Outlines of Islamic

OUTLINES OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

Contents

CHAPTER I

Introduction SECTION I The Future of Islamic Law SECTION II The Study of Islamic Jurisprudence is an Obligation SECTION III The Scope of this Book CHAPTER II

The Scope of Islamic Law and Jurisprudence SECTION I The Subject-matter of Islamic Jurisprudence A B C D E

Us.ul u¯ l al-Fiqh ☞ 37 Fiqh ☞ 39 The Siy asah a¯ sah Shar‘iyyah: Shar‘iyyah: Administration of Justice According to the Shar ¯ı‘ah ı‘ah ☞ 40 Qaw¯a‘id Qaw a¯ ‘id Fiqhiyyah: The Principles of Fiqh of Fiqh ☞ 40 Fur uq: u¯ q: The Science of Distinguishing Cases ☞ 41

1

Islamic Jurisprudence

2 F G H

Contents

Maq¯a.sid al-Shar ¯ı‘ah: Islamic Justice Through the Purposes of the Shar ¯ı‘ah ☞ 41 Ah.k¯am al-Qur’ a¯n and Tafs¯ır ☞ 41 The Discipline of Khil a¯f ☞ 42 SECTION II Has a Variety of Opinions Caused Disunity Among the Muslims? SECTION III The Schools of Law are not Sects but Systems of Interpretation SECTION IV Islam has a Fully Developed and Mature Legal System CHAPTER III

The Meaning of Us.u ¯ l al-Fiqh and Basic Terms SECTION I The Literal Meaning of Fiqh SECTION II Earlier General Meaning of Fiqh SECTION III Later Sh¯afi‘ite Definition of Fiqh SECTION IV Distinctions Based on the Definition A

Distinction between shar ¯ı‘ah and fiqh

B C

Distinction between mujtahid and faq¯ıh ☞ 51 Distinction between ijtih¯ad and taql ¯ıd ☞ 52

D

Distinction between a muqallid and a faq¯ıh

©Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

☞

51

☞

52

Center for Islamic Law & Legal Heritage

Contents


3

SECTION V ¯ al-Fiqh The Meaning of As. l and Us. ul SECTION VI Widening the Definitions A B

I

A Wider Definition of Fiqh ☞ 55 A Wider Definition of Us.u¯ l al-Fiqh

☞

56

The H . ukm Shar‘ ¯ı

59

CHAPTER IV

The H . ukm: What is Islamic Law? SECTION I The Elements of the H . ukm Shar‘¯i SECTION II The Meaning of the H . ukm Shar‘¯i or the Meaning of Islamic Law SECTION III The H . ukm Takl¯if¯i (Obligation Creating Rules) SECTION IV The H . ukm Wad. ‘¯i—Declaratory Rules SECTION V The Distinction Between the H . ukm Takl¯if¯i and the H . ukm Wad. ‘¯i




4

Contents

CHAPTER V

Classification of Islamic Law SECTION I ¯ The Meaning of Wajib (Obligatory Act) and its Different Types A

The h.ukm or rule for the w¯ajib

☞

72

SECTION II ¯ The Classifications of the Wajib (Obligatory Act) A B C D

Classification based on the time available for performance: w¯ajib mut . laq and w¯ajib muqayyad ☞ 73 Classification based on the extent of the required act ☞ 76 Classification based on the subjects who are required to perform ☞ 77 Classification based on the identification of the object of the required act ☞ 78 SECTION III ¯ (Recommended Act) and its The Meaning of Mandub Different Types

A

Types of Mand¯ub

☞

79

SECTION IV ¯ (Prohibited Act) and its The Meaning of H . aram Different Types A

The types of h.ar a¯m

☞

82

SECTION V ¯ (Disapproved Act) and its The Meaning of Makruh Different Types SECTION VI The Meaning of Mub¯ah. (Permitted Act) and its Different Types



Contents


5

SECTION VII The H . ukm Wad. ‘¯i or the Declaratory Rule A B

Sabab, shart . and m¯ani‘ ☞ 86 S.ih.h.ah, fas¯ad and but . l a¯ n (validity, vititation and nullity)

☞

89 C

‘Az ¯ımah and rukhs.ah (initial rules and exemptions)

☞

89

CHAPTER VI

The Lawgiver (H . a¯ kim) SECTION I Allah is the True Source of all Laws SECTION II The Fundamental Norm of the Legal System SECTION III The Law and the Interest of Man A B

Is Man the sole purpose of creation? ☞ 94 Can we employ mas.lah.ah (interest) for new laws?

