IGCSE HISTORY ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES The examiners expect you to: • •
•
recall, select, organize and show your knowledge about a specific topic; show that you understand: • change & continuity, cause & consequence, similarity & difference; • the motives, emotions, intentions and beliefs of individuals in history; understand, interpret and use different sources as evidence of certain events, individuals or groups.
Your exam is made up of three papers: Papers 1, 2 & 4: •
Paper 1: (1 hour 45 minutes – divided into 2 sections) • Section A has 4 questions about 20th century history, answer any 2, • Section B is about Germany (1919-1945) and there are 2 questions, do 1. All the questions are structured into 3 parts and will be based on stimulus material i.e. there will be a picture or written source at the beginning of each question.
•
Paper 2: (2 hours – only 1 topic) • 20th century topic: The Treaty of Versailles
•
Paper 4: •
Do any one question on Germany 1919-1945
The 20th Century – International Relations since 1919 BIG QUESTION: Were the peace treaties (1919-23) fair? • • • •
What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles? Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted? What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923? Could the treaties be justified at the time? • • • •
Peace treaties of 1919-23 Roles of individuals like Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George on the peacemaking process The impact of the treaties on the defeated countries Modern opinions about the treaties
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIG QUESTION: To what extent was the League of Nations a success? • • • •
How How How How • • • •
successful was the League in the 1920’s? far did weaknesses in the League’s organization make failure inevitable? far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult? successful was the League in the 1930’s? League of Nations: strengths and weaknesses in its structure and organization Successes and failures in peacekeeping during the 1920’s The impact of the Great Depression on the work of the League after 1929 The failures of the League in the 1930’s, including Manchuria and Abyssinia
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIG QUESTION: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? • • • • • •
What were the long-term consequences of the 1919-23 peace treaties? What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930’s? How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939? Was the policy of appeasement justified? How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact? Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939? • The collapse of international order in the 1930’s • The increasing militarism of Germany, Italy and Japan (Axis Powers) • Hitler’s foreign policy to 1939: the Saar, remilitarization of the Rhineland, Anschluss with Austria, appeasement crises over Czechoslovakia and Poland • The outbreak of war
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIG QUESTION: Who was to blame for the Cold War? • • • • •
Why did the USA-USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945? How had the USSR gained control of Eastern Europe by 1948? How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism? What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade? Who was more to blame for starting the Cold War, the USA or the USSR?
• • •
The origins of the Cold War: the 1945 summit conferences and the breakdown of the USA-USSR alliance in 1945-6 Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe to 1948 and American reactions to it The occupation of Germany and the Berlin Blockade
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIG QUESTION: How effectively did the USA contain the spread of Communism? • •
America and events in Cuba, 1959-62 American involvement in Vietnam • Events of the Cold War: American involvement in Cuba from 1959 until 1962, reactions to the Cuban Revolution, the missile crisis and its aftermath & involvement in Vietnam
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIG QUESTION: How secure was the USSR’s control over Eastern Europe, 1948-1989? • • • • •
Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did the USSR react to this opposition? How similar were events in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968)? Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1962? What was the significance of Solidarity in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe? How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe? • Soviet power in Eastern Europe: resistance to Soviet power in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968) • Berlin Wall • Solidarity in Poland • Gorbachev and the collapse of the Soviet Empire
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CASE STUDY: Germany, 1919 – 1945 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start? • • • •
How did Germany emerge from defeat at the end of WW I? What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles on the Republic? To what extent did the Republic recover after 1923? What were the achievements of the Weimar Period?
Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934? • • • •
What did the Nazi Party stand for in the 1920’s? Why did the Nazi’s have little success before 1930? Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor by 1933? How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933-34?
The Nazi regime: how effectively did the Nazi’s control Germany from 1933-45? • • • •
How much opposition was there to the Nazi regime? How effectively did the Nazi’s deal with the political opponents? How did the Nazi’s persecute any groups in Germany society? Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?
The Nazi regime: what was it like to live in Nazi Germany? • How did young people react to the Nazi regime? • How successful were Nazi policies towards women and the family? • Did most people in Germany benefit from Nazi rule? • How did the coming of war change life in Nazi Germany? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sources Primary Sources: Primary sources are contemporary to the time studied (From that time). Secondary Sources: These sources come from after the time being studied. They are not contemporary. Newspapers: Newspapers are both primary and secondary. The photographs are primary, but the reports are not usually written by eyewitnesses, so are secondary. Therefore they contain both primary and secondary sources. Definition of a newspaper: ‘It should be an accurate account of what happened in the world, yesterday.’ This brings the conclusion that newspapers are mainly secondary. Reminiscences: When people reminisce, they are primary to the event, but what they say is secondary to the event. Reminiscences are unreliable for three reasons: exaggeration, lies and omission (they forget). Autobiographical Sources: Autobiographical Sources are seldom secondary: They are usually primary sources. Sources in the 20th Century: There is a multitude of new sources, mainly audio-visual archive material. There are many computer data formats. There is also more literacy leading to more records. There is such a flood of evidence, it is difficult to sift through it all. Fraud is easier this century. Sources can often contradict, and the state confidentiality on its documents makes research difficult. As we have not finished living the events, it is difficult to write about the results. Cartoon Symbolism Countries Britain:
Is usually represented by a John Bull figure (fat, prosperous, frock coat, gaiters, crumpled hat, Union Jack waistcoat) or by a Lion
USA:
She is usually shown as Uncle Sam (tall and thin, tall hat, wispy beard, striped trousers, stars on waistcoat) or by an eagle.
France: The typical symbol is either a cockerel or a girl revolutionary whose most characteristic garment is a pixie-style hat with a three-coloured cockade (roseta). Germany:
Its usual figure up to the First World War is the Kaiser with a big moustache in his military greatcoat and spiked, ‘pickel-haub’ helmet. Afterwards, of course, the typical Hitler figure and the swastika dominate.
Russia:
This country will be shown as a Cossack or other fur-hatted figure, sometimes drawn to resemble the Tsar (pre-1917), as a menacing figure, worker or soldier, featuring the Hammer and Sickle since the Revolution, or as a bear at any time.
Italy:
She is often shown as a young sailor in the past, though the Mussolini image dominates the inter-war years.
Japan:
The symbol for this country is the rising sun, but during her militaristic era she was also depicted as a ferocious, sword-wielding samurai warrior.
China:
This nation is shown as a pigtailed Chinese man with a long and flowing moustache, but is now characterized by the Chairman Mao figure in the typical gray unisex pants and jackets.
Other symbols Some other symbols which might appear are the fasces, a bundle of twigs bound together with an axe, representing Fascist Italy, or a single star on military equipment, which would be red in fact (though hardly so on an exam paper.) This indicates the Soviet or ‘red’ army. Colours Colours are often used or referred to in cartoons. The red, amber, amber green sequence of traffic lights may represent danger, warning and safety. Red also stands for Communism, especially Russian. Black and white (regrettably for the anti-racist lobby!) tend to stand for Darkness/Evil and Light/Good respectively. Black also represents Fascism (Mussolini’s Blackshirts and Hitler’s SS) and is supported by brown (Hitler’s SA). Yellow means Japan or China. Animals Animals other than those specific to countries (see above) which may be used are the snake (evil or danger), the rabbit (innocence or vulnerability) the donkey (stupidity), the raven (danger or death), the dove, with or without an olive branch (peace), the horse (dogged determination, persistence or hard work), the pig, (brutality), the sheep (docility or inability to think for oneself) and the cow (docility or stupidity). Flowers Flowers represent friendship or good will, with the laurel (wreath) meaning victory.
Changes in the Map of Europe (1914-1923)
(Refer to the maps showing Europe in 1914 and 1919 in your textbooks.) The peace treaties that ended the First World War (1914-1918) altered the political map of Europe. Allies
Central Powers (*)
Great Britain
Germany
France
Austria-Hungary
Russia (†)
Bulgaria
Belgium
Turkey
Italy (changed sides May 1915) USA (joined 1917) (*) The central powers were punished, they had to lose land and they had to pay reparations (payment for war damages) (†) Russia was also punished in 1919 because the Allies felt betrayed when Russia left the War early (3/3/1918, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) German Losses France regained Alsace-Lorraine. Posen-West Prussia went to Poland, forming a corridor to the coast. Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark. Troppau was given to Czechoslovakia. Austria and Germany were NOT allowed to unite. Austro-Hungarian Losses Austria and Hungary became two small, landlocked republics, Habsburg land was used to create two new states: Czechoslovakia in the north, and Yugoslavia in the south. Yugoslavia was formed from Austria and Serbia. Other countries gained land. Romania got Transylvania, and roughly doubled in size. Poland gained Galicia, Italy gained the Southern Tyrol. Bulgarian Losses Bulgaria loses Western Thrace to Greece. Turkish Losses Two treaties were signed with Turkey, in the first she lost land to Greece, and in the second it was returned. Russian Losses Russia lost land to recreate Poland, and four countries became independent. Three were the Baltic States, and the other was Finland.
Treaties at the End of the First World War • • • • • •
Treaty of Treaty of Treaty of Treaty of Treaty of Treaty of
Versailles with Germany - 28th June 1919 St. Germain with Austria - 10th September 1919 Trianon with Hungary - 1920 Neuilly with Bulgaria - 27th November 1919 Sevres with Turkey - 1920 Lausanne with Turkey - 1923
The first five were named after palaces, and were also diktats. The last was the only negotiated treaty. (A “diktat” is an imposed, unilateral document.) The Treaty of Versailles – 28th June 1919 Introduction By 1918 Germany was suffering defeat in most areas of the war. The German nation was hungry, war weary and demanded peace. The German government eventually asked for an armistice, and on 11/11/1918, cease-fire began. The problem of peace remained. Many people hoped that a peace settlement would prevent war from happening again. US President Wilson thought that he had the answer to all Europe’s problems. He stated his views in ‘Fourteen Points’. Wilson’s Fourteen Points On January 8th, 1918, Wilson outlined his peace proposals to the American Congress. These became known as the ‘Fourteen Points’ and ‘Four principles’. On November 5th, 1918, Wilson sent a note to the Germans. The Germans agreed to an armistice and expected a peace settlement to be based upon the Fourteen points. Of the fourteen points these were the most important: • • • • • • •
• •
There were to be no secret treaties between powers like the treaties that had helped to cause the First World War. (Open Diplomacy) Seas should be free in peace and in war to ships of all nations (Freedom of Navigation) The barriers to trade between countries such as custom duties should be removed (Free trade) All countries should reduce their armed forces to the lowest possible levels (Multilateral disarmament.) The national groups in Europe should, wherever possible, be given their independence. Wilson supported the idea of National Self-Determination (NSD), whereby a nation had the right to selfgovernment. Russia should be allowed to operate whatever government it wanted. Territorial changes: • Germany should give up Alsace-Lorraine and any lands taken away during the war. • The Italian frontier should be readjusted. • Belgium should be evacuated. • Poland should be given access to the sea. The defeated nations should not be made to pay for the war as a whole. A ‘League of Nations’ should be formed to protect world peace in the future.
Most of the points are very general: not all of them stated specific changes. Britain and France considered the points as being too impractical, they thought that Wilson was hoping for far too much.
They had used much of their wealth on the war, and France had suffered two German invasions (1870 & 1914). France wanted to ensure that a third attack would never take place, and wanted Germany to be reduced to a minor European State. (The ideal situation would be of course NO GERMANY!!) The Paris Peace Conference The terms for peace were discussed in Paris from 18th January 1919 until June. The conference was attended by thirty-two states, but the major powers dominated the conference: Japan, Italy (Orlando), France (Georges Clemenceau, the Old Tiger), Britain (Lloyd George) and the USA (Wilson). ‘The Big Three’ – Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George made all the major decisions. Germany and the defeated states were not invited to attend the conference. Peace was difficult to make because of the widescale disruption to Europe during the war and the general unrest that existed while the peace conference sat. When the Versailles Treaty was signed, few of Wilson’s fourteen points were adhered to, though a ‘League of Nations’ was set up. German Land Losses
(Refer to the map in your textbook showing German land losses.) Clemenceau wanted to make sure that France was secure from German attack and so demanded that her northeastern boundary was safe. • Germany therefore lost Alsace-Lorraine. • The Rhineland was demilitarised so that French borders were secure. • Three frontier areas were given to Belgium. • Northern Schleswig went to Denmark • Troppau was transferred to Czechoslovakia. • Poland gained West Prussia and Posen. This made up a ‘corridor’, giving Poland access to the Baltic Sea. Poland also gained half of Silesia. • East Prussia was separated from Germany. • The League of Nations took control of certain areas: • Industrial area of the Saar (Germany regained it in 1935). • Port of Memel taken from Germany (annexed by Lithuania, 1923). • Danzig made a free city under the control of the League of Nations. • All Germany’s gains at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3rd March 1918) were surrendered. Germany had made considerable gains when Russia made peace. • Germany lost all of her overseas colonies covering a total of approx 2,000,000 square kilometres. Britain gained Tanganyika in East Africa, part of Togoland and the Cameroons. The remaining African colonies were shared between Belgium and South Africa. • In the Pacific, German possessions were shared between Britain, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. • The union (Anschluss) of Austria and Germany was forbidden. As a result of these losses, Germany’s total territorial losses amounted to 28,000 square miles, and six million people. Military Losses
• • •
The German army was reduced to 100,000 men, and conscription (obligatory military service) was illegal. No tanks, aircraft or heavy artillery were to be manufactured for the German armed forces – no weapons/military equipment. German navy reduced to: six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, and twelve torpedo boats.
Economic Losses The German steel industry depended on coal from the Saar, and iron ore from Alsace-Lorraine. Germany lost both of these areas. Germany also lost coalmines in Upper Silesia, to Poland. Reparations (compensation payment for war damages) This was a very difficult and delicate problem to solve. A Reparations Commission was established to decide how many goods and how much money Germany should pay. The figure £6,600 million was eventually agreed upon. Some people thought this figure was too high. J.M. Keynes (a British economist) said that Germany would only become poorer and bitter. He was right. War Guilt Clause This refers to Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which placed the blame for all losses received by the Allies in the First World War, on Germany. The treaty also specifically asked that Kaiser be brought on trial. Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to Holland in 1918, and the Dutch refused to release him. The Signing of the Treaty of Versailles The terms of the treaty were presented to the Germans and they complained of its severity. The Germans were given three weeks to prepare their formal complaint. The Germans complained about nearly every clause. The allies ignored all but a few complaints. With no other option, the Germans signed the treaty. ‘Peace’ was signed in the Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles. The Germans felt cheated by this treaty, because virtually none of Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’ had been included in the treaty. The Germans called the treaty a ‘diktat’ because it was dictated to them, without real consultation. The Weimar government, especially Ebert who had signed the treaty, was looked upon as traitorous.
