Mosaics Mosaics of of Hag H agia ia Sophia, Sophia, Ianbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute
N atalia B. B. Tet Teteriatnikov
Mosaics Mosaics of of Hag H agia ia Sophia, Sophia, Ianbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute
N atalia B. B. Teter Teteriatnikov iatnikov
Dumbarton Oaks Resea Research rch Library and Coll Collec ecttion Washington, D.C.
© Dumbarton Oak O akss Trustees for for H arvard arvard Univ Un iversity ersity Washington, D.C.
Cover illustration
Detail, lunette mosaic mosaic in the th e south vestibule of H agia agia Sophia, Sophia, 10th 10th cent centur ury y. The emperor Justinian holding a representation of Hagia Sophia (photo: Byzantine Institute, ca. 1940)
ISBN 0–88402–264–1
Contents Acknowledgments
v
Introduction
1
The Fossati Restoration
3
The The Byzantin tine Institu titutte: Revealing the Past Background 26 Conservation 29 Cleaning the Mosaics Mosaics 39 Mosaic Techniques Techniques 44 Preservat Preservation through th rough Imaging 59
26
Conclusion
63
Plates
64
A cknowl knowleedgme dgments nts The catalogue and exhibition Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul owe much to the involvement and assistance of numerous institutions and individuals. For her support and encouragement I would like to thank Angeliki Laiou, director of Dumbarton Oaks. I also express my profound gratitude to Alice-Mary Talbot, director of Byzantine Studies at Dumbarton Oaks, whose helpful suggestions, insight insightful ful criticism, criticism, and and editorial expert expertise ise brought brought both the the catalog catalogue ue and the t he exhibit to fruition. My special thanks go to Professor William L. MacDonald for sharing with me his wealth of knowledge about the Byzantine Institute. I would also also like to thank t hank Susan Boy Boyd, curator of the th e By Byzantine collec collecttion at Dumbarton Oaks, and Ioli Kalavrezou, professor of fine arts at Harvard University, for their helpful suggestions suggestions regardin regarding g the the cat catalogue. alogue. Other staff members of Dumbarton Oaks were also invaluable in this endeavor. endeavor. I am grateful grateful for for their help, espec especiall ially y that that of Michelle Sav Savant and Larry Shutts, assistants in the Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives; cabinetmaker Astor Moore and Suzanne Mercury, his assistant; and photographer Joe Mills. My grat gratitu itude de is also expressed expressed to to the t he Byzant Byzantine ine Library Library, especia especially lly to Irene Irene Vaslef aslef,, head head librarian, and Mark Z apat apatka, ass assistant istant to the the librarian, librarian, and the t he publications staff of Glenn Ruby, publishing manager, Robin Surratt, senior editor, and Matthew Matthew Rieck, Rieck, product production assist assistant. I also would would like to express express my grat gratitu itude de to to Amy Brauer, Brauer, associate associate curator curator of ancient art at the Fogg Art Museum; Helen Evans, associate curator of the Mediev Medieval al Departme Depart ment nt at the the Met Metropolitan Museum of Art; Art; Thomas Math Mathew ews, s, profess professor or of the the history history of art at the th e Institut Institutee of Fine Arts, New N ew York Universi Universitty; Irina Andreescu Treadgold, professor of visual and performing arts at Saint Louis Universit University; y; Ali Kilickay Kilickaya, a, director of the th e Hagi H agiaa Sophia Sophia Museum; Nazan Karakas and Neslihan Yalav, librarians at the Istanbul Library; Orhan M. Golak of the Researc Research h Center Center for Islamic Islamic History H istory and Culture Cult ure of Istanbul; Istanbul; Mehmet Mehmet Ihsan I hsan Tunay, Tunay, associ associate ate profe professor ssor at Istanbu Istanbull University; University; and H ayri ayri Yilmaz Yilmaz of Istanbu Istanbull University. Thanks to the fine conservation work of Arthur Page and Mark Knight, we are able able to present present in the t he exhibit exhibition ion three three of the the reproductions of the t he mosaic mosaic panels made made by the the By Byzantine zantine Institut Institutee staff. staff. Most Most of the the photogra phot ographs phs for the t he catalogue catalogue and exhibition were printed by Joe Mills from Byzantine Institute negatives. 5
I ntro ntr oducti uctioon H agia agia Sophia, often often called called the the Great Church, Church, was was built and decorated decorated from A.D. 532 to 537, during the reign of the the emperor Justinian Justinian (Fig (Fig.. 1). Ov Over the the years, years, figural figural mosaics mosaics were were added to t o the the original original non-figural mosaic program, reflectin reflecting g the th e ongoing political, religious, religious, and ceremonial ceremonial needs of the the cath cathedral’ edral’s patrons patrons and of the th e building building itsel itself. f. Wealt Wealthy patron patrons, s, mot motivated ivated by by religious religious fervor, chose mosaics for church decoration because of their jew jewel-like quality and sparkling radiance. After the th e fall of Constantinople in 1453, the church was converted into a mosque (Aya Sofya Camii), and the mosaics were covered with whitewash and plaster. They remained hidden for 400 years, until the architects Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati temporarily uncovered them in 1848 and 1849. In 1931 H agia agia Sophia Sophia was was deconsecrated deconsecrated as a mosque and opened as a museum museum with with the th e permission permission of the the president president of the the Republic of Turkey, Kemal Atatürk. Between 1931 and 1949, the mosaics were uncovered and cleaned by the staff of the th e By Byzantine zantine Institut Instit ute. e. The restoration by the Fossatis Fossatis in the nineteenth century and the consolidation and clea cleaning ning by the Byzantine Byzantine Instit Institut utee in the the tw t wentieth century have been invaluable to the preservation of the mosaics ics and to the t he dissemination dissemination of informat information about them. t hem. The photog phot ographs raphs and color color transparenc t ransparencies ies produced durin during g the the institu institutte’s conservation conservation effort effort are now key to the t he study of By Byzantine zantine history and art. art . Most Most of the t he Byzantine yzantine Instit Institut ute’ e’s archival archival materials were were tran t ransf sferred erred to Dumbarton Oaks in 1953, soon after institute director Thomas Whit Whitttemore’ emore’s death (Fig. (Fig. 2).1 Numerous plans, plans, The Byzantine Institute negatives and Sebah and Joaillier photographs used in the the production of this t his catalogue catalogue are now housed in the th e Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives. 1
The archival materials were catalogued by Jeff Schlossberg in 1981.
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1
Coin of Justinian, the earliest dated coin from Constantinople, struck in 538/ 9, just just after Hagia Hagia Sophia was built
This coin reflects Justini ust inian’ an’s devot devot ion to to the cross. He is shown holding a globe with a cross cross in his rig r ight ht hand, and another cross cross appears appears to his h is left left hand. h and. (Byzant (Byzantine ine collection collection,, Dumbarton Oaks)
2
T homas homas W hittemor hittemoree
(photo: (ph oto: Maurice Maurice Seymour, 1953[? 1953[?], ], courtesy courtesy of W. L. MacD MacDonald)
drawings, and painted copies of the mosaics and research materials from the conservation campaign are now housed in the Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives and are among Dumbarton Oaks’most significant holdings. This catalogue and exhibit—held in conjunction with the symposium “Constantinople: The Fabric of the City,”1-3 May 1998—are based on information retrieved from the Byzant Byzantine ine Instit Institut utee’s records. These Th ese mater materials, ials, which which hav h avee never never been thorth oroughly oughly st studied, contain contain important import ant informat information not only on the the conserv conservation ation of the t he mosaics, mosaics, but also on their t heir history history,, iconography iconography,, style, style, and technique. technique. Examination Examination of the drawings, tracings, copies, and photographs produced by the Byzantine Institut Inst itutee from“close quarters”—t quarters”—the he term t erm used by Whit W hittemore—le temore—letts the the modern viewer iewer tru t ruly ly appr apprec eciate iate the the quality quality of these these mosaics. mosaics.2 They also reveal to the viewer the changes made in the mosaics from the Justinianic era through the centuries. 2 It
was as a result result of Whit W hitttemore’ emore’s publication of the the majority majorit y of the the mosaics mosaics between between 1933 and 1952 that they became widely known among scholars as well as the general public. Some of the mosaics were were also published published by by C. Mango, E. J. J. W. H awkin awkins, s, P. P. Underw Under wood, and and R. R. Cormack. Cormack. For these and related references, see below, note 40.
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T he F ossati R estora toratitioon The work work of the the Byza Byzant ntine ine Institut Institutee has grea greattly enhanced enhanced our understanding of the nineteent nineteenthh-ce cent ntur ury y restoration restorat ion of Hag H agia ia Sophia’s mosaics mosaics by Gaspare and Giuseppe Giuseppe Fossati. Fossati. The The institut instit utee’s conserva conservattors approached the th e rest restoration oration with interest and respect for its historical significance, and they made detailed studies and photographic photographic rec records of it. it . The Fossatis, architects and brothers, were natives of the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland who were were commissioned commissioned in May 1847 by Sultan Sult an Abdul Medjid to clean clean and restore the t he Ay Aya Sofya Sofya mosque, renovatin renovating g its exterior and interior int erior;; the the work work was completed completed tw t wo years years later, later, in 1849.3 The building was in shabby condition and was dangerous, so the brothers’primary task was to preserve the structure through the consolidation of cracks in the walls, dome, columns, marble revetments, and stucco decoration. Their work was indeed useful, but they could not correct a number of major problems, because they had not yet been diagnosed. The Byzantine figural mosaics were discovered by accident during work on the revetments and plaster in 1848. A newly uncovered mosaic in the north aisle vault was shown to the sultan, and he was so impressed by the golden cubes he saw that th at he ordered the the mosaic mosaicss clea cleared red of plaster. The Fossa Fossattis understood understood the the historihistorical signific significance ance of the the mosaics and prepared prepared draw drawings ings and watercolors of them t hem (Fig. 3). Hoping for Russian patronage, the Fossatis presented their work to Tzar Nicholas I.4 Although the tzar expressed interest in the drawings, the discussion of a subvention for publication was postponed for an indefinite length of time. Ulti3
O n the th e Fossatis, Fossatis, see E. Motta, Mott a,“I Fossati: Fossati: Una Un a famiglia famiglia d’art d’artist isti, i,”in ”in Bolletino storico della Svizzera italiano (Bellinzona, 1883), 221-25, 248, 283; U. Thieme and F. Becker, Allg A llgeme emeines ines Lexikon Lex ikon der XI I: 239; T. Lacchia, Lacchia, I Fossati: architetti del sultano di Turchia (Rome, besten besten K ünstler (Leipzig, 1916), XII: 1943); C. Mango, Materials for the Study of the Mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul, Dumbarton Oaks Studies 8 (Washington, D.C., 1962), 5-21, with further bibliography; U. Peschlow, Gaspare Fossati, Die Hagia Sophia: Nach dem Tafelwerk von 1852 (Dortmund, 1980); S. Palumbo-Fossati, Notizie su artisti, uomini di cultura ed artigiani di Morcote di Vico Morcote (Basel, 1984); G. Costas et al., 1809-1883, Gaspare Fo Fossati: ssati: architetto pittore, pit tore, pittore pitt ore arch architett itettoo (Lugano, 1992), 123-24, with further bibliography. 4 Mango, M osaics, saics, 19; also see the Fossati archives housed at the Bellinzona Archives, box 21, nos. 1411-12.
