Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Psychometric properties of the German translation by Jens Rowold
Dr. Jens Rowold, University of Muenster, Germany
Published by Mind Garden, Inc. info@mindarden.com www.mindarden.com
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Table of contents
#ummary................................................................................................................................. $ Introduction............................................................................................................................. % &he M'()%*...................................................................................................................... % M'()%* subscales of transformational and transactional leadershi+................................ % &he German translation of the M'()%*............................................................................ #am+les............................................................................................................................... alidity.................................................................................................................................... / 0onstruct validity................................................................................................................ / 1actor loadins.................................................................................................................... 2 Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores..................................................................... !3 0onverent validity........................................................................................................... !$ Reliability.............................................................................................................................. !% 4orms and descri+tive statistics............................................................................................ ! Discussion............................................................................................................................. "" #ummary of results........................................................................................................... "" &he universality of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +aradim................."" Im+lications for theory...................................................................................................... "" References............................................................................................................................. "$
6
Summary &he state)of)the)art +aradim within leadershi+ is the theory of transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +ro+osed by 7urns 87urns, !2-/9 and further develo+ed 7ass and :volio 87ass ; :volio, "3339.
in countries had been limited in a number of ways. In this +a+er, we re+ort about a new translation of the M'( into the German lanuae 8Rowold, "33$b9 and +rovide em+irical evidence for its sound +sychometric +ro+erties. &he newly translated instrument was administered to subordinates in a number of heteroeneous sam+les. &he results demonstrate hih factorial and converent validity as well as internal consistency, test) retest)reliability, and interrater areement. In sum, the M'( with its nine leadershi+ scales and three outcome scales is now a++licable in German conte?ts.
$
Introduction ithin the last two decades, both researchers and +ractitioners have e?+lored the transformational and transactional leadershi+ +aradim. #tartin with 7assA seminal wor> on the theory of transformational leadershi+ 87ass, !2/%9, consistent em+irical evidence demonstrated the +ositive im+act this leadershi+ a++roach has on both subBective and obBective +erformance. Recently, several meta analysis summariCed these em+irical studies 81uller, Patterson, =ester ; #triner, !22 'owe, Eroec> ; #ivasubramaniam, !22 Jude ; Piccolo, "33$9. ithin transformational leadershi+, leaders em+hasiCe hiher motive develo+ment, and arouse followersA motivation and +ositive emotions by means of creatin and re+resentin an ins+irin vision of the future 87ass, !22-9. In contrast, transactional leaders rely on a clear defined system of contracts and rewards.
The MLQ-! &he Multifactor 'eadershi+ (uestionnaire 8M'()%*9 is the standard instrument for assessin transformational and transactional leadershi+ behavior 87ass ; :volio, "333 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9. It has been translated into many lanuaes and used successfully by both researchers and +ractitioners around the world. &he M'()%* and its various translations are available from Mind Garden, Inc. Mind Garden +rovides services for both researchers and consultants. Researchers will want to use Bust the M'( forms as survey instruments 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9. &o use the M'( for research it is essential to contact Mind Garden, Inc. to +urchase or license re+roduction of these forms. Mind Garden also +rovides eb based collection of multi)rater data for researchers interested in usin the web!. 1or consultants, Mind Garden +rovides both +a+er form)based and eb)based multi)rater 863 deree9 collection of ratins about a leader as well as a com+rehensive feedbac> re+ort. &he M'( feedbac> is an individualiCed, com+uter)enerated re+ort, that +rovides an in)de+th summary of how often leaders are +erceived to e?hibit s+ecific behaviors alon a full rane of leadershi+ +erformance. &hese s+ecific behaviors are described in the ne?t section.
MLQ-! subscales of transformational and transactional leadership In detail, five transformational, three transactional, one laisseC)faire, and three outcome scales are included in the M'()%*. &he first of the transformational scales is Ins+irational Motivation. 0entral to this subscale of transformational leadershi+ is the articulation and re+resentation of a vision by the leader. 0onseFuently, by viewin the future with a +ositive attitude, followers are motivated. IdealiCed Influence 8attributed9 refers to the attribution of charisma to the leader. 7ecause of the leaders +ositive attributes 8e. . +erceived +ower, focusin on hiher)order ideals and values9, followers built close emotional ties to the leader. &rust and confidence is li>ely to be built in followers. IdealiCed Influence 8behavior9 em+hasiCes a collective sense of mission and values, as well as actin u+on these values. 4e?t, Intellectual #timulation includes challenin the assum+tions of followers beliefs, their analysis of +roblems they face and solutions they enerate. IndividualiCed 0onsideration is defined by considerin individual needs of followers and develo+in their individual strenths. s, while +rovidin !
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followers with rewards 8material or +sycholoical9 on the fulfillment of these tas>s. In :ctive Manaement)by)H?ce+tion, the leader watches and searches actively for deviations from rules and standards in order to avoid these deviations if necessary, corrective actions are ta>en. In contrast, in Manaement)by)H?ce+tion +assive intervenin only occurs after errors have been detected or if standards have not been met. :n even more +assive a++roach is 'aisseC)1aire, which is basically defined as the absence of leadershi+. :s such, 'aisseC)faire is used as a nonleadershi+ contrast to the more active forms of transformational and transactional leadershi+ a++roaches. &he three outcome criteria which are included in the M'( are followersA H?tra Hffort 8HH19, the Hffectiveness of leaderAs behavior 8H119, and followersA #atisfaction 8#:&9 with their res+ective leader. In combination, these scales form the 1ull Rane of 'eadershi+, a com+rehensive model develo+ed by :volio and 7ass 8"33"9. In addition, the 1ull Rane of 'eadershi+ Develo+ment Proram 81R'D9 has +roven its effectiveness 87ass ; :volio, !22- 7arlin, eber ; Eelloway, !229. 'eaders in +rofit and non)+rofit oraniCations around the world enhance their leadershi+ s>ills by means of the 1R'D and thus a++ly successfully the transformational ) transactional leadershi+ +aradim. It is im+ortant to notice that the 1ull Rane model offers a variety of leadershi+ styles for many situations. &heir effectiveness has been documented in several meta)analysis 8Jude ; Piccolo, "33$ 'owe et al., !229. :s a conseFuence, the 1ull Rane model is uniFue within the field of leadershi+ 8:ntona>is ; =ouse, "33" :volio ; 7ass, "33"9.