☞

95

SECTION IV Are the Shar¯i‘ah and Natural Law Compatible? CHAPTER VII

The Act ( Mah.k¯um F ¯ıh) SECTION I The Conditions for the Creation of Obligation (Takl¯if ) A

The act to be performed or avoided must be known

B

The subject should be able to perform the act

☞

☞

102

103

SECTION II ¯ F¯ih) The Nature of the Act (Mah. kum Center for Islamic Law & Legal Heritage



6

Contents

SECTION III Classification of the H . ukm Takl¯if¯i on the Basis of Rights SECTION IV Classification of Duties: O riginal and Substitutory SECTION V Human Rights and Other Classifications CHAPTER VIII

The Subject ( Mah.k¯um ‘Alayh) SECTION I Ahl¯iyah or Legal Capacity SECTION II The Underlying Bases of Legal Capacity SECTION III Complete Capacity A

The stages leading to complete legal capacity

☞

116

SECTION IV Deficient and Imperfect Capacity A B

Cases of deficient legal capacity ☞ 117 Cases of Imperfect Capacity ☞ 121 CHAPTER IX

Causes of Defective Legal Capacity SECTION I Natural causes of defective capacity A

Minority (s.ighar )


☞

126


Contents


7

E

Insanity ( jun¯un) ☞ 127 Idiocy (‘atah) ☞ 128 Sleep and fits of fainting (nawm, ighm¯a’ ) Forgetfulness (nisy a¯n) ☞ 128

F

Death-illness (marad. al-mawt )

B C D

☞

☞

128

129

SECTION II Acquired Causes of Defective Capacity A

Intoxication (sukr )

B

Jest (hazl ) ☞ 133 Indiscretion (safah)

C D E

II

☞

132

☞

134

Coercion and duress (ikr a¯h) ☞ 135 Mistake and ignorance (khat . a’, shubhah, and jahl )

☞

137

The Sources of Islamic Law

141

CHAPTER X

The Primary Sources of Islamic Law SECTION I The Distinction Between Primary and Secondary Sources SECTION II Grades of the Sources SECTION III ¯ The Qur’an A

The Recording and Revelation of the Qur’¯an

B

The ah.k¯am in the Qur’¯an

☞


☞

149

151



8

Contents

SECTION IV The Sunnah A B

Kinds of Sunnah ☞ 153 Conditions imposed by jurists for acting upon the muttas.il h.ad¯ıth ☞ 157 SECTION V ¯ Status of the Sunnah With Respect to the Qur’an SECTION VI Consensus of Legal Opinion (Ijm¯a‘)

A B C D

Conditions for the Validity of Ijm¯a‘ Types of ijm¯a‘ ☞ 163 The legal force of ijm¯a‘ as a source Role of ijm¯a‘ in the modern world

☞

161

☞

163

☞

164

CHAPTER XI

Secondary Sources SECTION I Qiy¯as (Analogy) A B C

Elements of qiy a¯ s ☞ 168 Examples of qiy a¯ s ☞ 169 Qiy a¯ s jal ¯ı and qiy a¯ s khaf ¯ı or manifest and concealed analogy ☞

170

SECTION II ¯ (Juristic Preference) Istih. san A

Examples of istih.s¯an

☞

172

SECTION III ¯ (Presumption of Continuity) Istis. h. ab A

Istis.h.a¯ b al-h.a¯ l and the Islamization of laws


☞

174


Contents


9

SECTION IV Mas. lah. ah Mursalah (Extended Analogy) A

Illustrations of mas.lah.ah mursalah

☞

175

SECTION V Sadd al-Dhar¯i‘ah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an Unlawful End) SECTION VI ¯ i) Opinion of a Companion (Qawl al-S.ah. ab¯ SECTION VII Earlier Scriptures (Shar‘ M an Qablana¯ ) A

Types of earlier laws

☞

179

SECTION VIII Custom (‘Urf ) A B

Types of ‘urf ☞ 180 Can the Western laws obtaining in Pakistan be treated as custom? ☞ 182 SECTION IX Islamic Law and Roman Law CHAPTER XII