Reaction of Britain, France and the USA Most people in Britain had wanted revenge and so had gained some satisfaction. Lloyd George was satisfied that Britain had gained most of Germany’s colonies, so that after 1919, Britain could recover its wealth and power. France, however, was not satisfied that Germany had been weakened enough. A high-ranking French officer said in 1919: ‘This is not a peace. It is an armistice for twenty-one years’. By this he meant Germany had not been weakened enough and would rise again in twenty-one years. He predicted Germany’s rise correctly. Britain and America promised help to France should Germany threaten her in the future. Most remarkable of all, the USA refused to ratify the treaty. Wilson was a Democrat. The republican part in America opposed Wilson’s involvement in Europe, and in the autumn of 1918, the Republicans had a majority in Congress. Congress refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles because:• Republicans were against Democrats • Republicans wanted ‘isolation’ France still felt insecure, because Britain would not support France without American aid. Reasons why Germany Thought the Treaty of Versailles was UNFAIR UNFAIR. Germany thought the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919) was unfair because it was a ‘diktat’. The ‘Big Three’ had not negotiated with Germany at Paris from January – June 1919. Germany was given only three weeks to comment on the vast amounts of peace clauses. Her objections were largely ignored. Germany resented the attitude of revenge which was summed up by the British press as: "Make Germany Pay" and "Squeeze the German Lemon until the Pips Squeak!" Germany thought the Treaty was unfair because it was not based fully on Wilson’s ‘Fourteen Points’. On the 5th November, 1918, Germany had accepted the Fourteen Points as the basis for peace and an armistice began at 11 o’clock on the 11th November 1918. By the 28th June 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was signed, the Fourteen Points had been largely forgotten. How the Fourteen Points were Ignored Fourteen Points Treaty of Versailles
Open Diplomacy
vs
The ‘Big Three’ made all the decisions at Versailles, so the treaty was a ‘diktat’.
Freedom of the Seas
vs
Germany could not enjoy freedom of navigation because her navy was so reduced.
Multilateral disarmament
vs
Only Germany disarmed at Versailles. It was enforced unilateral disarmament. Also, to humiliate Germany further, she had to build ships for the Allies (Allies rearmed)
National-Self Determination NSD
vs
NSD was applied unfairly at Versailles, e.g. Poland. Poland was given Posen-West Prussia, and therefore, the Germans on this land were now under foreign rule. Also the Anschluss of Germany and Austria was not allowed, and so the Germany speakers in these lands were denied NSD.
Peace Treaties with Germany’s Allies (1919-23)
(Refer to the map showing the land losses of Germany’s Allies.) Introduction After peace had been made with Germany at Versailles (28th June 1919), ‘The Big Three’ turned their attention to Germany’s allies. Their intention was to have one treaty with the Habsburg Empire, but two separate treaties were signed with Austria and Hungary. There had been a Communist uprising in Budapest and this delayed signing the treaty with Hungary. Both of these treaties were diktats, as were those signed with Bulgaria and Turkey. However, a second negotiated treaty was signed with Turkey in 1923. The Treaty of St. Germain (10th September, 1919 – With Austria) The principle of NSD was used in the treaty with Austria: • Italy gained the Tyrol and Trentino in the North, and Istria and Trieste in the Northeast. • Czechoslovakia gained the Sudetenland (German speaking), the Czech provinces and Slovakia. • Serbia was given various states in the Balkans: Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia and Dalmatia, to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia = The Southern Slavs) • Poland gained Galicia. • No Anschluss with Germany. • Austria was disarmed to 30,000 men plus three Danubian (river) police boats. • Austria was supposed to pay reparations, but as she was bankrupt in 1920, none were paid. The Treaty of Trianon (4th June, 1920 – With Hungary) • •
Hungary lost some border districts to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Transylvania was given to Rumania, which doubled Romania’s size.
Comments on the Treaties of St. Germain and Trianon Austria complained because she was disarmed and unable to defend herself against the hostile neighbours that encircled her. Both states were land-locked and surrounded by weak or hostile neighbours. Many of these neighbouring countries were hostile because they wanted to keep their newfound independence, and they resented the former control of the Habsburgs.
Both treaties were diktats. NSD was applied and denied - 3 million Austrians lived in the Sudetenland under foreign rule, 3 million Magyars lived under Romanian rule in Transylvania. No Anschluss for Germany and Austria. Czechs and Slovaks resented being in one country. Austria was disarmed. Austria lost its monarchy (loss of Prestige and National identity). Both Austria and Hungary lost out economically; they were both landlocked and this damaged trade. Although Austria and Hungary enjoyed free trade before the war, they did not afterwards. Hungary lost valuable agricultural land in Transylvania. Both countries suffered from a drop in population (Workforce). Austria’s population dropped from 22 million to 6.5 million and Hungary’s population dropped from 21 million to 7.5 million. Treaty of Neuilly (27th November, 1919 – with Bulgaria) Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, which meant that she lost the coastline that lead more directly into the Mediterranean. Settlements with Turkey •
Treaty of Sevres (August, 1920 – a diktat) • The Turks agreed to lose their Middle-Eastern empire. • Saudi Arabia became independent; • Britain gained Palestine, Trans-Jordan and Iraq as mandates. (Mandate = a lease. Britain and France only looked after these lands for 30 years). • France was given Lebanon and Syria as mandates. • In Europe Turkey lost other lands. Greece gained Eastern Thrace and Smyrna on the Turkish mainland. • Italy gained Rhodes. • The Dordanelle Strait was demilitarised (League of Nations).
•
Treaty of Lausanne (1923 – Negotiated) •
Turkey regained all the land she had lost to Greece. The Straits remained demilitarised and Italy kept Rhodes. Turkey was now a republic with its new capital at Ankara. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul.
Inter-War Diplomacy Introduction (IMPORTANT BACKGROUND INFORMATION!) The major powers had different aims in 1919 for the post-war world. USA:
The republicans defeated Woodrow Wilson in the 1920 presidential election, and they wanted isolation from European affairs.
France: France still wanted security from the possibility of a third German attack. To do this she had two policies: • •
Encirclement – She tried to surround Germany with countries who were friendlier to France, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Poland (The Little Entente) France rearmed herself and strengthen her Rhineland border with Germany, by building the Maginot Line (1929-34)
Britain: She wanted to recover her wealth and power via trade.
Germany:
The Weimar government wanted recovery in every sense: military, economic, political and diplomatic. In order for Germany to achieve any of these, she would have to break the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919). (Note: Britain and Germany had one thing in common – the need to recover via trade.)
Improvement and Decline in International Relations (1920-39) 1920s There was an improvement in international relations in the 1920s, mainly due to the work of three foreign ministers: Austen Chamberlain (Britain), Briand (France) and Stresemann (Germany). 1930s Relations between the powers deteriorated in the 1930s, especially after 1929, after the Wall Street Crash (29th October) when the major powers’ economies declined, leading to the Great Depression. As a result of the depression, extremist groups (Communists and Fascists) became popular (flourished). The aggressive policies of the Fascists (Germany, Italy and Japan) resulted in the Second World War. Inter-War Diplomacy: Improved Relations 1921-29 A. Washington Naval Treaties (1921-2) In spite of her a policy of isolation, the USA hosted these talks about naval disarmament, and the balance of power in the Pacific. This was the ideal assignment for the League of Nations – why did this organization not do it? Agreements Reached • Britain, USA, Japan, France and Italy agreed to respect each other’s Pacific possessions & guarantee China’s independence. • Japan would restore certain territory to China and withdraw from Siberia, in Russia. • There would be a ten-year stoppage in the building of capital ships (more than 10,000 tons with guns larger than 8"). A ratio of USA:5 Br:5 J:3 Fr:1.75 It:1.75 was to be maintained in the building of capital ships. Effects • • • •
Lessened possibility of naval war in the Far East where Japan & USSR had ideas about expanding into China. The alliance of WW I victors was reaffirmed, despite USA’s isolation policy. Though better international relations resulted, the USSR was not invited to the talks, despite her extensive Far Eastern interests. (USSR was not recognized because of Communist government.) Treaty of Rapallo (April 1922) – Signed 2 months after the Washington Treaty, by Germany and Soviet Russia. They said they would not attack each other and trade links were opened. Both powers were no longed isolated. They also secretly agreed to arms deals. France was upset because Germany could now “break” the rules of the Versailles Treaty.
•
These meetings/conferences highlighted the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations. The fact that countries were able to do as they pleased to, severely weakened the authority of this peace-keeping organization.
B. The Locarno Pacts, 1925 Britain, France & Germany agreed to meet in Switzerland, at Locarno, in 1925. Agreements • •
Germany accepted her frontiers with France and Belgium, & agreed not to change them. Germany agreed not to alter (change) her borders with Poland or Czechoslovakia without discussion (?!) with France and her Little Entente partners.
Effects • •
Franco-German relations improved because France felt more secure and Germany realized there was some hope of regaining lands on her eastern borders. Germany joined the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council in 1926.
C. Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris) 1928 • • •
In 1926 Germany signed a Treaty of Neutrality with the USSR. (Renewed Rapallo of 1922.) This worried the French. In April 1927 Briand appealed to the US Secretary of State, F.B. Kellogg for assistance. A nine-power conference met in Paris in August 1928 and eventually 65 nations signed a pact that outlawed war unless a nation acted in self-defence.
Effects • • • •
US involvement reassured France and America’s other European allies. USSR signed the Pact and gained some recognition for Communist Russia by other powers. Germany signed the Pact and this calmed French suspicions of Germany’s aggression. This Pact was later viewed as being of good intent, but having no practical means of preventing war.
D. Changes to Reparations The British economist, Keynes, had warned that the amount established at Versailles, was too much to expect from Germany in reparations. Two plans, in 1924 and 1929, gave Germany assistance from the US. •
Dawes Plan 1924: • Germany fell behind in reparation payments to France, so in January 1923, France occupied the Ruhr valley (on the Franco-Germany Rhineland border). France’s intention was to take reparations in the form of coal. France only withdrew her troops after the Dawes Plan was drawn up. Germany still had the same amount to pay in reparations, but received a loan from the USA and payments were scaled down so that it could be paid easier.
•
Effects • The Ruhr was evacuated in July 1925. • Germany was treated as an equal for the first time, and this paved the way for Locarno (1925) and Germany’s entry to the League (1926) • Germany’s economy improved under Stresemann (died 1929)
•
Young Plan 1929 • Stresemann appealed to the USA for further assistance in paying reparations (to update the Dawes Plan). The Young committee reduced Germany’s liability (responsibility) to approximately a 1/3 of the original sum, to be paid over 59 years (i.e. until 1988). It was to start in May 1930.
•
Effects • Stresemann’s status as an international statesman grew, as did his popularity at home. • The realistic sum to be paid by Germany promised good future relations between Germany, France and Britain.
NB. The Young Plan collapsed because in October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred in America, and this financial crisis spread to Germany, and then other European powers. Germany could not afford to pay reparations 1931-2, and Hitler refused to pay anything after 1933. •
Conclusion • Improvements in international relations in 1920s, A-D above, were the result of ‘power diplomacy’ and NOT the work of the League of Nations whose main aim was to keep peace.
Deterioration in Relations (1929-39) In the 1930s relations between the powers deteriorated. 1929 Stresemann died and Briand and Chamberlain were out of office. October 1929, Wall Street Crash, led to a depression in Europe and extremist political groups (Fascist, Nazis) grew in popularity. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany offered economic growth to their ‘depressed’ peoples and their aggressive foreign policies led to the Second World War (1939-45). In the 1930s neither power diplomacy, nor the League of Nations, could prevent war. The League of Nations Origins The idea of international co-operation was not a new one in 1919. There had been earlier attempts, for example: the International Red Cross, Geneva (1864), the International Telegraph Union (1865), the International Meteorological Organisation (1878) and the International Court, The Hague (1899). The last of Wilson’s fourteen points said that a League of Nations should be set up, to keep peace after 1919. To ensure that it was established, Wilson insisted that the League of Nations should be written into the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919).
Aims To keep peace To improve living conditions of men and women world-wide Organisation The League first met in January 1920 and each state had to take an oath (covenant) to say they would abide by the League’s rules for international law and order. • •
• • •
• •
Assembly: Each year, each state would send up to three delegates to the Geneva assembly to discuss world problems. Each country had one vote, and a unanimous vote was needed to decide action. As unanimity was never reached, resolutions were passed onto the council. Council: The great powers (Britain, France, Italy and Japan) of 1920 sat permanently on the council, with smaller nations who observed. They met three or four times a year, and at times of crisis. By a unanimous vote they could levy (implement) the following sanctions against a nation who broke peace – this was known as Collective Security. The four basic steps of this policy were: • World Public Opinion or Moral sanction – A polite warning, based on world public opinion condemning the aggressive behaviour. • Economic or Trade sanctions – The League stopped trading with the offender • Disarmament - Promoting arms reduction and eventual disarmament. • Military sanction or The Use of Military Force– As a last resort the League would impose its will by force. No sanction could be used if a nation used its veto. The idea was that collective action would produce collective security, and thereby peace. (United we stand, divided we fall) The League’s responses were long-winded. The Court of Justice: Set up in 1899, at The Hague, in Holland, this department dealt with legal disputes between nations. International Labour Organisation (ILO): Its first chairman was Albert Thomas, and he collected evidence world-wide, about working conditions. He wrote a code of good practice, which included: • Safety regulations, Sick pay, Pensions, Maternity leave, Trade Union rights, Restrictions of child labour Commissions: Special departments dealt with specific world problems. Secretariat: The first Secretary General was Sir. Eric Drummond, and he led the League’s administration department (Civil Service).
Some nations joined the League late, e.g. Germany in 1926, USSR in 1934. 18 nations left the League, e.g. Germany in 1933 because other nations would not disarm to her level, Japan in 1933 after invading Manchuria, Italy in 1937 after invading Abyssinia, USSR in 1939 dismissed after the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Note: AMERICA NEVER JOINED THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (This was because the US Congress, then under Republican control, refused to accept Wilson’s, who was a Democrat, plea to join the League. However, they did join the ILO.)
League of Nations at Work (1920-1939) Success in achieving its second aim - Improving living conditions world-wide • • • • • •
The ILO was so successful that the USA joined it. In 1945 it transferred to the UNO. The Health Commission stopped disease epidemics (e.g. measles) – today the World Health Organization (WHO). The Leprosy Commission helped eliminate leprosy. The Transit and Communication Commission standardized passports and visas, and radio codes were also made common. The Mandates Commission helped colonies to reach independence. The Refugee Commission helped resettle homeless and stateless people.