The German translation of the MLQ-! &he M'()%* 8short version9 has been translated in numerous lanuaes. Mind Garden +rovides these translations as well as norms". =owever, until now, the 1ull Rane model of 'eadershi+ described above failed to show in German translations. 1or e?am+le, Geyer and #teyrer 8!22/9 e?+lored leadershi+ behavior of ban> branchesA manaers. 1actor analysis failed to re+licate several of the above mentioned factors. &he reader is referred to Rowold and Grabbe 8"33$9 for more details on earlier attem+ts to translate the M'( into the German lanuae and validate the res+ective translation. In conseFuence, it was deemed necessary to translate the M'()%* more carefully into the German lanuae. In turn, we made a considerable effort to translate the M'()items 8c.f. 7rislin, !2/39. 1irst, a native Hnlish s+ea>er translated the items into German. 4e?t, a +rofessional translator bac>translated the items. &wo inde+endent e?+erts in the fields of I< +sycholoy com+ared the two sets of Hnlish items. &hey areed that there were virtually no differences between the two Hnlish translations. &hus, the translation was deemed successful. &he maBority of scales used for research in Germany rane from ! to %, contrary to the 3 to $ rane of the M'(. 1or reasons of standardiCation, we chose to assin a five)+oint res+onse scale ranin from ! 8stronly disaree9 to % 8stronly aree9 to each of the M'() %* items. &he instrument is under co+yriht 6 and available from Mind Garden 8Rowold, "33$b9.
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1 or international norms, see Mind GardensA website www.mindarden.comdocsM'(internationalnorms.+df
6
Research Hdition &ranslation +erformed by Dr. Jens Rowold on July -, "33$. &ranslated and re+roduced by s+ecial +ermission of the Publisher, MI4D G:RDH4, Inc., Redwood 0ity, 0: 2$3! www.mindarden.com from Multifactor 'eadershi+ (uestionnaire for Research by 7ernhard M 7ass and 7ruce J :volio. 0o+yriht !22%, "333 by 7ernhard M 7ass and 7ruce J :volio. :ll rihts reserved. 1urther re+roduction is +rohibited without the PublisherAs written consent.
Samples Diverse sam+le were chosen in order to evaluate the +sychometric +ro+erties of the new German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9. &able ! +rovides with an overview of these sam+les. &able ! Descri+tion of sam+les #am+le 8!9 Government 8"9 Manufacturin :
4umber 4umber of raters of leaders "-$ "" %
869 Manufacturin 7 8$9 Manufacturin 0 8%9 Public trans+ort 89 0onvenience sam+le 8-9 #tudent sam+le
"% !!" "36 "6/ $!
!$ "" 6$ !"3 6/
Rater level +ercentae 8K9 'ower 8!33.39 #elf 8$3./9, =iher 86!.-9, 'ower 8"-.%9 #elf 8%".39, =iher 8$/.39 #elf 86.9, 'ower 86.$9 'ower 8!339 'ower 8!339 'ower 8!339
1irst, within a overnment aency in western Germany, subordinates assessed their su+eriorsA leadershi+ styles. #econd, in a erman)s+ea>in #wiss manufacturin firm, focal manaersA leadershi+ style was evaluated by their res+ective subordinates, su+eriors as well as from their own +ers+ective. &hird, for feedbac> +ur+oses, a sam+le of German manaers assessed their own leadershi+ behaviors. In addition, they were assessed by their res+ective su+eriors. 1ourth, within a mid)siCed manufacturin com+any, manaers rated their own leadershi+ behavior and were evaluated by their res+ective subordinates. 1ifth, manaers from three hierarchical levels of a lare +ublic trans+ort com+any in Germany were assessed by their subordinates. #i?th, a convenience sam+le included a re+resentative selection of manaers with different demora+hic characteristics wor>in within different com+anies. 1inally, the seventh sam+le was a student sam+le. #tudents rated world)class leadersA behavior as if they were their subordinates 8c.f. 7ass, :volio ; Goodheim, !2/-9. &hese heteroeneous sam+les were chosen for evaluatin the validity and reliability of the German translation of the M'()%*. In the followin section, we re+ort about the results of our +sychometric analyses.
