Posibilidades de un espacio cultural: la literatura infantil y juvenil. M. Leiza y M. Duarte
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Presentación A lo largo de este bloque se ha tematizado uno de los discursos centrales en torno a la temática de la lectura, la escritura y la educación: el de la literatura. En la primera clase, nos acercamos a la definición de lo literario a través de una discusión en torno al texto paradigmático de la tradición literaria española, en la lectura que de esa obra nos presenta Federico Jeanmaire. En la segunda, Martín Kohan trabajó la cuestión del canon literario, es decir, la pregunta acerca de cuáles son los mecanismos que inciden en la inclusión de los autores y las obras en el grupo de las lecturas prestigiosas. Entrelazando estas cuestiones, esta última clase del bloque nos lleva a considerar una esfera particular: la literatura infantil. María Elena Leiza de Almada y María Dolores Duarte nos introducen en la historia de constitución de este campo hasta llegar a la actualidad, particularmente y dada su intensa trayectoria, a través de ejemplos del caso argentino. Esta última clase del bloque resulta, entonces, una invitación a reflexionar acerca de diferentes cuestiones: ¿cuál es la idea dominante acerca de la infancia y lo infantil y cómo cómo est estas idea ideass inci incide denn en la con consti stituc tución ión de este ste camp campo? o? ¿Cu ¿Cuáles áles son son las las vinculaciones entre la literatura infantil y la literatura a secas? ¿En qué medida estas perspectiv perspectivas as orientan las acciones que se llevan llevan a cabo en la promoción promoción de la lectura lectura y en su enseñanza? En este recorrido acerca de la constitución del campo, las autoras se refieren a múltiples títulos y autores, que nos traerán a la memoria nuestras propias lecturas de infancia y las que hemos realizado como docentes o padres. ¿Quién no recorrió el bosque de la mano de Caperucita, sabiendo que, ineludiblemente, se encontraría con él al final del camino? ¿Quién no siente, casi en la propia piel, las ataduras de Gulliver maniatado por los li lili lipu puti tien ense ses? s? ¿Cuá ¿Cuánt ntos os de no noso sotr tros os reco record rdam amos os un vera verano no vara varado doss en la isla isla de Robinson, buscando los indicios de un barco que nos rescataría del aislamiento y deseando (desesperadamente) que ese barco no llegara, para quedarnos allí un día más? ¿A cuántos cuántos no nos acecha el vértigo del pozo en que caímos junto con Alicia, Alicia, el temor de acudir al espejo para ver si era cierto que la nariz crecía, el placer y la angustia de no despertarnos hasta después de cien años? ¿O la memoria de paladear los reveses de un Reino del Revés o la gula de degustar una casita de chocolate? Y, sobre todo, ¿por qué
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A lo largo de esta clase, entonces, los invitamos a recorrer esos mundos que los adultos han pensado para los niños (y no solo para los niños; o mejor, no siempre para los niños) y reflexionar acerca de en qué medida la escuela debería ser (o es) el espacio en el que ese encuentro deba darse, en relación con la enseñanza y el aprendizae de otros saberes. Los colores, juegos y mundos mágicos que nos devuelven las pinturas del uruguayo Carlos Páez Vilaró nos ayudan a pensar ese posible encuentro.
