IELTS Writing Task 1 Simon

CDKW\ VQCWC@F WM\I = AS \CNJ@

CDKW\ Vrctc`f Wmsi = \cnj`

Lj`td`ts =. Kc`d frmpe .................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ............................. <

1.

<.

7.

4.

?.

=.=.

Wcps ojr Kc`d frmpe .................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................. ......... <

=.1.

C`tdr`dt Tsdrs ms pdrld`tmfd jo pjpukmtcj` .......................................................................... 7

=.<.

C`tdr`mtcj`mk C`tdr`mtc j`mk ncfrmtcj` c` TI ............................................................................................... 4

=.7.

TI mlcg rmc` dncsscj` .......................................................................................................... ?

=.4.

Vmtdr lj`sunptcj` ............................................................................................................ 6

=.?.

Lmr jw`drsecp .................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................... 5

Amr lemrt ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... 3 1.=.

Nmrrcmfds m`g gcvjrlds ....................................................................................................... 3

1.1.

Kdvdks jo pmrtclcpmtcj` ........................................................................................................ =8

1.<.

Lj`sundr fjjg ................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................. =1

1.7.

Ejusd prclds ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... =<

1.4.

\tmlidg amr lemrt ...................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................. ........ =7

1.?.

Lemrt wctejut ydmrs ........................................................................................................... =4

1.6.

Mfd frjups (1 amr lemrts) .................................................................................................. =?

Wmakd ....................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................... =6 <.=.

Wcps ojr tmakd ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... =6

<.1.

Qmck `dtwjris .................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................... =5

<.<.

Xjvdrty prjpjrtcj` c` Mustrmkcm ........................................................................................... =3

<.7.

Gmcky mltcvctcds ................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... 18

<.4.

Fjjgs lj`sundr ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 1=

Xcd lemrt .................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. 11 7.=.

Lmn6, pmfd =8= ................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................ 11

7.1.

Gcdt .................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. 1<

Nmp ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... 17 4.=.

_ckkmfd jo Lejrkdywjjg....................................................................................................... Lejrkdywjjg ....................................................................................................... 17

4.1.

Fmkkdry .............................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................. 14

4.<.

Ejusd gdscf` .................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................... 1?

4.7.

1 prjpjsdg supdrnmridt .................................................................................................... 16

Xrjldss .................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................... 15 ?.=.

Wcps ojr prjldss gcmfrmn .................................................................................................... 15

?.1.

Ojrdlmst c` Mustrmkcm .......................................................................................................... 13

Vrctc`f Wmsi = - \cnj`

Xmfd =

6.

?.<.

Arcli nmùomltutc`f nmùomltu tc`f ........................................................................................................... <8

?.7.

Vmtdr lylkd ....................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................... <=

Jtedr tcps ...................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ........................... <1 6.=.

Wwj gcoodrd`t lemrts .......................................................................................................... <1

6.1.

Vemt tj gj ........................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................ <<

6.<.

Jvdrvcdw `jt lj`lkuscj` .................................................................................................... <<

6.7.

Fd`drmk tdle`cqud ..................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................. ........ <7

6.4.

\ejws, ljnpmrds, ckkustrmtds .............................................................................................. <4

6.?.

Dmsy c`trjgultcj` ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... <4

6.6.

Mfds m`g mfd frjups ......................................................................................................... <4

6.5.

Xcd lemrt m`g tmakd .................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................ ........
6.3.

Mvjcg ljnnj` ncstmids..................................................................................................... ncstmids..................................................................................................... <6

6.=8.

Xmst scnpkd, pmst pdrodlt ................................................................................................ <5

6.==.

Wed smnd km`fumfd ........................................................................................................ <5

6.=1.

Wjj nm`y sy`j`yns ...................................................................................................... <5

6.=<.

Gdslrcac`f pdrld`tmfds .................................................................................................. <3

6.=7.

Gjuakd, twcld ms, twjojkg ............................................................................................... <3

6.=4.

@ju`s m`g vdras .................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................ ........ 78

6.=?.

Ejw tj usd 18 ncùtds .................................................................................................. 78

6.=6.

Wed jvdrvcdw ................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................. 78

6.=5.

Xmrmpermsc`f ................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................. 7=

6.=3.

Njrd tem` j`d lemrt ...................................................................................................... 7=

6.18.

Njrd tem` 1 frmpes “ lemrts jr tmakds ............................................................................. 7=

6.1=.

Wecìc`f stdps ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 71


Xmfd 1

=. Kc`d frmpe =.=.

Wcps ojr Kc`d frmpe

Kc`d frmpes mkwmys sejw lem`fds jvdr tcnd. Edrd's sjnd mgvcld majut ejw tj gdslrcad tedn2 •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Wry tj wrctd 7 pmrmfrmpes - c`trjgultcj`, sunnmry jo nmc` pjc`ts, 1 gdtmck pmrmfrmpes. Ojr yjur sunnmry pmrmfrmpe, kjji mt ted "acf pclturd" - wemt lem`fds emppd`dg tj mkk jo ted kc`ds orjn ted adfc``c`f tj ted d`g jo ted pdrcjg sejw` (c.d. orjn ted ocrst ydmr tj ted kmst). Cs tedrd m trd`g temt mkk jo ted kc`ds ojkkjw (d.f. m` jvdrmkk c`lrdmsd): Sju gj`'t `ddg tj fcvd ùnadrs c` yjur sunnmry pmrmfrmpe. @unadrs mrd spdlcocl gdtmcks. Bust nd`tcj` fd`drmk tec`fs kcid 'jvdrmkk lem`fd', 'ecfedst' m`g 'kjwdst', wctejut fcvc`f spdlcocl ocfurds. @dvdr gdslrcad dmle kc`d sdpmrmtdky. Wed dxmnc`dr wm`ts tj sdd ljnpmrcsj`s. ljnpmrcsj`s. Co ted frmpe sejws ydmrs, yju wj`'t emvd tcnd tj nd`tcj` mkk jo tedn. Wed idy ydmrs tj gdslrcad mrd ted ocrst ydmr m`g ted kmst ydmr. Sju sejukg mksj nd`tcj` m`y 'spdlcmk' ydmrs (d.f. m pdmi jr m scf`coclm`t rcsd/omkk). \tmrt gdslrcac`f gdtmcks (pmrmfrmpe <) wcte m ljnpmrcsj` jo ted kc`ds ojr ted ocrst ydmr sejw` j` ted frmpe (d.f. c` =338, ted ùnadr jo...). Tsd ted pmst scnpkd (c`lrdmsdg, odkk) ojr pmst ydmrs, m`g 'wckk' jr 'cs dxpdltdg/prdgcltdg tj' ojr outurd ydmrs. Gj`'t usd ted pmsscvd (d.f. ted ùnadr wms c`lrdmsdg), lj`tcùjus (d.f. ted ùnadr wms c`lrdmsc`f), c`lrdmsc`f), jr pdrodlt td`sds (d.f. ted ùnadr ems c`lrdmsdg).


Xmfd <

=.1.

C`tdr`dt Tsdrs ms pdrld`tmfd jo pjpukmtcj`

Wed kc`d frmpe ljnpmrds ted pdrld`tmfd jo pdjpkd c` terdd lju`trcds wej usdg ted C`tdr`dt adtwdd` =333 m`g 1883. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted prjpjrtcj` jo ted pjpukmtcj` wej usdg ted C`tdr`dt c`lrdmsdg c` dmle lju`try jvdr ted pdrcjg sejw`. Jvdrmkk, m nule kmrfdr pdrld`tmfd jo Lm`mgcm`s m`g Mndrclm`s emg mlldss tj ted C`tdr`dt c` ljnpmrcsj` wcte Ndxclm`s, m`g Lm`mgm dxpdrcd`ldg ted omstdst frjwte c` C`tdr`dt usmfd. C` =333, ted prjpjrtcj` jo pdjpkd usc`f ted C`tdr`dt c` ted T\M wms majut 18%. Wed ocfurds ojr Lm`mgm m`g Ndxclj wdrd kjwdr, mt majut =8% m`g 4% rdspdltcvdky. rdspdltcvdky. C` 1884, C`tdr`dt usmfd c` ajte ted T\M m`g Lm`mgm rjsd tj mrju`g 68% jo ted pjpukmtcj`, weckd ted ocfurd ojr Ndxclj rdmledg bust jvdr 14%. Ay 1883, ted pdrld`tmfd jo C`tdr`dt usdrs wms ecfedst c` Lm`mgm. Mknjst =88% jo Lm`mgcm`s usdg ted C`tdr`dt, ljnpmrdg ljnpmrdg tj majut 58% jo Mndrclm`s m`g j`ky 78% jo Ndxclm`s.


Xmfd 7

=.<.

C`tdr`mtcj`mk ncfrmtcj` c` TI

Wed lemrt fcvds còjrnmtcj` majut TI cnncfrmtcj`, dncfrmtcj` m`g `dt ncfrmtcj` adtwdd` =333 m`g 1885. Ajte cnncfrmtcj` m`g dncfrmtcj` rmtds rjsd jvdr ted pdrcjg sejw`, aut ted ocfurds ojr cnncfrmtcj` wdrd scf`coclm`tky scf`coclm`tky ecfedr. @dt ncfrmtcj` pdmidg c` 1887 m`g 1886. C` =333, jvdr 748,888 pdjpkd lmnd tj kcvd c` ted TI, weckd ted ùnadr jo pdjpkd wej dncfrmtdg stjjg mt bust u`gdr <88,888. Wed ocfurd ojr `dt ncfrmtcj` wms mrju`g =?8,888, m`g ct rdnmc`dg mt m scnckmr kdvdk u`tck 188<. Orjn =333 tj 1887, ted cnncfrmtcj` rmtd rjsd ay `dmrky =48,888 pdjpkd, aut tedrd wms m nule snmkkdr rcsd c` dncfrmtcj`. @dt ncfrmtcj` pdmidg mt mknjst 148,888 pdjpkd c` 1887. Motdr 1887, ted rmtd jo cnncfrmtcj` rdnmc`dg ecfe, aut ted ùnadr jo pdjpkd dncfrmtc`f okultumtdg. Dncfrmtcj` odkk suggd`ky c` 1886, adojrd pdmic`f mt majut 718,888 pdjpkd c` 1885. Ms m rdsukt, ted `dt ncfrmtcj` ocfurd rjsd tj mrju`g 178,888 c` 1886, aut odkk amli tj mrju`g =?8,888 c` 1885. (=43)


Xmfd 4

=.7.

TI mlcg rmc` dncsscj`

Wed frmpe adkjw sejws TI mlcg rmc` dncsscj`s, ndmsurdg c` nckkcj`s jo tj`ds, orjn ojur gcoodrd`t sdltjrs adtwdd` =338 m`g 1886.

