Process Operations

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Process oPerations

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Process operations / Center for the Advancement of Process Technology. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-700410-2 ISBN-10: 0-13-700410-9 1. Technical education—Study and teaching—United States. 2. Industrial arts— Study and teaching—United States. 3. Technical education—Curricula—United States .

4. Chemical processes—Handbooks, manuals,etc. I. Center forthe Advancement ofProcess Technology T73.P664 2012 660—dc23 2011018292

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-700410-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-700410-2

Process oPerations

Center for the Advancement of Process Technology

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c c Preface xi Acknowledgements

xiii

Industry Content Developers and Reviewers

xiii

Education Content Developers and Reviewers

xiv

Center for the Advancement of Process Technology Staff Chapter 1

Introduction to Operations

Objectives

1

Key Terms

2

Introduction 2 Equipment Review Systems Review

1

3 4

Instrumentation Review

5

Operations Organizational Structure 6 The Process Technicians’ Roles and Responsibilities The Process Technician of the Future Summary 9 Checking Your Knowledge Activities Chapter 2

Procedure Writing

9

11

11 12

Introduction

12

Procedure Writing Principles and Techniques Techniques for Effective Written Communication Summary 23 Checking Your Knowledge Activity

12 16

24

25

Reading Process Drawings

Objectives

27

Key Terms

28

Introduction

27

29

Uses for Common Process Drawings Process Drawing Information Symbols

7

9

10

Objectives Key Terms

Chapter 3

xv

29

37

41

Equipment Standards

49

v

vi Contents Summary 50 Checking Your Knowledge Activities Chapter 4

51

52

Complying with, Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies


53

53 54

Introduction

54

Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies

55

The Process Technician’s Role in Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies Safety Equipment 61 Environmental Hazards Potential Hazards Isolation Scenario

64

65 66

Routine Maintenance and Inspection Summary

Checking Your Knowledge Activities 68 Chapter 5

66

67 67

Communication: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Written

Objectives

69

Key Terms Introduction

70 70

Verbal Communication

71

Written Communication 72 Nonverbal Communication (NVC) Electronic Communication Devices

73 73

Communication during Start-Ups or Shutdowns Communication during Routine Maintenance Summary 80 Checking Your Knowledge Activities Chapter 6


80

81

Shift Change/Relief

83

83 84

Introduction

84

Shift Change/Relief

84

Methods Used to Make Relief Participants in the Shift Change Making a Timely Relief

Checking Your Knowledge

Chapter 7

85 88

88

Establishing Good Relationships Summary 90 Activities

90

90

91

Abnormal and Emergency Operations

Objectives

92

Key Terms

93

69

92

78 79

57

Contents

Introduction 93 Abnormal Operations

94

Emergency Operations

95

The Process Technician’s Role in Abnormal Operations The Process Technician’s Role in Emergency Operations Potential Hazards

99

Technician Emergency Response Duties Summary 104 Checking Your Knowledge Chapter 8

Activities 105 On-the-Job Training Objectives Key Terms Introduction

96 97

99

104

106

106 107 107

Purpose and Importance of On-the-Job Training 107 Training Methods, Skill Development, and Observing the Trainee Training Materials Summary

110

113


Maintenance

114

116

Objectives

116

Key Terms Introduction

117 117

Routine Maintenance

118

Predictive Maintenance Reactive Maintenance

118 119

Preventive Maintenance

119

The Process Technician’s Role in Maintenance Lubrication 124 Lubricant Storage, Handling, and Disposal The Process Technician’s Role in Lubrication

120 125 127

Turnarounds and Turnaround Maintenance 128 The Process Technician’s Role in Turnarounds 130 Shutdowns and Start-Ups Summary


Unit Commissioning

Objectives

137

Key Terms

138

Introduction

137

138

143

Checking Your Knowledge Activities

134

138

Unit Commissioning Summary

133

134

145

144

108

v

ii

viii Contents Chapter 11

Unit Start-Up

Objectives

146 146

Key Terms

147

Introduction 147 Normal/Routine Start-Up

148

Start-Up after an Emergency Shutdown

149

Equipment Start-Up after Maintenance Activities

150

Unit Start-Up 151 The Process Technician’s Role in Planning and Executing Start-Ups Potential Hazards 155 Summary 156 Checking Your Knowledge Activity Chapter 12

156

157

Lock-Out/Tag-Out


158

158 159

Introduction

159

Lock-Out/Tag-Out

160

Lock-Out and Isolating Devices 162 Types of Energy Requiring Isolation 167 Removing Lock-Out/Tag-Out Devices Summary 168 Checking Your Knowledge Activities

168

169

Reference Chapter 13

167

169

Utility and Auxiliary Systems

Objectives

170

Key Terms

171

Introduction

170

171

Steam Generation and Distribution Water Systems 176 Firewater

171

178

Potable Water

179

Sanitary Sewer System Wastewater 182

180

Refrigeration Systems

183

Cooling Towers 185 Electricity 187 Air Systems

189

Pressure Relief and Flare System Nitrogen Natural Gas Summary

192 193 193


194

194

190

152

Contents

Chapter 14

Process Technician Routine Duties: Normal Operations

Objectives

195

Key Terms

196

195

Introduction 196 Routine Duties 196 Tools

198

Equipment Monitoring

199

Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) Starting/Stopping Equipment 201 Personal Protective Equipment Procedures 204 Documenting Routine Duties Summary

202 204

204

Checking Your Knowledge Chapter 15

200

Activities

206

Sampling

207

Objectives

207

Key Terms

208

Introduction 208 The Importance of Sampling

205

208

Following Proper Sampling Procedure

209

Sample Points, Sample Loops, and Sample Containers Wearing Proper PPE 211 Contamination, Consistency, and Reliability Proper Labeling and Quantity Sample Analysis Summary 215

Chapter 16

213

213

214


209

215

216

Unit Shutdown

217

Objectives

217

Key Terms

218

Introduction

218

Normal or Routine Shutdowns Emergency Shutdown 220

219

Shutdown for Equipment Maintenance

220

Entire Unit Shutdown for Turnaround 221 The Process Technician’s Role in the Planning and Execution of Shutdowns Potential Hazards Summary

223

225

Checking Your Knowledge Activity Glossary Index

226 227 233

225

221

ix


P P

t P i c In the early 1990s, the process industries recognized that they would face a major shortage in human resources due to the large number of employees retiring. Industry partnered with community colleges, technical colleges, and universities to provide training for their process technicians, recognizing that substantial savings on training and traditional hiring costs could be realized. In addition, the consistency of curriculum content and exit competencies of process technology graduates could be ensured if industry collaborated with education. To achieve this consistency of graduates’ exit competencies, the Center for the Advancement of Process Technology and its partner alliances identified a core technical curriculum for the Associate Degree in Process Technology. This core, consisting of eight technical courses, is taught in partner member institutions throughout the United States. This textbook provides a common standard reference for the Process Operations course that serves as part of the core technical courses in the degree program.

Pp   t Instructors who teach the process technology core curriculum, and who are recognized in the industry for their years of experience and their depth of subject-matter expertise, requested that a textbook be developed to match the standardized curriculum. Reviewers from a broad array of process industries and educational institutions participated in the production of these materials so that the widest audience possible would be represented in the presentation of the content. This textbook is intended for use in community colleges, technical colleges, universities, and corporate settings in which process technology is taught. However, educators in many disciplines will find these materials useful as a complete reference for both theory and practical application. Students will find this textbook to be a valuable resource throughout their process technology career.

oz   t Process Operations has been organized into 16 chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview to the operations process and reviews related concepts from systems and instrumentation. Chapters 2, 3, and 5 preview some of the skills involved in interpreting and communicating functional operability. Safety policy is presented in Chapter 4. Chapters 6, 8, 9, 14, and 15 expand on issues related to process technician roles. And, emergency-related operations are discussed in Chapters 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 16. Each chapter is organized in the following way: • Objectives • Keyterms • Introduction

xi

xii Preface • Summary • CheckingYourKnowledge • Activities

The Objectives for a chapter may cover one or more sessions in a course. For example, some chapters may take 2 weeks (or 2 sessions) to complete in the classroom setting. The Key Terms are a listing of important terms and their respective definitions that students should know and understand before proceeding to the next chapter. The Introduction may be a simple introductory paragraph or may introduce concepts necessary to the development of the content of the chapter itself. The Summary is a restatement of the learning outcomes of the chapter. The Checking Your Knowledgequestions are designed to help students to self-test on potential learning points from the chapter. The Activities section contains activities that can be performed by students on their own or with other students in small groups, as well as activities that should be performed with instructor involvement.

cp s chaPter 1: introduction to oPerations Roles of the process technician are reviewed as well as the importance of grasping key concepts of equipment, instrumentation, and systems involved in functioning operability. chaPter 2: Procedure Writing This chapter discusses writing techniques as they pertain to developing and conveying operations procedures.

chaPter 3: reading Process draWings Drawings within the process industries, which include diagrams, plans, and symbols, are described and explained. chaPter 4: comPlying With safety, health, and environmental Policies Readers are shown how to understand and properly execute policies and procedures related to safety, health, and environmental issues. chaPter 5: communication:verbal, nonverbal,and Written Communication is explained in terms of information sharing in verbal, nonverbal, and technical styles. chaPter 6: shift change/relief Information is provided regarding protocol for proper exchange of information between shifts. chaPter 7: abnormal and emergency oPerations This chapter focuses on examining the risks and hazards experienced by process technicians during abnormal operations. chaPter 8: on-the-Job training New employee skills are reviewed with particular focus on preparation, organization, and training involved in the on-boarding process.

Preface

xiii

chaPter 9: maintenance The importance of appropriate and proper communication with maintenance technicians is discussed. chaPter 10: unit commissioning Process technicians review their roles during design, construction, and initial start-up of a new process unit. chaPter 11: unit start-uP The unique expertise required of the process technician during unit start-up is discussed, focusing on equipment safety and maintenance. chaPter 12: lock-out/tag-out The control of hazardous energy is explained through isolation techniques. chaPter 13: utility and auxiliary systems The role of utilities is reviewed, providing understanding of steam, water, fuel, compressed air, inert gases, and cooling systems. chaPter 14: Process technician’s routine duties: normal oPerations A wide range of process technician expertise is discussed to effect safe, efficient, and reliable operation of the process unit. chaPter 15: samPling Proper sampling and testing techniques are presented to verify analyzers, diagnose operating problems, and allow process technicians’ reaction time during problematic situations. chaPter 16: unit shutdoWn Situations surrounding shutdowns highlight appropriate equipment maintenance and repair techniques as well as the importance of technology in safe, reliable operations. acknoWledgments The following organizations and their dedicated personnel voluntarily participated in the production of this textbook. Their contributions to making this a successful project are greatly appreciated. Perhaps our gratitude for their involvement can best be expressed by this sentiment: The credit belongs to those people who are actually in the arena . . . who know the great enthusiams, the great devotions to a worthy cause; who at best, know the triumph of high achievement; and who, at worst, fail while daring greatly . . . so that their place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who know neither victory nor defeat.—Theodore Roosevelt

industry content develoPers and revieWers Charles Baukal, John Zink Institute Henry Bell, GNS Technologies Anthony Bhola, Hovensa Ted Borel, TPC Linda Brown, Pasadena Refining System, Inc. Gayle Cannon, Conoco Philips Lewis Davis, Chemetall Foote Corp. Rawlin Delaughter, Exxon-Mobil

xiv Preface Dan Durham, Total Cleve Fontenot, BASF Eddie Gibbs, Shell Todd Griffen, Conoco Phillips Jay Gross, BASF Roy Guerra, MEMC Kyle Hart, Enbridge Glenn Johnson, Sun Products Corp. Bharat Kamdar, Ingenious, Inc. Robin Knowles, TDS Douglas Kubala, Nalco Pam Lindsey, DuPont Dennis Link, BP Perry Lovelace, John M. Campbell & Company Diane McGinn, Ineos Dan McKenzie, Enbridge Bernell Nettles, BP Don Parsley, Valero Stephen Pehnec, John M. Campbell & Company Bruce Raiff, Dow Chemical Company Kim Roberts, Ascent Materials Ray Schemanski, Marathon Carley Sherry, Sinclair Oil Pat Silvas, Flint Hills Resources Chris Stewts, Lanxess Lee Trent, Future Tek, Inc. Mark Varner, RTCA Michael Wense, Marathon

education content develoPers and revieWers Louis Babin, ITI Technical College Chuck Beck, Red Rocks Community College James Bowley, Kanawha Valley Community and Technical College Donald Capone, Navarro College Robert Chaffins, Ashland Community and Technical College Tommy Conerly, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College Jerry Duncan, College of the Mainland Brian Ellingson, University of Alaska, Fairbanks Alan Foster, Lewis and Clark College Dewey Greer, Kilgore College Ronald Grubb, Bellingham Technical College Henry W. Haney, Kenai Peninsula College Frank Huckabee, Remington College Bobby Key, Texas State Technical College, Marshall Karen Kupsa, College of the Mainland Linton Lecompte, Sowela Technical Community College Joey Leonard, Nashville State Community College Richard Love, West Virginia University Rocky Melder, Lamar University Kyren Miller, Bismarck State College Juanita Naranjo, Louisiana Harbor College Jon Prater, Colorado Mountain College Denise Rector, Del Mar College Paul Rodriguez, Lamar Institute of Technology Vicki Rowlett, Lamar Institute of Technology Dale Smith, Alabama Southern Community College

Preface

xv

Wayne Stephens, Wharton County Junior College Keith Tolleson, Nunez Community College Steve Wethington, College of the Mainland Jerry Wilkinson, Southwest Mississippi Community College Bennett Willis, Brazosport College William Wolf, Fayetteville Technical Community College

center for the advancement of Process technology staff Anne Bechard, Education Developer Chris Carpenter, Web Applications Developer Melissa Collins, Director Kimberly Davis, Instructional Designer Jerry Duncan, Associate Professor Madi Elkins, Administrative Assistant Bill Raley, Principal Investigator Angelica Toupard, Senior Instructional Designer Scott Turnbough, Graphic ArtistProcess Operations

This material is based upon work supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DUE 0532652. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.


Process oPerations


1

Chapter

Inodcion o Oions Objcivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Identify key concepts from the Introduction to Process Technology course.

■

Identify key concepts from the Process Technology Systems course.

■

Identify key concepts from the Instrumentation course.

■

Discuss the term operations and its process industries synonyms.

■

List the various process technician roles and responsibilities within an operating unit: • Operateandmonitortheunitfromthecontrolroom • Operateandmonitortheunitfromtheoutside • Takeandanalyzesamples • Performhousekeepingactivities • Conductsafetyinspections • Handlematerials • Preparefor,assistwith,and/orperformmaintenanceasrequired

■

Discuss the activities that may be the responsibility of the process technician of the future.

1

2

Process Operations

Ky tms Distributed Control System (DCS)—automated control system consisting of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP)—formal and structured review and study methodusedtodeterminepotentialhazardsassociatedwithprocesssystems, equipment,processmaterials,andworkprocesses. Instrumentation system of pneumatics, electronic instruments, digital logic devices, and computer-based process controls that make up the measurement and control systemsforprocessequipmentforthepurposeofsafe,efficient,andcost-effective unit operation. Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO)—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources fromapieceofequipment. Pre-Start-Up Safety Review (PSSR)—comprehensive review process, including a list of criteria and activities that must be reviewed and performed by a start-up teamtodeterminewhetherornotaunitorpieceofprocessequipmentisready for a safe start-up. Procedure—specific series of actions that must be executed (followed) in the specified manner to obtain the desired result under the same circumstances each time the work is performed. Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)—systematicassessmentofthepotentialhazards associatedwithanindustrialprocess,takingintoaccountspecifichazardsand locations of highest potential for exposure. Process Technician—worker in a process facility who monitors and controls mechanical,physical,and/orchemicalchangesthroughoutaprocessinorderto create a product from raw materials. Systems—setofinteractingorinterdependentequipmentandprocesselementsthat work together to deliver a specific process function.

Inodcion Within the refining and petrochemical process environment, the term operations refers to the personnel group that makes up the facility operating team and includes processtechnicians,processenginee rs,andmanagemen t.Otherperson nelsuchasmain tenance, safety, human resources, and information technology are often supporting groups to the operations team. In this chapter, we will focus on the process technician’s role in operations. Process technicians are workers in a process facility who monitor and control mechanical, physical,and/orchemicalchangesthroughoutaprocessinordertocreateaproduct fromrawmaterials.Theyperformthetasksrequiredtooperateaprocessfacilitysafely and to maintain product yield and unit parameters. The process technician may also be referred to as an operator or a plant operator. Process technicians receive site and unit-specific training for the area, or areas, of the facility to which they are assigned to work. Performance reviews, written exams, and other testing methods are used to evaluate the technician’s understanding of process operations within his or her area of responsibility, and to determine thequalificationstooperatespecificareaswithinthefacility.Thequalifiedprocess technician is responsible for monitoring the process operation, making necessary process adjustments, and maintaining desired unit conditions throughout his or her designated shift period. The role of the process technician is extremely important in the safe and efficient operation of these process facilities. The technician needs to be familiar with all aspects of the assigned area and is responsible for the safety of any personnel in the area and for any of the work being done in that section of the process, even if the work is actually being performed by someone else.

CHAPTER1  Introduction to Operations

3

eqimn rviw Variou spiecesof equipm ent,pipingsystems ,instrument ation,andvesselsmake up a process unit. It is the process technician’s responsibility to have a clear understandingoftheequipmentassociatedwithher orhisassigned processarea—itscom ponents, operating limits, and how they function together to produce the desired endproduct(s)—inordertosafelyoperateandmaintaintheequipment.Common equipmentusedinprocessindustriesinclude:DistributedControlSystem(DCS), valves, pumps, compressors, turbines, motors, heat exchangers, cooling towers, furnaces, boilers, reactors, tanks, separators, distillation towers, absorbers, strippers, extraction vessels, adsorbers, rotary kilns, calciners, control systems, laboratory facilities, and filters. Processtechniciansmusthaveapracticalunderstandingofeachpieceofequip ment within the assigned area of responsibility—its function, potential problems, environmentalandsafetyconcerns,potentialqualityissues,relatedoperatingand emergency procedures, and their role as a process technician according to standard operatingproceduresandcompanyrequirements.Knowledgeofhoweachpieceof equipment,pipingsystems,andassociatedinstrumentationisintegratedtomakeup the process is crucial to the process technician’s overall understanding of his or her area of responsibility. To further this understanding, the process technician must be proficient in reading process flow diagrams (PFDs), piping and instrumentation diagrams(P&IDs),showninFigure1.1,andbeabletoidentifythesymbolsusedin thesetypesofdrawingsforvarioustypesofequipmentinactualapplication,shown inFigure1.2. Theprocesstechn iciantrainsonequip ment-specificprocedures relativetostartup, normal operation, and shutdown, along with emergency operating procedures andrespondingtoabnormalequipmentconditions.A procedure is a specific series of actions that must be executed in the specified manner to obtain the desired r esult under the same circumstances each time the work is performed. Part of the training process includes procedure rehearsals, or “walk-throughs,” to develop understandingandproficiencyinallphasesofoperation.Knowledgeoftheprocess,the equip ment,  andhoweachpartaffectsupstre amand downstream  equip mentand  processes,alongwithunderstandingofequipmentprocedures,iscrucialtosafeand efficient operation.

)7

)&



 )9 

FIgure 1.1 P&ID ofFlowOrificeand ControlValve

FIgure 1.2 Image of Flow OrificeandControlValveas showninP&IDinFigure1.1

4

Process Operations

Additionally, process technicians should be trained to follow routine operating procedures by following the steps exactly as written, unless otherwise instructed bysupervisors.However,itisimportanttonotethatinanemergencysituation,the initialstep stosecureapieceofequi pmentora portionoftheproc essmayhaveto beperformedwithoutawrittenprocedureinhandsothattheunit/equipmentcan be safely secured until a procedure can be obtained. Procedure walk-throughs and scenario-based training exercises prepare the process technician to respond to emergencysituationsandpreventpersonnelinjuryorequipmentdamage. The process technician is also responsible for lock-out/tag-out (LOTO), a procedureusedinindustrytoisolateenergysourcesfromapieceofequipment.The technicianmustunderstandlock-out/tag-outproceduresforthevariouspiecesof processequipmentandpipinginherorhisassignedareatoensurepersonnelsafety when maintenance is to be performed.

Sysms rviw Systems aredefinedasasetof interactingorinterdependen tequipmentandproc ess elements that work together to deliver a specific process function. Depending on how a facility is laid out, a process technician may be assigned to an area that has multiple systems. For example, Unit A feeds its by-product stream to Unit B, which refines the Unit Aby-productintooneormoreproductsformarketing.Hence,UnitAandBareboth interacting and interdependent systems that are part of the whole process facility. There may also be several systems within a single unit, such as a cooling or refrigeration system. The coolant is piped from a pump or compressor through various pieces of equipmenttoexchangeheatandcooltheprocessinthatsystem.Bothareinterdependent and interact with one another to achieve the desired process temperature. During the Process Technology Systems course, the process technician learns

about key systems within a process facility. Systems discussed include: • Distillation System—process that separates feed stream components by repeated vaporizationandcondensationwithseparaterecoveryofvaporandliquids.Distillation systems work well where the boiling points for the separated components are not too close. • Reactor System—process that chemically alters materials by the application of heat and pressure, usually in the presence of a specific catalyst that initiates, speeds, or intensifies the chemical reaction. • Steam Generation System —process that converts high-purity water to highpressure, high-temperature steam for heating process streams, used as a motiveagentforelectricalpowergenerationsystemsand/oramotiveagentfor mechanical drives. • Refrigeration System—system designed for the removal of heat. The system typically consists of a compressor that circulates a refrigerant through a condenser, an expansion valve or orifice, and an evaporator. The refrigerant may provide process cooling or cool a secondary system, such as water. A pump circulates the chilled water for process cooling. • Water System —system that includes fire water, process water, potable water, coolingwater,demineralizedwater,andboilerfeedwatersystems,amongothers. Allofthesewatersystemsserveuniquepurposeswithintheprocessandare equallyimportanttounitandprocessoperation. • Utility Systems —system that may include nitrogen, steam, plant air, instrument air, natural gas, compressed gas, and so on. The various utility systems within the facility are critical to the operating unit and facility. The utility systems also include the waste water disposal, process sewer, and flare systems that safely disposeofliquidandgaseouswastesinanenvironmentallysoundmanner. Thewastewaterandprocesssewersystemstransferwasteliquidstoatreatment facility (either local or offsite) where water and hydrocarbons (or chemicals) are


5

separated. The water is cleaned and distilled for reuse and the recovered process materials are either stored and processed or disposed of. The flare system burns hydrocarbons and other flammable materials at a very high temperature to prevent their release to the atmosphere. • Relief Valve—safetydevicedesignedtoopenifthepressureofaliquidina closed space, such as a vessel or a pipe, exceeds a preset level. It’s a system designedtoprotectpersonnel,equipment,andtheenvironmentbyventing excessequipmentpressurethroughreliefvalves.Personnelandtheenvironment areprotectedfromhazardousreleasesandequipmentisprotectedfromexceeding design pressure limits. • Flare System—device to burn unwanted process gasses before they are released intotheatmosphere.Reliefvalvesventtotheflaresystem,whichisdesignedto protect site personnel and the environment from exposure to harmful chemicals or hydrocarbons. There are many systems within a process facility that are interdependent. Unitspecific systems training gives the process technician a better understanding of the interdependency of various systems.

Insmnion rviw Instrumentation is a system of pneumatics, electronic instruments, digital logic devices, and computer-based process controls that make up the measurement and control systemforprocessequipmentforthepurposeofsafe,efficient,andcost-effectiveunit operation. Instruments include simple devices that measure, transmit, and indicate variablessuchasflow,temperature,level,orpressure.Figure1.3showsanexampleof a Temperature Indicator (TI). Instrumentation also includes complex devices and configurations such as interconnectedmultiplecontrollers,analyzers,logicdevices,andcomputersthatauto-

matically operate valves to establish and maintain desired conditions. Process control is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation. During the Instrumentation course, the process technician learns about different types of instrumentation for the measurement of pressure, flow, level, and temperature. The course includes control loop terminology, nomenclature, and symbolism as they relate to the process technician. KeyInstrumentationcourseinformationincludes: • Control Loop—group of instruments working together to control a single process variable such as temperature, flow, pressure, or level. Typical components in a controlloopincludeasensor/indicator;acontroller;anI/P transducer, which usuallyconvertsthesignalfromthecontrollertoapneumaticsignal;andafinal control element, such as a control valve, an electrical switch, or a motor.

FIgure 1.3 Simple Temperature Indicator (TI)

6

Process Operations

• Motor Control Center (MCC)—enclosure that houses the feeder breakers, motor controlunits,variablefrequencydrives,programmablecontrollers,andmeter ingdevicesneededtosupplypowersafelytounitequipment.Typically,the MCCprovidesasafe,pressurizedenclosurewithoneormoresectionshavinga common power bus. • Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)—computer-based controller that uses multiple inputs to monitor processes and automated outputs to control processes at desired parameters. These controllers are relatively low in cost and typically control specificpiecesofequipmentorsystemswithinaprocessunit.Also,PLCsmayoper ateindependentlyofaDCS,andmostarelocaltotheequipmentbeingcontrolled. • Transmitter—instrumentation device that transmits a specified measurement signal form the measuring element to the control device, indicator, or recorder, suchasfromatemperature-sensingelementtoaDCSindicator. • Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)—auxiliary power supply consisting of batteries that automatically provide temporary power, typically for control systems and lighting, when the normal power supply is interrupted. In some cases, a generator may augment the UPS. Many different types of transmitters and controllers are used in the process industries.Theproces stechnicianis requiredtohavea workingknowledgeofthespecific  instrumentation within his or her unit or facility.

Oions Onizionl Sc Theprocessoperati onsorganizationalstructure(shownin Figure1.4)is comparable across most production facilities, although titles may vary. Most facilities include the following: • Facility Management Team—generallyconsistsofthePlantManager,Operations Manager,Safety,Health,&EnvironmentManager,HumanResourcesManager, InformationTechnologyManager,EngineeringManager,MaintenanceManager, Security manager (if the facility is large enough), and perhaps a Project Manager if applicable. 6XSSRUW &DSLWDO3URMHFWV (PHUJHQF\5HVSRQVH (QJLQHHULQJ +XPDQ5HVRXUFHV 6DIHW\ 0DLQWHQDQFH &RQWUDFWV

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7

• Operations Superintendent—reportsdirectlytotheOperationsManager.In larger process facilities, including refineries and petrochemical facilities, there may be multiple superintendants assigned by directional orientation of the facility (i.e., north, west, etc.) or by unit. In some facilities, this layer of supervision may becalledtheOperationsSupervisor. • Process Supervisor—directly responsible for unit operation. The process technicians assigned to a shift report directly to the shift process supervisor, who, in turn,reportsdirectlytotheOperationsSuperintendent. • Process Technicians—directly responsible for running and maintaining the process unit. Process technicians report directly to their team leader or process supervisor. • Process Engineering—determines operating parameters, makes and writes engineering recommendations, and may issue specific operating instructions for aworkperiod—ashift,day,orweek.TheprocessengineerreportstotheEngineeringManageror,insomelocations,totheOperationsManager. These positions make up the “operations” group. The remainder of the personnel inside an operating facility falls under different categories such as Maintenance, Information TechnologySupport,Safety,HumanResources,Security,Engineering(mechanical, electrical, civil), and Administration.

th pocss tchnicin’s rols nd rsonsibiliis Process technicians have different roles and responsibilities for each section of the operating unit. For example, a process technician assigned to operate the control board has different responsibilities from a process technician assigned to monitor field activities. In many facilities, process technicians cross-train to operate all areas of a unit,includingtheDistributedControlSystem(DCS). The Distributed Control System (DCS) is an automated control system consisting of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal fromthecontrollertransmittertoacentralcontrolmonitoringscreen.TheDCSisthe interface that allows the control board technician to monitor and control the process viaacomputergraphicsterminaloraPCwhereprocessdiagramsandvariablesare displayedthatcanbemanipulatedbytheDCSoperator. AutomationsystemssuchastheDCSallowgreatercontrolandoptimizationofone or many processes simultaneously, ease of communication between the field and control room, and easy transmission of large amounts of data to and from a central location. Generally,thedutiesofacontrolboardorDCSprocesstechnicianaretooptimizefacil ityoperationtomaximizeproduction,minimizecost,andmaint ainproductspecifications and personnel safety. More specifically, the duties include the following: • Optimizefacilityoperationtomaximizeproduction,minimizecost,andmaintain product specifications and personnel safety. • Performnecessarycorrectiveactionswhenoperatingparametersexceedcontrol guidelines. • Recordperformancedata(readings)asrequiredbytheoperatingfacility. • Interpretlaboratoryanalysisandadjustprocessparameterstomaintainproduct qualityspecifications. • Participateinathoroughexchangeofinformationfromoneshiftorworkteam to another (called shift change or turnover). The exchange should provide the oncoming shift with information regarding the following: • Safetyandenvironmentalissuesthatexistorwerecorrected • Processandequipmentproblems,includingcorrectiveactionstaken • Materialtransfersinprogress • Specialoperatinginstructions • Itemsbeingcoordinatedwithotherprocessareas • Ongoingorupcomingunitmaintenanceorcontractwork • Technicalsupportpersonnelworkingontheunit

8

Process Operations

• Monitoralarmreportsandtakecorrectiveactionasrequired. • Coordinateprocessactivitieswiththefieldtechnicianasrequired. • Coordinatemaintenance,contractorandtechnicaldepartmentactivitieswiththe field technician as needed. • Recordalllaboratoryanalysisdataasrequired. • Recordshiftactivitiesintheunitlogbook(paperorelectronic). • ParticipateinProcess Hazard Analysis (PHA).APHAisasystematicassessmentofthepotentialhazardsassociatedwithanindustrialprocess,takinginto accountspecifichazardsandlocationsofhighestpotentialforexposure.Thereis morethanonetypeofPHA. • ParticipateinHazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies, which are a formal reviewandstudymethodusedtodeterminepotentialhazardsassociatedwith processsystems,equipment,processmaterials,andworkprocesses.HAZOPis onlyonetypeofprocesshazardsanalysis. • ParticipateinPre-Start-Up Safety Review (PSSR), which is a comprehensive review process, including a list of criteria and activities that must be reviewed and performedbyastart-upteamtodeterminewhetherornotapieceofequipment or process unit is ready for a safe start-up. The pre-start-up team is typically made up of representatives from various departments or crafts, and each member must signoffonthePSSRbeforestart-upcanbeperformed. • Detectandtroubleshootprocessoperationproblems. • Maintainthequalificationsandtrainingrequirementsrequiredbyregulatory agencies and assigned by each facility. • Performotherdutiesasdirectedbythefacilitymanagement. Thefieldtechnicianshaveawiderangeofdutiestoperformonadailybasis.Each operatingfacilitydevelopsguidesandcheckliststhatfitthefacilityoperatingrequire ments. The field technician’s routine duties vary by company and the type of process, but may include the following: • Participateinathoroughexchangeofinformationfromoneshifttoanother (called shift change or turnover). The exchange should provide the oncoming shift with information regarding the following: • Safetyandenvironmentalissuesthatexistorwerecorrected • Processandequipmentproblems,includingcorrectiveactionstaken • Materialtransfersinprogress • Specialoperatinginstructions • Itemsbeingcoordinatedwithotherprocessareas • Maintenanceorcontractorworkoccurringontheunit • Technicalsupportpersonnelworkingontheunit • Makeathoroughinspectionofthetechnician’sareaofresponsibilityandequipment at the beginning of the shift and at regular intervals throughout the shift (referred to as rounds). • Overseeandassistmaintenancepersonnel,contractors,andtechnicalpersonnel working in the field. • Performsafetyverificationchecksasrequiredbythefacilitymanagement. • • • • • • •

Performequipmentinspections/surveysasdirectedbythefacilitymanagement. Checkthetechnician’sareaofresponsibilityforleaks. Checkrotatingequipmentforproperlubricationandoperation. Checkthecoolingtowerandotherauxiliarysystems. Prepareequipmentformaintenanceusingacceptedpracticesandguidelines. Collectroutinesamplesandspecialsamplesasneeded. Receiveandstoresuppliesandmaterialsfortheunit(lubricatingoils,specialty chemicals,andothersuppliesasrequired). • Alertthecontrolboardtechnicianofprocessorequipmentabnormalitiesand suggest corrective actions. • Performequipmentpreventivemaintenanceasdirectedbysitepolicies. • Performhousekeepingasrequired.


9

• • • • • •

Recordnormaldutiesperformedintheunitlogbook(paperorelectronic). ParticipateinHazardandOperability(HAZOP)studies. ParticipateinProcessHazardAnalysis(PHA). ParticipateinPre-Start-upSafetyReview(PSSR). Wearappropriatepersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE). Maintainqualificationsandtrainingrequirementsrequiredbyregulatoryagencies and assigned by each facility. • Prepareequipmentformaintenance.

th pocss tchnicin of h F The business environment of process-related industries, including refining and petrochemical processing, is constantly changing. In order to compete in world markets, new technologies and imaginative applications for them must be implemented to maintain adequateprofitmargins.Withtheseimprovements,theroleandresponsibilitiesofthe future process technician will continue to evolve. With technology expanding at an explosive rate, the process technician will be requiredtoworkmoreintimatelywithhisorherunitprocesscontrols.Remotecontrol of process units will continue to evolve over the next several years. Whatever the future holds for the process-based industries, the process technician will remain an important position in the business. Process technician continuing educationandimprovedtrainingtechniquesmayeventuallyeclipsetechnological change and place the process technician in a position to initiate change.

Smmy The process technician plays an important function in maintaining safe, reliable, and profitable operations. She or he is an integral member of the operations team and is theprimarypersonresponsibleforexecutingplansforoptimizingtheprocess.This individualisthefirstlineofdefenseinpreventingunsafeconditions,leaks,andequip ment malfunctions. Themajorrequirementofaprocesstechnicianisthatheorshemusthavean understandingofprocesssystems,includingequipment,andinstrumentationinorder to operate and monitor the process safely. Without this knowledge, the process technician may be unable to perform the basic duties. Also, the process technician has various roles and responsibilities in the process industry, including operating and monitoring the unit from the control room and from theoutside.Sheorheisalsorequiredtoconductsafetyinspections,prepareequip mentformaintenance,andperformvarioushousekeepingduties.Otherdutiesmaybe assigned as needed. Technicians, as individuals and in teams, will provide ever greater business and technical competencies. Advanced technology will allow the industry to run more efficientlyandeffectivelyinthefuturewiththeControlBoardorDCStechnicianbeingthe heart of the team.

Chckin Yo Knowld 1. Definethefollowingterms: • DistributedControlSystem(DCS) • HazardandOperability(HAZOP) • Lock-out/Tag-out(LOTO) • Pre-Start-UpSafetyReview(PSSR) • Procedure • ProcessHazardAnalysis(PHA) 2. Listfiveresponsibilitiesrequiredofaprocesstechniciantooperatetheunitcontrolboard. 3. Pre-Start-UpSafetyReviewsareneededtoensuretheunit––––––––. a. is ready to shutdown b. has been started up successfully c. is ready or not ready for a safe start-up d. has safely been shutdown

10

Process Operations 4. Listfiveresponsibilitiesoftheoutsideprocesstechnician. 5. List six items the process technician will cover in his or her shift change communication. 6. Havingathoroughexchangeofinformationfromoneshifttoanotherisakeyresponsibility of the –––––––. a. process supervisor b. chemicalEngineer c. process technician d. operations superintendent 7. Listfivegrou psofpeop lethatmaymake uptheOpera tionsDepartmentatarefi ningor petrochemical facility. 8. Thecontrolroomprocesstechnicianmayutilizea–––––––– to control the process. a. manual valve b. DCS c. automatic valve d. instrument to pneumatic converter 9. Systemsaredefin edasasetofinte ractingorint erdependentequ ipmentand processelements that work together to deliver a ––––––––. a. specific process function b. workable solution c. final solution d. specific process parameter 10. Theprocesstechnicianwillrecordallrelevantoperationsactivitiesintheoperations–––––––. a. directory b. logbook c. file cabinet d. computer

aciviis 1. Performresea rchon therolesandres ponsibilitiesoftheproce sstech nician.Using the researched materials and the information from this chapter, write a one- to two-page paper detailing what you believe to be the most critical responsibilities of a process technician. 2. Togetherwithaclassm atewri teatwo-pa gerepor tonthepossi blefut urefor theproce ss technician. 3. Interviewseveralprocesstechniciansfromdifferentcompanieswithdifferenttypesofprocess facilities. Identify the tasks they have most in common and make note of differences in their tasks and responsibilities. What do you think makes these roles so similar? And so different?

2

ChaPter

Poc Wii Obci After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Define the function of an operating procedure and discuss the hazards associated with poor procedure development and improper use.

■

Explain the process for gathering information necessary to develop an operating procedure.

■

Explain the importance of effectively organizing procedure information and give examples of how information is best organized.

■

Demonstrate basic principles and various techniques for presenting procedural information to the user.

■

Use action verbs that clearly explain what action is to be performed.

■

Give examples of words or phrases that clearly explain when an action is to be performed.

■

Use adjectives or expressions that clearly explain how to execute a specific action.

■

Give an example of an instance when it would be important to explain why an action is performed.

■

Give examples of and explain why certain words are purposely avoided when writing operating procedures.

■

Demonstrate visualization techniques that improve the effectiveness of what the procedure is intended to communicate to the user.

■

Explain the reasons for limiting procedural steps within a section or grouping.

■

Apply the techniques and principles presented in this chapter.

11

12

Process Operations

K t Checklist—procedure written in a list format that requires the user to initial or check the completion of each step. Internal Procedure—company-specific procedure. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)—regulates safety and health standards internationally. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)—U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrier

between hazards and the worker. Procedure Owner—individual that is accountable for the accurate development and maintenance of a procedure. Procedure Template—form or guide that accurately and effectively shapes procedure presentation and content. Procedure User—process technician trained and qualified on the subject matter of the procedure prior to use. Process Safety Management (PSM) —OSHA standard that contains the requirements for management of hazards associated with processes using highly hazardous materials. Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operations, as well as emergency operations. Subject Matter Expert (SME)—individual within an organization possessing a very high level of expertise regarding a particular job, task, or process.

Iocio

Operating procedures are perhaps the most important documents in industry because they guide personnel to perform tasks safely, without safety incidents or environmental insult. Too often, poorly written or improperly executed procedure s have been identified as the root cause or at least a contributing factor in industrial accidents across the globe. To promote safety and meet the demands of governmental regulations and industry standards, process facilities have developed internal standards that define Procedure Development and Use Requirements within their organizations. Governmental organizations, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), create safety standards like the Process Safety Management (PSM) that manages hazards associated with processes using highly hazardous materials. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) regulates industry safety and health standards internationally. Standards vary by industry and company, as well as by location. Process technicians create internal procedures that provide accurate, clear instructions, that when properly executed, aid the user in safely completing a task within the company. They write, maintain, and use operating procedures relevant to their area of responsibility. As the procedure owner, they are accountable for the accurate development and maintenance of the procedure. A successfully written procedure will follow basic writing principles and techniques that will make it easily identifiable, accessible and executable, task specific, accurate, well organized, audience specific, and error inhibiting. Development of a successful procedure can be divided into stages, including information gathering, organization, and presentation.

Poc Wii Picip  tci Process technicians use principles and techniques to write effective procedures. Three fundamental elements that are essential to developing any procedure include:

CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

13

• Gatheringinformation • Organizingtheinformation • Presentingtheinformation An example of a completed, effective procedure template is shown in Figure 2.1.

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14

Process Operations

gatherIng InFOrmatIOn A procedure may be relatively simple, such as describing how to change a flat tire, or long and complex, such as providing instructions for placing a gas-fired turbine into service. No matter how simple or complex, the technical accuracy of the content is critical. Therefore, the information-gathering process establishes a solid foundation for the procedure. Process technicians often create standard operating procedures (SOP), unitspecific procedures for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operations, as well as emergency operations. The following list identifies many of the considerations necessary when gathering information prior to a draft of a specific procedure: • • • • • • • • •

Purpose,suchaswhat,when,how,andwhy Targetaudience:Whomustunderstandandexecutetheprocedure? Federallawsandregulations Statelawsandregulations Corporaterequirements,suchasinternalpoliciesandprocedures Safety,health,andenvironmentalconsiderations Equipmentmanufacturerrequirementsandrecommendations Impactoftheprocedureontheoverallprocess Scheduling

Using the example of a standard operating procedure for the start-up or shutdown of a particular process pump, the text of the procedure must also incorporate specialized information as well. The procedure must address: • • • • •

Requiredpersonal protective equipment (PPE) Safetyandenvironmentalconsiderations Hazardsassociatedwithoperationofthepump Hazardsassociatedwiththeprocessmaterial Thefunctionofthepumpintheprocess The procedure may incorporate additional information, such as:

• Physicalconstructionofthepump,associatedvalves,andinstruments • Typeofpump,suchaspositivedisplacementorcentrifugal • Typeofservicethepumpisin,suchascoldorhot Although the procedure writer may have extensive knowledge on the subject of a procedure, a procedure that meets all requirements often necessitates input from several resources. The technical expertise of other subject matter experts may help accurately address concerns such as process safety, risk management information, environmental protection, consequences of deviation, operating constraints or parameters, permit requirements, and more. A subject matter expert (SME) is an individual within an organization possessing a very high level of expertise regarding a particular job, task, or process. Inaddition,amanufacturerrepresentativemaybeinterviewed,oratechni cal publication may be reviewed and/or referenced during information gathering. The manufacturer reference materials can help ensure that design specifications and recommendationsaremet.Incertainsituations,itmaybedesirableandacceptableto use the manufacturer procedures directly.

OrganIzIng the InFOrmatIOn After the information has been gathered, it is then assembled into a logical order. There are a number of methods that can be used to organize information into a manageable format. Many organizations have developed procedure templates to accurately and effectively shape procedure presentation and content that are approved by technical experts. These procedure templates are specifically designed and formatted to meet exact requirements.

CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

15

The use of a template to complete the entire process of developing a procedure offers several benefits. These benefits include: • • • •

Directingtheinformation-gatheringprocessandpromotinglogicalorganization Developingconsistencythatwillcontinueintothepresentationprocess Guardingagainstomissionofcriticalstepsorfacts Promotingeaseofexecution

The procedure template represented in Figure 2.1 demonstrates how information can be organized. The simple layout and grouping of information into specific components simplifies the writer’s job and improves the user’s ability to perform the procedure. The suggested template is offered as an example to demonstrate how the many complex components of a procedure can be logically structured. The order in which the components are listed is significant because the sequence of the components in the template forms the foundation for the entire procedure. A template that contains the most common components helps the writer avoid omittingcriticalinformationandservestoreduceusererrors.Intheexample,eachof the required components is listed in the left-hand column with space available on the right to provide descriptive information necessary to carry out the procedure safely.

PresentIng the InFOrmatIOn Once the gathering and organization of information is completed, the focus shifts to the presentation of the information. The presentation is the final written document. The procedure is incomplete until accurately and effectively written instructions are ready for theprocedureuser,ortargetaudience.Inmostcases,the procedure user is the process technician trained and qualified on the subject matter ofthe procedure prior to use. Taking into consideration the target audience, the written steps of a procedure shouldreflecttheactualjobtasksbeingperformedinthefield.Itshouldenablethe user to easily answer the following questions: • • • •

WHATistobedone? WHENisittobedone? HOWisittobedone? WHYisittobedone?

Using these questions, a procedure writer can more effectively communicate action steps precisely. Through practice and experience, a procedure writer expands these concepts and improves writing skills. WHAT  S  tarteachstepwithanactionwordorstatementthatclearlydefineswhat to do in that step. For example: • Openthefeedcontrolvalve. • StartthepumpmotorusingthelocalStart/Stopswitch. • Stopthetransferwhenthelevelintheholdtankreaches72%. WHEN  Describewhen to execute a procedure, or certain steps within a procedure. This step is very important to safe, reliable operation. For example: • Whenthetemperaturedropsbelow150degreesF,blockinthesteam supply valve. • Aftercompletionofthesafetystart-upchecklist,proceedto… • Beforewarminganysteamlinesontheturbine,establishnormal operation of the lube oil cycle. how to HOW  U  seadjectivesandexpressionstodefinelimitationsorclarify perform the action. For example: • Closetheminimumflowrecyclehandvalvegraduallywhilemonitoring thedischargeflow.Iftheforwardflowdoesnotincrease,reopenthe minimum flow hand valve. • Positionyourbodycorrectly.Holddownthevalvelever,androtate the lever in one smooth motion so that the lever is pointing to the opposite filter.

16

Process Operations

WHY  E  xplain whyasteporactionisrequired.Insomeinstances,thiscanbevery important. Consider the following example from a column start-up procedure: • Thedistillationcolumncanbefedtwodifferentfeedstoproducetwodifferentproducts.WhenthecolumntakesfeedA,thecolumnoverheadisthe productstream.WhenthecolumntakesfeedB,theproductstreamisthe column bottoms. Insomeinstances,itisimportanttoincludenotesorwarningsdescribingimpor tantoperatin gfactspriortoanactionstep .Warning smayincludeoper atinglimits, personal hazards, environmental details that provide information, and a chance to pause and think about the upcoming action. Here is an example of a note:

NOTE: The distillation column can be fed two different feeds to produce two differentproducts.WhenthecolumntakesfeedA,thecolumnoverheadistheproduct stream.WhenthecolumntakesfeedB,theproductstreamist hecolumnbottoms.

tci fo effci Wi Coicio Clear communication is necessary for successful procedure writing. The user must be able to interpret and execute the instructions accurately, and must be aware of any potentialhazards.Better-writtencommunicationmakesconfidencehighforsuccessful procedure execution. The most effective techniques include being precise, using common names, avoiding subjective words, following company procedures, grouping and labeling, employing visual techniques, and practicing.

Be PreCIse Use the imperative or authoritative voice for clarity and economy of words; do not leave room for interpretation. Unclear instructions may result in lost production, product contamination, environmental release, or worse—injury or loss of life. Whendescribinganamount,suchastheamountofsalttoaddtoarecipe,andan exact amount is not necessary, then it is acceptable to say a “pinch.” However, if 1/8 teaspoon is the correct amount, then the recipe must say 1/8 teaspoon. Other examples of specified measurements include: • Donotallowthepressuretoexceed80psig. • AddChemicalAtothemixer,increasingthemixerlevel1inch. Accurate descriptions are required when describing equipment or identifying valves. Examples of accurate equipment descriptions include: • FC-5555,Columnfeedvalveflowcontroller • PC-1111,RefluxDrumpressurevalvecontroller

use COmmOn names Whenwritingprocedures,usecommonlyacceptedterminology.Althoughmanydif ferent terms may be used to identify and describe a piece of equipment, use the common acceptable name and accurate, correct descriptions. Examples of common acceptable names include: • • • • •

Double-valve-and-vent,ordouble-block-and-bleed,orpadanddepad Reboilerorcalandria Suctionpotorsuctiondrum Heaterorfurnace OperatororTechnician

CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

17

avOId suBjeCtIve WOrds Ambiguous words create uncertainty. Avoid words like could, should, may, might, and ought when writing procedures. Also, avoid using the words about and approximately, as they indicate a lack of precision. These types of words are subjective, and allow for a choice. Procedures are specific; they are not suggestions or recommendations. FOllOW COmPany PrOCedures Internalproceduresshouldbedesignedtomeetthespecificstandardsandrequire ments of the specific facility. An employer may have an exact method on procedure writing that is designed to meet his or her specific standards and requirements. grOuP and laBel InFOrmatIOn Grouping information into small manageable units will help define a logical sequence. Studies have shown that most people begin to have difficulty processing written instructions that exceed seven to nine steps. Complexity of the instructions can influence the number of steps required in a set of instructions. The goal of procedure writing is to present a procedure that is specific, clear, and concise without overwhelming the user. Grouping and labeling the information into like groups is a method that is useful to break down a more complex set of steps into separate activities that work together to produce the desired result. Figure 2.2 contains examples of grouping and labeling information.

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18

Process Operations

emPlOy vIsual teChnIques Visual techniques can be used to promote clarity and provide emphasis. Examples of common visual techniques include: • Useunderlinedboldedtexttoemphasizeatargetvalue.

STEP

4.

ACTION

Holdthecolumnpressure

below50psig.

• Center,bold,orcapitalizetextonalinetocallattention.

STEP

6.