Mas.lah.ah and the Maq¯as.id al-Shar ¯ı‘ah SECTION I The Meaning of Mas. lah. ah (Interest) SECTION II Maq¯as. id al-Shar¯i‘ah or the Purposes of Islamic Law SECTION III What is Beyond the Purposes? Center for Islamic Law & Legal Heritage



10

Contents

SECTION IV Maq¯as. id al-Shar¯i‘ah and the Texts SECTION V The Nature and Structure of the Maq¯as. id A B C D

III

Primary purposes in the service of the Hereafter The two faces of the maq¯a.sid ☞ 190

☞

188

Primary and secondary purposes ☞ 191 Priorities within the maq¯a.sid ☞ 193

Ijtih¯ad and Taql ¯ıd

197

CHAPTER XIII

The Meaning of Ijtih¯ad and its Modes SECTION I The Meaning of Ijtiha¯ d SECTION II The Task of the Mujtahid SECTION III ¯ The Modes of Ijtihad SECTION IV ¯ The Complete Process of Ijtihad SECTION V The Qualifications of the Mujtahid SECTION VI Who is a mujtahid today ?



Contents


11

SECTION VII Abrogation (Naskh) SECTION VIII The Rules of Preference (Tarj¯ih. ) CHAPTER XIV

Taql ¯ıd or Juristic Method SECTION I Taql¯id in the Pakistani Legal System

IV

Islamic Business Law and Property

211

CHAPTER XV

Property and Ownership SECTION I The Nature of Property and Ownership A B C

Ownership (milk¯ıyah) and possession (milk al-yad) Types of ownership ☞ 214 Possession ☞ 216

☞

213

SECTION II The concepts of property (m¯al) and ownership (milk) SECTION III The different classifications of m¯al




12

Contents

CHAPTER XVI

General Principles of Contract SECTION I Function of Contracts in Islamic Law SECTION II The Meaning of ‘Aqd SECTION III Agreement and its Form (S.¯ighah) A B C

The meaning of ¯ıj¯ab (off er) and qab¯ul (acceptance) ☞ 223 The conditions of off er and acceptance (s.¯ıghah) ☞ 224 Termination of the o ff er (¯ıj¯ab) ☞ 226 SECTION IV Consideration and Islamic law of contracts

A

The mah.all (subject-matter) and legality

☞

228

SECTION V Legality of Contracts in Islamic Law

B

Contracts contrary to Islamic law (shar‘ ) ☞ 229 Contracts contrary to public policy ☞ 231

C

The eff ect of illegality

A

☞

232

SECTION VI Contractual Capacity SECTION VII Genuineness of Assent A B

Mistake (khat . a’ or shubhah not ghalat . ) ☞ 234 Khil a¯bah, taghr ¯ır, tadl ¯ıs, ghabn—fraudulent misrepresentation ☞

C

237

Undue influence and marad. al-mawt


☞

237


Contents D


Coercion and duress (ikr a¯h)

☞

13

238

SECTION VIII Types of Contracts and Their Effects A B C D E F

S.ah.¯ıh., b¯a.t il and f a¯ sid contracts ☞ 239 Immediate and suspended contracts or n¯afidh and mawq¯uf contracts ☞ 240 Binding and terminable contracts or the l a¯ zim and ghayr l a¯ zim (or j¯a’iz ) contracts ☞ 241 Bilateral contracts versus unilateral contracts (wa‘d) ☞ 242 Valid, void, voidable and unenforceable contracts ☞ 243 Executed and executory contracts ☞ 243 SECTION IX Option (Khiy¯ar) and the Effects of Contracts

A B

Khiy a¯r al-Shart . or the Option to Revoke the Contract ☞ 243 Khiy a¯r al-Ta‘y ¯ın or the Option to Ascertain the Subject-matter ☞

C D

244

Khiy a¯r al-Ru’yah or the Option of Examination Khiy a¯r al-‘Ayb or the Option of Defects ☞ 245

☞

245

SECTION X Third Party Rights and Discharge of Contract A

Assignments and delegations

B

Conditions of performance ☞ 247 Discharge of contract ☞ 248

C

☞

246

SECTION XI Breach and Remedies A

Specific performance—ijb¯ar

B

Rescission and Restitution ( faskh and irj¯a’ ) Reformation ☞ 252

C D E

☞

251 ☞

251

Recovery based on quasi contracts ☞ 252 Principles of compensation and damages ☞ 252