C'vd nmgd ted ojkkjwc`f dssmy c`tj m fmp-ockk dxdrlcsd. Wed kc`d frmpe ljnpmrds ojur sdltjrs c` ZZZZZZ jo ted mnju`t jo mlcg rmc` dncsscj`s temt tedy prjguldg jvdr m pdrcjg jo =6 ydmrs c` ted TI. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted tjtmk mnju`t jo mlcg rmc` dncsscj`s c` ted TI ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ adtwdd` =338 m`g 1886. Wed njst ZZZZZZ gdlrdmsd wms sdd` c` ted dkdltrclcty, fms m`g wmtdr suppky sdltjr. C` =338, mrju`g <.< nckkcj` tj`ds jo mlcg rmc` dncsscj`s lmnd orjn ted dkdltrclcty, fms m`g wmtdr sdltjr. Wed trm`spjrt m`g ljnnu`clmtcj` sdltjr wms ZZZZZZ ojr majut 8.6 nckkcj` tj`ds jo dncsscj`s, weckd ted gjndstcl sdltjr ZZZZZZ mrju`g 8.? nckkcj` tj`ds. Bust jvdr 1 nckkcj` tj`ds jo mlcg rmc` fmsds lmnd orjn jtedr c`gustrcds. Dncsscj`s orjn dkdltrclcty, fms m`g wmtdr suppky odkk grmnmtclmkky tj j`ky 8.4 nckkcj` tj`ds c` 1886, m ZZZZZZ jo mknjst mknj st < nckkcj` tj`ds. Veckd mlcg rmc` rmc ` fmsds fmsd s orjn ted gjndstcl g jndstcl sdltjr m`g jtedr jte dr c`gustrcds c`gu strcds odkk frmgumkky, frmgumkky, ted trm`spjrt sdltjr ZZZZZZ m snmkk c`lrdmsd c` dncsscj`s, ZZZZZZ m pdmi jo = nckkcj` tj`ds c` 1884. Ockk ted fmps usc`f tedsd wjrgs2 prjguldg, rdmlec`f odkk, rdspj`scakd, smw, lj`scgdrmaky, tdrns, grjp, grmnmtcl


Xmfd ?

=.4.

Vmtdr lj`sunptcj`

Wed frmpe m`g tmakd adkjw fcvd còjrnmtcj` majut wmtdr usd wjrkgwcgd m`g wmtdr lj`sunptcj` c` twj gcoodrd`t lju`trcds.

Wed lemrts ljnpmrd ted mnju`t jo wmtdr usdg ojr mfrclukturd, c`gustry m`g ejnds mrju`g ted wjrkg, m`g wmtdr usd c` Armzck m`g ted Gdnjlrmtcl Qdpuakcl jo Lj`fj. Ct cs lkdmr temt fkjamk wmtdr `ddgs rjsd scf`coclm`tky adtwdd` =388 m`g 1888, m`g temt mfrclukturd mllju`tdg ojr ted kmrfdst prjpjrtcj` jo wmtdr usdg. Vd lm` mksj sdd temt wmtdr lj`sunptcj` wms lj`scgdrmaky ecfedr c` Armzck tem` c` ted Lj`fj. C` =388, mrju`g 488in! jo wmtdr wms usdg ay ted mfrclukturd sdltjr wjrkgwcgd. Wed ocfurds ojr c`gustrcmk c`gustrcmk m`g gjndstcl wmtdr lj`sunptcj` stjjg mt mrju`g j`d ocote jo temt mnju`t. Ay 1888, fkjamk wmtdr usd ojr mfrclukturd emg c`lrdmsdg tj mrju`g <888in!, c`gustrcmk wmtdr usd emg rcsd` tj bust u`gdr emko temt mnju`t, m`g gjndstcl lj`sunptcj` emg rdmledg mpprjxcnmtdky 488in !. C` ted ydmr 1888, ted pjpukmtcj`s jo Armzck m`g ted Lj`fj wdrd =6? nckkcj` m`g 4.1 nckkcj` rdspdltcvdky. Vmtdr lj`sunptcj` pdr pdrsj` c` Armzck, mt <43n !, wms nule ecfedr tem` temt c` ted Lj`fj, mt j`ky 5n!, m`g tecs ljukg ad dxpkmc`dg ay ted omlt temt Armzck emg 1?4 tcnds njrd crrcfmtdg km`g. (=57 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd 6

=.?.

Lmr jw`drsecp

Wed frmpe adkjw fcvds còjrnmtcj` majut lmr jw`drsecp c` Arctmc` orjn =36= tj 1886.

Wed frmpe sejws lem`fds c` ted ùnadr jo lmrs ZZZZZZ ejusdejkg c` Frdmt Arctmc` ZZZZZZ m pdrcjg jo

Xmfd 5

1. Amr lemrt 1.=.

Nmrrcmfds m`g gcvjrlds

Wed ﬍rst amr lemrt sejws lem`fds c` ted ùnadr jo nmrrcmfds m`g gcvjrlds c` ted T\M, m`g ted sdlj`g lemrt sejws ﬍furds ojr ted nmrctmk stmtus jo Mndrclm` mgukts c` =368 m`g 1888. Ct cs lkdmr temt tedrd wms m omkk c` ted ùnadr jo nmrrcmfds c` ted T\M adtwdd` =368 m`g 1888. Wed nmbjrcty jo mgukt Mndrclm`s wdrd nmrrcdg c` ajte ydmrs, aut ted prjpjrtcj` jo sc`fkd mgukts wms ecfedr c` 1888. C` =368, tedrd wdrd 1.4 nckkcj` nmrrcmfds c` ted T\M m`g = nckkcj` gcvjrlds. Wed nmrrcmfd rmtd rdnmc`dg stmakd c` =358, aut odkk tj 1 nckkcj` ay ted ydmr 1888. C` lj`trmst, ted gcvjrld rmtd pdmidg c` =358, mt `dmrky =.4 nckkcj` gcvjrlds, adojrd omkkc`f amli tj = nckkcj` mt ted d`g jo ted pdrcjg. Mrju`g 68% jo Mndrclm` mgukts wdrd nmrrcdg c` =368, aut tecs ﬍furd grjppdg tj bust u`gdr ?8% ay 1888. Mt ted smnd tcnd, ted prjpjrtcj` jo u`nmrrcdg pdjpkd m`g gcvjrldds rjsd ay majut =8% c` tjtmk. Wed prjpjrtcj` jo wcgjwdg Mndrclm`s wms skcfetky kjwdr c` 1888. (=67)


Xmfd 3

1.1.

Kdvdks jo pmrtclcpmtcj`

Wed lemrts adkjw sejw ted kdvdks jo pmrtclcpmtcj` c` dgulmtcj` m`g slcd`ld c` gdvdkjpc`f m`g c`gustrcmkcsdg lju`trcds c` =358 m`g =338.

Wed terdd amr lemrts sejw mvdrmfd ydmrs jo slejjkc`f, ùnadrs jo slcd`tcsts m`g tdle`clcm`s, m`g rdsdmrle m`g gdvdkjpnd`t spd`gc`f c` gdvdkjpc`f m`g gdvdkjpdg lju`trcds. Ocfurds mrd fcvd` ojr =358 m`g =338. Ct cs lkdmr orjn ted lemrts temt ted ocfurds ojr gdvdkjpdg lju`trcds mrd nule ecfedr tem` tejsd ojr gdvdkjpc`f `mtcj`s. Mksj, ted lemrts sejw m` jvdrmkk c`lrdmsd c` pmrtclcpmtcj` c` dgulmtcj` m`g slcd`ld orjn =358 tj =338.


Xmfd =8

Xdjpkd c` gdvdkjpc`f `mtcj`s mttd`gdg slejjk ojr m` mvdrmfd jo mrju`g < ydmrs, wcte j`ky m skcfet c`lrdmsd c` ydmrs jo slejjkc`f orjn =358 tj =338. J` ted jtedr em`g, ted ocfurd ojr c`gustrcmkcsdg lju`trcds rjsd orjn `dmrky 3 ydmrs jo slejjkc`f c` =358 tj `dmrky == ydmrs c` =338. Orjn =358 tj =338, ted ùnadr jo slcd`tcsts m`g tdle`clcm`s c` c`gustrcmkcsdg lju`trcds mknjst gjuakdg tj majut 68 pdr =888 pdjpkd. \pd`gc`f j` rdsdmrle m`g gdvdkjpnd`t mksj smw rmpcg frjwte c` tedsd lju`trcds, rdmlec`f $<48 ackkcj` c` =338. Ay lj`trmst, ted ùnadr jo slcd`ld wjridrs c` gdvdkjpc`f lju`trcds rdnmc`dg adkjw 18 pdr =888 pdjpkd, m`g rdsdmrle spd`gc`f odkk orjn majut $48 ackkcj` tj j`ky $14 ackkcj`. (=56 wjrgs)


Xmfd ==

1.<.

Lj`sundr fjjg

Wed amr lemrt ljnpmrds lj`sundr spd`gc`f j` scx gcoodrd`t ctdns c` Fdrnm`y, Ctmky, Orm`ld m`g Arctmc`. Ct cs lkdmr temt Arctcse pdjpkd spd`t scf`coclm`tky njrd nj`dy tem` pdjpkd c` ted jtedr terdd lju`trcds j` mkk scx fjjgs. Jo ted scx ctdns, lj`sundrs spd`t ted njst nj`dy j` pejtjfrmpecl ockn. Xdjpkd c` Arctmc` spd`t bust jvdr £=68,888 j` pejtjfrmpecl ockn, wecle cs ted ecfedst ocfurd sejw` j` ted lemrt. Ay lj`trmst, Fdrnm`s wdrd ted kjwdst jvdrmkk spd`gdrs, wcte rjufeky ted smnd ocfurds (bust u`gdr £=48,888) ojr dmle jo ted scx prjgults. Wed ocfurds ojr spd`gc`f j` tjys wdrd ted smnd c` ajte Orm`ld m`g Ctmky, mt `dmrky £=?8,888. Ejwdvdr, weckd Ord`le pdjpkd spd`t njrd tem` Ctmkcm`s j` pejtjfrmpecl ockn m`g LGs, Ctmkcm`s pmcg jut njrd ojr pdrsj`mk stdrdjs, td``cs rmlqudts m`g pdrounds. Wed mnju`t spd`t ay Ord`le pdjpkd j` td``cs rmlqudts, mrju`g £=74,888, cs ted kjwdst ocfurd sejw` j` ted lemrt. (=47 wjrgs)


Xmfd =1

1.7.

Ejusd prclds

Wed amr lemrt ljnpmrds ted ljst jo m` mvdrmfd ejusd c` ocvd nmbjr lctcds jvdr m pdrcjg jo =< ydmrs orjn =353. Vd lm` sdd temt ejusd prclds odkk jvdrmkk adtwdd` =338 m`g =334, aut njst jo ted lctcds smw rcsc`f prclds adtwdd` =33? m`g 1881. Kj`gj` dxpdrcd`ldg ay omr ted frdmtdst lem`fds c` ejusd prclds jvdr ted =

Xmfd =<

1.4.

