh Suraj Singh lilahi Baksh Allard im Who among these were the memb Singh's FaujiKhas'?

(a) 1,2, 3 and 4

(b) 1,3,51

^ 2,3, 4 and 5 (d) 2,4,5! 25.

Which one of the following factories* was established by the Dutch? ;v

Ja^Bandel

(b) Hooghtpf

(c)

Chinsurah

(d) Srin

26.

The main cause of the war between I and the East India Company was I over

(a) the strength of armed forces (b) the jurisdiction of courts (cyfhe realisation of revenue MS (d)

factional in-fighting in the camp of I India Company

27. The British Parliament passed the Regu Act to improve the administration of the, I India Company in the year -(ari773

(b) 1775

(c)

(d) 1855

1853

Chapter 18

28. Which one of the following pairs is not < matcjied? ^^Ryatwari Settlement : Madras (b) Permanent Settlement : Bengal

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2001) Dltt

(c)

Mahalwari Settlement : North-Western

Province (d)

Talukdari Settlement : Bombay

29.


The drain of wealth from India to England under the 'Home Charges' up till 1858 consisted of 1. payment of dividend to the proprietors of East India Company for payment to its shareholders 2. interest on public debt 3. guaranteed interest on capital borrowed for construction of railways and irrigational works 4. expenses of India Office Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1,2 and 3 <& 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1,3 and 4 ^d) 1,2, 3 and 4 30. The monopoly of the East India Company to trade with China was abolished by the Charter Act of (a) 1793 (£}X833

(b) 1813 (d) 1853

Chapter 20

31. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II

A.

Rani Lakshmibai

1. Gwalior

B.

Maulavi Ahmadullah 2. Kanpur

C.

Nana Saheb

D.

Kunwar Singh 4. Jagdishpur Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3421

3. Faizabad

(b) A B C D 1324 (c)

A B C D 2341

Â BCD 1234 32.

Which one of the following is not correctly matched?

Ja^B'hil Uprising

:

1818-31

(b) Satara Uprising : 1814 (c) Kittur Uprising : 1824 (d) Gadkari Revolt : 1844 33. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Mysore Peasants'

B.

Vizagapattam Uprising 2. 1830-31

C.

Ganjam Uprising

3. 1830-34

D.

Kurnool Uprising

4. 1835 Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3241

(b)

A B C D 2314

(c)/A BCD 2341 (d) A B C D

1. 1846-47 Revolt

3214 34.

The revolt of the Khasis against the British was led by

(a) Surendra Sai

(b) Titu Mir

(c) Birsa Munda

(dMJtirot Singh

Chapter 19

35.

Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

Famine Education Police Reforms 1,2 and 3 1. 2. 3.

Strachey Commission Hartog Committee Frazer Commission (b) (d/1 and 3

(a) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 Chapter 21


Newspapers (Incitement) 1. 1908 to Offence) Act

B.

Indian Press (Emergency 2. 1931 Powers) Act

C.

Indian Press Act

D.

Vernacular Press Act 4. 1878 Codes:

(a) A B C D 2314 (b)/A BCD

3. 1910

^24 3 1


(c)

A B C D 1234

(d)

A B C D 1243

Chapter 22

37. Which one of the following pairs of persons was hanged on the charges of assassinating English officers in England? (a) (b)

Rajguru and Sukhdev Khudiram Bose and Surya Sen (q/Madanlal Dhingra and Udham Singh

(d) Kartar Singh Sarabha and Ashfaqullah Khan 38. Who among the following was the founder of the Kljudai Khidmatgar organization? («jXtfhan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (b) (c) (d) 39.

Abdul Rab Nishtar Shaukatullah Ansari Khan Abdul Quayum Khan Consider the following individuals:

1. N. M. Joshi 2. Dewan Chamanlal 3. Shiva Rao 4. V. V. Giri Which movement, amongst the following, were all of the above associated with? (a) (b)

Communist movement Kisan Sabha movement (qXTrade Union movement (d) State People's movement

40.


1. 2.

Founding of the Swaraj Party Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

3. 4.

The Congress-League Pact The Chauri-Chaura Episode The correct chronological sequence of their

occurrence is (a) 2,3,1,4

(b) 3,2,1,4

(c)

3, 2, 4, 1

^d> 2, 3, 4, 1

41.

Consider the following leaders:

1. Balwantrai Mehta 2. J. N. Sen Gupta 3. Sardool Singh Kaveeshar 4. Sudhakar Rao Who among these were not the chief ( ers of the All-India States' Peoples' < (AISPC)? (a) 2 and 3

(b) 1,2 and 4

(c) 1,3 and 4 (ctt/2, 3 and 4

Chapter 21

42. Match List I (Authors) with List II (Books) i select the correct answer using the given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Dadabhai Naoroji 1. Satyarth i

B.

Dayanand

2. Anandamath Saraswati

C. Bal Gangadhar 3. Poverty and Un-1 Tilak British Rule in India D. Codes:

Bankim Chandra 4. Gita Rahasya Chatterji

(a)

A B C D 3412

(b)

A B C D 2134

(c)

A B C D 1342

(d)

ABCDV3142

Chapter 22

43.


1. August Offer , 2. Poona Pact 3. Third Round Table Conference 4. Communal Award The correct chronological sequence of these events is

/

(a) 4, 3, 2, 1

j(b/4, 2, 3, 1

(c) 1,2,3,4

(d) 3,2, 1,4

Chapter 24

44. Match List I (Films) with List II (Directors) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:


List I List II A.

Achhut Kanya 1. Debaki Bose

B.

Apna Ghar

C.

Dharti He Lai 3. Chetan Anand

D.

Neecha Nagar 4. K. A. Abbas Codes:

(a)

A B C D 2143

2. Himansu Rai

(b) A B C D 1243 (c) A B C D 2431 (d),A BCD ^3 1 4 2

Chapter 23

45. Match List I with List II and answer using the codes

select the correct

given below the Lists:

List I List II A.

Abdul Qaiyum Khan 1. Delhi

B.

Hakim Ajmal Khan

2. Bengal

C.

/Chaudhuri Khaliq

3. UP

4. NWFP Uzzaman

D. Fazlul Huq Codes (a) A B C D 4 1 2 3 (b) T B 1 C 3 D 2 (c) A B C D 1 4 2 3 (d) A B C D 1 4 3 2 46. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Subhas Chandra 1. India Wins Bose Freedom

B.

Abul Kalam Azad 2. Whiter India

C.

Rajendra Prasad 3. India Struggles

for Freedom D.

Jawaharlal Nehru 4. India Divided Codes:

(a) A B C D 1432

(b) A B 3 2 <^t B

C 4

D 1

1

C

4 A 4

D 2 (d) B C 1 2

D 3

Chapter 21


The Indian Jute Mills 1.1918 Association

B.