8
3
Fossati drawing of the emperor John V Palaeologus in the eastern arch, north side
The mosaic of this emperor, who ruled from 1341 to 1391, has only recently been uncovered. It dates to ca. 1354. (after Mango, M osaics, saics, fig. 97)
mately, the Fossatis’studies would not be published until more than a century later.5 O ut of respec respectt for for Muslim Muslim relig religious customs customs prohibiting prohibiting the representation of humans, humans, the the figural figural mosaic panels were were re-covered re-covered with plaster and paint painted ed (Fig. 4). The Fossatis left the ornamental Justinianic mosaics exposed and painted areas of missing tesserae tesserae with images images mat matching the the surviving surviving patterns. patt erns. After completing completing the project, Gaspare Fossati published an album of lithographs made from his watercolors, including the exter exterior ior and interior int erior of Hag H agia ia Sophia, and and dedica dedicatted it to Sultan Abdul Medjid in 1852 (Figs. 5-7).6 Thomas Whit Whittemore temore claimed claimed that H agia agia Sophia’ Sophia’s mosaics mosaics hav havee surv survived ived largely due to the work of the Fossatis.7 The extent extent of their their consoli consolidation dation and 5
See Mango, Mosaics, figs. 6, 9, 10-13, 15-16, 20-35, 42-46, 48-51, 52, 55, 57, 61, 63, 69, 71, 73-78, 80-89, 92-102, 104-5, 113-17. 6 G. Fossati, Aya A ya Sofia, Sofia, Constant Constantinople inople,, as Recently Recently Restored Restored by Order of of H. H . M . the Sultan Abdul-M A bdul-Medjid. edjid. lith ographed by Louis Hag H aghe he (London, From the Original Drawings by Chevalier Gaspard Fossati, lithographed 1852). 7 T. Whittemore, T he Mos Mosaic aicss of of St. St. Sophia at Istanbul. I stanbul. Prelimi Preliminary nary Repo R eport rt on the t he First First Year’s Work, Work, (O xford, ord, 1933), 9, hereafter hereafter Whitt W hittemo emore, re, First Preliminary 1931-1932: T he Mosaics Mosaics of the Narthex Narthex (Oxf Report.
9
restoration is evident in vast areas of the vaults and walls in 4 Inner narthex, mosaic panel in the lunette above the royal doors the narthex (Figs. 8-10), naos, dome, and galleries (Figs. 11The Fossatis painted this 14; also see Figs. 22, 23). The Fossatis had strengthened the Justinianic eight eight-point -point star mosaics mosaics with iron cramps before before recovering recovering them them with plaster. over a whitewashed mosaic During the th e course course of the work work of the th e By Byzantine Instit In stitute, ute, the panel depicting an emperor conservators removed sections of the Fossati plaster repairs kneeling before Christ and paint covering the original mosaics. In many cases, for enthroned. See Figures 64 and 65. (phot (photo: o: P. P. Iskender, instance in that of the Deesis panel (see Fig. 58), original Byzantine Institute, 1932) mosaics were not found under some sections of the nineteenth-ce teenth-cent ntury ury repairs, so so the the Fossa Fossatti plaster and paint were left in situ. In those instances in which it was not possible to preserve deteriorating Fossati plaster and paint, the areas were photographed before the material was removed. The conserv conservators ators of the t he By Byzantine zantine Institu Institute te who consolidat consolidated ed and cleaned cleaned the t he original original mosaics mosaics were were critica criticall of some of the Fossati methods of conservation. An examination of Fossati plaster samples shows that it consists only of two layers, instead of three layers as found in the bedding of the 10
5
(above) General view of Hagia Sophia from the southwest before the Fossati brothers undertook their restoration of the building (after Fossati, Aya Sofia,
pl. 25)
6
(right) Central nave after the Fossati restoration (after Fossati, Aya Sofia,
pl. 3)
7
(left) South vestibule after the Fossati restoration Orname Or nament ntal al patterns, pattern s, including including Gothic-style rosettes, were used to cover the 10th-century lunette lunette mosaic above above the th e doorw doorway of Just Justinian inian and Constantine Constant ine before before the Virgin Virgin enthroned ent hroned and Christ Chr ist child. (after Fossati, Fossati, Aya Sofia,11 pl. 1)
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Inner narthex, looking toward the north, late 19th century
Mosaics cover the vaults and transverse arches of the ceiling as well as the lunettes (photo: (phot o: Sebah Sebah and Joaillier)
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10
(right) Inner narthex, looking toward the window soffit T he cent center er of this t his vault vault is decorated decorated with a rosette in a medallion flanked by Latin crosses. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
(left) Vault of the central bay of the inner narthex
All the bay vaults of the narthex have the same mosaic scheme. The groin vaults of each bay are outlined with ornamental bands of a jeweled christogram in a central medallion. The center of each vault segment is decorated with an eightpointed star with stylized stylized pine cones and floating floral motifs at the ends. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
11
Fossati drawing of mosaics on the south wall of the west gallery
Below the cross in the medallion is an ornamental band consisting of diamonds d iamonds and crosses crosses on a diag d iagonal, onal, similar to the the patterns pattern s found in the t he dome ribs and and window sills. sills. (after Mango, Mosaics, 42) 42)
12 Dome The forty ribs of the dome radiate from a central medallion that originally was was decorated with an image of the cross. The sixthcentury court poet Paul Silentiarius said of it, it ,“At the very navel navel the the sign of the cross is depicted within a circle by means of minute mosaic so that the Saviour of the whole world may for ever protect the church; while at the base of the half-sphere are fashioned forty fort y arched windows windows through which the rays of fairhaired Dawn are channelled” ( Descriptio S. Sophiae 506, tr. C. Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453 [Toronto, 1986], 83. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
13 Detail, the dome Each Each rib r ib of the th e dome is decorated decorated with with an alternating pattern of diamonds and crosses on a diagonal. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
14 An apse window The soffit of each window in the t he apse is outlined with with a narrow ornamental band consisting of the diamondand-cross pattern on a diagonal. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
original mosaics.8 Although the Fossatis understood the importance of preserving the original mosaics, their hurried pace of work and the level of technical knowledge edge at the t he time time precluded precluded their their doing a thorough thorough job. Most but not all of the mosaics were preserved. Throughout the restoration, deteriorated areas of mosaic were simply cut away and filled with new plaster and painted over.9 With some variation, the removal of the original mosaic was the same method of restoration used on medieval medieval mosaics mosaics in ninetee ninet eent nthh-ce cent ntur ury y Italy. Italy. Numerous mosaics in the cathedral of San Marco in Venice, the Cappella Palatina in Palermo, and the cathedral in Torcello were cut away, but they were then replace replaced d with new tesse tesserae rae rather rather than than paint.10 Although the Fossatis contributed to the continued exist existence of of the t he mosaics, mosaics, their their primar primary y concern concern was the redecoration of both the exterior and interior of the mosque mosque and the t he creation creation of a uniform, uniform, neo-Gothic neo-Gothic reviv revival al style style throughout throughout the building. The print printss from 8
Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, W. Gregory, diary, 1939, notebook 13. There are no records records of the t he Fossati plaster plast er samples having having been scientifically scientifically analyzed, however, some of them are preserved in the Byzantine collection ollection at Dumbarton D umbarton Oaks O aks and and could be tested at a future futur e date. 9 For example, example, fragme fragment ntss of the t he original original mosaics mosaics on the t he vault vaultss of the western gallery were removed. Mango, Mosaics, 15. 15. 10 I. Andrees And reescu, cu,“Torce “Torcello, llo, I. Le Christ Ch rist Inconnu; II. I I. Anastasis Anast asis et jugement dernier: têtes vraies, têtes fausses,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26 (1972),185-223; eadem, “La mosaïque murale: histoire des restaurations, évolutions de ses techniques,”in Mosaïque I: 1977),19-33, with bibliography; détérioration et conservation (Rome, 1977),19-33, eadem, eadem,“Salviati Salviati a San Marco alti alti suoi suoi restauri,”in restauri,”in Scienza a tecnica del restauro della Basilica, Venezia, maggio 1995, ed. E. Vio (Venice, 1997), forthcoming forth coming;; E. Kitzinger, Kitzinger, I I Mosaici del periodo normanno in Sicilia: La Cappella Palatina di Palermo (Palermo, 1992), 17-22.
17
Aya Sofia reveal a radical change in the appearance of the church; for example, in
consolidating the walls of the buttress staircases, the Fossatis removed the original gabled roofs over the staircases and replaced them with barrel vaulted roofs. The original gables can be seen in a lithograph created before the Fossati restoration and in the t he depiction of H agia agia Sophia in the t he mosaic mosaic panel of Justinian Justinian and Constantine stantine before before the the ent enthroned hroned Virgin Virgin and Chr Christ ist child in the t he south vest estibule (Fig (Figs. 5, 15, 16).11 The entire exterior was painted yellow with narrow, red horizontal stripes in the style of Gothic cathedrals in Italy, such as Santa Maria in Pisa,12 San San Martino Mart ino in Lucca Lucca,,13 and Santa Maria Assunta in Siena (Fig. 17).14 This str stripe iped d decoration was preserved on one of the staircase walls and on the east facade until the th e 1930s 1930s.. At the t he upper center of the t he south faca facade de of the the rooms abov abovee the the buttress butt ress staircases, the Fossatis added stucco Gothic-style rosettes (Fig. 18). To unify the style of the exterior and interior, the Fossatis painted some of the window soffits soffits in the the aisles aisles and galleries galleries of Hag H agia ia Sophia in thick yello yellow w and red stripes; these can be seen in the Fossati prints, but have since been removed.15 As already noted, the Fossatis left the Justinianic decorative mosaics exposed in the interior interior of the th e chur churcch, while while their their artists artists applied applied plaster and painted painted over over the the figural images and crosses (Figs. 19-21). In the inner narthex and in the entrance vaults and window arches of the th e naos, large large Lat Latin crosses were were incorporated incorporated into into painted geometric designs, most of the patterns imitating Justinianic decoration (Figs. 22, 23). Special patterns were created by the Fossatis to imitate the original gold tesserae in the background of the mosaics (Fig. 24). Not all of the patterns that survive are visible from the ground, but at close range they can still be seen on the walls, vaults, and dome. In addition to imitations of Justinianic patterns, a multicolored Gothic-style rosette was designed and painted over each of the church church father father figure figuress in the the lunettes lunettes of of the the north north and south tympana as as wel welll as the lunette above the door in the south vestibule (Figs. 7, 25-28). 11
Mango, Mosaics, fig. 5. 12 H . Decker, Decker, L’Art roman en Italie (Paris, 1958), 55-56, 59-61. This type of striped decoration derived from the Byzantine practice of alternating courses of white ashlar stone and orange brick. T he tec t echnique hnique began began to t o be used both in western western and Islamic Islamic architecture architecture in the mid-12th mid-12t h cent centur ury y. A. Petersen, Pet ersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture (London, 1996), 1-2. 13 Decker, L’A L’A rt roman, roman, 57, figs. 45-46. 14 H . Decker, Decker, L’Italie gothique (Paris, 1964), 56-57. 15 Fossati, Aya Sofia, pl. 24.