-
"alidity
#onstruct $alidity e conducted confirmatory factor analyses 801:s9 in order to test the factorial validity of the M'()%*. In accordance with earlier research 8:ntona>is, :volio ; #ivasubramaniam, "336 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9, we tested different com+etin models which had been identified by other scholars and are summariCed in &able ". 1or more detail about the factorial validity of the M'()%*, the reader is referred to :ntona>is et al. 8"3369 and to the new M'( manual available from Mind Garden 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9. &able " 0om+etin factorial models of M'( Model Descri+tion 8!9 Null model 8"9 ett ; :llen, !22%9 8$9 &hree correlated first)order factors 8transformational, transactional, and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8c.f. Den =arto ; an MuiBen, !22-9 8%9 &hree correlated first)order factors 8transformational, transactional, and +assive leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229 89 1ive correlated first)order factors 8transformational leadershi+, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC) faire leadershi+9 8=owell ; :volio, !2269 8-9 #i? correlated first)order factors 8charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion and +assive leadershi+9 87ass, !2/% :volio et al., !2229 8/9 #even correlated first)order factors 8charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229 829 Hiht correlated first)order factors 8ins+irational motivation, idealiCed influence, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229 8!39 4ine correlated first)order factors 8ins+irational motivation, idealiCed influence attributed, idealiCed influence behavior, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement) by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !222 :ntona>is et al., "3369 : series of multi)sam+le 01:s usin :M<# %.3 8:rbuc>le ; oth>e, !2229 was +erformed on the data sets described in &able !. e only included one ty+e of raters, namely followers, in order to minimiCe variance. &his yielded a sam+le siCe of N L !"-. 1ull)information ma?imum li>elihood 81IM'9 01: was used to estimate the model +arameters 87ollen, !2/2 :ntona>is et al., "3369.
/
&able 6
N χ $663".! OOO !-./$ OOO 2$2.$2 OOO 2%.!% OOO 26%.6 OOO 6." OOO 6-.6 OOO $6".!- OOO $3%.6 OOO
Ndf !36 6$ 6$ 6" "2 "% "! !%
4otes. 1or model descri+tion, c.f. &able ". 1or com+utin N χ , the χ of a res+ective model was subtracted from the χ )value of the nine)factor 8taret9 model. OOO p .33!.
:s can be seen from &able 6, the nine)factor model of the M'()%* was clearly su++orted. :dditional χ )difference tests +rovided evidence that this nine)factor model sinificantly fitted the data better than any other model. &hese results are in line with recent lare)scale analysis 8:ntona>is et al., "3369. In sum, the German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9 used here was able to re+licate the oriinal factor structure. In conseFuence, the nine factors of transformational, transactional, and nonleadershi+ are valid in erman)s+ea>in countries. 7oth researchers and +ractitioners are now eFui++ed with an instrument ready to a++ly the state)of)the)art +aradim of transformational and transactional leadershi+ in German)s+ea>in countries.
%actor loadin&s In addition to the fit indices, the 01:s +rovided information about the factor loadins for the different subscales of the M'()%*. &ables $.! and $." +resent the item loadins. &hat is, for each of the nine leadershi+ factors, the loadin of their res+ective four indicators are shown. &able $.! Item loadins with the nine)factor model 1actor 1actor Item IM Item II8:9 Item IM2 3.-$ II8:9!3 3.-" II879 IM!6 3.6 II8:9!/ 3.%% II879!$ IM" 3.% II8:9"! 3.2 II879"6 IM6 3. II8:9"% 3.-6 II8796$
1actor II879 3.$! 3.%" 3.3.$
Item I#6" I#63 I#/ I#"
1actor I# 3.% 3.-/ 3.-$ 3.6"
Item I06! I0"2 I0!2 I0!%
1actor I0 3.- 3./ 3.62 3.
%$2
&able $." Item loadins with the nine)factor model 1actor 1actor 1actor Item 0R Item :MbH Item MbHP Item 0R6% 3.! :MbH"- 3.$2 MbHP6 3.%$ '1% 0R! 3.$/ :MbH"$ 3.3 MbHP!" 3./" '10R!! 3.% :MbH"" 3.- MbHP!- 3."- '1"/ 0R! 3." :MbH$ 3.%6 MbHP"3 3.% '166
1actor '1 3.$ 3.$2 3.2 3.-!
Intercorrelations amon& MLQ factor scores H?+lorin the factorial validity of the M'()%*, the latent intercorrelations of the nine leadershi+ scales are of interest. It has been noted earlier that the five transformational factors are hihly intercorrelated. In addition, 0ontinent Reward, one of the three transactional factors, showed a relatively hih correlation with the five transformational factors in earlier research. &o further e?+lore this issue, we +resent the intercorrelations of the M'()%* subscales from our sam+les described in &able !.
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c.f. international norms on Mind GardensA website www.mindarden.comdocsM'(internationalnorms.+df
!3
&able %.! Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at a lower level than the focal leader9 Idealized Influene attri!uted
Inspirational Motivation Inspirational Motivation
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
ais sez-aire
+,tra +ffo rt
+ffetiveness
#atis fation
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
Idealized Influene attri!uted
.60**
-
**
Idealized Influene !e"avior
.64**
.69**
-
Intelletual #ti$ulation
.35**
.56**
.54**
-
**
**
Individualized %onsideration
.40**
.61**
.53**
.70**
-
**
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
.61**
.64**
.64**
.53**
.61**
-
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
.17**
.13**
.22**
.13**
.05
.21**
-
*
**
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
-.21**
-.43**
-.28**
-.39**
-.34**
-.34**
.01
-
**
**
**
**
aissez-aire
-.32**
-.54**
-.43**
-.48**
-.48**
-.49**
-.07*
.64**
-
**
**
**
+,tra +ffort
.63**
.72**
.66**
.49**
.56**
.67**
.18**
-.36**
-.45**
**
**
+ffetiveness
.42**
.62**
.51**
.63**
.69**
.62**
.16**
-.45**
-.52**
.65**
-
**
#atisfation
.39**
.64**
.50**
.62**
.69**
.58**
.04
-.45**
-.49**
.58**
.74**
-
-
**. p / .01 t(o-tailed. *. p / .05 t(o-tailed .
!!