The Victoria Jubilee 2. 1884 Technical Institute

C.

The Tata Iron and

D.

The Indian Industrial 4. 1907 Commission

3.1888 Steel Company

Codes: (a)

A B C D 2314

(b)

A B C D 3241

^c]/A BCD 2 A 3 4 C 1 3 B 2 (d) 1 D 4

Chapter 22

48.

Consider the following institutions:

1. 2.

The Indian Currency (Fowler) Commission The Royal Commission (Chamberlain) on Indian Finance and Currency

3. The Imperial Bank of India 4. The Reserve Bnak of India The correct chronological sequence of the establishment of these institutions is (a) 2,1,3,4 (b)>>,2, 3, 4 (c) 1,2,4,3

IW 2, 1,4,3

49. Match List I (Congress Sessions) with List II (Resolutions) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Lahore, 1929 1. Radical Agrarian

Programme

B.

Karachi, 1931 2. National Unity


an T* C. Faizpur, 1936 D. Ramgarh, 1940 4. Purna Swaraj Codes: (a) A B C 3 1 4 (b) A B C 4 3 1 &A B C 4 2 1 (d) A B C 1 3 2

3. Fundamental Rights

D 2 D 2 D 3 D 4

Chapter 17

50. Among the locations labelled as 1, 2, 3 and 4 in given map, British territories as on 1805 included (a) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3

(b^l and 2 (d) 1 and 4

Chapter 24

51. Match List I (Hydel Power Project) with List II (Locations) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A. Salal Hydel Power 1. Karnataka Project

B.

Balimela Project 2. Jammu & Kashmir

C.

Sharavathy Project 3. Maharashtra

D.

Koyna Project 4. Orissa

Codes: (a) A B C D 4 1 2 3 (b) A B C D 2 1 3 4 (CJ/A B 4 C 1 D 3 (d) A B C D 3 4 1 2 52. Consider the following pairs: 1. Council for Industrial Research

: Shanti Swarup Scientific and '

2.

Indian Statistical : P. C. Institute

3.

Atomic Energy : H. N. Sethna >.; Commission

4.

Space : M.G.'K. Menon * Commission

Bhatnagar

Mahalanobis

Which of these pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1,2 and 4 ^ 1,3 and 4 (c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4 53.


1. J. B. Kripalani 2. Ajoy Ghosh 3. Sanmukham Chetty 4. John Mathai Who among these belong to the group of prominent opposition personalities in the initial years of Independence? (a) 1,2 and 3 (b^xl,3and4 (c) 1 and 2

(d) 3 and 4

54.


1. 2. 3.

Police action in Hyderabad Liberation of Goa Demise of Shyama, Prasad Mukherjee in Srinagar

4.

Kashmir's accession to India The correct chronological sequence of these


(b) 1,4,2,3

(c) 4, 1,2,3

(d)/4, 1,3,2

Chapter 17 55. Consider the following features:


1. Economic prosperity 2. The Diwani rights of Bengal with the British while the Nawab was responsible for Nizamat function 3. 4.

A prolonged period of famine A Sudden increase in the volume of trade in the region

Which of these characterised the 'Dual System' of government in Bengal? (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1,3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (df 1,2 and 3 Directions: The following 5 (five) items consist of two statements, one labelled the 'Assertion A' and the other labelled the 'Reason R'. You are to examine these two statements carefully and decide if the Assertion A and the Reason R are individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answers to these tiems using the codes given below and mark your Answer Sheet accordingly. Codes: (a)


(b)


(c)

A is true but R is false (ty/A is false but R is true

Chapter 4

56. Assertion (A):

«y Reason (R):

Upanishadas were compiled towards the end of the Vedic period.

The Upanishadic thought centres round the idea of soul (Atman), not sacrifice. Chapter 6

57. Assertion (A):

Chandragupta instigated \, revolt against Greek Satraps. Reason (Ry~ Chandragupta had visited the camp of Alexander.

Chapter 8 In ancient India, the status of women, idealised in literature

58. Assertion (A): and art, underwent steady deterioration through the ages. Reason (R): Though monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was often the \e? practice among the higher classes of society.

Chapter 13

59. Assertion (A): The reign of Krishnadeva Raya was the period of Vijayanagar's greatest sucV^ cess when its army was always victorious. Reason (R): Krishnadeva Raya's army and navy were trained by Portuguese generals appointed by him.

Chapter 22

60.

Assertion (A): General Dyer fired at

Jallianwala Bagh crowd wither-out any warning and till the ammunition was exhausted. Reason (R): This shooting was not only to boost the morale of the army, but also to strike terror in Punjab.

Chapter 1

61. The earliest 'man like creature', which racially differed from 'Homo sapiens', is generally known as (a) Hominid (bj-Pithecanthropus (c) Sinanthropus (d) Eoanthropus 62.

Among the four sites mentioned below, the earliest cultural phase comes from

^grfBanawali (b) KotDiji (c) Surkotada (d) Mehrgarh

Chapter 2

63. Which one of the follwing is the largest burnt-brick structure built in the entire range of the Harappa Culture?


(a/the Great Bath (b) Granary (c) Assembly Hall (d) Lothal Dockyard 64. Consider the following statements regarding the identification with Siva, of a figure repre sented on Harappan seals: 1. It is shown in the form of a Linga. ^ It is shown seated in yogic posture. £S It is surrounded by animals. 4. It is shown with a female figure identifiable with Parvati. Which of the above are correct reasons for identifying the figure with Siva? (a) 1 and 4 {£)/2 and 3 (c) 2 and 4

(d) 3 and 4

Chapter 3

65.

Consider the following representatives of dif ferent cultures:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Arretine ware Northern Black polished ware Painted grey ware Ochre coloured pottery Their correct chronological sequence is

(a) 3,4, 1,2 (b) 4,3, 1,2 (c) 3,4,2,1 (d>4, 3, 2, 1

Chapter 4

66.

Which one of the following Brahmana texts belongs to the Rigveda?

Ja>-Aitareya Brahmana (b) (c) (d) 67. are oft

Gopatha Brahmana J§atapatha Brahmana TaittirTya Brahmana In the Rigveda, the largest number of hymns /^M

(a/) Varuna

Mrtyri\

(c) Visnu

(d) Yama

68. Which one of the following has been described in the Vedic literature as a form of Prajapati? ^ Kapila

(b) Nrsirnha

(c)xVamana

(d) Varaha

Chapter 5

69.

The largest numbers of discourses delivered by Buddha were at

(a) SravastT

(b) Kausj

(c) Rajagriha >(d)-San 70.