18
15
South vestibule, lunette, the emperors Justinian and Constantine before the Virgin enthroned and Christ child
Justinian ustinian is shown present presenting ing Hag H agia ia Sophia to the Virgin, while Constantine presents Constantinople. The mosaic dates to the second half of the t he 10th centu century ry.. (photo: O. Pferschy)
19
16 Detail, south vestibule, lunette Justinian ustinian with a represe represent ntation ation of H agia agia Sophia showing showing the south facade facade (photo: Byzantine Institute)
20
17
Exterior of Hagia Sophia from the southwest
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Fossati paint on the building, including the t he yellow yellow and red striping, was still in good condition. (photo: (ph oto: Sebah and Joaillier)
18
Section of the south facade of Hagia Sophia
Although Although the t he condit condition ion of the external walls had deteriorated considerably by the early 1930s, several original features of the Fossati restoration were still visibl visiblee at that t hat t ime, ime, including including the t he Gothic-style Gothic-style rosett rosettes es on on the t he upper portion of the south wall on both butt but t resse resses. s. (photo: (ph oto: P. P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1934)
21
19
Central nave after the Fossati restoration, looking toward the east, late 19th century
T he Fossatis Fossatis used both sixth sixth-- and nineteent nineteenth-ce h-centu ntury ry designs designs as the basis for for their t heir decoration. decoration. Thus, Th us, the apse and semidomes are decorated with imitations of Justinianic patterns, while the spandrels are adorned adorned with medallio medallions ns that t hat include include neo-Gothic rosettes, a typical typical nineteenth-c nineteenth- century entury pattern. (photo: Sebah and Joaillier)
22
20
Eastern apse
The mosaics mosaics of the t he arch, spandrels, spandr els, and apse conch conch were were covered covered with Fossati Fossati decorat decorations. ions. Those Th ose in the apse conch consist of bands of leafy rosettes springing from its apex, an example of imitation Justinianic design. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1935)
21
Fossati patterns in the apse
Visible here are the whitewash and painted plaster applied by the Fossatis over the figural mosaic in the t he cent central ral area of the apse conc conch, h, the t he Virgin Virgin enthroned enth roned with with Christ Chr ist child (Fig. 49). 49). The upper sections of the apse were covered with a fine layer of plaster and ornamental bands, while the background between the bands is painted with Fossati patterns imitating gold tesserae, similar to their restorations in other areas of the building. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1935)
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22 Lunette and barrel vault over the entrance to the south aisle of the naos Fossati ornamental patterns were painted over crosses to imitate the Justinianic mosaic designs found in the aisles and narthex. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1932)
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23 Lunette and barrel vault over the entrance to the south aisle of the naos after the removal of the Fossati patterns by the Byzantine Institute (photo: Byzantine Institute)
24 Inner narthex, detail of an area restored by the Fossatis In this window soffit in the seventh bay from the south, the Fossatis filled the area of a missing mosaic (left ) with plaster painted with gold alternat alternat-ing square patterns imitating the original mosaic tesserae. T his technique techniqu e was was used exten extensiv sively ely throughout the interior of the building. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1933)
m u n a p m y t h t r o n e h t n i s c i a s o m e h t f o m a r g a i D 5 2
e e r r e e w w s s n c i o i a s t o c u r m t e s s n e o h c e T . r r s e e t e s h i g T e . r e v p i o r v t e s u h t y l n l i a s i t e r l t s a o p y p l a n d o n e y ) a h s t V l e ; I I g 9 I n I a 6 8 s f d o m n a a e r , g k r a e a i t u s q d i , g t h s c e i r r a e a e s o l d e M d t h , i o m r g e n t a e f h a t n e M i m r e s i t t t e e f a h m ( . p o s o s g r , n p I i e l i s w h a a t r , d B r i e r t e t s i d a g s n s e o r u F a r e i d n w h a o p o l s m e S e u g a a h n t i a g p n a i m o H g m y t d n e f h o i t t v c i u i n v o p i o r s e u t e d a s h t e r e o h n r e t i t s s e f c w i o s r a r e s s i e h s o h t a m t a e f g n b h e i t r t h h f c u o r d n u m o d h a e e c t r g e a d a h e a i c m D T r 6 2
27 North tympanum, lunette, John Chrysostom This mosaic, in the fourth lunette from the east, shows Chrysostom as a bishop, with with short hair and a short beard. beard. He H e wea wears rs a white white sticharion, white phelonion, and an omophorion decorated with crosses. The panel dates to the late 9th cent century ury.. (photo: (phot o: Byza Byzant ntine ine Institute) Instit ute)
In some architectural spaces, for instance in the central nave—where most of the mosaic decoration was lost—and in the narthex, the Fossatis added midnineteenth-ce nineteenth-cent ntury ury vig vignett nettee patterns patterns to to the the original original Justin Justinianic ianic ornaments to t o create create a more contemporary decoration (Figs. 19, 20). The Fossatis’yellow background with ornamental patterns patt erns resemble resembless those of the the nineteent nineteenth-centur h-century y interiors interiors of European palaces. It is noteworthy that the Fossatis employed extensive ornamental patterns patterns in the th e narthex narthex and the the naos, the th e areas areas used used by the the sult sultan an for court court ceremonies. These patterns created a grand and contemporary appearance in the major major interior int erior spaces spaces.. After After the the By Byzantine zantine Institut Institutee comple completed ted its it s work work on the the mosaics, the remaining Fossati painted patterns continued to deteriorate and were
29
28 North tympanum, lunette, St. Ignatios the Younger In the westernmost lunette, St. Ignatios wears ecclesiastical garments like those worn by John Chrysostom (Fig. 27). With his right hand, he blesses and balances a Gospel Book. The panel dates dates to the th e late late 9th 9t h century. century. (photo: (phot o: Byz Byzantine antine Instit In stitut ute) e)
there th erefo fore re subsequently subsequently repainted. repainted. Thus Th us the the By Byzantine Instit In stitute ute photographs photographs and color color draw drawings ings of these th ese pat patterns terns prov provide ide valuable valuable records records of their original appearance. In their t heir restoration of H agia agia Sophia, the th e Foss Fossatis atis altered the the st style of of the the original original ex exterior and interior dec decoration oration in order to t o suit the the tas tasttes of both the the imperial cour courtts of Europe and of the t he sultan’s cour courtt. The new romant romantic ic orientalizing style of Hag H agia ia Sophia’ Sophia’s decor decor was popularized popularized thr t hrough ough the the Fossat Fossatis’album, both in Europe and in Turkey. In contrast to the t he nineteenth-c nineteenth-century entur y restoration, restoration, the the Byzantine Institute conservation campaign re-oriented Hagia Sophia in the direction of its original appearance.
30
T he B yzantine zantine I nstitute nstitute: : R eveali vealing ng the P ast ast Background
29
Sketch Sketch of of T homas homas Whittemore W hittemore
(draw (dr awing: ing: H . Matisse, Matisse, courtesy of the Fogg Art Museum, Harva H arvard rd Univ Un iverersity Art Museums, bequest of Thomas Whittemore; copyright 1988 Succession H . Matisse Matisse, Paris/ Paris/ Artist Rights Society, Society, ARS, New N ew York)
The purpose of the Byzantine Institute was to promote the study of Byzantine art, history, and archaeology. Thomas Whittemore (1871-1950), one of the instit institut utee’s founders, was was its first and only on ly director (Fig. 29).16 W hittemore hittemore had prev previousl iously y taught taught Englis English h and then then art history at Tufts University University and and later at Columbia University. The first president of the Board of Directors irectors of the t he institut instit utee was was Profes Professor sor Robert Pierpont Blake of Har H arv vard Unive Universit rsity y, and among among its its members were Professor Michail Ivanovich Rostovtsev (Michael Rostovtzeff) of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and Robert Woods Bliss, who, together with his wife Mildred, conv convey eyed ed Dumbarton D umbarton Oaks to H arvard. arvard. Many prominent figures figures in American American society society understood the the importance import ance of financing Whitt Wh ittemore emore’’s endeavor; endeavor; the t he list of board members members reads like an exc excerpt erpt from W ho’ ho’s W ho in A merica merica (Fig. 30). The institute—which was active in Boston, Paris, and Istanbul—gave priority to uncovering and consolidat consolidating ing the the mosaic mosaicss of Hag H agia ia Sophia in one of the the largest conservation projects of this century. Through connections in U.S., British, and French diplomatic circles, the institute established contacts in the Turkish government. President Kemal Atatürk was assured of the sound future of the project,17 and with his his permispermis16
P. Lemerle, “Hommage à Thomas Whittemore,” Byzantion 21 (1951), 281-83; W. L. MacDonald, “Whitt hit temore, emore, Thomas, Th omas,” Dictionary D ictionary of of American A merican Biography, Biography, suppl. IV, 1974, 890-91, with bibliography; G. Constable, “Dumbarton Oaks and Byzantine Field Work,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 37 (1983), 171-76. 17 W hitt hit temore also receiv received ed assistance from Robert Blake, lake, a
31
30 Letterhead of the Byzantine Institute
sion Hagi H agiaa Sophia was closed closed for for conservat conservation work work in 1931; it reopened reopened later that t hat year as a museum, while while work work continued continued on the t he mosaics. mosaics. It would take eight eighteen een years ears for the the staff of the Byza Byzant ntine ine Institut Instit utee to comple complete te the t he project. project. During During this th is period, Whittemore was also responsible for reviving preservation work on other important Byzantine monuments in Istanbul, following on the work of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople, which had closed during World War I.18 The Hag H agia ia Sophia project project generated generated an immense immense impet impetus for the the study study and
Byzantine expert familiar with Russia, the Balkans, and the Near East. I. R. Blake, ed., In Search of Byzantium, Byzantium , A Biog Biography: raphy: T he Life of Robert Robert Pierpont Pierpont Blake B lake (1996), 229. 18 For For t he Russian Russian Archaeolog Archaeologic ical al Institut Inst itutee in Constantinople Constant inople (RAIK), (RAIK) , which which operated from 1894 to t o 1915, see E. U. Basargina, “Archiv Archivnye fondy russkogo russkogo archeologicheskogo archeologicheskogo inst in stit itut utaa v Konstantinopole RAIK,”Vizantijskij Vremennik 55 (1994), 33-37; U. A. Piatnitskii, Visantiiskie (St . Petersburg, 1993). 1993). pamiatniki v Musee russkogo archeologicheskogo instituta v Konstantinopole (St.