ACTION IMPORTANT!

Notify the process technician before starting the refluxpump.

• Usenumbersasopposedtotextwhenstatingvalues.

STEP

2.

ACTION

Startfeedtothecolumnataratebetween25and35gpm.

• Present“if-then”statementsinatablewhenadecisionmustbemade.

STEP

1.

ACTION

Ifthecolumnpressureis:

Then:

<15.0psig

Open the methane make up hand valve.

>90.0psig

Open the vent to flare hand valve.

• Usecheck/initialboxestodocumentstepcompletion.Thishelpstoensurethat each step is completed in the correct order. This technique is commonly called a checklist. A checklist is a written list that requires the user to initial or check the completion of each step.

STEP

ACTION

1.

Open the discharge isolation valve wide open.

2.

Start the pump using the local START/STOP switch.

3.

Verifydischargeflowis>30pph.

CHECK

As a rule, if a template or table is not used when writing a procedure, it is important to write only one line per step and to leave plenty of white space. Do not write paragraphs containingmultiplesteps.Figure2.3providesanexampleofanoperatingprocedure.

CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

19

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20

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CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

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SDJHRI


21

22

Process Operations

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SDJHRI


CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

23

PraCtICe Learning to write procedures correctly is important, but practice will enhance the writer’s skill. A simple method to practice writing procedures is to choose a simple task and write a procedure. For example, begin by choosing a task involving ahomeorcarwithwhichyouareveryfamiliar.Writeanin-depthprocedureto perform the task.

NOTE: Keep in mind the procedure is intended for a skilled and qualified user.

Most procedures begin in the field. Here is an example of how to write a procedure to change a tire on a vehicle: • Withpadandpencil,standbythecar. • Considersafetyfirstandthroughouttheprocessofdocumentingthesteps. • Envisiontheskillandknowledgelevelofthepersonwhowillusetheprocedure (audience analysis). • Envisionthecircumstancessuchaswhenandwheretheprocedurewillbe used, and possible hazards created by location. • Next,listthevariousmajorstepsrequiredtocompletethetask. • Then,breakdowntheactivitiesintosteps,notingthetools,equipment,andother materials that are necessary for the task. • Whenyouhavefinishedwritingtheprocedure,gotothebeginningandtestthe procedure several times until you are comfortable with your draft. • Thinkcriticallyandlookforsomethingmissedornotpreviouslyconsidered. • Whenyouaresatisfiedwiththestepsfortheprocedure,transferyournotesinto a format suitable for presentation and review.

• • • • • • • •

Remember that a good procedure meets the following criteria: Iseasilyidentifiable Iseasytoaccessandexecute Istaskspecific Isaccurate Iswellorganized Targetstheintendedaudience Isnotoverwhelming Eliminatesorreducesthepotentialforerror

The procedure is finally ready for a subject matter expert to review and evaluate critically. The subject matter expert may ask: • • • •

Wereallsafetyissuesdocumented? Wereanystepsorelementsmissing? Istheprocedureclearandconcisewithnothingleftopentointerpretation? Dotheproceduralstepsfollowalogicalsequence?

• Werethereanyunansweredquestions? To assure accuracy and clarity, request that another individual pilot test the procedure. Do not be discouraged if the procedure has flaws and must be reworked a few times to make it perfect. Procedures require many drafts to make them effective.

s The training and skills acquired as a process technician eventually qualify an individual to play a critical role in the development, implementation, and execution of operating procedures. Operating procedures are a very important document in the industry because they guide personnel to perform tasks successfully, without safety incident. Process technicians may also be asked to create or review existing procedures

24

Process Operations

for accuracy, or to update an existing procedure due to a process change. The role of procedure writer demands the same level of ownership and accountability as all other responsibilities of the job. The goal of procedure writing is to present a procedure that is specific, clear, and concisewithoutoverwhelmingtheuser.Withpractice,aprocedurewriterwillmaster the writing techniques that produce procedures that are both easy to follow and allow the process to be completed in an efficient, safe manner. Several principles and techniques can help a procedure writer to write effective procedures. Development of a successful procedure can be divided into stages, including information gathering, organization, and presentation. Gathering information includes considering requirements and references from subject matter experts. Procedure templates can be used to organize the information in logical manner. Presentation of the information includes the actual writing of the procedure, as well as answering the questions what, when, how, and why. Major techniques for effective written communication include being precise, using common names, avoiding subjective words, following company procedures, grouping and labeling, and employing visual techniques. Learning to write procedures correctly is important, but practice will enhance the writer’s skill.

Ccki yo Kow 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

Define the following terms: • Checklist • InternalProcedure • InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO) • OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA) • PersonalProtectiveEquipment(PPE) • ProcedureOwner • ProcedureTemplate • ProcedureUser • ProcessSafetyManagement(PSM) • SubjectMatterExpert(SME) Whatisthefunctionofanoperatingprocedure? Whichofthefollowingarecriteriaforawell-writtenprocedure? a. Easily identifiable b. Eliminates or reduces the potential for error c. Targets the intended audience d. Accurate e. All of the above Name two benefits of using a procedure template. a. ––––––––––– b. ––––––––––– Namethreewordstoavoidwhenwritingprocedureinstructions. a. ––––––––––– b. ––––––––––– c. ––––––––––– Whyisitconsideredbestpracticetogroupinformationoractivitiesintosmallmanageable units?

7. Namethreevisualtechniquesthatcanbeusedtopromoteclarityandprovideemphasis. a. ––––––––––– b. ––––––––––– c. ––––––––––– 8. Name three hazards that could result from poor development or im proper use of procedures. a. ––––––––––– b. ––––––––––– c. ––––––––––– 9. Name one reason to have a spot for initialing the completion of the steps in a procedure. a. –––––––––––

CHAPTER 2

Procedure Writing

25

10. Whichofthefollowingphrasesareacceptabletouseinaprocedure?Morethanoneanswer may be correct. Select all that apply. a. Opentheblockvalve5fullturns. b. Open the block valve about a third. c. Open the block valve gradually until you observe condensate coming out of the downstream drain valve. d. Close the vent when the pressure is low. 11. Whichofthefollowingphrasestelltheuserexactlywhen to open the steam supply valve in aprocedurestep? a. Whenallcondensatehasdrainedandlivesteamcomesoutthedrainvalve,closethe drain valve and fully open the steam supply valve. b. Check the drain valve and then fully open the steam supply valve. c. Open the steam supply valve and check the drain for condensate. d. Close the drain valve and open the steam supply valve.

acii Using the Process Scenario, Current Operating Conditions, and Process Sketch provided below, write an operating procedure to prepare the North Reflux Pump for service, put it into service, andshutd owntheSouthReflu xPump.Yourproce dure will stop when thenorth  pumpis operating normally and the south pump has been safely removed from service. • Demonstratetheprinciples,concepts,andtechniquesintroducedinthischapter. • EnsurecompliancewithapplicableSafety,Health,andEnvironment(typicalprocess facility policies) and OSHA regulations. Note: For the purpose of this exercise, do not address preparation of the South Reflux Pump for seal replacement. Process Scenario

• Duringnormaloperation,onerefluxpumpmaintainsrefluxtotheRefiningColumn and the second pump remains on standby.

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26

Process Operations • TheRefiningColumnisoperatingnormallyandwithinlimits;however,theSouth RefluxPumphasdevelopedasealleak.Itmustbeshutdownandpreparedforseal replacement. • Therearenoenvironmentalorsafetyconcernsbecauseofthesealfailure.Leakage across the seal of the south pump is venting to the flare through a dedicated vent line. • TheNorthRefluxPumpwasrecentlyoutofserviceformaintenanceandmustbe prepared and placed in service. • Refluxflowmustbemaintainedt oavoidadisruptiontotheprocessandlossof production. Current Operating Conditions

• Allcontrolparametersarewithinrequiredlimitsandatsetpoint. • Isolationvalvesaroundthenorthpumparestillclosedbecauseoftherecentmaintenance work on the pump. Helpful Hints

• Remember,yourprocedureendswhenthenorthpumpisoperatingnormallyand the south pump has been safely removed from service. • Thecurrentvalvepositionsareidentifiedonthesketch:O=Open,C=Closed. • TherearebothlocalandremoteSTART/STOP/REMOTEcontrolsforeachpump (not shown).

3

ChaPteR

Rdi Proc Dri Objciv Ater completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Explain the purpose o a block low diagram (BFD).

■

Explain the purpose o a piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID).

■

Explain the purpose o a plot plan.

■

Explain the purpose o an isometric diagram.

■

Explain the purpose o a Saety, Health, & Environmental Equipment Layout.

■

Explain the purpose o a process low diagram (PFD).

■

Explain the dierence between an analog (electronic/pneumatic) and Distributive Control System (DCS).

■ ■

Explain the dierence between instruments that control, indicate, and record. Identiy and describe instruments that have an alarm and/or a shutdown unction and are included in logic systems.

■

Locate the set-point, alarm, shutdown, and trip inormation.

27

28

Process Operations

K tr American National Standards Institute (ANSI)—oversees and coordinates the voluntary standards in the United States. ANSI develops and approves norms and guidelines that impact many business sectors. The coordination o U.S. standards with international standards allows American products to be used worldwide. American Petroleum Institute (API)—trade association that represents the oil and gas industry in the areas o advocacy, research, standards, certiication, and education or the petroleum and petrochemical industry. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) —Speciies requirements and standards or pressure vessels, piping, and their abrication. Application Block—main part o a drawing that contains symbols and deines ele-

ments such as relative position, types o materials, descriptions, and unctions. Block Flow Diagrams (BFDs)—simple drawings that show a general overview o a process, indicating the parts o a process and their relationships. Electrical Diagrams—diagrams that help process technicians understand power transmission and how it relates to the process. Emergency Block Valve (EBV)—automatic valve, typically controlled by an operating parameter and/or hand switches or process isolation when the parameter approaches unsae conditions or equipment limitations; also known as Emergency Isolation Valve (EIV). Equipment Symbols—set o symbols located on one sheet o a set o process low diagrams (PFD) or the user to review. ISA—a global, nonproit technical society that develops standards or automation, instrumentation, control, and measurement; ormerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society. Isometric Drawings (Isoms)—perspective drawings that depict objects, such as equipment and piping, as a 3-D image, as they would appear to the viewer. Legend—section o a drawing that explains or deines the inormation or symbols contained within the drawing. National Electric Code (NEC)—speciies electrical cable sizing requirements and installation practices. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)—speciies ire codes including building construction codes, ire suppression systems, and ire-ighting capabilities required at acilities. One-Line Diagram—key electrical drawing used by the process technician; also known as the single-line diagram. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) —detailed drawings that graphically represent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a process acility. Plot Plans—show the layout and dimensions o equipment, units, and buildings, drawn to scale, so that everything is o the correct relative size. Process Drawings—provide a visual description and explanation o the processes, equipment, and other important items in a acility. Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)—basic drawings that use symbols and directional arrows to show primary product low through a process, including such inormation as operating conditions, the location o main instruments, and major pieces o equipment. Schematics—show the circuit current low direction, typically beginning at the power source, and the circuit components with the power and signal connections between the components. Symbols—igures used to represent the equipment, instruments, and other devices on a process low diagram (PFD) or piping and instrument diagram (P&ID). Title Block—section o a drawing that contains inormation such as drawing title, drawing number, revision number, sheet number, srcinator signature, and approval signatures. Utility Flow Diagrams (UFD)—provide process technicians a P&ID-type view o the utilities used or a process.

CHAPTER 3 Reading Process Drawings

29

Iroducio Process drawings provide process technicians with a visual description and explanation o the process, its associated equipment, and other important items in a acility. They are also used or review by process technicians beore acility additions or revisions are incorporated. There are many dierent types o drawings. Each drawing type represents dierent aspects o the process and dierent levels o detail. Looking at combinations o these drawings provides a more complete picture o the process and the acility. Without process drawings it would be diicult or process technicians to understand the process and how it operates. When examining process drawings, it is important to remember that all drawings

have three common unctions: • Simplifying—using common symbols to make processes easier to understand. • Explaining—describing how all o the parts or components o a system work together (drawings can quickly and clearly show the details o a system that might otherwise take many written pages to explain). • Standardizing—using a common set o lines and symbols to represent components (while eorts are constantly made to standardize drawings and symbols across various industries, there is still a wide variance between the many industries). Diagrams are also used extensively or process technicians learning to troubleshoot on start-ups and shutdowns; when preparing equipment, piping, and/or valves or maintenance; and beore and ater initial commissioning. Process drawings must meet several requirements to be considered a proper industrial drawing. These requirements include speciic, universal rules: • • • • •

Howlinesaredrawn Howproportionsareused Whatmeasurementsareused Whatcomponentsareincluded Whatindustrialapplicationistargeted

U for Coo Proc Dri Process technicians must recognize a wide variety o drawings and understand how to use them. The most commonly encountered drawings include: • • • • • • • •

Blockflowdiagrams(BFD) Processflowdiagrams(PFD) Pipingandinstrumentationdiagrams(P&ID) Utilityflowdiagrams(UFD) Electricaldiagrams Schematics(electrical) Isometrics(piping) Plotplan The ollowing sections describe each o these drawing and their uses.

BlOCK FlOw DIagRams (BFD) Block flow diagrams (BFD), simple drawings that show a general overview o the process, indicating the parts o a process and their relationships, are used to represent unit operations (shown in Figure 3.1). They consist o blocks connected by straight lines that represent process low streams between dierent subsections within the process or between dierent processes. These streams may be liquids, gases, or solids, which low through pipes and ducts, or on conveyors. Block low diagrams show a high level or big-picture view o a process operation, with ew speciics, rom the introduction o a raw material to the output o the inal product. They do not describe how a step is to be accomplished, but what is done in the section.

30

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Block low diagrams ollow a set o rules: Unit operations, whether it be speciic pieces o equipment such as a reactor, a distillation column, boiler, and so on, or a production unit’s reaction system, distillation operation, or a packaging operation, may be represented as a single block. Process low streams lowing into and out o the blocks are represented by straight lines. They may be either horizontal or vertical with directional arrows indicating the direction o the process low. They are oten numbered in order to represent the process sequence rom start to inish. Block low diagrams should be arranged so that the process low is rom let to right.

PROCess FlOw DIagRams (PFDs) Process technicians are exposed to dierent types o industrial drawings on the job. The two most useul types o drawings to the process technician are process low diagrams (PFDs) and piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) (discussed next). Process flow diagrams (PFDs)are basic drawings that use symbols and directional arrows to show the primary low o a product through a process, including such inormation as operating conditions,and the location o main instruments and major pieces o equipment (shown in Figure 3.2). PFDs allow process technicians to trace the step-bystep low o a process. The diagrams contain symbols that represent the major pieces o equipment and piping systems used in the process. Directional arrows show the path o the process rom the beginning to the end. Process operating parameters maybe included. The process low is typically drawn rom let to right, with eed products or raw materials entering the process on the let, and ending with inished products on the right. Other inormation ound on a PFD includes: • Equipment symbols, a set o symbols located on one sheet o a set o PDFs or the user to review. • Equipment designations,including all major vessels, pumps, compressors, and other equipment with some sort o descriptive designation. For example, with a two-stage reactor, the designation mightbe “First Stage Reactor” and “Second Stage Reactor.” At some point in the design o the acility, equipment numbers are designated and added to the drawings. • Major process piping,which is indicated as lines on the PFD. It contains major control valves. Process stream lines are typically numbered and the numbers may be cross-reerenced to stream compositions. The material included in the stream composition data also includes design temperatures, pressures, and stream low rates.


31

FIgURe 3.2 Process Flow Diagram

• Control instruments, especially the most signiicant, included on the PFD particularly i they are essential to the operation o the process or i they contain special equipment. • Pump capacities oten included on the process low diagrams. Inormation or pump capacities include design low, pressure, temperature, and density. • Heat exchangers (input or output) and/or urnaces (input) used to provide heat input to or remove heat rom a process. Heat duties, or the heat addition or removal requirement at design rates, are included on the PFD. • Variables such as low, temperature, and pressure shown at critical points. Symbology charts are used along with PFDs or P&IDs to show the major pieces o equipment, piping, temperatures, pressures at critical points, and the process low. The use o symbology allows standardization o inormation on industrial drawings. Each industrial drawing has its own line and symbol that represents the component. These lines and symbols (with some subtle changes) are used all over the world.

PIPIng anD InstRUmentatIOn DIagRams (P&IDs) Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), detailed drawings that graphically represent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a process acility, are sometimes reerred to as process and instrument drawings. For a process technician, P&IDs are the most important representation o the plant process—so much so, that OSHA requires a company to maintain an accurate, up-to-date, copy (set) o the process plant’s P&IDs in the control room, or easily accessible plant location. P&IDs show more detailed inormation about the equipment, piping, and control systems than do PFDs. P&IDs are slightly dierent rom company to company;

32

Process Operations

however, they use similar symbol conventions such that the process technician should be able to understand any P&ID. A vital part o a P&ID, as shown in Figure 3.3, is the instrumentation inormation. This inormation gives the technician a irm understanding o how the process is controlled, how a product lows through the process, and how it can be monitored and controlled. Engineers and maintenance may also use P&IDs or troubleshooting, plant modiications, and upgrades; although maintenance more oten uses mechanical, isometric, and electrical drawings. Inormation ound on P&IDs includes: • Equipment symbols and numbers. • Equipment designations,including all major vessels, pumps,compressors, and other equipment. P&IDs should show all piping and control systems related in space— that is, a pump should be shown below the vessel rom which it takes suction. Some, but not all, P&IDs have a brie description o the equipment to include its name, equipment design speciications (vessel maximum allowable working pressure [MAWP], pump motor horsepower [hp], pump net positive suction head [NPSH], etc.), and material o construction, and they may have a unique equipment number. They will oten show internal components such as reactor bales, agitators, mixers and distillation trays. Examples o P&ID equipment inormation include: • Pump information may include (on P&IDs) material o construction (e.g., 304 Stainless Steel [304SS]), low rate at the design pressure (e.g., 200 gpm @ 150 Ft head), motor horsepower (e.g., 25 hp), and usually an equipment number unique to the unit or plant. • Vessel information may include the vessel’s maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP), material o construction (CS—carbon steel; SS—stainless steel), the size o the vessel (height and diameter), and the vessel’s unique number based on the plant naming conventions. 7,&  59+($'(5 363(& 7, 

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• Heat exchanger information may include all o the inormation described above or a vessel, however, the shell and tube side are typically treated separately or construction material and MAWP. • Major process piping, indicated by lines on the P&ID and designated with a line number or descriptor. Line numbers or descriptors include the line service designation (such as CWS or cooling water supply); a line number, which ollows company convention; and pipe size and a piping speciication number, which is also unique to the company. The piping speciication is determined by the process lowing through the line or its service and includes the range o pipe diameters covered by the speciication, the material o construction, and the acceptable valve types. The line description will also indicate the presence o electric or steam heat tracing, and, i required, the insulation speciication. • All instrumentation shown on P&IDs. Symbols used are consistent with the ISA Standard. ISA, ormerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems and Automation Society, is a global nonproit technical society that develops standards or automation, instrumentation, control, and measurements. Common control system detail shown on P&IDs includes: • Controlandemergencyisolationvalvesalongwiththefailureposition,which is indicated as ails closed (FO) or ails open (FO). Failure is the valve position taken when the valve actuator loses pneumatic or electrical power. • Controlvalvetype • Flowcontrolvalve(FCV) • Emergency block valve (EBV)— automatic valve, typically controlled by an operating parameter and/or hand switches or process isolation when the parameter approaches unsae conditions or equipment limitations; also known as emergency isolation valve (EIV) • XV—a valve that automatically ully opens or ully closes • Controllertype(pneumaticorsolenoid)andtypeofsignal(electronicor pneumatic) • Controlvalveinterlocksandemergencyshutdownsystems • Pressureindicator(PI);pressureindicatingcontroller(PIC);pressureindicating alarm (PIA) • Levelindicator(LI);levelindicatingcontroller(LIC);levelindicatingalarm (LIA) • Temperatureindicator(TI);temperatureindicatingcontroller(TIC);temperature indicating alarm (TIA); temperature element (TE) • General Notes that are included on the let side o the P&ID to add clariication to the drawing. They may include curio notations (a circle with a number enclosed) that more clearly describes a symbol or an instruction—or example, “Locate close to the pump” or “Locate at low point.”

sboo The use o symbology allows or generally standardized inormation across industrial drawings used all over the world. However, it is important to remember that there are ew universally accepted standards; thereore, companies and organizations use slightly dierent symbologies. The most common control systems symbol standard is the ISA standard symbols (NOTE: ISA and instrumentation tag numbers are discussed later in this chapter). Process technicians should be able to recognize these symbols and any special lettering method used on a P&ID. Furthermore, technicians must be able to interpret process lows, as well as instrument and equipment designations.

UtIlIty FlOw DIagRams (UFD) Utility flow diagrams (UFD) provide process technicians a P&ID-type view o the utilities used or a process (shown in Figure 3.4). UFDs indicate utility supply and connections to process equipment, along with the piping and main instrumentation or operating the utilities.

FIgURe 3.4 Utility Flow Diagram (UFD)


35

Typical utilities shown on a UFD include: • • • • • • • • •

Steam Condensate Coolingwater Instrumentair Plantair Nitrogen Fuelgas Boilerfeedwater Potablewater

eleCtRICal DIagRams Many processes rely on electricity, so it is important or process technicians to understand electrical systems and how they work. Electrical diagrams help process technicians understand power distribution and how it relates to the process. A irm understanding o these relationships is critical when perorming lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedures (i.e., isolating hazardous energy sources) and monitoring various electrical measurements. Electrical diagrams show the various electrical components and their relationships. For example: • • • • •

Switchesusedtostop,start,orchangetheflowofelectricityinacircuit Powersourcesprovidedbytransmissionlines,transformers,busses,andMCCs Loads(thecomponentsthatactuallyusethepower) Coilsorwireusedtoincreasethevoltageofacurrent Inductors(coilsofwirethatgenerateamagneticfieldandareusedtocreatea brie current in the opposite direction o the srcinal current) that can be used or surge protection

• Transformers(usedtomakechangesinelectricalpowerbymeansof electromagnetism) • Resistors(coilsofwireusedtoprovideresistanceinacircuit) • Contactsusedtojointwoormoreelectricalcomponents Process technicians are requently required to LOTO electrical power supply switch gear or process equipment. This requires the technician to open the circuit supplying power to the equipment—or example, an electrical motor. The switch gear room or the Motor Control Center or substation houses the electrical switch gear, or the motor starters or breakers. The key electrical drawing used by the process technician is the one-line diagram, also known as a single-line diagram (shown in Figure 3.5). The one-line diagram is the process technician’s most important electrical drawing because it shows the entire electrical system o interconnecting generators, transormers, transmission and distribution lines, loads, circuit breakers, and so on. In this drawing, essentially a block diagram, a single line is used to represent a three-phase power system, rom the incoming power source to each load (switch gear or breaker). It includes the ratings and sizes o each piece o electrical equipment supplied by the incoming power source. As with P&IDs, there is no single universally accepted set o symbols or one-line drawings. However, some oten used symbols are shown in Figure 3.6.

sChematICs (eleCtRICal) Schematics show the circuit current low direction, typically beginning at the power source, and the circuit components with the power and signal connections between the components. Unlike the one-line diagram, the schematic shows the actual wiring connections between the components. Process technicians use schematics to visualize how current lows between two or more circuits. Schematics also help electricians detect potential trouble spots in a circuit.

36

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IsOmetRICs (PIPIng) Isometric drawings (Isoms) are perspective drawings that depict objects, such as equipment and piping, as a 3-D image as they would appear to the viewer. The drawings present object images drawn at a 30-degree angle to show three sides o the object to the viewer. Isometric drawings may also contain cutaway views to show an object’s inner workings. Figure 3.7 shows an example o an isometric drawing. Typically, isometrics are provided during new unit construction and prove useul to new process technicians learning to identiy equipment and piping and to understand the inner workings.

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FIgURe 3.7 Isometric Drawing A common isometric drawing that a process technician may come to view is the piping isometric. Most isometric drawings generated in construction packages are piping isometrics that process technicians may be asked to review or comment on the line routing, the location o valves, and sample pointsor operator access. Figure 3.8 isan example o a piping isometric drawing.

PlOt Plan Plot plans indicate the layout and dimensions o equipment, units, and buildings. They are drawn to scale so that everything is o the correct relative size, as shown in Figure 3.9. For example, plot plans show the location o machinery (e.g., pumps and heat exchangers) in an equipment room. On a larger scale, a plot plan shows the location and dimensions o process units, buildings, roads, and other site constructions such as ences. A site plot plan also shows elevations and grades o the ground surace. OtheR DRawIngs Along with the drawings mentioned in the previous sections, process technicians might also encounter other types o drawings such as: • Elevation diagrams—represent the relationship o equipment to ground level and other structures. • Equipment location diagrams—show the relationship o units and equipment to acility boundaries. • Loop diagrams—show all components and conne ctions between instrumentation and a control room. For instance, a loop diagram might depict a control loop composed o a low control valve that is reset by a liquid level controller. Some loop diagrams include all o the process inormation required to design the loop, which includes the service, the low rate range, the calibration parameters or the low control instrument, and other pertinent inormation. Most companies have their own loop diagram conventions. However, there are industry standard loop drawing sotware programs, such as INtools.

Proc Dri Iforio legenD A legend (shown in Figure 3.10) is a section o a drawing that explains or deines the inormation or symbols contained within the drawing (like a legend on a map). Legends include inormation regarding abbreviations, numbers, symbols, and tolerances.

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tItle BlOCK The title block (shown in Figure 3.11) is the section o a drawing, typically located in the bottom right corner, that contains inormation such as the drawing title, drawing number, revision number, sheet number, srcinator signature, and approval signatures.

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aPPlICatIOn BlOCK An application block(Figure 3.12) is the main part o adrawing that contains symbols and deines elements such as relativeposition, types o materials, descriptions, and unctions.

FIgURe 3.12 Application Block


41

sbo Symbols (Figure 3.13) are igures used to identiy types o equipment, instruments, and other devices on a PFD or P&ID. A set o common symbols has been developed to represent actual equipment, piping, instrumentation, and other components. Some symbols may dier rom acility to acility, but many are universal with only subtle dierences, and others may be speciic to the individual process acility or company. It is critical that process technicians recognize and understand these symbols.

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P&ID Symbols

PIPIng symBOls Piping is a long, hollow tube used to transport process liquids and gases throughout a process acility. There are many symbols associated with piping. Although standards exist, it is possible or symbols to vary slightly rom acility to acility. Figure 3.14 shows examples o P&ID piping symbols.

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Symbols

42

Process Operations

15

P&ID Valve Symbols

ValVe symBOls Valves control the process lows through the unit piping. There are many types o valves used in the process industries. Each valve type has a unique symbol used to identiy it on a process drawing. The ollowing shows some examples o dierent valve symbols.

CHAPTER 3 Reading Process Drawings +DQG

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43

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FIgURe 3.15 P&ID Actuator Symbols aCtUatOR symBOls Actuators are devices that convert electrical or pneumatic control signals to physical actions. Figure 3.15 shows examples o actuator symbols. However, these symbols may vary rom acility to acility.

0

0

0

0

7

0 0

P&ID Pump Symbols

COmPRessOR symBOls Compressors increase the pressure o gases. In order to locate compressors on a P&ID, process technicians must be amiliar with the dierent types o compressors and their symbols. Figure 3.16 shows examples o compressor symbols. However, these symbols may vary somewhat rom acility to acility. PUmP symBOls Pumps are used to move liquid materials through piping systems. The process industries use many dierent types o pumps. Each pump type has a unique symbol that appears on P&IDs. The ollowing shows some examples o pump symbols.

44

Process Operations

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FIgURe 3.16 Process Drawing Compressor Symbols

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FIgURe 3.17 P&ID Heat Exchanger Symbols

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heat exChangeR symBOls Heat exchangers transer heat rom one substance to another without the two substances physically contacting one another. The symbols shown in Figure 3.17 are examples o heat exchanger symbols a process technician might encounter on a P&ID.

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FIgURe 3.18 P&ID Common Vessel Symbols


45

Vessel symBOls Vessels are containers in which materials are processed, treated, or stored. In order to accurately locate vessels on a P&ID, process technicians must be amiliar with the symbols. Figure 3.18 shows examples o some vessel symbols ound on P&IDs.

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FIgURe 3.19 P&ID Cooling Tower Symbols COOlIng tOweR symBOls Cooling towers lower the temperature o water using latent heat o evaporation. In order to accurately locate cooling towers on a P&ID, process technicians must recognize the various cooling tower symbols. Figure 3.19 shows some o the symbols that indicate cooling towers.

FIgURe 3.20 Turbine, 7X U E L Q H

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Boiler, Furnace, Tower, and Tower with Packing Symbols

tURBIne symBOls Turbines are used to produce the power necessary to drive equipment. In order to accurately locate turbines on a P&ID, process technicians must be amiliar with turbine symbols. These symbols may vary rom acility to acility. Figure 3.20 provides an example o a turbine symbol. BOIleR symBOl Boilers are devices that produce steam or various parts o a process. In order to accrately locate boilers on a P&ID, process technicians must be amiliar with boiler symbols. These symbols may vary rom acility to acility. Figure 3.20 provides an example o a boiler symbol. FURnaCe symBOl Furnaces are devices produce heat or processes. In order to accurately locate urnaces on a P&ID, process technicians must be amiliar with urnace symbols. These symbols may vary rom acility to acility. Previous Figure 3.20 provides an example o a urnace symbol. ReaCtOR anD DIstIllatIOn COlUmn symBOls Reactors are vessels in which chemical reactions are initiated and sustained. Distillation columns are devices used to separate liquid components by boiling point. In order to accurately locate columns and reactors on a P&ID, process technicians must recognize distillation column (tower) and reactor symbols. These symbols may vary rom acility to acility. Figure 3.20 provides examples o tower and reactor symbols.

Electrical Equipment and Motor Symbols

46


47

eleCtRICal eqUIPment anD mOtOR symBOls Electrical equipment can be used or a variety o unctions. Each equipment type has a unique symbol that identiies it on process drawings. Examples o electrical equipment symbols and their descriptions are shown here. InstRUmentatIOn symBOls Instruments are devices that measure, indicate, and control process lows, temperatures, levels, and pressures, and provide analytical data. Instrumentation symbols identiy instrumentation throughout a acility. The symbols may or may not look like the physical device represented. A 7/19-inch diameter circle, called a balloon, is commonly used to represent many unctionally dierent instruments. Figure 3.21 shows an example o a boxed instrumentation balloon, which represents a DCS instrument, whereas Figure 3.22 shows a remote panel mount and local instruments.

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Instrument AND Remote Panel and Local Instruments

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Instrument AND Remote Panel and Local Instruments

The only dierence rom one balloon to another is its unique alphanumeric tag number, which is explained in Figure 3.21. The tag number is the primary key to deining the instrument’s unction and control loop. Slight balloon modiications depict where the instrument is physically located. Figures 3.21 and 3.22 show how the various instrument balloons are representative o location. Considering the complexity o many control systems, this schematic approach works very well. Figure 3.23 shows an example o general instrument symbols.

Isa InstRUment tag nUmBeRs Instrument tag numbers identiy the measured variable, the unction o the speciic instrument, and the loop number. These tag numbers give the process technician an indication o what that instrument is monitoring or controlling. Letters and numbers describe an ISA instrument tag number (shown in Figure 3.24). The tag number should be unique since most process acilities use a global database to identiy devices. The irst letter identiies the measured or initiating variable, and the subsequent or succeeding letters describe the unction o the instrument. For example, in Figure 3.24, “F” stands or low, “I” or indicating, and “C” or controller. In other words, this instrument is a “Flow Indicating Controller.” I the instrument is ield mounted, it might say it controls low and has an indicator on its aceplate. The ISA Functional Identiication table (the ISA S5.1 standard table), shown in Table 3.1 lists the irst letter (with its possible modiiers) and the succeeding letters (including the passive or readout unction column), the output unction column, and

48

Process Operations

FIgURe 3.23 General Instrument Symbols

FIgURe 3.24 Instrument Tag Number

taBle 3.1 Isa Fucio Idificio tb First Letters Measured or Initiating Variable

C F H I L P R T V

User’sChoice(anycontroldevice) FlowRate Hand Current(Electric) Level Pressure,Vacuum Radiation Temperature Vibration,MechanicalAnalysis

Succeeding Letters Modifier

Readout or Passive Function Output Function

Modifier

Control Ratio(Fraction) High Indicate Light Point(Test)Connection Record

Low

Transmit Valve,Damper,Louver


49

possible modiiers associated with the succeeding letters. It is important to note that the inormation in Table 3.1 was taken rom the ISAS5.1 standard tables, but it is sub-

taBle 3.2 Iru t nubr Fucio Idificio ep Letters

Functional Interpretation

C CV E F

Controller ControlValve Element Flow

Letters

I

Indicator

PC

L P R

Level Pressure Recorder

PIC PT PY

T

Temperature

TE

Y

Transmitter/Transducer

TT

FFIC FRC LI LV

Functional Interpretation

AFlow(Ratio)IndicatingController FlowRecordingController LevelIndicator LevelValve(preerredwayoidentiyingacontrolvalveinaloop;may also be expressed as PV, FV, TV) PressureController(sincethiscontrollerdoesnothaveanindicatoror recorder unction, it would probably be behind the panel out o the sight o the operator) PressureIndicatingController PressureTransmitter PressureRelayorCompute(convert—e.g.,couldbeanI/Ptransducerin a pressure loop) Temperature Element (e.g., could be a thermocouple, RTD, or illed thermal system) Temperature Transmitter

ject to change. Thus, the most current ISA table should always be consulted or veriication purposes. The instrument tag examples listed in Table 3.2 can be interpreted using the unctional identiication inormation shown in Table 3.1.

euip sdrd With the development o process drawings and equipment standards, a system o symbols has been utilized to depict the various drawings that are used to describe how both equipment and its associated instrumentation are interconnected. Various engineering and chemical companies have created a symbols system in their own acilities or companies, but there have been other groups that have ormed organizations or societies to address issues across the various process industries: • ISA (ormerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society) is a global, nonproit technical society that develops standards or automation, instru-

FIgURe 3.25 ISA Logo

50

Process Operations

•

•

•

• •

•

mentation, control, and measurement. For instrumentation, the ISA is the dominant source or instrumentation symbology under standard 5.1 (see Figure 3.25). TheISAstandardS5.1iscomprisedofbothspecificsymbolsandacodedsystem built on the letters o the alphabet that depicts unctionality. Although many, i not most, large companies have moved toward adopting the ISA 5.1 standard in its entirety; other preerred symbols may be kept in their inventory. Anyone who uses a drawing should not assume that the ISA standard is used. All symbols, standard and nonstandard alike, should be identiied in the legend o each drawing. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) oversees and coordinates the voluntary standards in the United States. ANSI accreditation is used as a baseline or “backbone” or standardization in various industries. ANSI develops and approves norms and guidelines that impact many business sectors while coordinating U.S. standards with international standards. This coordination allows American products to be used competitively worldwide. The American Petroleum Institute (API)is a trade association that represents the oil and gas industry in the areas o advocacy, research, standards, certiication, and education or the petroleum and petrochemical industry. API speaks on behal o the petroleum industry to the public and the various government branches. The association sponsors and researches economic analyses and provides statistical indications to the public. API is a leader in the development o the petroleum and petrochemical industries or equipment and operating standards. Currently, API maintains over 500 standards and recommendations and has a certiication program or the inspection o industry equipment. API also has various education programs including seminars, workshops, and conerences available to industry or ongoing education. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) speciies requirements and standards or pressure vessels, piping, and their abrication. The National Electric Code (NEC) speciies electrical cable sizing requirements and installation practices. NEC was established by the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA). The NFPA speciies ire codes including building, construction codes, ire suppression systems, and ire-ighting capabilities required at acilities. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a U.S. government agency, was created to establish and enorce workplace saety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections, propose penalties or noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents.

sur There are many dierent types o drawings within the process industries. Each drawing type represents dierent aspects o the process and various levels o detail. Studying combinations o these drawings provides a more complete picture o the processes at a acility. Process drawings provide process technicians with visual descriptions and explanations o processes, equipment, and other important items in a acility. Process acilities use process drawings to assist with operations, modiications, and maintenance. The inormation contained within process drawings includes a legend, title block, and application block. Examples o process drawings include block low diagrams (BFD), process low diagrams (PFDs), piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), and plot plans. Block low diagrams (BFD) are the simplest drawings used in the process industry. They provide a general overview o the process, but they contain ewspeciics. Block low diagrams include the eed, product location, intermediate streams, recycle, and storage. Process low diagrams (PFDs) are basic drawings that use symbols and direction arrows to show the primary lows through a process. PFDs describe the actual process and include design low rates, temperatures, pressures, pump capacities, heat exchangers, equipment symbols, equipment designations, reactor catalyst data, cooling water


51

lows, and symbol charts. Process streams are typically numbered or reerence to material balance sheets containing stream compositions and other details. Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) are similar to process low diagrams, but show more detailed process inormation such as equipment numbers, piping speciications, instrumentation, and other detailed inormation. In many cases equipment detailed equipment drawings may replace equipment symbols. Utility drawings describe the utility systems ound in the plant. They may include utilities such as steam, air, nitrogen, cooling water, and potable (drinking) water. Electrical drawings are composed o at least two types: one-line (or single-line) drawings that oer an overview o the whole electrical system and schematic drawings that show the actual wiring connections between the components. Isometric drawings oer a three-dimensional perspective view. Piping isometric drawings show the routing o a line in three dimensions, making it easier or the process technician to ollow in the ield, or the pipe abricator to produce. Plot plans are scale drawings that show the layout o equipment, units, and buildings. They are drawn to scale so that everything is o the correct relative size and shows proper dimensions. Symbols are igures used to represent types o equipment. Examples o symbols representing many dierent types o equipment and instrumentation have been shown throughout the chapter. Dierent industry organizations develop and publish dierent symbology standards, so there is no universal standard ollowed by every company. Thereore, it is important or the process technician to be amiliar with the symbols used by his or her company.

Ccki your Kod 1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

Deine the ollowing key terms: a. Application block h. PIC b. Legend i. Isometric c. Process drawing j. Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) d. EBV k. Plot plan e. Title block l. Process low diagram (PFD) . Block low diagram (BFD) m. Schematic g. One-line diagrams n. Utility low diagram (UFD) Which drawing could be used by a process technician to ollow a pipe line in a pipe rack? a. Single line b. P&ID c. Piping isometric e. Block low Process low diagrams are typically drawn rom the . right to let g. let to right Which o the ollowing items are located on a process low diagram? (Select all that apply.) a. Pump capacities b. Equipment symbols c. Internal mixer in a reactor e. Control valve (True or False) P&IDs show less detail than PFDs regarding materials o construction, insulation, and equipment inner workings. (True or False) UFDs provide process technicians a P&ID view o the instrumentation used or a process. Which o the ollowing are included in a process drawing? (Select all that apply.) a. Legend b. Title block c. Application block . Symbols

52

Process Operations 8.

(True or False) Inormation on a single-line diagram could be used to control low through a pipe line. 9. On the ollowing ISA tag, what does the irst letter “F” stand or? a. Frequency b. Flow c. Force d. Function 10. Which society develops standards or automation, instrumentation, control, and measurement symbols? a. API b. NFPA c. ISA d. ASME 11. Complete the ollowing chart, writing a 3- to 5-sentence description o each drawing and how it is used:

DrawingType

DescriptionandUse

Block fow diagram (BFD) Process fow diagram (PFD) Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) Plot plan

acivii 1. 2. 3.

Develop a block low diagram or any amiliar process. Write three to ive paragraphs describing the purpose o a low, temperature, and pressure control loop as ound on the P&ID provided by your instructor. Hand-sketch a piping isometric using the details provided by your instructor.

4

CHaPtEr

Coplyi wih, Sfey, Helh, d Evioel Policies Objecives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Provide examples of safety, health, and environmental policies and their purpose.

■

Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of safety, health, and environmental policies.

■

Describe the common types of equipment and procedures used to support safety, health, and environmental policies.

■

Describe safety and environmental hazards that safety, health, and environmental policies are utilized to mitigate.

■

Define housekeeping in process industries terms.

■

List the types of tasks that can be categorized as housekeeping.

■

Explain why housekeeping is important.

■

Provide examples of possible environmental issues surrounding equipment maintenance: • Exposuretohazardousmaterials • Properuseofpersonalprotectiveequipment • Housekeeping • Issuanceofpermits • Spillcleanup • Responsetoreleases

53

54 Process Operations

Key tes Audio Visual Olfactory (AVO) —method used by process technicians to monitor the sounds, sights, and smells of a process unit or area during unit walk-through inspections. Blinding —policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipment for hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal. Body Harness—fall protection device worn while working at heights. Bunker Gear—protective clothing worn for firefighting. Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) —primary state agency charged with enforcement of environmental regulations and with issuing air and water operating permits to businesses operating in a state. Confined Space Entry (CSE)—policy that defines the process and procedure for entering confined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, and excavations below grade. Control of Work (COW) —work practice that identifies the means of safely controlling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks, and similar work. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—independent federal agency, created in 1970, that sets and enforces rules and standards for environmental protection and pollution control. Fire-Retardant Clothing (FRC)—wearing apparel for use in situations where there isariskofarc,flash,orthermalburns,thatisregulatedbyNFPA-70E,ASTM, andOSHA. Housekeeping—activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition. Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) —condition from which serious injury or death to personnel can occur. Management of Change (MOC)—method of managing and communicating changes to a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes in personnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees. National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) —emissions standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for air pollutants that may cause fatalities or serious, irreversible, or incapacitating illness if not regulated. Operations Procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well as emergency situations. Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA)—primary federal law, enacted in 1976, that governs the disposal of solid and hazardous waste. Safety, Health, and Environmental (SHE) Policies —policies implemented by process facilities in order to minimize or prevent risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry and to ensure that the facility is in compliance with applicable regulatory agencies. Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)—independent breathing device worn by rescue workers, firefighters, process technicians, and others to provide breathable air in a hostile environment. Turnaround (TAR)—planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair.

Iodcio This chapter provides an overv iew of vario us safet y, healt h, and envir onmen tal (SHE)policiesusedwithinprocessindustryprocessfacilities. Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies are implemented by process facilities in order to minimize or prevent the risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry, and

CHAPTER4  Complying with, Safety, Health, and Environmental Policies

55

to ensure that the facility operation complies with the applicable regulatory agencies, such as the following: • TheCommission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) is the primary state agency charged with enforcement of environmental regulations and with issuing air and wateroperatingpermitstobusinessesoperatinginastate.Theagencytitlefor these responsibilities varies by state. • TheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)isaU.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. • TheEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent federal agency created in 1970 that sets and enforces rules and standards for environmental protection and pollution control. Theseregulatoryauthoritiesgovernworkprocessandproceduresforagivenprocess facility as well as the safety rules and regulations that provide for the safety of workers withinprocessfacilities.Theintentionofoperatingwithintheseguidelinesistoensure the safety and health of employees, the community, and the environment. Throughout this textbook, the term safety, health, and environmental policy is used to define policies and procedures developed by each process company in support of, and compliance with, the rules set forth by the various regulatory agencies. Process facilities that process hydrocarbons into various products all contain similar types of chemicals and process equipment that can cause injury to personnel and damage to the environment. Processes and products vary across each process facility, and safety, health, and environmental policies are applicable to each process unit in much the same way.

Sfey, Helh, d Evioel Policies Good process safety management techniques in each facility will ensure that the process technicians, maintenance workers, and technical personnel are involved with the development and implementation of facility safety, health, and environmental policies.Thefollowin glistprovidesanexample ofmanyofthetypicalsafety,healt h, and environmental policies found in process industry process facilities: • Blinding—policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipment for hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal. • Confined Space Entry (CSE)— policy that defines the process and procedure for entering confined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, and excavationsbelowgrade.Manycompaniesutilizeasingledocumentthatcovers bothCSEandHotWorkpermits.Anexampleofaconfinesspaceentryformis showninFigure4.1. • EmployeeHealthMonitoring—policythatdefinestherequirementsfor employee health monitoring while activities are conducted in hazardous areas, during hazardous chemical sampling, or where prolonged exposure to hazardous chemicals can occur, such as during turnarounds (TARs), a planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair. • EquipmentInspectionandMonitoring—policythatdefinesinspectionand monitoring frequencies for both fixed and rotating equipment for the purpose of managing equipment reliability and mechanical integrity. • HotWork—po licythatdefine stheprocessand procedureforc onducting  hot work such as welding, grinding, or vehicle entry in or around process equipment. • Housekeeping—activities that must be completed to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, safe condition. • Lock-out/Tag-out—aprocedureusedinindustrytoisolateenergysourcesfroma pieceofequipment.Figure4.2showsanexampleofalockandtagusedinlockout/tag-out.

56 Process Operations &21),1('63$&((175<3(50,7 ' D W H  D Q G  7L P H  , V V X H G   ' D W H  D Q G  7L P H  ( [ S L U H V  

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FIgurE 4.1 Example of a ConfinedSpaceEntryForm

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FIgurE 4.2 Example of LockandTag

• Control of Work (COW)— a work practice that identifies the means of safely controlling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks, and similar work. • Management of Change (MOC)— method of managing and communicating changes to a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes in personnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees. • MaterialReleaseReporting—policythatdefinesreportingrequirementsof regulatoryauthoritiessuchastheEPA,TexasCommissiononEnvironmental Quality(TCEQ),orotherstateagencieswhenventing,purging,ordraining equipment, or in the event of a material release.


57

• Operations Procedures— unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well as emergency situations. • PersonalProtectiveEquipment(PPE)—specializedgearthatprovidesabarrier between hazards and the worker using the PPE. • ProcessHazardAnalysis(PHA)—asystematicassessmentofthepotential hazards associated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazards and locations of highest potential for exposure. • ProcessSafetyInformation—policythatdefinesthetypeofdocumentation thatisconsideredprocesssafetyinformationinsupportoftheOSHAPSM regulation; including but not limited to operating procedures, inspection and maintenance procedures, operating and training material, process drawings (P&IDs),electricalone-linediagrams,instrumentloopdrawings,andelectrical classification drawings. • ProcessSafetyManagement(PSM)—OSHAstandardthatcontainsthe requirements for management of hazards associated with process using highly hazardous materials. • VehicleEntry—policythatdefinestheprocessandprocedureforvehicleentry into process areas.

the Pocess techici’s role i Sfey, Helh, d Evioel Policies Process technicians have the primary responsibility of knowing and understanding the innerworkingsofeachprocess.Thisinclud esprocesstechn ologyanddesigncrite ria; process equipment and interconnecting piping, valves, and safety and control systems; aswellasprocessspecifichazards.Theseskills—alongwiththeabilitytoutilize the proper safety, health, and environmental policies, and applicable procedures to manage process operations—minimize the risks and hazards associated with the process industry. Other common skills that the process technician can develop that are essential for managing process industry risks include: • Followingoperationsandequipmentpreparationprocedures. • Usingpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE)correctly.Thisequipmentincludes hard hats, safety glasses, goggles, protective footwear, hearing protection, protective gloves, protective clothing, and other equipment utilized to prevent exposure to, or injury from, hazardous materials or environments. • Maintainingaudio,visual,andolfactory(AVO)equipmentmonitoring awareness. Audio visual and olfactory (AVO) is a method used by process technicians to monitor the sounds, sights, and smells of a process unit or area during unit walk-through inspections. • Stayingfamiliarwith safety/emergencyequ ipmentlocation ;including,fire  extinguishers, protective clothing, fire turrets, safety showers, self-contained breathingapparatu s(SCBA)locatio ns,fallprotectio ndevices,andem ergency egressroutes.The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), as seen in Figure4.3,isanindep endentbreathin gdevicewornbyres cueworkers, firefighters, process technicians, and others to provide breathable air in a hostile environment. • Stayingfamiliarwith firstresponderrole sandresponsibilities ,including hazard identification, radio communications, and emergency evacuation procedures. • Participatinginthedevelopmentofpoliciesandprocedures,includingsafety, health, and environmental policies, unit training material, operating procedures, equipment preparation procedures, and so on.


