Ingenieria Inca

UNIVERSIDAD ALAS PERU PE RUANAS ANAS

Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura Escuela profesional de Ingeniería Civil CURSO:

FUNDAMENTOS DE LA INGENIERÍA Y LA ARQUITECTURA

TEMA:

INGENIERÍA INCA

PRESENTADO POR: •

Lady Cristina Traverso Condori

•

Diego Antonio !sa"##a Far$an

•

Genesis Ro%!e era#ta

•

Mitsy Tar%!i Ma"&a"a

Se'estre I AREQUIPA – PERÚ

2016

(

)

INTRODUCCIÓN................................................................................3 INGENIERÍA INCA.............................................................................4

1. EL TAHUANTINSUYO 1.1. HORIZONTE TARDÍO: 1.2. COSMOVISIÓN ANDINA DE LA CULTURA  INCA. 2. LA INGENIERÍA INCA 2.1. CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LA INGENIERÍA INCA: 2.2. LAS CONSTRUCCIONES  INCAS 2.2.1. CONSTRUCCIONES DE OBRAS CIVILES 2.2.2. CONSTRUCCIONES VIALES 2.2.3. CONSTRUCCIONES HIDRÁULICAS DE CONSTRUCCIÓN 2.3. TÉCNICAS   2.3.1. EXTRACCIÓN DE MATERIALES 2.3.2. T RANSPORTE DE MATERIALES 2.3.3. PREPARACIÓN DEL MATERIAL 2.. TIPOS   DE APARE!O SEG"N #SANTIAGO  AGURTO$ 2..1. APARE!O RUSTICO 2..2. APARE!O CELULAR 2..3. APARE!O ENGASTADO 2... APARE!O SEDIMENTARIO 2..%. APARE!O CICLOPEO 2..&. APARE!O CICLÓPEO DE COLUMNAS Y RELLENO

4 4 5 5 6 7 7 10 11 1 1! 14 14 16 16 16 16 17 17 17

CONCLUSIONES...............................................................................19

*

I'()*+,--/' T*+0 *)0 + -)0-/' -,(,)0 4(5 '6)40 ' ,' 470-* 894-* 0-*'+-*'0+* 7*)  *6) 70)0 -*';)()* ' ,' 470-* 4*-0. P*) *< -,(,)0< 0)=,(-(,)0  '>')90 4)5' 467) -*'-7(*4 '470)04< * =, -*';0 =,< 0 7)*8,'+?0) '  *)>' + 0 A)=,(-(,)0  I'>')90 A'+'0 4 '-*'()0)0' 46,(5'06'(  >@'44 + 4, -,(,)0. L0 4(*)0 + ',4()* 7094< 0'(4 + 0 ';04/' 470*0< +0(0 + 0- 654 + %< 0*4< 0*4 + -*';;'-0 -*' 0 '0(,)0?0< 7)*+,-(* + 0 -*46*;4/' =, *4 ('90'< +*'+ *4 04()*4 # 4*< 0 ,'0  04 4()04$  *4 )-,)4*4 '0(,)04 #0>,0  4,*$ 8*)600' 70)( + 4,4 +;'+0+4  0 *4 -,04 +90' )47(*  4( )0 -*))47*'++* ' 06'(*4 0,'+0'(4 70)0 *4 7,*4. D 0=,9 7)*06'( 0 7-0-/' 0 04 >)0'+4 *)04 +)5,-04  -*'4(),--*'4 0+6)04 =, '*4 0' +0+*  =, 0*)0 4*' 6*(;*4 + 0+6)0-/'  -*'4(0'( ';4(>0-/'< '* 4** 7*)=, 0 4(),-(,)0 )0 0 4*,-/' 0 *4 7)*604 + 0>,0. C*' )8)'-0 0 0 (-'**>90 I'-0< F)0 B0)(**6@ + 04 C0404 1%% 4-): C)* =, ()0) 6,-*4 (4(>*4 '* 4)5 6, '-40)*< 7,4 *4 >)0'+4  )-*4  4,'(,*4*4 +8-*4 + 7,*4  -0404<  (67*4  0-=,04 + 0>,04< =, 0))0 + 4(*4 )'*4< 06*4 )8)+*< 4*' '* 4** 7)6946*4< 7)* 0+6)04  470'(04. T*+04 4(04 *)04< 0,'=, )0' 6, 7)8-(04 -*6* 4 0 ;4(*< 67)*< * =, -+ (*+0 '+,4()0  ,60'* '>'*< 4 0 60)0;0 + 0-)04 (*+04 4' ))*  4' ))06'(04< 654 =, -*' 7+)04 D4+  7,'(* + ;4(0 + 0 (-'**>90 -*'4(),-(;0< *4 '-04 07)*;-0)*' *4 -*'*-6'(*4 + *()04 -,(,)04 -*6* + *4 -*04 0 +4()?0 70)0  ()00* ' 7+)0< + *4 J0)4 0 (@-'-0 + 04 ())0?04 0>)9-*04 #0'+'4$< + *4 6*--04  -6K4 0 6(0,)>0 + )*'-. E' 0 7)4'( 7*4-/' 4 ()0(0 + '()*+,-) 0>,'*4 047-(*4 7)'-704 + 0 '>')90 + *4 I'-04< ' 0 =, 4 6,4()0' -*'8>,)0-*'4 >*6@()-04 * 7*' ' ;+'-0 =, ' 0 -,(,)0 I'-0 4 -*'*-90 04 60(65(-04  04 -'-04 '0(,)04.