32
preservation of other local monuments, such as Kariye Camii, St. Eirene, and St. Mary Pammakaristos. After After Whit W hitttemore’ emore’s death in 1950, the the Boston Boston offic officee cont contininued the t he instit institut ute’ e’s work work unt until the the summer summer of 1953.19 Subsequently, Dumbarton Oaks assume assumed d oversi oversig ght of the the Whit W hittemore temore projects projects in Istanbul, Istanbul, particularly particularly in H agia agia Sophia. The administrative office in Boston had handled correspondence, banking, publications, and to t o some degree degree the the affairs affairs of the the institut instit ute’ e’s library in Paris on the t he rue de Lille, which was set up for the scholarly study of mosaics. Vladimir Rayefsky, Anatolii Frolow, and librarian Boris Ermoloff assisted with research request requests. The staff of the the institut instit utee working working on the the mosaics mosaics in in Istanbul Istanbul often relied relied on the library in Paris. In one of his letters to Whittemore, Nicholas Kluge, who wrote rote the the descrip descripttions of most of H agia agia Sophia’ Sophia’s mosaics, mosaics, complained complained that th at it was impossible impossible to to find in Istanbul Istanbul N ikolai ikolai Kondakov Kondakov’’s Ikonografia Bogomatery (The iconog iconography raphy of the Virgin). Virgin). He H e aske asked d Whit W hittemore temore to borrow borr ow the th e book from from the th e Paris library and and send send it to him through through diplomatic ma mail. il.20 The library was later convey conveyed ed to to the the French people people and moved moved to to the the Ecole des langues langues orientales orient ales vivantes, where some of the Byzantine Institute materials remain preserved. The role of Thoma Thomass Whitt Whittem emore ore as director director of the the Hag H agia ia Sophia projec projectt cannot cannot be overe overestimated. stimated. He H e raised raised funds fund s for for the annual budget budget, set set up the t he work work stations stat ions in H agia agia Sophia, chose chose the the team workers, workers, and and procured procured the the newest newest equipment and supplies.21 Little Little is known known about most most of the th e staff staff of the the By Byzantine zantine Institute who were responsible for the discovery, description, and conservation of the building’ building’s mosaics. mosaics. T he staff fluctuated fluctuated,, but the permanent permanent core members members included the the conservator conservatorss W. J. and R. A. Gregory Gregory,, G. H. H . Flockton Flockton,, H. H . S. H atcher, E. J. J. W. Haw H awkins kins (who was was in charge of the the projec projectt in Whit W hitttemore’ emore’s absence), absence),22 A. H . Ly Lye, and A. A. T. White. ite. A. A. Green, Nicholas N icholas Kluge, and Bay Adli Salih Salih worked 19 After Whit W hittemore’ temore’s death, death, Paul Underwood was was appointed appointed field field direc dir ector, tor, and William W illiam L.
MacDonald served as executive secretary between 1950 and 1953. N. Kluge, uncatalogued letter, Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives. 21 According According to to William William L. MacD MacDonald, money was was also raised by board members. members. Some of them, and probably others, gave regularly. 22 Ernest Ernest J. J. Weav Weaver er H awkins awkins was was a distinguished distinguished wall wall painter and the th e finest finest author aut horit ity y on on the t he restoration of Byzantine mosaics and frescoes and their techniques of production. He worked for the Byzantine Institute from 1938 to 1950. He was also assistant field director for the Dumbarton bart on Oaks O aks center center for Byzantine yzantine st studies from 1963 1963 to 1975. H is work, work, in cooperat cooperation ion with professional art historians, resulted in defining the techniques of and the dating of the major 20
33
on the t he conservation conservation of the the mosaics, mosaics, and also assist assisted in making traci tracings, ngs, copies, copies, and photog phot ographs. raphs.23 Kluge, a Russian refugee and former member of the Russian Archaeological Institute, wrote descriptions of the panels and their iconography. The bulk of the the instit institut utee’s photographs photographs were were taken by Pierre Iskender.24 A. A. Green and G. Holt were responsible for producing most of the color copies and hand-painted casts of the mosaics. Concurrently, the architects Robert Van Nice and William William Emerson Emerson carried out their own project studying studying Hag H agia ia Sophia’s structural aspects and conducting an architectural survey of the building, occasionally collaborating with the institute staff.25 Conservation
The first scaffolding, made of wood, was erected in the inner narthex in 1931; the following year a stronger metal scaffolding was installed for work in the narthex and south vestibule (Figs. 31). The engineer Mr. Campbell designed the steel scaff scaffolding olding (on (on wheels) for enhance enhanced d durability durability..26 Work on the mosaics mosaics was was mosaics mosaics of Hagia H agia Sophia Sophia and the the frescoes frescoes of Kariye Kariye Camii and other oth er Byzantin Byzantinee monuments in Istanbul. With Cyril Mango he published materials on the mosaics of the apse and the church fathers in the t he north nort h and south t ympana in H agia agia Sophia. Later, Later, he worke worked d with Robin Cormack Cormack on the publication of the mosaics of the room over the south vestibule. He also worked on the restoration of the t he frescoes frescoes of of Kariye Camii Camii with with Paul Underwood Underwood and contributed contr ibuted to t o the t he restoration of mosaics and frescoes in churches in Cyprus and southern Italy. For these works, see below, note 40. 23 Unfortunat Unfort unately ely, very very few conserva conservator tors’first s’first names can be ident identifie ified. d. 24 Pierre Pierr e was was the th e son of Agop Iskender, who who acquir acquired ed Pascal Sebah’s photo phot o studio. st udio. The T he Sebah and Joaillier studio was one of the most prestigious in Istanbul, producing works for the sultan. T he Iskender Iskender studio studio continued to t o carry the Sebah and Joaill Joaillier ier name until the th e Turkish Turkish republi r epublicc was established. After that, the name was changed to Foto Sabah. For Sebah and Joaillier, see E. Ozendes, Photography in the Ottoman Empire (1839-1919) (Istanbul, 1987), 112-35. 25 Van Nice N ice’’s life work work was devoted devoted to the architecture archit ecture of H agia Sophia. He H e and Emerson, a dean at the Massachusett Massachusettss Institut Inst itutee of Tec Technology, conducted conducted a study stu dy of the th e structure stru cture from 1937 to 1941, before being interrupted by World War II; after the war, they resumed work, undertaking the first modern surv sur vey of the the building. build ing. After Emerson’s death in in 1957, Van Nice N ice continued continu ed the th e project with support from Dumbarton Oaks, where he spent the rest of his career as a senior research associate. Dumbarton Oaks published two sets of drawings, Saint Sophia in Istanbul: An Architectural Survey. Plates (Washington, D.C., 1965, 1986). The first installment of plates was reprinted reprint ed in 1995. 1995. 26 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, J. M. Brennan, diary, 1940, notebook 20.
34
In ner narthex, T homas homas W hittemore (sec (second from the t he left) left) and Byzantine Institute In stitute conse conservator rvatorss 31 Inner setting up metal scaffolding (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1932)
carried out on an annual basis, each season lasting from April to October or November. Notebooks were kept showing work day to day, including diagrams of the location and type of work done by each person on the team.27 An example from a diary diary for for 18-19 June June 1936 notes notes the the followi following ng activities: R. Greg Gregory ory tearing tearing down the Fossati plaster in the apse; W. Gregory and Brennan strengthening the plaster by applying applying cramps; Mitchell Mitchell and Flockton replacing Fossa Fossatti conservat conservation ion plaster; plaster; R. Gregory testing the soffits in the southeast bay of the south gallery; Kluge tracing the panel of John II Komnenos; Adli Bey working on tracings of the Deesis (Fig. 32). The conservator conservatorss moved moved from place place to place, place, and almost almost all of them them worked worked on each panel. The conservators’diaries provide fascinating documentation of conservation methods at a time when this field was not yet fully developed.28 27
D umbarton umbart on Oaks, O aks, Byzantin Byzantinee Phot Ph otograph ograph and Fieldwork Fieldwork Archives, Archives, W. Gregory, Gregory, diary, diary, 1936, notebook 51. 28 The journal Studies in Conservation appeared in the 1950s. Its first article on mosaic conservat ion was by Ernest H awkins, awkins, “The Conserv Conservation ation of the t he Mosaics Mosaics at the t he Kariye Camii,” Camii,”Studies in Conservation 5 (1960), 102-7.
35
Besides data on conservation, the diaries of the 32 Whittemore staff also included observations on mosaic technique and dating and descriptions of the images (Fig. 33).29 The restoration was photographed systematically. Acco Accord rding ing to the t he diaries, diaries, the conservator conservatorss faced faced tw t wo major major problems: consolidat consolidation ion of the the original mosaics mosaics and plaster and the removal or preservation of the Fossati repairs and painting. Although much of the the mosaic mosaic program had survived, by the time the Byzantine Institute started work it was apparent that many of the mosaics were in frag fragile ile condit condition. ion. In several several places, places, section sectionss of plaster plaster and mosaic had fallen off. 29 The diaries of the conservators also contain interesting details
about more mundane matters, such as the long journey by car to Istanbul from London or Paris by staff staff members members of the institut inst itute. e. A. H. H . Ly Lye ment mentione ioned d in his diary that t hat their th eir party part y of four four “left left Paris
36
Conservator’s notebook entry
Sketch show showing ing work work sites sit es for members of the Byzantine Institut Inst itutee staff for for 18-19 June June 1936. Pencil, watercolor, and ink on paper. (Byzantine Instit Institut ute, e, W. W. Greg Gr egory ory,, diary diar y, 1936, notebook 57)
33
Conservator’s notebook entry
Sketch of the inscription on the face of the apse conch. The top diagram shows shows the the arch with with the th e beginning of the inscription +ACO. The conservator notes that the gold tesserae in the background were set set to run parallel parallel to to the letters, i.e., following their length. The bottom diagram diagram illustrates the t he inclination of the tesserae, which were set at an angle of 160 degrees. The conservator explains that because because of the t he considerable height of the triumphal arch, the gold tesserae were sharply sharply angled angled to to make make the th e inscription easier easier to discern discern.. Blac Black k ink in k and pencil on paper. (Byzantine (Byzantine Instit In stitute, ute, W. Greg Gr egory ory,, diar diary y, 1939, notebook 11)
Photographs of the Fossatis’drawings and watercolors were sent to Istanbul from the Fossati archives in Bellinzona, Switzerland, on 13 October 1937.30 These were used by the conservators during their testing of the walls and especially on April fourth and arrived in Istanbul on April 11, 1934, one day earlier earlier than t han expected. expected.”D ”Dumba umbart rton on Oaks O aks,, Byzantine Byzantine Photogra Phot ograph ph and Fieldwork Archives, A. H . Lye, Lye, diary, diary, 1934, notebook not ebook 34. 30 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, R. Gregory, diary, 1937, notebook 67. The Fossati drawings were photographed by Emilio Carpi.