FIgurE 4.3 Self-Contained BreathingApparatus(SCBA)

tHE ImPOrtanCE OF HOuSEKEEPIng Housekeepingdefinesactivitiesthatmustbecompletedtomaintainthefacilityin aclean,orderl y,safecondit ion.Hous ekeep ingcanbea listofdaily,weekl y,and monthly activities. Mostprocessfacilitiesorprocessunitshavehousekeepingtasksthatarecommon across the industry. Additionally, each process unit has additional “unit-specific” tasks necessitatedbythespecificprocess.Maintainingacleanandorderlyfacilityhelpsin the following ways: • • • • • • •

Minimizesoreliminatescommonriskstopersonnel Eliminatesslippingandtrippinghazards Eliminatespotentialforchemicalexposure Eliminatesenvironmentalhazards Improvesoperationsandmaintenanceefficiency Keepstoolsandequipmentintheproperplaceforquickaccess Maintainstoolandequipmentintegrityandreliability


59

Herearesomecommonhousekeepingexamples: • Monitorandm aintaingeneralareaclea nlinessatalltimeswith ineach process facility. One of the key control points to facilitating a good overall housekeeping program is to focus on area cleanup after maintenance and repair activities. A strong commitment to a proper cleanup after the completion of every maintenance and repair activity ensures that tools and equipment are properly stored, and all trash and debris generated from the activity is removed. As soon as maintenance activities are completed, return flange gaskets, tools, special equipment, and hoses to their proper location. • Maintaincleanandorderlycontrolrooms,offices,referencelibraries,labandsample rooms, storage and tool rooms, locker rooms, kitchens, and common areas. • Maintainproperstorageandmaintenanceofessentialfirefightingequipment, including fire hoses, hose nozzles, nozzle wrenches, extinguishers, fire turrets and turret nozzles, fire hydrants, foam-addition equipment, and bunker gear (protective clothing worn for firefighting).

• Maintainproper storageandmainten anceofequip mentessentialforu operations, including utility hoses (air, steam, nitrogen, water, chemical), nit ladders (step ladders, extension ladders, jack-up platforms), valve wrenches, pipe wrenches, chain operators on manual isolation valves, and grease guns. • Maintainproperstorageandsegregationofutilityhosefittings(air,steam,nitrogen, water, chemical) and pipe fittings (couplings, unions, tees, elbows, pipe plugs). • MaintaincleanandorderlyMotorControlCenters(MCCs). Unit-specifichousekeepingexamplesare: • Maintainlabandsampleroomstockwiththeappropriatesampleequipment,sample containers, and personal protective equipment dictated by the unit sample schedule.

60 Process Operations • Maintaincleanandorderlyspecialtyequipmentstorageareasforunit-specific tools and equipment. • Properlymaintainw astestorageareas,disp osalbins,andco ntainersutilized  for waste hydrocarbon disposal, as defined by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA; pronounced “wreck-ruh” ), a federal law enacted in 1976.ItistheU.S .primarylawgoverning thedisposalofso lidandhazardo us waste.Removealgae fromcoldorho tprocessareas. • Removedustandparticulates. • Removeoil;cleanuparoundprocesspumps,compressors,andlubeoilconsoles. Personal protective equipment, as seen in Figure 4.4, must be used while performingvarioushousekeepingactivities.Someofthemore common housekeeping tasks require only minimum personal protective equipment, such as: • Fire-retardantclothing,hardhat,safetyglasses,steel-toedshoes.Fire-retardant clothing (FRC) is wearing apparel for use in situations where there is a risk of arc,flash,orthermalburns.TheFRCisregulatedbyNFPA-70E,ASTM,and OSHA.Itistheclothingwornbypersonnelwhileworkingwithinhydrocarbon processingareas.Hearingprotectionandcommunicationsradio. • Faceshields,covergoggles,protectivegloves,protectiveclothing. • Workglovesspecificforthetask(leather,clothknobby,welders,rubber). Somefacilitieshaveprocess-relatedhousekeepingtasksthatmayrequireahigher level of PPE such as: • Half-maskorganic vaporrespiratorsand full-faceorgan icvaporrespirators.  Selectingthec orrectorganicvap orcartridgefort hetaskiscriticalan dbased onspecificexp osurehazardsof thetask.Using thecorrectres piratorcartridge  can eliminate exposure to a wide range of hydrocarbons and particulates. • Self-containedbreathingapparatus(SCBA)orahose-suppliedairrespiratorto supply fresh air. • Totalenclosuresuit(MoonSuit)typicallywornwithSCBAforentryand activities considered immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), a condition from which serious injury or death to personnel can occur. • Firefightingbunkergearorheatsuitsdesignedforentryandactivitieswhere extreme heat or exposure to open flames (such as beneath an operating furnace or within a fin fan shroud) exists.

FIgurE 4.4 Personal Protective Equipment


61

• Portablehydrocarbon,oxygen(O2),hydrogensulfide(H2S),andotherdetectors when a housekeeping task may expose personnel to a hazardous environment. Figure4.5showsanexampleofahazardousenvironmentdetector.

21.2

FIgurE 4.5 Hazardous Environment Detector

• Employeemonitoringbyasafety,health,andenvironmentaldepartmentperson hor sometimes operating personnel when the employee or contractor must enter a hostile environment. • Body harnesses are fall protection devices worn while working at heights.

Sfey Eqipe Process units incorporate several types of safety equipment in order to mitigate emergencies, decrease environmental hazards, and increase personnel protection. One of the most common types of safety equipment found within a processing unit is the fire extinguisher. Process technicians acting in a first-responder role for extinguishing smallfirescanusethe30-pounddrypowderfireextinguisher.The150-pounddrypowder extinguishers are used for fighting larger fires. CO 2extinguishersarefoundinMotor ControlCenterstocombatelectricalfires.MotorControlCentersareenclosuresthat house the feeder breakers, motor control units, variable frequency drives, programmable controllers, and metering devices needed to supply power safely to unit equipment. Fire hydrants, fire turrets, and fire hose reel stations are found in and around process units and tank farms for fire protection. They also provide cooling for equipment in the event of a large fire. Tank farms andstorage  faciliti esmay incorporatefoam-a dditionsystem s for applyingAqueousFilmFormingFoam(AFFF),asseeninFigure4.6.Whenapplied correctly, AFFF will cover pools of burning hydrocarbon liquid to remove the oxygen from the fire triangle, thereby smothering the fire.

FIgurE 4.6 Applying Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) in a TankFire

62 Process Operations Deluge or sprinkler systems are used in many process applications, such as enclosed compressor buildings or congested areas that contain large quantities of equipment.Hydrocarbondetectorsarealsofoundinthesetypesofprocessingareasto alertprocesstechniciansofahazardousmaterialrelease.Figure4.7showsanexample of a flammable gas detector.

/(/

FIgurE 4.7 Flammable Gas Detector

Self-containedbreathingapparatus,or SCBAs,arealsotypicalsafetyequipme nt found in process units that can be used to supply fresh air in the event of a hazardous materialrelease.TheELSA5-,10-,and15-minuteescapepackisanothertypeoffresh airsupplyingdevicethatmayalsobeinplacefor emergencyegress.Figure 4.8shows an example of someone using of a self-contained breathing apparatus.

FIgurE 4.8 Example ofUsingaSelf-Contained BreathingApparatus

Safetyshowersandeyewashstationsarestrategicallyplacedinandaroundprocess units and tank farms for emergency use in the event that personnel are exposed to chemicals.Thesesystemsaresuppliedwithpotablewatersotheycanbesafelyused towashorflushhazardousmaterialfromtheeyesorskin.Somestationsareequipped withalarmstoalertothersofanemergencyandthelocation.Figure4.9showsan example of a safety shower and eyewash station. Insulationonpipingandequipmentmayalsobeconsideredsafetyequipment where it is installed to prevent exposure to extremely hot or cold temperatures. None of the above mentioned safety equipment is effe ctive when needed unless a safety equipment inspection program ensures the reliability and operability of the equipment. Process technicians, and in some cases maintenance technicians, are responsible for conductingsafetyequipmentinspections.Inspectionfrequenciesandinspectioncriteriaare determined by the type of equipment, the intended purpose, and, in some cases, equipment


63

FIgurE 4.9 SafetyShower andEyewashStation

criticality, location, and exposure to the elements. For example, fire extinguishers should have fill data and seal tabs inspected on one frequency, and the containers hydrostatically inspectedonanotherfrequency.Figure4.10showsanexampleofaninspectiontagthat would be affixed to a piece of equipment.

DO NOT REMOVE

BY ORDER OF FIRE MARSHALL

AnyCorp Safety Equipment 1600 Mocking Bird Ln Captville, TX 89542 (409) 867-5349 ECR-428 Certificate of Registration No.

Scott Turnbough Name of Licensee

Scott Turnbough Signature

FEL - 3125A License Number

Work Type Maintenance New Extinguisher Service

Date of Last Service JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 2008 2009 2010 2 0 11

FIgurE 4.10 Inspection Tag

ThisalsoappliestoSCBAswherethetankpressure,mask,andregulatorcondition is inspected on one frequency and the tank’s hydrostatic integrity inspected on another. Given the complexity of deluge system operation, foam-application systems, and hydrocarbon detector operation, these types of equipment are usually managed by system technicians using established preventive maintenance programs. All safety equipment on a process unit should be frequently inspected. Safetyshowersandeyewashstations,aswellasfirehydrantsandfireturretsshould be flushed periodically. Fire extinguishers should be refilled and replaced immediately after use. A partially used extinguisher must never be left in place.

64 Process Operations Theprocessunitor facilitysafety,health,andenvironm entalpersonneltypically have routine training exercises for operating personnel-utilizing safety equipment for personal protection, combating emergency situation, and emergency egress.

Evioel Hzds Safety,health, and environmentalpolicies are intendedtomitigate manyrisksand hazards found within the process industry. Acute (short term), as well as chronic (long term) exposure to many chemicals found within the process industry can cause severe healthandenvironmentalproblems.Theriskoffireandexplosionisalwayspresent due to the volatility of most hydrocarbons, and can cause severe injury to personnel and damage to the environment and process equipment. A hydrocarbon release to the atmosphere, or a “material release,” can affect the air quality of the entire facility and possibly surrounding communities. A material release may harm ground water, waterways, wildlife, and communities. A material release can occur in many different ways due to the vast quantities of pipingandequipmen twithinproc essfacili ties.Someofthemostcommonarepipe flange leaks due to improper gasket installation or pipe fit up. Flange leaks can also occur due to rapid thermal expansion if the proper heat-up or cool-down procedures are not followed. Pump and compressor seal leaks are an example of how a material releasecanoccur.Mech anicalsealscanleaktotheatmosph eretocauseamaterial release.Manyofthesesealsystemsaretandemsealordrygassealtype.When damaged, they vent or leak to a closed system like a flare. Depending on the material being released, even venting to a flare system can be considered a material release. External and internal corrosion of piping and equipment can occur and lead to a release if a proper inspection program is not in place and followed. Flareandventsystems,suchasthatseeinFigure4.11,thataredesignedto manage excessive pressure from equipment and relief valves are common throughout theprocessindustry.Unitemergencies,overpressurescenarios,andplannedunit shutdowns or start-ups may lead to excessive hydrocarbon flaring or atmospheric venting.Inmostcases,atmosphericreleasesandexcessiveflareventingareconsidered reportable material releases.

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FIgurE 4.11 Example of a FlareandVentSystem


65

Whenamaterialreleaseoccurs,theproperagencymustbenotified,suchasthe EPAorthestateenvironmentalcommission.Materialreleased,knownquantity, containment measures, and cleanup plans should be communicated to these agencies. Process controls that utilize flare and vent systems can be the source of an environmentalrelease.Unlikethesimplifiedexampleofapumporcompressorseal venting to a closed system, there can be advanced control systems within processes that are intended to vent to the flare to mitigate many different scenarios, such as high pressure. Depending on the material and the impact on the environment, less advanced controls, such as alarm systems, notify technicians and engineers of the need to adjust the process to eliminate venting. Advanced controls may shutdown equipment or an entire process unit to eliminate venting and potential environmental release. Safety,  heal th, and envi ronm enta l poli cies  defi ne proc edur es for mate rial  releasereporting.Thepoliciesshouldbefollowedand,dependingonthematerial and duration, environmental releases should be reported to the proper regulatory authority.TheNational Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) is an emissions standard set by the EPA for air pollutants that may cause fatalities or serious, irreversible, incapacitating illness if not regulated.

Poeil Hzds Isolating, de-energizing, draining, and purging process equipment for maintenance, inspection, or repair can also be the source of environmental release and personne l hazards. Manyofthefacilitysafety,health,andenvironmentalpoliciesaddresstheseactivities. Injury,illness,death,anddamagetotheenvironmentarepreventablebyhaving policiesandproceduresinplaceforsafelymanaginghazards.Thefollowingare examples of process unit activities and associated hazards that may occur without the use of proper safety, health, and environmental policies, energy isolation policy, and/ or correct operation/maintenance procedure. • Confined Space Entry (permit required)—exposure to hazardous materials, nitrogen, or oxygen-deficient atmosphere. • Lock-out/Tag-out and Permitting for Energy Isolation—exposure to hazardous materials, high voltage, material release. • Hot work—fire and explosion. • Vehicle entry—fire and explosion. • Sampling—hazardous material exposure. Improperequipmentidentificationandperformingrepairormaintenanceonthe wrong piece of equipment are preventable by following policies and procedures. Policy and procedures identify the required safety measures to minimize the hazards surrounding equipmentmaintenance.Thefollowingareexamplesofsuchpolicyandprocedure. • Propercommunicationbetweenprocesstechnicianstoensurethatthecorrect equipment is selected for shutdown and isolation in preparation for maintenance. Due to theimportant complex integration of equipment in most this is is extremely where the shutdown sequence forprocess specificunits, equipment critical to other parts of the process that are intended to remain in operation. • Properprocedurestoisolateequipmentandenergysourcesinasafe, environmentallyfriendlymanner.Theseisolationprocedurestypicallyinclude steps for draining or purging to containment or flare systems. • Properprocedurestoconfirmthatequipmentmaintenanceispermittedand work executed in a safe manner as various craftspeople prepare the equipment, perform maintenance, and return the equipment to service. • ProperuseofPPE,includingorganicvaporrespirators,imperviousglovesand clothing, face shields, heat or flash suits worn while working near high voltage, and fall protection worn while working at heights.


• Properresponsetoemergencies.Emergencyresponseproceduresdefine roles and responsibilities for individuals and groups for dealing with a medical emergency,fire/explosion,ormaterialrelease.Itiscommonthattheprocess technician is the first responder in these events. • Propermethodsforthedisposalofwastematerials,aswellasmitigationsteps required in the event of a spill or material release.

Isolio Sceio Thefollowingisalistoftheprimarysafety,health,andenvironmentalpoliciesthat define the work process for preparing process equipment for removal and replacement: • Personal Protective Equipment—policy that defines equipment that must be worn by personnel when working in process areas or when conducting specific activities such as sampling hazardous materials, entering hazardous areas, or opening process equipment. • Operations Procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well as emergency situations. • Lock-out/Tag-out—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment. • Blinding— policy that defines the process and procedure for equipment isolation for hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal. • Housekeeping— policy that defines activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition. • Material Release Reporting—policy that defines the reporting requirements of regulatory authorities such as the EPA and state environmental commission when venting or purging equipment, or in the event of a material release.

roie miece d Ispecio Thefollowingroutinemaintenanceandinspectionactivitiesarealsoconsideredvital: • Policyforexternalandinternalinspectionofequipmentandpipinginhighpressure, hazardous, or corrosive material service • Preventivemaintenanceprogramforinspection/repair/replacementofinsulation throughout a process unit • Policyforinspectionintervalofpressurereliefdevices


67

Sy Soundsafet y,health,an denvironment alpoliciesand procedures, coupledwit hthe ability of the process technician to understand and properly execute these policies and procedures, are a major controlling factor for minimizing and preventing the risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, safety, health, and environmental policies are also in place to ensure that the facility is operated within strict guidelines provided by applicable regulatoryagenciessuchasOSHAandtheEPA.Processfacilitieswouldnotbe given a license to operate without a safety, health, and environmental policy in place to define work practices intended to ensure the safety and health of employees, the community, and the environment. Safety,health,andenvironmentalpoliciesandproceduresareusedthroughoutthe process industry, so it is important for a process technician to have a clear understanding of the policies and their intended purpose, as well as when and how they are applied. Theprocesstechnician’sroleinsafety,health,andenvironmentalpolicydevelopment and execution is equally important to their primary responsibility of understanding of the inner workings of each process. Theabilitytoaccessanduseallavailablereferencematerialmaybeoneofthemost important skills developed by the process technician. Due to the negative safety and health consequences that can occur to employees, the community, and the environment, it is imperative that health, safety, and environmental policies and procedures be readily accessible for reference and direction. Mostactivitiesinaprocessfacilityaregovernedbyaspecificpolicyorprocedure, whichshouldbereviewedfrequently.Thisappliesespeciallytoactivitiesthattakeplace infrequently and even more so when the effect of a poor decision or work practice can cause injury, illness, or damage to the community and environment.

Checki Yo Kowlede 1. Define the following terms: a. Audiovisualolfactory(AVO) b. Blinding c. Bodyharness d. Bunkergear e. Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) f. Controlofwork(COW) g. Confinedspaceentry(CSE) h. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) i. Fire-retardantclothing(FRC) j. Housekeeping k. Immediatelydangeroustolifeandhealth(IDLH) l. Managementofchange(MOC) m.NationalEmissionsStandardsforHazardousAirPollutants(NESHAP) n. Operations procedures o. ResourceConservationRecoveryAct(RCRA) p. Self-containedbreathingapparatus(SCBA) q. Safety,health,andenvironmental(SHE)policies r. Turnaround 2. (True or False) Safety,health,andenvironmentalpoliciesareimplementedinorderto minimize or prevent the risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry. Safet y,health ,andenvironm ental policies arealsoinplacetoensurethatthefacil ity is operated within strict guidelines provided by applicable regulatory agencies such as OSHAandtheEPA. 3. ElementsoftheOSHA1910ProcessSafetyManagementregulationinclude:(Select all that apply) a. Managementofchange b. Employee participation c. Operations procedures d. Emergency planning and response

68 Process Operations 4. Process technicianshave  aprima ryresp onsibility toknow  and understand the inner workingsofeachprocess.Thisincludes: (Select all that apply) a. Process technology and design criteria b. Process equipment and interconnecting piping and valves c. Safetyandcontrolsystems d. Process-specific hazards 5. (True or False) One of the key control points to facilitating a good overall housekeeping program is to focus on area cleanup after maintenance and repair activities. 6. (True or False) One of the most common types of safety equipment found within a processingunitisthe30-pounddrypowderfireextinguisher. 7. Whichofthesepiecesoffirefightingequipmentwouldbeusedtoextinguishalargefireina tank farm storage facility: a. CO2 extinguisher b. Fire blanket c. Dry powder fire extinguisher d. A foam-addition system for applying AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) 8. Excessivehydrocarbonventingtotheatmospherecanbecausedby:(Select all that apply) a. Unitemergencies b. Overpressure scenarios c. Planned unit shutdowns d. Planned unit start-ups 9. (True or False)  Safety, Health,and environmental  polic ies andprocedure s areused throughout the process industry, so it is important for the process technician to have a clear understanding of the policies and their intended purpose, as well as when and how they are applied. 10. (True or False)Theabilitytoaccessanduseallavailablereferencematerialcouldbeoneof the most important skills developed by the process technician.

aciviies 1. Selectapieceofprocessequi pmentandlisttheprimarysafety,health,andenviro nmental policies that defines how to: • isolatetheequipmentfromtheprocessforsafeshutdown. • definethePPEthatmustbewornwhenopeningprocessequipment. • lock-out/tag-outforequipmentandenergyisolation. • satisfythenecessaryreportingrequirementswhenventing/purging/draining equipment. • controllingtheworkactivitiessurroundingtheprocessequipmentwhile maintenance is performed. • returntheequipmenttoservice. • cleanup. 2. Conductanonline searc hofOSHA ’s29CFR 1910.1 19Proc essSafet yMana gementof  HighlyHazardousChemicalsandwritea2-to3-pagereportdetailingtherequirementsof management of change.

5

Chapter

Conicion: Vb, Nonvb, nd Win Objciv After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

List the effective verbal communication techniques to request or provide information.

■

Explain when: • Writtencommunicationshouldbeusedratherthanverbalcommunicationand vice versa. • Writtencommunicationviaelectronicmeansismoreeffectivethancommunication via paper and vice versa.

■

Explain the importance of following company guidelines when preparing written communication.

■

Discuss the following: • Thebasiccomponentsofgoodcomposition:spelling,style,transitions,etc. • Thebasiccomponentsofgoodwriting:preparation,formatting,drafting,and proofreading. • ThevariouspersonnelwithintheOperationsDepartmentwithwhichprocess technicians communicate in writing. • Thevariouspersonnelfromotherareasofthefacilitywithwhichtheprocess technicians communicate in writing. • Thevarioustypesofinformationthatmaybeexchangedinwrittenform(using paper or electronic means) between these personnel or departments and the process technician.

■

Explain the communication responsibilities of the process technician during start-ups and shutdowns: • Listalldepartmentsandpersonnelinvolvedinoraffectedbytheunitstart-up and shutdown. • Listthetypesofinformationthatneedtobecommunicatedregardingunitstartup and shutdowns. • Explainthecommunicationmethodsthatmaybeusedatdifferentpointsduring the process of starting up or shutting down the unit.

■

Explain the verbal andnonverbal communication methods used in noisy operating areas.

■

Explain the importance of communicating with other technicians and other units prior to making certain corrective actions.

■

List the different types of electronic communication devices used in the process industry today and: • Explainproperprotocolwhenusingthedifferenttypesofelectroniccommunication devices.

69

70 Process Operations • Explainthefeaturesandfunctionsthatshouldbetestedforoperabilitypriorto using the electronic communication device. • Demonstratehowtotesttheelectroniccommunicationdeviceforoperability. ■

Identify the types of information communicated and communication methods utilized during the preparation or performance of routine maintenance.

■

IdentifythevariouspersonnelwithintheOperationsDepartmentwithwhichthe process technician communicates.

■

Identify the various personnel from other areas of the facility with which the process technician communicates.

■

Identify the various types of information that may be exchanged verbally (face-to-face)betweenthesepersonnel/departmentsandprocesstechnicians.

K t Blinding/Unblinding Permit—permit that allows equipment isolation via the installation of blinds and blind flanges. Cell Phone—long-range electronic device used for mobile communication, text messaging, or data transmission across a cellular network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Communication—verbal, nonverbal, or written transfer of information between people. Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit—permit that allows human entry and work withinanOSHA-definedconfinedspace,theissuanceofwhichindicatesall regulatedandpertinentsafetymeasureshavebeentakenand/orareactive. General Work Permit—permitthatallowsworkactivityotherthanblinding/ unblinding,hotwork,lock-out/tag-out,andconfinedspace. Hot Work Permit—permit that allows hot work, such as welding, grinding, or vehicle entry in or around process equipment. Intercom—stand-alone electronic communication system intended for limited or private conversation. Intrinsically Safe Electronic Device—electronic device certified safe for use in explosive atmospheres. Logbook—typically, hardbound ledgers used to handwrite significant activities that have occurred during the shift. Nonverbal Communication (NVC)—nonspoken communication, such as gesture, expression, or body language. Public Address System (PA system) —system that reinforces and distributes a given sound throughout a venue. Sound-Powered Phones—phones containing electromechanical transducers that convert voice directly into electrical energy. Trunked Radio System—complex type of computer-controlled radio system. Two-Way Radio—radio that can transmit and receive content. Verbal Communication—dialogue or conversation between two or more people for transferring information. Written Communication—communication by means of written or printed symbols or letters.

Inodcion Effective communication is critical to running any business operation. In the process industry, effective communication is a vital component in maintaining safe and efficient operations. Communication is the verbal, nonverbal, or written transfer of information betweenpeople.Theprocesstechnicianmusteffectivelycommunicatewithotherprocess technicians, with maintenance technicians and supervisors, as well as with members of operations support groups such as safety, health, and environmental, engineering, emergency response personnel, and members of management.

CHAPTER5  Communication: Verbal, Nonverbal, and Written

71

Effective communication, verbal and written, is extremely important in the shift change between process technicians and is one of the crucial elements in maintaining the safe and reliable operation of process facilities. A key component for successful workplace communication is to be direct; learn to make the point quickly in both written and verbal communication. Indirectness causes inattention.

Vb Conicion Verbal communication is a dialogue or conversation between two or more people for transferringinformation.Processtechniciansmustbeabletocommunicatewitheach otherdailytokeeptheworkflowinginaprogressive,orderlyfashion.Thecommuni -

cationofcriticaloperatinginformationisessentialfortheprocesstechnician.There must be a two-way dialogue between the process technicians at shift change in order to maintain an uninterrupted workflow process. Many process technicians today utilize handwritten notes as reminders to facilitate their face-to-face discussion with other process technicians. Misunderstandings can lead to delays, and may affect the productivity of the unit. Whenverballycommunicatingwithotherprocesstechniciansorothermembers of the process facility team, the process technician should take into consideration communication needs and the target audience. Listed below are some tips for verbal communication: • Use appropriate volume—use volume appropriate for the setting. If talking in a quiet office setting, use a softer voice. If speaking to a larger group of people, or out in the field, speak louder. • Speak clearly—enunciate words and avoid mumbling. • Pronounce words correctly—know the correct pronunciation of words used. • Use the right words—avoid words with unclear meaning. • Make eye contact—maintain eye contact; it displays directness and may help to make a point. • Animate the voice—avoid a monotone voice. Adjust voice pitch and learn to emphasize key points that require special attention. • Use gestures—use movement, such as hand, arm, body, head, and facial expression to emphasize a point. • Do not send mixed messages—avoid confusion by making tone and facial expressions match. • Slow down—speak in a moderated voice to avoid the appearance of nervousness; instead, portray self-confidence. • Avoid ambiguity—make instructions or other information clear by not using terms and jargon unrelated to the industry. Thevoiceisanextremely powerfulcomm unicationdeviceforeffe ctivelypassing downinformationduringshiftchange.Theprocessfacilitymayhavealistofrequired itemsthatneedtobecommunicatedtotheoncomingshift.Thefollowinginformation, at a minimum, should be verbally communicated at shift change: • • • • • • • •

Safetyinformation,suchasmalfunctionsorout-of-servicesafetyequipment Listofpersonnelonpreviousshiftandtheirareasofresponsibility Changesinfeedcompositionorrates Changesinproductspecificationsorproductdestination Changesinequipmentusage Anyequipmentfailuresortripsand/orinstrumentfailures Anyequipmentorcontrolsbypassedandwhy Abnormalsituationsinoveralloperation(feed,productflow,levels,pressures, temperatures, and composition) • Active,previouslyactive,ormalfunctioningalarms • ListofthelatestDailyOrders • Proceduresorotherworkcurrentlyinprogressandcontinuingacrossshift

72 Process Operations Whencommunic ating  thisinform ation , itis alsohelpfu l tocommuni cate using a written checklist to ensure that all necessary information has been communicated. Thisisahelpfultoolthattheprocesstechniciangoingoffshiftcangivetherelief process technician coming on shift as a reference tool to be used during the relief process technician’s shift.

Win Conicion Written communication is communication by means of written or printed symbols or letters. During the shift change, communication between shifts is critical. A written checklist may be referred to when verbally conveying information between the process technicians.Otherformsofwrittencommunicationmayconsistofoperatingprocedures, maintenance procedures,logbooks(electr onic andhandwrit ten), night orders,and emails.Whencommunicatingthroughwriting,processtechniciansmustwriteclearlyso that the reader correctly understands what the writer is trying to convey. As with verbal communication, poorly written communication can lead to misunderstandings, which may lead to delays that could ultimately affect personnel safety, the environment, or productivityoftheprocessfacility.Herearesometipsforclearer,moreconcisewritten communication:

• Avoidtheuseofinappropriateorslangwords. • Avoidtheuseofabbreviations(unlessappropriatelydefinedorcommonly used). • Avoidtheuseofsymbols(suchasampersands[&]). • Avoidorlimittheuseofclichés. • Usebracketstoplaydownwordsorphrases. • Usedashesforemphasis. • Usecorrectspelling,especiallythenamesofcompaniesandpeople. • Expressnumbersaswordswhenthenumberislessthan10orisusedtostarta sentence. • Usequotationmarksaroundanydirectlyquotedspeechortextandaroundtitles of publications. Thefieldandcontrolboardtechniciansareresponsibleforconveyingwritteninformation between shifts. Improperly worded, incomplete, or unintelligible information can cause serious mistakes. A logbook is typically a hardbound ledger used to handwrite significant activities that have occurred curing the shift. It is a regularly kept record of activities, performance, and events. A unit logbook contains the written information process technicians must communicate between one another. Logbooks can be either electronic or hardbound, and are considered legal documents that can potentially be used as evidence in civilorcriminalcourt.Theinformationinlogbooksprovidesawindowtopastopera tions and a basis to predict future events. All information verbally communicated at shift change should also be part of the writtenortypedlogbook .However,theproces stechnici anshouldclearl ystatethe facts, as they happened, over the course of her or his shift and should not include speculationoropinions.Whenhandwritingentriesintoahardboundlogbook,theprocess technician should: • • • • • •

Makelegiblelogentriesusinganinkpen(donotusepencil). Makecorrectionsusingaredpenbystrikingthroughwrittentext. Avoidcursiveentries(printlegibly). Makedrawingsinthelogbookonly if they are unit or process related. Logentriesshouldbedatedandevents/incidentsshouldhavealoggedtime. Initialachangedentrysothatthereisrecordofwhocorrectedtheentry.

Whenmakingelectroniclogbookentries,usethecurrentsoftwarestrikethroughfea ture to mark through the incorrect entry and insert the correct information on the next line below.


73

Neatness, accuracy, and completeness are essential when making log entries. For example, an entry such as “Don’t use the pump” is useless to the reader because the entry does not state: • • • • • •

Whichpumpisaffected Whythepumpcannotbeused Ifmaintenancehasbeennotifiedthatthepumpneedsrepairorreplacement Howlongthepumpwillbeoutofservice Ifthepumpcanbeusedinanemergency Ifthepumpislocked-outandtaggedaccordingtoprocedureorstatewhichprocedure was used.

Thecorrectlogbookentryshouldread: P-101AT-1refluxpumpoutofserviceduetoroughbearings.Maintenance has been notified and planning is in process to schedule the pump for repair. Ifthe“B”pumpbecomesunusable,“A”canbeused.P-101Aislocked-out andtaggedperprocedurenumberP101A_Maint. Theprocesstechnicianalsousestheprocessfacility’semailandcommunicatesto other technicians, engineering personnel, maintenance personnel, safety personnel, or others.Precisewritingisnecessarysothatthereceiverhasaclearpictureofwhatthe sender of the email is trying to communicate.

Nonvb Conicion (NVC) Nonverbal communication (NVC) is nonspoken communication, such as gesture, expression, or body language. It is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Nonverbal communication includes all messages encoded without using written or spoken language. Nonverbal communication shares

informationeventhrou ghstyleofdress.Physic alelement ssuchas buildings,office furniture,andspacealsoconveymessages.Officearrangementsconveystatus,power, and prestige. Withintheprocessindustry,nonverbalcommunicationisprimarilyusedinhigh noise areas where radio communication and face-to-face discussions are hard to hear. Inthesetypesofareas,handsignalsarethepreferredmethodofcommunicating.Hand signals should be worked out between process technicians prior to performing work in highnoiseareas.Themostcommonhandsignalsusedintheindustryareusedinassociationwithperformingliftswithcranes.Operatorsshouldbecomefamiliarwiththe handsignalsusedbytheircompany.Figure5.1showsthehandsignalsassociatedwith communicationbetweenthespotterdirectingtheliftandacraneoperator.Thereare many other types of hand signals used for communication such as driving, motorcycling, bicycling, and signing for the deaf.

econic Conicion Dvic Electronic communication includes devices such as intercoms, public address systems, cell phones, and two-way radio communication.

INterCOms Intercoms are a stand-alone electronic communication system intended for limited or privateconversation.Theyaredistributedamplifiersystems,andmostofthesesystems consist of strategically placed indoor and outdoor stations that contain a power amplifierfordrivingspeakers.Theoutsidestationsareintrinsicallysafeandaregenerally housed in an explosion-proof, wall-mounted container. An intrinsically safe electronic device is an electronic device certified safe to use inexplosiveatmospheres.Thiscanincludeflammablegases,vapors,orcombustible dust. An intrinsically safe electronic device is therefore incapable of releasing sufficient


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FIgure 5.1 CraneOperationHandSignals electrical or thermal energy to ignite the fuel and cause fire or explosion. Inside units are stationed near the control board for use by the control board technician. Theinsideunitisgenerallydesk-mountedandnothousedinacontainer.The intercom system is simple to use. In the field, the field process technician opens the explosion-proof door of the unit, depresses the page button, and speaks into the handset.Thepagebuttoniseitherlocatedonthehandsetoronthehousing.Theresponding individual lifts the handset of his or her nearest station for telephone-type, duplex communicationoverthepartyline.Severalindividualsmayengageinconversationoneach intercomsystem.Figure5.2showsanexampleofafield-mountintercom.

FIgure 5.2 Field-Mount Intercom

pa systems Public Address Systems (PA systems) are systems that reinforce and distribute a given soundthroughoutavenue.SimplePAsystemsareoftenusedinsmallvenuessuchas schoolauditoriums,churches,andrestaurants.Publicaddresssystemswithalarger number of speakers are widely used in institutional and commercial buildings to read announcements or declare states of emergency. Publicaddresssystems,asseeninFigure5.3,aregenerallyusedforpagingper sonnel,orforemergencynotificationstothefacilitysite.Thesystemconsistsofa primary control panel, user interfaces as required, and amplifiers and speakers placed


75

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FIgure 5.3 Public AddressSystem

strategicallythroughouttheprocessfacility.Thesesystemsaredesignedasfailsafe,or unable to fail, and are capable of programmable monitoring to detect fault status to ensuremaximumavailabilityatalltimes.Thesesystemscanperformgeneralpaging functions, emergency broadcasts, and alarm tones. Alarms can be automatically initiated,wherealarmtonesorprerecordedvoicemessagescanbebroadcast.Thealarm tones may be set up in a series of tones or beeps that designate a certain area or unit thatmayhaveanemergency.Theprocesstechnicianisrequiredtolearntheappropriate tones at his or her process facility.

Cell phONes Cell phones are long-range electronic devices used for mobile communication, text messaging, or data transmission over a cellular network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Although not prohibited, in some process industries, such as the refining and petrochemical industry, their use is restricted. A process technician should not take a personal cell phone into an operating process unit. Cell phones should not be used in process units unless they are intrinsically safe. Cell phones that are intrinsically safe may be carried into operating process units. Thesetypesofcellphonesaregenerallyboughtbytheprocessfacilityforusebyemergency responders, shift supervisors, and chief operators. It is important that process operators become aware of and follow the procedures of their employers in regard to cell phone use in process areas. sOuND-pOWereD phONes Sound-powered phones contain electromechanical transducers that convert voice directlyintoelectrical  energy.The headsetmicrophon e transducer convertssound pressure from a user’s voice into a minute electrical current, which is then converted backto soundby atransduceratthe otherend.Sound-p oweredphones,usingeither headsets, handsets, or a combination of the two, can be used in the process industry, including crane operations, in-facility maintenance, wire pulling by electricians, or even duringrescueoperat ions.Theyare usefulin manyothe rindustri esas well,such as concretepumping,sportsspottersystems,communicationunderground(e.g.intrain/ subwaytunnelsandin tanks),productionlinebalancing,andmanyothers. Figure5.4 shows an example of a sound-powered phone.

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In short, sound-powered telephones are useful in any situation where two or more people must communicate who cannot hear or see one another, and when clear, reliable communication is imperative.

tWO-Way raDIOs Two-way radios,as seeninFigu re5.5,areradiosthat cantransmi tandreceiv econ tent. Many of the radio systems within the process industry are trunked radio systems. Trunked radio systems are a complex type of computer-controlled radio system, buttheyusefewerfrequenciesandaremoreefficient.Theyalsoprovidetheability to divide the facility into groups, limiting the amount of nonessential conversations heardbyallpersonnel.Trunkedradiosystemsdifferfromconventionalradiosystems because a conventional radio system uses a dedicated channel, or frequency, for each individualgroupofusers.However,trunkingradiosystemsuseapoolofchannelsthat

FIgure 5.5 Two-Way RadiosandHeadset


77

are available for a great many different groups of users. For example, a processd facility can divide its personnel into the following groups: • Operationschannel(dividedintosmallersubgroups) • CAT1(CatalyticCrackingUnit1) • CAT2(CatalyticCrackingUnit2) • SRU(SulfurRecoveryUnit) • Utilities,etc. • Maintenancechannel(dividedbysubgroupsforeachcraft) • Machinists • Pipefitters • Welders

• •

• • •

• Heavyequipment • Electricians,etc. Engineering(dividedintoengineeringdisciplinesorbyunit) Emergencyresponsechannel(dividedbyapplicablesubgroups) • Rescue • Fire • EmergencyMedicalTechnicians,etc. Inspectionchannel Safety,health,andenvironmentalchannel Securitychannel

Trunkedradiosystemswork ontheprobabil itythatusersdonot needchannel  accessallatonce.Therefore,withagivennumberofusers,fewerdiscreteradio channelsarerequired.However,trunkedsystemsmayexperiencedelaysifamajor emergency occurs because of the tendency for users to overwhelm the system as theyattempttofindoutinformationabouttheemergency.Usersmustlimitthe traffic on the system during these times to be able to prevent overloading the system.Radiosaredesignedtoscanotherchannelstoseekinformationintimesof emergency. Thetwo-wayradioistheprimarycommunicationdevicefortheprocesstechni cianwhensheorheisoutintheprocessunits.Theradioshouldbeinspectedbythe process technician for proper operation prior to entering the unit. Many two-way radios are intrinsically safe, but to verify that a particular radio or battery is intrinsically safe, look for the following on the back panel of the radio or the inside panel of the battery: FMAPPROVED NON-INCENDIVEAPPARATUS CLASSIDIVISION2GROUPSA,B,C,D CLASSIIDIVISION2GROUPSF,G In some operating facilities, a two-way radio is issued to each employee. In other operating facilities, each operating unit is allotted a certain number of radios that are shared by those on shift. Radiosareprovidedbytheprocessfacilityforcommunicationandreporting  urpo p ses.Theyarealsoprovided to theproces stechnici anasa safet ydevice.In the event of an emergency, a radio provides the process technician with a quick way to summon help from other unit process technicians or emergency responders. Many of the trunked radio systems have a feature called All Call that, when activated, transmits to all radio users on all channels. If available, All Call is normally reserved for emergency responder notification and communication for the entire facility site. Note that radio systems use the public airwaves and are licensed by the Federal Communications Commission. Improper usage of the radio, or inappropriate language, could cause the company to lose its radio-operating license.


Conicion din s-u o sdown Communication is essential for a successful start-up or shutdown, which are critical times in the operation of a process unit.

start-ups During a unit start-up, there must be communication between many disciplines. Many departments and personnel are affected by a unit start-up, and the process technician must communicate detailed information to them. During a unit start-up, the process technician is expected to communicate with the following work groups: • Operations—including other process technicians, supervisors, other process units and management. Examples of the information the process technician is expected to communicate during the unit start-up includes, but is not limited to: • Currentprocessstatus • Workpermitstatus • Currentequipmentstatus,includinglock-out/tag-outstatusofequipment • Procedurestatus • Maintenancestatusofremainingworkorworkinprogress • Anyabnormalsituations • Notificationsofmajorequipmentstart-upsthathavethepotentialtoaffectthe entire facility site or neighboring units. • Maintenance—including maintenance technicians assigned to the start-up and maintenancemanagement.Theinformationtheprocesstechniciansuppliesto maintenance during start-up includes: • Maintenanceworkthatmaybeneeded • Workpermitstatus • Statusofongoingmaintenancework • Currentstart-upstatus • Engineering—includingprocess,mechanical,andelectricalengineers.Theinformation that a process technician communicates includes: • Currentstart-upstatus • Rotatingequipmentproblemstheunitmayhaveorisexperiencing • Anyelectricalissuestheunitmaybeexperiencing • Processrelatedissuessuchastemperatures,pressures,orcatalystactivation • Safety— including industrial hygienist, safety representatives, safety engineers, andsafetymanagement.Theinformationthatiscommunicatedincludes: • Currentstart-upstatus • Anysafetyrelatedissuesthatareongoing • Anystart-uprelatedissuesthatmaybeindustrialhygienistrelated,suchas leaks or spills

shutDOWNs As with start-up, communication is equally important during a planned unit shutdown. Many departments and personnel are affected. Communication begins months prior to the actual shutdown date. During a unit shutdown, a process technician is expected to communicate with the following work groups: • Operations—including other process technicians, supervisors, other process units, andmanagement.Someoftheinformationtheprocesstechnicianisexpectedto communicate during the unit shutdown includes: • Currentshutdownstatus • Workpermitstatus • Currentequipmentstatus,includinglock-out/tag-outstatusofequipment • Procedurestatus • Maintenancestatusofremainingworkorworkinprogress • Anyabnormalsituationsthatwereencounteredduringtheshutdownprocess


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• Priortotheshutdown,theprocesstechnicianisexpectedtocommunicatesome of the following: • Inputfortheturnaroundworklist • Requestforturnaroundsupplies • Inputonprocedures • Maintenance—including maintenance technicians assigned to the shutdown and maintenancemanagement.Theinformationtheprocesstechniciansuppliesto maintenance includes: • Maintenanceworkthatmaybeneededduringtheshutdown • Workpermitstatus • Statusofongoingmaintenanceworkrelatedtopre-shutdownwork • Currentshutdownstatus • Engineering—includingprocess,mechanical,andelectricalengineers.Theinformation that the process technician communicates includes: • Currentshutdownstatus • Rotatingequipmentproblemsexperiencedduringtheshutdownoftheunit • Anyelectricalissuesencounteredduringtheshutdown • Anyabnormalprocess-relatedissuesencounteredduringtheshutdown • Safety—including industrial hygienist, safety representatives, safety engineers, andsafetymanagement.Theinformationcommunicatedincludes: • Currentshutdownstatus • Anysafetyrelatedissuesthatareongoing • Anyhygienist-relatedissues,suchasleaks,spills,etc. Communicationtothesegroupsisgenerallyverbal.However,writtendocumentation is always encouraged as a guide to dialogue. In addition, written documentation also serves as a record that pertinent information was passed on. A process technician must also realize that communication is a two-way street, and so the technician should also ask questions that are relevant to her or his job or task during discussion with each of the groups.

Conicion din roin minnnc During routine maintenance, the process technician provides the maintenance technicianwith verbalandwrittencommun ication.Verbalcommunica tioncanconsistof discussion regarding the permits associated with the work to be performed. A written communication tool, the permit, serves as a guide to this discussion. A process technicianisresponsibleforallworktakin gplaceontheunit .“ControlofWork”isawork practice that identifies the means of safely controlling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks, and similar work activities. In most operating facilities, the process technician is required to fill out and discuss the work permit with the maintenance technician. Thepermitistheprocesstechnician’skeytocontrollingthemaintenanceactivities on his or her unit. Depending on the work, the process technician may be required to fill out the following permits: Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit—a permit that allows human entry and • workwithinanOSHA-definedconfinedspace,theissuanceofwhichindicates allregulatedandpertinentsafetymeasureshavebeentakenand/orareactive. Theprocesstechnicianisrequiredtofollowanisolationandlock-out/tag-out procedure to prepare the confined space for entry. • Lock-out/Tag-out (LOTO)—a procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment. It is a general term used to refer to the controlofhazardousenergyasdefinedbyOSHAstandard29CFR1910.147. Implementation is accomplished by identification and isolation of hazardous energysourcesandhazardoussubstances.Theprocesstechnician,alongwiththe maintenance technician who is to perform the work in the confined space, must verify that the isolation has been completed prior to entry and work.

80 Process Operations • Hot Work Permit —permit that allows hot work, such as welding, grinding, or vehicleentryinoraround processequipment.T heprocesstechnician,alo ng withthetechnician toperformthework, mustverifytheLOTOpro cedure has been completed correctly and have a discussion centering on the permit conditions. • Blinding/Unblinding Permit—permit that allows equipment isolation via the installationofblindsandblindflanges.Thismayalsobereferredtoasaline breaking permit.Theprocesstechnician,togetherwiththetechniciansperforming thework,shouldverifytheLOTOhasbeencompletedcorrectly,verifytheequipment is energy free, and have a discussion centered on the permit conditions. • General Work Permit—apermitthatallowsworkactivityotherthanblinding/ unblinding,hotwork,lock-out/tag-out,andconfinedspace.Differentoperating facilitiesrefertothispermitdifferently.Theprocesstechnician,togetherwith the technicians or maintenance personnel performing the work, should verify the LOTOprocedurehasbeencompletedcorrectly(ifapplicable),verifytheequipmentisenergyfree(ifapplicable),andhaveadiscussioncenteredonthepermit conditions. Theprocesstechniciancancontroltheworkontheprocessunitbyissuinganddis cussing the applicable permit for a given type of work with the personnel performingthework.Theseface-to-facediscussionsandpermitsensurethatallpersonnel remain safe.

s Communication is quickly evolving into a skill that involves less conversation and moreelectronicsharingofinformation.However,withintheprocessindustry,face-toface discussions and electronic sharing of information are preferred. Communication is a process of transferring information between people in a verbal,nonverb al,orwrittenway.Th emostimportan tpartofcommun icationisthat  theinform ationor ideasconveyedmustbeclearlyunde rstood.Partialunder standingonlycreatesproblems.Theprocesstechnicianneedstorememberthatclarityis an important component for good communication in both verbal and written communication. Be sure to prepare, organize, and be ready to answer questions when communicating. Advances in information technology have dramatically increased the speed of communication. Instant communication with others has become easy; and fast information access for decision making has become simple.

Cckin yo Knowd 1. Definethefollowingkeyterms: a. Blinding/UnblindingPermit b. Cell phone c. Communication d. ConfinedSpaceEntry(CSE)Permit e. HotWorkPermit GeneralWorkPermit f. g. Intercom h. Intrinsically safe electronic device i. Logbook j. Nonverbalcommunication(NVC) k. Publicaddresssystem(PAsystem) l. Sound-poweredphones m.Trunkedradiosystem n. Two-wayradio o. Verbalcommunication p. Writtencommunication


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2. Listthefourtypesofpermitsdiscussedinthischapter. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ 3. Trunked radio systems are analog radio systems that offer large numbers of radio frequencies. a. True b. False 4. Listsixpiecesofinformationaprocesstechnicianisrequiredtoprovidetohisorherrelief during shift change. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ 5. Theconfinedspaceentrypermitisused: a. for hot work on a process unit b. for line breaking c. tomanageentryintoOSHA-definedconfinedspaces d. all of the above 6. Intercoms are stand-alone electronic communication systems intended for limited or private conversation. a. True b. False 7. The________isrequiredtofilloutallpermitsonaprocessunit. a. operations supervisor b. maintenance technician c. process technician d. operations superintendant e. none of the above 8. A public address system is used in the refining and process industry for ________ and________. a. callinghome/playingmusic b. pagingpersonnel/emergencynotification c. publicspeaking/voicinganopinion d. none of the above 9. Listfiveoftheninetipsforgoodverbalcommunicationskills. a. b. c. d. e. 10. Listsixoftheninetipsforgoodwrittencommunicationskills. a. b. c. d. e. f. 11. Cellphonesthatareusedinsideaprocessunitmustbeintrinsicallysafe. a. True b. False

acivii 1. Usingtheinform ationdescrib ed,creat ea writtenlogbo okprovid ingneces sary detail, including date and time: Scenario:You are working the day shift during which you engage inthe following activities: a. YouprepareP607A(pumpwithleakingseal)formaintenanceusingprocedure P607_Maint,whichisalock-out/tag-outprocedure.

82 Process Operations b. YoufilloutageneralworkpermitforascaffoldtobeerectedforworkonP-607A. c. Youunloadatruckcontaining500gallonsofsodiumhypochloriteforyourunit cooling tower. d. Youaddoiltothefollowingpumps:P-607B,P-601A,P-602A,P-603AandP610. e. P-615AT-6bottomspumpshutsdown,causingalowflowthroughH-6furnaceand tripping the furnace off line. You immediately start the B pump and reestablished bottoms flow. Fortunately, the furnace restarts within a few minutes after starting P-615Bandtheunitupsetisminimal.YoucalltheelectricianstocheckoutP-615A after troubleshooting. f. You and the other process technicians attend a morning safety meeting lasting 15 minutes. g. YoufindaproblemwithP-622Acoolingwaterpump(leakingseal)andwritea work order. h. YouunloadedanothertruckofNalco657inhibitorforthecoolingtower. i. MaintenanceblindsP-607A. j. Maintenance(pipefitterandmachinist)workingovertopullP-607Aandtakingto shopformachinistrepair.(Machinistwillworkuntilpumprepairedandbackinthe holeor9:00PM,whichevercomesfirst.) k. You take routine readings and find no abnormalities. 2. Selectaclassmateandperformaverbalpassdownsimulatingshiftchangeusingthewritten logsheetfromActivity1.