The League’s failure in its first aim – To keep peace • •
The powers improved international relations in the 1920s, rather than the League. (See notes on interwar diplomacy) The League did settle a few minor disputes in the 1920s, however in the Corfu incident (1923) it had to refer the problem to the powers to solve • Finland against Sweden (1920-21). Finland and Sweden were in dispute over the Aaland Islands in the Baltic Sea. The League settled in favour of Finland. • Germany against Poland (1921-22). Germany and Poland disputed control of Upper Silesia. The League settled in favour of Poland: an unpopular decision (with the German speaking people of Upper Silesia, who said, quite rightly, that they had been denied NSD.) • Italy against Greece (1923). A.k.a. the Corfu Incident, Italy held Greece responsible for the death of some Italian Officers on the frontier of Albania and Greece. Greece refused to compensate Italy for the loss, and so Italy bombarded the Greek island of Corfu. The League was approached about the conflict and referred the dispute to a Congress of Ambassadors who persuaded Greece to make a financial settlement, after which Italy evacuated Corfu (NB. The powers were keeping peace, again.)
The League Failed to bring about Multilateral Disarmament The League proposed two main documents, trying to encourage disarmament. These were The Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1923) and The Geneva Protocol (1924). Both of these asked member nations to respect a certain level of disarmament, but were rejected. 1923-4 – Geneva Disarmament Talks (including USA and USSR) This failed because France still felt insecure, and would not disarm. In October 1933 Hitler withdrew from the talks stating that if other powers did not reduce the level of their arms to Germany’s level, he would rearm Germany to their level. NOTE: The only successful step towards disarmament took place at Washington (1921-2, Naval Sizes in Pacific.) This was hosted by the USA, not the League of Nations.
The League failed to control major crises in the 1930s
•
The Manchurian Crisis • 18th September 1931, Japanese troops invaded Manchuria and attacked the industrial city of Mukden. Chiang Kai Shek (Chinese nationalist Leader) appealed to the League and to the USA for help. America protested and the League made a ‘Moral sanction’ and sent a Lytton Commission to Manchuria led by Sir Lytton whose report condemned Japanese aggression. Unperturbed (undisturbed) Japan renamed Manchuria, ‘Manchukuo’ in March 1932, and continued to occupy it. In 1933 Japan left the League of Nations. This was a significant step in further breaking down the League´s authority, because this peace-keeping organization did not have any say in matters of non-member nations. The big powers were more concerned with domestic issues (National interests came before the League’s affairs). Japanese aggression was not halted, the League’s ‘collective action’ had amounted to nothing. NB. Only Germany and Italy recognized Japan’s control in ‘Manchukuo’.
•
The Abyssinian Crisis 1935-6: • This involved the aggression of Italy, led by Mussolini, in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Mussolini wanted to create a Fascist Roman Empire and saw the Horn of Africa as an ideal area for expansion. Italy already controlled Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, so Abyssinia would help link its possessions. Italy had unsuccessfully tried to conquer the area in 1896. In October 1935 Mussolini was successful against the meagre (weak) troops of Emperor Haile-Salassie. Abyssinia appealed to the League and within two weeks Mussolini’s actions were condemned and economic sanctions were imposed. These sanctions were not very good because Italy still managed to obtain steel, copper and oil. The League did ban arms sales to Italy, but made Abyssinia weak by not letting it have any arms either! Mussolini did not take the League’s sanctions seriously and he threatened war if his oil supplies were stopped. Britain argued in favour of an oil embargo but the issue was complicated by secret diplomacy.
•
Hoare-Laval Pact (December 1935): • Samuel Hoare (Britain) and Laval (France) made an agreement that if Mussolini stopped fighting, he could have most of Abyssinia. The world press published the pact, Hoare resigned and the agreement failed. Meanwhile Mussolini conquered Abyssinia in May 1936.
Mussolini had said ‘If the League had extended economic sanctions of oil I would have had to withdraw from Abyssinia in a week". The League had bungled its negotiations and had, once again failed miserably to maintain peace. NOTE: The Abyssinian affair destroyed the ‘Stresa Front’. Britain and France had been meeting with Mussolini at Stresa in an attempt to unite against Hitler’s Germany. The actions of Hoare and Laval caused Italy to side with Germany from 1936 onwards. The League of Nations failed because it was weak from the start!
Look at the following: Ideal League
League in Practice was Weak
1. All nations should be members.
BUT!
Not all nations were members (e.g. USA)
2. All nations should be equal partners BUT! Not equal partners because major powers League. made decisions in the Council.
in the
3. The League should be able to make BUT! League structure was weak, unanimity decisions quickly and easily. caused delays. 4. National interests should be second to league’s interests.
BUT! Nations were more interested in their OWN the affairs, especially after 1929 with the economic crisis.
5. Members should obey the League’s BUT! sanctions.
Moral, Economic & Military sanctions were ignored e.g. Japan 1931
6. Offenders could trade with none League members (e.g. Abyssinia Crisis – 1935/6) 7. It was silly to use violence to stop violence
Germany Features of Fascism 1. One leader – a dictator Leader
Il Duce
Führer
Caudillo
Name
Mussolini
Hitler
Franco
Party
Fascisti
Country
Italy
Nazi
Falange Germany
Spain
2. A fascist state is TOTALITARIAN (one party state), so there would be no choice between parties in an election. 3. A dictator maintained his power by violence and fear. Private armies were used (e.g. Mussolini’s Blackshirts, Hitler’s Brownshirts = Sturmabteilung or Stormtroopers) to protect the leader and attack enemies (e.g. Communists) 4. A dictator maintained his power by strict control of the media. CENSORSHIP denied people information, and PROPAGANDA forced fascist ideas onto people. 5. Nationalism was encouraged with the use of symbols, e.g. Italy with the clenched fist and the sheath of corn, and Germany with the swastika, goosestep and straight-armed salute. 6. Hitler united the majority of Germans by attacking minority groups. He said ARYAN people (Teutonic, blue eyed, blond haired) were a HERRENVOLK or master race. He said inferior races (Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, Yellow/Black skinned people) should be exterminated. Uneconomic peoples (e.g. the aged or the disabled) or non-conforming Aryans (homosexuals, socialists, Jehovah’s witnesses etc.) were to be exterminated.
Political Groups In theory, the communists are opposite to the fascists, because Communism preaches equality, whereas Fascism believes in the superiority of one man over another. In practice both Communism and Fascism are Totalitarian. Weimar Government Background Notes 1. Left wing = Communists 2. Right wing = Fascists/Nazis (i.e. the extremist groups) 3. Constitution = Rules by which a country is governed
4. WEIMAR GOVERNMENT = Germany’s first democratic republican government (1919-34), based at Weimar, a Spa town in the centre of Germany. 5. German Governments a. Pre 1914 German government = autocracy of Kaiser b. 1919-34 German government = Weimar democratic government Head of State = President (elected) Head of Government = Chancellor (elected) 1934-45 German government = Hitler’s dictatorship 6. Parliament in two houses: a. Reichsrat = Upper House b. Reichstag = Lower House 7. Voting Structure Weimar government was elected by universal suffrage (all adults voted). MPs were elected by proportional representation (PR). Method = 2 votes taken before an MP is chosen. This system caused too many small parties to be elected. As a result, no single party held a majority to form a government. To solve this, a coalition government was formed, but passing laws took longer because of disagreements. (Strong government = One that passes laws quickly.) Germany: The Weimar Government (1919-34) Introduction After the 11th November 1918, Germany had three problems to solve: peacemaking, rebuilding Germany’s economy, and the creation of an adequate form of government. Eventually, the Weimar constitution was written, which made Germany a democratic republic. This government failed by 1934, when Adolf Hitler became dictator of Germany. Reasons for the failure of the Weimar government • • • • •
Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution Hatred of the Treaty of Versailles signed by the Weimar government Challenges from Left and Right wing groups Failure to solve economic problems Hitler came to power
The Weimar Government Left wing groups rose against Kaiser Wilhelm II’s government at Kiel, and in Bavaria. Socialists in the Reichstag demanded the abdication of the Kaiser. On the 9th November 1918, the Kaiser abdicated and Friedrich Ebert became president. From February 1919, a National assembly met at Weimar to write a constitution. The Reichstag was elected, and passed laws. The Reichsrat could only delay legislation. The president could choose the chancellor, dissolve the Reichstag and rule by decree in times of emergency. The chancellor in the Reichstag chose the cabinet, and commanded a majority of the votes. Provision was made for a referendum on matters of acute controversy within the country, a Supreme Court was set up, and basic rights, such as freedom of speech, religion and movement were guaranteed. •
Weaknesses: • It was a weakness to give the Reichsrat delaying powers because laws could not be passed quickly – weak government. • It was a weakness to allow the president to rule by decree because democracy could change to a dictatorship. • The constitution was over-optimistic because it was difficult to change from autocracy to democracy overnight.
Unpopularity of the Treaty of Versailles (28th June, 1919) One of the first tasks of the Weimar government was to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The German Foreign Minister, Walter Ranthenau (a Jew), who upheld the Versailles agreement, was seen as a traitor. The treaty was very unpopular because it was a diktat, and because it was not based on the fourteen points (see previous notes). Opposition to the Weimar Government from Left and Right Wing Groups Ebert’s government soon faced the Sparticist rising. Two communists, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht led this uprising. Beginning in 1918 it reached its climax in January 1919, when it was suppressed, and the leaders killed. Right wing groups also rose up against the Weimar government. The returning soldiers were bitter and thought they should have remained fighting. The Free Corps was a ‘club’ of returning ex-soldiers. In the Kapp Putsch (armed rising) people protested at the Treaty and at the governments acceptance. Failure of the Weimar Government to solve Economic Problems Reparations posed the greatest problems to Germany after 1919. The Treaty said Germany must pay £6,600 million. Germany paid reparations through foreign laws in the early twenties. France invaded the Ruhr valley and took coal when Germany failed to pay in 1923. This invasion horrified Germans who saw the Weimar government as weak. Results of the French occupation of the Ruhr Extremist groups (namely Fascists and Communists) grew in number in 1923. The German mark dropped in value because in order to combat inflation, the Weimar government printed extra bank notes, without increasing the gold held in its treasury. Bank notes then dropped proportionally in value. This led to HYPERINFLATION. German marks in exchange for one dollar
Germany gained loans from the USA. Stresemann arranged the economic recovery of Germany 1923-29. The Dawes plan and the Young plan staggered Germany’s reparations over a period of time, and included USA loans. European powers gradually accepted Germany: witness the Locarno Pact (1925) and the entry of Germany to the League of Nations in 1926. Economic Slump Many Germans gained faith in the Weimar Government while Stresemann was in power, but his death, and the ‘Wall Street Crash’ in October 1929, saw the growth of extremist groups. The Wall Street Crash collapsed the German economy because the USA wanted her loans repaying. The Weimar government suffered because the coalition of moderate right and left wing groups ended. The ruling by decree and the system of proportional representation caused political confusion in the Weimar government. Autocracy was being forced onto a democracy and many small parties were being formed. Law passing was slow. End of the Weimar Government The President, Paul Von Hindenburg, appointed three chancellors between 1930 and 1932 (Bruning, Von Papen and Schleicher), but because these men could not command a majority in the Reichstag Hindenburg reluctantly appointed Adolf Hitler to be chancellor, in January 1933. Hitler became dictator of Germany in August 1934 after the death of President Von Hindenburg. The Rise of Hitler Reasons for his rise • • • • • • • • • •
Weimar Government was weak The German people did not trust democracy; they preferred the autocracy of the Kaiser. Laws could be delayed by the Reichstag (Laws could not be passed quickly). Proportional representation produced weak. Coalition governments (Laws could not be passed quickly). Democracy could end if a president ruled by decree in an emergency Economic problems were not solved. Nazism was popular - He promised strong, national government. He said he would correct the errors/weaknesses of Weimar rule, and end the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919), including: reparations, war guilt, disarmament He promised full employment. He said he would get rid of lawlessness. He united all classes in society behind Nazism: • Upper Class (Junkers) – Feared communism and saw their futures reviving, if Germany rearmed. • Middle Class – Wanted the strengthening of the law • Working Class – Wanted employment • Churches in Germany – German churches (Catholic and Lutheran) feared communism and Atheism (Godless society), and therefore were more sympathetic towards Hitler. • Hitler united the majority of Germans, by attacking the minorities.
Hitler’s Early Life (up to c.1918) (FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES) Hitler was born of the 20th April 1889, at Braunau am Inn. (am = on the, Inn is the name of an Austrian river), in Upper Austria. He was the son of a minor customs official. Earlier, in 1876, the family name had been changed from Schickelgruber to Hitler, because Schickelgruber was Jewish. He was educated at Linz, but he was not very academic; he had a talent for art. In October 1907, he moved to Vienna, attempting to get into the art academy, but he failed the entrance exam. (He later blamed the Jews for this.) He frequented Bierkeller, with other unemployed, where his hatred of the Jews and the Slavs grew. He had part time jobs – e.g. postcard selling and as an unskilled mechanic. In 1912 he moved to Munich in the province of Bavaria. In the First World War he joined the Bavarian army, where he was promoted to corporal, and he was awarded the Iron Cross first class (got it twice) for being gassed. He was convalescing at the time of the peace treaty, and claimed he would never have signed it. (28th June 1919). Hitler’s Early Political Career At the end of the First World War he returned to Munich, where he joined the German Workers Party, which became the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers Party) or Nazi party. He became its Führer (leader), and used the swastika as its emblem. He befriended Ernst Rohm, the leader of the SA (Sturmabteilung or Stormtroopers) which defended Hitler and attacked the Communists. He spoke at meetings, often at Beer halls, where his active, and aggressive, policies appealed to all classes. Munich Putsch (23rd November, 1923) A putsch is an armed rising. The Munich putsch is compared to Mussolini’s march on Rome, but whereas Mussolini was successful, Hitler failed to gain power. On the 23rd November 1923, Hitler tried to take over the Government of Bavaria. The attempted coup d’état failed, because of mistiming. Hitler’s rebels left the beer hall and collided with the police on their way to the state building. Shots were fired, 16 Nazis were killed, and Hitler, and his aid Rudolf Hess, were arrested. The attempted coup received widespread support, because the Weimar Government was unpopular in 1923 (hyperinflation and the French occupation of the Ruhr valley, January 1923-25). Established figures supported Hitler, e.g. General Ludendorf (gave support in camera) and Wilhelm Frick (the Munich chief of police was actively involved. His men were supposed to be dealing with a false riot at the other end of the city, but the diversion failed, and they ran into the Putsch.) Landsberg and Imprisonment He was tried and sentenced for Treason in April 1924, and used his trial to advertise Nazi ideas. He was supposed to serve five years but was imprisoned for only nine months, in the comfort of Landsberg Castle. This lenient sentence for so serious a crime shows that the judiciary was sympathetic to rightwing groups. While he was in prison he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle) which was partly autobiographical, and partly about Nazi ideas. Hess acted as his amanuensis. His ideas included: • • •
The Weimar Government was weak The Treaty of Versailles was unfair Germany should increase its population – ‘take lands in the east by the power of the sword’ (This would involve rearming, taking the Polish Corridor by force, and a likelihood of war.)