37
during the search for the figural panels (Figs. 34, 35).31 When unco un cov vering the mosaics, the conservators consulted the photographs in order to identify details of figures, as in the case of the south side of the bema,32 where the t he Fossatis’draw Fossatis’dr awings ings helped helped the t he conserv conservators ators identify identify the the orb in the t he hand of the th e archange archangell there th ere during a cleaning of the panel (Figs. 36, 37). The conservators also found mistakes in the Fossati notes, as in the case of their erroneous placement of the panel of the emperor Alexander. Alexander.33 After a length lengthy y sea search rch for for the the panel throughout the the ent entire ire south gallery, it was finally discovered in the north gallery (Fig. 38). Once the search for the mosaics had been completed, the work began to test their surfaces for plaster deterioration and cracks (Fig. 39); then the brickwork under the plaster would be repaired—restored or removed and replaced—and in some cases cases loose loose tess tesserae erae reset (Fig ( Fig.. 40). In the th e case case of the t he mosaics mosaics of the the church fathers in the recesses of the tympana (Figs. 25-28), the conservators had to fix the cracks cracks in the the mortar joint joint along along the edges edges of of the the reces recesss in order to t o streng strengtthen the the plaster plaster under the the mosaic mosaics’s s’sett etting ing bed. bed.34 In many areas, the Fossatis’rusting iron cramps were replaced with new Delta copper cramps from the United States, the latter proving to be more satisfactory for the job. Their particular shape created a better bond between the plaster and brick masonry (Figs. 41, 42).35 The new new cramps were also used to preserve mosaic areas that were in danger of falling off; in some cases cases they were were installe inst alled d across across the the entire ent ire face face of a panel. panel. T he proce process ss required several several steps. First, First, if the the plaster plaster under under the mosaics was was weak, weak, the mosaic cubes would be removed and the setting bed cut away down to the brick to allow workers to drill a hole. The hole would then be washed with vinyl, and a metal cramp fitted to a depth of 12 centimeters. A plaster and borax solution would be injected, injected, so that the the prongs of of the the cramp cramp pres presse sed d on the the set setting bed. bed.36 The Th e dede31
Comments on the photographs of the Fossatis’drawings, watercolors, and paintings can be found in conservators’diaries: Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, A. T. White, diary, 1935, notebook 32, and W. Gregory, diary, 1939, notebooks, 4, 11, 13. 32 W. Gregory, diary, 1937. 33 Ibid. 34 J. M. Brennan, diary, 1940. 35 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, R. Gregory, diary, 1934, notebook 22. The conservators charted the locations of the new cramps and the old Fossati cramps in the major panels. 36 The Byzantine Institute formula for mixing plaster: water (1 measure), plaster (2.5 measures), borax (0.30 measures). Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, W. J. Greg Gr egory ory,, observation observation book, 1934, II, notebook n otebook 29.
38
34
Plan of Hagia Sophia at ground level, showing the location of imperial portraits
(after R. R . Mainstone, Mainstone, Hagia Sophia [New York, 1988], 171)
35
Plan of Hagia Sophia at gallery level, showing the location of imperial portraits
(after R. R . Mainstone, Mainstone, Hagia Sophia, 172)
39
36 Apse conch and bema vault The center of the apse is decorated with an image of the Virgin enthroned with Christ child. Archangels, one of which appears here, were placed on both sides of the bema vault. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
37
Detail, archangel, bema vault, south side
(photo: Byzantine Institute)
38 North gallery (center bay), upper cornice on the west wall (south side), the emperor Alexander
The emperor, dressed in imperial garments, holds in his right hand the akakia, a small silken pouch filled with dust and wrapped in a handkerchief, and holds in his left hand an orb. The mosaic dates to ca. ca. 912/ 912/ 3. (photo: Byza Byzantin ntinee Institut Instit ute) e)
41
41 Iron cramps The type of cramps used by the Fossatis to consolidate the th e mosaics mosaics of Hagia H agia Sophia Sophia (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1933)
39
South gallery, testing of the mosaics Whittemo Wh ittemore re (left ) and a group of conservators at
work (photo: (ph oto: Byza Byzant ntine ine Institut Inst itute) e)
42 Delta copper cramps The new type of cramps used by the Byzantine Institute to affix plaster to the th e walls walls of Hag H agia ia Sophia (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1933)
40 Inner narthex, Byzantine Institute conservators testing for loose tesserae (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute,
42
1932)
In ner narthex, drilling a hole 43 Inner for the insertion of a cramp.
W hittem hitt emore ore is on the right. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzant yzantine ine Institute, Instit ute, ca. 1933)
44
Conservator’s notebook entry
A sketch showing the installation tec t echnique hnique of a cramp in the Deesis panel. Pencil, watercolor, watercolor, and ink ink on paper. (Byzantine Institute, R. A. Gregory, diary, 1935, notebook 5)
43
tached ached tes t esserae serae were were reset by gluing them them to a cloth, and after consolidation of the plaster the mosaic was reinstalled. A temporary wooden strut was then fixed over the repair in order order to to push the the mosaic mosaic tessera esseraee and new plaster back into position against the wall. This procedure, a new one, preserved the original mosaic by strengthening its connection with the plaster and the bric bricks ks of the wall (Figs. (Figs. 43-46). The The conservator conservatorss were were partic part icularly ularly concern oncerned ed about the t he condit condition ion of the the bricks just behind the the plaster plaster under under the t he mosaic mosaic of the the Virgin Virgin enthroned enthroned with with Christ Chr ist child in the t he apse (Fig (Figs. s. 47-50). 47-50).37 Permission was obtained from the Turkish government to remove the lead from the exterior of the apse. Comparison of the bricks there to other ot her (sixth-century (sixth-centur y) bric bricks ks in the building revealed that the apse conch brickwork is of that time period, and therefore precedes the mosaics there, which are of the ninth century. Cleaning the Mosaics
The conservator conservatorss’fieldw ’fieldwork ork rec records ords indicate considerable experimentation with new tools and with new chemical chemical solut solutions ions for cleaning cleaning the the mosaics and for the th e plast plaster used in consolida consolidatting the tes t esse serae. rae. Dental instruments, which are basic tools in conservation today, were first first tested in H agia agia Sophia in 1934 and and found found to be satisfactory for the t he work there there (Fig (Figs. s. 51, 52). 52). Originally Originally,, the method for cleaning plaster-encrusted mosaics called for scraping the surface with a sharp steel chisel, chopping away away the final layer layer of plaster over over the t he tes t esserae serae wit with ha chisel, and then polishing the surface with brushes. It was a very slow and laborious process, as each tessera had to be cleaned individually (Fig. 53; Pl. 3). While working on the soffit of one of the arches in the central bay of the south gallery in 1937, the conservators experimented with 37
W. J. Gregory, observation book, 1934.
44
45
Specimen of a cramp used by Byzantine Institute conservators to consolidate the mosaics
(photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, ca. 1933)
46 Apse, consolidating the Virgin enthroned with Christ child
After metal cramps were inserted, a temporary wooden strut was fixed to press the plaster against the wall. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
47
Uncovering the apse mosaic
W hittem hitt emore ore (fourth (fourth from the left) and a group of conservators at work atop the th e scaffo scaffolding lding (phot (photo: o: P. P. Iskender, Byzantin Byzantinee Institute, ca. 1936)
45
48
Gridding the apse mosaic
During the removal of the Fossati, conservators painted a 36-section grid on the surface of the apse to help them record the progress of their conservation effort. (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1935)
46
49
T he Virgin enthroned enthroned with Chris C hristt child
This is the the first first image image reintroduced reintr oduced to H agia agia Sophia after Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm. Its installation installation is associa associatted with the homil h omily y of Photius, Phot ius, the patriarc patr iarch h of Constantinople. Constantinople. The homily was read read in H agia agia Sophia on Holy Saturday, 29 March 867, twenty-four years after the triumph of orthodoxy (11 March 843). (photo: Byzantine Institute)
47
50
Central nave, looking east
To re-establish image veneration and the power of the church after the defeat of Iconoclasm, a new echelon echelon of holy images images was was introduced introduced in the t he central nav navee of Hag H agia ia Sophia durin during g the reign of the t he emperors emperors Basil Basil I (867 ( 867-886) -886) and Leo VI (886-912). (886-912). The Virgin Virgin enthroned ent hroned with Chr C hrist ist child is in the t he cent center er apse, apse, and church fathers in the t he north nort h and south ty t ympana. mpana. (photo: Byzantine Byzantine Instit In stitute) ute)
48
51
Cleaning the mosaics
A conservator cleaning the John II Komnenos and Empress Irene panel with a dental tool, using another device to rest and steady his hand (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, ca. 1935)
a new met method of cleaning. cleaning.38 The glass tesserae were rubbed rubbed with a piece of of chamois slight slightly ly dampened dampened with a weak solution of ammonia—one part ammonia to three three part partss water—br water—brushed ushed with with a bristle brush, and then then polished polished wit with another anot her chamois. chamois. This method method cut the cleaning time in half. The conservators went back to the the narthex narthex and and re-cle re-cleaned aned the th e mosaic mosaicss there there using the new method method.. While working on the mosaic panel of Ignatios Theophoros in 1940, the conservator J. M. Brennan described how the conservators restored the original white color of the dolomite cubes in the garments of the church fathers (Figs. 27, 28; Pls. 4, 5). Unlike glass tesserae, tesserae, which which could be cleaned cleaned wit with brushes brushes and an ammonia-soaked cloth, the marble cubes absorbed the ammonia solution, leading the grey-brown film of dirt to penetrate penetrate the the tessera tesserae. e. As a result, the the dirt could could only be removed removed by using dental dent al tools tools on each each cube.39 M osaic Techni Techniques ques
During their their work work at H agia agia Sophia, the the Byza Byzanntine Institu Institute te conserv conservators ators inves investtigated igated the t he tec techn hniques iques used in creating the mosaics. The first published observations on these methods were made by them in W hittemore hittemore’’s report reports. s. Other th er publications publications on Byza Byzant ntine ine mosaics show that the mosaicists worked directly on the church walls in a manner similar to that of fresco artists.40 As stated stated previously previously,, three three layers layers of original plaster plaster 38 W. Gregory G regory,, diary diary,, 1937. 39
J. M. Brennan, diary, 1940. On uncovering the church fathers in the th e tym t ympana, pana, see W. L. MacDonald, MacDonald, “The Uncovering Uncovering of Mosaics Mosaics in Hag H agia ia Sophia,” Sophia,” Archaeology Archaeology 4.2 (1951), 89-93. 40 Whittemore incorporated in his writings the reports written by A. Frolow and other staff members, which were based on the conservators’not conservators’notebooks. ebooks. For For other oth er refe r eferences rences on Byzant Byzantine ine mosaic
49
52
South gallery, Emperor John II Komnenos and Empress Irene
The emperor is shown in the act of donation, presenting a purse of money to the Virgin and Christ Christ child. The Th e empress empress holds a scroll. scroll. The portrait port rait dates to ca. ca. 1118/ 1118/ 22. (photo: (phot o: By Byzantine InstiI nstitute)
53
South gallery, Emperor Constantine Constantine IX I X M ono onomach machoos and Empress Empress Zoe Z oe with wit h Christ enthroned, partially cleaned
(photo: (phot o: By Byzantine Institut Inst itute, e, 1934) 1934)
50
54
Conservator’s notebook entry
Diagram of the three layers of plaster underlying the Deesis panel. Pencil, watercolor, watercolor, and ink ink on paper. (Byzantine Institute, W. Gregory, diary, 1937, notebook 74)
were found found by the conservator conservatorss under under the the mosaic tesserae in in H agia agia Sophia, spanning the time of Justinian in the sixth century to the thirteenth- and fourteenthcent centur ury y Palaeolog Palaeologan an period. period. The The same system system of plaster plaster applications applications is also found in Byzant Byzantine ine churches in Gree Greece ce,, Italy Italy, Russia, Russia, and Georgia. A draw drawing ing of the the thr t hree ee layers of plaster, mosaic tesserae, and Fossati plaster covering the original mosaics was made by the conserv conservator ator of the the Dee Deesis sis panel in the t he south sout h gallery gallery (Figs. (Figs. 54-59). 54-59). The plaster applications consist of a rendering bed, an intermediary bed, and a setting setting bed. bed.41 The rendering bed is applied directly on the brick wall. The technique, see P. A. Underwood, T he K ariye (N ew York, 1966), 172-83, with bibliograariye Djami, I (New phy; E. Kitzinger, T he Mosaics Mosaics of Monre Monreale ale (Palermo, 1960), 64-68; P. A. Underwood and E. J. W. H awkins, awkins,“The Th e Apse Apse Mosaic Mosaicss of H agia agia Sophia at Istanbul: I stanbul: Report on Work Carried Carr ied Out O ut in 1964,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 19 (1965), 132-41; E. JJ.. W. Haw H awkins, kins, “Further Furt her O bservation bservationss on the t he N arthex arth ex Mosaic Mosaicss in H agia agia Sophia at Istanbul,” Istanbul,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 22 (1968), 153-55 and 165-66; E. Kitzin Kit zinge ger, r, “Mosaic Technique, Technique,””Encyclopedia of World Art (New York, 1972), X: cols. 325-27 and cols. 354-55 for a brief br ief bibliography; C. Mango and E. J. J. W. Haw H awkins, kins, “The Mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul: The Church Chu rch Fath Fathers ers in the th e North Nort h Tympanum, Tympanum,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26 (1972), (1972), 17; A. H. H . S. Megaw Megaw and E. E. J. J. W. H awkin awkins, s, T he Church Church of the Panag Panagia ia Kanakariá K anakariá at Du mbart rton on Oaks Studies Stu dies 14 14 (Washington, (Washington, D.C., Lythrankomi in Cyprus: Its Mosaics and Frescoes, Dumba 1977), 132-36; R. Cormack and E. J. W. Hawkins, “The Mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul: The Rooms above above the t he Sout Southw hwest est Vestibu Vestibule le and Ramp, R amp,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 31 (1977), 214; D. Mouriki, T he Mosaics Mosaics of Nea Moni M oni on on Chios (Athens, 1985), 94-106. 41 D umbarton umbart on Oaks, O aks, Byzantin Byzantinee Phot Ph otograph ograph and Fieldwork Fieldwork Archives, Archives, W. Gregory, Gregory, diary, diary, 1935, notebook 16.