6

ChapteR

Sif C/Rif Ojcivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Identify the types of information that need to be conveyed during shift change.

■

Discuss the level of detail necessary to accurately convey unit status information.

■

Discuss the different methods used to make relief.

■

Name the individuals who will be typically present during shift change.

■

Describe how a typical shift change occurs.

■

List the documentation used during a typical shift change.

■

Discuss the importance of making timely relief.

■

Discuss the importance of establishing good relationships with members of your shift and members of other shifts.

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Ky trms Effective Communications—communication skills that help convey the intended meaning more efficiently. Electronic Logbook (eLog)—computer-based event logging program developed to assist the process technician report and record significant shift activities. Maintenance Activity—events performed by the maintenance department in a process facility, such as pump or compressor repair, pipe work, and routine general maintenance. Non-operatingPersonnel—personnel other than process technicians that are visiting the unit, such as engineers, members of the management team, maintenance staff, and contractors who are performing work on the unit. Paraphrasing—summarizes the information received to clarify understanding. Shift Change/Relief—handing off the operation and maintenance of a facility from one operating crew to another at a designated time; also known as shift handover, shift pass-down, shift turnover, making relief, and by other phrases. Unit Status Report—information gathered by the current operating shift for reporting to the oncoming shift during shift change. Work Permits—documents that allow individuals or groups to perform work on a process unit.

Iroducio Maintaining continuity across shifts in any continuous operation is vital. It is essential that process technicians, as well as their shift leaders, are able to communicate relevant information accurately and reliably so that the operation can continue to run safely and effectively. Oncoming personnel need a thorough and accurate understanding of facility status so they can make correct decisions and perform appropriate actions. Shift change is a critical activity and has been cited as a contributing factor in a number of major accidents. It is essential that organizations have the right tools and processes in place to execute effective shift changes.

Sif C/Rif A shift change/relief is handing off the operation and maintenance of a facility from one operating crew to another at a designated time. This is also known as shift handover, shift pass-down, shift turnover, making relief, and by other phrases. There are many items relevant to the operation and maintenance of the process unit that must be communicated at shift change. Important information includes:

• • • • • •

Safetyandenvironmentalissues Alarmsandtheircurrentstatus Equipmentconditions/problems Proceduresinprogress Processstatus Processtrends

• Maintenanceactivities:completed,in-progress,andplanned • Presenceofnon-operating personnel or personnel other than process technicians who are visiting the unit, such as engineers, members of the management team, maintenance personnel, and contractors who work on the unit • Statusofpermitsinforce • Productqualityissues(off-testorspecification) These items make up the unit status report. A unit status report is the information gathered by the current operating shift for reporting to the oncoming shift during shift change. The status report is either written or verbal. A written status report can be used as a reference or guide during verbal discussion between the shift-changing process technicians, and as a tool for the relief technician during the coming shift.

CHAPTER6 Shift Change/Relief

85

UnIt StatUS Both the field technician and the control board technician must provide an accurately detailed report of the current operating status of the process unit. The reports must include: • Alarms—status of all current and previous alarms. • Equipment conditions/Problems—currentequipment-relatedproblemsonthe unit,includingequipmentplacedinortakenoutofservice,andanyproblems experiencedwithanyoftheequipmentduringtheshift,aswellastheresultsof theequipmentinspection/monitoringperformedduringthecurrentshift. • Procedures in progress— operating and maintenance procedures in progress. The field and control board technician will review the copy with his or her appropriate relief. Both the field and master copies of the procedure should be updated prior to shift change to provide the oncoming shift with accurate information so that procedure continuity across shifts is maintained and procedures can be safely and accurately completed. At the end of the shift, the field copy and the master copy should be identical. • Process status—current and past process status, such as process safety management(PSM)limitsexceededandactiontakentoreturntonormal, operationalrequirementsexceededandactiontakentoreturntonormal, equipmentbeingde-inventoried,andabnormalsituationsonunit. • Process trends—process trends, such as high levels, low levels, swings in temperature, or any other process-related variable that may be helpful to the oncoming shift, including nonroutine or unexplained events. • Maintenance activity— events performed by the maintenance department in a process facility, such as pump or compressor repair, pipe work, or routine generalmaintenanc e.Thisincludesc ompleted,inpr ogress,and/orplann ed— any maintenance activity completed during their shift, and if maintenance activities will be continuing across shift, the scope of the job, procedure information, number of personnel remaining on the unit, and current job status.Activit iesplannedfor thenextdayrequ iringequipmentp reparationby  the oncoming shift should also be communicated during the unit status report. • Presence of non-operating personnel—presence of non-operating personnel remaining on the unit during or after shift change, including the number of personnel and their current and planned activities. • Product quality issues—discussionsofanyoff-specificationprocesssamplesor analyzers. • Status of work permits—work permits are documents that allow individuals or groups to perform work on a process unit, such as any currently active work permits that will continue across the shift change, and include a detailed status of each work permitthatwillrequirerevalidation,thescopeofthework,numberofemployees continuing to work, and current job status. The different types of work permits include hot work permits, confined space entry permits, and general work permits. • Safety and environmental issues— any safety or environmental items, events, near misses, upsets, potential hazards, or potential upsets that occurred with emphasis on possibility of repetition.

Mods Usd o Mk Rif There are several methods used to make shift relief. The most common method in industry has been to communicate verbally to the oncoming relief. However, recent Occupation al Safet y and Health  Admin istrat ion (OSHA ) invest igatio ns havin g revealed deficiencies in shift changes, and many process facilities have opted to incorporate additional tools, such as a logbook or a shift pass-down sheet, to assist the technician in making a thorough relief. Coupled with effective verbal communication, these additional tools have proven to increase the transfer of relevant and critical information at shift relief.

86 Process Operations eleCtROnIC lOgbOOKS Many facilities have added electronic logbooks to assist the technician in providing accurate shift change information. Electronic logbooks (eLogs), computer-based event logging programs developed to assist the process technician report and record significant shift activities, may be purchased or created in-house in an applicable worksheetordatabase.Figure6.1showsanexampleofaneLogwithentries.

FIgURe 6.1 eLogEntries

                                      

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lOgbOOKS Logbooks are typically hardbound ledgers used to handwrite significant activities that haveoccurredduringtheshift.Figure6.2showsanexampleofapageofahandwritten hardbound ledger. These are still used today in some locations, although the eLog is more widely used. Some drawbacks of the handwritten log include:


• • • •

87

Omittedinformation Legibility Limitedsearchability Requirementtoenterdatainpen,makingcorrectionofincorrectentriesdifficult

FIgURe 6.2 HandwrittenHardboundLedgerEntries

88 Process Operations ShIFt paSS-DOwn SheetS Shift pass-down sheets are generally preprinted or computer-generated forms with designated categories of information that facility management has deemed critical and relevant to facility or unit operation. These sheets are used for shift-to-shift pass-downs toprovideanoncomingshiftwithasynopsisoffacilityoperations.Figure6.3showsan example of a shift pass-down sheet. VeRbal COMMUnICatIOn Verbal communication is extremely effective only if all necessary information is passed on to the oncoming technician. Sometimes, a process technician remembers pertinent information after leaving the facility and will call back to inform her or his relief of noncritical, but in some cases critical, information that was not passed on at shift change. If the technician is using only verbal communication to execute a proper shift pass-down, it is extremely important that each technician involved be trained in effective communication, a communication skill that helps to convey the intended meaning more efficiently. However, effective verbal communication, coupled with additional tools as mentioned earlier, can be very effective in executing a productive shift change.

pricis i  Sif C Shift change can occur in one of two ways: individually or in a group setting with both shiftsattending.Eachfacilityhasitspreferredmannerforexecutingshiftchange. The most common is the technician-to-tech nician method. In the technician-to-technician communication method, the current unit technician sits down with the oncoming technician and communicates, face-to-face, the shift’s activities. The technician communicates verbally using handwritten notes, entries from an eLog, entries from a hardbound logbook, or shift pass-down sheets. In the group communication method, both the current shift and the oncoming shift sit in a group setting and communicate the activities that occurred during the shift. In this type of setting, a member of the facilities management team may leadthemeeting.  Each technicia nmay repor tactivitie sthatoccurreddurin gthe current shift. This type of communication is done verbally, using handwritten notes, entries from an eLog, entries from a hardbound logbook, or shift pass-down sheets. This type of shift change is often used for turnarounds, unit start-ups, unit shutdowns, or special projects. Group communication is also a common shift relief format for routine operations as well. An efficient tool to use, whether communicating in a group or in a face-to-face situation, is paraphrasing. Paraphrasing summarizes the information received to clarify understanding. A process technician should listen intently to the information being reported during shift change, and then should paraphrase what was heard, repeating the information back to verify that he or she understood the meaning of what was being conveyed. This ensures that the current shift has relayed all information, and that the oncoming shift understands what is being shared. The difference between what was intended and what was understood becomes apparent.

Mki  timy Rif Mostfacilitieshaveanappointedtimetomakeshiftchange/relief.Itisextremely important that the shift change occur on time and be effective. If a person makes relief late, the knowledge transfer between the technicians is generally hurried and informationmaybelost.Inmost12-ho urshiftschedules,itisgoodtoremember that the person being relieved is the person most likely to make relief at the end of the next shift. A good idea is to communicate all possible information and to expect the same from the person being relieved.


FIgURe 6.3 ShiftPass-DownSheet

89


esisi good Riosis Estab lishi ng good relat ionsh ips withmembers of a shift , as well as members of other shifts, is extremely important to the role of process technician. When forming relationships with other technicians, some important behaviors to consider are: • Be safe—work safely, never place a co-worker in harm, stop unsafe acts, and follow procedures. • Be attentive—listen to peers and especially those technicians with experience; they are there to help. • Be honest—base actions on a personal set of values; demonstrate trustworthiness. • Be knowledgeable—learn everything possible about an area of operating and assist others in learning. • responsibility Be prompt—arriveatworkontimeandmakegoodshiftchange/relief;these qualitiesaregreatlyappreciatedbyothers. • Be a team player—help others establish a great working relationship with other shift technicians. • Be willing—listen, learn, help others, and volunteer for tougher job assignments.

Summry Theprocesstechn icianshiftchange /relief iscriticalinexchangingkeyinformat ion between the current operating shift and the relieving shift. Without a proper exchange of information between the shifts, the likelihood of an accident increases. Accidents, incidents, and errors can be related to poor shift changes in many industries. Face-to-facecommunicationisagoodpracticeforshiftchange/reliefthatcan be improved by the addition of structured written material such as entries from a logbooks or an electronic logbook, or checklist items, which reduce the risk of incomplete communication. As a so process technician, goal is tounderstanding provide sufficient information to theduring relief operator that he or she hasthe a complete of the unit operations thepreviousshift.A relieftechnicianwithgoodcommun icationskillsasksquestions and paraphrases what has been related. Paraphrasingwhat was heardtellstheotherparty whatimageherorhiswords painted. Differences between what was intended and what was understood then become apparent.Poorlychosenwordsfrequentlycreateincorrectmentalimagesforthe listener, but good communication skills help operating technicians obtain a complete understanding of the information being conveyed.

Ccki Your Kod 1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Effectivecommunications b. Electroniclogbook(eLog) c. Maintenance activity d. Non-operating personnel e.P araphrasing f. Shiftchange/relief g. Unit status report f. Work permits 2. Listfouritemsthataretobeincludedinaunitstatusreport. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ 3. Safetyandenvironmentalissuesdonotneedtobereportedwhilemakingshiftrelief. a. True b. False 4. Nametheparticipantsintheshiftchange/reliefprocess.

CHAPTER6 Shift Change/Relief 5.

6.

7. 8.

9.  0. 1 11.

91

At the end of the shift the field and master control room copies of a working procedure should look identical. a. True b. False List five ofthe seven suggestionsfor forminga good relationship with other process technicians. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ Statethereason(s)formakingatimelyrelief. Anumberofseriousaccidentshaveoccurredduetoinadequateshiftpass-downs. a. True b. False List four items that are to be included when reporting on the process status. Listtheitemsforprocesstrendsthatshouldbediscussedduringshiftchange. Itisnot necessarytoverballyreport any equipmentproble msthatoccurre dduringthe current shift as the oncoming shift would probably read about them in the logbook. a. True b. False

aciviis 1. Thisactivitycontainstwoparts: • Workwithaclassmatetoperformashiftpass-down,developingelectroniclogbook entries and verbally communicating shift and section activities to each other. • Whenactingastheoncomingrelieftechnician,practiceparaphrasing what you are told in order for the off-going technician to compare your understanding with what he or she intended. 2. Writeaone-pagepaperonwhatyourexpec tationsareinreceivi ngandgivingashi ftpassdownto/fromanotherprocesstechnician. 3. Performresearchonelectroniclogbooks;selectadeviceandwriteaone-pagepaperonwhy you made that selection.

7

ChAptEr

Aboa a Eeec Oeaio Objecive After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

92

■

Discuss what types of events could be considered “abnormal operations.”

■

Discuss what types of events could be considered “emergency situations.”

■

Identify possible causes for these various conditions.

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Discuss actions that should be taken to mitigate each situation. Discuss possible corrective action for each of the various possible causes.

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Discuss the field technician and board technician roles in correcting these operations and situations.

■

Discuss how each of these critical conditions could affect the normal operation of

■

the unit process, utilities, and auxiliary systems. Describe how process personnel prepare for each situation (i.e., drills, exercises).

CHAPTER 7 Abnormal and Emergency Operations

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Ke te Abnormal Operation—operating a process unit in a mode that is different from normal operations. Emergency—sudden, unexpected, or impending situation that may cause injury, loss of life, damage to property, and/or interference with the normal activities of a person or operation, which therefore requires immediate attention and demands remedial action. Emergency Operation—mode of operation or procedure followed when an emergency situation has placed a process unit in an unsafe condition. Emergency Response—effort to mitigate the impact of an incident on the public and the environment. Explosion—rapid increase in volume followed by a release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of toxic gases. Fire Brigade—local process facility fire department composed of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic firefighting techniques. First Responder—individuals who likely witness or discover a hazardous substance release and have been trained to initiate an emergency response sequence by notifying the appropriate authorities. Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard (HAZWOPER)—OSHA standard that applies to personnel who are in a role or position to act as a first responder during an emergency. Incident Response Teams—groups of people who prepare for and respond to any emergency incident, such as a fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release, that potentially impacts the outlying community. Mutual Aid—agreement among emergency responders to lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries. Spill—uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, typically involving more volume than a leak. Train—parallel system that has been designed and constructed using the exact or similar production equipment, each of which contributes toward production.

Iocio This chapter provides an overview of various types of abnormal and emergency operations that take place in a production facility. Although these two scenarios of operation sound very similar, there are in fact distinct differences between the two. An emergency is a sudden, unexpected, or impending situation that may cause injury, loss of life, damage to property, and/or interference with the normal activities of a person or operation, which therefore requires immediate attention and demands remedial action. Emergency operations are definitely abnormal, but an abnormal operation should not always be categorized as an emergency. After completing this chapter, you will be able to differentiate between abnormal and emergency operations. • Abnormal operation is operating a process unit in a mode that is different from normal operations. These are usually planned, have a specific purpose, and are a temporary or short-term operation. • Emergency operations are a mode of operation or procedure followed when an emergency situation has placed a process unit in an unsafe condition. It is considered abnormal from routine operating conditions. These are unplanned situations that can have a severe negative impact on unit personnel and equipment. Depending on the severity of the emergency, site personnel, the environment, and surrounding communities can be affected.

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Aboa Oeaio Operating a process unit in an abnormal condition can be described in many ways, because they are unit specific and are unlimited in scope and purpose. The causes for abnormal operations are usually equipment related. However, there are times when raw material supply or product demand may determine the need to operate a unit in an abnormal mode. Most instances of abnormal operation are planned and temporary. The following are a few examples of abnormal operation scenarios and causes that a process technician might encounter: • Dependingonprocesscapabilities,andbasedontheprocessequipmentinvolved, there may be opportunities to shutdown specific pieces of equipment for maintenance or repair and continue to operate the unit for the purpose for which it was designed. In other words, the production facility continues even while equipment is removed from service temporarily for repairs. Redundant pieces of equipment that are performing the same function in a process system can provide these opportunities. • Someunitsareconstructedusingaparallel“train”ofoperation.Atrain can be described as a parallel system that has been designed and constructed using the exact or similar production equipment, each of which contributes toward production. If there is a need to operate at reduced rates for economic reasons, or if there is equipment damage within a train, a process design such as this may permit continued production while removing one or more of these parallel trains from service. • Someunitsareconstructedwithan“ASide”anda“BSide,”eachwithspecific design and equipment characteristics that can be operated in different modes or configurations. Normal operation and final product process might take place only with the combination of the two sides and their respective products. Any alternate mode of operation would be considered abnormal. • Manytimesthereareprocesssystemsfromadjacentunitsthataresharedonapermanent or temporary basis. Equipment on Unit A might be in service to process materialfromUnitBintoaviableproduct.IfUnitBisinashutdownorturnaround mode, then the equipment on Unit A would be temporarily removed from service. • Reroutingtheflareandventsystemfromoneunittoanadjacentunitflareis one of the more common scenarios for sharing systems on a temporary basis. • Installationandoperationofspecialtyequipmentintemporaryserviceisalso considered abnormal operation. Temporary equipment must usually be installed per the manufacturer’s specifications and can require training and other considerations prior to placing into service. Portable drier and filter systems and portable storage facilities are examples of these. • Tankfarmsthatcontainstoragetank,feedtank,effluenttank,andpumping facilities can many times be reconfigured to accommodate numerous temporary conditions that can occur in a production facility: • Afeedtankthatneedstoberemovedfromserviceforanannualinternal inspection might be bypassed while feed to the unit continues directly from the feed source. • Aunitsystemmightbeshutdownandremovedfromservicesothataslop tank can be taken out of service for repair. • Asparetankthatisnotnormallyusedmaybeplacedinservicesothatanother tank can be repaired. • Temporarypipingmightbeinstalledandplacedinservicesothatatankfarm pumping station can be bypassed and removed from service. These examples provide only a small sample of abnormal operations that can take place on a process unit. Even when planned, the hazards associated with abnormal operations are unit specific and are a diversion from normal operations. This diversion carries with it an increased level of risk, which, if not managed properly, can cause injury to personnel, damage to equipment, and damage to theenvironment and surrounding communities.


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Eeec Oeaio There are an unlimited number of variables and scenarios that can cause a process unit emergency situation. The presence of large quantities of hazardous, flammable, and explosive materials, coupled with production equipment that can provide an ignition source for these materials, presents continuous danger for emergency operations. Emergency situations are usually caused by the sudden failure of major pieces of process equipment such as compressors, pumps, furnaces, and piping systems. Failure of automatic trip or shutdown instrumentation and utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricity can also cause an emergency situation on a process unit. The loss of multiple pieces of major equipment creates one of the most dangerous types of emergency situations. Shutdown or loss of major pieces of process equipment simultaneously can have severe health, safety, and environmental consequences. The resulting hazards can include: • Uncontrolledrapidreleaseofhydrocarbontoflareandventsystems • Hazardousmaterialspillsandenvironmentalreleases

• • • • •

Rapidcooldownofprocessequipmentinhigh-temperatureservice Thermalcontractionofpipingandflanges Separationofpipejointsandmaterialrelease Fireorexplosion Rapidheat-upofprocessequipmentincoldorrefrigeratedservicecausing additional overpressure as the material heats up • Equipmentandsystemoverpressureleadingtoacatastrophiceventthatcould impact an entire process facility and the surrounding communities

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An endless number of unit-specific failures can result in an emergency situation. Examples of some of the common failures that cause an emergency situation on most process units include: • • • • • • •

Powerfailure Instrumentairfailure Steamfailure Fuelgasfailure Compressorfailure Furnacefailure Severeweatherconditions

(PHUJHQF\ 3URFHGXUHV 0DQXDO

Other causes of emergency situations include the failure of auxiliary systems like hot oil systems, seal oil and dry gas seal systems, water systems, nitrogen, and other utility systems. Process units are typically designed to handle emergency situations with adequate technology and safety systems that can withstand the effects of an emergency. Flare and vent systems that are adequately sized, piping systems and piping connections that can handle rapid heat-up or cool-down without separation, safety instrumented systems, backup power, and redundant refrigeration systems are al l examples of ways to eliminate or minimize the hazards associated with an emergency situation. An emergency situation requires immediate attention, as these conditions have the potential to cause serious injury to personnel, damage to equipment, and damage to the environment and surrounding communities if they are not managed correctly. It is critical to the safe operation of every process facility that emergency scenarios are identified and documented, and that mitigation plans are in place to safely manage those scenarios. Engineering controls must be tested on a regular basis to ensure they will work when needed. All of the unit emergency procedures for a given scenario should be reviewed as soon as it is determined that the unit is secure from any immediate safety, health, or environmental hazards.

te poce tecicia’ roe i Aboa Oeaio The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, process equipment, and interconnecting piping, valves, safety, and control systems, as well as process-specific hazards, plays a key role in the planning and execution of abnormal operations. A hazard analysis of the abnormal condition should be completed to determine if the mode of operation is safe, and that hazards are minimized or eliminated. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should be written to address the specific mode of operation and should contain step-by-step instructions, cautions, and hazards for placing


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the unit in an abnormal condition. The majority of the risks and hazards associated with abnormal operations can be eliminated with the proper development and use of operating procedures that are generated for the specific task. During abnormal operations, coordination between the process technicians assigned to field duties and the technicians assigned to the control board is critical. The field technician will be engaged in proper line up of process equipment, piping and control valves, as well as operation of the rotating equipment. The control board technician will be engaged in establishing and maintaining the operating conditions and process variables for the given mode of operation. Abnormal operations also provide a unique learning experience for the new or inexperienced technician. The diversion from normal operations enables personnel to execute operating procedures and safety, health, and environmental policies and work practices that are seldom encountered during routine or normal operations. These activities give the process technicians an opportunity for hands-on experience that increases their knowledge base. Unitspecific as well as site-specific knowledge can be gained related to how abnormal unit operations can affect an entire production facility or community. The process technician’s primary responsibilities during abnormal operations include: • ParticipationduringHazardandOperability(HAZOP)studiestoreviewand understand the abnormal operation and complete a hazard evaluation • Developmentandexecutionofunit-operatingproceduresspecifictothe abnormal task • Correctuseofpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE) • Properline-upofprocessequipment,piping,andcontrolvalves • Monitoringandcontroloftheprocessduringabnormaloperation • Specialequipmentpreparationthatmaybeneededduringabnormal operation • Establishingandmaintainingcontrolofprocessconditionswithinoperatinglimits • Coordinationofallworkactivitieswhiletheabnormaloperationisinprogress • Monitoringallsiteandcontractorcraftsmentoensuresafeworkpracticesand that safety, health, and environmental policies are followed during abnormal operation, including those that define unit PPE • Ensuringthathazardstopersonnel,theenvironment,andequipmentaremanaged correctly and all deviations from the site safety, health, and environmental policies are reported • ParticipatinginEmployeeHealthMonitoringProgramswhenthepotentialfor unique exposure hazards are present • CompletingControlofWork(COW)proceduresandpermittingprocessesused to manage work activities surrounding process equipment • CompletingLock-out/Tag-out(LOTO)controlofworkproceduresforthe purpose of equipment preparation and energy isolation when there is a need to inspect, repair, or replace process equipment • Maintainingaudiovisualolfactory(AVO)andequipmentmonitoringawareness. • Stayingfamiliarwithfirstresponderrolesandresponsibilities(i.e.,hazard identification, radio communications, and emergency evacuation procedures)

te poce tecicia’ roe i E eec Oeaio Safely managing an emergency situation depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician, emergency responders, and site personnel. Emergency situation management is also regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA is a U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. OSHA and the PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard include guidelines for Emergency Planning and Response.

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hAzwOpEr Another OSHA standard that applies to the proper management of emergency Waste Operations andare Emergency Response situations is the ,Hazardous (HAZWOPER) which applies to personnel who in a role or position Standard to act as a first responder during an emergency. First responders are individuals who likely witness or discover a hazardous substance release, and have been trained to initiate an emergency response sequence by notifying the appropriate authorities. This includes any employees who are exposed or potentially exposed to hazardous substances, including hazardous waste, and who are engaged in cleanup operations involving hazardous substances. The standard also applies to personnel who are engaged in corrective actions involving cleanup operations at sites covered by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which is the U.S. primary law governing the disposal of solid and hazardous waste. It gives the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) authority to control hazardous waste and emergency response operations for hazardous releases and threats of releases, regardless of location. HAZWOPERtrainingforemergencyrespondersshouldincludeinstructionfor managing:

• • • • • •

Hazardidentificationandisolation Communication Injurytopersonnel Fire Spill Evacuation

EmErgEnCy OpErAtIng prOCEdurEs Preplanning for an emergency situation requires that emergency scenarios for each specific process have been identified and that emergency operating procedures have been written and are in place for use by the process technicians and operations support staff. These Emergency Operating Procedures should include step-by-step instructions for securing a process unit for each type of emergency situation, and for identifying


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the effect on the process, the environment, and surrounding communities. Emergency Operating Procedures can also be formatted to identify steps that must be completed by the field technician, the board technician, or the unit personnel. Process technicians must be trained regularly on these procedures to ensure the appropriate skills and knowledge are exercised when needed. Performing training on simulated emergency scenarios, sometimes called gun drills, prepares the process technician for safely managing situations without the immediate need for reference material. Emergency Operating Procedures are just one type of procedure required by the OSHA PSM standard.

prOCEss hAzArd AnAlysIs The Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM) standard also include requirements for process units to conduct periodic process hazard analysis studies. This is a review and study method that determines potential hazards associated with process systems, equipment, and work processes. Unit process hazard analysis and unitspecific emergency scenarios are identified during these studies. Operations and engineering team members identify potential emergency scenarios and implement engineering controls, administrative controls, or advanced technology to eliminate or mitigate each hazard. Engineering controls designed to eliminate emergency situations can include: • Instrumentationcontrolsintheformofalarms,automatictrips,andshutdowns • Equipmentvariety,suchasusingacentrifugalpumpratherthanapositive displacement pump • Reliefdeviceswhereoverpressureisapotentialhazard • Properlysizedflareandventsystems Administrative controls take the form of policies, procedures, and checklists and these include: • Fireandsafetychecklists • Carsealchecklists • AVOchecklists

poeia haa Many of the same hazards present during abnormal and emergency operations are present during unit start-ups, shutdowns, and even normal operations. The use of an abnormal operating mode is usually infrequent and considered a nonroutine activity. The human element often increases the hazard level when performing unfamiliar activities. Hazardous conditions and emergencies can quickly develop during abnormal operations, and can lead to personnel injury, irreparable damage to equipment, material release, fire, and explosion. Every production facility has the responsibility to: • Identifyscenariosthatareconsideredabnormaloperationsandperformthe appropriate hazard analysis of the operation. • Developoperatingproceduresforeachabnormaloperation. • Identifypotentialemergencyscenariosandhavedocumentedmitigationplansin place to safely manage such scenarios. • Developemergencyproceduresforeachemergencyscenario. • Conducttrainingexercisesutilizingemergencyprocedures.

tecicia Eeec reoe die An operating process technician’s duties include responding to emergencies of different types. There are many different types of emergencies that may be encountered in the process industry. The process technician must respond to any emergency

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situation such as fire, explosion, spills, release of toxic gases, or bomb threats. Emergency response is the effort to mitigate the impact of an incident on the public and the environment. Incident Response Teams are a group of people who prepare for and respond to any emergency incident—such as a fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release— that potentially impacts the outlying community. The Incident Response Teams provide and carry out the emergency response at most process facilities, with the process technician providing incident support during the emergency. In many process facilities, the process technician is primarily considered to be the first responder at the awareness level . The process technician would take no further action beyond the notification of the incident.

spIlls And rElEAsEs The process technician monitors her or his area of operating responsibility routinely during the course of a shift. During the course of the shift, the process technician might encounter small leaks that may be handled immediately if properly trained. These types of minor leaks include packing leaks, flange leaks, and tubing leaks. Care should always be exercised when repairing these types of leaks in order to prevent a more hazardous situation. The process technician must always wear the proper personnel protective equipment (PPE) when attempting to repair a leak. Each process facility has a determined definition of what volume constitutes a spill. A spill involves the uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, and it usually involves more volume than a leak. The process technician’s primary responsibility when discovering a spill is to report the incident to the proper authorities as soon as possible. The technician must also notify those workers immediately affected by the release to ensure their safety. If applicable, the process technician who is trained as a first responder at the awareness level may establish a water spray, from a distance, to prevent harmful vapor leaving the immediate area. A first responder at the operations level is an individual who responds to releases, or potential releases, as part of the initial response to the site for the purpose of protecting nearby persons, property, or the environment. A technician trained as a first responder (operations level) should respond to the spill according to the site emergency response guidelines for spills or releases. Spills of greater volume that have the potential to affect the surrounding community or waterways require assistance from the local facility fire brigade. A fire brigade is a local process facility fire department composed of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic firefighting techniques.

FIrEs Although fires are not common in the process industry, they do happen occasionally. Some fires that have occurred in industry that local industrial firefighters have responded to include: • Dumpster fires—caused by the improper mixing of chemicals coupled with readily available debris of all types that act as a fuel source. Chemical fires—caused by the improper mixing of two or more chemicals. • • Flange fires—caused primarily by a flange leaking hydrocarbons and the vapor finds a source of ignition, or temperatures are such that auto-ignition occurs. • Furnace fires—usually occur from a ruptured or leaking furnace tube. • Ground fires—generally occur around the bases of flares and are caused when a large volume of liquid hydrocarbon is dumped into the flare system and cannot be combusted by the flare. • Tank fires—primarily caused by lightning strikes and generally occur on tanks that are not blanketed with an inert gas. • Process unit fires—caused by leaking hydrocarbons, both liquid and vapor. These include associated piping, pumps, and vessels.

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If the process technician encounters a fire, it should be immediately reported according totheprocessfacilitiesemergencyresponseguidelines.Whenreportingafire,the process technician should: • Notifyco-workersviaradio,intercom,orPAsystem,ifavailable. • Soundthefacilityfirealarmnotifyingtheremainderofthefacilitythatan emergency is in progress. • Calltheprocessfacility’semergencynumberstatingthefollowing: • • • •

Firelocation Firefuelsource Firesize Ifastructurefire,thesizeofthestructure

It is important to stay on the line with the dispatcher or person taking the call because they will have additional questions, such as: • Dopeoplerequiremedicalattention? • Arehazardousmaterialspresent? • Arenearbypropertiesorstoragefacilitiesthreatened? The technician should try to offer as much detail about the event as possible. After reporting the fire, he or she should stay as calm as possible until the fire brigade responds. Once the fire brigade has responded, the technician should provide whatever assistance the fire chief or incident commander deems necessary. The process technician should show or tell the fire brigade members the location of isolation valves that need to be closed to stop the fuel source feeding the fire. Once the scene is under control, the process technician is responsible for post-incident cleanup, as designated by the process facility. Many fires at large refineries and process facilities are often successfully dealt with by the process facility’s firefighting personnel. The role of the local municipal fire department is generally of reinforcement, helping thethe process facility firefighters when larger fires occur. Ifone these fires become too large for local fire brigade, then a mutual aid call may be sounded. Mutual aid is an agreement among other emergency responders to lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries. A mutual aid system is comprised of many local fire brigades, including the municipal fire department. This type of system may require a regional mutual aid system if conditions warrant. The technical knowledge of the process facility’s fire officers can be invaluable to a municipal fire officer in the event that the municipal fire officer has command to combat a large refinery or process facility fire.

ExplOsIOns Explosions are a rapid increase in volume followed by a release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of toxicgases.Lesscommonthanfires, explosion scanoccurinindustryiftheproper conditions are present. Process explosions are either chemical or physical in nature. Chemical explosions may either be decomposition or combination reactions. In both cases the reaction is exothermic and the energy release by the reaction is partially converted to work. ChEmICAl ExplOsIOns Decomposition reactions occur in material such as TNT and nitroglycerin, both of whichcontainoxygenmolecules .Whenthe moleculedecomposes,combustiongases are produced at high temperatures. The volume of the gases is much larger than the volume of the explosive, generating high pressure at the reaction zone. The rapid expansion of the gases forms the shock wave that provides the explosive effect. Even some hydrocarbons without oxygen in their molecules can decompose explosively.

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Combination reactions require two or more components that react together exothermically to produce hot gases. Examples include ammonium nitrate and fuel oil, or gunpowder and fireworks. In these explosions, the reactants that make up the explosive must be carefully mixed to assure that the reaction continues as planned. The damage caused by an explosion depends partly on how fast the explosive reaction occurs. Decomposition reactions generally occur much faster than combination reactions. Another type of chemical explosion is the vapor cloud explosion. A vapor cloud explosion can occur when a fuel, such as ordinary propane, is mixed with air in the atmosphere. If the cloud is ignited, the burning rate may be fast enough to form a shock wave. Although the overpressure in the shock wave may not be very high compared to other explosions, it can be strong enough to damage or destroy structures and injure personnel. A dust explosion, which is very similar to a vapor explosion, takes place when fine combustible particles, such as coal or grain, are distributed in the proper proportion with air and the mixture finds an ignition source.

physICAl ExplOsIOns Physical explosions are those in which no chemical or nuclear reaction occurs. The most frequent example is the rupture of a vessel whose contents, either gas or liquid, exist under high pressure. If the containment vessel bursts, the contents are free to expand, and a shock wave is formed. A simple example would be the explosion of a common automobile tire when it is overinflated. Liquidsthathavea normalboilingpointwellbelowambien ttemperat uresare sometimes stored (under their own vapor pressure) at pressures well above atmospheric pressure. If the containment vessel bursts, part of the liquid vaporizes extremely rapidly and expands, forming a shock wave. This process is called a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) and the resulting explosion can be very destructive.

Explosions can occur during start-ups and shutdowns. During the start-up and shutdown of a process unit, an unplanned event, such as a spill or release, can occur and lead to a severe incident such as an explosion. The process technicians should adhere to normal start-up and shutdown procedures to prevent the likelihood of any incident. The reporting procedure for explosions is the same as for fire.

BOmB thrEAts Most bomb threats are generally received by phone. However, they can also be generatedthroughhandwrittennotesormail.Bombthreatsshouldbetakenseri ously until proven otherwise. The process facility should have a procedure in place for handling a bomb threat. The process technician must be familiar with bomb

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threat procedures and know how to access the process facilities bomb threat checklist when needed. If the process technician receives a bomb threat by phone, she or he should use the following guidelines: • Remaincalmandusethefacilitybombthreatchecklist.Thechecklistshouldbe located at each phone in the facility as a precaution for easy access. • Ifthephonehasadisplay,notethenameorphonenumberthatappearsinthe display window. • Obtainthelocation,appearance,anddetonationtimeofthebombfromthe caller. • Don’thangup;stayonthephonewiththecaller,getaco-worker’sattentionand have him or her call the emergency response coordinator from another phone. Relay the exact phone number where the threat is being received. An example of a bomb threat checklist is provided in Figure 7.1.

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104

Process Operations

sa Abnormal and emergency operations are an important part of process operation, and they provide unique opportunities for site personnel and the process technician. The risks and hazards may range from none or little for abnormal operations to high or severe for emergency operations. Hazards present during abnormal operations and emergency operations should be sufficiently analyzed to develop procedures that ensure the safety of personnel, unit equipment, and the entire facility. The procedures followed during abnormal operations and response to emergency situations require all the skills and abilities of a trained process technician. Abnormal operations and emergency operating procedures should be fully documented in the same form as other operating procedures, so they can be managed safely by site personnel. The regularly practiced process deviation scenarios provide learning experiences for the site staff that only occur during abnormal and emergency operations. The Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals standard (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.119) requires facility management to develop and document applicable emergency procedures and provide process technician procedure training.

Cecki yo Koee 1.

Define the following terms: a. Abnormal operation b. Emergency c. Emergency operation d. Emergency response e. Explosion f. Fire brigade g. First responder h. HazardousWasteOperationsandEmergencyResponseStandard (HAZWOPER) i. Incident Response Teams j. Mutual aid Spill k. Train 2. The OSHA 1910 Process Safety Management standard covers: (Select all that apply) a. Management of change b. Pre–start-up safety review c. Operations procedures d. Emergency Planning and Response 3. Regulations defining safe work practices for abnormal and emergency operations are covered by the OSHA PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard. a. True b. False 4. Process technici ans play a key role in the pl anning and safe execution of abn ormal operations. Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply) a. Execution of the unit operations procedures b. Monitoring the process and equipment while the abnormal operation is in progress

5.

6.

c. Monitoring all work activities while the abnormal operation is in progress d. Special equipment start-up and preparation utilizing any normal or special control of work procedures Safely managing an emergency situation depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician. a. True b. False Even during abnormal operations, it is required that the applicable standard operating procedures (SOPs) are used for the purpose of safely managing the abnormal operation. a. True b. False

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7.

Emergency situations can be caused by the sudden failure of major pieces of process equipment, such as compressors or furnaces, and failure of utilities, such as instrument air, steam, or electricity. a. True b. False 8. Preplanning for an emergency situation requires that emergency scenarios for each specific process be identified, and that emergency operating procedures be written and in place for use by the process technicians and operations support staff. a. True b. False 9. Some primary responsibilities of the process technicians during start-ups include: (Select all that apply) a. Completion of unit start-up and inventory procedures to facilitate a safe, efficient, and controlled start-up b. Proper line-up of process equipment, piping, and control valves c. Start-up, monitoring, and control of rotating equipment d. Establishing and maintaining control of process conditions within operating limits 10. The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, process equipment and interconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well as processspecific hazards plays a key role in the planning of abnormal operations and safe management of emergency situations. a. True b. False

Aciviie Select one of the unit emergency shutdown procedures (steam failure, furnace failure, or compressor failure) and, using the scenario below, perform a gun drill together with a classmate to:  • Determinetheresponsibilitiesofindividualsineachsystemorsectionoftheunit.  • Determinethepropersequenceofeventsnecessarytobringtheunittoasafestateafterthe emergency has occurred.  • Identifyanyspecialorcriticalactivitiesthatmusttakeplacetomitigatetheemergency.  • Determineifspe cialPPEisrequir edduri ngequi pmentisola tionorshutdow nduring the emergency.  • Determinethe need for communicationand proper contact numbers toadjac ent or connecting units.  • Determinethenee dforcommu nicationandproper  contactnumbe rstositepers onnel responsible for contacting regulatory authorities. Scenario: The unit you are operating consists of two distillation columns, four pumps, one compressor (operating on steam from a third-party vendor), and two small furnaces. During the course of your shift, the third-party vendor supplying your site with steam has to drastically reducetheamountofsteamsenttoyoursite;thisinturnslowsyourcompressorturbine,causing a unit upset, which trips your furnace offline. In addition, your compressor trips offline. You do recover from these upsets—only to be informed later in the shift that the third-party site has lost its steam generation system and, for the remainder of your shift, can no longer send steam to your site. Select only one emergency scenario and develop and perform a gun drill with a classmate.

8

ChapTer

On-th-Job Tinin Objctivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

106

■

State the purpose of on-the-job training (OJT).

■

Explain the levels of skill development involved in OJT.

■

Describe the proper method for organizing and preparing to conduct OJT.

■

List the phases required to prepare for and conduct OJT.

■

Explain the proper method for demonstrating a task to a trainee.

■

Describe the proper method for observing a trainee as he/she practices a new task.

■

Describe the proper method for providing feedback to a trainee.

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Ky Tms Computer-Based Training (CBT)—delivers training material through a facility computing system. Mentor—influential senior sponsor or trainer, usually in the form of a training coordinator or a chief or lead operator, who delivers the training material, tracks material completion, provides feedback, and conducts written and performance evaluations to verify knowledge. On-the-Job Training Programs—objective-oriented training and qualification programs for process technicians to master process equipment, control systems, safety, and hazard management. Process Simulator—stand-alone, computer-generated simulation of a process unit or

process system that emulates process equipment, piping systems, control mechanisms, and behaviors that control the process.

Intodction This chapter provides an overview of the on-the-job training (OJT) programs that are delivered to process technicians entering the field of process technology (PTEC). Process facilities are not only required by federal law to ensure that employees are trained in their operations but they also have developed extensive training programs that reflect their responsibility toward people, the environment, and the communities in which they operate. A two-year Associate Degree in Process Technology, or equivalent experience in the field of process technology, may be required of an individual seeking a position in the process industry. Personnel in the process industry must be fully capable of performing their assigned tasks, without error, based on the hazards found throughout the industry. Tasks and industry hazards that are not managed responsibly can quickly result in severe harm to personnel, the environment, process facilities, and surrounding communities. Industry training programs include material required to comply with federal regulations and material required for the site or production facility. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. OSHA has developed standards that require employers to train employees in the safety and health aspects of their jobs. Other OSHA standards make it the employer’s responsibility to limit certain job assignments to employees who are certified, competent, or qualified—meaning they have had special previous training, in or out of the workplace. These standards reflect the OSHA belief that training is an essential part of every employer’s safety and health program for protecting workers from injury and illness. An example of OSHA safety and health training requirements is the Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals standard (Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations Part 1910.119). This standard was issued under the requirements of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. The Process Safety Management Standard contains the requirements for management of hazards associated with processes using highly hazardous materials. It requires the employer to evaluate or verify that employees comprehend the training given to them. This means that training must have established goals and objectives. Subsequent to training, an evaluation must verify that the employees understand the material presented and acquired the desired skills and knowledge.

pos nd Imotnc of On-th-Job Tinin Throughout the process industry, on-the-job training programs are objective-oriented training and programs for process technicians to master process equipment, control systems, and fulfill safety and hazard management. This is the primary training method

108 Process Operations utilized to ensure that operating personnel become demonstrably qualified. Trainees learn how process equipment and systems are integrated and controlled for the manufacture of one or more products or by-products. Training programs are designed to teach the trainee how to operate safely while managing the hazards present in the process industry. Every training program has several goals, the first being to ensure that personnel are certified or qualified to safely and consistently complete the job tasks for which they are responsible. Trainees for process operation must complete a training program consisting of predefined learning objectives within a curriculum that prepares the trainee for specific job assignments. Qualification for a specific job assignment requires the trainee to demonstrate understanding of the training material. Becoming qualified to safely operate a process unit requires absorbing a vast amount of knowledge and information. Merely being responsible for a job task is not always enough. The person who absorbs as much knowledge as possible truly becomes proficient in the industry. Sound knowledge of the physical unit equipment, piping, and controls is an absolute necessity. The trainee must understand the inner workings and technological details of the process and equipment, as well as the scientific and physical attributes. In other words, the process technician is as much a student of math, science, and physics as a student of the mechanical requirements that are necessary throughout the process industry. Communication plays a vital role in the day-to-day operation of a process unit. Shift operators, process and technical engineers, and managers all have the responsibility of developing communication skills that support the sharing of information and knowledge. At the same time, these personnel need to develop a philosophy of continuous self-improvement by constantly paying attention and staying engaged in daily operation activities. The abilities to stay engaged, communicate, share information, and pay attention to detail enables process personnel to safely manage the hazards associated with the process industry. Once the initial process certification or qualification is achieved, refresher training or a system of continuous education begins. Continuous education training requirements for process technicians, and those employees who are directly responsible for process operations, are defined at the site or facility level and by the federal government. Continuous education is one of the most important parts of every training program; it is the component that ensures that knowledge is retained and built on throughout the career of the process technician. Refresher training frequencies for the purpose of continuous educati on on these and other related subjects are also defined at the site level and at the government level, and are usually established on an annual, bi-annual (twice a year), and, in some cases, a tri-annual (three times a year) basis.

Tinin Mthods, Skill Dvlomnt, nd Obsvin th Tin The PTEC student should enter a facility with an appreciation for the training program experience. A trainee with a two-year Associate Degree in Process Technology has already learned much about the process industry, the purpose for the many types of equipment, the chemistry, physics, and science involved, as well as many of the hazards present throughout the industry. As stated earlier in this chapter, one of the primary goals of every training program is to ensure that personnel are certified or qualifi ed for the on-the-job tasks for which they are responsible. Assigning the trainee to a process unit is usually the first step in the training process, which is quickly followed by enrolling the trainee in the unit training program. A qualified mentor is an influential senior sponsor or trainer, usually in the form of a training coordinator or a chief or lead operator, who delivers training material, tracks material completion, provides feedback, and conducts written performance evaluations to verify knowledge. In some facilities, depending on staff availability, a shift operator may be assigned as an additional mentor to work closely with the trainee throughout the training process. A mentor

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is a qualified person and a subject matter expert (SME) the trainee can depend on to answer questions, demonstrate tasks, and provide guidance and instruction for daily unit activities. Mentorship is one of the most important pieces of every successful training program. Working closely with trained personnel enables the trainee to become directly involved in the operation and with the staff. Through task demonstration, a mentor can engage the trainee in the daily activities required to safely operate the process. Under the supervision of an experienced mentor, a trainee can begin to execute simple tasks. Participation in more difficult tasks takes place as the trainee progresses through the training program and demonstrates their abilities. Gaining knowledge of the process through this type of superv ised hands-on training supplements the trainee’s ability to understand and learn the training material. The sights, sounds, and smells that are experienced through direct contact with the process equipment and controls provide an invaluable learning experience for trainees. Allowing a trainee to become actively engaged in the operation, with the guidance of a mentor, exemplifies the true meaning of on-the-job training. Figure 8.1 shows a mentoring situation. While coordinating the trainee’s progression through the training modules, written evaluations and job task (performance) evaluations, the training coordinator or mentor should also be carefully observing and evaluating the trainee in the area of people skills, sometimes referred to as soft skills. The trainee’s ability to establish working relationships and communicate effectively should be evaluated and graded equally with a trainee’s ability to learn and retain knowledge. Difficulties in any of these areas can be addressed and corrected early in the training process for the benefit of the trainee as well as for the current process staff. While the trainee progressively learns about the inner workings of the process from the training modules, he or she is also expected to become familiar with equipment, piping, control valve location, and applicable job tasks so that performance evaluations can be completed as well. Progression through every training program is based on successfully completing each assigned module, passing written evaluations, and demonstrating assigned tasks (performance evaluations). Completion of the module and knowledge of the content are tested in several ways: • Writtenevaluationsonagivensubjectareadministeredeithermanuallyorby computer, and the trainee is required to achieve a minimum score. • Performanceevaluationsonthesubjectareadministeredbythetrainingcoordinator, chief or lead operator, or mentor in which the trainee must physically perform assigned tasks to demonstrate proof of knowledge and competence. • Traineeobservationthroughamentorprogramprovidestheopportunityto evaluate a trainee’s:

7KLVLVWKHUHVXOWRI

FIgure 8.1 Mentor Explaining Pipeline Deposits

110 Process Operations • Workethics,theabilitytoestablishworkingrelationships,andtheskillto communicate effectively. • Theabilitytolearnandretainknowledge. Providing feedback to trainees is one of the roles for which the training coordinator or mentor is responsible. Process technology and the topics that support the process industry are not easy topics, and some trainees may find it difficult to meet required training expectations. Feedback, when given properly, even in a negative situation, can motivate a trainee to perform to expectations. Senior operators, training coordinators, and mentors with the knowledge, communication skills, desire, and ability to coach trainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed. Negative feedback can be given in a constructive manner that enables a trainee to better understand a problem, create a solution to the problem, and improve performance. Providing positive reinforcement and feedback is also critical to the success of every trainee. A few examples of positive reinforcement are: • Recognizingatraineeforhavingcompletedmodulesandwrittenevaluationson schedule • Recognizingatraineeforherorhisabilitytolearnquicklyandeffectively • Recognizingatraineeforhisorherattentiontodetailandsafety • Recognizingatraineeforhavingcompletedjobtasksproficiently • Assigningadditionaljobtasksthatareprogressivelymorecomplicated • Recognizingwhenatraineehasqualifiedon-the-jobtasksforwhichheorsheis responsible • Welcomingquestionsfromthetrainee

Tinin Mtils Most unit-specific training programs are divided into training modules. These modules are usually subdivided into several parts that typically include: • • • •

Writtentrainingmaterial Writtenevaluations Performanceevaluations Referencematerial

Unit-specific training modules are developed to teach the trainee about the systems and equipment found within his or her process unit. The subject matter for these modules typically includes: • • • • • •

Descriptionoftheprocess Controloftheprocess Auxiliaryequipment Specialtyequipment Flareandventsystems Safetysystems

Another training tool that is available to process industry trainees in some facilities is the process simulator, which is a stand-alone, computer-generated simulation of a process unit or process system that emulates process equipment, piping systems, control mechanisms, and behaviors that control the process. A process simulator gives the trainee the ability to demonstrate tasks associated with control board or critical system operation without affecting the process. Simulator display graphics are designed to represent the process unit or system with the same level of detail that the trainee will experience using a typical Distributed Control System (DCS). Computer software within the simulator enables the trainee to manipulate process control variables and experience real-time results that demonstrate the correct methods of controlling a process or system. Figure 8.2 shows an employee using a process simulator.