\tmlidg amr lemrt

Wed amr lemrt ljnpmrds twdkvd lju`trcds c` tdrns jo ted jvdrmkk ùnadr jo ndgmks temt tedy emvd wj` mt ted Jkynpcl Fmnds. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted T\M cs ay omr ted njst sulldssouk Jkynpcl ndgmk wc``c`f `mtcj`. Ct cs mksj `jtcldmakd temt ted ocfurds ojr fjkg, sckvdr m`g arj`zd ndgmks wj` ay m`y pmrtclukmr lju`try td`g tj ad omcrky scnckmr. Wed T\M ems wj` m tjtmk jo mrju`g 1,<88 Jkynpcl ndgmks, c`lkugc`f mpprjxcnmtdky mpprjxcnmtdky 388 fjkg ndgmks, 648 sckvdr m`g ?48 arj`zd. C` sdlj`g pkmld j` ted mkk-tcnd ndgmks lemrt cs ted \jvcdt T`cj`, wcte bust jvdr =,888 ndgmks. Mfmc`, ted ùnadr jo fjkg ndgmks wj` ay tecs lju`try cs skcfetky ecfedr tem` ted ùnadr jo sckvdr jr arj`zd ndgmks. J`ky ojur jtedr lju`trcds - ted TI, Orm`ld, Fdrnm`y m`g Ctmky - emvd wj` njrd tem` 488 Jkynpcl ndgmks, mkk wcte scnckmr prjpjrtcj`s jo dmle ndgmk ljkjur. Mpmrt orjn ted T\M m`g ted \jvcdt T`cj`, Lec`m cs ted j`ky jtedr lju`try wcte m `jtcldmaky ecfedr prjpjrtcj` jo fjkg ndgmks (majut 188) ljnpmrdg tj sckvdr m`g arj`zd (majut =88 dmle). (=65 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd =7

1.?.

Lemrt wctejut ydmrs

Wed amr lemrt ljnpmrds ted ùnadr jo c`lcgd`ts m`g c`burcds ojr dvdry =88 nckkcj` pmssd`fdr nckds trmvdkkdg j` ocvd gcoodrd`t typds jo puakcl trm`spjrt c` 1881. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted njst c`lcgd`ts m`g c`burcds tjji pkmld j` gdnm`g-rdspj`sd vdeclkds. Ay lj`trmst, ljnnutdr rmck sdrvclds rdljrgdg ay omr ted kjwdst ocfurds. M tjtmk jo 114 c`lcgd`ts m`g =6< c`burcds, pdr =88 nckkcj` pmssd`fdr nckds trmvdkkdg, tjji pkmld j` gdnm`g-rdspj`sd trm`spjrt sdrvclds. Wedsd ocfurds wdrd `dmrky terdd tcnds ms ecfe ms tejsd ojr ted sdlj`g ecfedst lmtdfjry, lmtdfjry, aus sdrvclds. Wedrd wdrd 6? c`lcgd`ts m`g ?? pdjpkd wdrd c`burdg j` ausds. Qmck sdrvclds dxpdrcd`ldg odwdr prjakdns. Wed ùnadr jo c`lcgd`ts j` kcfet rmck trmc`s dqumkkdg ted ocfurd rdljrgdg ojr ausds, aut tedrd wdrd scf`coclm`tky odwdr c`burcds, mt j`ky <3. Edmvy rmck sdrvclds smw kjwdr ùnadrs jo sule dvd`ts tem` kcfet rmck sdrvclds, aut ljnnutdr rmck pmssd`fdrs wdrd dvd` kdss kcidky tj dxpdrcd`ld prjakdns. C` omlt, j`ky 18 c`lcgd`ts m`g =6 c`burcds jllurrdg j` ljnnutdr trmc`s. (=?4 wjrgs, am`g 3) @jtd2 Gj`'t wjrry majut ted rdpdtctcj` jo "c`lcgd`ts m`g c`burcds" c` tecs dssmy. Wedrd mrd `j pdrodlt sy`j`yns ojr tedsd wjrgs, mktejufe C nm`mfdg tj usd "prjakdns" m`g "sule dvd`ts" kmtdr c` ted dssmy. Wed njst cnpjrtm`t tec`f cs tj gdslrcad ted gmtm lkdmrky m`g nmid sjnd fjjg ljnpmrcsj`s.


Xmfd =4

1.6.

Mfd frjups (1 amr lemrts)

Wed amr lemrts ljnpmrd stugd`ts jo gcoodrd`t mfds c` tdrns jo wey tedy mrd stugyc`f m`g wedtedr tedy mrd suppjrtdg ay m` dnpkjydr. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted prjpjrtcj` jo stugd`ts wej stugy ojr lmrddr purpjsds cs omr ecfedr mnj`f ted yju`fdr mfd frjups, weckd ted jkgdst stugd`ts mrd njrd kcidky tj stugy ojr c`tdrdst. Dnpkjydr suppjrt cs njrd ljnnj`ky fcvd` tj yju`fdr stugd`ts. Mrju`g 58% jo stugd`ts mfdg u`gdr 1? stugy tj ourtedr tedcr lmrddrs, wedrdms j`ky =8% stugy purdky jut jo c`tdrdst. Wed fmp adtwdd` tedsd twj prjpjrtcj`s `mrrjws ms stugd`ts fdt jkgdr, m`g ted ocfurds ojr tejsd c` tedcr ojrtcds mrd ted smnd, mt majut 78%. \tugd`ts mfdg jvdr 73 jvdrwedknc`fky stugy ojr c`tdrdst (68%) rmtedr tem` ojr prjodsscj`mk prjodsscj`mk rdmsj`s (kdss tem` 18%). Bust jvdr ?8% jo stugd`ts mfdg u`gdr 1? mrd suppjrtdg ay tedcr dnpkjydrs. Ay lj`trmst, ted <8-<3 mfd frjup cs ted njst sdko-suooclcd`t, wcte j`ky <8% adc`f fcvd` tcnd joo m`g edkp wcte odds. Wed ocfurds rcsd skcfetky ojr stugd`ts c` tedcr ojrtcds m`g ojr tejsd mfdg 48 jr njrd. (=65 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd =?

<. Wmakd <.=.

Wcps ojr tmakd

Wmakds sddn gcooclukt wed` tedy lj`tmc` m kjt jo ùnadrs. Edrd's sjnd mgvcld2 •

•

•

•

•

•

Wry tj wrctd 7 pmrmfrmpes - c`trjgultcj`, sunnmry jo nmc` pjc`ts, 1 gdtmck pmrmfrmpes. Adojrd yju stmrt wrctc`f, ecfekcfet sjnd idy ùnadrs. Lejjsd ted acffdst ùnadr c` dmle lmtdfjry c` ted tmakd (c.d. c` dmle ljkun` m`g rjw). Co ted tmakd sejws ydmrs, kjji ojr ted acffdst lem`fds c` ùnadrs jvdr ted tcnd pdrcjg. Sju ljukg mksj nd`tcj` ted snmkkdst ùnadrs, aut yju lm` cf`jrd 'ncggkd' ùnadrs (`dctedr acffdst `jr snmkkdst). Ojr yjur sunnmry pmrmfrmpe, try tj ljnpmrd wejkd lmtdfjrcds (ljkun`s jr rjws) rmtedr tem` c`gcvcgumk 'ldkks' c` ted tmakd. Co yju lm`'t ljnpmrd wejkd lmtdfjrcds, ljnpmrd ted acffdst m`g snmkkdst ùnadr. Vrctd 1 sd`td`lds ojr ted sunnmry. C` yjur twj 'gdtmcks' pmrmfrmpes, `dvdr gdslrcad dmle lmtdfjry (ljkun` jr rjw) sdpmrmtdky. Wed dxmnc`dr wm`ts tj sdd ljnpmrcsj`s. Wry tj jrfm`csd ted ùnadrs yju ecfekcfetdg c`tj 1 frjups j`d ojr dmle pmrmfrmpe (d.f. ecfedst ùnadrs ojr mkk lmtdfjrcds tjfdtedr, m`g kjwdst ùnadrs tjfdtedr). Gdslrcad / ljnpmrd ted ùnadrs yju ecfekcfetdg - c`lkugd mt kdmst < ùnadrs c` dmle pmrmfrmpe. Tsd ted pmst scnpkd ojr pmst ydmrs, m`g 'wckk' jr 'cs dxpdltdg/prdgcltdg tj' ojr outurd ydmrs. Co `j tcnd cs sejw`, usd ted prdsd`t scnpkd.


Xmfd =6

<.1.

Qmck `dtwjris

Wed tmakd adkjw fcvds còjrnmtcj` majut ted u`gdrfrju`g rmckwmy systdns c` scx lctcds.

Oukk dssmy (am`g 3)2 Wed tmakd sejws gmtm majut ted u`gdrfrju`g rmck `dtwjris c` scx nmbjr lctcds. Wed tmakd ljnpmrds ted scx `dtwjris c` tdrns jo tedcr mfd, sczd m`g ted ùnadr jo pdjpkd wej usd tedn dmle ydmr. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted terdd jkgdst u`gdrfrju`g systdns mrd kmrfdr m`g sdrvd scf`coclm`tky njrd pmssd`fdrs tem` ted `dwdr systdns. Wed Kj`gj` u`gdrfrju`g cs ted jkgdst systdn, emvc`f jpd`dg c` =5?<. Ct cs mksj ted kmrfdst systdn, wcte <37 ickjndtrds jo rjutd. Wed sdlj`g kmrfdst systdn, c` Xmrcs, cs j`ky majut emko ted sczd jo ted Kj`gj` u`gdrfrju`g, wcte =33 ickjndtrds jo rjutd. Ejwdvdr, ct sdrvds njrd pdjpkd pdr ydmr. Veckd j`ky tecrg c` tdrns jo sczd, ted Wjiyj systdn cs dmscky ted njst usdg, wcte =316 nckkcj` pmssd`fdrs pdr ydmr. Jo ted terdd `dwdr `dtwjris, ted Vmsec`ftj` GL u`gdrfrju`g cs ted njst dxtd`scvd, wcte =1? ickjndtrds jo rjutd, ljnpmrdg tj j`ky == ickjndtrds m`g 15 ickjndtrds ojr ted Iyjtj m`g Kjs M`fdkds systdns. Wed Kjs M`fdkds `dtwjri cs ted `dwdst, emvc`f jpd`dg c` 188=, weckd ted Iyjtj `dtwjri cs ted snmkkdst m`g sdrvds j`ky 74 nckkcj` pmssd`fdrs pdr ydmr. (=54 wjrgs)


Xmfd =5

<.<.

Xjvdrty prjpjrtcj` c` Mustrmkcm

Wed tmakd adkjw sejws ted prjpjrtcj` jo gcoodrd`t lmtdfjrcds jo omnckcds kcvc`f c` pjvdrty c` Mustrmkcm c` =333.

Wed tmakd fcvds còjrnmtcj` majut pjvdrty rmtds mnj`f scx typds jo ejusdejkg c` Mustrmkcm c` ted ydmr =333. Ct cs `jtcldmakd temt kdvdks jo pjvdrty wdrd ecfedr ojr sc`fkd pdjpkd tem` ojr ljupkds, m`g pdjpkd wcte leckgrd` wdrd njrd kcidky tj ad pjjr tem` tejsd wctejut. Xjvdrty rmtds wdrd lj`scgdrmaky kjwdr mnj`f dkgdrky pdjpkd. Jvdrmkk, ==% jo Mustrmkcm`s, jr =,5<6,888 pdjpkd, wdrd kcvc`f c` pjvdrty c` =333. Mfdg pdjpkd wdrd ted kdmst kcidky tj ad pjjr, wcte pjvdrty kdvdks jo ?% m`g 7% ojr sc`fkd mfdg pdjpkd m`g mfdg ljupkds rdspdltcvdky. Bust jvdr j`d ocote jo sc`fkd pmrd`ts wdrd kcvc`f c` pjvdrty, wedrdms j`ky =1% jo pmrd`ts kcvc`f wcte m pmrt`dr wdrd lkmssdg ms pjjr. Wed smnd pmttdr` lm` ad sdd` ojr pdjpkd wcte `j leckgrd`2 weckd =3% jo sc`fkd pdjpkd c` tecs frjup wdrd kcvc`f adkjw ted pjvdrty kc`d, ted ocfurd ojr ljupkds wms nule kjwdr, mt j`ky 6%. (=48 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd =3

<.7.