51
55
South gallery, the Deesis panel before removal of Fossati Fossati plaster
The Deesis was discovered during testing of the walls in early 1933. (photo: (photo: P. Iskender, Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1933)
56
Uncovering the Deesis
On 14 July 1934, the uncovering of the Deesis panel began. began. The T he conservators ators worked simultaneously on removing sections of plaster, consolidating, and cleaning the mosaic. (photo: (photo: P. Iskender, Iskender, Byzantine Institute, 1934)
52
57
Deesis after consolidation and cleaning, but before retouching
The three th ree figures figures of the panel survive survive in a fragmentar fragmentary y st state. Half H alf figures figures of Christ Chr ist (center ) and John John the th e Baptist Baptist (right ) and the head and right shoulder of the Virgin Mary (left ) have been preserved. In addition, a fragment of the jeweled leg of Christ’ Chr ist’ss throne thr one remains remains below him. (photo: (phot o: Byzantine yzantine Institut Instit ute) e)
rendering bed and the intermediate layer of plaster usually consist of lime, brick dust, and chopped straw. straw. The The fine fine plaster plaster of the the third t hird,, uppermost uppermost layer layer,, or the t he setting bed, is composed of lime and marble dust; it was applied in small sections so the tesserae could be added while the plaster was still moist (see Fig. 44). The thickness of the plaster varies in different areas of the building. For example, W hittemore hittemore notic noticed ed that that in the t he narthex nart hex the mosaic mosaic surfac surfaces es of the walls walls and and vaults are rather rather curved curved and have have uneven uneven joins, because because the the setting sett ing bed plaster was applied in sections smaller, and therefore more numerous, than was done in other parts of the the building. building.42 The uneven surfaces of the walls and the differing thicknesses of the setting bed suggest that many different hands worked at the same time on the exec execut ution ion of the t he narthex nart hex.. Anot Another her explanation explanation might might be that that the mosaici mosaicists sts had had only a short period of time t ime to complete complete the the decoration decoration and there th erefo fore re had to t o work work 42
Whittemore, First Preliminary Report, 12-13.
53
58
T he Deesis Deesis
The panel representing Christ enthroned flanked by standing figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist originally extended to the lowest marble cornice. The panel dates from the 1260s. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
59 Detail, Deesis, head of Christ This image reveals a refined realistic manner of execuexecution. The facial features are strongly delineated. There is a soft, almost sculptural modeling of all the th e featu features. res. The mosaicist mosaicist was able to achiev achievee a painterly paint erly quality through through the use of detaile detailed d underpaint and miniature tesserae, especially in creating the skin tones. (photo: Byzantine Instit In stitute) ute)
54
60
Conservator’s notebook entry
When the Byzantine Institut Inst itutee conse conserva rvators tors uncovered the St. Ignatios Theophoros panel, panel, part of the mosaic inscription was missing, but surviving surviving on the th e plaster plaster set setting bed were blue tracings of three Greek lett letters— ers—gamma, nu, and and omicron—on the upper left of the t he panel. panel. The tracing indicated to the mosaicist the placement of the blue glass tesserae for the inscription. Colored pencil and ink on paper. (Byzantine Institute, W. Gregory, diary, 1939, notebook 10)
hastily. Because of the high walls and ceiling of the narthex, these technical deficiencies are hardly visible from below. At the same time, the irregular mosaic surfaces do contribute to the the sparkling radiance o off the the Just Justinianic inianic mosaics. mosaics. Byzantine yzantine mosaicists mosaicists sketched their designs designs in fresco fresco directly on the first layer of plaster and sometimes, though rarely, rarely, on the t he underlying underlying brick.43 The final layer, the setting 43
Underwood, Kariye Djami, 174-75; Mouriki, T he Mosaic Mosaicss of of Nea N ea Moni, 94-106.
55
61
South gallery, gallery, east east wall of the sout southh bay, bay, panels of Constanti Constantine ne IX and Z oe (left) and John John II and Irene (right) (photo: Byzantine Institute)
bed, had a more detailed painting made in fresc fresco to to organize the distribut dist ribution ion of colors and to control the layout of the tesserae (Fig. 60). The missing areas of tesserae esserae in Hag H agia ia Sophia Sophia reveal reveal the paint paint beneath, beneath, espec especially ially in the t he panels panels of of John John II and Irene, Constantine Constant ine IX and and Z oe, oe, and and the t he Deesis. Deesis. The painting of the figures figures is quite quit e detaile detailed; d; for example example,, in the t he crown crown of John II, II , the the colors colors of all the t he jewels jewels are evident evident (Figs. (Figs. 52, 58, 58, 61; Pl. 3). Interesting Int eresting observat observations were were also made by the the conservators about the aesthetics of the mosaic work from the Justinianic era. Each of the th e cross crosses es in the the lunettes lunettes on the th e east east wall wall of the the inner narthex nart hex is exec execut uted ed in a different different fashion fashion;; the the overall overall shape and quality qu ality of exec execut ution ion diff differs ers from one cross to another anot her in color, size, and in their t heir jew jewels (Fig. (Fig. 62). W hittemore hittemore recorded recorded the t he signific significant ant differe difference ncess in the inclinat inclination of the t he tesserae in different areas of the church,44 which was achieved by setting each tessera essera at a distinct dist inct angle. angle. In the t he vestib vestibule, ule, the the mosaic mosaic cubes were were set, on averag average, e, at 44
Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, Whittemore, “Technical Notes, 1933-1934,”notebook 37. Cf. Whittemore, First Preliminary Report, 10-14.
56
62 Inner narthex bay, lunette with cross
Latin crosses crosses are vertically displayed in each lunette of the t he eastern eastern wall wall of the t he narthex nart hex.. Christogra Chr istogram m and Latin cross designs dominate the interior of the narthex. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
an angle angle of 15 perce percent nt and in the the narthex narthex at at 30 percent. percent. The The difference between the inclination in the south vestibule and the the narthex narthex can can be explaine explained d by the th e fact fact that t hat the the narthex narthex is is much much darker than than the ves vesttibule. A hig higher her inclination of tesserae may have been used to increase luminosity. Whittemore pointed out that this is the reason for the higher inclination inclination of the the tesserae tesserae in the the lunettes lunettes of two bay bays in the t he narthex compared to those in the other lunettes.45 The first of thes thesee bay bays that th at one encount encounters ers upon entering entering from from the the south vestibule has no windows. The conserv conservators ators noted noted that th at the the outlines of the figures figures and haloes were executed in tesserae installed at an angle to giv give a sharper sharper contour contour to the the images images as well well as to refl reflec ectt light light..46 This technique was used in the Deesis panel, where the haloes of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and John the Baptist were similarly 45
Whittemore, First Preliminary Report, 12, and plan on p. 29. He identifies the bays as A and B. 46 G. H olt, “A Castin C asting g Method for Reproducing Reproducing Mosaics, Mosaics,””Technical Studies 7. 4 (1939), 181, fig. 1; see also “Extracts from the Diaries of George George Holt, H olt,”unpublished ”unpublished (prov (pr ovided ided by Charlotte Charlott e Holt H olt Menasv Menasveta). eta).
57
63
Conservator’s notebook entry
Illustration of the inclination of the tesserae in the Deesis panel. Black ink and pencil on paper. (Byzantin (Byzantinee Instit Institut ute, e, W. W. Greg Gr egory ory,, diary, diary, 1935, notebook 15)
rendered (Fig. (Fig. 63).47 The crosse crossess in the the lunettes lunett es of of the the narthex nart hex are outlined with with two rows of dark red and green tesserae set on a plane above the surface of the mosaic mosaic cubes cubes in the the backg background round.. The The distinct color olor and setting sett ing of the the tesserae tesserae make the crosses stand out from a distance. The combinat combination ion of gold gold and silver silver tess tesserae erae was was used in H agia agia Sophia from the eight eighth h to t o the th e tenth century entur y and and later as well well..48 The only place where silver is not found is in the sixth-century gold backgrounds of the Justinianic mosaics.49 47 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, A. T. White, diary, 1935,
notebook 30. 48 Usually, thin leaves of gold or silver were set next to the plaster, that is, on the bottom of the tesserae. Occasionally, the metallic leaf can be found on the mosaic surface, that is, on top of the tesserae esserae,, especiall especially y in the t he case of golden golden backgrounds where the t he mosaicist mosaicist s wanted wanted to create variegated surfaces. 49 Mango and Hawkins, “The Mosaics of St. Sophia at Istanbul,”141. In some churches of
58
64
Inner narthex, view through the royal doors to the naos
An emperor, variously identified as Basil I or Leo VI, kneeling before Christ enthroned appears above the royal doors, an entrance reserved for the emperor and the patriarch. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
In the t he centr central al lunett lunettee in the inner narthex nart hex displayi displaying ng an an emperor before Christ enthroned, the conservators found that that the t he bac background kground of this this ninth/ tenth-c tenth -century entury panel panel was was made of gold and silver tesserae (Figs. 64, 65). They also discovered that the plaster of this panel was different from that that found in the the other parts part s of the sixth sixth-c -century entury lunett lunettee designs designs of of the the narthex nart hex.. T hey concl concluded uded that that the th e ninthninth cent centur ury y mosaicis mosaicistts reused gold and and silver silver tes t esserae serae from Justinianic ustinianic ornament orn amental al mosaics mosaics when when they th ey replaced replaced one of the sixth-century mosaics with the image of the emperor before Christ. It was also noted that, white marble cubes were used instead inst ead of white glass glass tess tesserae erae in this t his panel. panel.50 In the mosaics of the church fathers, the conservators identified identified the t he work work on the t he gold gold ground and the th e fig figures as having been done by the same hand (Figs. 27, 28; Pl. 4).51 Both gold and silver tesserae are found in the backGreece, silver is not found in the backgrounds of mosaics. See Mouriki, T he Mosaic Mosaicss of of Nea N ea Moni, 98-99. 50 Whittemore, First Preliminary Report, table 4, p. 24. 51 Ibid.