With respect to food-discipline of J /t £ramanas, the Buddhist monks wentl

x^-beg 2. 3. 4.

accept invitation for meals accept offerings sent to the i express their wish for any pat food

Which of the above statements are i (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4 (c)

1,2 and 4

<(d><2and3'a

71.

Which one of the following char Buddhism, distinguishes it from Jainis

(a)

Non-acceptance of the authority of t Vedas

(b)

Belief in the efficacy of action -ih (c^Rejection of both extreme pleasure*)

selfmortification (d)

Attitude of non-injury towards all being»'|

72.

The doctrine of the 'manyness of reality' characteristic feature of

(a) (b) (c)

Buddhism Jainism Both Buddhism and Jainism (cO/Pisupata

73. At which one of the following places was I Jaina canonical literature codified in the fiflhif| century AD?
The king who got

a canal dug in Kalinga, belonged to the

(a) Haryanka dynasty (b) £aisunaga dynasty (c) Nanda dynasty (dj/Maurya dynasty

Chapter 6

75.

A bilingual Asokan inscription, inscribed in Greek and Aramaic, is found at

(a) Mansehra (b) PuskalavatT (c) JsahbazgarhT

(dVKandahar

76.

Consider the following sites:

A.

Hastinapur

B.

Pishtapur


C.

Ropar

D.

sVavanabelgola

Match these sites with the location labelled as 1,2,3 and 4 in the given map, and select the correct answer using the codes given below: Codes: (a) A B C D 3241 (bXA , B C D 2314 (c)

A B C D 3214

(d)

A B C D 2341

77.

Sudama cave was dedicated to

(a) Jaina monks

(b) Buddhist monks

(c)xAjTvaka saints (d) Pasupata saints 78. An intelligent appreciation of the relative val ues of different trade-routes in India is con tained in (a) Arthasastra of Kautilya (bj''Ptolemy's Geography (c) (d)

Indica of Megasthenes Pliny's Natural History

Chapter 7

79. Which one of the following poets of the Sangam age has referred to a Mauryan expe dition against a Tamil chieftain? (a) Paranar

(la/ Awaiyar

(c) llango Adigal 80.

According to tradition, the author of S//ap-padigaram is

(a) Sattan

^Kamban

(c) llango Adigal 81.

(d) Mamulanar

(d) Tiruttakkadevar

Consider the following ports:

1. Sopara 2. Barbaricum 3. Poduka 4. Muziris According to the Periplus, which of these ports were located ort the western coast? (a) 1,2 and 3 (b><2and4 (c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 82.

Coins with legends and portraits were first issued in India by the

(a) Sungas

(b) £akas

(cKlndo-Greeks

(d) Satavahanas

83. Which one of the following regions, accounts for discovery of the largest number of Roman coins? <(a)xEastern India

(b) North-Western

India (c) South India(d) Western India 84. The monsoon winds, which facilitated India's trade with the Western world irv the early cen turies of the Christian era, are believed to have been discovered by (a) Hippalus

(b) Ptolemy

(c) Pliny

(d)/Strabo

85.

Consider the following:

1. Slaves 2. Textiles 3. Spices 4. Metal objects Which of these were the most important articles of export from the Indian ports in the early centuries of the Christian era? ^) 3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4 86.

Who among the following was the expounder of the Pasupata system?

(a) Kapilesvara (cKLakulIsa

(b) Kusika

(d) Parasara

87. In the Bhagavata religion, besides Vasudeva, the most important deity was (a^âlar§ma (b) Pradyumna (c) Samba

(d) Aniruddha


Chapter 8

88.

During the Gupta age, India had maximum trade contact with

(a) Roman empire (b) Central Asia (c) South-East Asia (sj/'China 89.

The Gupta era is identical with

(a) Kalachuri era

(b) Kali era

(cJ>/Saptarsi era

(d) Valabhl era

90.

Consider the following kings:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Bhanugupta Budhagupta Kacha Purugupta The correct chronological sequence of their

rules is (a) 4,3, 1,2

(b) 4,3,2, 1

(C) 3,4,2, 1

(4^3,4, 1,2

91. Match List I (Names of kings) with List II (Texts mentioning their names) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Grahavarman 1. Rajataranginl

B.

Pusyamitra

2. Mudraraksasa

C.

Lalitaditya

3. Harsacharita MuktapTda

D.

Chandragupta 4. Malavikagnimitra Maurya

Codes: (a)

A B C D 4321

(b)

A B C D 3412

tgy A BCD 4312 (d) A B C D 3421 92. Match List I (Types of marriage) with List II (Their characteristic feature) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List I List II A.

Daiva 1. Bride's father receives a

pair of cow and bull from the bridegroom B.

Area 2. Bride is taken away by

force and married

C. Asura D. Raksasa 3. Father gives the dau0( with ornaments .f-4. Father gives daughtflfi priest | 5. Bridegroom pays the'f of the bride Codes: (a) A B C D /1 4 3 5 «/ A B C D 4 1 5 2 (c) A B C D 3 4 5 2 (d) A B C D 4 1 2 5 93. Consider the following Smrti texts (a) (b) (c) (d)

Yajnavalkya Smrti Manu Smrti Brhaspati Smrti Devala Smrti The correct chronological sequence of these

texts is i (§^1,2,4,3

(b) 2, 1,3,4

(c) 2,3, 1,4

(d) 4, 1,3,2

94. The Buddhist philosopher of Kashmiri origin, who took a leading part in propagating Mahayana Buddhism in Central Asia and China was (a) KumarajTva

(b) Asanga

(cJxVasubandhu

(d) Afls'a

95. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:

Listl List II A. Brhatsamhita 1. Magha B. Ratnavaif 2. Harsa C. KiratarjunTya 3. Varahamihira D. Sisupalavadha 4. Bharavi Codes: (a) ABC D 324 1 JW A B C D 321 4 (c) A B C D 234 1 (d) A B C D 2 31 4

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2001) -' jtf V 99. Which one of the following cominuiiHUt received special privileges during the Regency of Aliya Ramaraya? .(aJ^Brahmanas (b) Barbers (c) Weavers

(d) Artisans

Chapter 6

96. Which one of the following sites can be indentified with Samapa, an administrative centre under the Mauryas? (a) Brahmagiri £b)/
(d) Ujjain

97.


A.

Capital of Panchala kingdom

B.

Pallava town

C.

Buddhist site

D.

Harappan site

Match these sites with the locations labelled as 1,2,3 and 4 in the given map, and select the correct answer using the codes given below: Codes:

(a) A 2 (b) A 2 (c) A 1 (d)/A 2 3 4

B 1 B 1 B 2 B C D

C 4 C 3 C 4

D 3 D 4 D 3

Chapter 13

98. The Vijayanagara ruler, Krsnadev Raya's work Amuktamalyada, was in ia^Telugu (b) Sanskrit (c) Tamil

(d) Kannada

Chapter 9

100.