+

INGENIERÍA INCA

M0-,7--, ' C,4-*< 4 7)4/' + 0 '>')90 + 0 -*'4(),--/': 6,)*4 -*' 7)8-(0 46()90  0'06'(*< -*'*-6'(* + M0(65(-0

1. EL TAHUANTINSUYO E 67)* I'-0 060+* (06@' TAHUANTINSUYO< 8,  )4,(0+* + 0 ;*,-/' + 04 -,(,)04 0'+'04 =, * 7)-+)0. L0 -07(0 + 67)* 4 4(0-/  C,4-*. E'  )'0+* + 4, * TK70- Y,70'=,< -*6'?/ 0 70'4/' '-0. D*6'0)*' +4+  4,) + 0 0-(,0 C**60 04(0  '*)( + 0 A)>'('0  C. C;?0-/' '-0-0 * -;?0-/' =,-,0< 8, 0 K(60 + 04 >)0'+4 -;?0-*'4 7)-**6'04 =, -*'4);/ 4, 4(0+* '+7'+'( #67)* '-0-*$ +,)0'( 0 C*'=,4(0 + A6@)-0< 04(0 0 -*'=,4(0 + P)K #1%32 1%33$. C*' 0 ('4/' + 67)*< @4(0 8, 04*)'+* ',;04 7)4*'4 -,(,)04 + *4 7,*4 0'0+*4<  4 ,-/ ' *4 0-(,04 ())(*)*4 + P)K< A)>'('0< B*;0< C< C**60  E-,0+*).

,

1.1. H*)?*'( (0)+9*: F, 0 (070 '-0-0 +*'+ 4 +*  A7*>* I'-0 -*' 0 -)0-/' + T0,0'('4,* 7*) P0-0-,(-   >*)'* + ()4 I'-04: P0-0-,(-< T,70- Y,70'=,  H,0'0 C070-. I60>' 1: E(0704 + *4 +8)'(4 I'-04 + H*)?*'( (0)+9*

1.2. C*46*;4/' 0'+'0 + 0 C,(,)0 I'-0. E 7)'-7* 8*4/8-*< 070)'(6'( )0 6, 467<  4*< 0 ,'0< *4 04()*4  *4 )-,)4*4 '0(,)04< )0' 70)( + 4, +;'+0+ 7*) * =,  +90' )47(*  ;')0-/' 70)0 4, ,4*. P)*< 40 467-+0+ ()090 -*'4>* 470-*4 + 7)*(--/' #44(604 + -0'04< 06,'04< 0'+'4 7*) -(0) 0>,'04$ 7*)=, )7)4'(00' 0 ;+0   004(-6'(* + 06'(*4 0 4,4 7*0-*'4< 4 7)*0 =, ,'0 -04(0 4*-0 + 0(0 '>')90 4 ++-0)0 0 4(04 4*,-*'4  -*' 6,-04 7)5-(-04 =, 0*)0 '*4 4*)7)'+'. E'  4>,'( 4=,60 )7)4'(06*4 *4 7)'-704 44(604 +)5,-*4 -*'*-+*4< -*6* 0()'0(;04 (-'*/>-04 =, 0*)0 +6*4 + );0*)0)  6(0): T*+0 0 -,(,)0 0'+'0 >)/ 0)++*) + -*'-7(* P0-0