&able %." Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at the same level than the focal leader9
Inspirational Motivation
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
-
.02**
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02
.02
aissez-aire +,tra +ffort .02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02**
. 02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02* .02**
Idealized Influene attri!uted
.50**
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
.49**
.40**
-
Intelletual #ti$ulation
.49**
.45**
.59**
-
.02**
.02**
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
Individualized %onsideration
.39**
.33**
.43**
.47**
-
.02**
.02
.02
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02*
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
.30**
.28**
.32**
.21**
.21**
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
.02
.17*
.18*
.14
.03
.09
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
.01
-.08
-.11
-.27**
.06
-.22**
aissez-aire
-.23**
-.18*
-.22**
-.37**
-.16*
-.28**
-.07
.30**
+,tra +ffort
.66**
.53**
.60**
.64**
.51**
.26**
-.01
-.15
+ffetiveness
.38**
.39**
.31**
.42**
.37**
.24**
.07
-.11
-.33**
.56**
-
#atisfation
.19*
.34**
.20*
.32**
.16*
.15
.05
-.17*
-.32**
.40**
.49**
-
-
.02
.04
-
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02**
.02
.02
.02*
-
.02**
.02**
.02**
-.32**
-
.02**
.02**
.02** -
**. p / .01 t(o-tailed. *. p / .05 t(o-tailed .
!"
&able %." Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at the same level than the focal leader9 Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
-
.02**
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02
.02
aissez-aire +,tra +ffort .02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02**
. 02**
.02**
.02**
.02*
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02* .02**
Idealized Influene attri!uted
.50**
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
.49**
.40**
-
Intelletual #ti$ulation
.49**
.45**
.59**
-
.02**
.02**
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
Individualized %onsideration
.39**
.33**
.43**
.47**
-
.02**
.02
.02
.02*
.02**
.02**
.02*
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
.30**
.28**
.32**
.21**
.21**
.02
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02**
.02
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
.02
.17*
.18*
.14
.03
.09
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
.01
-.08
-.11
-.27**
.06
-.22**
aissez-aire
-.23**
-.18*
-.22**
-.37**
-.16*
-.28**
-.07
.30**
+,tra +ffort
.66**
.53**
.60**
.64**
.51**
.26**
-.01
-.15
+ffetiveness
.38**
.39**
.31**
.42**
.37**
.24**
.07
-.11
-.33**
.56**
-
#atisfation
.19*
.34**
.20*
.32**
.16*
.15
.05
-.17*
-.32**
.40**
.49**
-
-
.02
.04
-
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02**
.02
.02
.02*
-
.02**
.02**
.02**
-.32**
-
.02**
.02**
.02** -
**. p / .01 t(o-tailed. *. p / .05 t(o-tailed .
!"
&able %.6 Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at a hiher level than the focal leader9 Inspirational Motivation Inspirational Motivation
-
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffort
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
Idealized Influene att ri!uted
.55**
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
.54**
.43**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
Intelletual #ti$ulation
.42**
.55**
.40**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
Individualized %onsideration
.34**
.44**
.29**
.46**
-
-.30**
-.30
-.30*
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
.61**
.61**
.47**
.38**
.51**
-
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
.16
.22*
.29**
.33**
.06
.16
-
-.30*
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
-.10
-.28**
-.21*
-.22*
-.26*
-.33**
-.23*
-
-.30
-.30
-.30*
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
aissez-aire
-.30**
-.60**
-.43**
-.35**
-.25*
-.50**
-.16
+,tra +ffort
.51**
.51**
.37**
.36**
.47**
.64**
.11
.59**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.46**
-
+ffetiveness
.51**
.61**
.22*
.34**
.48**
.49**
.23*
-.21*
-.38**
.54**
-
#atisfation
.32**
.67**
.36**
.36**
.42**
.44**
.05
-.30**
-.49**
.52**
.60**
-. 30**
-.30**
-.30** -
**. p / .01 t(o-tailed. *. p / .05 t(o-tailed .
!6
&able %.6 Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at a hiher level than the focal leader9 Inspirational Motivation Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffort