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Introducción La literatura infantil argentina se ha constituido como un espacio cultural complejo producto de tensiones y mestizajes que se asientan en las relaciones entre los adultos -que detentan una gran porción de poder- frente al mundo de la niñez. El concepto de niñez puede ser perturbador para cualquier adulto, tanto si se ve la niñez como “lapso de vida irrecuperable” como si se la percibe desde la idealización, o como la etapa vital en la que se forma a los futuros adultos… Lo cierto es que en la concepción de este estadio se entrecruzan diferentes posturas y viven algunas de las ideas más persistentes que rigen en la sociedad. Pero fuese cual fuere el concepto de niñez que la sociedad ha construido, subyace al mismo la idea de literatura infantil, la idea de ciertas lecturas escritas exclusivamente “para los niños”. Pero, ¿qué se quiere decir concretamente cuando se usa un sintagma compuesto -“literatura infantil”- para designar tal producción cultural?; ¿por qué la literatura, en este caso, lleva adherido el adjetivo que define a su destinatario empírico? Esto invita a replantearnos el concepto de infancia como un concepto en permanente reformulación de parte de cada generación y que tampoco es homogéneo al interior de la propia sociedad. Está claro que no es lo mismo la infancia urbana de clase media que la infa infanc ncia ia campe campesi sina na;; tamp tampoc ocoo es equi equipa para rabl blee la infa infanc ncia ia qu quee habi habita ta las las vill villas as de emergencia con nuestra propia e intransferible experiencia de haber sido niños. Si conven convenimo imoss en que ni “li “liter teratu atura” ra” ni “infan “infancia cia”” son concep conceptos tos simple simples, s, podremo podremoss entender que existen ciertas complejidades para conceptualizar la literatura destinada a los niños. Convengamos también que la literatura infantil es una construcción reciente y aún resistida dentro del campo literario general. Si describimos los componentes que la integran podemos decir que existen: los productores de literatura (los escritores), un público definido por su edad (los niños y jóvenes), los intermediarios (los distribuidores: editoriales, libreros, padres, maestros, bibliotecarios), los legitimadores (un aún escaso núme nú mero ro de crít crític icos os y acad académ émic icos os qu quee se ocup ocupan an del del tema tema). ). En nu nues estr troo país país,, y apro aprove vech chan ando do la metá metáfo fora ra espa espaci cial al prop propue uesta sta po porr Bour Bourdi dieu eu,, po pode demo moss ub ubic icar ar a la literatura infantil -y más recientemente a la literatura juvenil- en el margen de ese campo, en una zona periférica no exenta de vitalidad ni de grandes contradicciones.
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estamos asistiendo a su décima sexta edición- más pequeñas y de menor notoriedad que las otras, ya que el prestigio literario de un escritor “para chicos” no es comparable al de un autor de literatura a secas, ni los premios o concursos de la “feria chica” tienen una repercusión parecida a los de los autores de “literatura”. De la misma manera, los circuitos de legitimación de los textos para “chicos” son más restringidos y más escasos. Decíamos que la literatura infantil es un concepto construido en la intersección de los conceptos de infancia y literatura. Con respecto al primero, conocemos que la idea de que el niño es un ser diferente al adulto es muy reciente en la sociedad, apenas proviene del siglo XVIII. No es que con anterioridad a ese tiempo no hubiera chicos, pero lo que no existía era la conciencia de que la infancia fuera una etapa con unas ciertas características específicas, poseedora de rasgos diferenciales con respecto al adulto. Precisamente, fue el mundo adulto el que, al responsabilizarse del cuidado y de la formación del niño, habría de generar -en forma lenta y diferenciada según las distintas clases sociales- objetos e instituciones que fueron producidos/generados para esa etapa primera de la vida. Entre esos objetos hubo libros “para” los niños, aunque también hubo libros que los niños hicieron suyos, sin que les fueran específicamente dedicados. Los textos surgieron básicamente de la mano de la enseñanza y de la inculcación moral contra las cuales, siglos más tarde, la literatura infantil se rebelaría. Y para complejizar aún más el inicio de la producción literaria para los chicos, digamos que en sus comienzos se superpuso el maridaje -grato a sociedades etnocéntricas- entre “mente primitiva” e infancia. Ambas concebidas como reinos de la ignorancia, pero también de la pureza perdida, de la inocencia prístina, de cierto “estado de gracia” que había que proteger, aleccionar y cuidar para asegurar una sociedad mejor y un futuro más promisorio para la humanidad. De ahí que la literatura oral, folklórica, tradicional está unida al surgimiento de la LI, y también la imposición de “formar y aleccionar”. Ese aspecto didáctico formativo la acompaña hasta bien entrado el siglo XX y, si bien a fines de los 60’ se operan cambios importantes como luego veremos, la necesidad de “formar” en valores sigue rondando aún hoy –y a veces sometiendo- a la literatura infantil al imperio del deber ser.