2. LA INGENIERÍA INCA E 4-)(* + *4 I'-04 '* 70)- 4) 4** 04 (@-'-04  0 65=,'0. C*6* (*+04 04 >)0'+4 -;?0-*'4 + 0 0'(>+0+ 0' ('+* ,'0 8,'( + '47)0-/' * 6*(;0-/'. E' *4 '-04 0 8,)?0 + 7)*+,--/' 4 040 ' 0 C*46*;4/' A'+'0< -'()0+0 ' 0 -*'-'-0 + 4, +'(+0+ @('-0  4(/)-0< ' 0 ;0+? + 4,4 ;0*)4  *)'(0+0 7*) 04 '-4+0+4  *(;*4 7)*7*4 + 0 8060  + 0 -*6,'+0+ #7)0-(-00'  -)-6'(* 0-0 0+'()*< * +;,>0+* -*6* D40))** E'+/>'*$. E 6(* -*/>-* 0'+'*< 0 @(-0 + *4 *4 + 0 ())0<  0,< 0 ())0 + *4 0'-4()*4   *4 )-,)4*4 47)(,04 70)-)0' 4) 0 ')>90 =, 6,; 0 7)*+,--/' 0'+'0. N0+ 7,+ +4-,() 0 47-(0-,0) '>')90 '-0< '* 4** 7*)  60'* + '6'4* ())(*)* 4'* 7*) 0 70'8-0-/'< 0 -*'4(),--/'   60'('6'(* + 4,4 60>'98-04 -*'4(),--*'4< +'()* + 4, '>')90 +40))*0)*' ''*;0-*'4 ':

• • • •

E+8-0-*'4 6*',6'(04. O)04 ;04< D=,4 + -*'('-/'< 70)0  -*'()* + 0 )*4/' S4(604 + )>*< -0'0?0-/' + )9*4  -*))'(4

D40))*0+*4 -*' ,' -*','(* + 7)*-4*4 (-'*/>-*4 7)0>65(-*4 =, 4 +'(8-0' -*' 0 7)4*'0+0+ + *4 '-04 70)0 4*6() 0 '0(,)0?0  7*')0 0 4, 4);-*. L*4 60()04 -*'4(),-(;*4 8,)*'  0))*< 7+)0< 60+)0  8)04 ;>(04< *4 '-04 '* -*'*-90'  0+)* '* =,60)*' 0 0)-0 0 740) + =, 49 * -)*' 70)0 *(') -)56-0.

V;)*' ' 7=,*4 U4*  0>,0 C)* )+4 ;04 ' D*6'* 0 0>)-,(,)0 ;04 4,())5'0 * 04 (*+* 0 @7*-0 '-0-0. 6+0'( 0 ()0* +4+ 04 0'+')90. 0(,)04 -*' 67)4*'0'(4 *)04 + '>')90.

2.1. Característcas !e "a #$e#ería #ca% SENCILLE&.

L04 -*'4(),--*'4 '-04 -0)-' + 0+*)'*4 * +-*)0-*'4 -*67-0+04. E (00+*< 4-,(,)0< 0(*4 * 0*4 );4 '* 4 ,(?0)*' + 60')0 -4;0 * +-*)0(;0. E4(0 0,4()+0+ 4 )80 (06@' ' 0 +47*4-/' + *4 06'(4 +'()* + *4 (67*4< 06*4 * '-,4* +'()* + 0 6460 0(0-/' + I'-0 >*)'0'(. SOLIDE& Y 'ATERIALIDAD

E670)*' 0 7+)0 ' >)0'+4 *=,4 4' ''>,'0 '-4+0+ + ,(?0) 0)>06040. L04 7+)04 )0' ,40+04 + (0 60')0 =, '-000 ,'0 -*' *()0. U' 67* + 4(0 0)=,(-(,)0 4 '-,'()0 '  (67* + S0-40,060'. SI'ETRÍA

L*4 6,)*4 '-04 4*' 7)8-(06'( '4060+*4. L04 70)(4 + 4,4 -*'4(),--*'4 )0' >,04 0 70)() + 4, . E' 70'(0< 0 46()90 4 +89- + 07)-0) 0 =, *4 470-*4 4(5' 4,7)7,4(*4< 0,'=, 4,' -*';)>) ' ,' 57- * ' 0>,'*4 -04*4< ' ,'0 400 7)'-70.

.

'ONU'ENTALIDAD

P*) 4,4 >)0'+4 7)*7*)-*'4. L04 7+)04< =, )0' 6, >)0'+4< 0,+00' 0 =, 04 -*'4(),--*'4 8,)0' (06@' >)0'+4< 7*) * =, 4 7,+ '-*'()0) ;0)*4 4(*4 ' 0 -,+0+ + C,?-* -*' 6*',6'(*4 + 7+)0 04(0'( >)0'+4. T'90 ,'0 0+07(0-/' 0 0 (*7*>)0890  *4 0--+'(4 >*>)58-*4 + 0 ?*'0. L*4 '-04< =,)90' +6*4()0) =, *4 7*+90' 0-) * =, *4 =,4)0' -*' 0 7+)0< 7*) * =, -)*' ,'0 + 4,4 654 >)0'+4 *)04: 0 7+)0 + 12 5'>,*4.