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
Idealized Influene att ri!uted
.55**
-
Idealized Influene !e"avior
.54**
.43**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
Intelletual #ti$ulation
.42**
.55**
.40**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
Individualized %onsideration
.34**
.44**
.29**
.46**
-
-.30**
-.30
-.30*
-.30*
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
.61**
.61**
.47**
.38**
.51**
-
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
.16
.22*
.29**
.33**
.06
.16
-
-.30*
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
-.10
-.28**
-.21*
-.22*
-.26*
-.33**
-.23*
-
-.30
-.30
-.30*
-.30
-.30**
-.30**
-.30*
-.30**
aissez-aire
-.30**
-.60**
-.43**
-.35**
-.25*
-.50**
-.16
+,tra +ffort
.51**
.51**
.37**
.36**
.47**
.64**
.11
.59**
-
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.30**
-.46**
-
+ffetiveness
.51**
.61**
.22*
.34**
.48**
.49**
.23*
-.21*
-.38**
.54**
-
#atisfation
.32**
.67**
.36**
.36**
.42**
.44**
.05
-.30**
-.49**
.52**
.60**
-. 30**
-.30**
-.30** -
**. p / .01 t(o-tailed. *. p / .05 t(o-tailed .
!6
#on$er&ent $alidity &he M'()%* is the standard instrument for assessin a rane of transformational and transactional leadershi+ behaviors. Des+ite its +redominance, other instruments were develo+ed in order to ta+ different as+ect of transformational leadershi+. off and colleaues 8Podsa>off, 4iehoff, MacEenCie ; illiams, !226 Podsa>off, MacEenCie ; 7ommer, !229. 1or the +ur+ose of assessin the converent validity of the M'()%*, both the M'()%* and the &'I were administered to subordinates evaluatin their res+ective su+eriorsA leadershi+ styles. :ll of the +artici+ants from sam+le ! described in &able ! 8overnment sam+le9 were included in this study 84 L "-9. &he transformational scales of the M'()%* showed hih and sinificant converent validity to the transformational leadershi+ scales of the &'I 8."" r .-29. &his lends further credibility to the validity of the M'()%*. 1or more details, the reader is referred to &artler and Rowold 8"33$9.
#on$er&ent $alidity &he M'()%* is the standard instrument for assessin a rane of transformational and transactional leadershi+ behaviors. Des+ite its +redominance, other instruments were develo+ed in order to ta+ different as+ect of transformational leadershi+. off and colleaues 8Podsa>off, 4iehoff, MacEenCie ; illiams, !226 Podsa>off, MacEenCie ; 7ommer, !229. 1or the +ur+ose of assessin the converent validity of the M'()%*, both the M'()%* and the &'I were administered to subordinates evaluatin their res+ective su+eriorsA leadershi+ styles. :ll of the +artici+ants from sam+le ! described in &able ! 8overnment sam+le9 were included in this study 84 L "-9. &he transformational scales of the M'()%* showed hih and sinificant converent validity to the transformational leadershi+ scales of the &'I 8."" r .-29. &his lends further credibility to the validity of the M'()%*. 1or more details, the reader is referred to &artler and Rowold 8"33$9.
Reliability In order to evaluate as+ects of reliability, the followin three inde+endent a++roaches were chosen. In addition to internal consistency 80ronbachAs :l+ha9, the interrater areement 8I009 and the test)retest)reliability 8r tt 9 were calculated. 1irst, internal consistency was calculated for each of the M'()%* subscales. :s a standard, 0ronbachAs :l+ha was calculated for each subscale of the M'()%* 80ortina, !2269. &ables -.! ) -.6 +resent the reliabilities for each of the sam+le listed in &able ! se+arately. In sum, the internal consistencies of the M'()%* scales as indicated by 0ronbachAs :l+ha are ood. Given the fact that the nine leadershi+ scales consist of only four indicators, the internal consistencies can be cateoriCed as very ood 80ortina, !2269. 4e?t, we calculated the interrater areement for each of the nine subscales. &he intraclass correlation 8 ICC 9 is one +ossible indicator for interrater areement 8James, Demaree ; olf, !2/$9. :reement is hih if several subordinates observe the same freFuency of su+eriorsA behavior. ithin the manufacturin sam+le 0 described in &able !, for each focal leader, two of hisher subordinates assessed leadershi+ behavior. In turn, it was +ossible to calculate the ICC(1). :s can be seen from &able , the ICC s for each of the nine leadershi+ scales are satisfactory or hih 8.-$ ICC .2-9. &hus, these results +rovide evidence for the interrater areement for the M'()%*. 1inally, attem+ts were made to estimate the test)retest reliabilities of the M'()%* leadershi+ scales. &est)retest reliability r tt is an indicator of a constructsA tem+oral stability. ithin the manufacturin : sam+le 8c. f. &able !9, N L !- manaers were evaluated two times. &he time interval between these two +oints in time was three months. &able shows that the test)retest reliabilities were enerally hih and sinificant. &he e?ce+tions are the subscales IndividualiCed 0onsideration, Manaement)by)H?ce+tion +assive, and 'aisseC)1aire. 1urther research is necessary to e?+lore the stability of leadersA behavior as measured with the M'() %*. &able I00s and test)retest reliabilities M'()%* scale ICC(1) &est)retest reliability r tt IM 3./% 3.%/ OO IIa 3.23.-3OO IIb 3./2 3.$2 OO I# 3.2% 3.%- OO I0 3.26 3.6" 0R 3./3.2 OO :MbH 3./$ 3.% OO MbHP 3.-$ 3."! '1 3./" 3.6" Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L 0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire O p .3% OO p .3!
!%
'orms and descripti$e statistics In cross)cultural research, it is im+ortant to have descri+tive data in order to com+are different cultures. 0onseFuently, in this section we +resent descri+tive statistics for the sam+les used in our research 8c. f. &able !9. &ables -.! 5 -.6 show the descri+tive statistics for each of the sam+les used in our analyses. 4ote that the means are relatively hih, due to the different scalin format 8! ) %9. In accordance with earlier research, transformational leadershi+ was observed more freFuently than transactional or nonleadershi+ behavior 87ass ; :volio, "333 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9.
&able -.! Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates #am+le Government 8 N L "-9 Manufacturin : 8 N L "369 M SD α M SD α Transformational leadership !. IM 6.!$ .-2 .-6.-2 .6 .-2 ". IIa 6."" ./2 ./$ 6.-/ .% .6. IIb 6."" .-2 .-% 6.-.%2 .2 $. I# 6.62 .-.-2 6./2 .%. %. I0 6."2 ./! .- 6.-/ .%% ." Transactional leadership .0R 6.6$ .-2 .- 6.2 .%3 . -. :MbH "./ .- .-! 6."6 .-" ./. MbHP "."% ./" .2 ".6/ .%/ .! 2. '1 "."6 ./! .2 !./$ .! .-6 Dependent Measures !3. HH1 6.33 ./ .// 6.3 ../% !!. H11 6.$.-./! 6.// .$ .-% !". #:& 6.%! ./ .-% 6./2 .%./$ Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L 0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L #atisfaction
!