'Manigramam' spoken of in medieval South India, refers to

(a) (b)

place of rural labour palace of rural lords i(S)--association of merchants (d) local assembly of elders

101. The Chola kingdom was divided into the fol lowing parts for administrative purposes: 1. Kottam

2. Mandalam

3. Nadu

4. Ur

The sequence, in descending order of their sizes is (a) 1,2,4,3 (c)

(b) 2,3, 1,4

1,3,2,4 (d>x2, 4, 1,3

Chapters 11 & 12

102. An area which was relatively neglected by the Hindus, but where Muslim writers showed their skill was (a) Logic

(b) Musicology

(c) Astronomy (d)^ History 103.

Consider the following saints:

1. Sri Chaitanya 2. Lalla Dev 3. Nambi Andar 4. Tulsidas 5. Ramanuja Who among these were Vaishnavite saints? (a) 1/2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (CJ^MandS

(d) 3, 4 and 5

Chapter 13

104.


(a) Kabir

: Surdas

^(b^6uru Nanak

: Ramananda

(c) (d)

: Haridas : Namdev

Chaitanya Ramanuja


Chapter 10

105. Who among the following was^n Alvar saint? (a) Appar (h)xKulasekhara (c) Sambandar (d) Venkatanatha

Chapters 11 &12

106.

Who among the following Sufis advocated the theory of 'WahdatulShahud'?

(a) Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (b)^Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi (c) Sheikh Salim Chishti (d) Maulana Abdul Hai Chapter 13

107.

The Adi Granth was compiled during the period of

(a)

Guru Nanak Dev (b) Guru Amar Das ^(p^Guru Arjun Dev (d) Guru Hargobind

108. Squinch system in architecture for supporting the dome was used for the first time in ffi lltutmish's tomb (b) (c) (d)

Alai Darwaza Ghiyasuddin Tughluq's tomb Humayun's tomb

Chapter 10

109. The Brihadeeshvara temple was built by (a) Rajaraja (b) Rajendra Chola (c) Vira Rajendra

(df Kulottunga

Chapter 9

110. Which one of the following kingdoms of South India was well-known for its naval power? (a) Chalukya (b) Hoysala (& Chola

(d) Pandya

Chapters 11 b 12

111. Kalilah wa Dimna is an Arabic version of the (a) Brahma Siddhanta (b) Mahabharata (c) Panchatantra (
112. Match List I with List II and select the^ answer using the codes given below the f| List I A.

Aqa Riza

1. Shirin Qalam 1

B.

Ustad Mansur 2. Nadir-uzZan

C.

Abdus Samad 3. Nadir-ulAsr

D.

Mian Tansen 4. Akbar Codes:

(a) A B C D 2314 (b/ A .__B C D

(c)

3 A 2

2 B 3

1 C 4

4 D 1

List II

(d) 113.

A B C D 3 2 4 1 The Mughal emperor, who asked his paintersf to make portraits of birds, was

(a) Humayun (b) Akbar (cj/Jahangir 114. the

(d) Shahjahan

The Razmnamah is the Persian translation of I (a) Bhagavata Purana (b)^ Mahabharata

(c) Ramayana (d) Atharva Veda

Chapter 10

115.

Who among the following was a mathemati cian of the Rajput age?

(a) Vagbhata (bJ/Vachaspati (c) Haradatta (d) Bhaskaracharya

Chapters 14 & 15

116.

Who among the following rulers, was very pro ficient in dancing and music?

(a) Babar

(b) Akbar

(cj, Adal Shah Sur (d) Jahangir 117. Bnimsen's Nuskha-i-Dilkusha is a major source of information for the Mughal activities in (a) Rajasthan (b)' Deccan (c) Bengal

(d) Assam

118. Match List I (Foreign travellers) with List II (Year of visit to India) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:


120. Match List I (Authors) with List II (Literary.work) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: Listl A. Abbas Khan 1. Sarwani B. Gulbadan Begam List II FutuhatiAlamglri

Listl A. Hawkins B. Thomas C. Manucci D. Ralph Fitch (a) A B 2 1 (b) A B 1 2 (gixa" B 2 1 (d) A B 1 2 Gobind Singh? (a) (b) (c)

4. C 4 C 4 C 3 C 3

ChandidiVar Vachitra Natak Japji Sahib (d)/Zafar Nama

{/

D. Codes: (a

Roe

List II 1. 1615 2. 1608 3. 1585 1658 Codes: D 3 D 3 D 4 D 4 119. Which one of the following is not a work of Guru

C. Badauni (Mulla Abdul Qadir) Ishwardas Nagar B 4 B 4 B2B2 C 1 C 3 C 3 C 1

)A

<&f* (c) (d)

f

3. 4. D3 P 1 D 1 D 3 TarikhiSher Shahi Muntakhab-utTawarikh Humayun Namah

ANSWERS

25. (c) 35. (b) 45. (b) 55. (c) 65.

1\ft)

12.

2\ffi

22.

31. (b) 32. 41.,j(d) 42. 5Kv^) 52. 61.{bf 62. 71.jp) 72. 81/fb) 82. 91. (b) 92. t€1.(b) 102.! 111. (c)

112.

') (d) 13". (9? 23. (of E33.,£ef}, 43.Jtf) 53. (a) (d) 63. (b) (b) 73.^ t# 83. (c) iW 93. (b) W 103.^1) (a) 113. isT

34.v^d) 44. (c) 54. (d) 64^

74. (c) 84. (a) 94. (a) 104. (a) 114.^

7^ *M*f 17. (b) 18. (b) 27 Ja) 28. (d)

'&C 38' & 'W 48. (b)

5.<4 6^ 15jt^) 16.^4 26vTc) 36. (c)/ 37 46. ^J 47 58. (a) 68.^ 78. (a) 56. (b) 57. (b) 66. (d) 87. â) 88. (c) 96.^97.^ 98. ^ 107. fc) 108. M 117.$); 118. (a)

9.(c) 19. (a) 29Utf 39^ 49. (b) 5%^T 69. (a)

79. (d) 89. (d) 99. (c) 109. (a) 119. (c)

4JK(b 20, 30^ 40. (c)j -50. (c) 60. (c) 70. (d) 80. (c) 90. (c) 100.^ 110. (c) 120Jbff

D128

PREVIOUS QUESTION PAPERS TOPICWISE ANALYSIS (PRELIMS ZOO2.)

Chapters 11 & 12

1.