2.2. Las c(#str)cc(#es I#cas L*4 +8-*4 7K-*4 ' 47-0 *4 + -,4-*  + @7*-04 7*4()*)4 )0' +4+ ,>* -*'4(),--*'4 6, 4,7)*)4 -*' -'( 6067*4()90 + 7+)0  6, )4()'>+* 67* + 0+*< 4' 60)>* 0K' *4 6*)4 +8-*4 4*90' (-0)4 -*' 700. A,'=, ,* +;)404 8*)604 + -'()*4 7*0+*4 '  67)* '-0 (*+*4 70)-' 0) ('+* 0>,'04 -0)0-()94(-04 -*6,'4< -*'4(),--*'4 4*) ,'0 ;0-/' -*' ,' 6'(* + )8,>*< (*+04 04 -,+0+4 + -)(0 )0)=,90 ('90' 70?04< (67*4< -*-04 * +7/4(*4   6)-0+*4 70)0  (),=,. E >)0' ;*,6' + 04 *)04 -*'4(),+04 ' (*+*  67)* +4+  4>* XIV 04(0 0 >0+0 + *4 470*4< 8, 7*4 4** 6+0'(  48,)?* *)>0'?0+* + >)0'+4 >),7*4 + *))*4 ()000'+* ' -,676'(* + ,' 7-,0) 44(60 + (),(0-/' 0 67)*. L0 7+)0 0)0+0 ' *=,4  0+6)06'( 7,+*4 8,  -0)5-() + 40 0)=,(-(,)0 =, A0'+) V*' H,6*+( 4'((?/ -*' 04 700)04: 4'-?< 46()90  4*+?. L*4 '-04 +40))*0)*' 04 4>,'(4 -*'4(),--*'4:

2.2.1. C(#str)cc(#es !e (*ras c+"es a, L0 ;;'+0: E4(0-6'(*4 +4('0+*4 0 0)>0)  004(-) 0 0 7*0-/' '-0.

*, L*4 (06*4: U' (06* )0 ,'0 -*'4(),--/' =, 4);90 + +7/4(* + 06'(*4< ;4(+*4< ))06'(04  0)604< =, *4 '-04 -)*' -*'4(),) 0 * 0)>* + *4 -06'*4 =, -),?00'  67)*< 0 8' + =, 09 7,+4' +4-0'40)  )70)0) 4,4 8,)?04

/

R,',)0-0 ' M0-,7--, c, T67*4 '-04: T*+04 04 7*0-*'4 '-04 ('90' 4, (67*  4,4 40-)+*(4< 4'+*  C*)-0'-0  >)0' -'()* -)6*'0 '-0-*  4(00 ' 0 70?0 7)'-70 + -,4-*.

C*';'(* + S0'(* D*6'>* 4*)  T67* + C*)-0'-0

A+654 + *4 (67*4< 4( ,'0 0)=,(-(,)0 65>-0 )>*40 )0-*'0+0 0 6'(*4 '0(,)04 # 4*< )*-04< 0>,0< (-.$. E67*: E T*))/' + M0-, P--,< *4 I'(J0(0'04< (-.

E T*))*' + M0-, P--,

T67* + 0 L,'0 M0-, P--,

!, F*)(0?04 6(0)4: E E4(0+* I'-0-* 70'8-/ (0'(* 04 -*'=,4(04 + 7,*4 ;-'*4 -*6* 0 +8'40 + ())(*)* 7)*7*. S, 04 8, ,' @)-(* ' +*(0+*< ,'0 )+ + -06'*4 =, 80-(00' 4, +470?06'(*  0 -*'4(),--/' + >)0'+4 8*)(0?04 =, -,6790' -*6* 7)'-70 8,'-/' 0 +4,04/' + 7*44 0(0=,4  4, -*'('-/'< 4 4 7)*+,-90'.