&able -." Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates #am+le Manufacturin 0 8 N L $!69 Public trans+ort 8 N L "369 M SD α M SD α Transformational leadership !. IM 6.-2 .6 .-! 6.! . .". IIa 6.-/ .% .-2 6."/ ./3 .-2 6. IIb 6.-.%2 .% 6.66 .-$ .2 $. I# 6./2 .%./ 6.$/ ./% .-/ %. I0 6.-/ .%% .-6.$3 .-.Transactional leadership .0R 6.2 .%3 .%/ 6.$6 .-.-3 -. :MbH 6."6 .-" .6.3! ./" .2 /. MbHP ".6/ .%/ . "."/ .-! .% 2. '1 !./$ .! .-! ".32 .- .-$ Dependent Measures !3. HH1 6.3 ..-2 6.!2 ./$ ./3 !!. H11 6.// .$ .-$ 6.% .- .-3 !". #:& 6./2 .%.% 6.%3 .2! .- Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L 0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L #atisfaction
!-
&able -.6 Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates #am+le 0onvenience sam+le 8 N L "-9 #tudent sam+le 8 N L $!9 M SD α M SD α Transformational leadership !. IM 6.63./$ .-6 6.63./$ ./! ". IIa 6.!6 !.36 ./" 6.!6 !.36 .-3 6. IIb 6.$% 3./$ . 6.$% 3./$ .% $. I# 6.6 3.23 .-/ 6.6 3.23 ./6 %. I0 6.63 !.3" ./! 6.63 !.3" .-Transactional leadership .0R 6.%2 3./ .-! 6.%2 3./ .%/ -. :MbH 6.33./3 .6.33./3 ./. MbHP "." 3.2! . "." 3.2! . 2. '1 ".6/ !.3% .-/ ".6/ !.3% .-! Dependent Measures !3. HH1 6."! 3.22 .-2 6."! 3.22 .-! !!. H11 6.$$ 3.2$ ./3 6.$$ 3.2$ .! !". #:& 6."6 !.!/ ./" 6."6 !.!/ .2" Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L 0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L #atisfaction Moreover, we were interested in the norm for each of the nine leadershi+ behaviors. &hus, &ables /.! 5 /.6 +resent the +ercentiles for the three different rater +ers+ectives. &hat is, &able /.! includes only raters that were at a lower level than the focal leader &able /.". includes only same)level raters &able /.6. +resents results for hiher)level raters. In eneral, the results are com+arable to norms from other continents and nations 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9. :s a tendency, leaders from German)s+ea>in countries were e?hibitin less transformational leadershi+ than their U.#. colleaues. &he reverse is true for transactional and nonleadershi+. &hat is, manaers from the U.# show less of this +assive leadershi+ behavior than their German)s+ea>in colleaues. &hus, the results +resented here re+licate findins from earlier research 8Euchin>e, !2229. It should be >e+t in mind, however, that the cross)culturally differences are very small and should be treated with caution. 1urther research is needed to clarify the nation)s+ecific differences. In sum, the followin +aes 8&ables /.! 5 /.69 +resent for the first time s+ecific norms for German)s+ea>in nations. :s such, they can be viewed as an im+ortant ste+ toward lanuae) s+ecific norms that will hel+ for a more norm)based assessment and develo+ment of manaers effective leadershi+ behaviors 8:volio, aldman ; Qammarino, !22! :volio, !2229.
!/
&able /.! Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at a lower level than focal leader Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+ffe tiveness
#atisfation
1267
1267
1267
1267
1267
1266
1266
1267
1267
1261
1267
1265
Mean
3.51
3.51
3.58
3.41
3.29
3.56
3.05
2.35
2.15
3.39
3.50
3.78
.83
.93
.81
.91
.89
.75
.81
.81
.86
.89
.78
.89
4.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.50
4.00
5.00
4.00
3.51
5
2.25
1.75
2.25
1.75
1.75
2.25
1.75
1.25
1.00
2.00
2.00
.83
10
2.50
2.25
2.50
2.25
2.00
2.50
2.00
1.25
1.00
2.33
2.50
4.00
20
2.75
2.75
3.00
2.50
2.50
3.00
2.25
1.75
1.38
2.67
2.75
2.25
30
3.00
3.00
3.25
3.00
2.75
3.25
2.75
2.00
1.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
40
3.25
3.50
3.50
3.25
3.25
3.50
2.75
2.00
1.75
3.33
3.33
2.75
50
3.50
3.50
3.75
3.50
3.25
3.67
3.00
2.25
2.00
3.33
3.50
3.00
60
3.75
3.88
3.75
3.75
3.50
3.75
3.25
2.50
2.25
3.67
3.75
3.25
70
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.75
4.00
3.50
2.75
2.50
4.00
4.00
3.50
80
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.00
4.25
3.75
3.00
2.75
4.00
4.25
3.75
90
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.50
4.67
4.50
4.00
95
5.00
5.00
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.38
3.75
3.75
5.00
4.75
4.25
#tandard eviation 'an&e erentile
+,tra +ffort
&able /." Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at the same level than focal leader Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
154
Mean
3.93
3.90
3.94
4.05
4.00
3.74
3.09
2.22
1.60
3.73
3.95
4.10
+,tra +ffort +ffetiveness
#atisfation
#tandard eviation
.60
.40
.58
.54
.52
.48
.80
.60
.53
.65
.48
.50
'an&e
2.75
2.00
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.75
4.00
3.75
2.75
4.00
3.25
3.00
5
2.98
3.25
2.75
3.25
3.23
3.00
1.75
1.25
1.00
2.67
3.20
3.00
10
3.25
3.38
3.25
3.48
3.28
3.13
2.00
1.50
1.00
3.00
3.25
3.50
20
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.65
3.50
3.25
2.50
1.75
1.00
3.33
3.63
3.95
30
3.63