•
He said the Aryan (Teutonic people) race, which had blonde hair and blue eyes, was a Herrenvolk (master race). He said inferior races (Jews, Slavs, Poles, Gypsies (Romanies), Orientals (Kincaid), and Blacks) should be exterminated.
He was released after nine months, and he said that in future, he would come to power by democratic means, rather than using violence. Stresemann: Recovery & Collapse When Hitler was released, he found Germany in the capable hands of Gustav Stresemann, who was foreign secretary and chancellor, improved Germany’s economy and international position, e.g. •
1924-29: • He improved the economy by arranging the Dawes (1924) and Young (1929) plans, with the USA, to ease the payment of reparations. • July 1925: He organised French withdrawal from the Ruhr • 1925: The Locarno Pact improved relations between Germany and France. • 1926: Joined the council of the League of Nations
As a result of the improvements in economic conditions, the Nazis had poor results in elections during Germany´s “Golden Years” under Stresemann. In the 1924 elections they obtained only 32 out of 490 Reichstag seats and in the 1928 elections this dropped to 13 seats! The death of Stresemann (3rd October 1929) and the Wall Street Crash (29th October 1929) caused the German economy to collapse and so Hitler realized his part would do better in the elections. Note: Poor economic conditions = Extremist groups prosper. Nazi Revival (1929-33) Hitler claimed that he knew there would be a crisis, and that he had been waiting, and prepared, for the Nazis to save Germany. He gained financial backing from some Junkers and from two Ruhr Steel Magnates (Manufacturer and Investor): Krupp & Thyssen. The deal was money to Hitler in return for orders later. He expanded the existing scout movement who the Hitler Youth which by 1924 had 7 million members. It extended to girls in 1928 with the BDM (League of German Maidens) He stressed physical fitness, so they could fight in future, and he indoctrinated them with Nazi ideas so they would vote for him in future. He was shaping young minds. Rallies were organised by Josef Goebbels, and he and Hitler whipped their audience into a frenzy of support. As a result, Nazi seats in the Reichstag increased. In September 1930 they won 107 of 490 seats and in July 1932 that number rose to 230. Hitler did NOT have an overall majority, and so did not automatically become chancellor. Hitler becomes Chancellor President Paul Von Hindenburg used his power of decree in an emergency to appoint four chancellors between 1932-33. In May 1932, Brüning was dismissed, and replaced by Von Papen, who in turn was replaced by General Schleicher. These three could not control the communists and the Nazis in the Reichstag and so reluctantly in January 1933 Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler. Hindenburg’s idea was that Hitler would be his puppet and only two other Nazis were in the cabinet: Göring and Frick. Hindenburg disliked Hitler for two reasons: ● Hitler was only an Austrian Corporal (German snobbishness) ● Hitler had stood against Hindenburg in the presidential election of 1932. Hitler gained 13 million votes; Hindenburg gained 19 million votes. (Personal jealousy)
Hitler’s appointment as chancellor is a vital step in the downfall of the Weimar government. The Establishment of the Nazi Dictatorship It took Hitler only 18 months to change from Chancellor to Dictator of Germany: January 1933 – Hitler became chancellor August 1934 – Hitler became dictator Burning of the Reichstag (27/2/33) On the night of the 27th February 1933, the Reichstag was set ablaze (set fire to) by a Dutch communist student, Van der Lubbe, who was found guilty of arson and treason, and beheaded. (This shows the Law Courts were harsh towards left-wing groups). The German Communists had not caused the blaze and they tried to blame the Nazis. Hitler used Van der Lubbe’s guilt as an excuse to discredit all communists. (Many historians believe that the young student was not really responsible, that he was set up – all to convince the German people of the effectiveness and the urgency of the Nazi regime.) The Enabling Act (23/3/33) As a result of communist unpopularity, the Nazis increased their votes in the March 1933 election where they gained 288, or 43%, so Hitler still had no Reichstag majority. He forced Hugenburg’s 52 nationalists to form a coalition. Hitler now passed the Enabling Act, which gave executive power (power to pass laws) to the cabinet for four years, hereby Hitler made all the decisions (dictator). Censorship With the power of the Enabling Act, Hitler banned all other political parties, so Germany became Totalitarian. TO further weaken the communists, he banned the Trade Unions in 1934, and workers had to join the Nazi Labour Front, led by Dr. Robert Ley. There was no freedom of speech, and Hitler imprisoned people without trial. Röhm Purge (30/6/34 - Operation Humming bird/The Night of the Long Knives) Hitler became increasingly suspicious of the intentions of Ernst Röhm, the leader of the three and a half million working class, brownshirted, SA. Hitler was told by Goebbels, Göring and Himmler that Rohm wanted to be a military dictator with Hitler as his puppet. The SA then disgraced themselves by not saluting Hitler, at a mayday parade. Hitler plotted Rohm’s downfall. He gave them summer leave, and its leaders were arrested. Hitler arrested Rohm himself at Bad Weisse in Bavaria. Rohm’s chauffeur was shot and Rohm refused to commit suicide, so was shot in Berlin. Himmler gained the most, because his SS (Schutz Staffel – Protection squad) replaced the disbanded SA. At the same time, Hitler’s other enemies were rounded up and shot, including Ex-chancellor Schleicher. In the Reichstag next day (1/7/34), Hitler said he had executed over 60 traitors, though the number was nearer 2,000. He said he was ‘supreme judge with a licence to kill’. Death of Von Hindenburg (2/8/34) Hindenburg’s death meant the cabinet could combine the roles of chancellor and president, so Hitler became fuhrer of the Third Reich.
Did Hitler behave democratically? Yes, because he had the power of the Enabling Act. (?) No, because the Weimar constitution said the president should be elected. (?)
Life in Nazi Germany (1933-39) 1.
Hitler’s Economic Policy
During the years 1933-39 Hitler was popular because he was able to improve Germany’s economy. The virtual abolition of reparations by the Allies in 1931 also helped. The unemployed people went down from 5.5 million in 1932 to less than ½ a million in 1938. The main reason for this was an increase in government expenditure, in 1933 it was 4 billion, from 1938-30 it was 30 billion. Hitler found work for people by beginning Public Work Schemes, e.g. the autobahns – the splendid new roads of Germany. Rearmament also helped to reduce unemployment via conscription and munitions factories. People were conscripted into the army so were no longer unemployed, and people gained employment producing weapons. Firms involved with the production of weapons were encouraged to expand. Krupp and Thyssen produced steel parts, but later, weapons for Hitler too. The disadvantage of the expansion of large firms was the smaller firms suffered. Hitler wanted to gain autarky, which means to make Germany economically self-sufficient, which involved expanded German lands. The country produced ersatz (substitute) material to replace imported goods. For example, plastics replaced rubber. Germany needed to expand her lands to achieve self-sufficiency, so she had suitable lands for the mining and production of products. Raw materials (e.g. coal and iron from Upper Silesia) needed somewhere to be mined from, land was needed for farming and industry, and people needed to form a workforce for the new areas. If Germany expanded beyond its 1919 national boundaries war would follow. 2. Nazi Propaganda Hitler’s minister of Propaganda was Josef Goebbels. Hitler’s ideas about race and nationalism were taught in schools. Intellectual life in Germany was stifled (kept under) by the lack of free expression. Universities were unable to play a significant role, as they were under constant fear of being suppressed. A young person who did not belong to the Hitler Youth Movement was unlikely to make progress in life, and so nearly all young people were subjected to Nazi propaganda constantly. It did produce physically fit youths, which Hitler could conscript for war. Indoctrinating Nazi ideas to young people made them support Hitler, and they would vote for him when they were older (not necessary after he became a dictator). They would fight for him in war, and follow him to the bitter end. 3. The Churches of Nazism There were two major branches in Germany: the German Lutheran Church (Protestants) and the Roman Catholic Church. The Protestant Churches either joined the Nazi controlled ‘German Christians’ or found their leaders persecuted and imprisoned. For example, Pastor Niemoller was opposed to Hitler and was sent to a concentration camp. The Catholic Church signed a concordat with the Nazi regime in July 1933, by which the liberty of the Church was guaranteed. Hitler did not adhere to this agreement, so Pope Pius XI issued the Encyclical ‘Mit Brennender Sorge’ (‘With burning sorrow’) in which he accused
the Nazi regime of breaking the Concordat and in which he forecast the dangers emanating from Germany (March 1937) 4. The Persecution of the Jews In the early years of Hitler’s rule the Jews were persecuted. In 1935 the Nuremberg laws were passed, which deprived Germany’s 600,000 Jews of citizenship. For example the Jews were not allowed to vote, receive medical, or rely on police protection, and subjected them to various indignities, such as traveling in separate parts of buses and trains, and the need to display a distinctive badge or sign to shown that they were Jews. In November 1938, a young Jew killed a German diplomat in Paris. The Nazis used this as an excuse to launch a violent revenge on Jews. Plain-clothes SS troopers were issued with pickaxes and hammers and the addresses of Jewish businesses. They ran riot, smashing up Jewish shops and workplaces. 91 Jews were murdered. Hundreds of synagogues were burned. 20,000 Jews were taken to concentration camps. Thousands more left the country. This event became known as Kristallnacht or ‘The Night of the Broken Glass’. Many Germans watched the events of Kristallnacht with alarm and concern. The Nazi controlled press presented Kristallnacht as the spontaneous reaction of ordinary Germans against the Jews. Most Germans did not believe this. However, hardly anyone protested. The few who did were brutally murdered. Two major groups persecuted the Jews, the press and the Gestapo (Geheime Staats Polizei) and SS (Schutz Staffel or ‘protection squad’). It protected Hitler from all political enemies such as the communists. Himmler was head of the Gestapo and SS, his deputy was Heydrich. Concentration Camps The SS ran the Nazi concentration camps. There were two types of Nazi concentration camps: Labour camps: originally set up by Göring to house political prisoners Extermination camps: to eliminate ‘inferior’ races in a policy of mass murder (genocide) known as the ‘final solution’ or ‘holocaust’ Labour Camps For political prisoners mainly, e.g. Communists. Dachau was the first camp to be opened by Goring in March 1933, for 5,000 men. By 1937 it held 27,000 prisoners. The SS under Himmler ran the camps. Extermination Camps For inferior races in the ‘Final Solution’ after 1941. Not only Jews were sent. The Gypsies, Slavs, Poles and Russians were also victims. Jews were transported in cattle trucks expecting to go to re-settlement camps in remote, rural areas, near railway lines. Those who survived the journey were divided into two groups. The ‘Fit’ (Those individuals who are physically and psychologically equipped to survive). Young adults and selected essential workers would pass through a gate marked ‘Arbeit Macht Frei’ (Work makes you free). Most were used as slave labourers and were flogged if they refused or could not work. In some camps they were used for medical experiments (e.g. at Auschwitz, Dr. Mengele experimented on twins). Workers were housed in cold, stark, insanitary barracks. All belongings were confiscated, hair removed and skin tattooed with a number. Confiscations were recycled. They were given a small bowl for the dual purpose of food vessel and a toilet. They worked all daylight hours, in all weather conditions. Diseases were rife or very common (e.g./ pneumonia and malnutrition). Once unfit to work they were ‘exterminated’ with the ‘unfit’.
The ‘Unfit’ The young, aged and lame, were taken to gas chambers expecting to be deloused in a shower. Fellow Jews (kappos) were made to work these chambers. Earlier attempts to gas with exhaust fumes in lorries were inefficient. SS guards would pass canisters of Xyclon B (prussic acid) through a gap in the chamber wall and as it was pierced, the gas entered the shower room through ‘water’ roses. Opened doors revealed a pyramid of tangled corpses. Bodies were cremated. Earlier mass graces had been used, but in time corpses suppurated and the graves erupted. Approximately six million Jews were exterminated in the Holocaust.
Effects of the Second World War on Germany (1939-45) 1. Economic Germany had been rearming since 1934, but with the outbreak of war conscription and output from munitions (arms) factories increased. Agriculture was also part of the ‘war economy’: prime produce was sent as victuals (supplies) to troops. With the increase in conscripted men, women and aged men farmed and worked in factories, taught and ran hospitals. As Germany began to lose the war, the Hitler Youth were employed, and by 1945, children were even conscripted to defend Berlin. They also acted as night watchmen during air raids. 2. Propaganda Goebbels made the most of Nazi military successes before c.1942, and Hitler refused to accept defeat, even in Russia, so the news of defeat at Stalingrad (January 1943) shocked ordinary Germans. Propaganda had led them to believe they were still winning. 3. Allied Bombing of Germany Though ‘Bomber Command’ had bombed Germany from 1942, the raids increased after June 1944, when the second front was opened. Berlin, Hamburg and Dresden were key targets of the RAF. Note the following statistics: • • • •
In July and August 1943, 40,000 civilians were killed in Hamburg. In February 1945, Dresden, an architectural masterpiece, was razed to the ground. 1939-45 British civilians killed in the blitz = 65,000. 1939-45 German civilians killed by aerial bombardment = 600,000. Bombing raids weakened and strengthened the morale of Germans. Proud Nazis were certainly shocked at the devastation. The German economy was also damaged. Usually Bomber Command aimed to destroy dams, railways and factories. It seems the target in Dresden was people.
4. Resistance As the German people became more aware of defeat (gradually after 1943), more Germans resisted Hitler, though the effect of propaganda made most people either too afraid to resist, or unable to accept defeat. Jews were largely passive and did not resist the Nazis, but anti-Semitism, totalitarianism and brutality from a government led by a common Austrian, caused real resentment
among some intellectuals and Junkers. For example, Count Von Molkte led a network of Germans who helped resistance movements in Europe, and helped rescue some Jews. Attempts were made by younger offices to assassinate Hitler, but these all failed. For example in November 1943 at Berlin, Hitler avoided a bomb plot by cancelling his visit to a factory making new great coats for the Russian Front. The best-known and nearly successful plot was: •
The Stauffenburg Plot (July 1944) • Count Colonel Klause Von Stauffenburg plotted with other high-ranking officers against Hitler, at Hitler’s Bavarian Headquarters. (The Wolf’s Lair). Hitler was meeting the chiefs of staff in a bunker. Stauffenburg arrived with a briefcase, with a bomb in it. He puts it under the table, then as planned, goes to receive a phone call. The suitcase is kicked under the table accidentally, before it goes off, so the bomb went off at the wrong end of the table. Stauffenburg says it is a success, but Hitler was not killed, only injured. One naval officer was killed. Stauffenburg and two others were shot, others were rounded up and faced trial, but were guilty to start with, the trial was meaningless. The convicted were taken to a place with meat hooks in the ceiling, and hung them with piano wire. Hitler made a movie of this to discourage others.