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I. Los inicios La literatura anónima, de transmisión oral, que está enraizada desde siempre con la literatura infantil, forma parte del discurso folklórico, el cual se comenzó a estudiar como objeto científico en el siglo XIX. Fue el romanticismo el que propició la búsqueda de las raíces nacionales de los pueblos europeos y fue su mirada valorativa la que influyó sobre el nacimiento del folklore como ciencia. A la vez, esto posibilitó el surgimiento del interés por la recolección de los cuentos populares y su posterior clasificación. Esos relatos habían vivido siglos en el imaginario popular y en la oralidad, habían sido compartidos por adultos y niños en la Edad Media y, con posterioridad, habían sido reelaborados en colecciones como las de Straparola (1550) o Giambattista Basile (1634). Y junto con los textos de la literatura de cordel fue perfilando a través de los siglos el libro para chicos. Como vemos, esta unión entre lo popular y lo infantil ha tenido una vida larga y fructífera en Occidente. Textos que son considerados la quintaesencia de lo infantil tienen raíz en el folklore popular: Caperucita Roja, El gato con botas, Aladino y la lámpar lámpara a maravi maravillo llosa, sa, La bella bella y la bestia bestia o Blancanieves son apenas unos pocos ejemplos de esa unión que ha sido mantenida primero por la memoria colectiva, luego reforzada por la imprenta, y más tarde por los medios audiovisuales que abrevan en ellos: así, los dibujos animados y la infinidad de películas que vuelven a narrar siempre estas viejas historias que conserva la humanidad. Da buena cuenta de ello la factoría Disney y su interminable galería de adaptaciones de cuentos maravillosos.
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Doble gato,, 1975 gato
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II. Un breve recorrido desde el siglo XVII al XIX Es Charles Perrault con sus Cuentos de mi madre la oca (1697) uno de los autores que aparecerá siempre ligado al mundo infantil, más allá de que nunca se propuso escribir para la infancia. Hombre de su siglo, embarcado en la polémica de "antiguos "y "modernos", es uno de los primeros en reescribir con acierto las historias populares dotándolas de una atmósfera refinada que las aleja del relato oral popular y las acerca a los gustos de la corte de Luis XIV. La cuentística de Perrault está signada por varios misterios y enmarcada en distintas polémicas. Una de ellas es sobre la autoría de estos textos hoy famosos y que él nunca asumió como propia, y la otra, sobre la destinación de sus cuentos. Si bien en ellos hay un lect lector or fáci fácilm lmen ente te reco recono noci cibl ble, e, esto estoss cuen cuento toss pare parece cenn esta estarr enca encami mina nado doss a la formación formación moral de las jóvenes jóvenes mujeres de la corte, corte, intención intención que aparece explícita explícita en las moralejas con las que cierra cada relato. Pero además del mensaje modelizador adecuado a las conductas cortesanas -y de los consejos para triunfar en ese mundo cerrado y exclusivo-, hay una apertura hacia el público adulto, ya que los cuentos de hadas eran un divertimento de las clases cultas de finales del siglo XVII, y para esos lectores Perrault incluye en sus relatos descripciones de lujos y refinamientos similares a los que ellos mismos conocían y disfrutaban. disfr utaban. Sin duda, con independencia de estos matices, los cuentos de Perrault marcaron un camino que sería largamente recorrido en el siglo XVIII. Con él se inicia la llamada "literatura de preceptores" dedicada a la formación de los jóvenes de la nobleza y producida por escritores de renombre. Así las Fábulas de Jean La Fontaine, las Fábulas
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Liliput -del cual es expulsado- y también su visita al país de Brobdingnag, el reino de los gigantes. El segundo autor -Defoe- narra en su Robinson Crusoe la historia de un náufrago que sobrevive durante décadas en una espacio inhóspito contra el que lucha para hacerlo habitable, basándose en su ingenio, en su trabajo y en su empecinado propósito de recrear en él la sociedad inglesa de la cual provenía. El comentario que hace María Adelia Díaz Roôner de las mismas es el siguiente: "Tanto "Tan to uno como como otro otro son textos textos escand escandali alizad zador ores, es, confor conforman man las representaciones más netas de las corrientes filosóficas de la época, el abso absolu luto to indi indivi vidu dual alis ismo mo,, la expu expulsi lsión ón de otra otrass razas razas y el desd desdén én inde indeco corroso oso de otra otrass cult cultur uras as,, con con el agr agregad egado o del del triu triunf nfo o de la esclavitud."