The Mongol invader Qutlugh Khwaja invaded India during the reign of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Balban Jalaluddm KhaljT Alauddm KhaljT Ghiyasuddm Tughlaq

Chapter 9

2.

Which one of the following is not a Chola rev enue term?

(a) Kadamai

(b) Adimai

(c) Kudimai

(d) Alkkasu

Chapters 11 &12

3.

Consider the following quote:

"No king so benevolent, sympathetic, reverent to the learned and old ever rose by his own efforts, to the cradle of empire" MinhajusSiraj said this about (a) (b) (c) (d)

lltutmish Qutbuddin Aibak Muhammad Tughlaq Raziya Sultan

Chapter 9

4.

Consider the following statements about Rajendra I:

1.

He led a military expedition to the Ganga valley.

2.

He defeated the Ceylon king Mahindra V.

3.

He sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China.

Which of these are correct? (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3

Chapters 11 &12

5. Who among the followirig officers was not a part of Alauddm KhaljT's market control system? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Diwan-i Riyasat Shahna Band DTwan-i Mustakhraj

Chapter 10

6. Al Biruni in his Kitabul Hind had particularly appreciated the Indians for a very high degree of proficiency in (a)

exchanging and communicating their knowledge

(b) (c)

raising a powerful business class construction of tanks and reservoirs at holy places

(d)

miniature paintings

Chapters 11 &12

7. Who among the following Sultans had assumed the title of Zilillah (Shadow of God on the Earth)? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Qutbuddin Aibak lltutmish Balban Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Chapters 14 & 15

8. Pandit Raj Jagannath was the poet laureate at the court of (a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb

D129


Chapters 11 & 12

9. Balban failed to extend his territorial possessions because of (a) lack of financial resources (b) non-cooperation of nobles (c) fear of Mongol invaders (d) revolt of his son 10. The first Indo-Muslim classic on political theory and art of governmental organization prepared under lltutmish was known as (a) (b) (c) (d)

AdabulMuluk Ahkam-us Sultaniya Fatawa-i Jahandari Adab-us Salatin

Chapters 14 & 15

11.

Khwaja Mansur, is exclusively famous for his skills in

(a) (b) (c) (d)

calligraphy depiction of events portrait presentation flora and fauna paintings

Chapter 9

12. The earliest Chola gold coin of which we have any knowledge, belongs to the reign of (a) Aditya Chola II (b) Uttama Chola (c) Rajaraja Chola (d) Rajendra Chola

Chapters 11 &12

13.

The Das Muqami Rekhta describing ten sta tions of Sufism was composed by

(a) Mansur AlHallaj (b) Kablr (c) Guru Nanak (d) Mian MTr

Chapter 13

14.

Shri Guru Granth Sahib does not contain the hymns of

(a) Dhanna

(b) Pipa

(c) Raidas

(d) Sain

15. The Central Asian traveller Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi, who visited the Vijayanagar empire, particulary bought and carried with him Indian (a) medicines (b) ivory ( (c) paintings (d) textile 16.

In the vijayanagar empire, the gious matters were decided by

(a) (b) (c) (d) 17.

Samayacaryas or Desaris * Kavalkaras or Arasukavalkaras Dharmopanchas or Dharmdesas™ Parsokanas or Dhruvrajas Under the Nayankara system of Vija lands were assigned to

(a) (b)

mathas for the maintenance of ten persons against annual tributes tary service

(c) Brahmins for charitable trusts (d) women without any source of incoriii§| 18. Which one of the following pairs is not ( matched? ;tl (a) Gulbadan Begum : HumayunnamS (b) Khwand Mir : Qanun-i Hun (c) Ziauddin Barani : Tarikh-i Firuzs (d) Khwaja Kalan : Tazkirai Humay wa Akbar

19. The Mahabharata and Rajataranginl translated, at the order of Zain-ul AbidTn | Kashmir, in (a) Urdu

(b) Persian

(c) Pushtu

(d) Arabic

Chapters 14 & 15

20.

Which one of the following Persian works was authored by Sujan Rai Bhandari?

(a) Ibratnama (b) Khulasat-ut Tawarikh (c) Shahjahannama (d) Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh 21. which one of the following combinations indl-' cates the correct chronological order of the medieval historical figures? (a)

Gulbadan Begum, Chand Bibi, Jahan Ara, Raziya Sultan

(b)

Jahan Ara, Chand Bibi, Raziya Sultan, Gulbadan Begum

(c)

Raziya Sultan, Gulbadan Begum, Chand Bibi, Jahan Ara

(d)

Chand Bibi, Raziya Sultan, Jahan Ara, Gulbadan Begum

Previous Question Papers Topicwice Analysis (Prelims 2002) myt

22.

The Sarai structures of the Mughal period were used for

(a) (b) (c) (d)

storing gun powder housing travellers keeping the imperial entourage housing the nobles

Chapters 11 & 12

23. The earliest proof of Indo-Arab intellectual con tact was the Arabic translation of Brahma Gupta's Brahma Siddhanta which came to be known as (a) (b) (c) (d) 24.

llmulhisab Sindhind Kitabul Siddhanta Brahma Siddhanta Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Mahmud Ghaznavi : Ayaz Balban : Khanbaligh Babur : Mirza Haidar Dughlat Dara Shikoh : Sarmad

Chapters 14 & 15

25.

Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri was built by Akbar in commemoration of

(a) (b) (c) (d)

his victory at Gujarat the birth of his son Salim his marital alliance with Amber princess the completion of twenty five years of his rule

Chapters 11 &12

26. To meet the educational needs of the people, the Madarasa-i Nasiri was built in the reign of (a) (b) (c) (d)

Qutbuddin Aibak lltutmish Ruknuddin Firuz Shah Jalaluddin Khalji

Chapter 11

27. Which one of the following did not form part of the triple alliance on the eve of the first Anglo-Mysore war?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The Raja of Travancore The Nizam The Marathas The English

Chapter 21

28. Who among the following founded a national paper, a national school and a national gymna sium and made the word "national" popular in the latter half of the 19th century? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Jyotindranath Tagore Rajnarayan Bose Nabagopal Mitra Satyendranath Tagore

Chapter 22

29.

In India, the Federal Court was constituted by an Act of

(a) 1891

(b) 1909

(c) 1919

(d) 1935

Chapter 20

30.

Who among the following led the 1857 revolt in Bareilly?

(a) Khan Bahadur Khan (b) Maulvi Ahmad Ullah (c) BakhtKhan (d) AzTmullah Khan 31. Who among the following said, "Forget not that the lower classes, the ignorant, the poor, the illiterate, the cobbler, the sweeper are thy flesh and blood, thy brothers"? (a) Jyotiba Phule

(b) B.R. Ambedkar

(c) Swami Vivekananda (d) Mahatma Gandhi 32.

