DIRECT METHOD
Aims[edit] 1. Direct method aims to build a direct relation between experience and language,word and idea, thought and expression 2. This method intends for students to learn how to communicate in the target language 3. This method is based onthe assumption that the learner should experience thenew language in the same way as he/she experienced his/her mother tongu e[4]
Essentials[edit] 1. 2. 3. 4.
No translation Concepts are taught by means of objects or by natural contexts Oral training helpsin reading and writing Grammar is taught indirectly[5]
Techniques[edit] 1. Question/answer exercise – the teacher asks questions of any type and the student answers. 2. Dictation – the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate passage and reads it aloud. 3. Reading aloud – the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud. 4. Student self-correction – when a student makes a mistake the teacher offers him/her a second chance by giving a choice. 5. Conversation practice – the students are given an opportunity to ask their own questions to the other students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-learner interaction as well as a learner-learner interaction. 6. Paragraph writing – the students are asked to write a passage in their own words .[4]
Nature[edit] 1. The direct method is alsoknown as natural method. Itwas developed as a reaction to the grammar translation method and is designed to take the learner into the domain of the target language in the most natural manner. 2. The main objective is to imparta perfect command of a foreign language. Themain focus being to make the learner think in the targeted language in the same manner as the learning of his/her mother-tongue in the most natural way. 3. In traditional language-learning, pupil participation wasfound to be diminished as the teaching is perceived to be long and monotonous .[5]
Merits[edit] 1. Facilitates understanding of language – understanding of the target language becomes easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences from the mother tongue, it establishes a direct bond between contexts, and helps in understanding directly what is heard and read
2. Improves fluency of speech – fluency of speech results in easier writing, it tends to improve expression, expression in writing, and it is a quick way of learning and expanding vocabulary 3. Aids reading – reading becomes easier and more pleasant, and it also promotes a habit of critical studying 4. Improves the development of language sense 5. Full of activities, which make it interesting and exciting 6. Emphasizes the targetlanguage by helping thepupil express their thoughts andfeelings directly in target language without using their mother tongue 7. Develops listening, speaking,readingand writing 8. Increase in market for goods and services 9. Increased employment opportunities 10. Helps in bringing words from passive vocabulary into active vocabulary 11. Helps in proceeding the English language from particular to general, it bridges the gap between practice and theory 12. Makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilitates reading and writing 13. Facilitates alertness and participation of student s[4][3]
Demerits[edit] 1. Ignores systematic written work and reading activities 2. May not hold well in higher-level classes where thetranslation method is moresuitable 3. Supports only limited vocabulary – it restricts the scope of vocabulary as not all words can be directly associated with their meanings 4. Lacks application – the method aims at active command of a language, only the clever child can profit by this method 5. Needs skilled teachers; e.g., most of theteachers in Indian schools have a poorcommand of English 6. Does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes 7. Inconvenient in a huge class 8. Ignores reading and writing aspects of language learning 9. Does not teach grammar systematically 10. Time-consuming in creating real life situations THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching foreign languagesderived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teachingGreek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules bytranslating sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole textsword-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translateliterature written in the source language, and to further students' general intellectual development. It srcinated from the practice of teaching Latin; in the early 1500s, students learned Latin for communication, but after the language died out it was studied purely as an academic discipline. When teachers started teaching other foreign languages in the 19th century, they used the same translation-based approach as had been used for teaching Latin. The method has been rejected by scholars, and has no theoretical basis.
AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD
he audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key,[1] is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory,[citation needed]which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.[citation needed] This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method.[citation needed] Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use ofgrammar. Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, it means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. The lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing the desired response will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition with communicative language teaching. Charles C. Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students' job to recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The students were given only “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.
Oral drills[edit] Drills and pattern practice are typical (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986):
Repetition: the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it. Inflection: one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated. Replacement: one word is replaced by another. Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance.