Díaz Rönner, María Adelia (2000) "De `menor´ a `mayor´", en Jitrik, N. (dir.) Historia Crítica de la Literatura Argentina , Buenos Aires, Emecé, Tomo 11, pág. 516. Por su parte, el siglo XIX es prolífico en obras para la infancia, comenzando con la más famosa recopilación/adaptación de cuentos folklóricos que corresponde a los alemanes Jacobo y Guillermo Grimm, los Cuentos para los niños y el hogar (1812). El inglés Lewis Carroll en Alicia Alicia en el país de las maravillas maravillas (1865) propone sin duda uno de los desafíos mayores a la lógica causalística del mundo cotidiano ya que toda su estructura responde al nonsense o disparate, a una lógica de lo onírico donde las cosas, los animales, las relaciones son cambiantes, arbitrarias, en un permanente fluir de contradicciones. En ese mundo lleno de personajes inolvidables y extraños, Alicia lucha
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Cuarto de juguetes,, 1956 juguetes
El Pinocho (187 (1878) 8) del italiano Carlo Collodi narra las aventuras de un títere de madera que se convertirá en niño, gracias a sus buenas obras. Pero lo más interesante de la novela no es esto, sino las contradicciones del protagonista: la lucha que vive librando entre su deseo de "portarse bien", la debilidad de su decisión y la voluntad que lo lleva una y otra vez a caer en las redes que le tienden los malvados, los astutos y los pícaros; pero Pinocho se sobrepone a sus caídas porque atesora el amor a su padre y la vida siempre le da una nueva oportunidad de rectificar los errores que comete. Hay más autores. autores. El dinamarqué dinamarquéss Hans Christian Christian Andersen Andersen con sus Cuentos (1835), el
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una parte importante de las ficciones de esta literatura aún en la actualidad. Acerca de la producción en Latinoamérica el hecho más importante fue la publicación de La Edad de Oro (1889) cuyo subtítulo fue: "Publicación mensual de recreo e instrucción dedicada a los niños de América", del libertador cubano José Martí en cuyas páginas divulgó adaptaciones libres de Laboulaye, de Andersen y ficciones y poesías del mismo Martí. La Edad de Oro en formato revista publicada en Nueva York y más tarde transformada en libro procuró difundir a la vez de la instrucción que su título proclama, valores humanísticos y libertarios o sea los altos ideales del propio Martí quien procuró compartirlos con los jóvenes de América.
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III. El siglo XX . Evolución y alcances del concepto de literatura infantil Para entender el desarrollo de la literatura infantil en Argentina es necesario tener presente que nos enfrentamos a un período de constitución de un campo, de un lento proceso que va produciendo los discursos sobre la literatura infantil -y más tarde la juvenil-, y los discursos literarios propiamente dichos. Esto nos obliga a preguntarnos dónde circulaban esos discursos, quiénes los producían y quiénes eran los lectores de los textos pensados para la infancia. Indudablemente es el adulto quien se encargó de la generación, distribución y control de esos discursos a través de la familia, la escuela y la iglesia. Si bien sabemos que estas instituciones no han tenido la misma intervención ni el mismo peso a lo largo del siglo XX, podemos decir que aún hoy los efecto efectos s de sentid sentido o impuestos por ellas a la lectura dedicada a la infancia siguen apareciendo. Por suerte estos discursos se han vuelto menos explícitos y quienes trabajamos desde hace décadas en el campo pudimos asistir a la transición del discurso predominantemente didáctico -a veces, moral- al discurso lúdico estético que sobresale durante los '80, aunque se inicie y
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"(...) "(...) bajo bajo la perspe perspecti ctiva va estric estrictam tament entee litera literaria ria,, el predo predomin minio io del comp comprromis omiso o esté estéti tico co just justif ific icar aría ía la plen plena a inser inserci ción ón de los los text textos os litera literario rioss propi propios os de la infanc infancia ia en el paradi paradigma gma de la ´lite ´literat ratura ura general´. O, como mínimo habría que admitir que ´literatura infantil y literatura general´ tienen unos rasgos distintivos comunes: la realidad de un lenguaje altamente codificado y la `necesidad del arte´. Porque, además, de esta forma se elude uno de los riesgos más frecuentes ocurridos en los libros destinados a la infancia: la adulteración del leng lengua uaje je y las las cons consec ecue uenc ncia iass nega negati tiva vass que que se deri deriva van n de cier cierta tass posiciones dirigistas. En cambio, la inserción de la literatura infantil en el paradi paradigma gma de lo literar literario io acarr acarrea ea induda indudable blemen mente te deriva derivacio ciones nes positivas, puesto que al operar la división entre la buena y la mala literatura, por un lado los adultos (padres, maestros ) no se pueden disfrazar bajo ninguna disculpa para no leer los textos que leen o pue puede den n leer leer los los niño niños, s, y por por otr otro lado lado,, los los crít crític icos os y prof profes esor ores es universitarios tampoco disponen de una fácil coartada de no prestar su aten atenci ción ón al estu estudi dio o del del text texto o edit editad ado o en cole colecc ccio ione ness infa infant ntil iles es y juveniles por el mero hecho de aparecer en tales colecciones."