14

Contents

CHAPTER XVII

Delegated Authority SECTION I Guardianship (Wil¯ayah) A B C

Types of Wil a¯yah ☞ 255 Grades of the awliy a¯’ ☞ 256 The extent of the wal ¯ı’s authority

☞

257

SECTION II Agency (Wak¯alah) A B

The elements of wakalah Types of agency ☞ 260

☞

258

D

The ah.k¯am of wak¯alah ☞ 260 H . ukm of the contract and its h.uq¯uq

E

Termination of agency

C

☞

☞

260

261

SECTION III ¯ i Ratification and the Acts of the Fud. ul¯ A B

The h.ukm of the acts of a fud.u¯ l ¯ı ☞ 262 Conditions for ratification ☞ 263 CHAPTER XVIII

Commercial Transactions SECTION I The Meaning of Bay‘ and its Types A

The basic types of bay‘

☞

265

SECTION II General Conditions for Commercial Transactions A

It must be m¯al


☞

267


Contents B C


The subject-matter must be in existence at the time of the contract ☞ 270 The seller must have the capacity to deliver the subject-matter ☞

D

15

272

The parties must have knowledge of the subject-matter

☞

273

SECTION III Sale of Goods for Cash A

The spot sale

B

Credit sale (bay‘ al-nas¯ı’ah) ☞ 275 Advance payment (salam) ☞ 276 Goods made to order (istis.n¯a’ ) ☞ 277 Sale with earnest money (‘urb¯un) ☞ 277 Contract for supplies (tawr ¯ıd) ☞ 278 Sale with stated profit (mur a¯bah.ah) ☞ 278 Sale at cost price (tawl ¯ıyah) ☞ 279 Sale at less than cost price (wad.¯ı‘ah) ☞ 279

C D E F G H I

☞

275

SECTION IV Loans and Exchange of Currencies (S.arf ) SECTION V The Prohibition of Rib¯a and Commercial Transactions A

The four rules of rib¯a

☞

282

SECTION VI Transactions Prohibited (or Vitiated) for Various Reasons SECTION VII The Contract of Hire (ij¯arah) A B

The conditions of ij¯arah Types of ij¯arah ☞ 287

☞

286




16

Contents

SECTION VIII ¯ General Offers (Ji‘alah ) CHAPTER XIX

Security of Debts, Insolvency and Interdiction SECTION I ¯. The Meaning of Debt: ‘Ayn, Dayn, and Istiqrad SECTION II Assignment and Negotiation SECTION III H . aw¯alah and Muq¯as. s. ah (Assignment, Transfer of Debt) A B

H . aw¯alah and negotiable instrument Muq¯a.s.sah (Claim-swapping) ☞ 293

☞

293

SECTION IV Kaf¯alah (Surety) SECTION V Rahn (Pledge, M ortgage , Collateral) SECTION VI Bay‘ al-Waf¯a’ SECTION VII Extinction of Rights (Ibr¯a’) SECTION VIII Tafl¯is (Insolvency, Bankruptcy)



Contents


17

SECTION IX Interdiction (H . ajr) A

Types of h.ajr

☞

299

CHAPTER XX

Acquisition of Property and Liens SECTION I Acquisition and Disposal of Property SECTION II Modes of acquisition of property A B C D E F G H I

Contracts and declarations ☞ 303 Claim as a third party (Istih.q¯aq) and restitution ☞ 303 Preemption (Shuf‘ah) ☞ 303 Revival of Barren Land (Ih. y a¯’ al-Maw¯at ) ☞ 305 H . im¯a and Iqt . a¯ ‘ (Estates) ☞ 305 Ma‘ a¯din (Minerals) ☞ 306 Found Property (Luqt . ah) ☞ 306 Prizes or Prize Money (Sabq) ☞ 308 Property of the mafq¯ud (missing person) ☞ 308 SECTION III Liens

A B C

Leaseholds (ij¯arah, kir a¯ ’ ) ☞ 309 Wad¯ı‘ah (deposit, bailment) ☞ 309 Rights in the property of others: easements and servitudes (irtif a¯q) ☞ 309 SECTION IV Partitioning of Property (Qismah)




18

Contents

CHAPTER XXI

Enterprise Organization SECTION I Definition of Partnership SECTION II Types of Partnerships A B

Types of partnership according to the majority Types of partnership according to the H . anaf ¯ıs