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FIgure 8.2 Using a Process Simulator

Practicing on the actual equipment can jeopardize production and safety, but using a process simulator allows the trainee to practice controlling emergency situations. Using a process simulator provides the trainee with valuable experience not otherwise available, such as: • Instrumentterminologyandbasiccontrolmethodsforflow,temperature, pressure, and level • Basicandadvancedcontrolmethodsthatareprocessspecific • Real-timeresultsthatreflecthowtheprocessisaffectedbymanipulatedvariables (i.e., flow, temperature, pressure, and level) • Howtotroubleshootequipmentandcontrolmalfunction • Howtoadjustprocessvariablestoachieveadesiredoutcome • Howtorespondtoemergencysituations Training material and delivery method can vary from site to site. Computer-based training (CBT) delivers training material through a facility computing system. Other methods include manual or hard copy material delivery and using process simulation. An example of a computer-based training slide can be found in Figure 8.3. Organization, scheduling, and delivery of training material is based on the expected skill development of the trainee using a systematic approach to get the student trained, certified, and released to operate or perform specific job tasks. Training programs usually begin with a Process Description, which typically contains chemistry,

FIgure 8.3 Example of a Computer-Based Training Slide

112 Process Operations process equipment descriptions, operating parameters, and stream compositions, followed by more difficult subjects like Process Control and Advanced Controls. This approach is designed to gradually increase the level of difficulty so that the trainee is able to retain the knowledge. Training modules developed to teach the trainee about the hazards found within utility systems are also delivered early in most training programs. The subject matter for these modules typically includes: • • • •

Hazardsofsteam Hazardsofwater Hazardsofnitrogen Hazardsofelectricity

In addition to initial process training, examples of government-required training modules, developed relative to the hazards found throughout the industry, include the following: • • • • • • • • •

HazardousWasteOperationsandEmergencyResponse(HAZWOPER) Hazardcommunication Accidentpreventionsignsandtags Respiratoryprotection Controlofhazardousenergy(lock-out/tag-out) Confinedspacepermitting Portablefireextinguishers Blood-bornepathogens Toxicandhazardoussubstances • Benzeneawareness • Asbestosawareness • Vinylchlorideawareness • Leadawareness

Additional reference materials are also made available to the trainee, either in hard copy or electronic form, which should be used as training aids. The reference materials contain valuable information for the trained unit staff as well as the trainee, and supplement the information found within the training modules. Reference materials that should be readily available to all unit personnel include: • Operating manual—unit-specific material providing detailed process information that includes: • Thetechnicaldescriptionoftheprocess • Processcontrolandadvancedcontroldescriptions • Instrumentandalarmsummarysheetscompletewithmanufacturerdata • Technicaldescriptionandmanufacturerdataforrotatingequipment (i.e., pumps, compressors, mixers, and fin fan exchangers) • Technicaldescriptionandmanufacturerdataforfixedequipment(i.e.,heat exchangers, towers, drums, and storage tanks) • Technicaldescriptionandmanufacturerdataforspecialtyequipment (i.e., centrifuges, reactors, furnaces, driers, and API separators)

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• Unit standard operating procedures—unit-specific procedures for equipment and system start-up, shutdown, and normal and emergency operations. • Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies—policies implemented by process facilities in order to minimize or prevent the risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry, and to ensure that the facility is in compliance with applicable regulatory agencies. • Process and instrument diagrams (P&IDs)—detailed drawings that graphically represent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a process facility. They are a family of functional one-line diagrams showing process equipment, mechanical and electrical systems like piping, and cable block diagrams. Abbreviated as P&IDs, they show the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process. They are the primary schematic drawings used for laying out a process control installation in a process facility. In addition to showing the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process, P&IDs are used to teach the trainee: • • • • • • •

Theunitlayout Equipmentidentificationtagnumbers Instrumentidentificationtagnumbers Pipingandequipmentdesigncriteria Pipingandequipmentmaterialofconstruction Pipingandequipmentdesigntemperature Pipingandequipmentdesignpressure

Throughout a typical training program, a trainee uses all available training material to learn about process equipment engineered and constructed for specific purposes, such as: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fractionationtowerswithoverheadcondensersystemsandrefluxdrums Reactorsystems(i.e.,fluidbedandfixedbed) Tankfarmsandstoragevessels Furnaceandheatersystems,hotoilandsteamgenerationsystems Utilitysystems(i.e.,steam,water,nitrogen,instrumentair,plantair,and natural gas) Pumpandcompressorlubeoilandsealoilsystems Drygassealsystems Fuelgassystems Flareandventsystems Oilandwatercollectionandseparationsystems Filteranddryersystems Gascompressorsystems Refrigerationsystems Acidandcausticsystems Coolingtowersystems Specialtyequipment(i.e.,crystallizers,centrifuges,androtaryvalves)

Smmy This chapter has discussed how the preparation, organization, and delivery of training material facilitate the development of new employee skills for the process industry. The required skills are primarily based on the significant amount of science and technology involved in processing, and on the hazards that are found throughout the industry. We learned that training requirements are driven by the process facilities, as well as the federal government, and that the success of every training program is dependant on several key variables. Content and delivery of the training material, written and performance evaluations to provide proof of knowledge, and continuous education such as

114 Process Operations refresher training and mentorship are all important to the success of every training program. This chapter also stressed that merely being responsible for one’s job task is not always enough; it is the person who absorbs as much knowledge as possible who truly becomes proficient in the industry. Key attributes of the skilled workers in the process industry include personal motivation, communication skills, attention to detail, understanding the inner workings of the process, and understanding how to safely manage process hazards. The ability of training staff and mentors to implement training as effectively as possible is also important to the success of every training program. Senior operators, training coordinators, and mentors with the knowledge, communication skills, desire, and ability to coach trainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed.

Chckin Yo Knowld 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Define the following terms: a. Computer-based training (CBT) b. Mentor c. On-the-job training programs d. Process simulator Trainee observation through a mentor program provides the opportunity to: (Select all that apply) a. Evaluate a trainee’s work ethics b. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to establish working relationships c. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to communicate effectively d. Evaluate a trainee’s ability to learn and retain knowledge A qualified mentor, senior sponsor, or trainer, usually in the form of a training coordinator or a chief or lead operator, is responsible for: (Select all that apply) a. Delivery of the training material b. Tracking completion of the material c. Conducting written and performance evaluations designed to verify knowledge d. Providing feedback to the trainee Mentorship is one of the most important pieces of every successful training program a. True b. False On-the-job training programs throughout the process industry are the primary method used to ensure that the personnel operating the process facilities are trained to perform the job tasks for which they are responsible. a. True b. False Shift operators, process and technical engineers, and managers all have the responsibility of developing communication skills that support the sharing of information and knowledge. a. True b. False Reference material that should be readily available to all unit personnel includes: (Select all that apply) a. An operating manual b. P&IDs c. Standard operating procedures d. Safety, health, and environmental policies In addition to showing the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process, P&IDs teach the trainee: (Select all that apply) a. The unit layout b. Piping and equipment material of construction c. Piping and equipment design temperature d. iping and equipment design pressure Most unit-specific training programs are divided into training modules. These modules are usually subdivided into several parts that include: (Select all that apply) a. Written training material b. Written evaluations c. Performance evaluations d. Reference material

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10. Senior operators, training coordinators, and mentors with the knowledge, communication skills, desire, and ability to coach trainees can almost always motivate trainees to succeed. a. True b. False 11. Organization, scheduling, and delivery of training material is based on the expected skill development of the trainee and a systematic approach toward getting the student trained, certified, and released to operate or perform specific job tasks. a. True b. False

activitis 1.

Work with a classmate to teach one another a skill that you currently do at work, home,

2.

or school. Write a two-page paper onwhat you think is the best delivery method for on-the-job training.

9

Chapter

Mic Ojcis After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Explain the importance of obtaining an accurate estimate for when maintenance personnel will return equipment.

■

List the energy and equipment isolation methods and the devices that must be removed after equipment maintenance.

■

List the equipment used by maintenance or contractors, which may need to be removed.

■

List the final safeguards to take prior to returning the equipment to service.

■

List the common inspections needed to assure mechanical integrity.

■

116

Describe the risks and hazards involved with preparing equipment for routine maintenance.

■

List the key activities necessary to prepare equipment for routine maintenance.

■

List all departments and personnelinvolved in, or affected by,equipment maintenance.

■

Define the terms preventive and reactive.

■

Compare the advantages of preventive maintenance with the disadvantages of reactive maintenance.

■

Explain the types of preventive maintenance that should be performed on a selected piece of equipment.

■

Explain the process technician’s role in the performance of various preventive maintenance activities.

■

Suggest a schedule for performing these various preventive maintenance activities for the selected piece of equipment.

■

Describe the costs associated with one specific preventive maintenance activity.

■

Create an estimate of preventive maintenance expenses for one specific maintenance activity for one selected piece of equipment based on the various costs

■

associated with the maintenance activity. List the types of reactive maintenance that may be required in the absence of a preventive maintenance program.

■

Describe the costs associated with each reactive maintenance activity.

■

Define the term turnaround.

■

Differentiate between routine maintenance and work performed during turnaround.

■

List the tasks to be completed in order to adequately prepare for a turnaround.

■

Explain the role of the process technician in each of the planning tasks listed above.

■

List the key phases of a unit turnaround.

■

Compare and contrast routine shutdown versus shutting down for turnaround.

CHAPTER 9

Maintenance

■

Describe the role of the process technician regarding unit turnarounds in accordance with general industry practices.

■

Compare and contrast routine start-up versus starting up after turnaround.

■

Outline the PSM Management of Change requirements regarding turnarounds.

■

Outline the PSM Pre-Start-Up Safety Review requirements regarding turnarounds.

■

Explain how unit personnel evaluate the success of a turnaround.

117

K tms Friction—force resisting the relative lateral or tangential motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. Inspection—examination of a part or piece of equipment to determine if it conforms to specifications, traditionally following the completion of work. Isolation—act of separating equipment or machinery from energy sources. Lubricants—the materials used to reduce friction and remove heat between two contact surfaces. Lubrication—the process or technique employed to reduce friction and remove heat for reducing equipment wear and increasing longevity and safety. Mechanical Integrity—the state of being whole, sound, and undamaged; capable of functioning at design specification. Predictive Maintenance (PM) —maintenance strategy that helps determine the condition of in-service equipment to predict when maintenance should be performed. Preventative Maintenance—equipment maintenance strategy based on replacing, overhauling, or remanufacturing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of its condition at the time. Reactive Maintenance—equipment maintenance strategy in which equipment and facilities are repaired only in response to a breakdown or a fault. Routine Maintenance—work routinely performed to maintain equipment in its

srcinal manufactured condition and maintain operability. Statistical Process Control (SPC)—a method of monitoring, controlling, and ideally improving a process through statistical analysis to determine at what point in the future the maintenance activities are appropriate. Thermal Expansion—tendency of matter to increase in volume in response to an increase in temperature. Turnaround Maintenance —required maintenance performed on specific pieces of equipment that cannot be performed unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried.

Iodcio Maintenance is a key function in the process industry—maintenance that is done on a day-to-day, month-to-month, and year-to-year basis. It is important to maintain the equipment in a safe and reliable condition to prevent unplanned incidents or accidents. The maintenance of a unit or piece of equipment is defined by the facility strategies for maintaining the mechanical integrity—the state of being whole, sound, and undamaged and capable of functioning at design specification—of equipment. Maintaining mechanical integrity ensures that equipment functions at design specifications and prevents the types of failure that leads to a chemical release or other hazard. Several maintenance strategies are used in the process industry today, including predictive, preventative, and reactive. Each strategy has advantages and disadvantages. The role of the process technician is similar for each maintenance strategy. The process technician may be required to perform minor maintenance at his or her facility, such as installing operator blinds, changing out filters, changing out pressure gauges, checking certain types of temperature indicators, and cleaning pump strainers. When performing these tasks, the process technician should always use a standard operating procedure (SOP), or a unit-specific procedure for equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operation, as well as emergency operations.

118

Process Operations

roi Mic Routine maintenance is the work routinely performed to maintain equipment in its srcinal manufactured condition and maintain operability. There are several different strategies for providing routine equipment maintenance in a process facility. These strategies include predictive, preventative, and reactive. Turnaround (TAR) is a planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair. Turnarounds are considered a long-term maintenance strategy. These operations involve a lot of preparation, and many precautions are taken because TAR may involve hazardous operations, especially at start-up. Turnaround maintenance is required maintenance performed on specific pieces of equipment that cannot be performed unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried.

Each facility has developed its own maintenance strategy with high-performing maintenance organization.

the goal of having a

pdici Mic Predictive maintenance is a maintenance strategy that helps determine the condition of in-service equipment to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers cost savings over routine or time-based strategies because tasks are performed only when warranted. Predictive maintenance requires that the process technician or maintenance craftsperson attempt to utilize either periodic or continuous health monitoring of equipment as an evaluation tool. Predictive maintenance determines when best to schedule equipment maintenance and when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective (typically prior to the equipment losing its optimum performance). This approach uses principles of statistical process control (SPC) , a method of monitoring, controlling, and ideally improving a process through statistical analysis to determine at what point in the future the maintenance activities are appropriate. The four basic steps of statistical process control include:

• • • •

Measuringtheprocess Eliminatingvariancesintheprocesstomakeitconsistent Monitoringtheprocess Improvingtheprocesstoitsbesttargetvalue

A predictive maintenance strategy provides the following advantages:

• • • • • • • • •

Increasescomponentoperationallife Allowsforpreemptivecorrectiveactions Reducesequipmentand/orprocessdowntime Lowerscostsforpartsandlabor Providesbetterproductquality Improvesworkerandenvironmentalsafety Raisesworkermorale Increasesenergysavings Resultsinanestimated8to12%costsavingsoversavingsthatresultfrom

a reactive maintenance program Disadvantages of using a predictive maintenance strategy include:

• Increasesinvestmentindiagnosticequipment • Increasesinvestmentinstafftraining • Savingspotentialisnotreadilyseenbymanagement The role of the process technician is to monitor equipment daily and report to a designated person in the organization. The process technician also prepares the equipment for maintenance, as necessary. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed a standard (579) entitled“Fitness-for-Service/RemainingLifethatusesanalysisandcalculation

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119

to predict the remaining equipment life. For example, it is possible that only some of the process tubes in a heater will need replacement based on thickness measurements. Prior to these advanced predictive techniques, all of the tubes would probably have been replaced at the same time even if only some showed thinning tube walls.

rci Mic Reactive maintenance is an equipment maintenance strategy in which equipment and facilities are repaired only in response to a breakdown or a fault. Because of the potential loss of production, reactive maintenance is at odds with preventive maintenance. Reactive maintenance allows continuous operation of equipment until it becomes inoperable. No actions are taken or efforts made to maintain equipment at design specification, to prevent failure, or to ensure that the designed life of the equipment is reached. Reactive maintenance is much more costly than preventive maintenance because equipment downtime can be expected when equipment is out of service for repair or replacement.

The advantages of a reactive maintenance strategy are:

• Lowersinitialcosts • Requiresfewerstaffpersonnel • Requiresworkonlyonout-of-serviceequipment The disadvantages of a reactive maintenance strategy are:

• Increasescostsduetounplanneddowntimeofequipment • Increasescostsassociatedwithrepairorreplacementofequipment • Showsp ossible secondar yequipm entorp rocessd amagefro mequip ment failures The role of the process technician in a reactive maintenance strategy is to prepare maintenance the equipment for repair by thetechnician’s maintenance technician. However, reactive forces the process primary priority to become securing the unit from the process upset resulting from the unexpected equipment shutdown. This leads to longer equipment downtime and greater loss of production costs. As with predictive maintenance, the process technician reports equipment condition to supervisors.

pi Mic Preventive maintenance is an equipment maintenance strategy based on replacing, overhauling, or remanufacturing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of its condition at the time. This type of maintenance strategy requires planned maintenance

120

Process Operations

activities designed to prevent breakdowns and failures while the equipment is in service. The primary goal of preventive maintenance is to replace equipment before it actually fails to preserve and enhance process reliability. The strategy involves routine checks for wear, partial or complete overhauls at regular intervals, oil changes, lubrication, bolt tightening, checking pump couplings, and other checks deemed necessary by the process facility or equipment supplier. These routine checks are scheduled on a monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly, semi-annual, or annual basis. Deterioration of parts discovered during these checks permits part replaced prior to equipment failure. Most of the elements of preventive maintenance can be incorporated without major interruptions to the process or production. The advantages of a preventive maintenance strategy include:

• • • • • •

Improvescost-effectivenessformanycapitalintensiveprocessesandequipment Providesflexibilityformaintenancefrequency Increasesequipmentlife Generatesenergysavings Reducesequipmentand/orprocessfailure Resultsinanestimated12to18%costsavingsoversavingsfoundinareactive maintenance program

The disadvantages of a preventive maintenance include:

• Catastrophicfailuresnoteliminated • Morelaborintensive • Requiresperformingunnecessarymaintenancethatincreasesopportunitiesfor damage to other components The role of the process technician in a preventive maintenance program is primarily to prepare the equipment for maintenance and to ensure the equipment is in a safe energy state for the maintenance technician to perform the work.

t pocss tcici’s ro i Mic The role of the process technician is similar in each of the maintenance strateg ies. Her or his primary goal in maintenance is to prepare the equipment and ensure that the maintenance technician is working on a piece of equipment that is safe and energy free. Isolation of the equipment is paramount in preparing the equipment for safe energy state during the maintenance work. Isolation is the act of separating equipment or machinery from all energy sources. It is important to ensure the isolation of any potential machinery or equipment from energy sources during repair, service, or maintenance work in accordance with OSHA regulations. The process technician should fully utilize the standard operating procedures(SOP) for lock-out/tag-out whenpreparing equipment for maintenance. Figure9.1showsaschematicforisolationofapump. Preparing equipment for maintenance and ensuring it is and will remain in a safe energy state throughout the maintenance work requires the technician to execute the following:

• Isolatetheequipmentfromenergysources. • • Draintheequipmenttoasafelocation. Purgetheequipmenttoasafelocation. • Tagtheequipmentproperly. 1RUPDOO\2SHQ 1RUPDOO\2SHQ

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CHAPTER 9

Maintenance

121

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• Lock-outtheequipmentproperly. • Verifytheequipmentisreadytobeworkedon. IntheprocedureshowninFigure9.2,theproc esstechnicianmustprepare pump P-101Aforroutineannualpreventivemaintenance.Thetechnicianmustkeepan accurate time for each event and initial each step as completed. Once the process technician and maintenance technician have checked to ensure thatP-101Aisenergyfree,properlylocked,andtagged-out,theprocesstechnician allows the maintenance technician to begin the pump preventive maintenance (PM). The short procedure above has adequately covered the items that the process technician must execute, including isolating, draining, purging, tagging, locking, and verifying a safe energy state for the pump throughout the work period. The maintenance technician is given a list of activities that must be completed for the annual pump preventive maintenance. These are generally computer generated and given to the maintenance technician at the beginning of the day. An example of a typical pump PM is shown in Figure 9.3. The process technician verifies that the work has been completed and signs the PM order. The process technician is required to document the status of equipment undergoing maintenance on the equipment status sheet, and share the information at shift change. An example of an Equipment Status Sheet is shown in Figure 9.4. The process technician should include the following information on the Equipment Status Sheet:

• Equipmentnumber • Procedurenumber

FIgure 9.3 Example of a Typical Pump PM 0DFKLQLVW 7HFKQLFLDQ

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122

1R

CHAPTER 9

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123

table 9.1 p-101a pM Cos esim (ssms 2 os o com  pM) Task

Craft

NumberofCraftsmen

Cost

PMP-101A Machinist Technician 2 Replace Rexnord coupling (if needed) ------------------------------------------> Replace oil bubbler (if needed) --------------------------------------------------> Estimated total maintenance cost for this PM----------------------------------->

• • • • • • •

$240.00 $105.58 $86.38 $451.96

EquipmentLOTOstatus VerificationofLOTO Drainstatus Purgestatus Timepurged Tagshung Currentequipmentstatus

Equipment maintenance can be costly. The process technician can act to manage costbyefficientlyrunningequipmentina safeandreliablemanner.Table9.1showsan exampleofacostestimateofthePMthatwasperformedonpumpP-101Aearlierinthe chapter. Theestimatedrateforthefacilitylaboris$60.00perhour,includingbenefitmakeup. If the facility has a PM scheduled monthly for the pump in our example, what is theestimateforthemonthlymaintenancecostonaprocessunitwithover100pumps? Extend that to quarterly, semi-annually, and annually PMs, and it can be deduced that the cost of a preventive maintenance strategy is high, and yet it is the most costeffective of the maintenance strategies. Cost estimating may be part of the process technician’s duties when generating maintenance In estimating cost,The the employer process technician must listofthe tasks required and orders. affix a cost to each task. provides the cost labor and equipmenttotheprocesstechnician.ThecostestimateinTable9.2isforasealrepair jobforP-101A.

table 9.2 Cos esim fo p-101a S ri T as k

Erect scaffold to install discharge blind Blind pump Remove pump from case and take to shop Order seal from warehouse and deliver to shop Replace seal on P-101 Re-install p ump

Cr a f t

Q uant i t y

T ime

1.0hr

Co s t

$120.00

Contractor

3

Pipefitter

2

1.0hr

$120.00

Machinist

2

0.5hr

$60.00

Planner

$3,500.00

Cost of seal----------------------------->

Machinist

2

Machinist

2

0.5

$60.00

2

1.0

$120.00

Remove blinds Pipefitter Remove Contractor scaffold +10% contingency TotalestimatedcosttoreplaceP-101seal

3

4.5 hrs

1.0

$270.00

$120.00 $437.00 $4,807.00

124

Process Operations

Thecostestimateassumesthewagescaleforcompanyemployeesis$60.00per hour,includingbenefits,and$40.00perhourforcontractoremployees,including markups. Notice that the cost estimate is broken out by task, craft, quantity of staff required, estimated hours to complete the repair, and labor or equipment cost. Hazards may be present when preparing equipment for maintenance. Process technicians must remember to wear proper personal protective equipment (PP E) whe n pre par ing  equ ipm ent  for  mai nte nan ce.  The  P-1 01A  pum p PM procedure used earlier in this chapter is a good tool for examining potential hazards while preparing a piece of equipment for maintenance. Hazards might include: • Chemicalexposurefromdrainingandpurging • Slips,trips,andfallswhenclosingoropening,locking,or taggingvalves • Strainsorsprainswhenbendingorstoopingtoopenor closebleeders,pullingor moving hoses for purging, and closing or opening valves • Cuts,scrapes,orbruiseswhenclosingoropeningvalves,taggingoutequipment, removing bull plugs, and installing purge hoses • Electricalshockwhende-energizingorre-energizingbreakers

Process technicians must constantly be aware of their surroundings while preparing equipment for maintenance. Many simultaneous operations may continue in areas surrounding the equipment being repaired. The technician is also responsible for placing the equipment back in service or in standby mode. He or she must ensure that all maintenance isolating devices, such as blinds or locks, have been removed prior to attempting to place the equipment back in service. A procedure normally mentions the removal of blinds after maintenance work has been completed. See Figure 9.5. Care must be exercised when running pumps in parallel because this operation promotes more flow and pressure. The process technician must be alert because this operation may cause momentary upsets in the process. For example, if pump A has not yet reached maximum capacity, shutting down pump B may activate a low-flow shutdown.

licio Lubrication is an important part of maintaining equipment in proper operating condition. It is the process or technique employed to reduce friction and remove heat for reducing equipment wear and increase longevity and safety. The process or technique employed reduces wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity, moving relative to one another, by interposing a substance between the surfaces to carry or to help carry the pressure-generated load between the opposing surfaces. Lubricants are the materials used to reduce friction and remove heat between two contact surfaces.

CHAPTER 9

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125

FIgure 9.5 Procedure checklist 3$3XPS30

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Lubrication is vital to maintain the efficient, reliable operation of all types of rotating equipment. Lubricants are necessary because friction makes it difficult to keep machine parts in motion. Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral or tangential motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. Friction also generates damaging heat and causes wear. The greater the friction, the greater the heat and wear. Lubricants act to reduce friction, heat, and wear, making it easier to keep machines running smoothly. The process technician plays a key role in ensuring equipment in his or herr area of responsibility is properly lubricated. They may also be responsible for checking oil levels in various types of equipment and adding lubricants as required.

lic So, hdi, d Disos InDOOr anD OutDOOr StOrage Lubricants can be delivered in bulk, such as 55-gallon drums, or in smaller containers, depending on the rate of usage. The handling of lubricants between delivery and use is important. After a lubricant has been delivered, it is often stored in its container for an extended period before it is used. The containers can be stored indoors or outdoors, depending on the facility’s available storage space. In either case, the lubricant must be protected from weather, contamination, spills, and fire.

126

Process Operations

Lubricants stored outside should be covered to protect them from the weather. Covering protects metal drums from moisture. An unprotected metal drum will eventually corrode, leak, and waste the lubricant. Any covering, permanent like a shed, or temporary like a canvas or plastic cover, will provide protection. Storing drums on their sides prevents water from collecting on the top of the drum as well. Whatever method is used to cover drums in outside storage, the drums should be stored on their side to prevent corrosion and leaks. As the drums heat and cool, their contents expand and contract. Storing them on their side can also prevent air and liquid flow into and from the drum. Container leaks contaminate lubricants, making them unusable. Lubricant spills can also damage the environment. Many states have strict regulations dealing with the storage and handling of lubricants, so extreme care must be taken to avoid drum damage and lubricant spills. Most lubricants are combustible, and fire is a danger. One positive reason for storing lubricants outdoors is to keep them far enough away from buildings and equipment to minimize the damage from a possible fire. However, when lubricants are stored indoors, weather is not a concern. No matter the location of storage, contamination, spills, and fire danger must be considered and prevented.

hanDlIng lubrICantS When a lubricant is needed, stored drums are moved from bulk storage to a central location in the facility where the lubricant can be dispensed. If a lubricant is taken from one extreme condition to another, it should be given plenty of time to become acclimated to the new temperature before use. For example, low temperatures can thicken lubricants and make them unusable until they have been thoroughly warmed. After a lubricant container has been opened, the lubricant must be kept clean. When lubricant is removed from a drum, the drum should be resealed to avoid contamination. When more than one lubricant is dispensed from the same facility location, it is very important to properly identify each type. The srcinal shipping containers will clearly state what they hold, but any time a lubricant is placed in another container, the new container must be correctly labeled. Incorrect labeling can cause the application of the wrong lubricant to a piece of equipment, leading to extensive damage. It might also lead to accidental mixing of different types of lubricants, which could damage the equipment. Lubricants should never be returned to the srcinal drum after it has been removed. Returning used lubricants to the srcinal drum may contaminate the entire contents. In most facilities, opened lubricant containers are stored in a separate room or area to reduce the chance of fire and to make it easier to keep the lubricant clean. Lubricant storage rooms or areas must be clean, well lit, and have some type of fire controlquipment. e

DISpOSal Contaminated oil must be disposed of properly. There are three ways to properly dispose of lubricant: returning the contaminated oil to the oil vendor, disposing of the oil in an environmentally safe manner, or purifying and reusing the oil (if all the contaminants can be removed). reMOvIng lubrICantS FrOM COntaInerS Lubricant to be used in a facility must be removed from its container for use. There are several ways of handling lubricants. One method uses a barrel pump that connects to the drum. Different type pumps are used for oil and grease because of their different consistencies. A barrel pump, or drum pump, is an easy way to remove the lubricant without contaminating the rest of the drum. A barrel pump may be hand-driven (see Figure 9.6), electric, or driven by nitrogen or air. In order to install a barrel pump, several steps must be taken. First is to clean off the top of the drum. Second ids to remove the larger drum seal to open the drum. The pump is cleaned and inserted into the drum. And finally, the pump is

CHAPTER 9

Maintenance

127

FIgure 9.6 Hand-Driven Drum Pump

tightened securely to the drum. Most drum pumps screw into the larger threaded opening in the drum. The drum must be vented for the barrel pump to work properly. A drum is usually vented by removing a small cap from the top before the pumping starts. The cap is replaced after the pumping is finished so that the lubricant stays clean. Another way to remove oil is to attach a spigot to the top of the drum. The drum is laid on its side and vented through the smaller opening, and then oil is drawn from the spigot. The vent is replaced (or closed) when the work is finished. Drums with spigots are often placed in rocking frames that are stored in an upright position. When oil is required, the drum is rocked over on its side, the lubricant is withdrawn, and the drum is returned to its upright position. Sometimes funnel is used transfer oilmust frombe the drum, after or other a small piece of aequipment. Anytofunnel used cleaned use.container, Whatever to method is used, the following precautions must be observed:

• • • •

Addthecorrectamountoflubricant. Usetheproperlubricantforthatparticularjob. Makesureallthefillercapsaretightlyreplaced. Becarefulthatthelubricantisnotcontaminated.

t pocss tcici’s ro i l icio Each process unit has a lubrication schedule that specifies the proper lubricant for each piece of equipment, the intervals for changing and sampling lubricant, and what to look for in lubricant samples. The facility maintenance technicians perform many of these tasks. Each process unit has a lubrication manual with the name of the proper lubricant for each piece of equipment. Using the wrong lubricant can damage the equipment. If unsure about what type of lubricant to add to a piece of equipment, refer to the lubrication manual for clarification. Process technicians are responsible for maintaining this schedule and for making routine, on-shift checks on all lubricated equipment. Bearing failure due to lack of proper lubrication can cause costly equipment repairs as well as process shutdown. The process technician may be responsible for the following checks during their routine rounds:

• • • • •

Lubeoillevel Oiltemperature Leakchecks Oilsampling Oilchanges

128

Process Operations

lube OIl level The oil level in lubricating systems is critical. The level should be checked before the equipment is started and routinely during operation. Reservoir levels in circulating systems, force-feed oilers, and oil-mist systems should also be checked regularly. Sight glasses, oil bottles, and clear reservoirs must be kept clean so levels are clearly visible. Covers should be closed at all times to prevent contaminants, like dirt and water, from entering the oil. Sight glasses, tattletales, or the bottom of oil-bearing reservoirs must be drained of water, because water can be a major cause of bearing failure. OIl teMperature One of the first signs of bearing failure is an increase in temperature. Bearing housings should be checked by hand. If running hotter than normal, report it to a supervisor. Some bearings in very hot service cannot be checked in this manner. In this situation, sample the oil and check its temperature with a thermometer or a temperature gun. Normaltemp eratureshou ldnotbe above140°F. Itis very importanttomonit or closely any bearing temperature increase.

leaK CheCKS Excessive leakage may indicate that the oil is foaming due to contamination, or that a plug or oil bottle has loosened. Slinger rings may also cause leakage. These rings are mounted to shafts outside bearing housings to prevent contaminants from moving down the shaft and into the bearing. The rings are largerin diameter than the shaft, and the ring rotation “slings” liquid from the rings via centrifugal force. If the ring is mounted too near the bearing housing, however, it may pump the lubricating oil from the bearing housing. OIl SaMplIng Oil in bearing housings should be sampled as specified in the sample schedule. To sample, a smallPPE amount ofjob. oil into a clear bottle.for: As with any sampling, be sure to weardrain the proper for the Check the sample

• Metalparticles,whichindicatethatthebearinghasstartedtofail • Dirt,water,orothercontaminants;contaminatedoilwillnotprovideadequate lubrication and should be changed

OIl ChangeS At some locations, oil is changed in rotating equipment routinely, or when the oil appears contaminated with water. Dispose of the contaminated oil per guidelines issued by the process facility.

tods d tod Mic Turnarounds are scheduled large-scale maintenance activities when an entire process unit is taken off stream for an extended period for comprehensive repair and maintenance. This operation involves a lot of preparation, and many precautions are taken to prevent hazardous situations. Turnaround is a blanket term that encompasses more specific tasks such as debottlenecking, revamps, catalyst regeneration, shutdowns, and outages. Turnarounds are expensive due to labor costs, heavy equipment, and other materials required to execute the turnaround. There is also the heavy cost of lost production while the unit is off line. Planning is essential to reduce turnaround costs. Turnarounds are a significant portion of a facility’s annual budget and, if not managed properly, can affect the company bottom line. Turnaround maintenance activity is required on specific pieces of equipment that cannot be maintained or repaired unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried.Maintenanceisusuallyscheduled18to24monthsinadvanceandthe

CHAPTER 9

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Did o ko? Not every unit is impacted during every turnaround. For example, the industry average is about 4 years between turnarounds for a catalytic cracking unit.

costmayapproach30%ofthefacility’sannualmaintenancebudget.Turnarounds require a great deal of organization, planning, personnel, and data input. There are three phases in a turnaround that must be properly executed to ensure the turnaround is a success. Turnarounds consist of pre-execution, execution, and post-execution phases. A turnaround team is appointed specifically for the execution of each turnaround phase. The turnaround team consists of the following facility personnel: • Turnaroundmanager • Operationsrepresentative(i.e.,aprocesstechnicianorleaderassignedtotheunit) • Maintenancerepresentative(i.e.,acraftspersonormaintenanceleaderassigned to the unit) • Inspector(i.e.,mayrequiremultipleinspectorsbasedonsizeofturnaroundand specialty required of the inspectors) • Turnaroundplanner(i.e.,maybemultipleplannersbasedonthesizeofthe turnaround or planners may be craft specific) • Engineeringrepresentative(i.e.,aprocessengineer,mechanicalengineer,and support engineers assigned to the unit) • Memberofthefacilityleadershipteam(i.e.,anoperationsmanagerordelegate) • Memberofthesafetydepartment(i.e.,anindustrialhygienistandsafetyengineer) • Memberofthefacilityfiredepartment(i.e.,firechieforfirechief’sdesignate) The turnaround team meets weekly in the early stages of turnaround planning, and daily during the execution phase. The team discusses the following topics during the three phases of a turnaround:

• Pre-ExecutionActivities • Definingtheworklist • Planningworkactivities • Purchasingpartsandequipment • Settingupcontractsforcontractorservicesifrequired • Preparingthework-siteandequipmentfortheturnaround • TARExecutionPhaseActivities • Workingtheworklist • Reportingprogressonplannedworkversusactualwork • Managingthescheduleandcost • Creating/planningfollow-upwork • TARPost-ExecutionPhaseActivities • Demobilizingtheworksite • Materialsreconciliation • Plannedversusactualreconciliation • Invoicepayments

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4 .8 0

5

FIgure 9.7 Inspection of Equipment

The goal of a turnaround is to achieve as much work as possible within a narrow window of time to minimize lost production. The turnaround success is gauged not only whether it came in under budget and on time but also on how safely it was accomplished. One of the key activities during a turnaround is inspection of the equipment. As towers and other vessels are opened, the inspection department will begin to perform internal and external inspection on specific pieces of equipment. Inspection is the examination of a part or piece of equipment to determine if it conforms to specifications, traditionally following the completion of work. Inspections may include ultrasonic thickness tests on pipes or vessels. Relief valves may be re-certified or overhauled, depending on the process facility strategy. Many companies send their relief valves to outside vendors for overhaul and certification to prevent unwarranted shutdowns when a relief valve prematurely lifts. Figure 9.7 shows an inspection of equipment. Many facilities conduct post-turnaround audits, focused on key participants in the turnaround, utilizing questionnaires discussing key topics such as planning, safety, engineering, communication, inspection, construction, and operations support. This allows the facility to gauge the effectiveness of the turnaround team, and provides feedback that may be useful in conducting subsequent turnarounds.

t pocss tcici’s ro i tods The role of the process technician is different for a turnaround versus the role in routine maintenance. In a turnaround, the process technician will be in charge of systems rather than individual pieces of equipment. In preparation for turnaround, the process technician is responsible for performing pre-turnaround duties, which include:

• • • • •

Participatingintheplanningandschedulingmeetingsfortheturnaround Participatinginthereviewoftheproposedturnaroundworklist Writingorreviewingshutdownprocedures Writingorreviewinglock-out/tag-out(LOTO)procedures Actingasasinglepointofcontactformaintenancecraftsperson,participating in job safety analysis or hazard identification, and showing maintenance craftsperson blinding locations and equipment locations • Hangingblindtagsassociatedwithblindinglocationsforturnaround • Preparinglock-out/tag-out(LOTO)devicesforuse(showninFigure9.8) • Orderingmiscellaneoussuppliessuchasfittings,hosesandtags The unit moves toward a controlled shutdown as scheduled on the timeline developed during planning. A controlled shutdown avoids any upset conditions. During the shutdown period, process levels may be lowered or raised, material may be pumped out to tanks, pressures may be increased or decreased, unit throughput rates are lowered,

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and materials are vented or drained asneeded. Once the unit is completely shutdown, the unit will be completely pumped out, drained,and purged as necessary. The process technician is responsible for performing the following duties during a turnaround:

• • • • • • •

Ensuringthatworkduringtheturnaroundisexecutedinasafemanner EnsuringthatpersonsperformingworkweartheproperPPEatalltimes Drainingofequipment Purgingofequipment Providingfirewatchsupportforhotwork Providingentryattendantforconfinedspaceentries Conductinggastestingforhotworkandconfinedspaceentry

• • • • • • •

Assistingmaintenanceasrequired Assistingcontractorpersonnelasrequired Assistinginspectionpersonnelasneeded Witnessingspecialtests Ensuringworkisproceedingtoplan Housekeepingasneeded,ensuringtheworkareaandunitremainsinasafecondition Providinggoodshiftrelief

81,7 %/,1'/,6712 %/,1'12 63(&,$/127(6

FIgure 9.8 Example of a +81*%< 7,0('$7(

Locked-Out/Tagged-OutPiece of Equipment

A turnaround is also an excellent training opportunity for process technicians with limited experience, because a turnaround provides a greater understanding of process operations, process flow paths, and process equipment operation. A turnaround allows a process technician a chance to learn more about the process unit in preparation for the next turnaround.

MeChanICal IntegrIty It is important to maintain the mechanical integrity of critical process equipment to ensure it is designed, installed, and operates properly. OSHA PSM mechanical integrity requirements apply to the following equipment: • Pressurevesselsandstoragetanks • Pipingsystems,includingpipingcomponentssuchasvalves • Reliefandventsystemsanddevices • Emergencyshutdownsystems • Controls,includingmonitoringdevicesandsensors,alarms,andinterlocks • Pumpsandcompressors

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The process facility must establish and implement written procedures to maintain the ongoing integrity of process equipment. Maintenance technicians involved in maintaining the ongoing integrity of process equipment must be trained in an overview of that process and its hazards, and in the procedures applicable to a technician’s job tasks. Inspection and testing must be performed on process equipment using procedures that follow recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices. The frequency of inspections and tests of process equipment must conform to the manufacturer’s recommendations and good engineering practices, or as determined to be necessary. Each inspection and test on process equipment must be documented, identifying the date of the inspection or test, the name of the person who inspected or tested, the serial number or other equipment identifier, a description of the inspection or test performed, and the results of the inspection or test. Equipment deficiencies outside the acceptable limits defined by the process safety information must be corrected before further use. In some cases, equipment can continue operating despite deficiencies as long as deficiencies are corrected in a safe and timely manner. At that time, other necessary steps are taken to ensure safe operation. In constructing new facilities and equipment, the employer must ensure that equipment being used is suitable for the process application. Appropriate checks and inspections must be performed to ensure that equipment is installed properly and use is consistent with design specifications and the manufacturer’s instructions.

ManageMent OF Change Management of change (MOC), change management, is a method of managing and communicating changes to aorprocess, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes in personnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees. A written method contains a section on procedures for managing changes to processes. Written procedures to manage changes, except for in-kind replacements, to process chemicals, technology, equipment, procedures, and facilities that affect a covered process, must be established and implemented. These written procedures must ensure that the following considerations are addressed prior to any change:

• Thetechnicalbasisfortheproposedchange • Impactofthechangeonemployeesafetyandhealth

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• Modificationstooperatingprocedures • Timeperiodnecessaryforthechange • Authorizationrequirementsfortheproposedchange Process technicians who operate the process, and maintenance and contract employees whose job tasks are affected by a change in the process, must be informed of and trained in the change prior to start-up of the process or affected part of the process. If an alteration covered by these procedures results in a change in the required process safety information, or requires changes to the required standard operating procedures (SOPs) or practices, documentation must be updated also, and all employees notified.

pre-Start-up SaFety revIew Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) is conducted to help ensure that certain important considerations have been addressed before hazardous materials are introduced into the process or the modified section(s) of an existing process. Conducting the pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) is important to ensure that a unit is ready for start-up. The review is conducted within days to a week of a units expected re-start date, and must be completed prior to introducing hazardous chemicals into the process. Each process facility has developed a PSSR checklist of tasks that will be completed to ensure compliance with the OSHA regulation. Each process facilities PSSR checklist must confirm the following: • Constructionandequipmentareinaccordancewithdesignspecifications. • Safety,operating,maintenance,andemergencyproceduresareadequateand in place. • Aprocesshazardanalysishasbeenperformedonnewfacilities,and recommendations have been resolved or implemented prior to start-up, and modified facilities meet the management of change (MOC) requirements. • Necessaryemployeetraininghasbeencompleted.

Sdos d S-us The two most critical periods in the operation of a process unit are shutdowns and startups. No two shutdowns are alike, due to the circumstances surrounding the shutdown. There are differences between shutting the unit down for a turnaround versus shutting the unit down for inventory control. An inventory shutdown is completed to maintain the unit in such a condition that it can be restarted when required without the additional cost associated with re-inventorying. Depending on the circumstances, circulation is stopped and temperatures and pressures are allowed to decrease in order to maintain the unit in a safe mode while maintaining the chemical composition of the unit. In most turnarounds, all of the material is pumped to tankage or waste, and the unit is purged with an inert gas and prepared for maintenance work. The process technician should follow her or his routine or normal shutdown procedures at all times. shutdowns, start-ups willtodiffer. If condi thetions. unit was idled that and has remained filled, must care mustLike be exercised when returning normal Material been cooled be heated up to begin a chemical reaction, increasing the likelihood of thermal expansion in flanges and valves.Thermal expansionis the tendency of matter to increase in volume in response to an increase in temperature. Figure 9.9 shows a possible reaction to expansion. If the unit has been de-inventoried for a turnaround, then extreme care must be taken to re-inventory the unit. Process technicians must ensure that the equipment has been purged of air prior to introducing any hydrocarbons. During the re-inventory process, leaks can occur at flanges and valves, so the process technician should conduct routine unit monitoring during the inventory phase. The unit is then slowly heated or cooled to normal operating conditions. The process technician should follow his or her routine or normal start-up operating procedures at all times.

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FIgure 9.9 Possible Reaction in Equipment to Thermal Expansion

Smm The role of the process technician is critical, providing the first line of defense in maintaining the unit in a safe and reliable state. The process technician must prepare the equipment for maintenance, following standard operating procedures (SOPs) and lock -out/ta g-ou t (LOTO) procedures , ensu ring  the equipme nt is properl y de-energized. Frequent communication is necessary with maintenance technicians to ensure that work is proceeding safely. Safety concerns brought up by the maintenance technicians should be addressed promptly to ensure safety. During shutdowns and turnarounds, follow standard operating, de-inventory, and maintenance preparation procedures. Willing participation in pre-turnaround activities will utilize the turnaround as a basis for experience. It is necessary to become familiar with process facility requirements for personal protective equipment (PPE). It is important to require anyone working on equipment to use proper PPE. The process technician must ensure that all isolation devices are removed prior to restarting the unit. For example, one missing blind can create problems for a unit operation. Ensure that all tagging devices are removed and equipment is lined up per procedure. Technicians should be familiar with process facility requirements for process safety management. Being an active participant in the PSM process, and knowing the process safety management requirements for a job, is advisable. During start-ups, utilize the process facilities normal start-up procedures. While re-inventorying a unit, be alert and look for leaks that may occur during the inventory process. While heating up or cooling down a process, remain alert and be ready to respond to any situation that may develop.

Ccki yo Kod 1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Friction b. Inspection c. Isolation d. Lubricants e. Lubricatioen f. Mechanical integrity g. Predictive maintenance (PM)

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h. Preventative maintenance i. Reactive maintenance j. Routine maintenance k. Statistical process control (SPC) l. Thermal expansion m. Turnaround maintenance 2. Managementofchangeisamethodofmanagingandcommunicatingchangesto: a. Chemical processes b. Equipment changes c. Technology changes d. Personnel changes e. All of the above f. Only A and B 3. There are ____________________ elements to process safety management. a. six b. ten c. thirteen d. fourteen e. None of the above 4. Name three maintenance strategies that an organization may use as its normal maintenance strategy. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ 5. Turnarounds are relatively easy to plan, and they require only two months of planning. a. True b. False 6. List five of the eight process technician duties m entioned in this chapter that a process technician is responsible for during pre-turnaround activities. a. ____________________ b. ____________________

7.

8. 9.

1 0. 11.

c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ Duringpost-turnaroundactivities,whichofthefollowingwilloccur? a. Demobilizing of the work site b. Materials reconciliation c. Planned versus actual reconciliation d. Invoice payments e. All of the above Listthedisadvantagesofareactivemaintenancestrategy. A preventive maintenance strategy does not eliminate catastrophic failures of equipment. a. True b. False Listtheadvantagesofapreventivemaintenancestrategy. Processsafet y managementmechani calrequir ementsapplyto which ofthe following equipment: a. Pressure vessels and storage tanks b. Piping systems, including piping components such as valves c. Relief and vent systems and devices d. Controls, including monitoring devices and sensors, alarms, and interlocks e. All of the above

aciiis 1. Usingthefollowinginformation,developacostestimateforthefollowingwork: Your unit has just experienced a minor upset due to the loss of a bottoms pump on a distillation tower. You have inspected the pump and have determined that the pump motor is shorted. You have also noticed that the pump would not rotate by hand and you suspect that the pump has internal damage requiring new bearings and seals. Scaffolding is required

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Process Operations for the installation of blinds at both the suction and discharge valves. Use the following labor and equipment costs to develop your cost estimate:

Costofcontractlabor: Costofcompanylabor: Costofnewmotor: Costofbearings/seals/etc.: Costofrentinggo-devil:

$50.00/hr $73.65/hr $7,500.00 $8,500.00 $43.00/hr

Develop an estimated timeline for repairs and include in your cost estimate. 2. Performresearchon areactive,preventi ve,and predictivemaintenan ceprograms,and write a five-page essay describing your preferred choice of a maintenance program. 3. Performresear chonOSHA1910.11 9Process SafetyManag ementofHighlyHazardo us Chemicals. Select two of the fourteen elements and write a two-page essay describing the actions a process technician must take to be in compliance. 4. Together with a classmate, develop a preventive maintenance schedule for a process unit with twelve pumps, one compressor, eight control valves (including eight bypass valves around the control valves), and six pump screens. Place your work in a spreadsheet and includethecostperquarter,thenannually.UsethecostoflaborinActivity1.

10 Chapter

Ui Coiioi Objciv After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Define the term commissioning.

■

Differentiate between starting up a new unit versus starting up an existing unit.

■

List the tasks that must be completed in order to adequately prepare a new process unit for commissioning.

■

Explain the role of the process technician in the commissioning of a new process unit.

■

Discuss the role of the process technician in the pre-commissioning phase of a grassroots project.

■

Define the phases of the commissioning process.

■

Differentiate between the commissioning of a new unit and the re-commissioning of existing facilities or process equipment.

■

Discuss the importance of following procedures (initial start-up and normal start-up).