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.50
2.74
2.00
1.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
40
3.75
3.75
3.85
4.00
3.75
3.63
3.00
2.00
1.25
3.67
3.88
4.00
50
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.75
3.25
2.00
1.50
3.67
4.00
4.00
60
4.05
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.00
3.82
3.25
2.25
1.75
4.00
4.00
4.00
70
4.25
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.00
3.50
2.50
1.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
80
4.48
4.25
4.38
4.50
4.50
4.00
3.75
2.75
2.00
4.33
4.25
4.50
90
4.75
4.50
4.50
4.75
4.75
4.40
4.25
3.00
2.43
4.33
4.50
4.55
95
5.00
4.50
4.75
5.00
5.00
4.68
4.37
3.25
2.50
4.73
4.75
5.00
erentile
"3
&able /." Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at the same level than focal leader Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
155
154
Mean
3.93
3.90
3.94
4.05
4.00
3.74
3.09
2.22
1.60
3.73
3.95
4.10
+,tra +ffort +ffetiveness
#atisfation
#tandard eviation
.60
.40
.58
.54
.52
.48
.80
.60
.53
.65
.48
.50
'an&e
2.75
2.00
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.75
4.00
3.75
2.75
4.00
3.25
3.00
5
2.98
3.25
2.75
3.25
3.23
3.00
1.75
1.25
1.00
2.67
3.20
3.00
10
3.25
3.38
3.25
3.48
3.28
3.13
2.00
1.50
1.00
3.00
3.25
3.50
20
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.65
3.50
3.25
2.50
1.75
1.00
3.33
3.63
3.95
30
3.63
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.50
2.74
2.00
1.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
40
3.75
3.75
3.85
4.00
3.75
3.63
3.00
2.00
1.25
3.67
3.88
4.00
50
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.75
3.25
2.00
1.50
3.67
4.00
4.00
60
4.05
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.00
3.82
3.25
2.25
1.75
4.00
4.00
4.00
70
4.25
4.00
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.00
3.50
2.50
1.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
80
4.48
4.25
4.38
4.50
4.50
4.00
3.75
2.75
2.00
4.33
4.25
4.50
90
4.75
4.50
4.50
4.75
4.75
4.40
4.25
3.00
2.43
4.33
4.50
4.55
95
5.00
4.50
4.75
5.00
5.00
4.68
4.37
3.25
2.50
4.73
4.75
5.00
erentile
"3
&able /.6 Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at a hiher level than focal leader
Mean
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffo rt
+ffe tiveness
91
90
91
91
90
91
91
91
91
90
90
90
3.74
3.74
3.73
3.77
3.75
3.77
3.19
2.38
1.96
3.42
3.86
3.75
#atisfation
#tandard evaition
.67
.64
.64
.60
.52
.48
.68
.65
.68
.62
.43
.63
'an&e
3.00
2.50
2.75
2.75
2.25
2.25
3.00
3.00
2.75
3.00
2.00
2.90
5
2.40
2.75
2.25
2.75
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.15
1.00
2.18
3.25
2.50
10
3.00
2.88
2.80
3.00
3.00
3.04
2.25
1.50
1.25
2.67
3.25
2.91
20
3.25
3.03
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25
2.50
1.75
1.25
2.95
3.50
3.50
30
3.50
3.25
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
2.75
2.00
1.50
3.00
3.52
3.50
40
3.60
3.50
3.75
3.62
3.66
3.73
3.00
2.25
1.50
3.33
3.75
3.50
50
3.75
3.90
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.88
3.25
2.50
1.88
3.42
3.81
4.00
60
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.90
4.00
3.50
2.50
2.25
3.67
4.00
4.00
70
4.25
4.25
4.00
4.10
4.00
4.00
3.75
2.75
2.50
3.67
4.00
4.00
80
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
3.75
3.00
2.50
4.00
4.25
4.40
90
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.32
4.00
3.25
2.96
4.30
4.50
4.50
95
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.50
4.25
3.25
3.25
4.33
4.50
4.73
erentile
"!
&able /.6 Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at a hiher level than focal leader
Mean
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent!*-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffo rt
+ffe tiveness
91
90
91
91
90
91
91
91
91
90
90
90
3.74
3.74
3.73
3.77
3.75
3.77
3.19
2.38
1.96
3.42
3.86
3.75
#atisfation
#tandard evaition
.67
.64
.64
.60
.52
.48
.68
.65
.68
.62
.43
.63
'an&e
3.00
2.50
2.75
2.75
2.25
2.25
3.00
3.00
2.75
3.00
2.00
2.90
5
2.40
2.75
2.25
2.75
3.00
3.00
2.00
1.15
1.00
2.18
3.25
2.50
10
3.00
2.88
2.80
3.00
3.00
3.04
2.25
1.50
1.25
2.67
3.25
2.91
20
3.25
3.03
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25
2.50
1.75
1.25
2.95
3.50
3.50
30
3.50
3.25
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
2.75
2.00
1.50
3.00
3.52
3.50
40
3.60
3.50
3.75
3.62
3.66
3.73
3.00
2.25
1.50
3.33
3.75
3.50
50
3.75
3.90
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.88
3.25
2.50
1.88
3.42
3.81
4.00
60
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.90
4.00
3.50
2.50
2.25
3.67
4.00
4.00
70
4.25
4.25
4.00
4.10
4.00
4.00
3.75
2.75
2.50
3.67
4.00
4.00
80
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
4.25
3.75
3.00
2.50
4.00
4.25
4.40
90
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.50
4.32
4.00
3.25
2.96
4.30
4.50
4.50
95
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.75
4.50
4.25
3.25
3.25
4.33
4.50
4.73
erentile
"!