☞ ☞

314

315

SECTION III ¯ Partnership The ‘Inan SECTION IV The Muf¯awad. ah Partnership SECTION V ¯ Mud. arabah A

The Conditions of Mud.a¯rabah

☞

318

SECTION VI Muz¯ara‘ah (Share-cropping) SECTION VII ¯ Mus¯aq¯ah or Mu‘amalah SECTION VIII Corporations and Islamic Law



Contents

V


19

The Islamic Law of Persons

323

CHAPTER XXII

Marriage SECTION I The h. ukm of marriage SECTION II Looking at the Would be Spouse Before Proposal SECTION III The Formation of the Contract A

Consent in marriage (legal capacity)

B

Whose consent? Guardian’s? ☞ 327 Is Guardianship a Condition for the Validity of the Contract of Marriage? ☞ 329 Stipulating an option (khiy a¯r ) ☞ 330

C D

☞

326

SECTION IV Witnesses (Shah¯adah) SECTION V ¯ ) Dower (S.ad. aq A B C D

Dower amount ☞ 332 Species and void dowers

☞

333

Deferred and prompt dower ☞ 333 Dower and divorce prior to consummation

☞

334

SECTION VI Impediments to Marriage A

Lineage

B

Relationship Through Marriage ☞ 336 Fosterage (Suckling; Wet-nursing) ☞ 337

C

☞

336




20 D E F G H I J

Contents

Unlawful Intercourse ( Zin¯a) ☞ 337 Number of Marriages ☞ 338 Combination ☞ 338 Disbelief (Kufr ) ☞ 339 The Ritual State of Ih.r a¯m Illness ☞ 340 ‘Iddah (Waiting Period)

☞

☞

339

340

SECTION VII The Requisites of Option in Marriage A

The Option of Defects

B

Option on Inability to Pay Dower and Maintenance Option Upon Absence ☞ 341

C

☞

340 ☞

341

SECTION VIII Marital Rights and the Restitution of Conjugal Rights A

Maintenance

B

Polygamous marriage ☞ 344 Nursing and taking care of the house

C

☞

342 ☞

344

SECTION IX ¯ H (H . ad. anah . az¯anat in Urdu) SECTION X Marriages Prohibited by Law and Void marriages CHAPTER XXIII

Divorce and Separation SECTION I The Kinds of Divorce (T.al¯aq) A B C

B¯a’in and Raj‘ ¯ı Divorces ☞ 349 Sunnah and Bid‘ah Forms of Divorce Khul‘ (Redemption) ☞ 352


☞

350


Contents


21

SECTION II Tafw¯id. , takhy¯ir and taml¯ik SECTION III Retraction after Divorce SECTION IV Waiting Period (‘Iddah) SECTION V Gift of Consolation Paid to a Divorced Woman (Mut‘ah) SECTION VI Appointment of Arbitrators SECTION VII Mourning (Ih. d¯ad) SECTION VIII Vow of Continence (¯Il¯a’) SECTION IX Injurious Assimilation (Z.ih¯ar) SECTION X ¯ ) Imprecation (Li‘an CHAPTER XXIV

Inheritance, Bequests and Trusts SECTION I Inheritance A B C

The as.h.a¯ b al-far a¯’id. or sharers ☞ 364 The as.ab¯at or residuaries ☞ 365 The dhaw¯u’l-arh.a¯ m or distant kindred


☞

366



22 D

The doctrine of h.ajb or exclusion

☞

Contents 366

SECTION II Was. ¯iyah (Bequest) SECTION III Gift (Hibah) SECTION IV ¯ r¯iyah (commodate loan) and qard. (cash loan) ‘A SECTION V Waqf (Charitable Trust)

VI

The Islamic State and Public Law

373

CHAPTER XXV

The Islamic State and its Duties SECTION I Single state and multiple states SECTION II The duties of the rulers in an Islamic state SECTION III ¯ wa Nahy ‘an al-Munkar—The Call for Amr bi al-Ma‘ruf Justice SECTION IV The Islamic state and democracy SECTION V The Islamic state and the economic system



Contents


23

CHAPTER XXVI

Crimes and Torts SECTION I The aims of the criminal law SECTION II Classification of Crimes in Islamic Law A B

Classification on the basis of the right aff ected: h.add, ta‘z ¯ır and siy a¯sah ☞ 389 Diff erences between ta‘z ¯ır and siy a¯ sah ☞ 391 SECTION III Offences and their penalties