P4-0- C,?-*

S0-40J,060'

01

C*=,=,)0* e, P00-*4 '-04: C0+0 4*)0'* -*'4(),90 4, 7)*70 6*)0+0. L*4 700-*4 654 67*)(0'(4 4 '-,'()0' ,-0+*4 '  -'()* + C,4-*. P*) ()0+-/' ;0' '*6)4 47-98-*4. P.+ I.Y,70'=, P. + ,0'0 C070-

H0(,'-0'-0

A60),-0'-0

-, S4(60 + 0'+'4 70)0 0 0>)-,(,)0: L04 ())0?04 '-04< -*'*-+04 -*6* 0'+'4< 4*' ,'0 + 04 *)04 + '8)04(),-(,)0  + 0+07(0-/' 0 7040 654 >)0'+4  67*)(0'(4 + 0 A6@)-0 P)-**6'0.

S' 60)>*<  +40))** + 04 ())0?04 '* 8, ,' ';'(* '-0< 4'* =, 4 4*4(,;* ' ,'0 7)'-0 + 6,-04 *()04 -,(,)04 =, 0 0'(-+)*'. A+654< 0,+00' 0 ;(0) 0 )*4/' + *4 -))*4  7*) * (0'(* 7);'90 *4 ,0-*4 #0;00'-04$.

00

A'+')0 M*)0  M0)04

A'+')0 M0-,7--,

2.2.2. C(#str)cc(#es a"es a, P,'(4  C06'*4

L0 )+ ;0 '-0 4 '*(0< 0 '(>)/  67)*  4);/ (0'(* 70)0 0 0+6'4()0-/'  ()0'464/' + '8*)60-/' -*6* 70)0 0 -)-,0-/' + 7)4*'04  0'604 ' (67* + 70?   + >,))0. L*4 '-04 0 '* 7*4) ;9-,*4 + ),+04 '* '-4(00' 70;6'(*4 (0' ,'*4 ' -06'*4 (0' 0'-*4< ' 7,'(4 (0' )44('(4 ,40)*' 4-0*'4 ' *4 ()06*4 + 7'+'( 8,)(. E -06'* I'-0 7)4'(0 >)0' ;0)+0+ + ()0(06'(* ' )0-/' 0 ,4* + 60()0 #7+)0< )*-0< ())0$< 0 0 4*,-/' + +4';4 #4-0'0(04$< I>,06'( ,* ,' ()00* 67*)(0'( ' 0 -*'4(),--/' + 7,'(4 70)0 -),?0) )9*4< 40;0) =,)0+04 * +480+)*4< *4 '-04 -*'4(),)*' '>'*4*4 7,'(4. L*4 7,'(4 -*>0'(4< 80)-0+*4 + )44('(4 8)04 + 60>,.

M,4()0 + 04 60(65(-04 '  +4*: PUENTE QUESACHACA. CUSCO

0(

L*4 7,'(4 * -*'4(),90' 4>K' 04 -0)0-()94(-04 (*7*>)58-04 + ())'* + 0-,)+* 0 *4 60()04 +47*'4 ' 0 )>/'  0 67*)(0'-0 + 0 *)0. E4(90' ;0)*4 6*+*4: •

•

•

•

P,'(4 -*>0'(4: E4(),-(,)04 9'(>)06'( ;>(04< + -*)(0 +,)0-/'< 70)0 =, ','-0 4 +(,;)0  ()5'4(*. C*'44(90' + 2 0 % >),4*4 -04 + 8)04 ()'?0+04. P,'(4 + ()*'-*4: E)0' *4 654 4'-*4  -*))'(4 )0' *4 ()*'-*4 07*0+*4 4*) )*-04 * (*))4 + 00)90 0()0;40+*4 7*) 70*4 060))0+*4 -*' -,)+04 + -0,0< * + 700< * + 0'0< * + -,)*< '-60 -**-00' )0604  7+)04. P,'( + 7+)04: S>K'  7)*-+6'(* 0'()*)< 4/* )670?0+* 04 ;>04 7*) 0)>04 *?04 7@()04< 4*) 04 =, 0 '* 4 '-4(00' 7*') '0+0. P,'(4 8*(0'(4: L*4 -*'8--*'00' >0'+* 0404 + (*(*)0  ,>* ,'0 -070 + ())0< =,+0'+* 7++*4 70)0  4);-* 8*(0'+* 4*) 04 0>,04.

E'  T0J0'('4,, 4 '*6)0 +*4 7,'(4:  D40>,0+)*  *()* ' 0404 '  )9* M0)0/'.

2.2.3. C(#str)cc(#es H!r/)"cas a, S4(604 + )7)404 0(* 0'+'04: A * 0)>* + *4 0'+4 7*+6*4 07)-0) ,'0 4) + )7)404 =, 7*) 4, ,-0-/' +'*6'06*4 0(* 0'+'04< + 6+0'0 -070-+0+< -,0 8,'-/' )0 060-'0) 04 0>,04 + 04 ,;04.