5. Germany’s Final Collapse As USSR approached Germany from the east, GB/USA and Canadian forces came from the west using large amounts of artillery and tanks, with air cover. Hitler still believed (15th July 1944) that he could win the war, so ordered a counter-attack in the Ardennes, which failed. In this desperate plight the C in C gave the following order on 9th March 1945. ‘The capital will be defended to the last man and the last bullet… for the successful defence of Berlin… every building, every house, every floor, every hedge, every shell, every crater, be defended to the utmost.’ By 19th March 1945, even Hitler accepted defeat, and he ordered that nay weapons that could be used by the enemy must be destroyed. His forces in Berlin amounted to conscripted veterans and teenagers. Hitler and his wife committed suicide in the Führerbunker (30/4/45). Admiral Doenitz was named Führer. Hitler’s Henchmen i.e. The Close Inner Circle (People he ‘trusted’) Rudolf Hess. Deputy Führer until 1941, crashed his plane in Scotland on a peace mission. He suffered from amnesia. He was tried at Nuremberg, sentenced to life imprisonment at Spandau Prison, Berlin. He died in 1987 in hospital. We do not know whether is was heart failure or strangulation? Was it even Hess? Josef Goebbels. Propaganda chief from 1929-1945. He committed suicide in 1945 in the führerbunker. His wife committed suicide after poisoning her six children. Hermann Göring. Head of the Luftwaffe. He was sentenced to execution, but committed suicide by poisoning himself. Heinrich Himmler. Leader of SS and Gestapo. He committed suicide in 1945, by poisoning. Ernst Rohm. Leader of the SA. He died 30th June 1934, in the Rohm Purge. He was shot by the SS. Hitler arrested him, shot his chauffeur, then shot him. Joachim Von Ribbentrop. Nazi foreign minister. He was hanged in 1946.
Martin Borman. Party chairman after 1941. He disappeared. He may have gone to South America, or have been killed in bomb raids. Reinhardt Heydrich. Himmler’s deputy and in charge of Bohemia. He was assassinated in Prague in 1942 (27th May, died on 29th) Eva Braun. Mistress and wife of Hitler. Committed suicide in the bunker. The Effects of Nazi Rule on Germany Young people’s reaction to the Nazi regime Young people were among the most fanatical supporters of the Nazi regime and the Nazis had great success in controlling them. The Nazis wanted to control young people because: • •
They would be the future fighters for Hitler in his war effort They would be loyal to Hitler in any uprisings
The Nazis used a range of methods to control young people: • • •
Indoctrination of Nazi ideas Violence Hitler Youth Movement
However many young people in Germany were enthusiastic about life under the Nazi regime, especially as they enjoyed leisure opportunities. Not all young people supported the regime, however. Groups that opposed the Nazis were: • •
The ‘Swing’ movement The Edelweiss Pirates
These groups opposed the Nazis because they resisted the Nazi control of their lives. Due to their opposition, the Nazis acted against them by hanging the ring leaders and breaking up meetings . Did the German People Benefit from Hitler’s Rule? It has been argued that if Hitler had died in 1938/9, he would have been hailed as the greatest German leader of all time. Certainly after 1939, with the Second World War and the ruination of Germany, Hitler cannot receive the same praise. Government. Unlike the Weimar government, Hitler’s government was strong – it passed laws quickly. Germany did not benefit from democracy. Hitler was a dictator and Germany was totalitarian (Enabling Act: 23/3/33). Censorship prevented freedom of speech because they believed that propaganda gave people a biased view.
As the press published the positive side of Germany, the morale of the people was boosted. But censorship and propaganda meant people had a distorted view of events. This was bad in the long run as the people were not informed about alternatives or the true state of events.
The judiciary system and the law courts were known to be biased against the left wing, and in favour of the right wing – e.g. Hitler’s trial (1923). The bias got worse (1933-45), e.g. The Burning of the Reichstag (1933) and the Stauffenburg Plot (July 1944).
With regards to the economy – Hitler´s government reduced inflation and unemployment, e.g. the building of the Autobahns. He tried to make Germany self-sufficient. Foreign trade improved, e.g. Volkswagen. But women deprived of jobs, which were given to men. Minorities lost their jobs, e.g. the Jews (Nuremberg Laws, 1936). The economic growth was wrecked by the burden of the war effort. Hitler used the Armed Forces for much more than just building an army! The Junkers benefited from rearmament. Unemployment was reduced by conscription and the construction and working of munitions factories. The Catholic Church and its followers were supposed to be protected by the Concordat with the Pope (1933), but in 1933 the Concordat was broken. Protestant ministers were also persecuted, e.g. pastor Niemoller who was sent to Auschwitz. Prejudice and intolerance were encouraged by propaganda, e.g. against , Gypsies, Slavs, Poles and Blacks. From the onset of Hitler´s government until its downfall in May 1945, the minority groups in Germany were persecuted, e.g. the Jews were exterminated after 1941 (The Holocaust). The youth benefited from the Hitler Youth Movement as they were encouraged to be healthy and fit. Narrow-minded youth resulted through propaganda and education. Women, like men, benefited from the effects of economic reform as they enjoyed more wealth in general. Women depended on the incomes of men for their wealth. Women lost jobs (1933-41) then regained them as men were conscripted. Women were also subject to sexist policies, e.g. medals for breeding – gold cross for 8 children. Causes of the Second World War (Hitler’s Foreign Policy) a. Hitler’s Aims • • •
To unite German speaking people (using NSD which had been denied at the Treaty of Versailles. He wanted lebensraum (living space) in order to gain autarky (self-sufficiency) He wanted to dominate Europe and the World
To achieve any of these aims would involve breaking the Treaty of Versailles, and this could lead to war. b. The aggression of Hitler’s Allies • • •
Italy: Mussolini wanted a Fascist-Roman empire in the Mediterranean and Africa (e.g. Abyssinian invasion in 1935.) Japan: Japan wanted a Nipponese empire in the Pacific, extending into China and Australia (e.g. Manchurian invasion in 1931) Germany, Italy and Japan were hostile to Communism (USSR), and this way a cause of war and vice versa. (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Pact Axis Forces)
c. Democratic powers were passive • • •
USA: Isolated France: France was unlikely, and reluctant, to intervene against Germany, because she could not rely on Britain’s and America’s support. Britain: Between 1934 and 1937, Britain was sympathetic to German recovery. Between May 1937 and March 1939, Britain appeased Germany.
These powers could have stopped Fascist aggression earlier than 1939.
d. The League of Nations failed to keep peace See previous notes. e. Conclusion War was caused by a combination of ‘a’ to ‘d’, but Hitler’s aims and actions were the main cause of war. Reasons for Causes of War • • • • • • • • • •
The Second World War was caused by Fascist aggression and the failure of democratic powers to stop this aggression. The rearmament of Germany was a cause for war because it broke the Treaty of Versailles (28th June, 1919) The remilitarization of the Rhineland (7th march, 1936) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pacts (1925) The Rome-Berlin Axis (October 1936) was a cause of war because it united the aggressive fascist powers and divided Europe into hostile camps. Chamberlain’s appeasement policy (after may 1937 – March 1939) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of St. Germain (10th September, 1919) The Anschluss of Germany with Austria (13th march, 1938) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of St. Germain (10th September, 1919) The Nazi annexation of the Sudetenland after the Munich conference (29th September 1938) was a cause of war, because it broke the Treaty of St. Germain. The Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, cause war because it defied the Munich agreement and ended Britain’s appeasement policy. The Nazi-Soviet Pact (29th August 1939) caused war because it sealed Poland’s downfall. The Nazi invasion of Poland (1st September 1939) caused war because Britain had guaranteed Poland’s borders.
Causes of the Second World War (Detail) Nine Steps to War 1. The Rearmament of Germany German rearmament began after Hitler left 1932-4 Geneva Disarmament Conference, stating that as the powers would not disarm to his level, he would rearm Germany to their level. By 1935 rearmament was well underway. This involved conscription and munitions factories. Rearmament alarmed the French who, feeling insecure, reinforced the Maginot line (built between 1929 and 1934). This was a line of steel and concrete fortifications stretching from Belgium to Switzerland and was called ‘a gate without a fence’ because Germany would be able to avoid it and invade France via Belgium. France remained passive without Britain’s support.
Britain was sympathetic towards Germany and even signed an Anglo German Naval Treaty (June 1935) allowing Germany’s navy to be 35% of the size of the Royal Navy. Hitler used his new found arms to support Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-9) Hitler sent the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) to bomb Spanish Royal Forces at Guernica on 26th April, 1937. Guernica was leveled to the ground and Franco went on to conquer the Basque areas of Spain. Hitler had used Spain as a practice ground to see how strong his Air Force was. 2. The Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936) Having broken the Treaty of Versailles once, Hitler risked doing it a second time by marching 30,000 troops into Cologne on 7th March 1936. France, with 250,000 troops mobilized, remained passive because Britain would not support her. Britain took the view that Germany was ‘marching into her own back yard.’ To show that his remilitarization was popular, Hitler held a plebiscite, which showed that 98.8% were in favour. He went on to build his own defensive fortification, the Siegfried Line. 3. The Rome Berlin Axis (October 1936) Originally Mussolini did not want to be Hitler’s ally and in 1935 talks were held with Britain and France at the Stresa Front, but these came to nothing when Britain threatened oil sanctions against Mussolini during the Abyssinian crisis. This caused the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. Mussolini and Hitler strengthened their alliance on two occasions: a. The Anti-Commintern Pact (November 1937) with Japan. b. The Pact of Steel (May 1939). 4. Britain’s policy of Appeasement (May/June 1937 – March 1939) (Appeasement in 1938-9 was to maintain peace at all costs, even when it meant giving Hitler what he wanted, knowing that they were sacrificing the independence of smaller nations.) Neville Chamberlain became British Prime Minister on 28th May 1937, and followed the policy of appeasing Germany, believing that all Hitler wanted to do was unite German-speaking people. In so doing, Hitler would break the Treaty of Versailles (28th June 1919) but Chamberlain did not believe Hitler would cause war. Churchill disagreed, citing Mein Kampf (1924) where Hitler had written that Germany must regain lands ‘in the East … by the power of the sword.’ Chamberlain had misinterpreted Hitler’s aims. (We know this because we have the obvious benefit of hindsight, i.e. we can look back on history and see what had happened.) 5. The Anschluss with Austria (13th March, 1938) Austrian Fascists wanted to unite with Germany but Schuschnigg, the Austrian Chancellor, wanted Austria to be independent. He was unable to gain support from abroad (France and the Little Entente) so agreed to meet Hitler in Berlin. He was persuaded to accept an Austrian Nazi supporter as Minster of the Interior. Rioting/violent protests in Vienna increased under the Nazi’s leadership and Schuschnigg resigned. Hitler was then invited to establish control in Austria and on 13th March, 1938 troops from the Wermacht (German Army) entered Austria. In a plebiscite on the Anschluss a vote of 99.75% in favour was recorded. This was ‘rigged’ by biased questioning. Hitler made it seem that he had been invited into Austria, in fact he had incited the union.
6. Hitler Gained the Sudetenland (29th September, 1938) The Sudetenland was lost by Austria in the Treaty of St. Germain (10th September 1919) and hereby Czechoslovakia gained 3 million German speaking people. After the Anschluss the Sudeten German leader, Konrad Henlein, demanded a union with Germany. Unable to receive help from France, the Czech Premier, Benes, mobilized alone. Fearing war, Chamberlain met Hitler on three occasions at Berchtesgaden, Godesburg and at Munich. •
Munich Agreement (29th September, 1938) • This was signed by Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain and Daladier. Benes was not present. It said: Hitler could take the Sudetenland the following day without a plebiscite Hungary and Poland could take border districts from Czechoslovakia Britain and Germany would never go to war.
•
Chamberlain’s Reaction • On his return to England, Chamberlain announced that he had gained ‘peace with honour, peace in our time’. The majority rejoiced, except Churchill.
•
Hitler’s Reaction • In public Hitler seemed satisfied, but in private he exploded saying ‘that fellow Chamberlain has spoiled my entry into Prague.’
7. The Fall of Czechoslovakia (March 1939) In March 1939, Hitler forced Lithuania to give him Memel where most people spoke German. So far Hitler had only taken German speaking territory, so Chamberlain could still appease Hitler. However, in March 1939, Hitler threatened to bomb Prague, so the Czechs surrendered. Chamberlain realized appeasement had failed, so he began to rearm Britain and guarantee peace in Poland. 8. Nazi-Soviet Pact (29th August, 1939) – The Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact By the summer of 1939, Hitler’s plans to invade Poland were complete. He realized that to invade Poland mighty cause Britain to attack him from the West but he was more concerned to avoid a Russian attack from the east. Therefore to avoid a war on two fronts, he arranged the Nazi-Soviet NonAggression Pact, which said that if either country went to war the other would remain neutral. Hitler gained the chance to invade Poland with a war on one front, if Britain supported Poland. Stalin of USSR gained time to rearm in case Hitler attacked him later, and the chance to gain the eastern half of Poland. This would provide the USSR with a protective buffer zone. 9. German Invasion of Poland (1st September, 1939) German tanks invaded Poland on the 1st September 1939 using blitzkrieg tactics. (This is a lightning, sudden attack co-ordinating air, then land forces). Chamberlain sent an ultimatum (a warning with a threat) saying that if Hitler did not withdraw from Poland, Britain would declare war. On 3rd September, Britain, followed by France, declared war on Germany.