60
65 Detail, inner narthex, an emperor before Christ enthroned
Christ Christ is flanked flanked by medallions, most likely the busts of the Virgin Mary and the archangel Michael, as the emperor kneels at his feet. The mosaic dates to the end of the 9th or early 10th century. (photo: Byzantine Institute)
66
Central nave, looking east
(photo: Byzantine Institute)
ground of the church fathers in the north tympanum. The use of dark purple tesserae in the background with the various gradations of gold and silver tesserae give further vibrance to the mosaic surface. Analysis of loose tesserae and tesserae in the t he backg background round of the the apse mosaic mosaic of the Virgin Virgin enthroned enth roned with with Christ Chr ist child revealed the use of different colors of golden tesserae often mixed with silver (Fig. 49).52 In the gold background of the Deesis, silver is found interspersed also; here the tones of gold range from deep yellow to a sun yellow, and in many cases include what appears to to be red gold gold and white hit e gold gold (Fig. 58).53 These variat variations ions are caused by the the various various colors of glass glass under under which the the gold gold leaf is laid, by the th e gold gold used, used, and somet sometimes imes by paint paint applied applied to the th e plaster plaster under under the t he tes tesse serae. rae. In addition addit ion to t o silver, silver, a variet variety y of red and green green tess t esserae erae was was used in mosaic mosaic backgrounds to enhance the gold and the colors of the figures in the panels. In the Constantine Constant ine IX and Z oe panel panel (Fig. (Fig. 61; 61; Pl. 3), for for instance, instance, the distribut distribution ion of red and green tesserae is noteworthy. Different colors were used to emphasize the three different figures in the panel. Dark red tesserae were scattered in the golden background around the th e figure figure of Constantine Constant ine on the the left left side of of the t he panel. Various tones of red, including including bright terracott erracottaa red, were were used used around the the figure figure of Christ Christ at the center. Red and a few green tesserae were used in the background around the figure figure of Z oe on the the right side. Furthermore, Furt hermore, Zoe’ Z oe’s crown crown and garments arment s cont contain ain many green green tess t esserae erae,, especia especially lly in in the the crown, crown, adding adding to the vibrancy of her depiction. In the t he Dee Deesis sis panel panel (Fig. (Fig. 58), 58), the the red paint on the t he surface surface of the the set setting bed bed and beneath the golden tesserae accentuates the gold. The variation of golden colors creates an array of tones according to the position from which one views the mosaic. Brennan rennan desc described ribed in his h is diary diary an area 65 x 50 cent centimeters imeters along the the lower lower right border border of the the mosai mosaicc panel panel of St. Ignatios Theophoros in the th e north tympaout that, that, instead of replacing replacing the mosaics mosaics,, the the workme workmen n num (Pl. 4).54 H e pointed out had simply painted the plaster. This restored section must have belonged to the Byzantine period, since the conservators found a coat of Fossati plaster on top of it, and restorat restoration ion of the the saint’ saint’s figure figure would would not not have have been been carried out out during during the Ottoma tt oman n period. The Byzant Byzantine ine restoration appeare appeared d in good condition and was left by the conservators. 52 Mango and H awkins, awkins, “T he Mosaics Mosaics of St. St. Sophia at
Istanbul,”141. Istanbul,”141. 53 Dumbarton Oaks, Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, R. Gregory, 1939, notebook 11. 54 J. M. Brennan, diary, 1940; cf. Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, W. Gregory, diary, 1939, notebook 9.
61
62
63
67
Central nave in the morning, looking east
All the architectural elements of the central nave focus on the unified space that was lit by windows in the dome, exedras, and tympana. The historian Procopius wrote, wrote,“You might say that th at the th e [interior] [int erior] space space is not illuminated illuminat ed by the sun from the th e outside, but that th at the t he radiance radiance is gene generated rated within, so great great an abundance abundance of light light bathes this this shrine all round”( De aedificiis I.i.23ff, tr. Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, 74). (photo: Byz Byzantine antine Instit In stitute) ute)
Preservation through Imaging Photographs and Films. T he photogra photographer pher Pie P ierre rre Iskender from Foto Foto Sabah Sabah
in Istan Istanbul bul worked worked many years years for for the t he Byzant Byzantine ine Instit Institut ute. e. H e produce produced d exce excellent llent photo photographs graphs of the th e mosaic mosaicss of Hagia H agia Sophia Sophia before before and after the t he instit institut ute’ e’s work, work, including the Fossati restorations, and recorded the conservation process. W hittemore hittemore was was particularly interested in the t he effe effects cts of light light in the the interior interior of H agia agia Sophia, and tog together ether with with Alexander Alexander Végléry Végléry documented patt patterns of sunlight sunlight in the the building. building.55 A series of phot photographs, ographs, made at 8:30, 8:30, 10:30, 10:30, and 11:00 in the morning, illustrate varied patterns of light rays coming through the windows (Figs. 66, 67). An album album of these these photographs phot ographs entitled ent itled “Light Light”was ”was prepared and is housed housed at Dumbarton umbart on Oaks, O aks, along with with Iskender’s negat negatives. ives.56 Sixteen films, made in the 1930s and 1940s in both color and in black and white, show the process of the work by the Byzantine Institute staff in different sections of the building. Most of the films were produced by Pierre Iskender with the assistance of R. Greg Gregory ory.. A Nov November ember 1937 color color film shows shows the the institu inst itute te staf st aff f with T homas W hitt hittemore emore at work work on the the soffi soffitt of the the bema bema arch. arch. A diary notes that th at thirt t hirty y fee feett of film film was was shot to t o document document the the work work on the t he archange archangel. l.57 A film of the th e work work on the t he Constantine Constantine IX IX and Z oe panel panel was was also also made made in Nov N ovembe emberr and is now a part of the the archiv archives es at at Dumbarton Dumbarton Oaks. O aks. Tracings and Paintings. Along with the conservation of the mosaics, the Byzantine Inst Institut itutee organized organized the t he production production of traci t racings ngs,, painted copies, copies, and and handpainted casts of them. Institutions as well as private benefactors financed the conserva conservattion effort effort,, and the the copies of the th e mosaics mosaics were were produce produced d so that t hat benefacbenefactors could purchase them. According to the records of the Metropolitan Museum 55
Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, T. Whittemore, “Notes on Light Light in H aghia aghia Sophia, Sophia, Istanbul,”26 Ist anbul,”26 January1945; January1945; T. Whit Whitttemore and A. Végléry Végléry,,“Preliminary Preliminar y Materials Mater ials for Report, Report , Lightin Lighting g in Hagia H agia Sophia, Sophia,”1949-50. ”1949-50. 56 T he “Light Light”shot ”shotss are nos. 14-15, 18-19, 81-82, 91-98, 187, 187, dated dated 1936-37. 57 Dumbarton umbart on Oaks, O aks, Byzantin Byzantinee Photograph Ph otograph and Fieldwork Archiv Archives, es,“Moving Moving Pictures Pict ures in Colour,”1940, Colour,”1940, notebook not ebook 28.
64
68
Inner narthex, tracing the lunette mosaic of an emperor before Christ enthroned (photo:
P. Iskender, Byzantine Byzantine Instit In stitut ute, e, ca. ca. 1932)
69
South South gallery, gallery, tracing tracing the Constantine Constantine IX I X and Z oe panel (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute,
1935)
of Art, Art , the the cost cost of one paint painted ed copy, copy, the the Deesis, was was $7,500 in 1941.58 Copies were also also purchas purchased ed by Dumbarton Dumbarton Oaks, Oaks, the the Fog Fogg g Art Art Museum, and other other institu inst itu-tions.59 An exhibition of photographs, ph otographs, copie copies, s, and and tracing racingss at the th e Met Metropolitan Museum in 1944, together with publications on the original mosaics, drew the attent att ention ion of U.S. and European European audiences to the t he Hag H agia ia Sophia mosaics mosaics after work work was completed on most of them. Numerous articles on this exhibition appeared in newspapers newspapers and journals, journals, showing showing the the public public’’s enormous enormous apprec appreciation iation..60 58
Acc. no. 41.137. Dumbarton Oaks O aks’rec ’records ords indicate indicate that t hat Robert Robert and Mildred Bliss Bliss sent sent to t o the th e By Byzantine Institute a contribution of $2,500 for the year 1940. They also included a check for $2,500 to complete payment for a copy of an emperor before Christ enthroned (Fig. 65). The panel was on display display in the th e Dumbarton Dumbart on Oaks O aks permanent permanent exhibition exhibition during the t he 1960s. 1960s. 60 Painted copies copies of tw t wo mosaic mosaics, s, the Virgin Virgin enthroned enth roned with with Christ Chr ist child in the apse and and the t he archangel archangel (Figs. 37, 49), were were again displayed in th thee Metropolit Metropolitan’ an’s 1997 exhibit exhibition ion T he Glory Glory of extensive bibliography on the t he 1944 exhibit exhibition ion is in the t he archives archives of the t he Medieval Medieval Byzantium. An extensive 59
65
The first step in making copies was the production of tracings; most of them were made by N. Kluge, but R. Gregory, Adli Bay, and A. A. Green also produced some of them. The method was simple. Tracing paper was attached to a section of the mosaic panel and an assistant copied each tessera in pencil (Figs. 68, 69; Pls. 1, 2). Thus, the tracings render the exact size and shape of every tessera and, therefore, the precise scale and design of the panels. The tracings were then sent sent to the Massac Massachusett husettss Institu Institute te of Technolog Technology y to be photog phot ographed. raphed. Blue Blueprint printss backed on linen were produced and sent back to Istanbul. The blueprints were then painted paint ed with egg egg tempera, most most of which which was done by A. A. Gree Green. n. Tracings Tracings of the Deesis panel (Fig. 58) were made by both Kluge and Green, and the painting was done by Green. The Deesis copy was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum in 1944 and is still still on permanent permanent display display there. T he institu institute te produc produ ced one copy copy of the th e panels panels of of Constantine Constant ine IX and Z oe, oe, St St. Ignat Ignatios ios T heophoros, St. St. Ignatios the Younger (each (each of the t he panels is in thr three ee sect sections) (Pls. (Pls. 3-5), and the the emperor before Christ enthroned.61 The first three of these copies were restored by Dumbarton Oaks in 1997. Unfortunately, the location of the emperor before Christ enthroned has not yet been determined. The method of producing casts was developed in 1937-38 at the Fogg Art Museum, initiated initiated by Whittemore Whit temore and the the director of the t he museum, museum, Edward Edward W. Forbes.62 The hand-painted casts were made by G. Holt (Figs. 70, 71). The idea was to reproduce the vibrant surfaces of the mosaics and the texture of the tesserae. A mold, or squeeze, squeeze, was was made by applying applying a cellucott cellucotton on pad to t o a moistened moistened mosaic surface. surface. Once Once removed, removed, the th e pad was cov covered ered with shellac. shellac. When When dried dried,, this this new mold was covered with a thin film of oil, and a plaster cast containing reinforcing fabric was made from it. After drying, the cast was painted. The Metropolitan Museum purchased several of the casts, including the Virgin and archangel in the
Department of the Metropolitan Museum. See also Ch. R. Morey, T he Mo Mosaics saics ooff Hag H agia ia Sophia, Metropolit Metropolitan an Museum of Art Bulletin ulletin (N (N ew York, 1944), 201-10. 61 The panel of St. Ignatios Theophoros (Pl. 4) was acquired in 1947 by Dumbarton Oaks from the Byzantin Byzantinee Institut Instit ute, e, and St. St . Ignat Ignatios ios the the Younger (Pl. (P l. 5) was was acquired acquired in 1950. Constantine Constant ine IX and Z oe with with Christ Chr ist enthroned ent hroned was was probably probably acquired acquired around this t his time t ime also also (Pl. (P l. 3). Ac Accordcording to the dossier, St. Ignatios Theophoros was exhibited at the Baltimore Museum of Art in 1947 in Early Christian and Byzantine Art. All three pieces were lent to the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts for the exhibition T he A rts of M Maan, 6 August 1962-18 January 1963. 62 H olt, “A Casting Casting Method Met hod of Reproducing Reproducing Mosaics, Mosaics,”177-79.