*, S4(60 + 06,'04: E 44(60 8,'-*'00 -*' ?0'04 0)(04 =, 4>,' 04 -,);04 + '; + 04 7,'04< * =, 7)6(90 -*'+,-)  0>,0 + ,;0 04(0 ,' ,>0) 060+* -*-04< 4(),-(,)04 0)(04 70)0 )-)  0>,0< 0 6460 =, ,>* 4 8()0)0 ' 0 6*'(00 70)0 4,)>) 0>,0.

c, C0'04 + )>*4:

0)

 S*' '',6)04 *4 ;4(>*4 + >)0'+4 *)04 -*6* *4 -0'04 + )>* =,< 6,-04 ;-4< -),?0' *4 0'+4 ;0'+* 04 0>,04 + ,'0 -,'-0 0-0 *()0 #()04;044$< -*' 6*)4 7*4+0+4 * 7*('-0 0>)*'/6-*: 4,*< -60< 0+07(0-/' + 47-4< '() *()*4 047-(*4. E4( 44(60 4(5 0K' 7*) )+4-,))4  6*4()0) 0 6,'+* 4, 7*)('(* < 7*) (0'(*< 7*') + 60'84(*< ,'0 ;? 654<  '>'* + ',4()*4 0'(7040+*4 +)5,-*4.

S4(604 + R>* ' 60-,7-,  (7*'.

2.3. T0c#cas !e c(#str)cc# L0 70'8-0-/'< 0 -*'4(),--/'   60'('6'(* + 04 *)04 ;04< +)5,-04  + +8-0-/' 8*)60' ,' -*','(* + 7)*-4*4 (-'*/>-*4 7)0>65(-*4 =, 4 +'(8-0' -*' 0 7)4*'0+0+ + *4 '-04 70)0 4*6() 0 '0(,)0?0  7*')0 0 4, 4);-*. L*4 60()04 -*'4(),-(;*4 8,)*'  0))*< 7+)0< 60+)0  8)04 ;>(04< *4 '-04 '* -*'*-90'  0+)* '* =,60)*' 0 0)-0 0 740) + =, 49 * -)*' 70)0 *(') -)56-0. P)* * 654 4>'8-0(;* + ()00* '-0-* 4*' 04 '*)64 004  *=,4 + 7+)0 -**-0+04 '  ,>0). L0 654 >)0'+ 6+ %<%6 + 0)>*  0 + 60*) ;*,6' 740 -04 % (*'0+04. !,'(* -*' 04 +654 7+)04< -*' 0 -0)0-()94(-0 7)-4/' + *4 ()00*4 ' 7+)0 4(0' '-00+04 ' 0 )*-0  7+)04 0+0-'(4. L0 ,'/' 4 + ,'0 04*,(0 7)-4/'<   '  -04* + *=, 60*) +/ 4) 654 +89- 0 =, 0 7+)0 8, -**-0+0 0 *)+ + 7)-7-*< 4*) ,'0 4,7)8- '* ';0+0< 4'* +0+0 +)0+06'( ' 4, 4(0+* '0(,)0.

0*

P0)0 -*67)'+) 04 (@-'-04 + -*'4(),--/' 670+0 4 0- '-40)* 06'0) *4 7,'(*4: • • • •

E()0--/' + 60()04 E ()0'47*)( + 60()04. S, 670?06'(* '  4(*. P)70)0-/' + 60()0.

E' (*+04 4(04 *7)0-*'4 + (')4 ' -,'(0 04 6(0-*'4 894-04 + =,7* +47*'. E4 7*-* 7)*0  ,4* + '4(),6'(*4 + 6(0. N* 4 +47*'90 + 0'604 + -0)>0< 4/*  *6) )0?00 4(0 (0)0.

2.3.1. Etracc# !e atera"es L*4 40*4 '-04 ()0)*' 60()04 -*6*  0+*<  0>*+/'  0 7+)0 + 646* ,>0) +*'+ 4 )0?00 4,4 -*'4(),--*'4. U(?0)*' 0 7+)0 0'+4(0<  >)0'(* 6,-04 + 04 ()09+04 + 04 -0'()04  *4 )9*4 -)-0'*4 0 04 -*'4(),--*'4 L04 7+)04 4 7,90'  ()0'47*)(00' ' +4(0'-04 + 3 /6()*4  +,)00 07)*. 12 644 ' 4, 0*)0-/' + -0+0 7+)0.L0 -0'()0 4(00 -04 0 6+*< 049 =, '* 4,90' '0+0< 4/* * 6*;90'