(iscussion
Summary of results &he results +resented underline the ood +sychometric Fualities of the German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9. #everal analyses +rovided su++ort for hih construct and converent validity. Moreover, three inde+endent methods were a++lied and yielded ood reliabilities for the M'()%*. In sum, this translation of the M'()%* is a valid and reliable instrument for assessin leadersA behavior. 7oth researchers and +ractitioners in German) s+ea>in countries are now eFui++ed with an instrument ready to a++ly the state)of)the)art +aradim of transformational and transactional leadershi+ available from Mind Garden, Inc. :s has been shown in the validity section, our results lend further su++ort for the nine)factor model of the M'()%*. &hus, results of recent lare sam+le)siCe research 8:ntona>is et al., "336 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9 have been re+licated by our confirmatory factor analyses. :s a conseFuence, the 1ull Rane Model of 'eadershi+ 8:ntona>is ; =ouse, "33" :volio ; 7ass, "33"9 seems a valid a++roach to leadershi+ in German)s+ea>in countries. &his is es+ecially im+ortant for leadershi+ trainin and develo+ment, one of the >ey factors for oraniCationsA lon)term economic success 81uller et al., !229.
The uni$ersality of the transformational ) transactional leadership paradi&m &heo
of transformational leadershi+ states that both transformational and
ctional
(iscussion
Summary of results &he results +resented underline the ood +sychometric Fualities of the German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9. #everal analyses +rovided su++ort for hih construct and converent validity. Moreover, three inde+endent methods were a++lied and yielded ood reliabilities for the M'()%*. In sum, this translation of the M'()%* is a valid and reliable instrument for assessin leadersA behavior. 7oth researchers and +ractitioners in German) s+ea>in countries are now eFui++ed with an instrument ready to a++ly the state)of)the)art +aradim of transformational and transactional leadershi+ available from Mind Garden, Inc. :s has been shown in the validity section, our results lend further su++ort for the nine)factor model of the M'()%*. &hus, results of recent lare sam+le)siCe research 8:ntona>is et al., "336 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9 have been re+licated by our confirmatory factor analyses. :s a conseFuence, the 1ull Rane Model of 'eadershi+ 8:ntona>is ; =ouse, "33" :volio ; 7ass, "33"9 seems a valid a++roach to leadershi+ in German)s+ea>in countries. &his is es+ecially im+ortant for leadershi+ trainin and develo+ment, one of the >ey factors for oraniCationsA lon)term economic success 81uller et al., !229.
The uni$ersality of the transformational ) transactional leadership paradi&m &heory of transformational leadershi+ states that both transformational and transactional leadershi+ styles are a++licable in a variety of settins. It has been observed in the military, hos+ital, industry, overnment, education, church, and many more 87ass, !22/9. &he universality of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +aradim can hel+ leaders to be more successful, both in terms of economic success, but also in terms of their followersA satisfaction and commitment 87arlin et al., !22 Den =arto, anMuiBen ; Eoo+man, !229. Many areas of a++lication are still waitin to be e?+lored by leadershi+ research. &hese areas miht benefit from the a++lication of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +aradim. :t +resent, we conduct research with s+ort leaders 8Rowold, "33$a9, with clery 8Rowold, "33$c9, and with musical conductors 8Rowold, "33$d9. :s we are validatin modified versions of the M'()%* in these conte?ts, we are e?cited about the +ossible +ositive im+act transformational leadershi+ miht have on followersA satisfaction, e?tra effort, and leadersA effectiveness. It is our intention to hel+ leaders in a variety of settins to learn more about effective leadershi+ styles.
Implications for theory More research with additional sam+les is needed to further su++ort these results. &he author is conductin research +roBects that aim at +rovidin more em+irical data on the +sychometric +ro+erties of the M'()%*. &his is es+ecially im+ortant for more differentiated norms based on larer sam+le siCes. :s the sam+le siCes for a9 the lower level rater form and b9 the hiher level rater form were limited, it seems eliible to obtain larer sam+le for a better em+irical foundation of the res+ective norms. Moreover, althouh we were able to show hih converent validity between different a++roach to measurin transformational leadershi+ 8 &'I and M'()%*9, still other instruments need to be considered. More s+ecifically, the a++roach to charismatic leadershi+ as +ro+osed
by 0oner and Eanuno 8!22/9 shows some theoretical overla+ with the transformational leadershi+ a++roach. :s a conseFuence, the converent validity between charismatic and transformational leadershi+ should be e?+lored 8=unt ; 0oner, !222 0oner ; =unt, !2229.
"6
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"-
Rowold, J. 8"33$d9. MLQ74B for musical conductors% erman translation and adaptation of Aass / $*olio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind Garden.
Rowold, J. 8"33$a9. MLQ74B for sport coaches% erman translation and adaptation of Aass / $*olio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind Garden.
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