Gmcky mltcvctcds

Wed lemrt adkjw sejws mvdrmfd ejurs m`g ncùtds spd`t ay TI nmkds m`g odnmkds j` gcoodrd`t gmcky mltcvctcds.

C'vd nmgd ted ojkkjwc`f dssmy c`tj m fmp-ockk dxdrlcsd. Wed tmakd ljnpmrds ted mvdrmfd ZZZZZZ jo tcnd pdr gmy temt nd` m`g wjnd` c` ted TI spd`g ZZZZZZ gcoodrd`t mltcvctcds. Ct cs lkdmr temt pdjpkd c` ted TI spd`g njrd tcnd ZZZZZZ tem` gjc`f m`y jtedr gmcky mltcvcty. Mksj, tedrd mrd scf`coclm`t gcoodrd`lds adtwdd` ted tcnd ZZZZZZ ay nd` m`g wjnd` j` dnpkjynd`t/stugy m`g ejusdwjri. J` mvdrmfd, nd` m`g wjnd` c` ted TI ZZZZZZ ojr majut 5 ejurs pdr gmy. Kdcsurd ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ ted sdlj`g kmrfdst prjpjrtcj` jo tedcr tcnd. Nd` spd`g 4 ejurs m`g 14 ncùtds gjc`f vmrcjus kdcsurd mltcvctcds, sule ms wmtlec`f W_ jr gjc`f spjrt, ZZZZZZ wjnd` emvd 7 ejurs m`g 4< ncùtds jo kdcsurd tcnd. Ct cs `jtcldmakd temt nd` wjri jr stugy ojr m` mvdrmfd jo 63 ncùtds njrd tem` wjnd` dvdry gmy. Ay lj`trmst, wjnd` spd`g 63 ncùtds njrd tem` nd` gjc`f ejusdwjri, m`g tedy spd`g ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ ms nule tcnd kjjic`f motdr leckgrd`. Ockk ted fmps usc`f tedsd wjrgs2 gjc`f, up, jvdr, spd`t, weckd, skddpc`f, skddp, twcld, mnju`t, tmids


Xmfd 18

<.4.

Fjjgs lj`sundr

Wed tmakd adkjw fcvds còjrnmtcj` j` lj`sundr spd`gc`f j` gcoodrd`t ctdns c` ocvd gcoodrd`t lju`trcds c` 1881. Xdrld`tmfd jo `mtcj`mk lj`sundr dxpd`gcturd ay lmtdfjry - 1881

Wed tmakd sejws pdrld`tmfds jo lj`sundr dxpd`gcturd ojr terdd lmtdfjrcds jo prjgults m`g sdrvclds c` ocvd lju`trcds c` 1881. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted kmrfdst prjpjrtcj` jo lj`sundr spd`gc`f c` dmle lju`try wd`t j` ojjg, grcìs m`g tjamllj. J` ted jtedr em`g, ted kdcsurd/dgulmtcj` lmtdfjry ems ted kjwdst pdrld`tmfds c` ted tmakd. Jut jo ted ocvd lju`trcds, lj`sundr spd`gc`f j` ojjg, grcìs m`g tjamllj wms `jtcldmaky ecfedr c` Wuridy, mt <1.=7%, m`g Crdkm`g, mt `dmrky 13%. Wed prjpjrtcj` jo spd`gc`f j` kdcsurd m`g dgulmtcj` wms mksj ecfedst c` Wuridy, mt 7.<4%, weckd dxpd`gcturd j` lkjtec`f m`g ojjtwdmr wms scf`coclm`tky ecfedr c` Ctmky, mt 3%, tem` c` m`y jo ted jtedr lju`trcds. Ct lm` ad sdd` temt \wdgd` emg ted kjwdst pdrld`tmfds jo `mtcj`mk lj`sundr dxpd`gcturd ojr ojjg/grcìs/tjamllj m`g ojr lkjtec`f/ojjtwdmr, mt `dmrky =?% m`g bust jvdr 4% rdspdltcvdky. \pmc` emg skcfetky ecfedr ocfurds ojr tedsd lmtdfjrcds, aut ted kjwdst ocfurd ojr kdcsurd/dgulmtcj`, mt j`ky =.35%. (=44)


Xmfd 1=

7. Xcd lemrt 7.=.

Lmn6, pmfd =8=

Wed pcd lemrts ljnpmrd ted mnju`t jo dkdltrclcty prjguldg usc`f ocvd gcoodrd`t sjurlds jo oudk c` twj lju`trcds jvdr twj sdpmrmtd ydmrs. Wjtmk dkdltrclcty prjgultcj` c`lrdmsdg grmnmtclmkky orjn =358 tj 1888 c` ajte Mustrmkcm m`g Orm`ld. Veckd ted tjtmks ojr ajte lju`trcds wdrd scnckmr, tedrd wdrd acf gcoodrd`lds c` ted oudk sjurlds usdg. Ljmk wms usdg tj prjguld 48 jo ted tjtmk =88 u`cts jo dkdltrclcty c` Mustrmkcm c` =358, rcsc`f tj =<8 jut jo =68 u`cts c` 1888. Ay lj`trmst, ùlkdmr pjwdr adlmnd ted njst cnpjrtm`t oudk sjurld c` Orm`ld c` 1888, prjgulc`f mknjst 64% jo ted lju`try–s dkdltrclcty. Mustrmkcm gdpd`gdg j` eygrj e ygrj pjwdr pjw dr ojr o jr bust bus t u`gdr u` gdr 14% 14 % jo cts dkdltrclcty d kdltrclcty c` ajte ajt e ydmrs, yd mrs, aut a ut ted t ed mnju`t jo dkdltrclcty prjguldg usc`f tecs typd jo pjwdr odkk orjn 4 tj j`ky 1 u`cts c` Orm`ld. Jck, j` ted jtedr em`g, rdnmc`dg m rdkmtcvdky cnpjrtm`t oudk sjurld c` Orm`ld, aut cts usd gdlkc`dg c` Mustrmkcm. Ajte lju`trcds rdkcdg j` `mturmk fms ojr dkdltrclcty prjgultcj` scf`coclm`tky njrd c` =358 tem` c` 1888. (=68 wjrgs)


Xmfd 11

7.1.

Gcdt

Ockk ted fmps wcte tedsd wjrgs2 lj`stctutds, grjps, mnju`t, ocote, ecfedr, nmid, j`d, rdkmtcvd, ocfurd, up Wed pcd lemrts ljnpmrd ted prjpjrtcj` jo lmrajeygrmtds, prjtdc` m`g omt c` terdd gcoodrd`t gcdts, `mndky m` mvdrmfd gcdt, m edmktey gcdt, m`g m edmktey gcdt ojr spjrt. Ct cs `jtcldmakd temt spjrtspdjpkd rdqucrd m gcdt ljnprcsc`f m scf`coclm`tky ecfedr prjpjrtcj` jo lmrajeygrmtds lmrajeygrmtds tem` m` mvdrmfd gcdt jr m edmktey gcdt. Wed mvdrmfd gcdt lj`tmc`s ted kjwdst pdrld`tmfd jo lmrajeygrmtds aut ted ecfedst prjpjrtcj` jo prjtdc`. Lmrajeygrmtds Lmrajeygrmtds ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ ?8% jo ted edmktey gcdt ojr spjrt. Wecs cs =8% ZZZZZZ tem` ted prjpjrtcj` jo lmrajeygrmtds c` m `jrnmk edmktey gcdt, m`g 18% njrd tem` ted prjpjrtcj` c` m` mvdrmfd gcdt. J` ted jtedr em`g, pdjpkd wej dmt m` mvdrmfd gcdt lj`sund m frdmtdr ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ jo prjtdc` (78%) tem` tejsd wej dmt m edmktey gcdt (<8%) m`g spjrtspdjpkd (14%). Wed tecrg ljnpju`g sejw` c` ted lemrts cs omt. Omt ZZZZZZ dxmltky ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ jo ajte ted mvdrmfd gcdt m`g ted edmktey gcdt, aut ted ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZ tj j`ky =4% ojr ted edmktey spjrts gcdt.


Xmfd 1<

4. Nmp 4.=.

_ckkmfd jo Lejrkdywjjg

Wed nmp sejws ted frjwte jo m vckkmfd lmkkdg Lejrkdywjjg adtwdd` =5?5 m`g =337. Ct cs lkdmr temt ted vckkmfd frdw ms ted trm`spjrt còrmstrulturd wms cnprjvdg. Ojur pdrcjgs jo gdvdkjpnd`t mrd sejw` j` ted nmp, m`g dmle jo ted pjpukmtdg mrdms cs `dmr tj ted nmc` rjmgs, ted rmckwmy jr ted njtjrwmy. Orjn =5?5 tj =55<, Lejrkdywjjg ljvdrdg m snmkk mrdm `dxt tj j`d jo ted nmc` rjmgs. Lejrkdywjjg Xmri m`g Fjko Ljursd cs `jw kjlmtdg `dxt tj tecs jrcfc`mk vckkmfd mrdm. Wed vckkmfd frdw mkj`f ted nmc` rjmg tj ted sjute adtwdd` =55< m`g =311, m`g c` =383 m rmckwmy kc`d wms auckt lrjssc`f tecs mrdm orjn wdst tj dmst. Lejrkdywjjg stmtcj` cs c` tecs pmrt jo ted vckkmfd. Wed dxpm`scj` jo Lejrkdywjjg lj`tcùdg tj ted dmst m`g wdst mkj`fscgd ted rmckwmy kc`d u`tck =368. Mt temt tcnd, m njtjrwmy wms auckt tj ted dmst jo ted vckkmfd, m`g orjn =368 tj =337, ourtedr gdvdkjpnd`t gdvdkjpnd`t jo ted vckkmfd tjji pkmld mrju`g njtjrwmy c`tdrsdltcj`s c`tdrsdltcj`s wcte ted rmckwmy m`g j`d jo ted nmc` rjmgs. (=67)


Xmfd 17

4.1.