2.3.2. Tra#s(rte !e atera"es E4 '  ()0'47*)( +*'+ 6*) 4 7,+ 0+6)0)  '>'* + *4 '-04. E' * =, )47-(0 0 ()0'47*)( 4 0 -* ,4* + ()*'-*4 + A4*# A>',4 *),'44: 40,-* * =,4,0)$ + 6 + 0)>*  1% -6 + +56()*< 5)* =, -)- ' 04 65)>'4 + *4 )9*4  0))**4< *4 ,-07(*4 '* 4*' '0(;*4 8,)*' '()*+,-+*4 '  4>* XVII.

0+

E'8)'(0)*'  ()6'+* 7)*60 + 0-0))0) '6'404 7+)04 + 04 -,04 0 654 >)0'+ 7400 ,'04 % (*'0+04< T*+*  7)*-4* 7,+ 7-0)4 ;0@'+*4 + ++,--*'4 =, -*))47*'+' 0 -067* + 0 '>')90< 7*) 0 '0(,)0?0 + *4 -06'*4 '* 4( 7*4+0+ + =, 00' 4+* 00+04 4*) 0>K' (7* + ()'*< +' 0) 4+* ()0'47*)(0+04 4*) )*+*4 -**-0+04 ' ,'0 4,7)8- 7)70)0+0< -**-0'+* ()4 * -,0()* ()*'-*4 0 * 0)>* + 4, 4,7)8- + ())07'0+*. E4(* * 4,>)' '* 4*06'( 04 -0)04 70'04 + 04 >)0'+4 7+)04 4'* * ' -*'4);0+* + -06'*.

2.3.3.

5rearac# !e" atera" L04 >)0'+4 004 + 8*)60 -04 )-(0'>,0) )0' -*)(0+04 ' 7?04 654 7=,04 7*) ,' 7)*-+6'(* =, -*'44(90 ' >*70) 0 7+)0 04(0 8*)60) ,'0 )0',)0 -*'(',0 ' 8*)60 + V< =, -*))90 70)00 0 4, -;0.

E' 0>,'*4 -04*4 ' 4(0 )0',)0 090 -0;+0+4 * '(00+,)04 ' 8*)60 + -,0< + -04  -6 + 0)>*  2 -6 + 7)*8,'++0+< 4(04 -0;+0+4 7,+' 0) 4+* -04 70)0 -**-0) -,04 + 7+)0 =, 0,+0)0' 0 70)() 0 )*-0  8*)?0)0 0 0))4 0 * 0)>* + 04 )0',)04 60)-0+04< 4 7)*0 (06@' =, 04 -0;+0+4 654 >)0'+4 ,)0 4);+* 70)0 =,  0>,0 4 -**-0)0 + 60')0 (0 =,< ' 04 '*-4 8)904 0 7)*+,-)4 4, -*'>06'(* -0,40)0  '40'-06'(*  0670-/' + 04 )00+,)04  7,+)0 4) )57+06'( 70)(+0.

0,

E4(0 4 ,'0 );9460 +4-)7-/' + 0 (-'**>90 -*'4(),-(;0 + *4 '-04 ,(?0'+* 0 7+)0< 04 ;+'-04 + 0 '>')90 * -*'8)60' 0 ()0*)+'0)0 0+0+ (@-'-0 ,(?0+0 70)0 *>)0) 4,4 '4,7)04 4(),-(,)04. N* 4*06'( 8,)*' 604()*4 '  60'* + *4 60()04< 4'* (06' ;)+0+)*4 '>')*4. S, '>'* *4 -**-0 -*' (*+0 4>,)+0+ '() *4 >)0'+4 -*'4(),-(*)4 + (*+*4 *4 (67*4. E' (*+04 04 *)04 + I'>')90 0'+'0 -*6'(0+04 4 0- 7)4'-0 -0)0 + 04 60(65(-04 =, +8'(;06'( -*'*-90' *4 '-04< (0 -*6* * 6,4()0' *4 7,4 -*' 4, 44(60 + ',6)0-/' ' 04 1. L0 7+)0 =, ,(?00' ' 04 -*'4(),--*'4 )0 ()09+0 + 04 -0'()04  )0 6*;+0 6+0'( )*+*4 + 60+)0 70'*4< '-'0+*4  700'-04< *4 '4(),6'(*4 =, ('90' 70)0 -*)(0) 0 7+)0  0)0)04 )0' >,0))*4 '>)*4  +,)*4 4--*'0+*4 + *4 )*4< ,40)*' (06@'  +060'( 0?, -**-0+* ' ,' 60'>* + -*'(0 70)0 7,6'(0) 04 7+)04< 7*4()*)6'( )0 0)0+0 -*' 60)(*4  0-04 + 7+)0  4'-4 + )*'-. E' K(60 '4(0'-0 )0 7,+0 -*' 0>,0  0)'0< *4 '4(),6'(*4 + 6++0 )0' (06@' 4674  -*'44(90' ' +*4 )>04 4,7)7,4(04 ' 04 =, 0' '()*+,-+* -)(04 4-004.