Causes of the Second World War - Vocabulary Lebensraum: living space, e.g. Hitler’s aim to take land from bordering states to achieve selfsufficiency (autarky) Anschluss: union, e.g. Austria and Germany (March, 1938) Appeasement: to give into an aggressor little by little, in the hope of preventing war. E.g. Britain appeased Germany (May/June 1937 – March 1939) Blitzkrieg: lightning attack, co-ordinating air and land forces. E.g. Germany’s attack on Poland (1st September 1939) Remilitarization: rearming and area, e.g. Germany remilitarized the Rhineland (1936) Plebiscite (referendum): a vote on an issue, e.g. Hitler’s plebiscites on remilitarization and the Anschluss of Austria and Germany (Hitler fixed his referendums in 1936 and for the Anschluss in 1938, so no-one expected him to have a plebiscite for the Sudetenland. He fixed them by biased questioning.) Ultimatum: a warning with a threat, e.g. Britain’s ultimatum for Hitler to leave Poland by 11am on the 3rd September 1939. Buffer zone: a protective barrier of land, e.g. Eastern Poland taken by the USSR as protection against a future German attack. Rearmament: manufacturing of weapons and conscription, e.g. Germany (after 1934), Britain after the taking of Sudetenland Autarky: self-sufficiency economically, e.g. Germany under Hitler to enable the country to avoid imports Aggression: hostile or violent action, e.g. Germany was aggressive towards Czechoslovakia (March, 1939) and Poland (1st September, 1939) Diktat: none-negotiated decision/arrangement, e.g. The Munich Agreement, forced onto Czechoslovakia (1938) Passive: to not take part in the action, e.g. Britain and France were passive towards the German remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 1936) Incite: devious planning, e.g. Hitler incited the Anschluss (March, 1938)
Causes of the Second World War (Summary) (Long-and-short term, immediate causes) Long term a. The harshness of the Treaty of Versailles (28th June, 1919) on Germany: Land losses / Reparations / War Guilt b. The failure of the League of the Nations to: Keep peace / Bring about disarmament Short term a. Hitler’s aggression: His aims / His actions (see steps to war: 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9) b. The aggression of the other powers: Italy – Abyssinia (1935), Rome-Berlin Axis, Anti-Commintern Pact, Albania Japan – Manchuria (1931), Anti-Commintern Pact (November, 1937) Russia – Nazi-Soviet Pact, Invasion of Poland c. The democracies were too passive USA – isolation France – would not do anything without Britain’s support Britain – sympathetic towards Germany, e.g. Anglo-German Naval Treaty (1935) and later appeased her (May/June 1937 – March 1939) Immediate a.
German invasion of Poland (1st September, 1939)
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Causes of the Cold War The Peace Treaties at the End of World War Two Some peace treaties were signed after the war had ended, but many of the real decisions had already been made at two meetings in 1945 at Yalta and Potsdam (NB. Before the war was over!). During these talks and at the Paris Peace Conference (1946) a struggle developed between the Western powers and Russia to see who could gain certain European objectives before the other. 1. Yalta a. b. c.
d. e. f. g. h. i.
j. k.
l. m.
In February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin met at Yalta, in the Crimea in Russia. It was agreed that Germany should be disarmed, demilitarised and divided into zones, to be occupied by Britain, USA and Russia (a French zone was included later). Berlin was to be divided into zones as well and shared out amongst the above countries. (Berlin would be in the Russian zone). A joint Control Commission was set up to govern Berlin. Similar arrangements were made for Austria and Vienna. Germany was to pay reparations ‘to the greatest possible extent’ of which half would go to the Soviet Union. Arrangements were made to try war criminals. Countries occupied by Germany (including her allies) were to be free to elect their own governments. It was agreed that Russia should get eastern Polish territory. Poland was promised German land to her west to compensate her, but Roosevelt and Churchill refused to agree to Stalin’s demand that Poland should get all German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. Poland was to gain Danzig. As the Russians pushed the Germans out of Poland they backed the establishment of a communist government in Lublin (“Lublin Poles”), even though there was a Polish government-in-exile in London (“London Poles”). However, Stalin promised that London Poles would be included in the Lublin ‘government’ and that there would be free elections. It was secretly agreed that Russia would enter the war against Japan. A charter for the United Nations should be composed at a meeting in San Francisco.
2. Potsdam a. b. c.
d. e. f.
In July 1945 Truman (USA), Attlee (Britain) and Stalin (USSR) met in a suburb of Berlin, Potsdam. The war with Germany was over but no agreement was reached about her long-term future beyond what had been decided at Yalta. (see Yalta points B+C) The British and Americans were annoyed because Germany west of the Oder-Neisse Line had been occupied by Russian troops and was being run by the pro-Communist Polish government. The reparations question was raised again and each country was permitted to extract reparations from its zone. Only the USSR took reparations. It was agreed that German minorities were to be deported to Germany. Truman did not inform Stalin about the nature of the atomic bomb, though the British were told about it during the conference. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima two days after the conference had ended.
g.
The war was ended without the need for Russian aid, and so did not take part in the occupation of Japan. 3. The Paris Peace Conference, 1946 (INFORMATION) a. b.
c.
21 countries were represented, though the defeated countries were allowed little to say. The talks were dominated by the Foreign Secretaries from the USA, Britain and the USSR, represented by Molotov. There were many instances of friction between the West and the USSR, especially as Molotov’s actions were unpredictable. In February 1947, peace treaties were signed with Italy, Finland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. No treaty was signed with Germany.
4. The German and Austrian Peace Treaties (INFORMATION) a.
b.
c.
d. e.
Austria and Vienna were divided into four zones, but unlike Germany she was allowed her own government, because she was seen not as a defeated country but as a state liberate from the Nazis. The Austrian government had limited powers and had a problem similar to that of Germany, the three western powers built up their zones and the USSR insisted on squeezing reparations from its zone, mainly in the form of food supplies. It seemed that the USSR was reluctant to make a permanent settlement but the Russians became unexpectedly co-operative. In May 1955, a peace treaty was signed, possibly because the Russians feared a merger between the western zones of Germany and Austria. Austria was to be a neutral country and was forbidden to unite with Germany. A peace treaty was never achieved with Germany because of the continued division of that country.
Meaning of Cold War At the end of the Second World War, relations between the USA and the USSR deteriorated, especially at Potsdam (July 1945) and Paris (1946). These two powers were rivals and the tension is called the Cold War. In Europe there was a little bloodshed but outside Europe there was more traditional warfare. (Korea, Cuba, Vietnam) Therefore, we say that the Cold War is a conflict of political ideologies, using propaganda, the threat of weapons and build-up of arsenals, but never actual fighting. Origins of the Cold War 1. The Cold War began as a result of suspicions that the democratic west had about the USSR and vice versa. After 1945 the USSR feared a Western invasion of her new satellites and the west feared the spread of Marxism. 2. Relations between the major powers got worse at the end of the Second World War. This occurred especially at Yalta (February 1945), Potsdam (July 1945) and Paris (1946). At Paris, Molotov refused to accept the west’s ideas about not taking reparations and about wanting free elections in Eastern Europe. 3. Germany was divided into four occupation zones: • Britain (Got the ruins!) • France (Got the wine!) • USA (Got scenery! - Bavaria) • USSR (Gained the lion’s share and surrounded Berlin!)
4. In 1946, Churchill at Foulton, Missouri said: ‘An iron curtain is descending on Europe extending from Stettin in the north to Trieste in the south.’ He nearly got it right. The metaphorical line that separates the communist east from the democratic west should not end at Trieste, because although Yugoslavia was communist it was independent of the USSR (under Tito). The satellites states were: Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Albania, Czechoslovakia and Eastern Germany. 5. Economic Origins. Official America anti-Soviet policy began with the Truman Doctrine (March 1947) where American aid was offered to European countries which bordered onto Communist countries. This was extended by the Marshall Plan (June 1947) which offered aid outside Europe. This was designed to stop the spread of Communism – called CONTAINMENT. This was officially the end of US isolation from 1917 – 1941. The USSR set up Cominform in September 1947, which Stalin said was a news agency, but really it was a means of “Russifying” the economic policies of the eastern bloc countries. In June 1948, the three western powers united their zones with a new deutschmark. This financial union was the forerunner of a political union (3 zones = West Germany). Stalin was upset about this because he believed that this was the West´s attempt to make Germany strong again and that in the future this could be dangerous for the USSR. 6. The Arms Race. The USSR was annoyed not to know about America’s atom bomb (1945). The USSR gained the atom bomb in 1949 and both sides began to stockpile arms. The Cold War Inside Europe The major powers often responded to each other in a tit for tat (“If you can do it, then I am also going to do it!”) fashion being mutually suspicious, defensive and aggressive. 1. Division of Germany (See map in your textbook) • • •
•
This was mentioned at Yalta (February 1945) and at Potsdam (July 1945). It was decided to divide Germany into four occupation zones: • Britain / France / USA / USSR Berlin lies 110 miles within the Russian zone and it too was divided into four. The powers jointly controlled the city and administered their occupation zones from Berlin. Britain, France and the USA ran their zones on similar lines so that Germany could recover. The USSR however took away equipment (e.g. they dismantled factories and other buildings for their building material) as reparations in kind. Stalin’s aim was to reduce his zone so that the people there would eventually accept communism as a better alternative. In 1946 and 1947 discussions were held about German unity, but Molotov refused. With this disagreement official American anti-Soviet Policy began.
2. Containment a. The Truman Doctrine (March 1947) Truman outlined aid to be offered to countries in Europe that bordered onto communist countries (i.e. Stalin’s satellites could also apply for aid.) Greece and Turkey received aid and did not become communist.
b. Marshall Plan (June 1947) Marshall extended aid to any country in the world. In all, 16 nations received US money by 1951. 3. The USSR’s Responses • • •
Stalin refused to let his satellites receive any aid. Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon to control the policies and economies in the eastern bloc. To strengthen the USSR’s hold in Eastern Europe, the only none-Communist country, Czechoslovakia, was taken over in February 1948.
4. The West’s Reaction (June 1948) Britain, America and France introduced a new deutschmark to bring financial unity to their three zones. The USSR was offended. This led to the Berlin blockade (June 1948). 5. Berlin blockade and airlift (June 1948 – May 1949) The Russians struck at what they thought was the west’s weakest point and Berlin was vulnerable, because it was surrounded on all sides by communists. On the 22nd June 1948 (in the night) the USSR closed and then blocked all road, rail and canal transport into Berlin, and they withdrew from their joint control of the city. In time the West realized that the USSR did not want direct warfare but wanted to oust the West from Berlin by siege tactics. So, in spite of their desire to solve this problem militarily, they decided to use different strategies. •
The Berlin Airlift or Operation Victuals (Victuals means supplies) The West sent supplies by air, i.e. 2/3 US aircraft, 1/3 RAF aircraft. Goods were landed every 30 seconds and the record for one day was 1,400 landings. They delivered food, clothing, medicines, drink and fuel, e.g. coal – 5,000 tonnes were delivered per day (total – 2.3 million tonnes). The 2 million West Berliners accepted rationing and to increase their chances of survival they built a new airfield and extended two others. The airlift was very expensive – the amount of money spent is most likely exaggerated by Western propaganda. The siege ended in May 1949; one month after NATO had been set up. The West claimed a victory, but they knew that the USSR could strike the same blow on Berlin at any time in the future.
6. The Results of the Berlin blockade and Airlift There were political, military and economic results for east and west.
a. Political – Germany is divided into two: The West united its three zones as the Federal Republic of Germany (BRD). The Soviets responded by naming their zone the German Democratic Republic (DDR). The communists used ‘democratic’ as propaganda. b. Military (April 1949) – NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation: This was set up to bring military unity to the west. It gave the USA the right to base its troops in Western Europe. Its membership included Britain, USA, France, the BENELUX countries, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Portugal , Greece, Turkey and in 1955 West Germany also joined. NATO’s headquarters was known as S.H.A.P.E. (Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers in Europe) and it was based in Paris. The Commander in Charge (C in C) would always be an American . NATO was instantly successful because the Berlin blockade was ended one month later. In the long term it was successful, because it achieved containment in Europe (stopped the spread of Communism in Europe). c. Economic (January 1949) By forming Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) the USSR centralized the economic polices of the satellites, e.g. their trade with the USSR. d. Military (1955) – Warsaw Pact This was a belated response of the USSR to NATO. It gave the USSR the right to base its troops in the satellite countries. The Pact was set up just after West Germany joined NATO. e. Military – The Arms Race There was a steady build-up of arms: In 1945 the USA already had and used the atom bomb. They thought that it would take the Soviets at least another 20 years to develop their own atom bomb. However, they were wrong as the USSR had developed its own in 1949. In 1954 the Americans had the Hydrogen bomb and 7 years later in 1961 the Soviet followed suit. Other weapons were built and included in the arms race, this increasing the tension between the superpowers - Early Warning Systems, Interception missiles, Star wars (Satellite communication system). It is important to notice that all of these are nuclear weapons. In addition there was a steady build-up in the size of armies, constant improvement in arms technology and a permanent effort to look for new allies. 7. Khrushchev’s (Krushchev) Foreign Policy and its effect on the Cold War Stalin died in 1953, and Krushchev became sole ruler in 1956. From 1956, Krushchev followed the policy of de-Stalinization, in domestic policy. In foreign policy he did two things. a. Co-existence with the West (The thaw in the Cold War) This meant that he wanted to agree to differ with the west. To show goodwill to the west he agreed to grant Austrian unity. This was in the 1955 Austrian State Treaty. Austria claimed neutrality in Europe. b. He offered more freedom to the Satellites They took advantage of this, as can be seen in the Hungarian Crisis (1956)
8. The Hungarian Rising (1956) •
Long term causes: • No traditional ties between Hungary and the USSR. • Hungarians disliked the Soviet occupation at the end of the Second World War. • Even some Hungarian communists were against the pro-Stalinist regime in Hungary. • The Hungarian Cardinal was arrested/imprisoned in 1949 and Catholics resented this. • Hungarians resented Soviet control via Comecon (January 1949) and the Warsaw Pact (1955)
•
Short term causes: • Hungarians expected more freedom under Krushchev. • The Hungarian Rising After Stalin´s death in 1953 the Moscow-controlled leader was replaced in October 1956 by Nagy. He came to office with liberal reforms and encouraged no totalitarianism, less trade with Comecon, free trade with the West, a free press. The USSR was alarmed at the initial signs of “independence” and Soviet tanks entered Budapest. Nagy offered talks, but he made the mistake of saying Hungary was like Austria, and that it should leave the Warsaw Pact. This was seen as a final confirmation that Hungary wanted to break free. Tanks attacked the city on 4th November 1956. University students took to the streets and demonstrated and toppled the bronze statue of Stalin. Nagy said this was a symbolic act, the rising was anti-Stalin, rather than anti-USSR. • NB. The West did nothing to help Hungary.
•
Results: • About 20,000 people were killed and 20,000 more imprisoned. According to Hungarian sources more than 200 thousand Hungarians went into internal exile. • Soviet control was restored, and Nagy was arrested and tried in Romania, then shot. He was replaced by Kadar. • Krushchev’s policy with the satellites was failing.