Examples[edit] Inflection: Teacher: I ate thesandwich. Student: I ate thesandwiches. Replacement: Teacher: He bought thecar for half-price. Student: He boughtit for half-price. Restatement: Teacher:Tell me not to smoke so often. Student:Don't smoke so often! The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session: “Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat Students: There's a cup on the table Teacher: Spoon Students: There's a spoon on the table Teacher: Book Students: There's a book on the table Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair etc.”[2]
Main features[edit]
Each skill like listening, speaking, reading, writing is treated and taught separately. The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening and speaking. Dialogue is the main features of the audio lingual syllabus. Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language items. They provide learner an opportunity to practice, mimic and memorize bits of language. Patterns drills are used as an important technique and essential part of this method for language teaching and learning. The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid. Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to thedirect method, but it was not deemphasized so rigidly.[clarification needed].[5]
Techniques[edit] Skills are taught in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. Language is taught through dialogues with useful vocabulary and common structures of communication. Students are made to memorize the dialogue by line.Pronunciation Learner mimic thethat teacher or aspeaker tape listening carefully all features of the spoken target line language. like of native is important in to presenting the model. Through repetition of phrases and sentences, a dialogue is learned by the first whole class, then smaller groups and finally individual learners. Reading and writing are introduced in the next stage. The oral lesson learned in previous class is the reading material to establish a relationship between speech and writing. All reading material is introduced as orally first. Writing, in the early stages, is confined to transcriptions of the structures and dialogues learned earlier. Once learners mastered the basic structure, they were asked to write composition reports based on the oral lesson .[5]
Emphasizing the audio[edit] The theory emphasizes the listening-speaking-reading-writing order. Listening is important in developing speaking proficiency and so receives particular emphasis. There are strong arguments, both physiological and psychological, for combining speaking practice with training in listening comprehension. Speaking is effective through listening. By hearing the sounds, articulation is more accurate, with differentiation of sounds, memorization and internalization of proper auditory sounds images. Development of a feel for the new language gains interest for the language. There has been practically no study or experiments to determine how much time should be taken between listening experience and speaking practice. Listening comprehension is most neglected in language learning. It is generally treated as incidental to speaking rather than as a foundation for it. Texts, guides and course of study contain tests for evaluating progress in listening comprehension, but they rarely contain specific learning materials designed for the systematic development of this skill. Here are some materials that can be adapted for improving listening comprehension:
The dialogue should be presented as a story, in the foreign language, using simple language. The meaning of some of the new words and expressions that will appear in the dialogue should be explained through gestures, visual aids, synonyms, etc. The idea is to teach the content in the story. Different role-plays can be used to present the dialogue. Without stopping, the dialogue can be gone through to hear how the entire conversation sounds at normal speed. True and false activity can improve comprehension. The entire dialogue can be repeated at normal rate speed. The student can close his eyes to eliminate distractions and increase his listening concentration. A listening comprehension test can be given. Listening comprehension practice can be given using dialogues from other courses of
study or recorded materials that contain most of the language that has previously been learned by the students. The speaking practice would begin after listening comprehension. The students will be ready to speak at this time. Speaking practice can proceed according to sequence. 1. Pattern practice can bebased on material taken from thedialogue. 2. Mimicking can practice the dialogue itself. 3. Performance of the dialogue infront of class and at the seats with the studentschanging roles and partners from time to time. 4. Dialogue can be adapted. Memorization of techniques suggested represent an approach that will enable student to memorize larger segments at a time and perform dialogues as a whole with more confidence. In the meantime, if teachers are willing to use their imagination and experiment with new techniques, many ways can be found to emphasize the audio in the method .[6]
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapistGeorgi Lozanov. It is used mostly to learn foreign languages. The theory applied positivesuggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on "desuggestive learning" and now is often called "desuggestopedia".[1] Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words "suggestion" and"pedagogy". A common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However, Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasising student choice.
In practice[edit] Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident" ,[2] and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and elaboration .[1][3] Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content. In most materials the foreign language text is on the left half of the page with a translation on the right half, i.e. meanings are conveyed via the mother tongue not unlike thebilingual method. Concert session (active and passive):In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the
students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Baroque music is played in the background. Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games. Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production.[1][3] Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in "a playful manner" instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner. Concert session (active and passive):In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly. Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while "the teacher acts more like a consultant".[1] Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.