0-

2.4. T(s !e Aare6(

Se$7# 8Sa#ta$( A$)rt(,

2.4.1. Aare6( R)stc( P+)04 4' 0)0) =, 4 -**-0' 4' 60*) 0-*6*+*. USO. O)04 ,((0)04 #6,)*4 + -*'('-/'  4*4('6'(* ' ())0?04  0'+'4< -0404 + -0674'*4.

2.4.2. Aare6( ce")"ar E6'(*4 =, 0+*7(0' 8*)604 460)4 0 04 -@,04 * 4(),-(,)04 + 70'04 + 004. USO. O)04 ,((0)04 #-0'0?0-*'4< 0'+')904< -*'('-/' + ())0?04  )'*< -)-04 + -0'-04$. M, )0)06'( ' +8-0-*'4.

2.4.3. Aare6( e#$asta!( P+)04 ,'+04 0 60')0 + )*67-0?04< '>04(5'+*4 6,(,06'(. USO. R8*)?0) 0406'(*4  4=,'04< M,)*4 + +8-*4 40-)*4< (-.

0.

2.4.4. Aare6( se!e#tar( P+)04 04'(0+04 ' 0+04 4'46'( *)?*'(04. USO. C)-04  70)+4 + *4 +8-*4 7K-*4  0(0-*'04.

2.4.. Aare6( Cc"(e( M,)*4 + 7+)04 ()0*)+'0)06'( >)0'+4. USO. E4(0?0-/' + 0+)04 '4(04< -*'4(),--/' + 6,)004  04(*'4 + 8*)(0?04 * + ,>0)4 40-)* 8*)(8-0+*4.

2.4.:. Aare6( Cc"e( !e c(")#as ; re""e#( P+)04 >)0'+4 0()'0+04 7*) 8)0'04 (7* -*,6'04. USO. E+8-* )>*4*. "'-* 67* 4 '-,'()0 ' O0'(0(06*

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P*) * 6'-*'0+*<  T0,0'('4,* 6)- ,' (9(,* 47-0 '() 04 4*-+0+4 + 60*) +40))**< -*'4+)0'+* (0'(* 4,4 0-(;+0+4 7)*+,-(;04  0)(94(-04< -*6* 4, 70'8-0-/' 4*-0  7*9(-0< 0+654 + 4, -*'-7-/' )>*40 =, 7)*7,>'00 ,' =,)* 7'* '() 04 0-(;+0+4 + 4) ,60'*  0 '0(,)0?0 *  6+* 06'(. Y< 8'06'(< 7*) 4, 407'-0 ' '-*)7*)0) 0 4, -,(,)0  -*'*-6'(*4 (*+* 0=,* =, )0 4*)40'( ' 4,4 -*'=,4(0+*4.

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L0 '>')90 -; + *4 '-04 4>, 4'+* ,'0 (-'**>90 + 0(0 -0+0+ +*'+ 04 +8-0-*'4 +6,4()0'  -*'*-6'(* 04< -'-04 '0(,)04< 04 60(65(-04< 0 6-5'-0 + 8,+*4 '() *()*4. L0 '>')90 -; + *4 '-04 4>, 4'+* ,'0 (-'**>90 + 0(0 -0+0+. L0 '>')90 0'+'0 0 4+* 6, )47(,*4* + 6+* 06'(:  )'+90 -,(* 0 0 6060 70-0. L0 '>')90 +)5,-0 + *4 '-04 4 6, 67*)(0'( 7*)=, -*'(), 70)( + 0 '>')90 0-(,0 0 ()0;@4 + 4,4 (@-'-04  6-0'46*4 =, 04(0 0*)0 4*' ,(?0+*4 ' 04 +;)404 *)04 + 0 '>')90. C*'4(),)*' 44(604 +)5,-*4< -0'04 + +)'0  -0'04 + ))>0-/' '() *()*4 (*+* 4(* 4*' * =, '*4 0,+0' 0 80-(0) ',4()04 8*)604 + ;+0.