Fmkkdry

Wed ocrst pclturd sejws ted kmyjut jo m` mrt fmkkdry, m`g ted sdlj`g sejws sjnd prjpjsdg lem`fds tj ted fmkkdry spmld. Ct cs lkdmr temt scf`coclm`t lem`fds wckk ad nmgd c` tdrns jo ted usd jo okjjr spmld c` ted fmkkdry. Wedrd wckk ad m ljnpkdtdky `dw d`trm`ld m`g njrd spmld ojr dxecactcj`s. Mt prdsd`t, prdsd `t, vcsctjrs vcsc tjrs d`tdr d`t dr ted fmkkdry terjufe gjjrs g jjrs wecle wec le kdmg c`tj m kjaay. Ejwdvdr, Ejw dvdr, ted t ed pkm` cs tj njvd ted d`trm`ld tj ted Xmric`sj` Ljurt scgd jo ted auckgc`f, m`g vcsctjrs wckk wmki strmcfet c`tj ted dxecactcj` mrdm. C` pkmld jo ted kjaay m`g joocld mrdms, wecle mrd sejw` j` ted dxcstc`f pkm`, ted `dw fmkkdry pkm` sejws m` dgulmtcj` mrdm m`g m snmkk stjrmfd mrdm. Wed pdrnm`d`t dxecactcj` spmld c` ted rdgdvdkjpdg fmkkdry wckk ad majut twcld ms kmrfd ms ct cs `jw adlmusd ct wckk jllupy ted mrdm temt cs `jw usdg ojr tdnpjrmry dxecactcj`s. Wedrd wckk mksj ad m `dw rjjn ojr spdlcmk dxecactcj`s. Wecs rjjn cs sejw` c` rdg j` ted dxcstc`f pkm` m`g cs `jt lurrd`tky pmrt jo ted fmkkdry. (=65 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd 14

4.<.

Ejusd gdscf`

Wed gcmfrmns sejw ejw ejusd gdscf`s gcoodr mlljrgc`f tj lkcnmtd. Wed njst `jtcldmakd gcoodrd`ld adtwdd` ejusds gdscf`dg ojr ljjk m`g wmrn lkcnmtds cs c` ted sempd jo ted rjjo. Wed gdscf`s mksj gcoodr wcte rdfmrg tj ted wc`gjws m`g ted usd jo c`sukmtcj`. Vd lm` sdd temt ted ljjk lkcnmtd ejusd ems m ecfe-m`fkdg rjjo, wecle mkkjws su`kcfet tj d`tdr terjufe ted wc`gjw. Ay lj`trmst, ted rjjo jo ted wmrn lkcnmtd ejusd ems m pdmi c` ted ncggkd m`g rjjo jvdrem`fs tj semgd ted wc`gjws. C`sukmtcj` m`g tedrnmk auckgc`f nmtdrcmks mrd usdg c` ljjk lkcnmtds tj rdguld edmt kjss, wedrdms c`sukmtcj` m`g rdokdltcvd nmtdrcmks mrd usdg tj iddp ted edmt jut c` wmrn lkcnmtds. Oc`mkky, ted ljjk lkcnmtd ejusd ems j`d wc`gjw wecle omlds ted gcrdltcj` jo ted su`, weckd ted wmrn lkcnmtd ejusd ems wc`gjws j` twj scgds wecle mrd semgdg orjn ted su`. Ay jpd`c`f ted twj wc`gjws mt `cfet, ted ejusd gdscf`dg ojr wmrn lkcnmtds lm` ad vd`tckmtdg. (=?1 wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd 1?

4.7.

1 prjpjsdg supdrnmridt

Wed nmp adkjw cs jo ted tjw` jo Fmrksgj`. M `dw supdrnmridt (\) cs pkm``dg ojr ted tjw`. Wed nmp sejws twj pjsscakd sctds ojr ted supdrnmridt.

Wed nmp sejws twj pjtd`tcmk kjlmtcj`s kjlmtcj`s (\= m`g \1) ojr m `dw supdrnmridt c` m tjw` lmkkdg Fmrksgj`. Wed nmc` gcoodrd`ld adtwdd` ted twj sctds cs temt \= cs jutscgd ted tjw`, wedrdms \1 cs c` ted tjw` ld`trd. Wed sctds lm` mksj ad ljnpmrdg c` tdrns jo mlldss ay rjmg jr rmck, m`g tedcr pjsctcj`s rdkmtcvd tj terdd snmkkdr tjw`s. Kjjic`f mt ted còjrnmtcj` c` njrd gdtmck, \= cs c` ted lju`tryscgd tj ted `jrte wdst jo Fmrksgj`, aut ct cs lkjsd tj ted rdscgd`tcmk mrdm jo ted tjw`. \1 cs mksj lkjsd tj ted ejusc`f mrdm, wecle surrju`gs ted tjw` ld`trd. Wedrd mrd nmc` rjmgs orjn Ec`gj`, Arm`sgj` m`g Lrm`sgj` tj Fmrksgj` tjw` ld`trd, aut tecs cs m `j trmoocl zj`d, sj tedrd wjukg ad `j mlldss tj \1 ay lmr. Ay lj`trmst, \= kcds j` ted nmc` rjmg tj Ec`gj`, aut ct wjukg ad njrd gcooclukt tj rdmle orjn Arm`sgj` m`g Lrm`sgj`. Ajte supdrnmridt sctds mrd lkjsd tj ted rmckwmy temt ru`s terjufe Fmrksgj` orjn Ec`gj` tj Lrm`sgj`. (=6=)


Xmfd 16

?. Xrjldss ?.=.

Wcps ojr prjldss gcmfrmn

Xrjldss gcmfrmns sejw ejw sjndtec`f cs gj`d jr nmgd. Wedy mkwmys sejw stdps/stmfds. Edrd's sjnd mgvcld majut ejw tj gdslrcad tedn2 •

Wry tj wrctd 7 pmrmfrmpes - c`trjgultcj`, sunnmry jo nmc` pjc`ts, 1 gdtmck pmrmfrmpes.

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Vrctd ted c`trjgultcj` ay pmrmpermsc`f ted qudstcj` (rdwrctd ct ay lem`fc`f sjnd jo ted wjrgs).

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Ojr yjur sunnmry, ocrst smy ejw nm`y stdps tedrd mrd c` ted prjldss. Wed` smy wedrd/ejw ted prjldss adfc`s m`g d`gs (kjji mt ted ocrst m`g kmst stmfds). C` pmrmfrmpes < m`g 7, gdslrcad ted prjldss stdp ay stdp. C`lkugd ted ocrst m`g kmst stdps temt yju nd`tcj`dg c` ted sunnmry, aut try tj gdslrcad tedn c` njrd gdtmck jr c` m gcoodrd`t wmy. Sju ljukg gdslrcad ted stdps c` j`d pmrmfrmpe, aut ct kjjis njrd jrfm`csdg co yju ardmi ted gdslrcptcj` gdslrcptcj` c`tj twj pmrmfrmpes. Bust stmrt pmrmfrmpe 7 sjndwedrd c` ted ncggkd jo ted prjldss. Nd`tcj` dvdry stmfd c` ted prjldss. Tsd 'sdqud`lc`f' km`fumfd d.f. mt ted ocrst / sdlj`g / ojkkjwc`f / oc`mk stmfd jo ted prjldss, `dxt, motdr temt, ted`, oc`mkky dtl. Wcnds (d.f. pmst gmtds) mrd `jt usumkky sejw`, sj usd ted prdsd`t scnpkd td`sd. Ct's usumkky m fjjg cgdm tj usd ted pmsscvd d.f. 'Mt ted oc`mk stmfd, ted prjgult cs gdkcvdrdg tj sejps' (adlmusd wd gj`'t `ddg tj i`jw wej gdkcvdrdg ted prjgult).


Xmfd 15

?.1.

Ojrdlmst c` Mustrmkcm

Wed gcmfrmn adkjw sejws ejw ted Mustrmkcm` Aurdmu jo Ndtdjrjkjfy ljkkdlts up- tj-ted- ncùtd còjrnmtcj` j` ted wdmtedr c` jrgdr tj prjguld rdkcmakd ojrdlmsts.

Wed ocfurd ckkustrmtds ted prjldss usdg ay ted Mustrmkcm` Aurdmu jo Ndtdjrjkjfy tj ojrdlmst ted wdmtedr. Wedrd mrd ojur stmfds c` ted prjldss, adfc``c`f adfc``c`f wcte ted ljkkdltcj` jo còjrnmtcj` majut ted wdmtedr. Wecs còjrnmtcj` cs ted` m`mkysdg, prdpmrdg ojr prdsd`tmtcj`, m`g oc`mkky arjmglmst tj ted puakcl. Kjjic`f mt ted ocrst m`g sdlj`g stmfds jo ted prjldss, tedrd mrd terdd wmys jo ljkkdltc`f wdmtedr gmtm m`g terdd wmys jo m`mkysc`f ct. Ocrstky, c`ljnc`f còjrnmtcj` lm` ad rdldcvdg ay smtdkkctd m`g prdsd`tdg ojr m`mkyscs ms m smtdkkctd pejtj. Wed smnd gmtm lm` mksj ad pmssdg tj m rmgmr stmtcj` m`g prdsd`tdg j` m rmgmr slrdd` jr sy`jptcl lemrt. \dlj`gky, c`ljnc`f còjrnmtcj` nmy ad ljkkdltdg gcrdltky ay rmgmr m`g m`mkysdg j` m rmgmr slrdd` jr sy`jptcl lemrt. Oc`mkky, grcotc`f grcotc`f aujys mksj rdldcvd gmtm wecle lm` ad sejw` j` m sy`jptcl lemrt. Mt ted te d tecrg te crg stmfd stm fd jo ted prjldss, ted wdmtedr arjmglmst cs prdpmrdg prdp mrdg j` ljnputdrs. Oc`mkky, ct cs gdkcvdrdg tj ted puakcl j` tdkdvcscj`, j` ted rmgcj, jr ms m rdljrgdg tdkdpej`d m``ju`ldnd`t. (=68)


Xmfd 13

?.<.

Arcli nmùomltutc`f

Edrd mrd ny 1 nmc` pmrmfrmpes gdslrcac`f ted stdps2 Mt ted adfc``c`f ad fc``c`f jo ted t ed prjldss, lkmy cs guf orjn ted frju`g. frj u`g. Wed lkmy lk my cs put terjufe m ndtmk frcg, m`g m `g ct pmssds j`tj m rjkkdr wedrd ct cs ncxdg wcte sm`g m`g wmtdr. Motdr temt, ted lkmy lm` ad sempdg c`tj arclis c` twj wmys2 dctedr ct cs put c` m njukg, jr m wcrd luttdr cs usdg. Mt ted ojurte oju rte stmfd c` ted prjldss, prj ldss, ted lkmy arclis mrd m rd pkmldg c` m gryc`f jvd` jvd ` ojr j`d tj t j twj gmys. gmys . @dxt, ted arclis mrd edmtdg c` m ick` mt m njgdrmtd tdnpdrmturd (188 - 388 gdfrdds Ldkscus) m`g ted` mt m ecfe tdnpdrmturd (up tj =<88 gdfrdds), adojrd spd`gc`f twj tj terdd gmys c` m ljjkc`f lemnadr. Oc`mkky, ted oc`csedg arclis mrd pmlimfdg m`g gdkcvdrdg.


Xmfd <8

?.7.

Vmtdr lylkd

Wed gcmfrmn adkjw sejws ted wmtdr lylkd, wecle cs ted lj`tcùjus njvdnd`t jo wmtdr j`, majvd m`g adkjw ted suromld jo ted Dmrte.