Mahajani Sabhyata was written by

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Rabindranath Tagore Munshi Premchand Sahajanand Indulal Yagnik

Chapter 22

33. Following the Quit India Movement of 1942 the National Government was not set up in

L


(a) Tamluk (c) Monghyr (b) Satara (d) Talcher

(c) (d)

M. Padmanabha Filial K. Ramakrishna Pillai

Chapter 24

34. Which one of the following is not correct regarding land-reforms in postindependence India? (a) (b)

Ceiling on land holdings Conferment of cultivator's right over the land to the tiller

(c) (d)

Consolidation of land holdings Prohibition of Benami transfer

Chapter 22

35. Who among the following said, "For me every tiniest activity is governed by what I consider to be my religion"? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Swami Vivekanand V.D. Savarkar Mahatma Gandhi Subhash Chandra Bose

Chapter 17

36. Which one of the following regions came under the direct administration of the English East India Company after the third Anglo-Mysore war? (a) Malabar

(b) Kanara

(c) Tanjore

(d) Travancore

Chapter 19

37. Who among the following established the Mohammedan Literary Society in 1863 at Calcutta? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Nawab Abdul Latif Syed Amin All Shariatulla Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari

Chapter 20

38.

The Nair Service Society was founded by

(a) (b)

Chandra Menon T.M. Madhavan Chapter 21

39. The Madras Mahajan Sabha came into i tence in (a) 1882

(b) 1883

(c) 1884

(d) 1885

Chapter 16

40. Which of the following is not one of the misls? (a) Ahluwalia (b) Dalewalia (c) Kanheya

(d) Aliwal

Chapter 22

41. Who among the following was not involved in the drafting of the Bombay Plan? (a) Lala Shriram (b) G.D. Birla (c) Bhulabhai Desai (d) J.R.D. Tata

Chapter 19

42. Match List-l (Literary works) with List-ll (Individuals) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List-l Listll (Literary works)

(Individuals)

A.

Din Mitra

1. C.V. Raman Pillai

B.

Martanda Varna 2. Mukum Rao Patil

C.

New India

3. Vishnu Krishna

Chiplunkar D.

Nibandhanala 4. Bipin Chandra

Paul Codes: (a)

A B C D 3412

(b)

A B C D 2143

(c)

A B C D 3142

(d)

A B C D 2413


;J Chapter 23

43. The Prajamandal or the All-India States People's Conference got fully fused with the National Movement at the time of the (a)

resignation of the Congress Ministries in 1939

(b) (c) (d)

culmination of Quit India Movement start of Civil Disobedience Movement transfer of Power

Chapter 17

44.

Consider the following treaties: . 1. Treaty of Bassein

2. 3. 4.

Treaty of Deogaon Treaty of Poona Treaty of Gwalior The correct chronological sequence of these

treaties is (a) 1,2,3,4

(b) 2,4,3, 1

(c) 4,2, 1,3

(d) 1,3,2,4

The megalithic type shown in above photograph is (a) stone circle (b) menhir (c) dolmen

(d) stone alignment

Directions: The following fifteen items consist of two statements, one labelled the 'Assertion A' and the other labelled the 'Reason R'. You are to examine these two statements carefully and decide if the Assertion A and Reason R are individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answer to these items using the codes given below and mark your answer sheet accordingly. Codes: (a)


(b)


(c) (d)

A is ture but R is false A is false but R is true

Chapter 2 Harappan civilisation had extensive trade contacts with other contemporary civilizations. Bronze Age civilizations were sustained by elaborate exchange networks.

46.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Chapter 7 Some Yavanas (Greeks) were converted to the Vaishnava cult during the reign of the Sungas. Bhagwat erected a Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.

47.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Chapter 6 The Mauryan kings did not make grants of villages on religious grounds. Cultivators revolted against land grants.

48.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Chapter 4 Vishwamitra is described to have organized a confederacy of ten kings against Sudas. Sudas preferred Vasishtha as a priest.

49.

Assertion (A):

Reason (R):

Chapter 7 The Kushanas were Central Asian origin. of

50.

Assertion (A):

^B .>< "0 0> ° i= £? cm wO^S^Q'^ P! I'll Sfff **! *** £ I-*-0 5c *l ?8S «cl| £f 1*1.5* III il s>. W ffS-tsJ1 I***-.,°-l SfJff |lf fl 1? , j **il*fl* ffsif & itUi**.* .s t Hi F £S *^B *Ssl^ *!£lilS*lt$!**Sl >.» 1 f s-i f * * sL&2ii-sSg*Si*9 £.'£*, 1 ii i ,if «-;"*"«»/// HiJ ^" ? f i i f " :S3« £ c u _ 5 ^ §£ .f 5 e S s

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t eg $§

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vC %i

" jp x ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B ^^^^^îHl^ttuc^,. « IO ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^îB^^ °-G 10


Chapter 19

61. Slavery was abolished in India by an Act of (a) 1829 (b) 1833 (c) 1843

(d) 1858

Chapter 22

62.

Sir Harcourt Butler Committee was appointed to

(a)

investigate the relations between the British Empire and the Indian states

(b)

suggest suitable provisions for protection of minorities

(c)

ensure proportionate representation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

(d)

find ways for integration of princely states

Chapter 20

63. Who among the following was the Minister and Chief Advisor of Nana Saheb Peshwa? (a) (b) (c) (d)

WajidAliShah AzTmullah Khan Maulvi Ahmad Shah Amirullah Khan

Chapter 19

64.

The Arya Mahila Sabha was founded by

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur Nellie Sengupta Durgabai Deshmukh Pandita Ramabai

Chapter 22

65. at

In October 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose established the Arzee Hukumat-i Hind

(a) Rangoon

(b) Singapore

(c) Germany (d) Japan

Chapter 18

66.

The Strachey Commission was connected with

(a) (b)

the Vernacular Press famine

(c) (d) 67.

education local Self-government Consider the following statements:

The gradual increase in rural indebtedness in India under the British rule was due to 1. 2. 3. 4.

fragmentation of land holdings decline of cottage industries lack of development of irrigational facilities introduction of cash crops Which of these are correct?

(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1,3 and 4 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4 68.

The first President of the All-India Trade Union Congress was

(a) (b) (c) (d)

S.A. Dange Lala Lajpat Rai Z.A. Ahmed N.M. Joshi

69.

Consider the following statements: Cornwallis' Permanent Settlement of Bengal

1.

deprived the zamindars of ownership of their land

2. 3. 4.

put the ryots under the mercy of the zamindars secured a stable income for the company made zamindars allies of the East India Company

Which of these are correct? (a) 1 and 4

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

Chapter 19

70.