9. The Berlin Wall (not the Berlin Blockade!) Krushchev tried to get the West to recognise the DDR (East Germany). He met the USA on two occasions: a. Paris, 1960 (Meeting with Pres. Dwight Eisenhower) • • • •
The talks were wrecked by the U2 scandal (U2=spy plane with photographic equipment, which flies above the radar trap) Gary Power’s plane landed in the USSR, May 1960). In Paris Krushchev asked Eisenhower for an apology. Eisenhower refused. (And this meant that the tension between the superpowers was increased.)
b. Vienna, 1961 (Meeting with Pres. J.F. Kennedy) • •
Krushchev wanted JFK to recognise the DDR and to arrange for the West to withdraw from Berlin. Kennedy refused and later, on the 25th July, he made a speech about West Berlin: ‘Berlin…is more than a showcase of liberty. It is even more than a link with the free world, a beacon of hope behind the iron curtain, and escape hatch for refugees.’
• • • •
• •
Krushchev retaliated on the 13th August, 1961, by building a 40km barbed wire fence across Berlin. Telephone and postal links ceased between East and West Berlin. The fence became a wall with a crossing called Checkpoint Charlie. The Berlin Wall was built for two reasons: • USA would not recognise the DDR. • To stop the flow of refugees from Eastern Europe into the West via Berlin. Between 1948 and 1960 the exodus amounted to 20,000 people a month (Estimated total 2.88 million. This is very likely Western propaganda). It wasn’t just the quantity of people it was the quality, because Technocrats were leaving. In other words, East Germany was losing all its professionals. West Berliners protested and JFK sent his deputy to Berlin, L.B. Johnson to Berlin who guaranteed freedom for West Berliners. Nothing else was done and the West Berliners felt betrayed. (The wall did not come down until 1989.)
The Cold War Outside Europe Two foreign policies affected the Cold War outside Europe: 1. The Communist East The Soviets wanted to spread Marxism around the world, and Southeast Asia was a likely area for conflict, because the USSR and China (led by Mao Tse Tung after 1949) bordered onto this area. 2. The West John Foster Dulles, the US Secretary of State spoke of the ‘domino theory’ which said that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to Communism, the others would follow. Korean War (1950-1953)
See your textbooks and refer to the map showing the main events of the Korean War (19501953). •
Background: • At the start of the 20th Century, Korea was under Chinese influence, but Russia and Japan wanted to control it. Japan wanted it as a base to attack China from, and Russia wanted it to protect its naval base at Vladivostok. • 1904-5: The Russo Japanese War (Japan defeated Russia) and the treaty gave Japan the right to annex Korea. This lasted until 1945.
•
•
1945: At Potsdam (July) it was decided to divide Korea at the 38th parallel, with the intention of re-uniting it, after free elections. The USSR opposed the elections so the North of Korea became Communist under Kim IL Sung, and the South was America’s ally under Dr. Syngman Rhee. North Korea was slightly stronger, because it had some industry. Also, the South Korean leader, although representing democracy and capitalism was very corrupt. So much so, that his people demanded unification with the communist North, because they saw that conditions were better there. 1949: USA and USSR pulled out of Korea and left two inchoate (under-developed) governments. The North invaded the South.
•
The War: • 25th June 1950: North Korea crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. They occupied Seoul, continuing across the rest of the south until only the area of Pusan remained threatened. The Americans sent a force from their naval base on Japan to defend Pusan. Meanwhile the UNO Security Council met and used its military sanction (This was achieved unanimously because the USSR did not attend, as the UNO would not recognize Communist China). • September 1950: A UNO force of 16 nations led by General MacArthur made an amphibious attack at Inchon. From here they relieved Seoul and caused the North Koreans to fight a war on two fronts. The North Koreans were pushed back to the 38th parallel. The UNO leader, Trygve Lie, allowed MacArthur to go into North Korea to hold free elections. • MacArthur advanced just south of the Yalu river border with China, capturing Pyong Yang and killing thousands. At this point, China feared a none-Marxist neighbour in North Korea, and after several warnings (Ignored by USA), the Communist Chinese armies invaded without declaring war. • By early 1951, MacArthur’s forces were south of the 38th Parallel, and Seoul had fallen again, but the Chinese had stretched their supply line, and were driven back to the 38th parallel. • MacArthur was not allowed to go into North Korea because the UNO said that China was not technically at war. President Truman sacked MacArthur, and this shows that the USA, and not the UNO, was dominating the war.
•
Peacemaking (June 1951 to July 1953) • • •
•
For two years, fighting continued along the Armistice Line, near the 38th Parallel, while peace talks were held at Kaesong. The North Koreans and South Koreans argued over petty matters (e.g. seating arrangements) trying to make time for one side to clinch a victory. 27th July, 1953: Peace was made at Panmunjon, which said that Korea should be divided at the 38th parallel, the South friendly to the USA, and the North friendly to the USSR.
Results: • There was no improvement on the 1945 position, except Korean agriculture and society was wrecked. 3.5 million people had been killed (futile war). • Since 1953 there have been no signs of unity. • September, 1945: SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation) was set up as a Pacific version of NATO, which gave America the right to base their troops in: (BUPPFANT) – Britain, USA, Philippines, Pakistan, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand. • In 1975, SEATO was disbanded, because some members left), e.g. France. Cuban Missile Base Crisis
Important / Key Dates: 1898 - Cuban Independence from Spain 1934 - Cuban Independence from USA 1952 - Batista regime in power 1959 - Fidel Castro in power 1961, January - USA aid to Cuba ended 1961, April - Attack at the Bay of Pigs 1961, December - Castro admitted his government was Marxist 1962, 16th-29th October - Cuban Missile Base Crisis Long Term Causes • • • • • • •
In 1898, Cuba gained independence from Spain, and thereafter, until 1934, it was controlled by the USA, who invested in its economy (mainly sugar and tobacco). FDR granted its independence in 1934, and in 1952, Batista came to power. He was right wing, and so acceptable to the USA, but he was idle, inefficient and cruel. Profits dropped and the US people with business interests complained. From 1957, the US supported the rise of a young (30) Cuban lawyer, Fidel Castro (born, 1927), who led a band of 300 fighters called the 26th of July Movement. They helped him gain power in January 1959. He began to nationalize industry, collectivize farms and censor the press. (This was in direct imitation of Soviet Communism.) The USA realized too late that they had sponsored a Marxist with their investments and profits on Cuba at risk. American aid to Cuba ended in January 1961. Cuban capitalists fled to the USA. It was not until December 1961, that Castro admitted his government was Marxist. Before this he had been trying to get aid from both the USA and the USSR.
Short Term Cause (The Bay of Pigs) • • • •
Eisenhower accepted the plan by a group of ex-Cuban nationalists to invade Cuba. They were led by José Cardona and supported by the CIA. The Americans feared the spread of Communism into America. On the 17th April 1961, the groups landed in Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, but they were completely outnumbered and rounded up by Castro’s forces. The whole affair had been a debacle for the CIA. They realized that, due to the success of the Cuban Revolution, Cuban citizens were not going to betray their new government. (They were weary of a government like Batista´s!) Kennedy, the new president, was embarrassed, and denied his involvement. This caused Castro to make firmer links with the USSR.
(Brinkmanship: The Cuban Missile Base Crisis is a good example of brinkmanship, because the USA and the USSR pushed each other to the brink of war, then backed down before war was declared.)
The 1962 Crisis • • • • • • • •
• • • •
In the summer of 1962 Russian advisers visited Cuba, and agreed to build missile bases facing Florida. The plan was for the missiles to be delivered to Cuba later. (It is now believed that there were never any missiles on Cuba.) October 1962 - a U2 spy plane photographed the bases, but when asked, Castro denied they existed. 22nd October – JFK, with his photographic evidence, broadcast to the American nation that the bases were a threat to national security, and he followed this by a naval blockade of the island. This was siege warfare and to prevent the USSR making deliveries. Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, offered a compromise that if the Americans removed their missile bases from Turkey (on the USSR border), he would dismantle the bases on Cuba. Kennedy refused and gave the ultimatum that he would invade Cuba on the 29th October, if the missiles were not dismantled. Krushchev gave in on the 29th, and said he would remove the bases under UNO supervision. Results: • USA and USSR’s relations improved. • A hotline (direct telephone link) between Washington and Moscow was linked up. • 1963 – The Test ban Treaty to stop the testing of nuclear devices in the air The USA claimed a victory, with Kennedy as a hero. Others were concerned that he could have taken the world into a nuclear war. Khrushchev never recovered from his humiliation, and was deposed in October 1964. Cuba remained isolated until the 1970s when it befriended China. Marxism did not spread into America, apart from a short-lived regime in Chile (until 1973).
Exam Questions (Taken from past IGCSE examinations) Papers 1 & 4 Questions 1. France, Germany and Belgium confirmed their boundaries as laid down in the Treaty of Versailles. The Rhineland was confirmed as a demilitarized zone. Britain and Italy joined in guaranteeing these frontiers and the demilitarization. A summary of part of the Locarno Treaties (a) (b) (c)
What was the Dawes Plan? In the 1920s the League of Nations promised peace. Why, then, did countries still make treaties with each other? Was it the Locarno Treaties which made Europe peaceful by then end of the 1920s? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. How important were the effects on international relations of Japanese expansionism in China? Explain your answer. [8] -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. On 7th October 1950 American forces crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea. They were taking the war into Communist territory. The new Chinese Communist government was worried by the American advance. If the Americans controlled airfields in North Korea, they would be close enough to bomb Chinese factories and power stations. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the events in 1950 which led to the intervention of the UN in Korea. Why did China become involved in the Korean War? Was the intervention of the UN in Korea successful? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Photo: A US Navy ship (in the foreground) alongside a Soviet freighter loaded with missiles for Cuba. (a) (b) (c)
What was the “Thaw” in relations between the USSR and the USA between 1956-60? Why was there a crisis over Cuba in 1962? How far was the improvement of relations between the two superpowers after 1962 caused by the Cuban Missile Crisis? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. There are certain tasks the League is expected to do. It is expected to settle international disputes peacefully, punish its members who go to war, and reduce armaments. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the structure of the League of Nations. Why did the League of Nations not give Manchuria back to China after 1931? Is it true that the League of Nations was a failure even before Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933? Explain your answer.
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6.
Photo: A photograph from a British newspaper showing Italian troops fighting, 1936. (a) What actions were taken against Italy by the League of Nations following the invasion of Abyssinia? (b) Why did most countries condemn Italy’s invasion and occupation of Abyssinia? (c) How important was the invasion of Abyssinia for the League of Nations. Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Article 4: In the event of an armed attack in Europe on one or more of the parties of the Treaty by any state of group of states, each of the parties to the Treaty shall immediately come the assistance of the state or states attacked. From the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance, signed by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union, 14 May 1955. (a) (b) (c)
What arrangements were made by the Allies for the governing of Germany after the defeat of the Nazis? Why was the Marshall Plan introduced? How important were the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. Photo of an U2 airplane (a) (b) (c)
What did Khrushchev do to improve relations with the USA and Western Europe between 1955-60? Why did relations between the USA and the USSR become strained again in 1960-1? Was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought about mainly by the actions of the USSR? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9. Diagram / Organigram of the League of Nations (a) (b) (c)
Describe the work of two of the agencies or commissions of the League of Nations. Why was the League of Nations dominated by France and Britain? How far did the League of Nations achieve its aims in the 1920s? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10. Japan has been, and is, a loyal supporter of the League, and hopes to remain so. However, Japan’s support will only continue if the League accepts our policy of preserving peace and order in the Far East. The Japanese representative at the League of Nation, speaking after the publication of the Lytton Report, 1932.
(a) (b) (c)
What were the aims of Japanese foreign policy in the 1930s? Why was the Lytton Report produced? How important were Japan’s attacks on China in the 1930s? Explain your answer.
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11. Cartoon: A British cartoon about the German invasion of Poland in 1939. A bulldog represents Britain and it is growling at the German burglar. (a) (b) (c)
What was the policy of appeasement followed by Britain and France in the 1930s? Why did Britain and France go to war against Germany over Poland? How far had Hitler achieved his aims in foreign policy by the end of 1939? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12. Photos: American landing craft approach South Korea, 1950. / Cheering crowds in Budapest, Hungary as the Russians agree to move out, October 1956. (a) (b) (c)
Describe how the Truman Doctrine was put into practice. Why did the United Nations intervene in Korea in 1950? To what extent did the Soviet Union increase its influence in the world between 1945 and 1960? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13. As compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in northern France and as part payment towards the total reparations due from Germany for the damage resulting from the war, Germany gives France control of the coal mines situated in the Saar basin. An extract from the Treaty of Versailles. (a) (b) (c)
What territorial terms of the Treaty of Versailles affected Germany in Europe? Why did Germans dislike the other terms of the Versailles Treaty? How far was the rise of the Nazis to power the result of German dissatisfaction with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14. Photo: A German military parade through the streets of Berlin at the time of the Berlin Olympic Games, August, 1936. (a) (b) (c)
In what ways did Hitler try to give the impression that Germany was a great country? Why did the Nazis persecute minorities in Germany in the 1930s? How successful had Hitler’s domestic policies been by 1939? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15. What use could be made of the Treaty of Versailles! Each one of the points of that treaty could be branded on the hearts and minds of the German people until 60 million men and women are aflame with rage and shame. Adolf Hitler writing in ‘Mein Kampf’, 1924. (a) (b)
In relation to the peace settlement of 1919-20, what was meant by mandates and plebiscites? Why was the Treaty of Versailles severe on Germany?
(c)
How far had Germans accepted the terms of the Treaty of Versailles by the end of 1923? Explain your answer.
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16.
Photo: Enthusiastic Viennese demonstrate in favour of the Anschluss, 12 March 1938. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the events of 1938 which led to Anschluss. Why did Britian and France permit the Anschluss? Were Hitler’s policies towards Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938-9 completely successful? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17. Cartoon: An American cartoon showing the Marshall Plan giving help to Europe. (a) (b) (c)
Describe how Poland and Czechoslovakia became Communist-controlled as a result of the Second World War. Why did the wartime unity of the Allies break down in 1945-7? Which country had the more successful policies in Europe between 1945 and 1949 – the USA or the USSR? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18. “Gorbachev’s visit to East Germany encouraged protests against the deeply unpopular Communist regime. At a torchlight parade down the Unter den Linden in East Berlin a crowd of thousands to everyone’s surprise broke into chants of ‘Gorby, Gorby, Gorby, save us.’ In an extraordinary turnabout, a Soviet leader was now hailed by Eastern Europeans as a saviour from the their own government’s tyranny.” A description of Gorbachev’s visit to East Berlin in October 1989. (a) (b) (c)
What was Glasnost? Why was Solidarity formed in Poland in 1980? How far was the collapse of Soviet Communism due to the reforms of Gorbachev? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19. “Stresemann was Foreign Minister of the Weimar Republic from 1923 to his death in 1929. He guided the return of Germany to international status. He supported closer relations with the Western Powers. In 1926 he shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Briand of France. Hitler, however, regarded Stresemann as a traitor to the German cause.” (a) (b) (c)
What was the Munich Putsch? Why was Stresemann’s foreign policy a success? How far had Weimar Germany recovered from its earlier problems by 1929? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20. Photo: Political prisoners at the Oranienburg concentration camp. (a) (b)
What was a Nazi concentration camp? Why did the Nazis introduce the ‘Final Solution’?