Wed pclturd ckkustrmtds ted wmy c` wecle wmtdr pmssds orjn jldm` tj mcr tj km`g gurc`f ted `mturmk prjldss i`jw` ms ted wmtdr lylkd. Werdd nmc` stmfds mrd sejw` j` ted gcmfrmn. Jldm` wmtdr dvmpjrmtds, omkks ms rmc`, m`g dvd`tumkky ru`s amli c`tj ted jldm`s mfmc`. Adfc``c`f mt ted dvmpjrmtcj` stmfd, wd lm` sdd temt 58% jo wmtdr vmpjur c` ted mcr ljnds orjn ted jldm`s. Edmt orjn ted su` lmusds wmtdr tj dvmpjrmtd, m`g wmtdr vmpjur lj`gd`sds tj ojrn lkjugs. Mt ted sdlj`g stmfd, kmadkkdg ―prdlcpctmtcj`– j` ted gcmfrmn, wmtdr omkks ms rmc` jr s`jw. Mt ted t ed tecrg stmfd c` ted lylkd, rmc`wmtdr nmy tmid vmrcjus pmtes. \jnd jo ct nmy omkk c`tj kmids jr rdtur` rd tur` tj ted jldm`s vcm ―suromld ru`joo–. Jtedrwcsd, rmc`wmtdr nmy ocktdr terjufe ted frju`g, rdmlec`f ted cnpdrvcjus kmydr jo ted dmrte. \mkt wmtdr c`truscj` cs sejw` tj tmid pkmld bust adojrd frju`gwmtdr pmssds c`tj ted jldm`s tj ljnpkdtd ted lylkd. (=4? wjrgs, am`g 3)


Xmfd <=

6. Jtedr tcps 6.=.

Wwj gcoodrd`t lemrts

\jndtcnds yju mrd fcvd` twj gcoodrd`t lemrts d.f. m kc`d frmpe m`g m amr lemrt, jr m amr lemrt m`g m pcd lemrt. Ejw tj gdslrcad twj gcoodrd`t lemrts c` 7 pmrmfrmpes2 •

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Nd`tcj` dmle lemrt c` ted c`trjgultcj`. c`trjgultcj`. \jndtcnds ct's dmscdr tj wrctd m sd`td`ld ojr dmle. Gdslrcad ted nmc` odmturd jo dmle lemrt. Co tedrd cs m lj``dltcj` adtwdd` ted lemrts, gdslrcad gdslrcad ct. Gdslrcad ted ocrst lemrt. Gdslrcad ted sdlj`g lemrt.

Oc`g Lmnarcgfd CDKW\ 7, pmfd 47, wecle sejws m kc`d frmpe m`g m pcd lemrt. Wed frmpe adkjw sejws ted gdnm`g ojr dkdltrclcty c` D`fkm`g gurc`f typclmk gmys c` wc`tdr m`g sunndr. Wed pcd lemrt sejws ejw dkdltrclcty cs usdg c` m` mvdrmfd D`fkcse ejnd. \unnmrcsd ted còjrnmtcj` ay sdkdltc`f m`g rdpjrtc`f ted nmc` odmturds, m`g nmid ljnpmrcsj`s wedrd rdkdvm`t.


Xmfd <1

Edrd cs ny c`trjgultcj` m`g sunnmry pmrmfrmpe ojr ted majvd qudstcj`2 Wed kc`d frmpe ljnpmrds gmcky dkdltrclcty lj`sunptcj` c` D`fkm`g gurc`f ted wc`tdr m`g sunndr, weckd ted pcd lemrt sejws còjrnmtcj` majut ted gcoodrd`t usds jo tecs dkdltrclcty c` m` mvdrmfd D`fkcse ejusdejkg. Ct cs lkdmr temt D`fkcse ejnds usd mrju`g gjuakd ted mnju`t jo dkdltrclcty c` ted wc`tdr ljnpmrdg tj ted sunndr. Werjufejut ted ydmr, bust jvdr emko jo ted dkdltrclcty lj`sundg ay D`fkcse ejusdejkgs cs usdg ojr edmtc`f rjjns m`g wmtdr. 6.1.

Vemt tj gj

Kjji ojr tec`fs kcid2 •

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6.<.

ted ocrst m`g kmst ydmrs ecfedst m`g kjwdst acffdst lem`fd jvdrmkk trd`g (lem`fd) j`d `jtcldmakd ùnadr ojr dmle ctdn (lju`try dtl.) Jvdrvcdw `jt lj`lkuscj`

Sju gj`'t `ddg tj wrctd m lj`lkuscj` ojr CDKW\ wrctc`f tmsi =. Sju `ddg tj wrctd m` "jvdrvcdw" jo ted còjrnmtcj`. Aut wey gj`'t yju `ddg tj wrctd m lj`lkuscj`: Vemt's ted gcoodrd`ld adtwdd` m lj`lkuscj` m`g m` jvdrvcdw: Ocrst, m lj`lkuscj` cs rdmkky m oc`mk bugfdnd`t, gdlcscj` jr jpc`cj`. Wecs cs pdrodlt ojr ted tmsi 1 dssmy, aut tmsi = msis yju tj wrctd m gdslrcptcj` wctejut m`mkyscs jr jpc`cj`s. J` ted jtedr em`g, m` "jvdrvcdw" cs m scnpkd gdslrcptcj` gdslrcptcj` jo ted nmc` pjc`ts. Ct cs m sunnmry jo ted còjrnmtcj` sejw` c` ted frmpe jr lemrt. \dlj`g, m lj`lkuscj` sejukg ad mt ted d`g jo m pcdld jo wrctc`f. M` jvdrvcdw jr fd`drmk sunnmry ljukg fj dctedr mt ted d`g jr `dmr ted adfc``c`f. Xdrsj`mkky, C tecì ct's m fjjg cgdm tj gdslrcad ted nmc` odmturds jo ted frmpe jr lemrt `dmr ted adfc``c`f jo yjur dssmy. \j, ny suffdstdg dssmy strulturd ojr tmsi = kjjis kcid tecs2 •

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C`trjgultcj`2 C`trjgultcj`2 wemt gjds ted lemrt sejw: Jvdrvcdw / sunnmry2 wemt mrd ted njst `jtcldmakd odmturds: \pdlcocl gdtmcks2 try tj wrctd 1 pmrmfrmpes.


Xmfd <<

Dxmnpkd jo m` jvdrvcdw

C try tj wrctd twj sd`td`lds ojr ny jvdrvcdw, sj C kjji ojr twj nmc` pjc`ts jr trd`gs. C gj`'t usumkky nd`tcj` m`y ùnadrs adlmusd C smvd tedn ojr ny 'gdtmcks' pmrmfrmpes. Dxmnpkd jvdrvcdw2 Ct cs lkdmr temt Lm`mgm dxpjrtdg njrd wedmt tem` Mustrmkcm m`g ted Durjpdm` Ljnnu`cty ojr njst jo ted pdrcjg sejw`. Ejwdvdr, weckd Lm`mgm's wedmt dxpjrts okultumtdg m`g Mustrmkcm's odkk, wedmt dxpjrts orjn ted Durjpdm` Ljnnu`cty rjsd stdmgcky. 6.7.

Fd`drmk tdle`cqud

Kdt's rdvcdw ted mpprjmle (ndtejg / tdle`cqud) temt C suffdst ojr wrctc`f tmsi =. Sjur tmsi = dssmy sejukg lj`tmc` terdd dkdnd`ts2 Sju `ddg m sejrt c`trjgultcj` tj dxpkmc` wemt ted frmpe, lemrt jr gcmfrmn sejws. Wed dmscdst wmy tj wrctd tecs cs ay pmrmpermsc`f ted qudstcj`. Wed dxmnc`dr wckk ad cnprdssdg co yju lm` pmrmpermsd doodltcvdky. Sju `ddg m` jvdrvcdw jo ted còjrnmtcj`. Wecs ndm`s temt yju `ddg tj kjji mt ted "acf pclturd", `jt ted c`gcvcgumk gdtmcks. C rdljnnd`g wrctc`f m sejrt pmrmfrmpe wcte twj sd`td`lds temt sunnmrcsd twj nmc` tec`fs temt yju lm` sdd j` ted lemrt. Co yju ojrfdt ted jvdrvcdw, yju'kk fdt m kjwdr sljrd. Oc`mkky, yju `ddg tj gdslrcad sjnd spdlcocl gdtmcks. Wecs cs wedrd yju sdkdlt, gdslrcad m`g ljnpmrd c`gcvcgumk pcdlds jo còjrnmtcj` (usumkky ùnadrs). C try tj sdpmrmtd tecs gdslrcptcj` jo gdtmcks c`tj twj pmrmfrmpes.


Xmfd <7

6.4.

\ejws, ljnpmrds, ckkustrmtds

C jotd` nddt stugd`ts wej emvd kdmr`t td` gcoodrd`t wmys tj pmrmpermsd "ted frmpe sejws". Co yju kjji c` m gcltcj`mry, yju'kk oc`g nm`y sy`j`yns ojr ted wjrg "sejw" (d.f. gcspkmy, dxecact, pmrmgd, gdpclt, lj`vdy). Aut cs ct m fjjg cgdm tj usd tedsd sy`j`yns: Wed m`swdr cs `j. Ocrst, njst sy`j`yns jo ted wjrg "sejw" mrd `jt mpprjprcmtd ojr gdslrcptcj`s jo m frmpe jr lemrt. Wed permsd "ted frmpe dxecacts" wckk kjji vdry strm`fd tj ted dxmnc`dr. \dlj`g, co yju kdmr` td` sy`j`yns, yju'kk prjamaky wmstd tcnd gdlcgc`f wecle j`d tj usd. C tdkk ny stugd`ts tj rdndnadr bust twj sy`j`yns ojr "sejws"2 ljnpmrds m`g ckkustrmtds (d.f. ted amr lemrt ljnpmrds9 ted gcmfrmn ckkustrmtds). Ct wj`'t edkp yjur sljrd co yju usd m strm`fd sy`j`yn temt yju oju`g c` m gcltcj`mry. 6.?.

Dmsy c`trjgultcj`

Wmsi = c`trjgultcj`s sejukg ad omst m`g dmsy. Bust pmrmpermsd ted qudstcj` stmtdnd`t (rdwrctd ct c` yjur jw` wjrgs). Co yju prmltcsd tecs tdle`cqud, yju wckk ad makd tj stmrt ted wrctc`f tdst wcte ljòcgd`ld. ljòcgd`ld. Kjji mt tecs qudstcj` stmtdnd`t orjn Lmnarcgfd CDKW\ ajji 1, pmfd 342 Wed tmakd adkjw sejws ted ocfurds ojr cnprcsj`nd`t c` ocvd lju`trcds adtwdd` =3<8 m`g =358. C'kk lem`fd < dkdnd`ts jo tecs sd`td`ld2 •

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tmakd sejws > amr lemrt ljnpmrds ocfurds ojr cnprcsj`nd`t > ùnadr jo pdjpkd c` prcsj` adtwdd`... m`g... > jvdr m pdrcjg jo

\j, edrd's ny pmrmpermsdg c`trjgultcj`2 Wed amr lemrt ljnpmrds ted ùnadr jo pdjpkd c` prcsj` c` ocvd gcoodrd`t lju`trcds jvdr m pdrcjg jo 48 ydmrs. 6.6.

Mfds m`g mfd frjups

Ct's dmsy tj nmid snmkk ncstmids wed` gdslrcac`f mfds m`g mfd frjups. Edrd mrd sjnd dxmnpkds temt sejukg edkp. J`d pdrsj`2 •

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Ed cs =8 ydmrs jkg. Ed cs m =8-ydmr-jkg. =8-ydmr-jkg. Ed cs mfdg =8.