Who among the following established the Vidhwa Vivaha Manda/?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Bal Gangadhar Tilak Gopal Krishna Gokhale M.G. Ranade V.D. Savarkar

Chapter 20

71. Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur encouraged B.R. Ambedkar to start the publi cation of (a) Bahishkrit Bharat (b) Harijan Bandhu (c) Mook Nayak (d) Swarajya


Chapter 21

72. Rabindranath Tagore suggested that the date of partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905) be observed as an occasion of (a) (b) (c) (d) 73.

Solidarity day Rakhi-bandhan day Black day Brotherhood day Consider the following events:

1. 2.

Formation of Home Rule League Tilak sentenced to six years' of deportation on charges of sedition

3.

Formation of Ghadar Party at San Francisco

4.

Gandhi's Champaran Satyagraha Their correct chronological sequence of these


(b) 2,3,1,4

(c) 3,2,1,4

(d) 2,1,3,4

Chapter 22

74. Which one of the following Congress Sessions adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy? (a) Belgaum, 1934 (b) Calcutta, 1928 (c) Lahore, 1929 (d) Karachi, 1930 75.


1.

The Indian National Congress boycotted the First Round Table Conference.

2.

Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference.

3.

After the Second Round Table Conference, the Gandhi-lrwin Pact was signed.

4.

Communal Award is associated with the Round Table conferences.

Which of these are correct? (a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1,3 and 4 (c) 1,2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Chapter 21

76. Who among the following was the founder member of the Indian Association set up in 1876?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

P. Ananda Charlu Pherozeshah Mehta Anand Mohan Bose G. Subramaniya Iyer

Chapter 19

77. Who among the following published the firstl Indian Newspaper in English language in India? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Gangadhar Bhattacharya Rabindranath Tagore Mritunjoy Vidyalankar Ram Mohan Roy

Chapter 21

78.


1. 2. 3.

Annie Besant Bal Gangadhar Tilak Muhammed AN Jinnah

4. Mahatma Gandhi Which of them were associated with the Home Rule Movement? (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 3 and 4

(d) 1,2 and 3

Chapter 17

79. Full membership of hte Governor-General's Executive Council was extended to the Law Member through the (a) (b) (c) (d)

Councils Act of 1892 Councils Act of 1861 Charter Act of 1853 Charter Act of 1833

Chapter 1

80. Consider the following archaeological sites: 1. Damdama 2. Kurnool caves 3. Tekkalakota 4. Naikund Their correct sequence in order of their antiquity is (a) 2,4,3, 1

(b) 3, 1,2,4

(c) 2,1,3,4

(d) 3,4,2,1


81.

The majority of Early Stone age tools, In India, were made of

(a) quartzite

(b) steatite

(c) agate

(d) carnelian

82.

Which one of the following tools is not related to the Palaeolithic culture?

(a) Hand axe (b) Chopper (c) Cleaver

(d) Celt

Chapter 3

83.

Consider the following pairs:

1. Settlement site Chirand 2. Grave site Porkalam 3. Settlement and Grave site Piklihal Which of these pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3

(d) 1,2 and 3

Chapter 1

84.

Match List-l (Sites) with List-ll (Cultrues) and

select the correct answer using the coi given below the lists: List-l List-ll (Sites) (Cultures) A. Chopani Mando 1 . Palaeolithic B. Kulli 2. Chalcolithic

C. Attirampakkam 3. Pre-Harappan D. Inamgaon 4. Mesolithic Codes: (a) A B C D 134 2 (b) A B C D 421 3 (c) A B C D 124 3 (d) A B C D 431 2 Chapter 3

85. The "Ash Mounds" from Deccan represent (a) (b)

sites where personages were cremated sites where vedic sacrifices were performed

(c)

remnants of the settlements of neolithic cattle keepers

(d)

kilns where pots were baked

Chapter 2

86. Excavations at which one of the following sites give evidence of continuous habitation and cul tural evolution from the Stone age to the Harappan culture? (a) Kalibangan (b) Dholavira (c) Mehrgarh (d) Allahdino 87.

Which one of the following Harappan sites is situated north of Hindukush?

(a) Chanhu-daro

(b) Manda

(c) Shortugai (d) Sutkagendor

Chapter 4

88. Who among the following Vedic Gods were part of the religious beliefs of the Mittani people?

(a) (b) (c) (d) 89.

Agni, Pushan, Surya, Yama Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Nasatyas Mitra, Varuna, Pushan, Rudra Consider the following texts:

1. Satapatha Brahmana 2. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 3. Acharanga Sutra 4. Vinaya Pitaka Which of these is/are not related to the vedic literature (a) only 4

(b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 3 and 4

Chapter 5

90.

The expression "Second Urbanisation" signi fies the

(a) (b) (c)

revival of Harappan cities rise of urban centres in the Ganga valley birth of towns in the Deccan in the Narmada valley

(d) 91.

re-building of the town of Kollam in Kerala The rules of Buddhist monastic life are laid down, primarily, in

0138 Indian History: Revision

(a) Tripitaka (b) Vinaya Pitaka (c) Abhidhamma Pitaka (d) Sutta Pitaka Chapter 4

92. Match List-l (Vedangas) with List-ll (Their subjects) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List-l (Vedangas) A. Shiksha B. Kalpa C. Nirukta D. Chhandas List-ll (Their subjects) 1 . Etymology 2, Astrology 3. Metres 4. Phonetics 5. Ritual Codes: (a) A B C D 4 1 2 3 (b) A B C D 3 5 1 4 (c) A B C D 4 5 1 3 (d) A B C D 3 . 1 2 4 Chapter 6

93. Match List-l (Archaeological remains) with List-ll (Sites) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List-l Listll (Archaeological remains) A.

(Sites)

Rock elephant 1. Sanchi

B.

Quadripartite lion

2. Sarnath

C.

Sunga-Kanva bas reliefs 3. Dhauli

D.

The majestic gateway 4. Bharhut Codes:

(a)

A B C D 3 2 1 4 (b) A B C D 3 2 4 1 (c) A B C D 2 3 4 1 (d) A B C D 2 3 1 4 94. The passage, "Where reigns the Greekf named Amtiyoga and beyond the Amtiyoga in the lands of the four kW Tulamaya, Autekina, Maka Alikyashudala...", is taken from C! (a) (b) (c)

Asokan Edict Dighanikaya Nearchus (Ancient India as Described I Megasthenes)

(d) Stabo's Geography 95. Which one of the following inscriptions off Asoka refers to the grant of concession in land.f revenue to a village? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Lumbini pillar edict Sarnath pillar edict Girnar rock edict Sanchi pillar edict

Chapter 7

96. Match List-l (Terms) with List-ll (Explanations) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: List-l Listll (Terms) A. B. C.