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Ky t Acceptance—documents that the unit has achieved its design capacity and specifications, and the facility agrees that the unit will function as engineered. Commissioning—systematic process by which process units are placed into active service, and can include the initial start-up of a newly built or the re-commissioning of a revised process unit. Commissioning Team—group of individuals selected from current facility personnel who play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioning or de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. Construction Phase—building phase of an initial process unit or facility, or the building phase of an expansion project upgrading an existing unit or facility. Initial Start-Up Procedures—set of guidelines or instructions used to perform the initial start-up of a new process unit or facility. Mechanical Completion—documented checking and testing of the construction to confirm the installation is in accordance with construction drawings and specifications, and is ready for commissioning in a safe manner in compliance with project requirements. Nameplate Capacity—designed capacity of the unit. Performance Testing—step-test of the unit to determine if the process unit is able to achieve its maximum design intent. Planning Phase—phase of the project where justification and plans are developed for the construction of a new process unit. Pre-Commissioning—activities that must be completed prior to moving into the start-up phase of a new process unit. Post-Commissioning—last phase of the commissioning process, which begins after initial start-up is completed. Punchlist—list of uncompleted construction items from contracted design that are not safety critical, but must be addressed by the contracted construction firm. Re-Commissioning—returning existing process units or equipment to active service after an extended idled period. Start-Up—initial commissioning of the unit that involves the introduction of feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity.

Ioducio Commissioning is the systematic process by which process units are placed into active service, and can include the initial start-up of a newly built or the re-commissioning of a revised process unit or facility. The intent of the commissioning phase is to test the process unit to verify that it functions in accordance with the engineered design intent and the owner’s operational requirements.

Ui Coiioi The unit commissioning process consists of five phases: • • • • •

Planning Construction Pre-commissioning Start-up Post-commissioning

Each phase of commissioning contains different activities that must be completed prior to proceeding to the next phase of the process. Unit commissioning has three key criteria that must be met to consider the commissioning process successful: 1. No lost time accidents or injuries—not a success if the process is not completed safely.Safetyisstressedfromtheverybeginningofthedesign,construction,and commissioning.

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2. No equipment damage —not a success if the process includes damaging current or new equipment (depends on many disciplines, including design and construction). 3. On-test product within a reasonable period—varies by process, but typically less than2daysisconsideredverygood,7daysisacceptable,andmorethen14days is less than acceptable.

plannIng Priortotheconstructionphase,thefacilitydeterminestheneedthatexiststoconstructa new process unit or facility, or close an existing unit or facility. The planning phaseis the stage of the project where justification and plans are developed for the construction of a new process unit or facility. During this phase, the facility selects anengineering firm to aid in the design. Then, together with the engineering firm, a general contractor is selected to provide unit construction. The facility also selects the commissioning team representatives. A commissioning team is a group of individuals selected from current facility personnel who play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioning or de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. The lead process technicians serving onthecommissioningteamaretypicallyprocesspersonnelwithmorethan10yearsof operating experience.

TheCommissioningTeamworksjointlywiththeengineeringfirmduringthe designphaseforanewunitorfacility.Processtechniciansprovidevaluableresourcesto the engineering firm during the design phase in terms of valve locations, safety-related equipment, equipment location, safety policies, how policies may affect schedules, as well as other valuable information for construction of the unit. During the planning phase, the following subjects are addressed: • Training—the initial development of training material is likely to begin. • Procedures/Checklists—the initial development of operating, emergency, maintenance procedures, and checklists begins. • Safety—Processsafetymanagement(PSM)itemsaredeveloped,meetingsare

• • • • •

held to determine environmental impact of the project, risk assessments begin, and safety strategy documents are developed. Budget—detailed budget plans are developed. Construction plans—planning for construction commences, and schedules are developed. Staffing plans—staffing needs are assessed and a timeframe for hiring is set. Maintenance items—spare parts list is developed for the unit, and the lubrication and greasing manuals are developed. Operational planning—plans for staffing needs, run plans, benchmark targets, and plans to achieve design capacity and performance testing are created. Manyofthesedevelopmentscontinueintotheconstructionphase.

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COnstrUCtIOn Once the construction phase begins, the process technician is actively engaged in the field with the construction crew. The construction phase is the building phase of an initial process unit or facility, or the building phase of an expansion project upgrading an existing unit or facility. The process technician provides the crew with a wide variety of support that includes: • • • •

Ensuringconstructionactivitiesaremovingalongsafelyandperfacilitypolicies Issuingworkpermits,includinghotworkandconfinedspaceentry Performingorprovidingfirewatchdutyasrequestedbytheconstructioncrew Performingsafety auditsasrequiredp ertheproject’sS afetyStrategy  document • Ensuringthatconstructionofthefacilityisproceedingperissuedandapproved ISOdrawings,P&IDs,andPFDs • Assistingnewtechniciansontheprojectintrainingandinperformingrequired duties

During construction, and as the unit moves toward mechanical completion, the process technician’s job duties will additionally include: • Inspectionofvesselsandequipment • • • •

Pressuretestingofvessels,piping,andotherequipment Lineblowsofprocesspiping(i.e.,nitrogenpurgingandwaterwashing) Flushingandcleaningofvesselsandequipment Electricalinstrumentationloopchecks

The training of the process technician on the process unit takes place as the facility is constructed. The construction is considered complete when the mechanical completion documentation is signed. Mechanical completion is a documented checking and testing of the construction to confirm the installation is in accordance with the drawings and specifications, and is ready for commissioning in a safe manner in compliance with project requirements. Once the unit reaches


mechanical completion, the commissioning team moves into the next process: pre-commissionin g.

141

phase of the

pre-COmmIssIOnIng The pre-commissioningof a new process unit undertakes activities that must be completed prior to moving into the start-up phase of a new process unit or facility. This allows the process technician time to become more familiar with the process piping and equipment. These activities are generally completed in phases, using either the system approach or the specific equipment approach. During pre-commissioning, the process technician has more hands-on experience, and begins to take ownership of the unit. As part of the pre-commissioning activities, steam and other utilities are commissioned so that necessary utility services are available isfor other pre-commissioning activities. The process technician responsible for ensuring that the following items are completed: • • • • • • •

Hydrostaticleakandpressuretestingofpipingandequipment Equipmentinspection(i.e.,towersandreactors) Flushingaswellaschemicalandmechanicalcleaning Installationoftemporaryscreens,strainers,andblinds Purgingandremovingairfromequipment Dryingoutequipment Verificationofinstrumentation

Thepre-commissioningactivitiesshouldbecompletedin15daysforsmall-scale unitsandin25to35daysforlarger-scaleunits. As the unit nears completion of the pre-commissioning activities, a process safety review takes place as part of the process safety management requirements for the facility. The process technician is a valuable part of this process.

start-Up One of the most critical periods for safety during the life of a process unit is the initial start-up. The unit start-up is the initial commissioning of the unit that involves the introduction of feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity. The start-up

142

Process Operations

process consists of many unknown factors and can be potentially hazardous because unit operability has not been established. The process technician gains valuable experience during the unit start-up. The unit is prepared for start-up usinginitial start-up procedures, a set of guidelines or instructions to perform the initial start-up of a process unit or facility. These procedures are different from the normal start-up procedures followed for subsequent start-ups. Utilizing the initial start-up procedures, the process technician: • • • • • •

Commissionstheunitpipingandinstrumentation Slowlybringsrawmaterialsintotheunit Fillsvessels,processlines,pumpcases,andcompressorsperprocedure Startspumps,agitators,mixers,andcompressors,asrequired Takesreadings,asrequired,forstart-uppurposes Assistsunitmaintenancepersonnel,asrequired

Initialstart-upproceduresareextremelyimportantandshouldbefollowed thoroughly.However,ifdeviationsarerequired,theprocesstechnicianshould follow the facility procedure deviation policy. The process technician is required to troubleshoot and correct problems as they occur during the initial start-up period. The operation run plan defines how the unit process technicians initially run theunit,usuallyat80to100%capacity.Theunitrunsatasetrateuntiltheon-test specifications are met. On-test specifications should be met within a reasonable period, normally from 2 to 7 days. After achieving on-test production, the unit is slowly brought to full operation, or100%capac ity. This beginstheperfo rmancetrialoftheunit.Theunitrunsat 100%capacityforafixedperiod,andthentheacceptancedocumentationissigned. Acceptance documents that the unit has achieved its design capacity and specifications, and the facility agrees that the unit will function as engineered. After acceptance, the unit is pushed to maximum capacity to see if the unit is capable of maximum production. This push is known asperformance testing, or a step-test of the unit to determine if the process unit is able to achieve its maximum designed intent. The unit will not normally run at max capacity, but time and changing market conditions may necessitate an increase in the unit max capacity requirement. Once the unit successfully runs at max capacity, plans are made and the unit eventually debottlenecks to increase its nameplate capacity. Nameplate capacity is the designed capacity of a unit.

pOst-COmmIssIOnIng Post-commissioning , the last phase of the commissioning process, begins after initial start-up is completed. By this time, the unit is on-stream and in normal production. The process technician continues to make adjustments, troubleshoot, and solve problems, as they occur. During this phase, any outstanding punchlist items, or the list of uncompleted construction items from the contracted design that are safety critical must be be addressed bypaint, the contracted construction firm, arenot completed. Thesebut items may related to bracing, insulation, or other items that had no impact on the health and safety of operating personnel (see figure10.1).

re-COmmIssIOnIng Re-commissioning is returning existing process units or equipment to active service after an extended idled period. The phases in re-commissioning are the same as an initial commissioning project. A team is assembled (one that includes several process technicians) to oversee the re-commissioning.


143

FIgUre 10.1 ExampleofaPunchlist

suy Processtechniciansplayakeyroleduringthedesign,construction,andinitialstart-up of a new process unit. The unit commissioning process consists of five phases:  •  •  •  •  •

Planning Construction Pre-commissioning Start-up Post-commissioning

Each phase of commissioning contains different activities that must be completed prior to proceeding to the next phase of the process. Unit commissioning has three key criteria that must be met to consider the commissioning process successful:  • Nolosttimeaccidentsorinjuries  • Noequipmentdamage  • On-testproductwithinareasonableperiod

A commissioning team is a group of individuals, selected from current facility personnel who play a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioning or de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. The commissioning team works jointly with the engineering firm during the design phase and is actively engaged in the field

144

Process Operations

with the construction crew. During pre-commissioning, the process technician gains hands-on experience and begins to take ownership of the unit. One of the most critical periods for safety is the initial start-up. The unit start-up, or initial commissioning of the unit, includes the introduction of feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity. The start-up process consists of many unknown factors and can be potentially hazardous because unit operability has not been established. The process technician gains valuable experience during the unit start-up. The unit is prepared for start-up using initial start-up procedures (a set of guidelines or instructions to perform the initial start-up of a process unit or facility). During post-commissioning, the unit is on-stream and in normal production. The process technician makes adjustments, troubleshoots, and solves problems as they occur. Any outstanding punchlist items (the list of uncompleted items from construction that are not safety critical) are completed.

Chcki You Kowd 1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Acceptance b. Commissioning c. Commissioningteam d. Constructionphase e. Initialstart-upprocedures f. Mechanicalcompletion g. Nameplatecapacity h. Performancetesting i. Planningphase j. Pre-commissioning k. Post-commissioning l. Punchlist

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

m.Re-commissioning n. Start-up Namethefivephasesofthecommissioningprocess. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ Listfiveresponsibilitiesoftheprocesstechnicianduringthepre-commissioningphase. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ Alosttimeaccidentthatoccursduringthecommissioningprocesswillnotaffectthesuccess of the project. a. True b. False Namethefouritemsthattheprocesstechnicianshouldcompletewhileonshift. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ Punchlistitemcom pletionmaybedelayed priortostar t-up,iftheyareofthe nonsafe tycritical type. a. True b. False List the responsibilities of the process technician while the unit is in the start-up phase.


145

8. Namefiveaddit ionaljobdutiesforwhichtheprocess technicianisresponsi bleduringthe construction phase. a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________ e. ____________________ 9. Initialsta rt-upproce duresonlyhave tobefollowe dinthepre-c ommissioningphase ofa project. a. True b. False 10. Explainthedifferencebetweencommissioningandre-commissioning. 11. Atboththebeginningandendofshift,theprocesstechniciansshouldhaveanexchangeof information denoting the operational condition of the unit. a. True b. False

acivii 1. Performresearchoncom paniesthatoffercommissioningandpre-com missioningservices. Selectoneandcompleteaone-pagereportonwhyyouchosethatparticularcompany. 2. Work with a classmate to simulate the process of commissioning a new unit. Develop a timeline from idea creation to production, and complete a two-page report that explains the timeline details. 3. Performresearchonsafety-relatedincidentsthathaveoccurredwhencommissioninganew unit or re-commissioning an existing facility. Write a two-page report covering the research and explain how the incident could have been avoided.

11 Chapter

Uni S-U Objcivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Differentiate between the different types of start-ups: • Normal/routine • Afteranemergencyshutdown • Equipmentstart-upaftermaintenance • Afteraturnaround

146

■

Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of unit start-ups.

■

Describe the risks and hazards associated with unit start-ups.

■

Describe the safety and environmental activities associated with a unit start-up and how these activities are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard.

CHAPTER11 Unit Start-Up

147

Ky tms Air Free—removalofairfromprocesspipingandequipmentpriortotheintroduction of hydrocarbon. Feed Forward Flow—when raw material is introduced to a process unit on a continuous basis to effectively begin the processing of the finished or intermediate product. Hydro Test —strength and integrity test, using water, for process piping and equipment. Start-Up Execution Plan—a strategic document for a normal process unit start-up that typically includes consideration for, or makes provisional reference to other instructionsfor,requiredstaffing,coordinationwithotherunits,utilityandaux-

iliary systems commissioning, hazardous chemical inventory procedures, detailed equipmentandunitstart-upprocedures,andnotificationoftheEPAorother regulatory agencies in advance of the scheduled start-up. Tightness Test—pressurization test, typically using nitrogen or other inert gas, for processpipingandequipmenttoensurethatequipmentisleakfreepriortothe introduction of hydrocarbons; also known as the leak test.

Inoducion This chapter provides an overview of various types of unit start-ups that take place in a process facility. A unit start-up is the initial commissioning of a unit, including the introduction of raw materials to manufacture a defined product at a given purity. Thisentailsthesystematicplacementofprocessequipmentintoserviceinorderto start the process. Unit start-ups are an integral part of process operations that are executed when a process unit is ready to be brought into service for production. Thereareseveraltypesofunitstart-ups.Eachstart-upbringscommonandunique hazardsifnotmanagedcorrectly.Onetypeofstart-upistheplannedsequencedevent, such as an initial commissioning start-up after a new process has been constructed. Another is a start-up after a turnaround, a planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair. There are also start-ups that involve individual systemsandequipment,orstart-upsthattakeplaceafteranemergencyshutdown.The hazards associated with unit start-ups are unit specific. Each type of unit start-up and the basic planning requirements are further defined and discussed later in this chapter. Unit start-ups are a diversion from normal operations. This diversion carries an increased level of risk that, if not managed properly,cancauseinjurytopersonnel,ordamagetoequipment,theenvironment, and surrounding communities. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is a U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections, propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. Many of the activities that take place during a unit start-up are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard, including: • Processsafetyinformationmustbeinplaceforuseasreferencematerialandmust reflect the details of the process; this includes Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs),whicharedetaileddrawingsthatgraphicallyrepresenttheequipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a process facility. They show the interconnectionofprocessequipmentandtheinstrumentationusedtocontrolthe process. They are the primary schematic drawings used for laying out a process control installation in a factory or facility. Additional process safety information includesInstrumentandControlLoopDiagrams,PlotPlans,ElectricalOne-Line Diagrams, Operating Procedures, Training Material, and Operating Manuals. • Hazardanalysisoftheprocessmustbecomplete,andallsafetyand environmental action items resulting from the analysis must have been completed prior to start-up.

148 Process Operations • Processtechniciansmustbetrainedandinplaceforstart-upwithsufficient knowledgeandunderstandingoftheprocessequipmentandassociatedhazards. • Activitiesrelatedtomechanicalintegrityandinspectionofprocessequipment must be complete, including maintenance procedures and work practices, equipmentfiles,inspectionfiles,inspectionfrequencies,andequipmenthealth monitoringprogramsthatareintendedtoprolongorimproveequipment integrity. • GuidelinesforEmergencyPlanningandResponse,Pre-Start-UpSafetyReview (PSSR),IncidentInvestigations,andContractorManagementarealsodefinedin theOSHA1910PSMrequirementsthatmustbeinplaceforstart-up. Unitstart-upsrequireavastamountofpre-planningthatprimarilyincorporatesthe skills and abilities of the operations staff. Unit process technicians, process engineers, maintenance craftspeople, and contractor craftspeople are engaged in start-up activities. The operations team will have developed unit-specific standard operating procedures (SOPs)forequipmentandsystemstart-uporshutdowninnormaloperation,aswellas emergencysituations.Theproceduresdevelopedforstart-upareusedforequipmentand system start-up that ultimately leads toproduct manufacturing.

Noml/rouin S-U A normal or routine start-up takes place after a planned product outage, shutdown, or turnaround has been completed. As stated in the introduction, the operations team developsunitspecificstandardoperatingprocedures(SOPs)forequipmentandsys tem start-up that ultimately lead to the start of production. Unit start-up procedures are executed by the process technicians in a planned andsequencedorderduringanormalorroutinestart-up.Withtheassistanceofthe necessary personnel, material sampling and specification verifications are made while process systems are brought on line. Maintenance and contractor craftspeople are availabletotroubleshootproblemsassociatedwithequipmentstart-up. Even during normal, routine start-ups there can be electrical, mechanical, and instrumentation problems that must be solved before a start-up can continue. For this reason, engineers, craftspeople, and operations personnel are often staffed around the clock to provide the necessarysupport for start-up activities. One of the key activities in preparation for a normal, routine start-up is development and communication of a start-up execution plan , which is a strategic document for a normal process unit start-up that typically includes consideration for, or makes provisional reference to, other instructions for the following: • • • • • •

Requiredstaffing Coordinationwithotherunits Utilityandauxiliarysystemscommissioning Hazardouschemicalinventoryprocedures Detailedequipmentandunitstart-upprocedures NotificationoftheEPAorotherregulatoryagenciesinadvanceofthescheduled start-up

Part of the start-up planning process includes establishing communication with rawmaterialsuppliersandvendorstoensurerawmaterials,tools,andequipment are available and delivered on time for start-up. Communication with adjacent and connected process units must also be established to provide raw material for the process that is in the start-up mode, or to receive effluent materials from the process, once the unit is making product. Theorder of system start-up is determined by those systems requiredto be placed in service first. Safety systems like firewater, deluge, and hydrocarbon or other chemical detection systems are given priority in the beginning phases of a unit start-up. During start-up, auxiliary systems such as hot oil, seal oil, dry gas seal, water, steam, condensate, plant air, instrument air, nitrogen, and other utilities must be started in the


149

propersequencebasedontheneedsoftheprocess.Theseutilitysystemsareusually startedupfirst.Theprocessequipmentandsystemsarethenstarted. Systems for hazard mitigation, preventing hydrocarbon exposure, and protecting personnel and the environment are usually the next to start-up. Flare and vent systems, API separators, and closed drain systems are examples of systems placed in service early during start-up activities in order to manage hydrocarbons safely, prevent exposure to personnel, and potentially harm the environment or surrounding communities.Rawmaterialfromtankfarms,pipelines,marinevessels,andspecialty materials from tank cars, tank trucks, and other vendors can be safely brought into the process unit once these types of systems are in service. Majorpiecesofequipmentandsystemsthataremanytimesconsideredtheheart ofaprocessunitcanbestarteduponcetherequiredutilitiesandsafetysystemsare inoperation.Keypiecesofprocessequipment,likecentrifugalcompressorsinrecycle gas or refrigeration service, can be brought on-line to circulate prior to the actual start ofproduction.Operationoflargeandmoreexpensivepiecesofrotatingequipment requiremaintenancecraftsmentomonitorandevaluateperformanceoftheequipment prior to start of production. After fuel gas systems are in service, large cylindrical or cabin-type furnaces and hot oil systems can be started up to provide heat for fractionation and dehydration towers, as well as reactor systems. Refrigerationsystemscanbeplacedinserviceforrawmaterialandproduct cooling. Placing seal oil and dry gas seal systems in service allows operation of pumping equipmentforcirculationandtransferofmaterial. Onceallprocessunitmajorequi pmentandsystemsareeitherinopera tionoron standby, raw material can be introduced on a continuous basis. Feed forward flow is when raw material is introduced to a process unit on a continuous basis to effectively begin the processing of the finished or intermediate product. After start-up, when production has been successfully established, the site stafftransitiontoroutineoperationsandequipmentmonitoringwiththeprocess technicians using methods such as audio visual olfactory (AVO), a method used by process technicians to monitor the sounds, sights and smells of a process unit or area during unit walk-through inspections.

S-U f n emgncy Sudown Safely managing an emergency shutdown and ultimately the unit re-start depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician. Due to the largequantityofprocessequipmentandinstrumentationonaprocessunit,thereisan unlimited number of variables and scenarios that can cause an emergency shutdown orinterru ptionof production.Emergency operatingproce duresshouldbein place to minimize the effect of an emergency shutdown and to place the unit in a safe conditionquickly. The emergency operating procedures should include step-by-step instructions for securing a process unit for each possible type of emergency and include the effect on theprocess,theenvironment,andsurroundingcommunities.Emergencyshutdownscan cause,orbecausedby,thesuddenfailureofmajorprocessequipmentsuchascompressors and furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricity. Faulty trip or shutdown instrumentation can also cause emergency shutdowns. Emergencyshutdownscausedbyequipmentorinstrumentfailurerequirecomplete andcarefulevaluationoftheunitequipment,instrumentation,andsafetysystemsprior to re-start activities. The evaluations often dictate post-emergency start-up activities. Start-upafteranemergencyshutdownrequiresprocesstechnicianstoexercisecaution and awareness of the hazards that may be present due to process interruption. Once the unit is deemed safe, procedures should be in place for re-starting the unit after emergency shutdown. Failureorshutdownofminorprocessequipment,andimplementationofspare processequipment,mayhaveonlyaminimumeffectontheunitandmaynotrequire

150 Process Operations removaloftheunitrawmaterialorfeed.Spareequipmentandinstrumentation available for service can effectively minimize process interruptions and eliminate the hazards that can result from upset conditions. Minorequipmentfailurecanmanytimesbeevaluated,repaired,andre-started in a short period so that the unit is returned to normal process conditions relatively quickly.Inthesecases,oncethehazardshavebeenfullyevaluatedandspareorfailed equipmentisreadyforservice,personne lon shiftcandevelo pa logicalstart-upplan atthetimeoftheincident.Evendurin gminorequipmen toutages,itisrequiredthat the applicable unit-specific standard operating procedures be used for the purpose of equipmentandsystemstart-up. Failureorshutdownofmajorprocessequipmenthasthegreatesteffectonunit productionandusuallyrequirestemporaryremovalordiversionoftheunitraw materialorfeed.Majorequipmentfailureandlong-termprocessinterruptionsrequire operations,engineering,andmaintenancestafftoworktogethertoevaluateequipment and process conditions in order to determine a logical start-up plan. After the unit condition is evaluated and deemed safe to re-start, the applicable unit specific standard operatingproceduresshouldbeexecutedintheplannedandsequencedordertobring the unit back to normal operations.

equimn S-U f Minnnc aciviis During occasional instances of maintenance activities, auxiliary and individual piecesofequipment,andsomeprocesssystems,canberemovedfromserviceto conduct maintenance activities without the need for an entire unit shutdown. As with most operations and maintenance activities in a process unit, there are precautions thatmustbetakeninordertomitigatethehazardsassociatedwiththeequipment shutdown, repair, and re-start. Precautions and hazards should be identified and managed with the use of shutdown, isolation, repair, and start-up procedures. These procedural tools, when written and applied correctly, are critical to safely managing the hazards. The comp lexi tyof the equi pmen t bein g remo vedfrom serv icepredic ts the associated hazards, which can range from limited to severe when not shutting down an entire process unit. Proper communication and coordination between operations and maintenance personnel is always critical to the safe removal, efficient repair, andstart-upofprocessequipment.Planningandexecutionoftherepair,evaluation of the hazards and the effect on the rest of the unit can be extensive or a minor task that can be completed with the process technicians and maintenance craftspeople that are on shift. Safelymanagingequipmentstart-up,aftermainten anceactivitiesarecompleted, can be as simple as placing a repaired pump back in service. It could have a minimum effect on the process, or it might be as complex as placing an entire system back in service with major impact to the process operation. Thehazardsassociatedwithevenminorrepairstoequipmentinhydrocarbonand process service can be severe. At all times: • Operatingproceduresmustbeusedtosafelyshutdownandremoveequipment from service, and to minimize the effect on the rest of the unit. • Controlofwork(COW)proceduresmustbeusedtoidentify,isolate,andprepare theequipmentforrepairactivities. • Maintenanceproceduresshouldbeusedtoensureaqualityrepairandto maximizeequipmentintegrity. • Operatingproceduresmustbeusedtosafelystartupandplacetheequipment back in service. • Properpersonalprotectiveequipment(PPE)mustbeusedtoprotectindividuals from exposure and associated hazards, including hard hats, safety glasses, goggles, and protective clothing.


151

Adheringtositepoliciesandprocedures,asrequiredbytheOSHA1910PSM Standard, ensures that the proper shutdown procedures, control of work procedures, andproperstart-upproceduresareusedtosafelyplaceequipmentbackinservice once maintenance craftspeople have completed repairs or replacement.

Uni S-U Theeffortrequiredduringcommissioningandinitialstart-upofaprocessunit,and start-upafteraturnaround(TAR)hasbeencompleted,areverysimilarinscope. An initial commissioning start-up and a start-up after a turnaround are the most involved start-up procedures. This is because, in both cases, there are many pieces ofprocessequipmentwhoseconditionmustbeevaluatedandmadesafeforthe introduction of hydrocarbon, steam, high pressure, high temperature, corrosive service, and many other potentially hazardous services that are unit specific. Thesestart-upsareplannedandsequencedeventsthatrequirethemaximum levelofcoordinationandcommunicationamongsitepersonnel,andusuallyrequire this elevated level of effort for a prolonged period. Operations and other personnel involved in major unit start-ups include: • • • • • •

Processtechniciansandoperationsmanagementteam Maintenanceplanners,craftspeople,mandinspectionstaff Process,control,mechanical,andelectricalengineers Warehouseandprocurementstaff Safety,health,andenvironmental(SHE)andPSMstaff Contractormanagers,contractorengineers,contractorcraftspeople,andspecialty contractor staff

All of the staff work together to plan and execute unit commissioning start-ups andpost-TARstart-ups.Planningforanewunitcommissioningstart-upmaybeginsix months to a year, or longer, before the actual start-up date.

152 Process Operations Maintenance and operating procedures play a critical role in the tracking and completion of start-up activities. These procedures define the necessary steps requiredtoprepare processequipmentand systemsforserviceand includeactivities such as: • • • •

Lineandequipmentflushing Hydrostatictesting Lineandequipmentdryout Tightness test, pressurization test, typically using an inert gas, for process piping andequipmenttoensurethatequipmentisleakfreepriortotheintroductionof chemicals; also known as leak testing • Removingairfromprocesspipingandequipmentpriortotheintroductionof hydrocarbon, making them air free • Verificationsofalignmentandrotationaldirectionforrotatingequipment • Performancetestsforspecialtyequipment

t pocss tcnicin’s rol in plnning nd excuing S-Us Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit startups. A start-up for a large process unit with many systems, and sometimes hundreds of piecesofequipment,cantakeseveraldaystocomplete,sostart-upplanningisextensive. The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology, design criteria, process equipmentandinterconnectingpiping,valves,safetyandcontrolsystems,aswellas process specific hazards, makes process technicians one of the most important personnel groups on the unit during start-ups. A process technician’s primary responsibilities before and during start-up includes: • Assistinthepre-start-upsafetyreview(PSSR). • Executeunitst art-upandinven toryprocedure stofacilitatesafe ,efficient, controlled start-up. • Properlylineupprocessequipment,piping,andcontrolvalves. • Startup,monitor,andcontrolrotatingequipment. • Preparespecialequipmentandstartupu tilizinganynormalorspecialcontrol of work procedures. • Establishandmaintaincontrolofprocessconditionswithinoperatinglimits. • Coordinateallworkactivitieswhilethestart-upisinprogress. • Monitorallsiteandcontractorcraftspeopletoensurecompliancewithsafework practicesandhealth,safety,andenvironmental(SHE)policies,includingthose forPPE. • Ensurethathazardstopersonnel,theenvironment,andequipmentaremanaged correctly, and report all deviations from the site safety, health, and environmental policies. • Maintainallunitsafetyequipmentingoodordersothatitisavailabletomitigate emergency situations, allelviate environmental hazards, and provide personnel protection. • Participateinemployeehealthmonitoringprogramswhenthepotentialfor uniqueexposurehazardsarepresent. • Completecontrolofworkproceduresandpermitprocessesformanagingwork activitiessurroundingprocessequipment. • Completelock-out/tag-out(LOTO)controlofworkproceduresforequipment preparation and energy isolation when there is a need to inspect, repair, or replaceprocessequipment. • Completehydro testing, a strength and integrity test, using water, for piping and equipment. • Completestrengthandintegritytightnesstestsforprocesspipingandequipment, andensurethattheequipmentisleakfreepriortotheintroductionof hydrocarbons.


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• Maintainthefacilityinaclean,orderly,safec ondition.Thisissignificantly difficult during a post-turnaround or commissioning start-up due to the vast amountofequipmentpreparationandrelatedactivitiesthattakeplace.Some hazard mitigation and other benefits to maintaining good housekeeping during a start-up include: • • • • •

Eliminatesslippingandtrippinghazards Eliminatespotentialforchemicalexposure Eliminatesenvironmentalhazards Improvesoperatingandmaintenanceefficiency Assuresthattoolsandequipmentareintheproperplaceandavailableforuse when needed • Helpsmaintainahigherlevelofequipmentintegrityandreliability During a unit start-up, coordination is critical between the process technicians assigned to field and control panel duties. The field technician is engaged in proper line upofprocessequipment,pipingandcontrolvalves,aswellas thestart-upofrotating equipment.Thecontrolpaneltechnicianisengagedinestablishingandmaintainingthe operatingconditionsandprocessvariablesassystemsandequipmentarebroughton-line. Thestart-upofaprocessunitrequiresmanipulationandcontrolofhundreds or, depending on the size of the unit, thousands of process variables. The variables temperature,pressure,level,andflow,alongwithunitspecificsystemsandequipment, areuniquetotheproductsmadeineachprocessfacility. Newly constructed process units are usually equipped witha fully instrumented Distributed Control System (DCS) for controlling the process. A DCS refers to an automated control system consisting of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen. Networksforcommunicationandmonitoringconnecttheentiresystemofcontrollers. A combination of previous generation electronic and pneumatic instrumentation andcontrolsystemsareoftenfoundonmanyoftheolderprocessunits.Regardlessof the type or sophistication of control technology available to the process technician, it is the process variables and operating conditions that, once established within the correct control limits, fulfill the process unit purpose by delivering on-specification products. Unitstart-upsalsoprovideauniquelearningexperiencefortheneworinexperienced technician. The diversion from normal operations enablespersonnel to execute operating procedures; safety, health, and environmental policies; and work practices that are seldom encountered during routine or normal operations. This is especially true of a new unitcommissioningstart-uporpost-TARstart-upduetothehighvolumeofworkand the introduction to new work processes and procedures. These activities give the process techniciansanopportunityforhands-onexperiencewithneworrepairedequipmentthat increases their knowledge. Unit-specific, as wellas site-specific, knowledge can be gained in relation to how unit start-up activities can affect an entireprocess facility or community. During unit start-ups, the process technician may also find opportunities, or the need, to revise operating procedures where corrections or deviations to previously established workpracticesarenecessary.Eachfacilityshouldhaveguidelinesinitssafety,health,and environmentalpolicyforoperatingproceduresthatdefinethestepsrequiredfordeviations andcorrectionstooperatingprocedures.Notethatcertaincorrectionsordeviationsfall withintheOSHAPSMguidelinesformanagementofchange(MOC)andcouldrequire that a hazard analysis of the deviation be conducted prior to executing the deviation.

154 Process Operations Employeeparticipationisaninvaluableopportunitywhereprocesssafety information included in operating procedures is improved on for the benefit ofallperson nel. A vastquan tity of therisks  andhaza rdsassoc iate dwiththe  process industry can be eliminated with the proper development and use of operating procedures. It is critical that the process safety information contained in the procedures is true and accurate. The practice of revising process safety informationprovideseachprocesstechnicianwiththeuniqueopportunityto make a job or work practice more safe for himself or herself as well as the site personnel. Prior to every start-up, a pre-start-up safety review should be completed in an effort to verify that the unit is ready for safe start-up. The review team consists of site operations; maintenance; safety, health, and environmental staff; technical and contractor managers; as well as process technicians, maintenance staff, and contractor craftspeople.ThePSSRactivitiesincludeverificationthat: • Rotatingequipmentisinstalledpermanufacturerspecificationsandreadyfor start-up. • Electricalequipmentandcontrolsystemsareinstalledpermanufacturer specifications and are ready for start-up. • Pipingandstructuralequipmentareinstalledpermanufacturerspecificationsand are ready for start-up. • Constructionandmechanicalcompletionchecklistsdefiningequipmentturnover requirementsarecompleted. • Processsafetyinformation,operatingprocedures,andtrainingmaterialsarein place prior to start-up. • Operationsstaffandmaintenancecraftspeoplearetrainedontheprocessand ready for start-up. • Hazardandoperability(HAZOP)studyhasbeendonetodeterminepotential hazardsassociatedwithprocesssystems,equipment,processmaterials,andwork processes, and all of the safety and environmental action items are closed. The process technician’s familiarity with the site safety, health, and environmental policies is also critical to the safe execution of unit start-ups. Safety, health, and environmental policies are implemented by process facilities to minimize or prevent therisksand/orhazardsassociatedwiththeprocessindustry,andtoensurethatthe facility is operated within the strict guidelines provided by applicable regulatory agencies. These policies should be readily available thorough a site computer system, throughlocalareanetwork(LAN),orinhardcopymanualform.Usingthese policies as a reference to understand and implement the established safe work practices for a given activity should be a common practice for process technicians. Typical safety, health, and environmental policies that are utilized during unit start-ups include: • Employee health monitoring—defines the need for employee health monitoring while activities are conducted in hazardous areas, in hazardous chemical sampling, orwhereextendedexposuretohazardouschemicalsmayoccurduringTARs • Environmental reporting—definestherequirementsandreportablequantities of hydrocarbons or other hazardous substances that, when released to the environment,requirereportingtotheproperregulatoryauthorities • Housekeeping—defines activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, safe condition • Management of change (MOC)—policy that defines the need and application for managing changes associated with an industrial process in support of the OSHA PSM regulation • Material release reporting—definesreportingrequirementsofregulatory authoritiessuchastheEPAwhenventing,purging,ordrainingequipment,orin the event of a material release


155

• Operating procedures—unit-specificproceduresusedforthepurposeofequipment and system start-up, shutdown, normal operation, as well as emergency situations • Personal protective equipment (PPE) —definesequipmentthatmustbewornby personnel when working in process areas or conducting specific activities such as sampling of hazardous materials, entering hazardous areas, or opening process equipment • Process hazard analysis—defines the need and application for the systematic assessment of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process in support of the OSHA PSM regulation • Process safety information —defines the type of documentation that is considered process safety information in support of the OSHA PSM regulation, including but not limited to operating procedures, inspection and maintenance procedures, operating manuals and training material, process and instrument drawings (P&IDs), electrical one-line diagrams, instrument loop drawings, and electrical classification drawings • Process safety management—definesthe14elementsoftheOSHA1910 regulation;includesrequirementsrelatedtoManagementofChange,Process SafetyInformation,IncidentInvestigations,EmployeeParticipation,HAZOP, Operations Procedures, Mechanical Integrity, Inspection, Training, Trade Secrets,Contractors,Pre-Start-UpSafetyReview,ComplianceAudits,and EmergencyPlanningandResponse

ponil hzds Many of the same hazards on a process unit are present during unit start-ups, shutdowns, emergencies, and even during normal operations. Much like unit shutdowns,unitstart-upsoccurinfrequentlyandareconsideredanonroutineactivity. The human element associated with performing unfamiliar activities adds to the hazard level. Demand for product usually dictates the start-up timing, duration, and schedule. Process units can be systematically started up to manufacture the intended productwhileconsciouslymanagingthehazards.Hazardousconditionscanquickly develop and emergencies can occur during the start-up of a process unit, which can leadtopersonnelinjury,irreparabledamagetoequipment,materialrelease,fire,or explosion.Everyprocessfacilityhastheresponsibilitytoidentifypotentialemergency scenarios and to have documented mitigation plans (emergency procedures) in place to manage such scenarios safely. Detailed start-up planning, and the strict use of standard operating procedures and safe work practices, should help eliminate hazardous incidents. Proper management oftheinventoryingproceduresforintroducinghydrocarbonsintoprocessequipment can minimize flaring and the affect of a material release. The ability of the process technicians to maintain control of the process throughout start-up is critical to eliminating these hazards, which can also affect an entire process facility and surrounding communities. Other start-up hazards can include: • Atmospherichydrocarbonreleaseoramaterialreleaseduetopoorequipment, valve, or flange tightness testing • Uncontrolledreleaseofhydrocarbontoflareandventsystemspriortoestablishing process control • Pipeandequipmentdamageduetothermalexpansionorcontraction • Failureofnew,repaired,orreplacedrotatingequipment • Hazardsfromslips,trips,orfallsduetopoorhousekeeping • PersonalinjuryduetothefailuretowearproperPPEoncehydrocarbonis introducedandequipmentisplacedinservice • Hazardsassociatedwithcontinuationofworkactivitiesparallelingstart-up activities (i.e., hot work, vehicle entry, inspection and x-ray, excavations, heavy lifting,installationofnewpiping,equipment,andsupportstructures)


Summy Unitstart-upsareanintegralpartofprocessoperationsandprovideuniqueopportunities for process facilities, site personnel, and the process technician. The activities that take placeduringstart-upsrequirealloftheskillsandabilitiesofprocesstechniciansandmost site personnel. The deviation from normal, routine duties provides learning experiences forthesitestaffthatoccuronlyduringstart-ups.Thesafestart-upofprocessequipment, after maintenance, repair, or replacement has taken place, should provide opportunities toimproveequipmentperformance,longevity,andintegrity.Whenimplementedduring a start-up, new technology can result in a process that is safer to operate, with reduced or eliminated risks to personnel, the facility, and surrounding community. In many cases, the installation and start-up of new technology can often reduce operating costs, leading to higher profitability for a process facility. A unit start-up also brings personnel together from across a facility to work more closely than during normal operations. This provides opportunities to establish working relationshipsthatotherwisemightnothaveoccurred,andenablessharingoftheunique skillsofeachindividual.Newcareerchoicesmaybediscoveredwhenopportunitiesare experienced by personnel related to start-up planning, process hazard analysis team participation, writing and updating process safety information, procedures and training material, as well as maintenance activities not experienced during normal operations. Start-up planning and execution, when managed and completed safely, can constitute some of the most gratifying experiences in the process industry. Newexperiencesassociatedwiththecombinedeffortofmanyworkteams,working with new site personnel and contract personnel for the common benefit of a process facility, cannot be matched in many industries.

Ccking You Knowldg 1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Air free b. Feed forward flow c. Hydro test d. Start-up execution plan e. Tightness test 2. Inmostcases,unitstart-upsoccurinfrequentlyandareconsideredanonroutineactivity. a. True b. False 3. TheOSHA1910ProcessSafetyManagementstandardcovers:(Selectallthatapply) a. Management of change b. Pre-start-up safety review c. Operations procedures d. Emergencyplanningandresponse


157

4. Processtechnici ansplayakeyrolein theplanni ngandsafeexecution of unitstart -ups. Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply) a. Executionoftheunitstart-upandinventoryprocedures b. Monitoringtheprocessandequipmentwhilethestart-upisinprogress c. Monitoring all work activities while the start-up is in progress d. Specialequipmentstart-upandpreparationutilizinganynormalorspecialcontrol of work procedures 5. Safely managing an emergency shutdown and unit re-start depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician. a. True b. False 6. Even duringminorequipm entoutage s,it isrequir edthatthe applicableunitspecifi c standardoperatingproced ures(SOPs)areusedforthepurposeofequipment andsystem start-up. a. True b. False 7. Some of the primary responsibilities of the process technicians during start-ups include: (Select all that apply) a. Executionsofunitstart-upandinventoryprocedurestofacilitateasafe,efficient, and controlled start-up b. Properlineupofprocessequipment,piping,andcontrolvalves c. Start-up,monitoring,andcontrolofrotatingequipment d. Establishingandmaintainingcontrolofprocessconditionswithinoperatinglimits 8. The process technician’s knowledge of the process technology and design criteria, process equipmentandinterconnectingpiping,valves,safetyandcontrolsystems,aswellasprocess specific hazards, makes the process technician staff one of the most important groups of personnel on the unit during start-ups. a. True b. False 9. Pre-start-upsafetyreview(PSSR)shouldbecompletedinanefforttoverifythattheunitis readyforstart-up.PSSRactivitiesincludeverificationthat:(Selectallthatapply) a. Rotatingequipmentisinstalledpermanufacturer’sspecificationsandreadyfor start-up. b. Electricalequipmentandcontrolsystemsareinstalledpermanufacturerspecifications and are ready for start-up. c. Pipingandstructuralequipmentareinstalledpermanufacturerspecificationsand are ready for start-up. d. Process safety information, operating procedures, and training materials are in place prior to start-up.

aciviy 1. Selectoneoftheunitstart-upproceduresandperformprocedurereviewtogetherwithshift personnel.Reviewforaccuracytodetermine: • Istheprocedureformatcorrect,basedonestablishedguidelinesforoperating procedures? • Areprerequisitesidentifiedthatmustbecompletedpriortostartingtheprocedure, and if so are they correct? • Arehazardsidentifiedandcautionstatementsincludedtomitigateeachhazard? • Areupperandlowercontrollimitsincludedintheprocedurestepstohelpestablish process control?

12 ChapTer

Lock-Ot/T-Ot Ojcti After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Explain the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standard for Control of Hazardous Energy (Lock-Out/Tag-Out).

■

List the various methods and devices that can be used to isolate equipment from the various types of energy: • Lock • Linebreak • Tag • Disconnect • Blind • Doubleblockandbleed • Switchgear

■

List the various types of energy that must be isolated: • Chemical • Mechanical • Pneumatic • Electrical • Hydraulic

158

■

Explain who should remove the Lock-Out/Tag-Out devices.

■

List the steps to follow when removing Lock-Out/Tag-Out devices.

CHAPTER12 Lock-Out/Tag-Out

159

Ky T Affected Employee—process technician or other employee whose job requirement is to operate or use a machine or piece of equipment that is being serviced or maintained under lock-out or tag-out conditions, or whose job requires the technician or employee to work in an area in which servicing or maintenance is being performed. Authorized Employee—process technician or other employee who locks out or tags out a piece of equipment for required service or maintenance on that particular piece of equipment. Capable of Being Locked Out—has a multiple padlock attachment or other means of attachment to which, or through which, multiple locks can be affixed. Energized—connected to an energy source, or contains residual or stored energy. Energy-Isolating Device—mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy. Energy Sources—any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy. Interim Test—test of equipment requiring removal of lock-out/tag-out devices prior to completion of maintenance or repair of equipment. Lockbox—safety device ensuring no lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) devices are removed while work is performed. Lockboxes have multiple locks into which all keys and/ or tabs from the LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted, and a single authorized employee using a LOTO device and a job-lock during multishift operations then secures the box. Lock-Out—placement of a lock-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which ensures that the energy-isolating device and equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lock-out device is removed. Lock-Out Device—a device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold equipment in a zero-energy state. Multiple Padlock Attachment—clamp-like device used to install multiple locks on a lock-out device. Tag-Out—placement of a tag-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which indicates that the energyisolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed. Tag-Out Device—prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device in accordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed. Zero-Energy State—the state of equipment following specific process isolation and clearing procedures, followed by isolating all hazardous energy sources using lock-out/tag-out devices.

Itodctio

The control of hazardous energy is defined in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA)Standar d29 CFR.1910.147,andiscommonlyreferredtoas lock-out/tag-out (LOTO). Lock-out/tag-out is a procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment. It is used when there is a need to inspect, repair, or replace process equipment. LOTO provides a mechanism to ensure that equipment that is to be worked on is and will remain in a zero-energy state, prior to and during the repair process. A zero-energy state is the state of equipment following specific process isolation and clearing procedures, followed by isolating all hazardous energy sources using lock-out/tag-out devices. Lock-out is to place a lock-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which

160 Process Operations ensures that the energy-isolating device and equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lock-out device is removed. In order to prevent injury to employees, the standard requires employers to establish a program utilizing procedures for affixing the appropriate lock-out or tagout devices to energy-isolating devices, and otherwise disable machines or equipment to prevent the equipment from being re-energized, being started up, or having an unexpected release of stored energy. The process technician’s employer should provide specific guidelines to direct the isolation, de-energizing, and securing of hazardous energy sources —any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy form—and to provide the process technician with individual control of securing devices while performing service or maintenance activities. A device that is energized is connected to an energy source, or contains residual or stored energy. The employer should have specific lock-out/tag-out procedures for the process technician to shutdown and prepare the equipment for maintenance, performing LOTO, removing LOTO, and returning the equipment to service. All hazardous energy sources of a machine, equipment, or piping system must be isolated, de-energized, secured, and verified in a safe position before and during service or maintenance activities. Attempting to remove locks or tags, operating, or otherwise tampering with equipment under lock-out is prohibited. An energy-isolating device is a mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy.

Lock-Ot/T-Ot Lock-out/tag-out is a safety procedure that is used in industry and research settings to ensure that equipment, lines, vessels, and machines are properly isolated, de-energized, and remain in a zero-energy state while maintenance or service work is occurring. The procedure also requires that hazardous power sources be isolated and the equipment made inoperable before any repair procedure is started. Lock-out/tag-out works in conjunction with a lock, usually locking the device or the power source with a multiple padlock attachment , a clamp-like device used to install multiple locks on a lock-out device, and placing it in such a position that no hazardous power sources can be turned on. The procedure requires that a tag be affixed to the locked device indicating who locked out the equipment and stating that it should not be turned on. Equipment that is capable of being locked out has a multiple padlock attachment or other means of attachment to which, or through which, multiple locks can be affixed. In circumstances when equipment design prevents affixing a lock or multiple padlock attachment (or other device) for energy isolation or when the equipment has a locking mechanism built into it, employers may utilize a tag-out system only. Tag-out is the placement of a tag-out device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which indicates that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed. Examples of facilities that would use a tag-out system are those with equipment predatingthe1990s.Howeve r,whenever  theequipm entunderg oesa majorrepair, renovation, or modification, the newly installed equipment is required to be designed to accept a lock-out device. OSHApolicyCFR1910.147,theControlofHazardousEnergy,establishesthe minimum performance requirements for the control of such hazardous energy. Each process facility has developed its own policies to ensure compliance with the standard, and each facility must provide training to its employees to ensure understanding and compliance with the standard. The lock-out/tag-out process starts with a procedure. The procedure is intended to assist the process technician in preparing the equipment for maintenance or servicing, getting the equipment to a zero-energy state, performing LOTO, and then returning theequipmenttoserviceafterthecompletionofwork.Figure12.1showsanexample of a generic lock-out/tag-out procedure.


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162 Process Operations ALOTOprocedurecontainsthefollowing15sections: • • • • • • • • • •

Procedureunitidentificationnomenclature Procedurenumber Procedurename Purpose Listsofpotentialhazardsassociatedwiththeequipment Instructionsrelatedtosafetyitems Instructionrelatedtohandlingdeviationsintheprocedure Prerequisites Signatureareatorecordthoseworkingontheprocedure Notesordefinitionsrelatedtotheprocedure

• Overview • Detailedstepsintakingtheequipmentoutofservice,preparingformaintenance, tagging and locking out • Signatureareaforcompletion • Areaforcomments • Signaturesofreviewersandprocedureapprover The intent of the LOTO procedure is to ensure that an authorized employee refers to the company procedure to identify the type and magnitude of energy that the machine or equipment utilizes, understands the hazards, and knows the methods to control the energy. An authorized employee is a process technician or other employee who locks out or tags out a piece of equipment for required service or maintenance on that particular piece of equipment. In some facilities, all process technicians have received the required training and may serve as an authorized employee, when needed. In other facilities, the authorized employee is designated by the employer based on knowledge and training on the company LOTO program and the unit process. The LOTO procedure also allows affected employees working in or near the area to be aware that work is taking place. An affected employee is a process technician or other employee whose job requirement is to operate or use a machine or piece of equipment that is being served or maintained under lock-out or tagout conditions, or whose job requires the technicians or employees to work in an area in which servicing or maintenance is being performed. An affected employee becomes an authorized employee when the employee’s duties include performing servicing or maintenance.