(c)
To what extent did Germans turn against Hitler during the course of the Second World War? Explain your answer.
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21. The League may be a difficult scheme to work, but the significant thing is that the Powers have promised to make it work. Mankind has, in the short space of ten years, jumped from the old order to the new. We are witnessing one of the great miracles of history. From a speech made in 1930. (a) (b) (c)
Describe two successes the League of Nations had in the 1920s in solving disputes. Why was the League of Nations quite successful in the first ten years of its existence? ‘The good work of the League was destroyed by the Depression of the 1930s.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22. Photo: An Abyssinian village bombed by Italian aircraft in the invasion of 1936. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the attacks that Japan made on China in the 1930s. Why was Italy able to defeat the Abyssinians? How important for events in Europe were Hitler’s pacts with Italy and Japan? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23. Photo: The execution of a Vietcong suspect during the Tet Offensive, 1968. (a) (b) (c)
Who were the Vietcong and what part did they play in the Vietnam War? Why did involvement in the war become increasingly unpopular in the USA? How successful was US policy towards Vietnam in the period 1963-75? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24. Photo: A Freikorps unit in Munich, May 1919. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the activities of the Freikorps in Germany, 1919-20. Why were there so many uprisings and disturbances in Germany in the years 1919-22? How far was Germany’s treatment in the Versailles peace settlement unfair? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25. A Jew may not be a citizen of the Reich. He has no vote. He may not fill public office. Marriages between Jews and nationals of German or similar blood are forbidden. Extract from the Nuremburg Laws, September, 1935. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the treatment of the Jews in Nazi Germany from 1935. Why were the Jews persecuted by the Nazis? By the end of the 1930s, did Hitler rule Germany by oppression or by popular support? Explain your answer.
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26. Article 16: Should any member of the League resort to war, it shall be regarded as having committed an act of war against all other members of the League, and this will end immediately all trade and financial relations with that member. From the Covenant of the League of Nations. (a) (b) (c)
How did the League of Nations hope to prevent future wars between nations? Why did the League of Nations fail to restrict the aggression of Japan in the 1930s? How far was the League of Nations a failure? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27. “I now have to inform the House that in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence and which the Polish Government accordingly considered it vital to resist with their armed forces, His Majesty’s Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government an assurance to this effect.” Neville Chamberlain speaking in the House of Commons, 31 March 1939. (a) (b) (c)
When Hitler cam to power, what did he hope to achieve in foreign policy? Why did Britain go to war over Poland in 1939? How far was the Treaty of Versailles to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28. “From Stettin to Trieste on the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe – Warsaw, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia. All these famous cities and the population around them lie in the Soviet sphere and are subject, not only to Soviet influence, but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow.” Winston Churchill speaking in Fultom, Missouri, USA in 1946. (a) (b) (c)
What was decided at the Yalta Conference? Why was Eastern Europe largely in the hands of the USSR by 1946? ‘Only Stalin of the Allies achieved what he wanted as a result of the war with Germany.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29. Map: The Cuban Missile Crisis (a) (b) (c)
Describe the Bay of Pigs incident. Why did the USSR install missile bases in Cuba? ‘The Cuban Missile Crisis was not as serious as it appeared at the time.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer.
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30. As soon as I received my salary, I rushed out to buy the daily necessities. My daily salary, as editor of a magazine, was just enough to buy one loaf of bread and a small piece of cheese. An acquaintance of mine, a clergyman, came to Berlin from a suburb with his monthly salary to buy a pair of shoes for his baby. By the time he arrived, he could only afford to buy a cup of coffee. The recollections of a woman who lived in Berlin during 1923. (a) (b) (c)
Describe the effects of the hyperinflation of 1923 on the lives of German people. Why did France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr in 1923? How far did Stresemann restore pride and prosperity to Germany? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31. The Reich Press Law of 4 October 1933 ordered that all editors had to be German citizens of Aryan descent, and not married to a Jew. They had to keep out of their newspapers ‘anything which in any manner is misleading to the public, tends to weaken the strength of the German Reich, or offends the honour and dignity of Germany.’ (a) (b) (c)
What was the Enabling Law (Act) of 1933? Why did Hitler seek to control all forms of the media? How far had Hitler’s policies gained the support of the German people by 1939? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32. Look at the statistics, and then answer the questions which follow. Dec. 1914 Dec. 1919 Nov. 1921 Jan. 1922 Aug. 1922 Jan. 1923 Jul. 1923 Aug. 1923 Nov. 1923
4 9 70 192 1,000 18,000 160,000 1,000,000 4,200,000,000 German Marks needed to one US dollar’s worth of goods.
(a) (b) (c)
Describe the effects of hyper-inflation in Germany in 1923. Why did hyper-inflation occur in Germany in 1923? How far was Stresemann responsible for German recovery from 1923 to 1929? Explain your answer.
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33. I am beginning to understand some of the reasons for Hitler’s amazing success. He is restoring glory and colour to the lives of 20th century Germans. This morning’s meeting was more than just a colorful show. There was a hush over the 30,000 people packed into the hall. He walked slowly down the centre aisle while 30,000 hands were raised in salute. In such an atmosphere no wonder that every word Hitler spoke seemed like a message sent from God. From the diary of a German, September 1934.
(a) (b) (c)
What were the Nuremberg Laws (1935)? Why were Jews persecuted in Nazi Germany? ‘The main reason the Nazis were popular was their anti-Jewish policy.’ Do you agree? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34. Study the sources, and then answer the questions which follow. Source A Today in the Hall of Mirrors of Versailles the disgraceful Treaty is being signed. DO not forget it! Germany will press forward to reconquer its proper place among nations. Then will come revenge for the shame of 1919. From a German newspaper on the day of signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Source B July 1921 July 1922 July 1923 September 1923 November 1923
3 9 22,500 10,370,000 470,000,000,000 The price of a loaf of bread in German Marks, 1921-3.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Study Source A. What can you tell from this source about German attitudes to the Treaty of Versailles? Support your answer with reference to the source. Study Source B. How far does this source show that inflation was a major problem in Germany between 1921 and 1923? Explain your answer. Study both sources. How useful are these sources as evidence about the problems that Germany faces after 1919? Explain your answer. Why did the government have difficulty controlling the outbreaks of violence that occurred between 1919-23? How successfully did Stresemann overcome Germany’s economic problems between 1923-29? Explain your answer.
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35.
Study the sources, and then answer the questions which follow.
Source A The new Ministry of Propaganda Enlightenment has no other aim than to unite the nation behind the ideal of the national revolution. If this aim has been achieved then the people can judge my methods if they wish: that would be unimportant, for the Ministry would then have achieved its goal. Jospeh Goebbels speaking in 1933. Source B During the 1930s, I myself was to learn how easily one is taken in by an untruthful and censored press and radio in a totalitarian state. Though, unlike most Germans, I was able to read foreign newspapers every day and listened regularly to foreign broadcasts, my job meant the spending of many hours a day in reading through the German press, checking the German radio, consulting with Nazi officials and going to party meeting. It was worrying to find that a steady diet of bias and lies made an impression on one’s mind and often misled it. It is difficult to escape the results of continuous propaganda. William Shirer, an American journalist, writing in 1959. Shirer had lived in Germany during the 1930s. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Study Source A. What can you tell from this source about Goebbels’ attitude towards propaganda? Support your answer with reference to the source. Study Source B. How far does this source show that Shirer was impressed by Nazi propaganda? Explain your answer. Study both sources. Is one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence on how the Nazis controlled the German people? Explain your answer. Name two media that Goebbels promoted using propaganda. How did the Nazis use education to spread their ideas? Why were the Nuremberg rallies effective? Was propaganda a more effective way of keeping the support of the German people than terror? Explain your answer.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow: We want a peace which will be just. We want a stern peace because the occasion demands it, but the severity must not be for vengeance, but for justice. Above all we want to protect the future against a repetition of the horrors of this war. Lloyd George speaking about the Paris Peace Conference. a) Describe what Clemenceau and Lloyd George each wanted to achieve in the peace settlement of 1919-20. b) Why did the Treaty of Versailles cause problems for Germany in the years up to 1923? c) Was the Treaty of Versailles fair? Explain your answer. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
37. Study the cartoon. (Uncle Sam leaning against a keystone, missing from the League of Nations bridge.) a) What were the aims of the League of Nations? b) Why did the League of Nations have some successes during the 1920's? c) How far can the failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s be blamed on the Great Depression? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. The Berlin Wall is an open attempt to remove the right to free movement throughout the city, in direct opposition to the Four Power agreement reached in Paris on 20 June 1949. Dean Rusk, US Secretary of State, speaking in August 1961. a) Describe how the Berlin Wall affected the people living in Berlin. b) Why was the Berlin Wall built? c) How far can the decline of Soviet power in Eastern Europe be blamed on the Solidarity movement? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. It was a beautiful autumn evening, the height of the crisis, and I went out into the garden into the open air to smell it, because I thought it was the last Saturday I would ever see. A close adviser of President Kennedy talking about the evening of 27 October 1962. a) Describe relations between Cuba and the USA in the period 1959-1961. b) Why was the USA concerned about Soviet missiles in Cuba? c) Khrushchev claimed that the Cuban Missile Crisis was a victory for the Soviet Union. Do you agree with this view? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. We demand the union of all Germans in Greater Germany. All citizens shall have equal rights and duties. Extracts from the Nazi Party Programme, 1920. a) Describe the ideas and policies of the Nazi Party in the 1920s. b) Explain why the Nazi Party had little success before 1930. c) “The effects of the Wall Street Crash provided the main reason why Hitler was able to become Chancellor of Germany by 1933.” Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
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41. Study the photograph, and then answer the questions which follow. (Photo depicting thousand of German men ready to work on the first highway or autobahn in 1933). a) Describe the actions taken by Hitler to reduce unemployment. b) Why did the Nazis discourage women from going out to work? c) How total was the control the Nazis had over the German people before 1939? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42. Study the sources, and then answer the questions which follow. Source A Billion mark notes were passed on quickly because tomorrow one would no longer pay in notes but in bundles of notes. One afternoon I rang Aunt Louise's doorbell. The door was opened slightly. From the dark cam a distressed voice: “I've used sixty billion marks worth of gas. My milk bill is one million. But all I have left is two thousand marks. I don't understand what is happening any more.” From the autobiography of a German who lived through the hyperinflation of 1923. Source B The causes of hyperinflation were complicated but the Germans did not see it that way. They blamed the reparations of the Weimar Republic which had accepted reparations and was the government in power during the chaos of 1923. Many middle-class Germans never forgave the Republic for the harm they believed it had done to them. From a British textbook, 1992. a) Study Source A. What can you tell from this source about the impact of hyperinflation on German people? Support your answer with reference to the source. b) Study Source B. How far does this source show that the Weimar government was to blame for the hyperinflation? Explain your answer. c) Study both sources. Is one the sources more useful than the other as evidence about the hyperinflation? Explain your answer. d) What were reparations? e) Describe how Stresemann brought the 1923 crisis to an end. f) Why did the Nazis stage a putsch in Munich in November 1923? g) “It was American loans rather than Stresemann's policies that enabled Germany to recover from the disasters of 1923.” Do you agree? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. If the League had extended economic sanction on oil. I would have had to withdraw from Abyssinia within a week. Mussolini speaking after his successful conquest of Abyssinia. a) Describe the successes of the League of Nations in the 1920s.
b) Why did the League fail to deal with Japanese aggression against Manchuria? c) “It was the Abyssinian crisis that destroyed the League of Nations as an effective peacekeeping body.” How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------44. Study the cartoon, and then answer the questions which follow. (A British cartoon about the remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936. It shows a goose, dressed up as a Nazi soldier with many weapons, stepping on the Locarno Treaty.) a) Describe the events in the Saar in 1935. b) Why did Britain and France allow Germany to re-militarize the Rhineland in 1936? c) “Hitler's desire for lebensraum was the most important reason for the outbreak of war in 1939.” How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. We must fight this war if we are to live in a world where every country can shape its own future. We are in Vietnam because we have a promise to keep. Over the years we have made a national pledge to help South Vietnam defend its independence. President Johnson speaking to the American people in 1965. a) Who were the Vietcong? b) Why did the USA get involved in the war in Vietnam? c) How far can the American withdrawal from Vietnam be blamed on military failure? Explain your answer. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46. Study the extract, and then answer the questions which follow. The rule of the working class means real democracy. It means the use of power to get rid of middle and upper class people. It means the smashing of the ruling classes with all the brutality that the working class can develop. Rosa Luxemburg in late 1918. a) Who were the Spartacists? b) Why did many Germans hate the Treaty of Versailles? c) To what extent did the Weimar Republic recover after 1923? Explain your answer. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
47.
Study the sources, and then answer the questions which follow:
Source A We stilll know little about the dreadful events of 30 June. We only know that men whom Hitler constantly praised are dead. We are told that they are now dead because they were involved in a conspiracy. But so far no evidence has been produced to prove this conspiracy. A British newspaper article, 1934. Source B Without telling me, Rohm made a plan with General von Schleicher that the present regiime in Germany could not be continued; that the army and navy must be combined and that Rohm ws the man for this post. I decided to put an end to this plan. Therefore, I decided to dismiss Rohm, to arrest him and a number of SA leader. I gave orders to shoot those that were guilty of treason. Everyone will know in future that treachery towards the state will end in certain death. Hitler’s speech to the Reichstag, 13 July 1934. a) Study Source A. What can you tell from this source about the Night of the Long Knives? Support your answer with reference to the source. b) Study Source B. How far does this source show the extent of opposition to Hitler? Explain your answer. c) Study both sources. Is one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence about Hitler's leadership? Explain your answer. d) Give two features of the Nazi totalitarian state. e) What were the Nuremberg rallies? f) Why did Hitler want to gain support of Germany’s youth? g) How far did Hitler use unlawful methods to achieve power in 1933-34? Explain your answer.