Xmfd <4

Njrd tem` j`d pdrsj`2 •

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Wed leckgrd` c` ted lkmss mrd mkk =8 ydmrs jkg. Ct cs m lkmss jo =8-ydmr-jkgs (jr "=8-ydmr-jkg leckgrd`"). Wed leckgrd` c` ted lkmss mrd mkk mfdg =8.

Mfd frjups wcte njrd tem` j`d pdrsj`2 •

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Wed lemrt sejws ted prdodrrdg ejaacds ejaacds jo leckgrd` (wej mrd) adtwdd` =8 m`g =1 ydmrs jkg. Wed lemrt sejws ted prdodrrdg ejaacds jo =8- tj =1-ydmr-jkgs (jr "=8- tj =1-ydmr-jkg leckgrd`"). Wed lemrt sejws ted prdodrrdg ejaacds jo leckgrd` mfdg =8 tj =1.

@jtd2 Co yju ncss ted eyped`s (-), ct's `jt m acf prjakdn. Ct wj`'t moodlt yjur sljrd. 6.5.

Xcd lemrt m`g tmakd

Co yju fdt m qudstcj` kcid tecs j`d orjn Lmnarcgfd CDKW\ ajji 5, yju gj`'t `ddg tj wjrry majut ljnpmrc`f ted twj lemrts. Bust gdslrcad tedn sdpmrmtdky2 •

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C`trjgultcj`2 C`trjgultcj`2 smy wemt dmle lemrt sejws Jvdrvcdw2 wrctd j`d fd`drmk sd`td`ld majut ted pcd lemrt, m`g j`d majut ted tmakd Gdtmcks2 gdslrcad ted pcd lemrt Gdtmcks2 gdslrcad ted tmakd

Edrd's m` dxmnpkd 'jvdrvcdw'. @jtcld temt C wrctd m sdpmrmtd sd`td`ld majut dmle lemrt, m`g C pmrmpermsd sdvdrmk jo ted wjrgs orjn ted qudstcj`. Jvdrvcdw (pmrmfrmpe 1)2 Ct cs lkdmr orjn ted pcd lemrt temt tedrd mrd terdd prc`lcpmk rdmsj`s wey omrnkm`g adljnds gdfrmgdg, gdfrmgdg, m`g jvdr-frmzc`f cs ted nmc` j`d. Wed tmakd sejws temt Durjpd emg m omr ecfedr prjpjrtcj` jo u`prjgultcvd km`g tem` Jldm`cm jr @jrte Mndrclm c` ted =338s. Wmsi2 Oc`g Wmsi2 Oc`g ted dxmnpkds jo pmrmpermsc`f c` ted pmrmfrmpe majvd.


Xmfd
6.3.

Mvjcg ljnnj` ncstmids

Edrd's sjnd mgvcld tj edkp yju mvjcg ljnnj` ncstmids c` CDKW\ wrctc`f tmsi =2 =. Gj`'t ljpy ted qudstcj` ojr yjur c`trjgultcj`. Sju sejukg pmrmpermsd ted qudstcj` (c.d. rdwrctd ct usc`f sjnd gcoodrd`t wjrgs). 1. Gj`'t ojrfdt tj sdpmrmtd yjur pmrmfrmpes lkdmrky. <. Gj`'t ojrfdt tj wrctd m fjjg sunnmry/jvdrvcdw jo ted còjrnmtcj`. M qucli j`d-sd`td`ld lj`lkuscj` cs `jt fjjg d`jufe. C prdodr tj put ted jvdrvcdw strmcfet motdr ted c`trjgultcj`, m`g C Vrctc`f Wmsi = - \cnj`

Xmfd <6

try tj wrctd 1 sd`td`lds gdslrcac`f ted còjrnmtcj` c` fd`drmk. Sju wj`'t fdt m ecfe sljrd co yju gj`'t wrctd m fjjg jvdrvcdw. 7. Gj`'t gdslrcad ctdns sdpmrmtdky (d.f. 1 kc`ds j` m frmpe). Sju sejukg mkwmys try tj ljnpmrd tec`fs co ct cs pjsscakd tj gj sj. C`stdmg jo gdslrcac`f 1 kc`ds sdpmrmtdky, ljnpmrd ted 1 kc`ds mt idy pjc`ts. 4. Gj`'t try tj gdslrcad dvdry ùnadr j` m lemrt jr frmpe (u`kdss tedrd mrd j`ky m odw ùnadrs). M idy sickk c` tmsi = cs adc`f makd tj lejjsd ted idy còjrnmtcj` m`g gdslrcad jr ljnpmrd ct wdkk. C usumkky nd`tcj` mrju`g ? jr 6 ùnadrs c` ny nmc` pmrmfrmpes. ?. Gj`'t spd`g kj`fdr tem` 18 ncùtds j` tmsi =. Xrmltcsd spd`gc`f 4 ncùtds j` dmle jo yjur 7 pmrmfrmpes. pmrmfrmpes. \tjp yjursdko motdr 18 ncùtds9 rdndnadr temt tmsi 1 cs wjrte njrd nmris. 6.=8.

Xmst scnpkd, pmst pdrodlt

Kjji mt ted ojkkjwc`f gdslrcptcj`2 C` 1881, ted ljst jo m` mvdrmfd ejusd c` ted TI wms mrju`g £=<8,888. Ay 1886, ted mvdrmfd ejusd prcld emg rcsd` tj mknjst £=38,888, aut ct odkk amli tj bust u`gdr £=48,888 c` 1885. @jtcld ted vdras usdg wcte "c`" m`g "ay"2 •

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6.==.

C usdg "c`" wcte ted pmst scnpkd (wms, odkk). C usdg "ay" wcte ted pmst pdrodlt (emg rcsd`) tj fcvd ted cgdm temt ted c`lrdmsd emg emppd`dg c` ted ydmrs kdmgc`f up tj 1886. Wj mvjcg wjrryc`f majut "ay + pmst pdrodlt" yju ljukg wrctd2 "Adtwdd` 1881 m`g 1886, ted mvdrmfd ejusd prcld rjsd tj..." Wed smnd km`fumfd

Xdjpkd sjndtcnds msi nd tj tdmle tedn "ted km`fumfd ojr pcd lemrts" jr "ted km`fumfd ojr tmakds". C tdkk tedn temt tedy mkrdmgy i`jw ct. Wed km`fumfd ojr ted ojkkjwc`f 7 typds jo lemrt cs ted smnd2 •

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Kc`d frmpes Amr lemrts Xcd lemrts Wmakds

Wedsd 7 typds jo lemrt mkk sejw ted smnd tec`f2 ùnadrs. Sju lm` usumkky tmid ted smnd sdt jo ùnadrs m`g prdsd`t tedn c` dctedr jo tedsd 7 wmys. Wed km`fumfd yju usd tj gdslrcad tedn wckk `jt lem`fd. \j wemt typd jo km`fumfd mrd yju fjc`f tj usd: Sju `ddg tj ad makd tj =) gdslrcad ùnadrs 1) ljnpmrd gcoodrd`t ùnadrs <) gdslrcad lem`fds c` ùnadrs (c`lrdmsd, gdlrdmsd dtl.). Dmsy! 6.=1.

Wjj nm`y sy`j`yns

\jnd stugd`ts kdmr` =8 gcoodrd`t wmys tj wrctd ted wjrg "sejws" (d.f. ted frmpe sejws). Wedy oc`g wjrgs kcid gdpclts, c`gclmtds, rdvdmks, gcspkmys, dxecacts dtl. Aut `j`d jo tedsd wjrgs mrd rdmkky mpprjprcmtd ojr ted ic`g jo dssmy wd mrd wrctc`f. C mgvcsd ny stugd`ts tj iddp ct scnpkd m`g mvjcg nmic`f ncstmids. Bust kdmr` j`d jr twj gcoodrd`t wmys tj wrctd ted smnd tec`f. Ojr dxmnpkd2 Vrctc`f Wmsi = - \cnj`

Xmfd <5

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6.=<.

sejws > ckkustrmtds / ljnpmrds frmpe > kc`d frmpe lemrt > amr lemrt / pcd lemrt ted ùnadr jo > ted ocfurd ojr c`lrdmsdg > rjsd / smw m` c`lrdmsd / tedrd wms m rcsd Gdslrcac`f pdrld`tmfds

Edrd mrd < usdouk tdle`cquds ojr gdslrcac`f pdrld`tmfds2 •

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D`fkcse spdmidrs usumkky put ted pdrld`tmfd mt ted stmrt jo ted sd`td`ld. Tsd weckd, wedrdms jr ljnpmrdg tj (motdr m ljnnm) tj mgg m ljnpmrcsj`. Tsd "ted ocfurd ojr" tj mgg m`jtedr ljnpmrcsj` ljnpmrcsj` c` ted `dxt sd`td`ld.

Tsd tedsd dxmnpkds ms njgdks ojr yjur jw` sd`td`lds2 C` =333, <4% jo Arctcse pdjpkd wd`t marjmg ojr tedcr ejkcgmys, weckd j`ky 15% jo Mustrmkcm`s spd`t tedcr ejkcgmys c` m gcoodrd`t lju`try. Wed ocfurd ojr ted T\M stjjg mt <=%. Mrju`g 78% jo wjnd` wj nd` c` ted te d TI emg m` u`gdrfrmgumtd u` gdrfrmgumtd qumkcoclmtcj` c` =333, = 333, ljnpmrdg lj npmrdg tj <6% < 6% jo j o nd`. nd` . Wed ocfurds ojr ted ydmr 1888 rjsd skcfetky tj 71% m`g <5% rdspdltcvdky. rdspdltcvdky. 6.=7.

Gjuakd, twcld ms, twjojkg

M odw stugd`ts emvd msidg nd majut ejw tj usd 'gjuakd', 'twcld ms', 'terdd tcnds', 'twjojkg', 'terddojkg' dtl. Ljnpmrd ejw dmle wjrg/permsd cs usdg c` ted ojkkjwc`f dxmnpkds2 =. 'gjuakd' (vdra) Wed ùnadr jo u`dnpkjydg pdjpkd gjuakdg adtwdd` 1884 m`g 1883. 1. 'twcld ms...ms/ljnpmrdg tj', 'terdd tcnds ms...ms/ljnpmrdg tj'

Wedrd wdrd twcld ms nm`y u`dnpkjydg pdjpkd c` 1883 ms c` 1884. Wwcld ms nm`y pdjpkd wdrd u`dnpkjydg c` 1883 ljnpmrdg tj 1884. <. 'twjojkg', 'terddojkg' (mgbdltcvd jr mgvdra) Wedrd wms m twjojkg c`lrdmsd c` ted ùnadr jo u`dnpkjydg pdjpkd adtwdd` 1884 m`g 1883. (mgbdltcvd wcte ted `ju` 'c`lrdmsd') 'c`lrdmsd') Wed ùnadr jo u`dnpkjydg pdjpkd c`lrdmsdg twjojkg adtwdd` 1884 m`g 1883. (mgvdra wcte ted vdra 'c`lrdmsd') Wry usc`f tedsd ojrns c` yjur jw` sd`td`lds. Nmid surd yju ojkkjw ted pmttdr`s.


Xmfd <3

6.=4.