Lock-Ot d Iolti Dic LOCKs anD LOCKbOxes A lock-out device is a device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold equipment in a zero-energy state. The lock is typically taken from a lockbox, which is a safety device ensuring no LOTO devices are removed while work is performed. Lockboxes have multiple locks into which all keys and/or tabs from the LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted, and a single authorized employee using a LOTO device and a job-lock during multishift operationsthensecuresthebox.Muchoftheequipmenttodayhasbeendesignedwith a locking mechanism built directly into that piece of equipment such as valves, start/ stop stations, and electrical switchgear. When multiple locks are needed, a multiple padlockattachment,showninFigure12.2,isplacedintothelockingmechanismand then locks are attached. Lockboxes are used in situations involving a large number of workers and equipment, and have advantages over using only a multiple padlock attachment. Lockboxes,liketheoneshown inFigure12.3,con tainkeyedalikelocksan dareused when locking out larger pieces of equipment. The amount of locks placed inside


163

FIgure 12.2 Example of aLockandMultiplePadlock Attachments

FIgure 12.3 Example of a Lockbox

alockboxvariesandcanbeupto50.Generally,forlargersystemsrequiringover 50 locks,asecondlockboxcanbeused,andthelockboxespiggybackedtogether. When two or more contractors are working on different parts of a larger overall system, the locked-out device is first secured with a multiple padlock attachment that has many holes for multiple people attaching locks. Lockboxes and multiple padlock attachments can be used for contractors in this situation, and can greatly reduce the number of locks that have to be used. Generally, the operations lock is placed first and removed last. Each subcontractor applies his or her own lock to the clamp. The lock-out device cannot be removed until all workers have signed off on their portion of the work and removed their lock from the multiple padlock attachment. Generally, the locks are different in color, such as red, blue, or orange, or the shape/size is used to designate different crafts, functions, and contractors of a facility. Grouplocksmaybeusedinconjunc tionwithpersona llocks.Notwokeysorlocks  should ever be identical when utilizing personal locks. A personal lock and tag must not be removed by anyone other than the individual who installed the lock and tag, unless removal is accomplished under the direction of the employer. Employer procedures and training for such removal must be developed, documented, and incorporated into the energy control program.

ChaIns/CabLes Chains and locking cables are also utilized as lock-out devices. Chains are generally utilized with nonlocking valves, and are placed through the valve and secured with a lock.Figure12.4showsanexampleofusingchainstosecureavalve.Lockingcables are used to secure multiple valves with one lock, such as the valves to or from a seal oil pot with a valve leading to the flare.


FIgure 12.4 Example of using Chains to Secure a Valve

Tags The control of hazardous energy standard defines the requirement for tag-out devices. Tag-out devices are prominent warning devices, such as a tag and a means of attachment, which can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed (showninFigure12-5).Tagsaretobesubstantialenoughtopreventinadvertentor accidentalremoval,beattachablebyhand,havethestrengthofnolessthan50pounds, and be weather resistant. Tags can be affixed using a variety of methods, but for safety purposes they are generally affixed using a cable tie. Some of the tag types currently in use in the industry include: • • • • •

DONOTOPEN DONOTCLOSE DONOTENERGIZE DONOTSTART DONOTOPERATE

The process technician may be required to sign his or her name to the appropriate tag. In a maintenance situation, the craftsperson completing the maintenance may also sign the tag.

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FIgure 12.5 Examples of Tag-Out Tags


165

bLInDs Blindsareinstalledasenergy-isolatingdevices,amechanicaldevicethatphysically prevents the transmission or release of energy, but in certain instances can be considered lock-outdevices.Blindscannot beinstalledinsystemsthatarestillenergiz ed.Blinds come in different sizes, ratings, and styles. The most common style used in the process industryisthefigure8blind(showninFigure12.6). Inadditiontothefigure8blind,therearepaddleblinds(showninFigure12.7),also known as T-handle blinds, line blinds, and blind flanges used in the process industry. A blind is considered a lock-out device when it is the primary isolation of a system. If a LOTO requires a larger system to be isolated from a smaller system, then a line break is used, requiring a blind to be installed at the break location. The blind is then lockedintoplaceusingachainandlockasshowninFigure12.8.

FIgure 12.6 Example of a figure 8Blind

FIgure 12.7 Example of aPaddleBlind

FIgure 12.8 ExampleofaLockedBlind

166 Process Operations DOubLe bLOCKs anD bLeeDs Doubleblocksandbleedsconsistofavalveconfigurationinwhichafullflowventvalve is installed in a pipeline between two shut-off valves to provide a means of relieving pressurebetweenthem.Doubleblocksandbleeds,inthesimplestconfiguration,consistof two gate valves on either end of a short run of pipe with a bleede r located on the pipe run. ThevalvesarelockedandtaggedDONOTOPENorDONOTOPERATE,withthe bleedervalveintheopenpositiontaggedDONOTCLOSEorDONOTOPERATE. ThesimplestconfigurationofadoubleblockandbleedisshowninFigure12.9.

FIgure 12.9 Double BlockandBleed

The double block and bleed is frequently used when working on analyzer systems, and may be utilized when isolating and working on nonhazardous processes such as firewaterandpotable watersystems.Doubl eblocksandbleedsmaybeutilizedon hazardous systems if certain criteria have been met.

swITCh gear Theelectricalcomponentsofequipmentmustalsobelockedandtagged.Forexample, toLOTOapump,themainbreakerisde-energizedandtaggedDONOTOPERATE with a multiple padlock attachment and lock placed through the eyelet of the breaker handle. The process technician then returns to the pump in the field and depresses the startbuttontoensurethattheelectricalcomponentsarede-energized.Figure12.10 shows an example of a typical lock-out/tag-out for a pump breaker. The process facility should issue specific requirements about who energizes and de-energizes electrical equipment. Some facilities allow the process technicians to energizeandde-energize480Vbreakersandbelow,whereasothersrequireaqualified electrician to perform this function.

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Ty of ey rqii Ioltio Several types of energy must be isolated and purged from the system prior to allowing work to begin. These include the following: • Mechanical—sum of kinetic and potential energy of a mechanical system; for example, a compressor or pump • Pneumatic—power transmission system that uses the force of flowing gases to transmit power; for example, an industrial complex that produces its own instrument and plant air systems through compression • Hydraulic—system that uses pressurized fluids as a means of generation, control, and transmission of power; for example, mobile cranes • Electrical —energy for example, motorsmade available by the flow of electrons through a conductor; • Chemical—energy stored in chemicals (compounds) and energy released or absorbed in chemical reactions

roi Lock-Ot/T-Ot Dic Lock-out/tag-out devices must be removed only by authorized employees. If work is finished prior to the end of the shift, the process technician locking and tagging the equipment removes the lock-out/tag-out devices and places the equipment in service. However, since this is not always possible, the oncoming process technician may become the employee authorized to remove LOTO devices when the work is completed. This transfer of authority is given at shift change when passing on unit information from one technician to the other. There are also times when equipment must be unlocked prior to work completion in order to perform an equipment test. An example would be to check for motor rotation. Only the authorized process technician, or her or his immediate supervisor, may remove any locks to permit the test to take place. A test of equipment requiring removal of lock-out/tag-out devices prior to completion of maintenance or repair of equipment is called an interim test . Immediately after the interim test is concluded, and prior to any work commencing, the process technician must return the equipment to a zero-energy state and re-lock the equipment.

sTeps FOr remOvIng LOCK-OuT/Tag-OuT DevICes The process technician should always refer to the facility LOTO procedure before starting the LOTO removal process. The following basic steps should be completed prior to returning the equipment to active service: 1.

Ensure that the equipment has been returned to normal operating condition after maintenance, service, or repair, by ensuring the following: a. b. c. d.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

All blinds or blind flanges have been removed. All piping has been re-installed. All guards or protective guards are re-installed. All fuses have been replaced, if necessary.

e. All maintenance locks or group locks have been removed.

Inspect the area for housekeeping; all nonessential items should be removed. Removelocksandtagsfromvalves,controlpanels,orotherequipment. Close bleeder valves and remove tags. Performpressuretestsofequipmentifnecessary. Notifyaffectedemployeesofimpendingstart-up. Removelocksandtagsfromthecircuitbreakers. Start up equipment.

Once the equipment is on-line, the process technician should check the equipment periodically for line leaks, unusual noises, higher-than-normal temperatures, or high vibration.


sy The control of hazardous energy is critical in the process industry. The process facility policies are guides for the process technician to ensure safety and compliance with OSHAregulation1910.147.Theprocesstechnicianisthefirstlineofdefenseinthe prevention of an incident or accident stemming from an uncontrolled release of hazardous energy. Training is pivotal in the establishment and continued success of a control of hazardous energy program. Training for the facility control of hazardous energy program should occur as employees are hired, and retraining should occur as policies or equipment changes are implemented. The lock-out/tag-out procedure is the process technician’s guide to controlling hazardous energy. The process technician should strictly follow each step of the LOTO procedure created by the facility, and any deviations to the procedure should be documented.

Ccki Yo Kold 1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Affected employee b. Authorized employee c. Capable of being locked out d. Energized e. Energy-isolating device f. Energy sources g. Interim test h. Lockbox i. Lock-out j. Lock-out device

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4.

5.

6.

k. Multiplepadlockattachment l. Tag-out m. Tag-out device n. Zero-energystate Thereare_____________examplesofhazardousenergymentionedinthischapter. a. two b. four c. five d. six A lock-outdevic e utilizesa positivemeans , such asa lock,to hold equipment ina zero-energy state. a. True b. False Namefiveofthefifteensectionsthatanoperationslock-out/tag-outprocedureshouldcontain. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ e. _____________ Aftertheequipmenthasbeenreturnedtoservice,theprocesstechnicianshould: a. Check for leaks in the equipment or associated piping b. Check for unusual noise c. Check for unusual vibration d. Check for higher-than-normal temperatures e. All of the above f. Only a and c Thepurp ose ofthecontr olofhazard ousener gystand ardistoestabl ishthemini mum requirements of such hazardous energy: a. True b. False


169

7. Lock-outandtag-outdevicesshouldberemovedonlyby_____________ a. Theaffectedemployee_____________ b. Thefacilitiessafetymanager____________ c. Theauthorizedemployee_____________ d. Onlyaandc_____________ 8. Namefourofthetagscurrentlyusedinindustrytoday. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ 9. Defineadoubleblockandbleed. 10. Topreventaccidentsorincidents,itisnotimportanttoverifyequipmentisinazero-energy state prior to servicing or maintenance. a. True b. False

actiiti 1. ReadOSHAregulation1910.1 47ControlofHazardo usEnergyandcreateapresentat ion explaining the regulation. 2. Researchprevi ous incidents wherecontr olof hazardous energy guidelines were not followedper1910.147.Sel ectoneincident andsubmitatwo-pag ereportonwhatfailed in the process and what may prevent similar incidents from recurring. 3. Researchthedoub lebloc kandblee dsystem.Prepareaone- pagereportonwhethe ryou think this type of isolation and lock-out is as safe as the installation of blinds. 4. Usingtheschemat icbelow,writea LOTOprocedurethatplacestheA-pumpinactive serviceandthenstopsandpreparestheB-pumpformaintenance. Hint: TheB-pumpwillberemovedforasealreplacement.TheAandBpumpsare equipped with local hand/off/auto (HOA) switches for start/stop and electrical switchgear intheMCC.

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Uii ad Auxiia Sss Ojcivs After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:

170

■

Describe a typical steam-generation system and the uses of the various steam pressures.

■

Explain the importance of boiler feed water treatment.

■

Explain the factors needed to ensure safe and efficient boiler operation.

■

Describe the refrigeration cycle and identify the major components.

■

Describe an aeration-type sanitary sewage package.

■

Explain the inspection requirements for a cooling tower system.

■

Explain the importance of lock-out/tag-out while working on high-voltage electrical

■

equipment. Explain the difference between plant air and instrument air.

■

Explain the basic operation of a flare system.

■

Identify hazards associated with nitrogen use.

■

Explain the differences between natural gas and process off gas.

CHAPTER 13 Utility and Auxiliary Systems

171

K ts Boilers—highly regulated, steam-generating pressure vessels that burn natural gas, plant fuel gas, and/or waste gas streams to generate the heat for the phase change of boiler feed water. Electric Heat Tracing—series of self-regulating heating cables designed to provide freeze protection and temperature maintenance to metallic and nonmetallic pipes, tanks, and equipment. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)—highly toxic, highly flammable, colorless gas with a very distinctive, rotten egg-like odor. Natural Gas—combination of light hydrocarbons, with methane the most prevalent, although ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can also complete

the chemical makeup of natural gas. Nitrogen—colorless, odorless, inert, gaseous element constituting ≈ 78% of the earth’s atmosphere, used in manufacturing and air-freeing process equipment. Potable Water—water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long-term harm. Steam—vaporized water, especially at a temperature above the boiling point of water at sea level and atmospheric pressure (>100°C or 212°F). Steam Clouds—tiny drops of water that have condensed from steam and are carried along by the invisible vapor. Steam Generators—any plant process shell and tube exchanger or kettle type exchanger using boiler feed water (BFW) to remove process heat, convert BFW to steam, and pressure control that steam to a supply header. Steam Jets—steam-jet vacuum systems combine ejectors, condensers, and interconnecting piping to provide relatively low-cost and low-maintenance vacuum pumping with no moving parts. Steam Tracing—series of coiled or straight run tubing, either copper or stainless, wrapped around or attached to a pipe or valve, which carries steam as a heat medium. Steam Turbines —rotating mechanical drivers for compressors and generators powered by high-velocity steam flowing through the vanes on the turbine’s rotor. Water Hammer—Hydraulic action associated with a non-compressible fluid in a pipe. Sounds like a pipe being hit with a hammer. The energy developed by the sudden stoppage of fluid in motion.

Ioducio Every process facility is dependent on one or more utility or auxiliary systems to produce products. All facilities require energy, and most manage utility sections specializing in steam generation, water systems (boiler feed water, firewater, potable water, cooling water, and wastewater), and compressed gases (nitrogen, air, and natural gas). In addition, process facility auxiliary systems include electricity, flare systems, and refrigeration. The process technician is responsible for maintaining and operating these systems according to the operating guidelines of the process facility. He or she ensures that the utility systems operate efficiently by minimizing or eliminating steam, water, and other utility leaks. The process technician is also responsible for minimizing or eliminating any packing leaks that may occur in the refrigeration systems.

Sa Gaio ad Disiuio Steam, typically at pressures ranging from 15 to 600 psig, drives turbines, operates pumps, provides process heating, warms heat tracing, and provides building heat. Steam is vaporized water, especially at a temperature above the boiling point of water at sea level and atmospheric pressure (>100°C or 212°F).

172

Process Operations

A steam distribution system is comprised of valves, fittings, piping, and connections designed for the steam pressure and temperature transported. Boilers are highly regulated, steam-generating pressure vessels that burn natural gas, plant fuel gas, and/or waste gas streams to generate the heat for the phase change of boiler feed water (BFW). They generate steam at a given design pressure to satisfy the process requirements. High-pressure steam, such as 250 to 600 psig, drives turbines on large generators, processes gas compressors, and supplies lower pressure let-down stations. High-pressure steam from boilers may be supplemented with high-pressure superheated steam from various plant process coolers. Let-down stations are pressure control valves that reduce high-pressure steam to a lower-pressure supply header. Let-down stations vary by the type of process, but typically are 400 to 150 psig and 150 to 50 psig. Some processes require lower pressures such as 37 and 15 psig. Steam turbines are rotating mechanical drivers for compressors and generators powered by high-velocity steam flowing through the vanes on the turbine’s rotor. The work performed by the steam (power) is increased by reducing the pressure of the turbine steam exhaust. In a process using a large steam-driven turbine, the steam typically exhausts from the turbine and condenses in a water-cooled surface condenser, which creates a partial vacuum on the turbine discharge. The steam condensate typically requires little treatment before returning to the boiler feed water system. A surface condenser is normally a large horizontal, shell-and-tube exchanger having cooling water flowing through the tubes. Condensate is level-controlled to the BFW system, and the vessel operates under a partial vacuum. Some process units may supplement the vacuum on the condenser utilizing steam ejectors.

tUrbIne-SUpplIeD SteAm let-DOWn Steam turbines using high-pressure steam, such as 300 psig or higher, may exhaust directly into a lower-pressure steam header and function as a pressure let-down system, such as 150 psig, although that is not as efficient for the turbine. Depending on design, turbines can exhaust at various pressures. However, the turbine is not the final control for the let-down station pressure. If users consume a larger volume of 150-psig steam than the steam turbine exhaust produces, the 150-psig steam header pressure falls. When the 150-psig steam pressure falls below 150 psig, a pressure control valve lets down additional high-pressure makeup steam into the 150-psig steam header.

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De-SUperheAtInG When steam is let-down to a lower pressure, it becomes superheated, so that the temperature is higher than saturated steam of the same pressure. The temperature of the 150-psig let-down steam can be de-superheated, or cooled with atomized condensate, from approximately 600°F to 385°F. The degree of superheat is dependent on the facility design and the amount of de-superheating needed depends on the downstream demand for process heating using exchangers. Heat exchangers function more efficiently when heating the process with saturated steam, which condenses in the heat exchange. Steam yields the greatest amount of heat, measured in British Thermal Units (BTUs), when the phase change from steam to condensate occurs. Although superheated steam has a higher temperature, under most circumstances it does not condense in a heat exchanger and yields less heat than does saturated steam.

pOWer GenerAtIOn To produce electricity with steam turbines, pressure greater than typical process steam is necessary. Turbine inlet steam pressure is usually in the range of 250 to 850 psig at 700 to 900°F. The 600-psig steam turbines drive many single and two-stage process compressors and exhaust into a condensing system or a considerably lower pressure steam header, such as 50 psig. Typically, high-pressure steam enters the turbine casing, and since the casing is much larger than the steam supply line and connected to the exhaust, almost immediately drops to near exhaust pressure, which is either the partial vacuum of the condensing system or the let-down steam header pressure. Most turbine rotors, which are wheels attached to the turbine shaft, are equipped with bladesor “buckets.” The steam velocity impacting the blades or buckets forces the rotor to turn. Some turbines incorporate inlet nozzles, which increase the steam velocity to the rotor. Many turbines contain two types of blades, those on the rotor and others attached inside the turbine case, between rotors. If the case is equipped with blades, these typically act as nozzles and impart a velocity increase to the steam. Exhaust steam pressure varies depending on the type of turbine, such as single stage, multistage, condensing, or noncondensing. Whatever the type of turbine, the rotating turbine shaft drives the generator, which produces electric power. hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn Superheated steam is invisible because the temperature is very high and there are no condensing droplets to see in the atmosphere. Steam leaks are difficult to locate visually, but normally make sufficient noise to alert you of a leak in the area. However, use extreme caution because a high-pressure superheated steam leak necessitates wearing hearing protection, which may make sound location more difficult. Wear all appropriate PPE when attempting to locate a leak. Steam leaks are very costly; process technicians should tighten packing leaks on steam valves to eliminate waste. Large steam leaks can produce steam clouds , tiny drops of watercan that have condensed steamthe andvisibility are carried invisible vapor, which become hazardous,from reducing in analong area by andthe possibly creating tripping hazards. Condensing steam can cause damage to equipment or create other hazards. When equipment is purged with steam, a suitable gas must then be used to clear the steam to prevent creation of vacuum by condensing steam. If a vessel is left full of steam with closed valves, and is not rated for full vacuum, equipped with vacuum breaks or otherwise vented, condensing can produce sufficient vacuum to collapse the vessel. This is a concern during turnarounds when vessels are steam cleaned. Since valves frequently do not close tightly, the vacuum may draw in air, thereby creating an explosive atmosphere or fire hazard when hydrocarbons are introduced, or drawn in. This is a concern during start-up preparations.


175

Steam-heating isolated equipment that is liquid full can result in dangerously high pressure. Excessively high pressure first develops within a confined space due to liquid expansion from heating and from phase change after further heating, with space permitting and if the vessel has not yet ruptured. Procedures, which typically provide for flare or atmospheric venting, should be followed during vessel steaming and drying. Equipment not designed for high temperature and pressure may sustain damage if steaming and drying are not performed properly. Steam turbine casings failure normally occurs if exposed to the full pressure of the inlet steam. Therefore, the exhaust valve of a steam turbine must be opened before opening the inlet. Steam jets , which combine ejectors, condensers, and interconnecting piping to provide relatively low-cost and low-maintenance vacuum pumping with no moving parts, can produce large static electrical charges. This hazard is avoided by properly grounding equipment when using steam or making sure that in-place grounds are intact. During start-up or normal operation, water hammer can occur when water vapor or steam condenses quickly and the accumulated condensate creates a temperature differential with, and an obstruction to, steamentering the space.Water hammer is action associated with a non-compressible fluid in a pipe, which sounds like a pipe being hit with a hammer. It is the energy developed by the sudden stoppage of fluid in motion.” Water hammer can be extremely dangerous if not properly controlled. To prevent water hammer, steam should be admitted very slowly until equipment warms up and condensate should be lined up for removal through drain valves or steam traps. When steam tracing is used on stainless steel piping or vessels, it is important to use chloride-free steam. Steam tracing is a series of coiled or straight run tubing, either copper or stainless, wrapped around or attached to a pipe or valve, which carries steam as a heat medium. Figure 13.1 shows an example of steam tracing.

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FIGUre 13.1 Example of Steam Tracing

If leaking steam contains chlorides, chloride-induced corrosion of the stainless steel is likely. It is worth noting that 316 stainless steel is more resistant to chloride corrosion than 304 stainless; however, chlorides, over time, damage either. Steam tracing should be drained and purged with an inert gas or air to maintain the integrity of the system when it is not needed. This will eliminate the potential of leaks when the system is returned to service. Uninsulated steam piping and tracing can be a source of serious burns. Steam piping should be insulated to prevent personnel from suffering serious burns that may result from the inadvertent contact with hot steam piping. Steam, if breathed, can produce serious lung burns or suffocation.

176

Process Operations

Wa Sss Except for potable water, water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long-term harm, service water or raw water is the source of all process facility water systems. Raw water, typically surface water from a channel, river, or canal, supplies the cooling water system, boiler feed water treatment system, firewater, utility water stations, and some restrooms. Raw water is usually pretreated for sediment removal in sediment clarifiers for all systems supplied, except firewater. Drinking or potable water is typically supplied from a city water source or, in some cases, a water treatment and chlorination unit within the facility. Potable water supplies all sources for drinking, safety showers, and eye-wash stations throughout a facility.

bOIler FeeD WAter treAtment Water for steam generation is thoroughly treated to remove impurities that compromise the integrity of process systems and operations. Boiler feed water is treated mechanically and chemically to remove or control contaminants. Poor-quality BFW can cause extensive corrosion, pitting, and scale buildup within steam generators, steam piping, and exchangers. Steam generators are any plant process shell and tube exchanger or kettle type exchanger using boiler feed water to remove process heat, convert BFW to steam, and pressure-control that steam to a supply header. When the steam is generated, impurities in the water become more concentrated in the boiler, causing a marked reduction in boiler efficiency. Specific chemicals are added, usually vender supplied, to mitigate this problem by keeping these dissolved solids in suspension for blowdown. When the dissolved solids reach an unacceptable concentration, the blowdown process flushes the impurities from the boiler bottom, out to the sewer. Makeup water and additional chemicals replace the water lost through blowdown. Boilers have a continuous blowdown the process adjusts, asprocess needed,technician based on opens water sample testing. Boilers that also have manualtechnician blowdowns that the briefly, normally once per shift. High-pressure steam generators require extremely pure water to avoid premature failure. Clarified raw water makeup may pass through resin-bed water softeners, resinbed dealkalyzers, and then cation and anion bed demineralizers. Roughly speaking, water softeners utilize salt-regenerated resin beds to remove heavy minerals, such as iron, by exchanging sodium ions from the resin for iron in the water. Dealkalyzers reduce the alkaline mineral compounds, such as calcium and magnesium, which build up in the boiler bottom and require blowing down. The demineralizers further remove minerals, mineral salts and ions, positive or negative, including the sodium ions remaining from the softening process. To mitigate corrosion in a boiler or other steam generator by dissolved gases, especially oxygen, BFW is deaerated. Treated BFW is transferred to a horizontal vessel known as a deaerator. The deaerator takes BFW makeup on level control and provides suction to the BFW pumps. Typically, low-pressure steam is injected into the deaerator and noncondensable gases are removed via an overhead atmospheric vent. The deaerator prevents BFW from dissolving and absorbing oxygen. Low-pressure steam systems may utilize less sophisticated methods to control corrosive minerals, such as introducing lime or soda ash to the BFW, which controls pH and aids in dissolved solids suspension for blowdown. The treatment of BFW depends on its application. Boiler feed water treatment may usesome or all of the following methods: • • • • • •

Clarification Sedimentation Filtration Softening Dealkalyzation Demineralization


177

• Deaeration • Chemicaladdition • Blowdown

The boiler section of the facility produces high-pressure steam. Boiler feed water pumps take suction on the deaerator and transfer the treated BFW to each boiler and steam generator, which heats the water to make saturated steam. The high-pressure saturated steam is exported to some users throughout the facility, while for other users the steam flows through a pressure let-down station and de-superheater. Figure 13.2 illustrates this process.

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FIGUre 13.2 Illustration of Boiler Feed water Treatment

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn In addition to process heating, steam is commonly used to purge or air-free natural draft gas-fired heaters before igniting the pilots and burners. If a heater or boiler is shutdown for any reason, faulty fuel gas isolation valves or a hydrocarbon leak from a tube may create a flammable atmosphere within the firebox. Older heaters are purged by opening manual block valves to admit steam into the firebox for several minutes to purge any hydrocarbon vapor that might be present. Pilot ignition follows purging. Today’s heaters, boilers, and furnaces are very much automated, monitored, and managed by what is commonly known as a burner management system (BMS). On heater start-up, the BMS automatically takes the heater through the purge

178

Process Operations

cycle and, in most BMSs, illuminates a pilot-ready light on a local control panel for the process technician, who then may press the pilot ignition button. A flame scanner monitors the ignition of pilots and, if all pilot flames are scanned, provides local panel indication for the technician to proceed with burner ignition. The BMS typically shuts the system down if the pilot flames are not seen. Most burner management systems do not trip an online heater for loss of a single burner; they activate an alarm. Normally, more than one scanner must lose flame recognition to shutdown a heater. Forced draft and balanced draft heaters use a fan for purging with air. Snuffing steam is opened, usually via manual block valves, to a heater firebox in the event of tube failure resulting in a process fire. The steam displaces oxygen and hydrocarbon vapor to extinguish the fire. The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Safety—Boiler feed water and boilers must be kept within prescribed operating parameters to reduce the risk of overheating and failure. By infiltrating the steam distribution system, excess water can cause irreparable damage to turbines. Removing impurities from BFW greatly increases operating efficiency, improves equipment life, and reduces possible upsets. Blowdown systems reduce steam drum dissolved solids and slow the accumulation of impurities on turbine blades. Knockout pots, also known as knockout drums, remove liquids from the fuel gas so they do not reach heater or boiler burners. • Health—Work safety protocols and proper PPE have been developed to help mitigate the possibility of exposure when dangerous scenarios and environments present themselves during normal inspection, routine maintenance, redundant sampling, shutdowns, and turnarounds. • Process Hazard and Boiler Firing —Boiler feed water must be pumped at a high pressure (e.g., 600 psig) to flow into a lower-pressure steam boiler (e.g.,

400 psig). Use caution anytime work is being performed on the boiler feed water system due to the high pressure and temperature of the system. Be especially cautious when opening the block valves on a standby BFW pump. If the discharge check valve fails, the pump will spin backward fast enough to disintegrate if block valves are not closed quickly.

Fiwa The firewater system stores and distributes a supply of firewater to all users within the facility in case of an emergency, typically through underground pipelines to prevent damage to the supply lines. Depending on the process facility, the firewater system will generally consist of a firewater storage tank (shown in Figure 13.3), firewater pumps (which may consist of one electric, one diesel, and one backup), control valves if the system has been automated, and the piping associated with distribution.

FIGUre 13.3 Example of a Firewater Storage Tank


179

Fire hydrants, monitors, hose reels, and deluge systems are checked routinely for condition, valve operation, valve position, valve handles in place, connections capped for hydrants, and position of monitor nozzles. The firewater system should be tested weekly to ensure that it is functioning properly. Valve operation is checked for free movement opening and closing. Freeze protection requires bleeders to be open. Caps should be on each connection, hand-tight only. Monitor nozzles should be in full fog position and aimed toward the equipment they are to protect. Anytime a fire or spill alarm is sounded, the firewater pumps are started immediately. The firewater pressure must be held at a minimum set pressure, for example 110 psig, during any emergency. I f the pressure falls below the set pressure, the spare or diesel pump should start. I f either pump were to fail during an emergency, the backup firewater pump is used.

poa Wa Potable water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long-term harm. The normal supply of potable water comes from an outside source. The potable water system stores and distributes a supply of potable water to all users, which include safety showers, eye-wash stations, and potable water used in sinks, restrooms, and water fountains. The potable water system consists of potable water tanks, potable water pumps, and piping associated with distribution. Potable water used in sinks, restrooms, and drinking fountains drains into the facility sanitary sewer. Figure 13.4 illustrates this process.

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The State Water Commission sets the minimum acceptable operating practices for Public Potable Water Systems, which dictate that certain tasks be performed to ensure safe and healthy potable water for use in the facility. The process technician may be required to perform a routine monthly survey to determine if there are any potential sources of contamination in the potable water system. The survey checks for the following: • Arethereanyhoseshookeduptothepotablewatersystemthatmaybe inadvertently hooked to an unsafe water system? • Arethereanyvalvesonthepotablewatersystemthatdonothavebullplugsor caps on them to discourage cross-contamination by connecting piping or hoses between the potable water system and unsafe water systems? • ArethepH,systempressure,andtanklevelwithinrange?

180

Process Operations

Potable water flows through 5-micron filters that remove particulates before distribution to the users. Normally, one filter is in service and the other is on standby. The filters are normally switched when the differential pressure across the one in operation increases to 15 psig. Local pressure gauges indicate the differential pressure. A bypass may be temporarily opened if both filters become plugged. Chlorine addition, at prescribed flow rates to meet specific ppm concentration, destroys bacteria and algae growth to meet local drinking standards. The portions of the potable water supply header that are above ground may be steam or electrically heat traced and insulated to prevent damage to the piping in freezing weather. Electric heat tracing is a series of self-regulating heating cables designed to provide freeze protection and temperature maintenance top metallic and nonmetallic pipes, tanks, and equipment (shown in Figure 13.5).

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FIGUre 13.5 Example of Electric Heat Tracing A heat trace panel controls electric heat trace circuits. A thermostat mounted inside the panel energizes the circuits when the selector switch is in the AUTO position and the outside temperature decreases to a predetermined temperature as set by the process facility. The heat trace panel may contain many circuits with different temperature settings for different applications.

Saia Sw Ss The purpose of the sanitary sewer system is to process sewage waste from all units and buildings within the site. Sewage can be treated onsite, such as in a factory-built aeration type package, or collected and transported via a network of pipes and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant. As an overview of onsite treatment, biological matter is progressively converted into a solid mass by microorganisms, neutralized, and ultimately disposed of or used as land fill in environmentally suitable areas. The treated water may be discharged into a process wastewater system or into a public water system if the discharge meets regulatory guidelines. Figure 13.6 illustrates this process. (IIOXHQW:DWHU 'LVWULEXWLRQ+HDG

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AerAtIOn-type pACKAGe An aeration-type package is a type of sewage treatment system that consists of lift stations, an aeration section, and a settling section for internal biological treatment of sewage before disposal.

lif Saios The lift station lifts sewage out of a sump and discharges it into a screen to remove very large solids and debris. Sewage then flows directly into the aeration compartment, which is the heart of the system.

Aaio Scio Plant air is blown through diffusers that break up the air into small bubbles. The turbulence produced by the plant air tends to break up sewage solids and mixes the fresh sewage with the activated sludge in the aeration compartment. The air also circulates the contents of the compartment to pick up additional oxygen from the outside air surface. Aerobic bacteria and other living microorganisms present in the sewage become active due to the abundance of oxygen and they digest the organic solids in suspension and solution. The aerobic bacteria divide and multiply. The soluble organic matter metabolized by the bacteria converts to carbon dioxide and bacterial floc, which settles from the solution.

Sig Scio The sewage flows from the aerator into the settling basin. Solids are returned from the bottom of the settling basin to the aeration tank for further treatment and for seeding the incoming sewage with living organisms. The settling basin effluent flows over a weir into a trough and through the effluent pipe to the effluent sump. A sanitary sewer pump takes suction on the effluent sump and discharges to the process wastewater system. A hydraulic skimming system provides continuous automatic removal offloating solids from the settling basinsurface. The system consists of askimming trough, which draws floating material from the surface of the settling basin and discharges it to the aeration compartment through a specially designed eductor.Eductors function much like steam ejectors, which pull vacuum, except the eductor usually useswater or air for motive force. Eductors are available in many designs. Figure 13.7 shows one example of an eductor.

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haads ad miigaio The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Thesanitarysewermaynotretaintheproperbiologicalactivityoverlongperiods and can become septic or poisoned. This can kill the bacteria (sometimes referred to as “bugs”) that are in the sewer system and that are used to break down organic material. To provide proper treatment of sewer wastes and maintenance for the

182

Process Operations

sanitary sewer system, it is periodically reseeded with a bio-augmentation product or “bugs.” This maintenance addition of bacteria helps prevent the system from going septic and discharging untreated waste to the process wastewater system. • Atabletchlorinationinjectionsystemcanbeusedasanaddedtreatmentstepto improve the quality of the process wastewater. This system should be checked daily to verify that the chlorine tablets are in place to ensure proper water treatment.

Waswa Most process units collect oil and water from the process and storm drains into an API Oil-Water Separator. API stands for the American Petroleum Institute, from which the operating standards and design are derived. Oil skimmers are economical at removing hydrocarbons from water and assist meeting water quality objectives. Oil is skimmed from the water and recycled, while the water is pumped into the process wastewater (PWW) header. Water collects in a large sump, also known as an oil guard, from which it is transferred to the wastewater treatment section. In the event of heavy rain exceeding the pump capacity, water will overflow the oil guard into the open ditch. This is considered an outfall. Samples must be collected if an outfall occurs to ensure that the outfall did not contain hydrocarbons. If sampling determines the outfall-contained hydrocarbons, remedial action must be taken for recovery. Wastewater treatment is a process for cleaning contaminated water before recycling or release. Hydrocarbons and other contaminants, along with solids, are characteristic components of wastewater. Wastewater treatment takes water from processes that do stripping, steam boiler and cooling tower blowdowns, waste neutralization, and other process functions. Figure 13.8 illustrates the process.

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FIGUre 13.8 Water Treatment Process

WAter treAtment OperAtIOnS Water treatment operations consist of the following: •

Pretreatment Operations—The first step in treating wastewater is separating solids and hydrocarbons. API separators, interceptor plates, and settling ponds capture


183

fugitive contaminants, process matter, and sludge by separating, skimming, and filtering. Emulsions of oil and water are typically separated by heating. The difference in the specific gravity of water and oil particles enables fugitive oils to be captured from wastewater surfaces. Wastewater that is acidic (pH< 7) is neutralized with ammonia, lime, or soda ash. Wastewater that is alkaline (pH >7) is neutralized with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfur, or carbon dioxide-rich flue gas. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) interact to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is a naturally occurring component of acid rain. • Secondary Treatment Operations —Wastewater containing suspended solids requires a removal process such as sedimentation, air flotation, screening, or filtering. The process of flocculating further facilitates separation of particulates that may have escaped the pretreatment and initial secondary removal processes. Flocculating is similar to the initial clarification of raw water in that typically, a polymer is added that brings smaller particles together into larger masses for settling out or removal by filtration. Secondary treatment operations decompose biological matter, and oxidize soluble organic matter using biologically activated sludge (anaerobic bacteria added), lagoons, or filters. High-adsorption molecules (added polymers) aid fixed-bed filters by forming slurries that are removable by sedimentation or filtration. Other methods for removing oils and chemicals from wastewater include stripping and solvent extraction. Stripping is a process for removing sulfides and/or ammonia, and solvent extraction separates phenols. • Tertiary Treatment Operations —Tertiary treatments including, but not limited to, chlorination, ozonation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and activated carbon adsorption capture regulated contaminants to satisfy regulated fugitive emission permit limits. Wastewater must contain a sufficient level of oxygen for some wastewater streams to oxidize specific chemicals and fulfill requirements. Wastewater recycling by cooling or oxidizing alleviates impurities by spraying or air stripping.

haads ad miigaio The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Fire Protection and Prevention— During treatment operations, vapor from hydrocarbons in wastewater can possibly create an explosive atmosphere. • Health—Adhering to safe, responsible work procedures is essential for personal safety, health, and environmental integrity. Using the proper PPE for process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities lessens the probability for an accident that may harm people and damage equipment, facilities, or the environment.

rfigaio Sss In 1820, British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressed ammonia chilled the air as it evaporated. Refrigeration absorbs heat from an enclosed space or a substance and rejects that heat to another location. Some large, commercial refrigeration systems still use ammonia. Refrigeration removes from chemical reactions, liquefiesofprocess gases, separates gases, and excess purifiesheat products by preferential freeze-out one component from a liquid mixture. Refrigeration also provides plant air conditioning for comfort, and instrument and analyzer cooling. A “ton of refrigeration” is said to be the refrigeration output of melting one short ton of ice at a temperature of 32°F over a period of 24 hours, which is an energy equivalent of approximately 12,000 BTU/hr. Five components of a refrigeration system are: • Refrigerant:Class 1—a substance capable of absorbing and releasing considerable quantities of heat during liquid-to-gas and gas-to-liquid phase change, or latent heat. Class 2—typically brine or other nonfreezing solution that is first chilled to the desired temperature by a Class 1 refrigerant and then circulated to remove

184

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process heat, or sensible heat. Commonly used Class 1 refrigerants include ammonia, propane, propylene, butane, and Freon. The refrigerant used is based on the needed refrigeration temperature as well as economics, such as readily available light hydrocarbons in the process unit that function well as refrigerants. Evaporator: A heat exchanger having refrigerant that has undergone a sudden pressure reduction, partially flashed, and experienced auto-refrigeration, flowing through the tubes and absorbing heat from the air or process outside the tubes. The remaining refrigerant liquid flashes from the heat absorption and flows to the compressor suction. Compressor: The compressor, including centrifugal, reciprocal, screw, or rotary, takes suction on the refrigerant within the evaporator, compresses the refrigerant, and circulates it through the condenser for heat removal, either by air or water, the expansion valve for pressure reduction and auto-refrigeration, and back to the evaporator for heat absorption. Expansion valve: Located immediately before the evaporator, the valve creates a sudden refrigerant pressure drop, which brings about a partial refrigerant phase change from liquid to vapor and auto-refrigeration, which lowers the refrigerant temperature considerably. Condenser: The condenser is a heat exchanger that uses air or water to cool and condense the hot high-pressure refrigerant from the compressor discharge.

Figure 13.9 depicts a simple vapor compression refrigeration system, such as household and automotive air conditioning.

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FIGUre 13.9 Vapor Compression Refrigeration

The refrigeration cycle starts with cold liquid and vapor refrigerant in the evaporator that absorbs heat from air or a product and fully flashes to a vapor. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator for the compressor suction as a low-pressure, low-temperature, or warm vapor that is then compressed. The refrigerant leaves the compressor discharge as hot high-pressure vapor, due to the heat of compression, and flows through the condenser. The condenser utilizes either air or water to cool and condense the refrigerant. The cooled liquid refrigerant then flows through the


185

expansion valve, experiences a sudden drop in pressure, and partially flashes. Autorefrigeration, due to the flashing, lowers the refrigerant temperature considerably and it returns to the evaporator as a cold mixture of liquid and vapor.

prOCeSS ApplICAtIOnS Refrigeration is widely used in the process industry for process cooling and separation. Many large-scale facility applications utilize available propane or propylene for refrigerant cooling. Discharged by a large compressor, the refrigerant flows through a cooling water exchanger and then a control valve provides the pressure drop for flashing and auto-refrigeration. From the control valve, the refrigerant flows to the users. In a large gas facility, a compressor may take suction on the overhead vapor line of a large may towertake anda compress cooling and storage. A refrigeration system slipstreampropane from theproduct productfor cooler outlet. Some processes use a large reciprocating commercial refrigeration compressor circulating propane in a closed loop with cooling water exchangers serving as condensers and a pressure control valve serving as the expansion valve. Other processes use Class 2 refrigeration, such as a brine circulation system, that is lowered to ≈ 30°F by a small commercial reciprocating chiller that uses dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon TM).

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation:

Saf ad ha ad Oaios • Linesthroughoutarefrigerantsystemcanbeextremelyhotorcold;therefore,these lines should be insulated. Extremely high temperatures can lead to thermal bur ns. Extremely cold temperatures can injure personnel who touch the lines with unprotected skin. • Compressorsgeneratehighnoiseandvibrationlevels.Guardsshouldbeinplaceto protect personnel, and hearing protection is required per OSHA and site regulations.

Oaio • Lubricatingoiltendstoaccumulateinthecoldsectionsoftherefrigeration system. If necessary, a slipstream from the bottom of the evaporator is drained into a reclaimer where oil is removed periodically. • Lighterconstituentsinth erefrigerant,suchasethaneina propanesystemoran ammonia system, tend to accumulate in the receiver, causing higher condensing pressure. This can be reduced by periodically purging the vapors from the receiver. • Moisture,ifpresent,willformiceandplugupthesystemeitheratthecontrolvalves or in cold spots, likethe evaporator. Moisture normally enters the system with the purchased refrigerant charge or due to lack of drying the system before start-up. Moisture can be a source ofconsiderable operating problems until it is removed. Some refrigeration systems employ a continuous drier; some use only a moisture indicator. Moisture must be removed prior to start-up by evacuating the system, purging the

system with nitrogen or dry gas,injecting methanol, or a combination of these methods.

Cooig tows Cooling towers reject process waste heat to the atmosphere that was absorbed by the circulating cooling water system. Process heat exchangers transfer heat to cooling water and the cooling water rejects that heat to the atmosphere through the latent heat of evaporation, in most cases with the assist of forced draft fans. Cooling towers are designed as either cross-flow or counter-flow, where cross-flow towers force air to intersect at right angles to water flow, and counter-flow towers have process water and air flowing counter to one another. Spray nozzles are distributed throughout the

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Process Operations

bottom of the cells that collect returning water on the top of the cooling tower.The nozzles dispense water into the tower, which falls and collects in the tower basin. Air enters the bottom of the cooling tower and flows upward, counter to the downward-falling water. The cooling water pumps take suction on the basin and circulate water through the process and back to the cooling tower top. Two cooling tower types are forced draft, where fans are positioned at the inlet, and induced draft, where fans are positioned at the outlet. Figure 13.10 shows an example of a cooling tower.

FIGUre 13.10 Cooling Tower

WAter treAtment Water contains oxygen and is naturally corrosive to steel piping and equipment. Corrosion inhibitor is typically added into the cooling water return or the cooling water basin. Vender-supplied totes, such as portable polyethylene chemical tanks, equipped with metering pumps inject the corrosion inhibitor. Vender-supplied biocide, typically injected intermittently from a tote, controls algae and microbial growth that could foul piping and exchangers, if left unchecked. Sulfuric acid injection controls the cooling water pH and is monitored by analyzer probes to control acid injection. The probe periodically needs cleaning to ensure proper function of the acid injection. Improper or excessive acid injection is very harmful to piping and equipment. hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Fire Prevention and Protection—A leaking tube in a process cooling water exchanger may lead to hydrocarbons entering the cooling water return and pose the risk of ignitable vapor within and above the cooling tower. Although there are many possible sources of ignition, lightning can instantaneously ignite lingering flammable vapors and create a fire. • Safety —Power loss to cooling tower fans or water pumps can severely compromise process operations in a process facility. Cooling water with contaminants invite corrosion and fouling in pipes and process equipment, accumulation of scale on pipes from impurities, and production of an


187

environment of microorganisms that are detrimental to the structural integrity in wooden cooling towers. • Health —Cooling tower water is prone to contamination from processes that contain substances such as legionella, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide, as well as other hydrocarbons. Legionella is the bacterium that causes Legionnaires’ disease, a form of pneumonia. Legionella is controlled at acceptable levels by the biocide injection or shock treatment. It is, however, good work practice to utilize relevant personal protective equipment during process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities to prevent exposure to these bacterium and chemicals. Wastewater systems are also known for the presence of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) , a highly toxic, highly flammable, colorless gas with a very distinctive, rotten egg-like odor. Personal H 2S gas detectors warn of hazardous environment above a preset threshold, measured in partsper million. • Process Concerns—To protect the cooling water piping from freezing during the winter months the piping is electrically traced. A thermostat controls tracing temperature. It is important to periodically inspect cooling towers, heat exchangers, and pumps. Scheduled preventive maintenance and inspection is the key to trouble-free operation and enhances safety. A check of all fans for vibration should be made regularly. Also: • Checkandreplacewornorcrackedbelts. • Inspectfanbladesfordeflectionandforcracks. • Greaseallbearingsandfilloilcups.

ecici Process facilities may receive electricity from beyond their site, or onsite steam turbines and gas-fired turbines may generate and supplement power. Electrical substations transform and disseminate power within a facility, and are positioned away from vapor-laden areas or cooling tower moisture. Transformers, circuit breakers, and feed-circuit switches are all devices synonymous with substations. Distribution stations can be located in hazardous areas, with sufficient classification requirements, and typically have a liquid-filled transformer and an oil-filled or air-break disconnection device. Even if all power comes from outside battery limits, it is important that personnel be aware of the electrical equipment services on the unit that may be managed by the electrical and maintenance departments, and the location of all equipment breakers and switchgear for reset and LOTO purposes. Many facilities may have 230,000 volts (230 KV) entering the facility. Substations and transformers lower this voltage to 34.5 KV, 13.8 KV, 480V, and 230V to supply various equipment and building requirements. Figure 13.11 shows an example of a facility power grid.

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Fire Protection and Prevention —Generatorstooclosetootherprocessunits can increase the possibility of ignition from a process upset if not properly classified. • Safety —Safety policies and practices such as dry footing, high-voltage warning signs, and guarding are necessary for prevention against electrocution. Along with other appropriate safety practices, electrical lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedures must be followed for work on highvoltage electrical equipment.

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FIGUre 13.11 ExampleofaFacilityPowerGrid

• Health —Safety practices and utilizing relevant personal protective equipment prepares the worker for noise and hazardous environments when inspecting, maintaining, and performing other work around transformers and switches. Be cautious of transformer fluid leaks, which may contain hazardous chemicals.


189

Ai Sss The utilities unit provides facility and instrument air to the facility using compressors, coolers, receivers, dryers, controls, and piping. Compressed air discharges through knockout drums where moisture separates from the air and either traps out or is blown down. A portion of this air supply flows to the facility air header, while the remainder flows to air driers and provides instrument air.

plAnt AIr Plant air is normally used for purging equipment containing inert gas to allow entry for maintenance and to operate pneumatic tools and pumps. These tools are at ambient temperatures and have a short residence time for the air—that is, the air passes through very quickly. Therefore, there is little opportunity for condensed moisture to collect. Consequently, plant air is normally filtered to prevent debris from entering the tools and compressed to 90 to 105 psig (shown in Figure 13.12).