Teachers[edit] Teachers should not act in a directive way, although this method is teacher-controlled and not student-controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the [1] activities such as games and songs "naturally" and "genuinely." In the concert session, they should fully include classical art in their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, factors such as "communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying their 'techniques'" etc. are crucial .[3] The teachers not only need to know the techniques and to acquire the practicalmethodologycompletely, but also to fully understand the theory, because, if they implement those techniques without complete understanding, they will not be able to lead their learners to successful results, or they could even cause a negative impact on their learning. Therefore, the teacher has to be trained in a course taught by certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov .[1] 1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material. 2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way: global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion. 3. As a professional, on onehand, and a personality, on the other hand, theteacher should be a highly regarded professional, reliable and credible. 4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent expectation of positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of the teacher training course). 5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course,not sentimentally but as humanbeings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and pleasure.
Method for children (preventive Suggestopedia)[edit] The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement ,[1] and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get impacts from "the social suggestive norms" differently, and their brains are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for
children are more incidental and short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and their roles – because they could influence children both negatively and positively, depending on how they support the kids.[3]
Side effects[edit] Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning, but also in producing favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other subjects.[1] The Silent Way is a language-teaching methodcreated by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching method. Gattegno introduced the method in 1963, in his bookTeaching
Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent W Caleb Gattegno, creator of the Silent Way.
Gattegno was an outsider to language education whenTeaching Foreign Languages in Schoolswas first published in 1963. The book conspicuously lacked the names of most prominent language educators and linguists of the time, and for the decade following its publication Gattegno's works were only rarely cited in language education books and journals .[5] He was previously a designer of mathematics and reading programmes, and the use of color charts and colored Cuisenaire rods in the Silent Way grew directly out of this experience.[6] Gattegno was openly sceptical of the role the linguistic theory of his time had in language teaching. He felt that linguistic studies "may be a specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening of one's sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad end in mind" .[7] The Silent Way was conceived as a special case of Gattegno's broader educational principles, which he had developed to solve general problems in learning, and which he had previously applied to the teaching of mathematics and of spelling in themother tongue. Broadly, these principles are:[8] 1. Teachers should concentrate onhow students learn, not on how to teach 2. Imitation and drill arenot the primary means by which students learn 3. Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising conclusions 4. In learning, learnersdraw on everything that theyalready know, especially their native language 5. The teacher must not interfere with the learning pROCESS
Teaching techniques[edit] As the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking .[22] Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students ,[23] and can encourage cooperation among them.[15] It also frees the teacher to observe the class.[11] Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to selfcorrect;[15]they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, [24]
and using certain . When that by students learn tohand focusgestures their attention onteachers them .[11] do speak, they tend to say things only once so A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of the language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do not interfere with students' learning .[25]
Teaching materials[edit]
A set of Cuisenaire rods
The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials: colored Cuisenaire rods, the soundcolor chart, word charts, and Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire rods are wooden, and come in ten different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its own assigned color .[22] The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers, and later they can be used in more complex grammar. For example, to teach prepositionsthe teacher could use the statement "The blue rod is between the green one and the yellow one". They can also be used more abstractly, perhaps to represent a clock when students [26]
are learning about time.
A Fidel chart for English. These charts are used to teach spelling.
The sound-color chart consists of blocks of color, with one color representing one sound in the language being learned. The teacher uses this chart to help teach pronunciation; as well as pointing to colors to help students with the different sounds, the teacher can also tap particular colors very hard to help students learnword stress. Later in the learning process, students can point to the chart themselves. The chart can help students perceive sounds that may not occur in their first language, and it also allows students to practice making these sounds without relying on mechanical repetition. It also provides an easily verifiable record of which sounds the students have and which they have not, which can help their autonomy.[25] The word charts contain the functional vocabulary of the target language, and use the same color scheme as the sound-color chart. Each letter is colored in a way that indicates its pronunciation. The teacher can point to the chart to highlight the pronunciation of different words in sentences that the students are learning. There are twelve word charts in English, containing a total of around five hundred words.[27] The Fidel charts also use the same color-coding, and list the various ways that sounds can be spelled. For example, in English, the entry for the sound /ey/ contains the spellings ay, ea, ei, eigh, etc., all written in the same color. These can be used to help students associate sounds with their spelling.[28]
Immersion
This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our school. ESL students are immersed in the English language for the whole of the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through the medium of the target language, English. Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an immersion situation; for example refugee children from Bosnia attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools. .