66
70 Apse, making a squeeze of the Virgin enthroned
The squeeze was the first step in producing cast casts. (photo: (photo: P. Iskender, Byzantin Byzantinee Institute, ca. 1938)
71
South gallery, making a squeeze of Constantine IX
(photo: P. Iskender, Byzantine Institute, ca. 1938)
67
apse and three letters from the inscription on the triumphal arch.63 Two Two other ot her cast casts, of Constant Const antine ine IX IX Monomachos Monomachos and Alexios Alexios Komnenos, Komnenos, were were made in 1938 and purchased purchased by the the Fogg Fogg Museum in 1939.64 Although Although one can now see see the the original mosaics mosaics in Hag H agia ia Sophia, some are difficult to observe closely because of their location high above the floor. For example example,, the the Virgin Virgin enthr ent hroned oned in the th e apse is about about 40 meters above above the the floor, floor, and it is hard to appreciate its scale. From the central nave or from the galleries, there is no way way to get get a clos closee look look at the the church church fathers fathers in the the north nort h tym t ympanum panum either. T he tracings, color copies, and casts facilitate the appreciation not only of the scale of thes th esee panels, panels, but also their their palett palettee and tec t echn hnique. ique.
Conclusion Judging from the archival materials of the Byzantine Institute, much of which rema remains ins unpublished, unpublished, the t he campaig campaign n at H agia agia Sophia was was one of the the largest largest and most significant projects of its type in this century. The archival materials include include blueprints blueprint s and paintings, prelim preliminary inary reports report s and diaries, diaries, chart chartss and photo photographs, graphs, architectural architectural drawi drawings ngs and tracings, racings, plans, pencil rubbings rubbings of mason’s marks, and cramp charts. The comprehensive photographic survey of the church produced unique imag images es of Hag H agia ia Sophia that th at remain remain among the best depictions of the building and its mosaics. The study of these archival materials continues to enhance our understanding understanding of the the evol evolut ution ion of the t he mosaic mosaic program program in H agia agia Sophia, from the creation of the original Justinianic mosaics to the present day.
63
Acc. nos. 43.48.1, 43.48.2, and 43.48.3-5. The cost of the five casts together was $10,000 in 1939. 64 Acc. Acc. nos. 1939.0199.0000 and 1939.0198.0000; see see Holt H olt,,“A Casting Cast ing Method Meth od of Reprodu Repr oducing cing Mosaics,”177-79.
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P late late 1 Tracing of the head of the Virgin enthroned in the apse Graphite Graphite on linen paper Byzantine Institute, N. Kluge, ca. 1930 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, acc. no. F2629
This tracing of the th e Virgin’ Virgin’s hea head d is one of eleven eleven tracings t racings made made by Nicholas N icholas Kluge Kluge of the the apse conch conch mosaics. mosaics. T he size of her head is 53 centimeters. The T he Virgin is wearing a maphorion over a kerchief. She has an oval face with elongated nose, small full lips, and and large eyes eyes that that gaze to the left. The The mosaicist mosaicist used diff different erent sizes of tess tesserae erae for for the exec execut ution ion of the nimbus, nimbus, garment garments, s, and face. face. The largest largest tesserae were used to outline her nimbus, the silhouette of her head, and the folds of her garments. Medium-sized tesserae were used to outline her face and facial features, including her eyes, nose, and lips. The smallest tesserae were applied in modeling the the flesh flesh tones tones of her her cheeks, forehead, forehead, nose, chin chin,, and neck. neck. The tess t esserae erae of the the Virgin’s head were used diff different erently ly from from those t hose in the th e church father figures (Figs. 27, 28; Pls. 4, 5), which were executed several decades later. For example, the nimbus of the Virgin is outlined with four rows of red glass tesserae; the nimbi of the church fathers contain only two rows. The size of the tesserae tesserae in the the outline outliness of their th eir nimbi is nearly nearly the same same as that of those th ose in in their t heir garment garments. s. Since Since the th e apse conch conch is hig high h above above the the groun ground, d, the the mosaicist mosaicist used contrasting sizes of tesserae to achieve an image of the Virgin that would carry the length of the nave.
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P late late 2 Tracing of of a Latin cross Graphite Graphite on linen paper Byzantine Instit In stitut ute, e, A. A. Green, Green, ca. ca. 1938/ 1938/ 40 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, acc. no. F2430
This Latin cross cross is located located in the t he north nort h window soffi soffit of the the third third bay from from the th e sout south h in the the inner narth narthex ex and dates dates from from ca. ca. 537. 537. Its outline out line consists consists of tw t wo rows of dark red tesserae. The tracing reveals that the tesserae used for the outline are larger than the gold tesserae in the field of the cross and in the background. A row of smaller gold tesserae lines the cross inside and outside, while the field of the cross and the t he backgroun background d consist consist of paralle parallell courses of gold tess tesserae. erae. The jewels jewels at the ends of the cross arms are filled with small and large triangular and irregularly shaped tesserae, unevenly spaced. The irregularity of the tesserae and their spacing in the cross are noticeable in the majority of crosses in the narthex.
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P late late 3 Reproduction Reproduction of Emperor Constantine IX and Empress Empress Zoe Z oe with with Christ Christ enthroned enth roned Egg Egg tempera on blueprint blueprint backed backed with canvas canvas Byzantine Institute, A. A. Green, ca. 1940 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, acc. nos. F708, F2709, F2710
This panel, panel, located located in the t he south sout h gallery gallery of H agia agia Sophia, was was discovered discovered by the Byzant Byzantine ine Instit Inst itut utee in 1934. 1934. It dates dates from from 1028/ 34(?) 34(?) and was reworked reworked betw between 1042 and 1055. T he lower lower part part of the the panel panel is missing. missing. Originall Originally y, the the bottom of the panel was probably on the same level as the windowsill situated to its left (see Fig. 61). The imperial imperial couple couple is shown shown in the the act act of donation to t o Christ: Christ: the the emperor emperor holds a purse of money while his spouse presents an inscribed scroll. The emperor is clad clad in a chiton, a richly ornat ornatee divitision, and a loros decorated with semi-precious stones. He also wears a jeweled crown with prependoulia, a suspended string of pearls. The empress is dress dressed ed in chiton, divitision, and loros. A missing area of the divitision in the lower part of her figure revealed a detailed pattern of fresco paint on the setting bed and a shield with a cross, which helped the conservators restore the thorakion as part of her garment. The figures are shown against a gold background. The mosaicists used dark red tesserae around the figures of the emperor and Christ. Red and a few dark green tesserae were added to the gold background around Z oe. Turquoise Turquoise green green dominates dominat es the th e decoration decoration of her should shoulder er piece, piece, loros, and crown. Dark green tesserae were used in the background around her figure in order to intensify the green of the stones in her garments and to make her image more distinct. Examination by Byzantine Institute conservators revealed that the faces of Constant Constantine, ine, Ch Christ rist,, and Z oe are are replacements, replacements, installed some somettime after Z oe’s marriage to Constantine in 1042. The face of an earlier husband was changed to that of Constant Constantine, ine, and the t he original name of th thee emperor emperor on Z oe’s scroll scroll was was also also replaced with that of Constantine. The changing of all three faces was dictated by the necessity to make them uniform in style and technique and to make the glances of Christ and the emperor uniform.
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P late late 4 Reproduction Reproduction of St. Igna I gnatt ios T heophoros Egg Egg tempera on blueprint blueprint backed backed with canvas canvas Byzantine Institute, A. A. Green, ca. 1940 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, acc. nos. F2543, F2542, F2544
The panel of St. Ignatios Theophoros was discovered by the Byzantine Institute in 1935 and dates to the end of the ninth century. It is located in the third lunette lunette from the east east in the t he north nort h ty t ympanum. St. Ignatios, a bishop of Antioch (marty (martyred during during the reign of Traja Trajan n [78-11 [78-117]), 7]), is shown shown with short hair and long beard. His H is name is inscribed inscribed vertically on both bot h sides of his figure. figure. He H e wears wears a whit whitee sticharion, white phelonion, and an omophorion decorat decorated ed with crosses crosses made of tw two stripes str ipes of purple purple and and blue tesserae. H is right hand h and is raised in a gestur gesturee of blessing, blessing, and wit with his left he clasps clasps a Gospel Gospel Book. Book. Placed Placed against a gold gold backgroun background, d, he stands on a dark blue ground between two diamonds with circle insets. The background of the panel contains numerous shades of gold tesserae mixed mixed with silver, silver, terracotta, erracott a, dark red, red, and green, which which create create a radiant effec effectt. On On the lower left side of the figure are the fragmentary remains of a Greek cross outlined with a single row of dark red tesserae. Since this cross is the only such example found among the panels of the church fathers, it is possible that the mosaic mosaicist ist installe installed d it for his own own protec protecttion.
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P late late 5 Reproduction Reprodu ction of St. St . Ignatios the t he Younger Egg tempera on blueprint backed with canvas Byzantine Institute, A. A. Green, ca. 1940 Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Photograph and Fieldwork Archives, acc. nos. F2535, F2534, F2536
This panel, located located in the t he wes westternmost ernmost lunette lunette in the the north nort h ty t ympanum, was discov discovere ered d by the th e By Byzantine Instit In stitut utee in 1935 and and dates dates to the t he end of the the ninth nint h century. St. Ignatios, a ninth-century patriarch of Constantinople, is shown as a youthful outhful bishop, bishop, short short-haired -haired and beardless beardless.. With With his his left left hand hand under under the the phelonion he clasps a Gospel Book; his right hand simultaneously supports the book and blesses toward the east. He wears a skullcap made of white stone, outlined with a single row of purple tesserae. Like St. Ignatios Theophoros (Pl. 4), he is dressed in episcopal vestment vestments: s: a whit whitee chiton or sticharion, phelonion, and omophorion. H is nimbus is, however, different. It is delineated with a single row of blue glass tesserae and a single row of an alternating pattern of blue and white tesserae. The background consists of parallel parallel courses courses of gold tess tesserae. erae. The mosaicist mosaicist used fine, sharp lines of tes t esserae serae for for the the figur figuree design design and facial facial featu features. res.