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Maní , 1957
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literatura partiendo de las afirmaciones de Teresa Colomer: "La primera reflexión que vale la pena llevar a cabo ante el fenómeno cultural de la literatura infantil y juvenil es pensar para qué sirve. La respuesta no ha sido la misma a lo largo de su historia, o al menos no con el mismo acento en uno u otro de sus objetivos. os. Ello ha condicionado, y condiciona también en la actualidad, la actitud de los adultos que se encargan de producir este tipo de libros y ofrecerlos a los niños y adolescentes. Podemos dividir en tres las funciones que cum cumple ple la lite litera ratu tura ra infa infant ntil il y juve uvenil nil: inic niciar iar el acc acceso eso a la repr epresen esenta taci ción ón de la reali ealida dad d ofr ofrecid ecida a a trav través és de la lite litera ratu tura ra y compartida por una sociedad determinada; desarrollar el aprendizaje de las formas narrativas, poéticas y dramáticas a través de las cuales se vehicula el discurso literario, y ofrecer una representación articulada del del mund mundo o como como un inst instru rume ment nto o de soci social aliz izac ació ión n de las las nuev nuevas as generaciones."
COLOMER, Teresa (1999) Introducción Introducción a la literatura infantil . Madrid, Síntesis, pág. 15.
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Saltando a la
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lado,, com lado omo o la pr pres esen enta taci ció ón de un fue uert rte e can ano on de au auttor ores es nacionales, por otro, nos invitan a trasladar la mirada hacia otros contextos más amplios o diferentes. ¿Qué sucede con la literatura infantil en el resto de los países latinoamericanos? ¿Cuáles de ellos poseen una tradición literaria dirigida a los niños? ¿Qué posi po sibi bili lida dade des s y mo modo dos s de ci circ rcul ulac ació ión n de te text xtos os y le lect ctur uras as se establecen a nivel continental? ¿Es posible hablar de un canon de autores latinoamericanos de literatura infantil? ¿Cómo interviene la escuela en estos procesos? Les proponemos, entonces, responder a estos interrogantes a partir de sus propias experiencias como
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IV. IV. El paradigma del "enseñar deleitando" Dentro del mismo reconocemos a Horacio Quiroga, a José S. Tallón, Tallón, a Enrique Banchs y a Javier Villafañe, entre otros. El primer libro escrito para chicos en el país pertenece a Horacio Quiroga que lo pensó para sus propios hijos: Cuentos de la Selva (1918). Estos relatos enmarcados en el ambiente selvático de Misiones presentan la convivencia del hombre con los animales, sus conflictos pero también los profundos lazos que la solidaridad teje en esas vidas entre el humano y los animales (estos cuentos aún son leídos y gustados por los chicos
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difusión/circulación en todos los jardines de infantes argentinos; Germán Berdiales, un autor netamente `escolar´ y con una nutrida producción totalmente alejada de lo que hoy se entiende por literatura. Cabe para estos autores y sus obras la expresión con que defi define ne Marí Maríaa Adel Adelia ia Dí Díaz az Rönn Rönner er el fenó fenóme meno no pres presen ente te en ello elloss y otro otross auto autore ress similares: "la literatura traicionada". Es que son ejemplos claros de cuando se escribe para adoctrinar o de uso de la literatura -aunque diste de serlo- al servicio de la didáctica. Pero paralelamente, por estos años, otras lecturas sin anuencia ni permiso escolar trans ransiitaba tabann po porr los ho hoggares ares.. Eran Eran obras ras prev preveenie nientes ntes del del mun undo do euro europe peoo o norteamericano, traducciones y adaptaciones que leían las clases favorecidas en los
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clases, es mérito que corresponde al programa oficial implantado en 1939."
Fernández Alonso, E. (1949) "Iniciación Literaria", en Revista La Obra. Buenos Aires, Ediciones La Obra. El corpus seleccionado incluía fragmentos de autores españoles como Jorge Manrique, Fray Luis de León, Miguel de Cervantes, Juan R. Jiménez; de autores latinoamericanos como José Martí y Amado Nervo y de autores argentinos desde Sarmiento a Baldomero Fernández Moreno. Este corpus con variantes prolongará su existencia en las aulas a través de los libros de lectura para los últimos grados de la escuela primaria.
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V. El nuevo paradigma: la autonomía del discurso literario infantil
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VI. Los autores
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resultados desparejos que dependieron de las diversas etapas en las que se extendió.
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