(Explanations)

Bhaga Dramma Nivartana

1. 2. 3,

D.

Vishti (a) A 2 (b) A 4 (c) A 2 (d) A 4

B 3 B 5 B 5 B 3

C 5 C 3 C 3 C 5

4. 5. Codes: D 4 D 1 D 4 D 1 A linear measure The King's share A coin

Forced labour A unit area of land Match List-l (Characters) with List-ll (Related Objects) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: List-l (Characters) A.

Gautama Buddha

B.

Jina

List-ll (Related Objects) 1. 2. 97.

Flask and rosary Dharmachakrapravartana mudra


C.

Vishnu 3. Katyotsarga pose

D.

Bodhisatva Maitreya 4. Garudadhvaja Codes:

A 3 A 2 A 3 A 2

B 2 B 3 B 2 B 3

C 1 C 4 C 4 C 1

D 4 D 1 D 1 D 4 (a)

(b) (c) (d)

98.

Gatha-Saptashati is a collection of Prakrit poems dealing with

(a) love lores (b) worship rituals (c) astrology (d) historical biographies of kings 99. Which one of the following documents gives evidence of a temple of Augustus at Muziris in South India? (a) (b) (c) (d) 100.

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Nearchus Genealogical Tables Sangam literature In the context of South India, Cave Script means

(a) (b) (c) (d) 101. in

Undeciphered graffiti marks TamilBrahmi Tamil Grantha Pallava Grantha The Story of the transformation of a dancing girl into a Buddhist nun is narrated

(a) Silappadikaram (b) Manimekhalai (c) Tolkappiyam

(d) MaduralkkQfljl

' '' , Chapter 8

102.

As per, the Allahabad Pillar in

which one of the following ways tfw Jtfhgs of South India were treated by Samudragupta? (a) violent extermination (ty capture and release (c) (d)

permanent subjection total displacement followed by annexation of territory

103.

The play Matta-vilasa-Prahasana was authored by

Raja Rajendra Mahendravarman List-l I (Term) and using the codes

List-ll (Term) Cultivated land Creeper High and dry land Crop fields (a) Marsha

(b)

(c) Jaidev

(d)

104. Match List-l (Definition) with select the correct answer given below the lists: List-l (Definition) A.

Sthala 1.

B.

Kedara 2.

C.

Krshta 3.

4.

D 2 D 3 D

2'.,, (a) (b) B 4 B 1 B 1 B 4 C 1 C 4 C 4 C 1..,

D. Tondai Codes: A2 (c) A 3 A 2 (d) A 3

Chapter 5

105. The rise of I causally lit] JaTthel (b) (c) W

ndavamana «%hirr^ 4. Upasaka status In which of these the Arthasastra and Asokan

edict correspond exactly? (a) 1 and 3

(b) only 1

(c) 2 and 4

(d) 3 and 4

Chapter 7

107. The reign of the Greeks in North-western India did not witness the


(a) long distance trade (b) proliferation of artisanal and craft produc/tion (c/ extensive land grants (d) availability of gold coins in plenty 108. In the regions ruled by which one of the follow ing dynasties, the state formation had been described as Secondary State? (a) Satavahanas (b) Gangas 109. (c) Chalukyas
B 4 B 1 B 1 B 4

4. 5. C 1 C 4 C 4 C 1

1. Fer 2. Pas 3. The Hilh Par Codes: D 2 D 2 D 3 D 3 List-ll (Features) Fertile river valley Pastures and

jungles The littoral Hills and forests

Chapter 10

110. Match List-l (Authors) with List-ll (Their works) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:

List-l Listll (Authors)

(Their works)

A.

Kulasekhara Alwar 1. Perumal Tirumoli

B.

Cheraman Perumal 2. Adiyula Nayanar

C. Chekkilar D. Ottakutan 3. 1 4. 1 Codes: (a) A B C D 1 2 3 4 (b) A B C D 4 3 2 1 3. Periya Puranam 4. Kalingattupparani (c)

A B C D 1324

(d)

A B C D 4231

Chapter 8

111.

Consider the following elements:

1. Durvasa's curse 2. The signet ring 3. The royal hunt 4. Maricha's asrama Which of these elements were introdu Kalidasa in adapting the Sakuntalapakhy Mahabharata into his classic play? (a><2and3 (b) 1,2 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1,3 and 4

Chapter 5

112. Which one of the following Buddhist texts ( information about 16 Mahajanapadas in 6th century B.C.? (a) Dipvansha (b) Anguttamikaya (c) Dighnikaya

(dyTripitaka

Chapter 6

113. Consider the following Mauryan rulers: 1. Asoka 2. Dasaratha 3. Brihadratha 4. Kunal Who among them bore the title of Devanampiya? 4a>only 1 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1,2 and 3 (d) 1,2, 3 and 4

Chapter 7

114.

Kumarila was an Acharya of

(a) Mimamsa (b) Samkhya (c)xVaiseshika(d) Vedanta

Chapters 11 b 12

115.

The city of Siri was founded by

(a) (b)

Kaiqubad JalaluddTn KhaljT


(pKAIauddm Khalji (d) GhiyasuddTn Tughlaq

Chapters 14 ft 15

116. The text of the document called Mahzar, by which Akbar assumed the role of supreme arbiter in the matters of religion is found in (a) (b)

NizamuddTn's Tabaqat-i Akbari Arif Quandahari's Tarikh-i Alfi (cJ/Abul Fazl's Akbamama

(d) BadaunT's Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh

Chapter 10

117. When Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded India, the rulers of different states of India were (a^xJayapala, Fateh Daud, MahTpala (b) (c) (d)

Raja Bhoja, Mu laraja, Shankarvarman Rajyapala, MahTpala, Prithviraja Chamundaraja, MahTpala, Mihirbhoja Chapters 11 &12

118.


(a) (b) (c)

Chishti: Shaikh Hamiduddin Nagauri Naqshbandi: Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani Suhrawardi: Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki ^JdJ-Qadiri: Khawaja Baqi Billah

119.

The author of Tarlkh-i-Yamlnl, also called Kitab-i-Yamlrii is

(a) (b)

Abdul Fazi Baihaqi Hasan Nizami feÂbu Nasr Utbi

(d)

Al kardizi

120.


1. Malwa

2. Chittor

3. Ranthambhor 4. Gujarat The correct sequence of the conquests of these by Alauddin Khalji is &*, 3, 4, 1 (c)

(b) 4,1,2,3

2, 1,4,3

(d) 4,3,2, 1

history_of_india_for_compitative_exam.pdf

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