A B C D E F

H . add Penalties ☞ 394 .J in¯ayat (bodily injuries) and qis.a¯.s

☞

397

Ta‘z ¯ır or penalties imposed by the state ☞ 400 Siy a¯ sah shar‘ ¯ıyah or the administration of justice Ghas.b (Usurpation, Misappropriation) Destruction of Property (Itl a¯f ) ☞ 404

☞

☞

402

403

CHAPTER XXVII

War and Fiscal Laws SECTION I Jih¯ad and Truce SECTION II The Ah. k¯am of Enemy Property A B C D

The fifth of the spoils (khums) ☞ 408 The four-fifths of the spoils ☞ 409 The anf a¯l (rewards) ☞ 411 Muslim property recovered from disbelievers


☞

412



24 E F G

Land conquered by the use of force (‘anwatan) Fay’ (booty) ☞ 413 Jizyah (poll-tax) ☞ 414

Contents ☞

413

SECTION III ¯ and ‘Ushr Zakat A B C D E

Wealth of minors ☞ 415 Those under debt ☞ 416 Wealth liable to zak¯at ☞ 416 Holding period for wealth ☞ 418 Those entitled to zak¯at ☞ 418 CHAPTER XXVIII

Courts, Procedure and Evidence SECTION I Courts A B C

Maz . a¯lim Courts ☞ 421 Court of the Q¯ad.¯ı ☞ 422 Court of the Muh.tasib ☞ 422 SECTION II ¯ . ¯i: Adab al-qad

A B C D

Qualifications of the q¯ad.¯ı: Jurisdiction ☞ 424 Procedure ☞ 424 Evidence ☞ 426

☞

423

CHAPTER XXIX

Islamic Law and Human Rights



Contents

VII


25

History of Islamic Law and its Schools

435

CHAPTER XXX

The Islamic Legal Heritage SECTION I Nature of Pre-Islamic Law SECTION II The First Period A B C D E

The Qur’¯an The Sunnah Fiqh ☞ 439

438

☞ ☞

438

Changes in society ☞ 439 Compilation ☞ 439 SECTION III ¯ ¯ The Second Period: al-Khulaf¯a’ al-Rashid un

A

Sources of law

☞

440

SECTION IV ¯ ‘un ¯ (Followers) The Third Period: Tabi A B C

Sources of fiqh ☞ 441 Narration of Traditions ☞ 441 The Rise of the Early Schools ☞ 441 SECTION V The Fourth Period: G rowth

A B C

Growth and compilation of fiqh ☞ 442 Compilation of the Sunnah ☞ 443 Compilation of tafs¯ır ☞ 445 SECTION VI The Fifth Period: The Maturing of the Legal System




26

Contents

SECTION VII ¯ un ¯ and Codification The Sixth Period: The Age of Qan A B

The Ottoman Q¯an¯un The Mughal Empire

☞ ☞

447

447

SECTION VIII The Seventh Period: C olonization and After CHAPTER XXXI

The Schools of Islamic Law SECTION I The H . anaf¯i School A B C D E

Ab¯u H.an¯ıfah: The Founder ☞ 450 Jurists of the School ☞ 450 Early works of the School ☞ 450 Influence of the School ☞ 451 The H . anaf ¯ı School and legal theory

☞

451

SECTION II ¯ The Malik¯ i School A B C

M¯alik ibn Anas: The Founder Jurists of the School ☞ 454 M¯alik¯ı School and legal theory

☞

453

☞

454

SECTION III The Sh¯afi‘¯i School A B C

Muh.ammad ibn Idris al-Sh¯afi‘¯ı: The Founder Jurists of the School ☞ 456 Sh¯afi‘¯ı School and legal theory ☞ 457


☞

455


Contents


27

SECTION IV The H . anbal¯i School A

Ah.mad ibn H . anbal ibn Asad al-Shayban¯ı: The Founder

☞

458 B C

Jurists of the School ☞ 458 H . anbal¯ı School and legal theory

☞

458

SECTION V The Extinct Schools A B C

The Awz¯a‘¯ı School The Z.a¯ hir¯ı School The T.abar¯ı School

☞ ☞ ☞

460 460 461

CHAPTER XXXII

Geographical distribution of the schools Select Bibliography Glossary



Outlines of Islamic

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