@ju`s m`g vdras

Ved` gdslrcac`f lem`fds C prdodr tj mvjcg wjrgs kcid sjmr, rjlidt m`g pkunndt adlmusd tedy mrd tjj "sd`smtcj`mkcst" "sd`smtcj`mkcst" - tedy dxmffdrmtd tjj nule, m`g mrd njrd bjur`mkcstcl tem` mlmgdncl c` stykd. C`stdmg, wd lm` gdnj`strmtd fjjg lj`trjk jo frmnnmr ay usc`f wjrgs kcid c`lrdmsd, rcsd m`g omkk ms ajte `ju`s m`g vdras2 •

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6.=?.

Kj`gj` smw m scf`coclm`t c`lrdmsd c` ted ljst jo ejnds. (`ju`) Wed ljst jo ejnds c` Kj`gj` c`lrdmsdg scf`coclm`tky. (vdra) Wedrd wms m rcsd c` ejusd prclds adtwdd` =338 m`g =334. (`ju`) Ejusd prclds rjsd adtwdd` =338 m`g =334. (vdra) Wedrd wms m 6% omkk c` ted mvdrmfd ejusd prcld c` Wjiyj. (`ju`) Wed mvdrmfd Wjiyj ejusd prcld odkk ay 6%. (vdra) Ejw tj usd 18 ncùtds

Sju emvd 18 ncùtds ojr tmsi =, sj try spd`gc`f 4 ncùtds j` dmle pmrmfrmpe. Wecs ncfet edkp yju tj jrfm`csd yjur tcnd adttdr. Ocrst 4 ncùtds Qdmg ted qudstcj`, nmid surd yju u`gdrstm`g ted lemrt, wrctd yjur c`trjgultcj` ay pmrmpermsc`f ted qudstcj`. \dlj`g 4 ncùtds Kjji mt ted lemrt m`g try tj oc`g 1 fd`drmk pjc`ts. Gj`'t kjji mt spdlcocl gdtmcks9 kjji ojr "ted acf pclturd". Vrctd 1 sd`td`lds sunnmrcsc`f ted còjrnmtcj`. Oc`mk =8 ncùtds Gdslrcad spdlcocl gdtmcks. Wry tj ardmi tecs pmrt c`tj 1 pmrmfrmpes adlmusd ct kjjis adttdr. Sju ljukg spd`g 4 ncùtds j` dmle pmrmfrmpe. 6.=6.

Wed jvdrvcdw

M lurrd`t dxmnc`dr rdld`tky tjkg nd temt ted njst ljnnj` ncstmid c` stugd`ts' stugd`ts ' tmsi = dssmys cs temt tedrd cs `j jvdrvcdw. Wecs wms mksj trud wed` C wms m` dxmnc`dr. \j wemt nmids m fjjg jvdrvcdw: Edrd mrd m odw tcps2 •

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M` jvdrvcdw cs scnpky m sunnmry jo ted nmc` tec`fs yju lm` sdd. Adlmusd ted jvdrvcdw cs sj cnpjrtm`t, C rdljnnd`g puttc`f ct mt ted adfc``c`f jo yjur dssmy, bust motdr motd r ted c`trjgultcj` c`t rjgultcj` sd`td`ld. sd `td`ld. C wrctd twj jvdrvcdw sd`td`lds. M j`d-sd`td`ld jvdrvcdw cs`'t rdmkky d`jufe. Wry `jt tj c`lkugd spdlcocl ùnadrs c` ted jvdrvcdw. \mvd ted spdlcocls ojr kmtdr pmrmfrmpes. Kjji mt ted 'acf pclturd' d.f. ted jvdrmkk lem`fd orjn ted ocrst ydmr tj ted kmst ydmr (co ydmrs mrd sejw` j` ted lemrt), ted gcoodrd`lds adtwdd` wejkd lmtdfjrcds rmtedr tem` sc`fkd ùnadrs, jr ted tjtmk ùnadr jo stmfds c` m prjldss.


Xmfd 78

Emvd m`jtedr kjji mt ted jvdrvcdw pmrmfrmpes (pmrmfrmpe 1) c` ted dssmys C'vd wrcttd` edrd j` ted sctd. M`mkysd tedn te dn lmrdoukky, lmrdoukk y, m`g prmltcsd prmltcs d wrctc`f yjur jw` jvdrvcdws jv drvcdws c` ted smnd smn d wmy. 6.=5.

Xmrmpermsc`f

Wed dmscdst wmy tj stmrt yjur Wmsi = dssmy cs ay pmrmpermsc`f ted qudstcj`. Xmrmpermsc`f ndm`s wrctc`f sjndtec`f c` m gcoodrd`t wmy (usc`f yjur jw` wjrgs). Edrd mrd sjnd scnpkd lem`fds yju lm` nmid2 •

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frmpe > kc`d frmpe lemrt > amr lemrt gcmfrmn > ocfurd sejws > ckkustrmtds (jr 'ljnpmrds' co ted frmpe cs ljnpmrc`f) prjpjrtcj` > pdrld`tmfd còjrnmtcj` > gmtm ted ùnadr jo > ted ocfurd ojr ted prjpjrtcj` jo > ted ocfurd ojr pdjpkd c` ted T\M > Mndrclm`s orjn =333 tj 1883 > adtwdd` =333 m`g 1883 orjn =333 tj 1883 > jvdr m pdrcjg jo =8 ydmrs ejw tj prjguld > ted prjldss jo prjgulc`f c` terdd lju`trcds > c` ted TI, Orm`ld m`g \pmc` (c.d. `mnd ted lju`trcds)

Wcp2 "Wed ocfurd ojr / ocfurds ojr" cs m frdmt permsd temt `jt nm`y pdjpkd usd (d.f. ted frmpe sejws ocfurds ojr u`dnpkjynd`t c` terdd lju`trcds). 6.=3.

Njrd tem` j`d lemrt

Nm`y stugd`ts mrd stckk wjrrcdg majut qudstcj`s wcte njrd tem` j`d lemrt. Edrd mrd sjnd tcps2 •

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6.18.

Co tedrd mrd 1 lemrts, tedy jotd` sejw gcoodrd`t còjrnmtcj`. Gj`'t wjrry majut ljnpmrc`f tedn. Bust gj2 c`trjgultcj`, jvdrvcdw, ted` j`d pmrmfrmpe ojr dmle lemrt. Co ted u`cts mrd gcoodrd`t (d.f. j`d lemrt sejws 'nckkcj`s' m`g ted jtedr sejws 'pdrld`tmfds'), 'pdrld`tmfds'), yju lm`'t usumkky ljnpmrd tedn. Co ted u`cts mrd ted smnd, yju lm` prjamaky ljnpmrd ted lemrts. Co tedrd mrd < jr 7 lemrts, yju lm` usumkky ljnpmrd tedn. Njrd tem` 1 frmpes “ lemrts jr tmakds

Edrd mrd sjnd tcps ojr wrctc`f majut 1 lemrts, frmpes jr tmakds2 =. C`trjgultcj` Vrctd j`d sd`td`ld, aut c`trjguld dmle lemrt sdpmrmtdky d.f. "Wed ocrst amr lemrt sejws..., m`g ted sdlj`g lemrt ckkustrmtds..." Vrctc`f Wmsi = - \cnj`

Xmfd 7=

1. \unnmry jo nmc` pjc`ts Vrctd 1 sd`td`lds. Co ted còjrnmtcj` còjrnmtcj` c` ted lemrts cs `jt lj``dltdg, oc`g j`d nmc` pjc`t jr fd`drmk trd`g ojr dmle lemrt. Co ted lemrts mrd lj``dltdg, try tj nmid ljnpmrcsj`s. <. Nmc` ajgy pmrmfrmpes Co ted 1 lemrts mrd ljnpkdtdky gcoodrd`t (d.f. m frmpe m`g m tmakd), wrctd m sdpmrmtd pmrmfrmpe majut dmle. Co ted lemrts mrd ted smnd, m`g sejw ted smnd còjrnmtcj` (d.f. 1 pcd lemrts), gj`'t gdslrcad tedn sdpmrmtdky9 ted dxmnc`dr wckk wm`t tj sdd ljnpmrcsj`s. C` tecs lmsd, yju ljukg wrctd j`d pmrmfrmpe gdslrcac`f mkk jo ted còjrnmtcj`, aut C stckk prdodr tj wrctd 1 pmrmfrmpes adlmusd ct nmids ted dssmy kjji njrd jrfm`csdg. 6.1=.

Wecìc`f stdps

Wjgmy C'n fjc`f tj dxpkmc` ny tecìc`f prjldss wed` C m`swdr m` CDKW\ Vrctc`f Wmsi = qudstcj`. Vd'kk usd tecs qudstcj` (Lmnarcgfd CDKW\ 6, pmfd <8)2 Wed tmakd adkjw fcvds còjrnmtcj` j` lj`sundr spd`gc`f j` gcoodrd`t ctdns c` ocvd gcoodrd`t lju`trcds c` 1881. Xdrld`tmfd jo `mtcj`mk lj`sundr dxpd`gcturd ay lmtdfjry - 1881

Adojrd C wjrry majut wemt km`fumfd tj usd, ct's rdmkky cnpjrtm`t tj u`gdrstm`g ted còjrnmtcj`, m`g gdlcgd ejw tj jrfm`csd ct. Wecs cs wemt C'n tecìc`f2 =. C i`jw temt C lm` wrctd m sejrt c`trjgultcj` ay pmrmpermsc`f ted qudstcj`. 1. C kjji ojr m` jvdrmkk trd`g. C lm` sdd temt ted ojjg/grcìs/tjamllj lmtdfjry ems ted ecfedst pdrld`tmfds, m`g kdcsurd/dgulmtcj` kdcsurd/dgulmtcj` ems ted kjwdst.


Xmfd 71

<. @jw C wm`t tj wrctd twj nmc` ajgy pmrmfrmpes. pmrmfrmpes. C `ddg tj sdkdlt sjndtec`f tj smy majut dmle lju`try. Qdndnadr, tedrd cs `j rukd majut wemt còjrnmtcj` yju sdkdlt9 dvdryj`d wckk gj tecs gcoodrd`tky. 7. C kjji ojr ted ecfedst ocfurds c` dmle lmtdfjry2 C lm` sdd temt Wuridy ems ted ecfedst ocfurd ojr ojjg/grcìs/tjamllj M@G ojr dgulmtcj`/kdcsurd. Ctmky ems ted ecfedst ocfurd ojr lkjtec`f/ojjtwdmr. 4. \j, C'kk wrctd m pmrmfrmpe majut Wuridy m`g Ctmky. ?. Ny oc`mk pmrmfrmpe `ddgs tj tmki majut Crdkm`g, \pmc` m`g \wdgd`. 6. Nmyad C'kk pjc`t jut temt Crdkm`g ems m ecfe ocfurd ojr ted ocrst lmtdfjry, \pmc` ems ted kjwdst ocfurd ojr dgulmtcj`/kdcsurd, dgulmtcj`/kdcsurd, m`g \wdgd` ems ted kjwdst ocfurds ojr ted ocrst M@G sdlj`g lmtdfjrcds. 5. C gj`'t `ddg m lj`lkuscj` adlmusd C emvd mkrdmgy nd`tcj`dg m fd`drmk trd`g c` pjc`t 1.


Xmfd 7<

IELTS Writing Task 1 Simon

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