The Natural Approach
The natural approach developed by Tracy Terrell and supported by Stephen Krashen, is a language teaching approach which claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humans naturally acquire their native
language. The approach adheres to a communicative approach to language teaching and rejects earlier methods such as the audiolingual method and the situational laguage teaching approach which Krashen and terrell (1983) believe are not based on “actual theories of language acquisition but theories of the structure of language ”
The Natural Approach vs the Direct Method Although The Natural approach and the Direct Method (also called the natural method) share some features, there are important differences . Like the direct method the natural approach is
” believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in second language acquisition. Unlike the direct method, however, it places less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetion,and formal questions and answers, and less focus on accurate production of target language sentences” (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:129)
Theory of language Krashen and Terrell view communication as the primary function of language, and adhere to a communicative approach to language teaching, focusing on teaching communicative abilities rather than sterile language structures. What really distinguishes the Natural approach from other methods and approaches are its premises concerning the use of language and the importance of vocabulary:
Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meaning and messages.
Voacbulary is of paramount importance as language is essencially its lexicon! This means that language acquisition can not take place unless the acquirer understands messages in the targe language and has developed sufficient vocabulary inventory. In fact it should be easier to reconstruct a message containing just vocabulary items than one containing just the grammatical structures.
Theory of learning Krashen grounded the Natural approach on a number of theory of learning tenets.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Krashen makes a distinction between acquisition and learning.
Krashen defines acquisition as developing competence by using language for real communication. It is the natural way, paralleling first language development in children and refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication.
Learning, however, refers to formal knowledge of a language. It is the process in
which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules.
The Monitor Hypothesis Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system. The Monitor Hypothesis states that we may use learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning has only this function. Three conditions limit the successful use of the monitor: 1. Time. Sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule. 2. Focus on form. Focus on correctness or on the form of the output. 3. Knowledge of rules. Knowing the rules is a prerequiste for the use of the monitor.
The Natural Order Hypothesis The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition of English, and the Natural Order Hypothesis claims that the same natural order is found in second language acquisition. It is also believed that errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes. Similar developmental errors occur in learners during acquisition (but not during learning) no matter what their native language is
The Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis relates to acquisition not to learning and states that people acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their level of competence. Krashen refers to this by the formula L +1 (where L+1 is the stage immediately following L along some natural order.) Comprehension is achieved through linguistic and extra linguistic context clues including knowledge about the world, the context of the situation etc… Comprehension preceds the emergence of speaking as fluency appears only as a result of the provision of sufficient comprehensible input. By comprehensible input Krashen means the utterances that learners understand based on linguistic and extralinguistic context and which consists of a sort of simplified code . He contends that when there is such comprensible input language acquisition proceeds successfully. Krashen also claims that when there is enough of such comprehensible input, L+1will usually be provided automatically and
Affective Filter Hypothesis There are three types of emotional attitudinal factors that may affect acquisition and that may impede, block or freely passes necessary input for acquisition . These are motivation, self confidence and anxiety. Acquirers with high affective filter are less likely to develop comptence.
In a nutshell Teaching according to the Natural Approach involves the following principles:
Teaching according to the Natural approach focuses on communicative abilities. One of its objectives is to help beginners become intermediate.
Vocabulary is considered prior to synthactic structures.
A lot of comprehensible input must be provided.
Use of visual aids to help comprehension.
Focus is on listening and reading. Speaking emerges later.
Reducing the high affective filter by
focusing on meaningful communication rather than on form.
prividing interesting comprehensible input
The technique used in this approach are often borrowed from other methods and adapted to meet the requirement of the approach. Thses include:
Total Phisical Response command drills
The Direct Method activities mime, gestures and context are used to elicit questions, and answers.
Communicative Language Teaching group work activities where learners share information to complete a task.
Conclusion The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language acquisition where the naturalistic features of L1 acquisition are utilized in L2 acquisition. It is an approach that draws a variety of techniques from other methods and approaches to reach this goal which is one of its advantages. But the srcinality of this approach does not lie in these techniques but on the emphasis on activities based on comprehensible input and meaningful communication rather than on only grammatical mastery of language.