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InStrUment AIr Instrument air is supplied throughout the facility to operate pneumatic instrumentation such as control valves, controllers, and indicators. Instrument air is always dried to a dew point that will not cause condensation, typically a dew point of ≈ 20°F below the minimum ambient temperature. This reduces the risk of condensation and cold weather freeze-up in small-bore piping and instruments. Instrument air should be cleansed of any materials that could impede normal operation. The pressure should range between 60 and 105 psig (typically 92 psig). hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation:  • Fire Protection and Prevention—Air compressors should be located so that the suction inlet is sufficiently distant from flammable vapor and corrosive gas sources in order to reduce the potential for fire and explosion.  • Safety—Knockout drums for removing condensation from instrument air helps keep liquid from entering into the distribution system. Strainers must clean gases containing unwanted materials. Upset of automatic compressor controls can lead to unit upset or shutdown. Air compressors and associated equipment must be capable of handling pressures in the system and if not, pressure relief is essentialforpreventingequipmentdamageandprocessupset.Guardingaround exposed moving parts prevents accidental physical encounters with moving

190

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or reciprocating equipment. Compressor buildings need correct electrical classification and proper ventilation. Upstreamn instrument air drying systems help prevent moisture from contaminating instrumentation. In the event of instrument air supply failure due to insufficient power or process equipment failure, nitrogen can be used in place of the instrument air.  • Health —Safe work protocol and/or relevant personal protective equipment reduces chances of exposure to hazardous environments while inspecting and maintaining processes. Utilizing safety procedures while operating is essential so that plant and instrument air are kept separate from breathing systems and potable water systems.  • Operation and Maintenance—Aspects of instrument air systems are relatively straightforward and depend on manufacturer recommendations for compressors and driers. Equipment typically requires: • Regular inspection, usually weekly, of filters downstream of the compressor. If oil-lubricated machines are used for plant air systems, then more frequent inspection and draining of filters is recommended to avoid buildup of oil. • Annualinspectionofdrierdesiccantandchangeovervalves. • Monthlymonitoringofairdewpoint. • Regularlyblowingthroughtake-offpointsnotnormallyusedtocheckfor moisture condensation.

pssu rif ad Fa Ss preSSUre-relIeF SyStemS Flare systems help control vapor and liquid releases from pressure-relieving devices and blowdowns. Relief valves release pressure automatically when the valve design release pressure is reached. Blowdowns are a purposeful and routine release of material through blowdown valves during process unit startups, furnace blowdowns, shutdowns, and emergencies. Depressurization is a swift disposal of vapor from pressure vessels in the event of a fire, and takes place by breaking a ruptured disc that usually requires a hig her differential pressure than a relief valve.

Saf rif Vav Oaio Safety relief valves service air, steam, gas, vapor, and liquid. They assist other valves in managing an above-normal increase in process operating pressure. Safety valves that discharge large volumes of steam tend to open up to their full capacity. The pressure required to open liquid-relief valves is typically higher due to higher spring resistance. Pilot-operated safety relief valves have a sixfold greater ability to seal and discharge than do normal relief valves. Nonvolatile liquids are normally sent to oil-water separation and recovery systems, whereas volatile liquids may go to liquid or vapor separation drums located upstream of the flare. Some process relief valves relieve to a lower pressure part of the unit process.

FlAre SyStemS Closed pressure release and flare systems consist of relief valves and lines from process units to receive discharges, knockout drums for vapor and liquid separation, liquid or vapor seals, purifying vapor to prevent from flashback, and flare and ignition systems that burn vapor not allowed into the atmosphere. Atomizing steam injection is often used at the flare tip to better mix and provides combustion air and reduces detectable smoke. Figure 13.13 shows an example of a flare and vent system.


191

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.QRFN2XW 'UXP )ODUH*DV IURP8QLW /LTXLG6HQWWR 6WRUDJH7DQN

FIGUre 13.13 Example of a Flare and Vent System

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: • Fire Protection and Prevention—Vapor and gas in proximity of ignition sources should be eliminated. • Safety —Liquids should release to liquid-vapor separators upstream of vapor disposal systems. Flare knockout drums and flares should have sufficient capacity to control emergency blowdowns. Drums should require relief for over-pressurization scenarios. Pressure relief valves are necessary for overpressurization in processes because of the following: • Lossofcoolingwatertocondensersandcoolerscanraisethepressurein process units. • Lossofrefluxcanraisethepressureindistillationtowersanddisruptthe volume of vapor leaving the distillation tower. • Swiftvaporandpressureincreas esoccurfromtheinjectionofalower

boiling-point liquid, such as water, into a process vessel operating at high temperature. • Excessivesteampressuremayupsetheaters,damageequipment,andleadto fire, upset automated controls, heat exchangers, and so on. • Thereisariskofequipmentinternalexplosion,uncontrolledchemical reactions, thermal acceleration, or amassed gases in vessels. Proper maintenance of relief valves is imperative, as valves must function as designed. The most prevalent operation problems are listed here: • Thethresholdpressurefailstoopenduetopluggedvalveinletsoroutlets,or corrosion impeding normal operation of disc holders and guides.

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• Afteropening,reseatfailstoopenduetofouling,corrosion,accumulated deposits, or residue from gas streams that deteriorate the valve disc. • Operatingpressureistoonearthevalvesetpointleadingtochatteringand early opening. • Health —Safe work protocol and appropriate PPE are safeguards against hazardous environments while inspecting and maintaining process operations, as well as during turnaround activities. • Pilot and Ignition Operation —Dependable flare pilot operation is critical through extreme weather. Flaring operati ons are infrequent and unscheduled. The flare should always be available for emergency releases to mitigate hazards, protect equipment and personnel, and prevent harmful environmental release. Most flares are equipped

with multiple pilots to ensure flammable gas is ignited under any circumstance. Wind shields and flame retention devices help keep the pilots lit even in extrem e weather conditions. The majority of pilots are intended to function through wind at 100 miles per hour or greater and incorporate remote pilot ignition systems.

niog Several industrial gases are used as a general utility for inerting—air or hydrocarbon removal. Nitrogen, the most widely used inert gas in industry, is a colorless, odorless, inert, gaseous element constituting ≈ 78% of the earth’s atmosphere, used in manufacturing and tair-freeing process equipment. Being inert, or nonreactive, nitrogen is used for blanketing, purging, and drying. Blanketi ng includes storage tanks and process equipment. Examples of purging include flare purging after a safety relief valve blows, removing hydrocarbons from equipment on shutdown, or removing air during start-up. Hot nitrogen is also used for regenerating dryer desiccant. The nitrogen header distributes nitrogen to all users within a facility.The nitrogen system consists of a pressure reduction and metering station and the associated distribution piping. Typically, nitrogen is supplied by an industrial gas company and is metered as it enters a facility. Nitrogen pressure is typically lowered by local pressure regulators or control valves to ≈ 115 psig for the unit supply header. Users may utilize other local pressure control schemes to maintain lower design operating pressure. The high-pressure nitrogen supply may be utilized for special purposes such as catalyst regeneration.

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn The following knowledge and protocols provide for safe, efficient process operation: Nitrogen is an inherent danger in confined spaces because it is an asphyxiant, which displaces oxygen and causes suffocation. Considerable care must be taken when entering equipment after purging. The equipment must be properly cleared with air and the atmosphere tested prior to entering for maintenance. If nitrogen hose connections are observed on the high-pressure line during normal rounds, the connections must be removed and the responsible parties contacted. It is considered unsafe to connect nitrogen hoses to the high-pressure header system because the nitrogen hoses are not rated for the higher pressures.

StOrAGe Compressed nitrogen cylinders must be kept in cool, dry, ventilated areas with proper seals that are clearly marked according to OSHA Hazard Communication Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200. Nitrogen cylinders must be isolated from physical damage, heat, and proximity to ozone. SpIllS AnD leAKS Spills or leaks of gaseous or liquid nitrogen require persons without breathing equipment and protective clothing to remain clear of the hazardous area until


193

removal of the spill or the leak is repaired. The following steps are helpful after a spill or leak: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

naua Gas

Evacuate all personnel to ventilated areas until oxygen level returns to normal. Notify proper personnel of the incident. Isolate the leak, if safe to do so. Require emergency personnel to use self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Allow time for fugitive nitrogen to dissipate.

The natural gas system distributes natural gas to all users within the process facility. Natural gas is a combination of light hydrocarbons, with methane the most prevalent, although ethane, butane, propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can also complete the chemical makeup of natural gas. Some uses of natural gas include furnace firing, driving gas turbines, vessel blanketing, and use as a feedstock. The natural gas system consists of a pressure reduction/metering station and the associated distribution piping. Typically, natural gas is supplied by a third party at high pressure—for example, 600 psig. Depending on the natural gas use, the pressure is reduced to various pressure levels for facility use, such as 400 psig, 350 psig, 250 psig, 160 psig, and 100 psig. Process facilities produce off gas from various processing units. Process off gas pressure may be as low as 3 psig and is generally high in hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), thus it is called sour fuel gas. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless gas and smells like rotten eggs. The low-pressure off gas is compressed to 55 to 80 psig and sent to scrubbers for H2S removal, and carbon dioxide or CO 2, if present. Without the fuel gas scrubbers, processing of high-sulfur crudes would result in high H S and sulfur dioxide (SO ) 2 would be environmentally 2 emissions in the process facility 55-psig fuel gas system that unacceptable. Natural gas is added, as required, for maintaining fuel system pressure. The fuel gas system, which contains mostly methane, is the primary source of fuel for firing boilers and furnaces.

hAzArDS AnD mItIGAtIOn T-butyl mercaptan is notable for smelling similar to rotting cabbage, but is useful when added to colorless, odorless gases, such as natural gas, to better enable leak detection prior to fire or explosions. Thiophane is a similar compound that is also utilized for the same purpose and carries a rotten-egg smell.

Sua Every industrial facility depends on the provision of utilities—steam, water, fuel, compressed air, inert gases, and cooling systems. Utilities play a vital role in industrial operations. Some 70 percent of the energy used on a typical process facility site passes through the utility systems. Besides the cost factor, energy waste contributes to environmental pollution. Therefore, utilities are a serious subject. Steam drives turbines, operates pumps, provides process heating, warms heat tracing, and provides building heat. Refrigeration and cooling water systems remove waste heat and enable certain process component separations. Wastewater treatment and API separators enable environmental compliance, as do flare systems and relief systems. Instrument air provides process control and nitrogen enables purging and drying. Fuel gas use for heaters, boilers, and furnaces improves process facility economics. Proper use of utilities enables a modern process to function, improves the safety and economics of the process, and helps make process facilities more environmentally friendly.

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Cckig you Kowdg 1.

Define the following terms: a. Boilers b. Drinking water c. Electric heat tracing d. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) e. Natural gas f. Nitrogen g. Potable water h. Steam i. Steam clouds j. Steam generators

k. Steam jets l. Steam tracing m. Steam turbines n. Water hammer 2. List the uses of steam in a chemical facility. 3. During start-up or normal operation of a steam system, explain how ‘water hammer’ can occur and how it can be prevented. 4. Potable water is supplied throughout the facility for use as water, safety, and stations. 5. A quite hazardous operation for generating steam is start-up of a heater. Volatile mixtures comprised of gas and air may accumulate after a burner loses its flame during light off. Should True or False options be given with this statement? a. True b. False 6. What are the basic components of a refrigeration system? a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ e. _____________ 7. Explain why the presence of moisture in a refrigeration system can cause considerable operating problems, and how it can be removed. 8. List some of the uses of plant air and instrument air. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ 9. Overpressurization in a process facility can be mitigated with implementation of pressure relief valves. List three possible causes of overpressurization. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ 10. What must be done before entering a vessel that has been purged with nitrogen? 11. Explain the reason for scrubbing off gas that contains H2S. 12. What are the problems that must be addressed to maintain a cooling water system?

Aciviis 1.

2.

Work with a classmate to develop a simplified block flow diagram of a propane refrigeration system, based on the description of a refrigeration cycle beginning on page 183. Identify the major components. Use air cooling to condense the propane. Write a paragraph identifying the important factors that require attention when starting up a unit after a turnaround. Refer to the following sections described in this chapter: • Steamingofequipment • Waterhammerinsteampiping • Heaterstart-upconsiderations • Purgingequipmentwithnitrogen.

14 ChaPTeR

Proc Tcnicin Rotin Dti: Norml Oprtion Objctiv After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Describe the routine duties of a field technician.

■

Describe the routine duties of a control room technician.

■

Describe how to monitor the following unit equipment: • Compressors • Exchangers • Motors • Cooling towers • Safety equipment • Valves • Drums/Vessels • Pumps • Control valves • Instrumentation

■

Describe how to check various pieces of equipment for liquid and vapor leaks.

■

Explain the corrective action to take for liquid and vapor leaks.

■

Describe the PPE required for performing routine field tasks in special operating environments.

■

Explain the methods used to document the technicians work in the field.

■

Describe how the control board technician monitors and controls the unit.

■

Describe the tools commonly used in performing routine tasks in the field.

■

Describe the hazards of handling process raw materials and finished products. Explain how the field technician monitors various areas and systems within the operating area.

■ ■

Explain the duties of a process technician in preparing equipment for maintenance and returning equipment to service.

195

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Process Operations

Ky Trm Central Control Room—room or building housing the facilities Distributed Control System (DCS) that may incorporate all of the facility operating control boards. Control Board Technician—process technician whose primary job function is to remotely monitor and control the process unit within normal operating parameters. Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM)—efficient system for protecting rotating assets and facility operations from unscheduled downtime that provides personnel with the equipment knowledge they need to schedule maintenance, manage inventories, and support efficient workflow scheduling. Field Technician—process technician whose primary job is to monitor the fixed and

rotating field equipment, perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operates within normal operating parameters. Monitoring—act of observing and listening to the equipment routinely to prevent process upsets. Normal Operations—actions performed or procedures followed when a process unit is operating within design parameters. Rounds—routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring the fixed and rotating equipment, and performing other routine tasks. Route—sequential path followed in order to perform Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM). Routine Duties—duties performed that are rigidly prescribed by control over the work or by written or verbal procedures, or well-defined, constant, and repetitively performed duties that preclude the need for procedures or substantial controls. Vibration Readings—check and documentation of rotating equipment for undesirable vibration.

Introdction The process technician plays key roles in the operational success of the process unit. The primary goal of the process technician is to ensure safe and reliable operations during the shift. She or he should know and understand every process parameter of her or his unit. The process technician must be familiar with how each piece of equipment operates, how the equipment sounds, the normal operating temperatures and pressures of the equipment, and how the instrumentation on the unit controls the process. Normal operations are those actions performed or procedures followed when a process unit is operating within designed parameters. The process technician not only reads the documentation for the unit but also makes rounds, a routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring the fixed and rotating equipment and performing routine tasks. Each technician should be trained in both field and control board duties to ensure greater understanding of the process.

Rotin Dti The field technician is a process technician whose primary job is to monitor the fixed and rotating field equipment, perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operates within normal operating parameters. The control board technician is a process technician whose primary job function is to remotely monitor and operate the process unit within normal operating parameters. The way each technician goes about achieving safe and reliable operation is different, but the outcome is the same. The role of the field technician differs from the control board technician in that the field technician is hands-on in the field. The control board technician is located within the central control room, the room or building housing the facility’s Distributed Control System (DCS) that may incorporate all of the facility operating control boards. A DCS is an automated control system consisting of field instruments and field

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controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen. Process diagrams, controllers, valves, and operating variables are displayed and the DCS operator can manipulate the parameter set-points or valve positions. Automated systems such as the DCS allow greater control and optimization of one or many processes simultaneously, ease communication between field and control room, and provide easy transmission of large amounts of data to and from a central location. The field technicians have a wide range of routine duties , or duties performed that are rigidly prescribed by control over the work or by written or verbal procedures, or well-defined constant and repetitively performed duties that preclude the need for procedures or substantial controls. The process facility develops guides and checklists specifically for the operating parameters that dictate the process technician’s routine duties. Normal routine duties of the field technician may include the following: • Havingathoroughexchangeofinformationduringshiftchange.Theexchangeof information should include the following: • Safetyandenvironmentalissuesthatexistorwerecorrected • Processandequipmentproblems,includingcorrectiveactionstaken • Materialtransfersinprogress • Specialoperatinginstructions • Currentcoordinationorcooperativeeffortswithotherprocessunits • In-progressorcompletedmaintenanceorcontractorworkontheunit • Technicalsupportremainingontheunit • Makingathoroughinspectionoftheunitatthebeginningoftheshift,andat regular intervals throughout the shift • Overseeingandassistingmaintenancepersonnel,contractors,andtechnical personnel working on the unit • Performingsafetychecksasrequiredbythefacility • • • • • • • • • • •

Performingequipmentinspectionsorsurveysasdirectedbythefacility Checkingthetechnician’sareaofresponsibilityforleaks Checkingrotatingequipmentforproperlubrication Checkingforproperoperationofthecoolingtower Preparingequipmentformaintenanceusingacceptedfacilitypracticesand guidelines Catchingroutinesamplesandspecialsamplesasdirected Receivingsuppliesfortheunit,suchaslubeoil,soap,coolingtowerchemicals, and other supplies as required Notifyingthecontrolboardtechnicianofanyprocessorequipmentproblemsand suggesting corrective actions Performingequipmenthealthmonitoringasdirectedbysitepolicies Performinghousekeepingasrequired RecordingnormaldutiesperformedinthelogbookoreLog

The control board technician has a narrow range of routine duties that are performed on a daily basis. The process facility develops guides and checklists specifically forthe thefollowing: operating parameters. Routine duties of the control board technician may include • Havingathoroughexchangeofinformationduringshiftchange.Theexchangeof information may include the following: • Safetyandenvironmentalissuesthatexistorwerecorrected • Processandequipmentproblems,includingcorrectiveactionstaken • Materialtransfersinprogress • Specialoperatinginstructions • Currentcoordinationorcooperativeeffortswithotherprocessunits • Inprogressorcompletedmaintenanceorcontractorworkontheunit • Technicalsupportremainingontheunit

198

Process Operations

• Monitoringallprocessparametersandequipmentontheunit • Thoroughlyinspectingtheunitutilizingthecontrolsystematthebeginningand throughout the shift at regular intervals • Monitoringalarmscreensandtakingcorrectiveactionasrequired • Coordinatingprocessactivitieswiththefieldtechnician • Coordinatingmaintenance,contractor,andtechnicaldepartmentactivitieswith the field technician • Recordingalllabdata • RecordingshiftactivitiesintheunitlogbookoreLog,includingtherecordingof all personnel on the unit • Performingotherdutiesasdirectedbythefacility The duties of the control board technician are equally as important as the field technician duties. Effective communication between the field and control board technician is necessary in running the unit safely, efficiently, and reliably.

Tool The field technician is required to use a variety of tools while performing routine duties. Tools that are commonly used by the field technicians include valve wrenches, pliers, and oil cans. The facility may provide specialty tools for performing certain tasks. Valve wrenches of different sizes are available for opening and closing valves. The valve wrench depicted in Figure 14.1 is used in opening and closing smaller-sized valves ranging from ½” to 2”. The facility may equip each technician with a small valve wrenched, which should be carried at all times while on the process unit. The operator wrench depicted in Figure 14.2 is a double-ended wrench, fitted with a pipe wrench on one end, and is used to open and close valves ranging from ½” to 2”. The pipe wrench is used to install and pull bull plugs and is not for opening and closing valves because it causes burring of the valve wheel rim, which may cause hand injuries. The process technician often carries this style of wrench during routine rounds. The valve wheel wrench depicted in Figure 14.3 comes in various sizes, is generally used in the opening and closing of valves ranging from 3” to 48”, and is manufactured out of carbon steel or aluminum. This type of valve wrench is generally placed at specific equipment locations throughout the process unit to allow easy access when needed.

FIguRe 14.1 Small Valve Wrench

FIguRe 14.2 Double-Ended Wrench

FIguRe 14.3 Valve Wheel Wrench

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The technician should also carry a set of pliers when making routine rounds. The pliers depicted in Figure 14.4 are known as tongue and groove pliers. They are used for tightening packing nuts and installing or removing bull plugs.

FIguRe 14.4 Tongue and Groove Pliers

Cutting pliers, depicted in Figure 14.5, are useful tools for removing tie-wraps attaching lock-out/tag-out tags to equipment.

FIguRe 14.5 Cutting Pliers

The field technician is also responsible for maintaining adequate oil levels in rotatingandreciprocatingequipment.Oillevelsinpumpsshouldbecheckedandoiladded as needed, using oil cans with flexible spouts for small quantities or cans with goose-neck spouts for larger quantities. Figure 14.6 depicts a typical oil can that keeps oil clean for storage.Thelidisremovedandaflexiblespoutisaddedpriortouse.Oilcanscomein various sizes and can be closed or open top. Closed top containers prevent water from entering and contaminating the oil, which could ultimately cause equipment damage.

FIguRe 14.6 OilCan Grease guns, as depicted in Figure 14.7, are used to lubricate valves, usually on a monthly basis, to ensure that the valves operate easily.

FIguRe 14.7 Grease Gun

eqipmnt Monitorin The unit must be monitored. Monitoring is the act of observing and listening to the equipment routinely to prevent process upsets. Monitoring includes the field technician making routine rounds at regular intervals to ensure that the equipment and process are running optimally. The technician is also aware of normal odors in the unit, and takes note of and investigates any abnormal odor. Control board technicians routinely monitor the process and equipment remotely. A proactive monitoring approach by a board technician helps avoid process alarms during the shift.

200

Process Operations

When monitoring equipment, the process technicians may consider the following: • Compressors—Check oil flow, verify pressure and temperature instrumentation, verify control valve positions, check motor amperage, and take vibration readings, or check and document rotating equipment for undesirable vibration. • Exchangers—Perform periodic exchanger surveys to verify that the exchangers donotexperiencefouling.Localinstrumentationallowscheckingthe temperature and/or pressure differential across exchangers. Monthly surveys are typically for records and reviews by engineering. The field technicians should be familiar with the normal differentials from making routine rounds and should always bring attention to a high differential on any exchanger. Surveys may be performed utilizing control loop data for some equipment. • Motors—Regularly check vibration using a hand held vibration pin on pumps, mixers, and compressors. The control board technician may check motor amps and vibration remotely if the technology has been installed. • Pumps—Check for proper lubrication and vibration, and add correct viscosity oil per the pump lubrication manual. Vibration can be checked using a hand held vibration pin or the control board technician may check pump vibration if the technology has been installed. Check seals for leakage and seal pots for normal level and pressure. • Valves—Visually inspect valves to ensure that valve handles are in place and operable. Grease the valves on a monthly basis to ensure that the valves operate easily. • Control Valves—Inspect visually and grease once a month. The control board technician relies on the field technician to check these valves if sluggishness or sticking is suspected. • Drums and Vessels—Inspect gaskets for leaks on vessels, associated pipe flanges, and man-ways several times per shift. • Cooling Towers—Check for proper levels, adequate chemical composition, temperature, and proper fan and pump operation. • Safety Equipment—Visually inspect weekly. Remove defective equipment from service and replace immediately, including any air bottles for escape packs not at full pressure. • Instrumentation—Check periodically for leaks. The control board technician should have the field technician check and verify instrument readings.

eqipmnt hlt Monitorin (ehM) Many facilities today have an established Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) program as an efficient system for protecting rotating assets and facility operations from unscheduled downtime that provides personnel with the equipment knowledge they need to schedule maintenance, manage inventories, and support efficient workflow scheduling. EHM is designed to increase uptime, reduce maintenance costs, and monitor assets after start-up or repair. The field technician is responsible for performing daily checks and recording the data for specific pieces of rotating equipment. The technician mayand be other required to record the vibration levels onand pumps and motors, in pumps pieces of equipment, temperature pressure variablesoil atlevels various locations, storage container levels (such as bulk oil or chemical drums), and other readings as denoted by the process facility. Vibration readings are generally taken with a vibration pin, and temperature readings are taken recorded from local gauges and/or taken with a temperature gun (shown in Figure 14.8). The readings are taken on a technician’s route, a sequential path followed to perform equipment health monitoring, and stored in the memory of a hand held device until they are uploaded later in the shift. The readings may be recorded on a route log sheet in the event a computerized hand held device is not available. The EHM program, if used effectively by the field technician, can also produce data that can be utilized for better planning and root cause failure analysis.

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FIguRe 14.8 Vibration Pen and Temperature Gun

CheCKINg FOR LeaKs The field technician checks for small leaks in the process during routine rounds using the senses of sight and smell. If a leak is found, the technician first notifies the control board technician, who then reports the leak to the next level of supervision. Additional notifications are made as necessary. The field technician may attempt to stop the leak if it is small, but proper personal protective equipment, such as hard hat, safety glasses, goggles, and protective clothing, is required when attempting to stop a leak. The leaks a field technician may encounter include: • Valve Packing Leaks—Alternately tighten each packing nut, equally, until the leak is stopped. • Analyzer Tubing Leak—Tighten fittings up to one-half turn. If the leak does not stop, notify the control board technician to request the appropriate craftsperson to repair the equipment. • Control Valve Packing Leaks—Alternately tighten packing nuts one revolution; request the control board technician to stroke the valve to ensure valve is not sticking; repeat the process until valve begins sticking and then back off packing nuts equally one-half turn. • Flange Leaks—Tighten opposite bolts equally until the leak is stopped. • Vapor Leaks—Use proper PPE for the situation. If the chemical component is Ethylene or Propane, then water or steam may have to be used to de-ice the suspected area. • Leaks under Insulation—Strip the insulation away slowly to assess the leak. • Exchanger Leaks—Iinternal or external, an indication may be the lack of heat transfer, off-specification material, or water or other components in the outlet stream. If safe to do so, wear appropriate PPE and verify an exchange tube leak by following these steps: • Blockintheshellside. • Openalowpointbleederontheshellsideoftheexchangerslightly. • Checkformaterialleakingoutofatubeandintotheshellside. The primary responsibility of the process technician regarding any process leak is to protect themselves, then notify the control board technician, and assist in securing the leaking area.

strtin/stoppin eqipmnt The process technician is required to start and stop rotating equipment periodically during routine duties. During the first inspection after coming on-shift, a process technician should become knowledgeable about equipment in service and spare

202

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equipment available. During shift change, the in-coming field technician should also learn about any maintenance preparations that must be made during the shift. When starting pumps, the technician should follow normal operating procedures. Some generic suggestions for starting up spare pumps include: • • • •

Verifythatthestandbypumphasproperoillevels. Ensurethatanysealoil,externalorinternal,islinedupproperly. Ensurethatthestandbypumpsuctionanddischargevalveareintheopenposition. Notifythecontrolboardtechnician,andensurethattheunitispreparedfor pump swap. • Startthesparepump. • Allowtimeforflowconditionstostabilize,thenshutdownandsecurethepump to be prepared for maintenance or service. The field technician must make sure that all pumps on standby that are equipped with auto-start capabilities have fully open suction and discharge valves. He or she must notify the control board technician prior to the start-up or shutdown of any equipment. The use of normal start-up procedures for returning equipment to service is equally important to prevent an accident or incident.

Pronl Protctiv eqipmnt Field technicians use personal protective equipment for a variety of routine duties performed during the course of a shift. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is designed to protect employees from serious workplace injuries or illnesses from contact with chemicals, radiological materials, electrical power, mechanical equipment, falling objects, and other workplace hazards. Some of the types of PPE a technician may use during the course of a normal working dayinclude: • Hardhats

• Goggles

• Safetyglasseswithsideshields

• Glovesofvarioustypes

• Steel-toedshoesorboots

• Respirators

CHAPTER 14


• Flame-retardantclothing

203

• Hearingprotection

• Chemical-resistantsuits

Many facilities in the industry have adopted minimum PPE requirements for entering a process area, such as a hard hat, safety glasses, steel-toed boots, flame-retardant clothing, and hearing protection. TheOccup ationalSafetyandHealthAdmin istration’s(OSHA)Title29 ofthe CodeFederalRegulations(CFR)Part1910subpartIregulatesthePPEstandard. OSHA’sgeneralPPEstandardmandatesthatemployersconductahazardassessment of their workplaces to determine the hazards present that require the use of PPE and provide workers with the appropriate PPE. It also requires employers to train employees to use and maintain PPE in a sanitary and reliable condition. The employer must also provide training for employees in the following: • • • • • •

ProperPPEuse NecessaryPPEuse ProperPPEneeded PPElimitations CorrectwearandadjustmentofPPE ProperPPEmaintenance

Personal protective equipment is often essential to performing tasks. However, engineering controls, work practices, and administrative controls are also methods for controlling workplace hazards. When working with materials such as lube oil, cooling tower chemicals such as sodium hypochlorite or sulfuric acid, catalyst for certain processes, or other specialty chemicals, consult the material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the proper PPE requirements prior to handling.

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The field technicians must be familiar with the hazards of their process, and be fully compliant with the PPE requirements of their facility.

Procdr Process technicians commonly use standard operating procedures during the performanceofroutineduties.Operatingproceduresareveryimportantdocumentsinthe industry for preparing equipment for maintenance, returning equipment to service after repair, loading or unloading bulk materials, changing out pressure gauges, or other tasks that have been identified by a facility. Procedures are critical for performing certain tasks. Poorly written or improperly executed procedures can and have led to accidents, injuries, and deaths. The technicians should follow all procedures, initialing and providing a time of completion for each step, and signing the procedure when the tasks are completed. The technician may deviate from a procedure if required, but must follow the deviation policy of the facility.

Docmntin Rotin Dti The field technician is required to document work activities in the unit logbook or uniteLog.Thetechnicianshouldprovideasmuchdetailaspossibleforhisorhershift relief regarding what took place during the shift. Some items that should be documented include: • Processalarmsthatactivatedduringtheshiftandthecorrectiveactionstakenin order to help the relieving shift troubleshoot in the event of a similar alarm, or to eliminate the alarm on subsequent shifts. • Vibrationandtemperaturealarmsexperiencedonequipment,especiallythose critical for the continued safe operation of pumps and compressors. Documenting these types of alarms builds vibration and temperature trends, which may prevent catastrophic equipment failure. • Equipmentoillevelsandtheamountofoiladdedinordertoestablishrotating equipment oil usage trends for planning pump seal and bearing maintenance. • Chemicalsusedintheprocess,suchascoolingtowerchemicals,whichmay identify trends that may prevent cooling water exchanger fouling. • Maintenanceactivitiesperformedandplanned. • Unusualevents,suchasleaksintheprocess,processupsets,andequipment malfunctions.

smmry The routine duties of the process technician are extremely important to the safe, efficient, and reliable operation of a process unit. A process technician should be very observant during his or her rounds, investigating any abnormal conditions and taking appropriate corrective action. The field technicians must monitoring fixed and rotating equipment, perform the equipment health monitoring route, and report any unusual observations. The process technician should be aware of her or his surroundings and alert at all times. Proper PPE must be utilized, as needed, and the technician should check the PPE prior to use. Wearing personal protective equipment prevents exposure to hazardous chemicals, excessive noise, falling objects, and other hazards. The field and control board technician should communicate at all times during normal operations and critical events. Communication between the field and control board technicians ensures that all relevant information is gathered and passed on to the next shift. Technicians should always follow procedures and be thorough in documenting all steps. Procedures must be followed to prevent unforeseen accidents and injuries. Any deviation from procedure should follow the facility deviation policy.

CHAPTER 14


205

Cckin Yor Knowld 1.

Define the following terms: a. Central control room b. Control board technician c. Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) d. Field technician e. Monitoring f. Normal operations g. Rounds h. Route i. Routine duties j. Vibration readings

2. Listsevenroutinedutiesthatthefieldtechnicianperformsonadailybasis. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 3. What is the purpose of an Equipment Health Monitoring program? a. Increase downtime, decrease cost, and monitor equipment after repair or start-up. b. Increase the field technician workload. c. Increase uptime, decrease cost, and monitor equipment after repair or start-up. d. None of the above. 4. Name four items in the process unit that a field technician should use to check for leaks. a. b. c. d. 5. The field technician should grease valves monthly in order to ensure they remain relatively easy to operate. a. True b. False 6. What is the minimum PPE requirement to enter a process area? a. Hard hat and safety glasses b. Hard hat, safety glasses, steel-toed boots, flame-retardant clothing, and hearing protection c. Steel-toed boots, safety glasses, and flame-retardant clothing d. Hard hat, safety glasses, and hearing protection 7. The technicians must follow procedures, initialing all steps and providing a time stamp of when that step was completed. a. True b. False 8. List fourof the sixPPE trainingpoint sthatOSHA requir esempl oyerstoprovid efor employees. a. b. c. d. 9. Name thesixitem sthat  should beinc ludedintheshif tpass -downbet weenthefiel d technicians. a. b. c. d. e. f. 10. TheprimarypurposeofPPEistoprotecttheemployeefromworkplaceinjuriesorillnesses. a. True b. False

206

Process Operations 11. Name four of the tools field technicians use and explain their purpose. a. b. c. d.

activiti 1. PerformresearchonOSHA29.CFR.1 910subpartI,selectoneofthePPEtopicslistedin the subpart, and complete a three-page report on your selected topic. 2. Using information learned in Chapter 6 and Chapter 12, work with three other classmates to exchange information between two field technicians and two control board technicians. Using the scenario provided below, and working as a group, develop a working solution for the problem. Complete a written report and simulate a shift change. You are working in a small chemical facility when a hydrocarbon leak develops in a pump discharge flange. The pump can be isolated, and you will require no outside assistance. The unit has been running smoothly and you would like to avoid an upset condition that may result from the leak. The field technician and the control board technician are the only two personnel that are immediately available to handle this situation.

15 Chapter

Smlin Objcivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Explain the process technician’s role in the sample analysis.

■

Describe the sampling procedures and equipment used for different sampling events.

■

Describe the personal protective equipment that must be used while performing different sampling activities.

■

Explain the importance of following the sample procedure precisely.

■

Explain the importance of the sample analysis in relation to the proper operation of the unit.

■

Explain the various types of analysis (methods and equipment) conducted on process samples.

207

208

Process Operations

Ky tms Analyzer—instrument or device that performs continuous sample stream analysis. Chromatography—laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. Color—visual comparison scale used in the process industry to determine product color purity; also known as the Saybolt (ASTM) color scale. Flame Resistant—characteristic of a fabric to resist ignition and to self-extinguish if ignited. Flame Retardant—characteristic of a fabric that has had a chemical substance added to impart flame resistance. Gas Chromatography (GC)—common type of chromatography used in organic chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without

decomposition. Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method—analytical method for quantifying water content in a variety of products, also known as Karl Fischer titration. Panametric—trade name used by General Electric (GE) to distinguish their line of instruments used for ultrasonic flow measurement and moisture, hydrogen, and oxygen analysis. Retention Time—amount of time it takes for each compound to separate out. Sample Containers—vessels used to collect samples for analysis; containers include glass bottles, vials of various sizes, plastic bottles, plastic bags, metal tins or cans, metal cylinders (bombs) and others, depending on the type and quantity of sample needed. Sample Loop—a continuous circulation of process liquid or gas from a higherpressure source to a lower-pressure return, such as a pump or compressor discharge back to the suction. Circulation assures capture of a representative sample. Loop is typically equipped with a sample station appropriate for the sampling required, including sample cooler if needed. Sample Point—section of small diameter-valved tubing that extends from the main process piping system for collecting low-pressure liquid samples. Sampling—process of collecting and preserving a liquid, gas, or solid for laboratory analysis. Specifications—product purity parameters that have been agreed on by the company and the customers, or regulated by governmental agencies.

Inodcion Process technicians are responsible for keeping their process facilities operating safely and efficiently to ensure the production of a high-quality product. They are responsible for controlling and monitoring process systems, inspecting equipment, and conducting routine system operations. Process technicians also routinely sample and test process fluids and solids at various stages of the production process. These tasks are necessary to ensure the reliability of continuous stream analyzers, maintain correct process operating parameters, and ensure product stream specification. Samples are taken from process systems for early problem detection to prevent equipment damage and product waste. If testing of a sample indicates that a material is unacceptable, actions are taken to correct the problem before product is lost. Samples are also taken to verify that waste products discharged into the environment comply with company and government regulations.

th Imonc of Smlin Catching a sample is a common and very important duty that process technicians perform. Sampling is the process of collecting and preserving a liquid, gas, or solid for laboratory analysis. Production and product sampling serves several key purposes. Sampling during a product transition helps to minimize off-specification production. An off-specification

CHAPTER 15

Sampling

209

(nonprime) product has the same production costs as a marketable product, but sells at a lower rate than prime product, sometimes at a loss. Some off-spec products have no market and are a total loss if the process cannot recycle the material. Sampling is the primary means for analyzer verification. An analyzer is an instrument or device that performs continuous sample stream analysis. Analyzers provide real-time composition and quality data for the control board process technician, and are integral to safe and effective production. However, analyzers are not foolproof. If an analyzer is plugged, damaged, or goes out of calibration, it provides errant data, and other process controllers cascaded downstream may be incorrectly controlled and compound the problem. Independent sampling verifies the accuracy of the online analyzers. The more often a sample is caught and tested, the sooner corrections can be made to return to prime production. It is critical that samples be caught correctly and timely. Samples are also used for customer quality assurance. In some facilities, product runs for different customers may have different specifications sheets. The specifications are product purity parameters that have been agreed on by the company and the customers, or regulated by governmental agencies. The customer pays the negotiated price for the prime product. If the product fails to meet these specifications, the result is lost revenue to the process unit. Sampling also determines the start and stop points for certain tasks. For example, most process units use heat exchangers and condensers to control temperature and pressure in equipment, and to control reactions. After a period, the exchanger tubes become fouled and lose efficiency. Often, the exchangers may be chemically cleaned to restore efficiency and extend the useful life of the tube bundle. During the cleaning process, samples are caught and tested to determine when each stage of the cleaning process is complete. Samples also protect personnel from mistakes. For example, if a vender filled a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) air bottle with nitrogen, it could easily result in a fatality. A lab test to verify the contents of the bottle could save a life.

Followin po Smlin pocd Not only is the sampling process integral to efficient operation, but the manner in which the sample is collected is also critical to achieving reliable results and to maintaining personnel safety. Sampling procedures are intended to preserve the integrity of the sample, and provide safety measures to protect the process technician while collecting the sample. Deviating from procedure can result in both serious injury and equipment damage. Most samples are collected from in-service equipment, and the associated piping and equipment may be operating at high temperature and pressure. The sample may be, or contain, a dangerous or explosive compound, and it may be necessary to keep the sample container electrically grounded to eliminate the potential of a static spark while collecting the sample from a process line. The sampling procedure should specify the type of container to be used to collect the sample. Using the appropriate sample container is important for personal protection, asiswell as correct and containment. Forproduct example, a sample harmful vapor collected in ancollection airtight container; a corrosive would needwith a container resistant to corrosion. The process technicians’ process facilities have procedures on sampling techniques for specific samples.

Sml poins, Sml Loos, nd Sml Conins A sample point generally consists of a short section of small diameter-valved tubing that extends from the main process piping system for collecting low-pressure liquid samples. A valve in the sample line can be operated to start and stop the flow of the sample to the sample container. If not a continuous flow sample loop, the sample may need to purge or drain into a closed drain system for a period in order to retrieve a

210

Process Operations

representative sample. The locations of sampling points can be found on process facility diagrams or by consulting facility procedures. The central lab should have a master printout of the location of all sample points in the process facility. If sampling with a bottle, a sample is drawn from the process and arrives at atmospheric pressure in the sample container. The container often consists of a bottle, sealed with a cap and septum, which is inserted into the sleeve until the septum is pierced by the needles extending from the needle assembly. Once in position, the product can flow into the sample bottle via the process needle, while a vent needle vents air and gases. When the required amount has been collected, the process technician stops the product flow and the bottle is pulled out of the sleeve. The septum reseals automatically. A sample loop, shown in Figure 15.1, provides a continuous circulation of the process liquid or gas from a higher-pressure source to a lower-pressure return, such as a pump or compressor discharge back to the suction. Circulation assures capture of a representative sample. Loop is typically equipped with a sample station appropriate for the sampling required, including sample cooler if needed. Sample loops are installed with on-line analyzers and for sampling of the process where it is not convenient or safe to perform sample line purging. Continuous circulation of the process stream is necessary to provide the on-line analyzer with a current sample of the process. Sample containers are vessels used to collect and contain a sample for analysis. The containers may be glass bottles or vials of various sizes, plastic bottles, plastic bags, metal tins or cans, metal sample cylinders (bombs), or others depending on the type and quantity of sample needed. A pressurized gas sample or very hazardous liquid requires a sample bomb. Figure 15.2 shows examples of sample containers. Some samples may react with certain materials, such as aluminum, and require a sample container of a specific construction for collecting samples. Sampling procedures are important for safety.

FIgure 15.1 Sample 6DPSOH3RLQW

6DPSOH/RRS

Point and Sample Loop

FIgure 15.2 Examples of Sample Container

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211

Win po ppe Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used at all times during the sampling process to protect the process technician. The type of sample being collected dictates the type of PPE required. Figure 15.3 shows examples of PPE. The PPE may include: 6DIHW\*ODVVHV )DFH6KHLOG *RJJOHV

5HVSLUDWRU

6OLFNHU

*ORYHV

)LUH5HVLVWDQW &ORWKLQJ

5XEEHU%RRWV

FIgure 15.3 Personal Protective Equipment

• Safetyglasseswithsideshields • Mono-goggles • • • • • •

Faceshield Slickertop Chemical-resistantgloves Rubberboots Fire-resistantclothing(FRC) Respiratoryprotection

Wearing the required PPE provides the process technician protection from any potential exposure in the event of unforeseen incidents. Protective eyewear, such as mono-goggles or a face shield, should be worn if there is a possibility of overspray, misting, or splash. Protective specialty gloves should also be worn when sampling from hot or cold lines, and when collecting samples of caustic chemicals that could cause chemical burns if contact is made with exposed skin. The process technician uniform also provides a small degree of protection for skin. Most uniforms worn in process facilities are made of fire-resistant or fire-retardant clothing. Fire-resistant/retardant clothing, which is used in situations where there is risk of electrical arc or flash or thermal burns, is regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM, and OSHA standards. Flame resistant is the characteristic of a fabric to resist ignition and to self-extinguish if ignited. Fabrics such as Nomex fall under this category. Flame retardant is the characteristic of a fabric that has had a chemical substance added to impart flame resistance. These fabrics are generally cotton or cotton blends that have had a chemical fire retardant added to them to make them flame resistant. Fire-resistant/retardant clothing, shown in Figure 15.4, should be worn while in a process unit. This type of apparel is designed to provide very brief protection in the event of a flash fire. These materials, however, are not resistant to acids and other corrosives. When sampling such substances, it may also be required to wear a protective rubber apron, slicker suit, or neoprene suit, like the one shown in Figure 15.5. Respiratory protection, such as a half-mask, full-face respirator, or an SCBA, protects the process technician from airborne hazards. Exposure and inhalation of solid

212

Process Operations

FIgure 15.4 FireRetardant Clothing

FIgure 15.5 Neoprene Suit

particulates and some gases is prevented by using half- or full-face respirators. These respirators can be fitted with cartridges to protect from specific hazardous chemicals. It is critical that the proper cartridge be used in order to provide adequate protection. The process facilities’ Health, Safety, and Environmental (HSE) department will provide detailed information on which cartridges should be used in a particular situation. A self-contained breathing apparatus, or supplied air, is used in situations where a simple respirator is unable to provide protection, or where the hazard is so great that any amount of exposure could be harmful. The materials and work areas involved depict the hazards associated with taking samples. Process technicians should become familiar with the materials used in their process systems to determine the hazard that exist. For instance, several hazards are associated with acidic and caustic materials, and if these types of materials encounter skin or eyes, they could cause serious burns or blindness. Toxic fumes are another hazard that may be present when some materials are sampled. If harmful fumes are inhaled, they could cause serious reparatory injury, or death. Some materials may be under pressure, or at very high temperature. When such materials are sampled, care should be taken to avoid being sprayed or burned. The materials in some process systems are flammable or explosive and could be ignited by the smallest spark, flame, or static electricity in the atmosphere. To avoid serious injuries, smoking is prohibited and open flames are not allowed around these materials. In addition, special care should be taken to prevent spills when materials are sampled because a spill could cause a fall and injury. If a spill occurs, it should be

CHAPTER 15

Sampling

213

reported immediately to the appropriate first-line supervisor and cleaned up promptly and properly to prevent an accident.

Conminion, Consisncy, nd rlibiliy Samples must be collected and maintained free of outside contamination while being transported to the lab and during analysis. For example, if a collected gas sample were exposed to the outside atmosphere prior to testing, it would become useless if testing was for oxygen content. Consistent sampling and record keeping are important troubleshooting tools. Samples gathered and tested over a long period can give insight and help reveal or prevent equipment failures, or in the process. A single off-specification sample result may not be significant bychanges itself, but when a pattern can be depicted over time, it is easier to determine the root cause of a problem. The earlier a problem is detected, the easier it is to correct, and it often saves labor and money. Reliability is paramount for usable results. When collecting samples, it is essential that the test be repeatable, regardless of who collects the sample. The samples need to be caught in exactly the same way each time they are collected. For example, suppose a polymer powder sample is collected to determine the amount of volatile gas present in the powder at a given point in the process. A large difference in results could be seen based on the length of time taken to place an airtight cap on the powder sample vial. The longer the vial remains open to atmosphere, the more gas will escape, yielding an inaccurate result. If one process technician catches the sample and caps it immediately, but another process technician caps it several minutes after it has been caught, the results will be inconsistent. When the sample is analyzed at the lab, the lab technician may not be aware of the variances in sampling techniques and would present the results as found, which could then cause an error in process adjustments.

po Lblin nd Qniy The laboratory at a refinery or a process facility is a busy place. The lab technicians receive dozens of samples each day and must test each according to procedure, then report and record the results. The lab technicians must pay very close attention to ensure that human error does not compromise results. A decimal point in the wrong place can be the difference between large amounts of off-specification product versus highly profitable prime production. The process technician needs to make sure both the quantity and the sample labeling are correct to help ensure the tests are free from human error. The quantity of the sample also needs to be consistent. The sample size needs to be sufficient in quantity to be a representative sample of the product at the time of sampling. Small sample amounts are often collected over a period to make a composite sample to test a product in a time-lapse manner. This is especially useful in blend or batch operations where a product is sold in specific quantities. A composite sample is more representative of the batch than a single sample, which is more of a snapshot at a specific time. Labeling may seem insignificant, but is very important, like any other part of the sampling and testing procedure. The sample can be correctly gathered, following a detailed procedure and tested by qualified lab technicians on precise testing equipment, but if the product is incorrectly labeled, the sample may be worthless. The sample label, shown in Figure 15.6, should contain relevant information that may include: • • • • • •

Processunitname Dateandtime Vesseloforigin,orsamplepointID Quantity Currentanalyzerresult Variablestobetested

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Process Operations

UNIT 6 12-08-09

D-106

GC, PPMN H 2O, PPM Sulfur

FIgure 15.6 Example of a Sample Label

Excess or unused portions of samples should be disposed of properly, according to company procedures.

Sml anlysis Sample testing may be performed within the process unit. Cooling water testing for pH and chlorine levels can easily be completed in a small water lab within the unit. Other samples require more time, equipment, and expertise, and can be better performed in a dedicated lab. The type of process facility depicts the materials and tests performed. Specific sampling and testing methods are created by the specific process facility. Some sample analysis that the process technician could sample for include: • Color—visual comparison scale used in the process industry to determine product color purity. A common scale used in the process industry is the Saybolt (ASTM) color scale. The Saybolt (ASTM) color scale determines the color of refined oils, such as un-dyed motor and aviation gasoline, jet propulsion fuels, naphtha and kerosene, as well as petroleum waxes and pharmaceutical white oils. • Lead acetate test—provides a simple means of identifying the presence of sulfur or sulfur-based compounds. • pH—measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. The process technician may be required to measure the pH of cooling tower and condensate samples. • Gas chromatography (GC)—can be completed online and offline. Chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of mixtures. Gas chromatography is a common type of chromatography used in organic chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. A gas chromatograph that performs the GC analysis consists of a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The stationary phase, an inert base, is housed in a column, either in a matrix or attached to the sides of capillary-like glass tubes. The mobile phase, usually an inert gas, carries the compound to be analyzed through the stationary phase, separated into sections. As the gas passes through the stationary phase, the constituent components are separated out, and attach to the walls of the stationary chamber. The amount of time it takes for each compound to separate out is called retention time (RT). The RT gives us the information we need to determine the exact makeup of the gas sample. GC analysis can be utilized for furnace optimization as well as controlling final product purity. • Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method—analytical method for quantifying water content in a variety of products, also known as Karl Fischer titration. • Basic solids or sediment and water (BS&W)—technical specification for certain impurities in crude oil. When extracted from an oil reservoir, the crude oil will contain some amount of saltwater and particulate matter from the reservoir formation. • Panametric—trade name used by General Electric to distinguish their line of instruments for ultrasonic flow measurement and moisture, hydrogen, and oxygen analysis. A primary use of Panametrics in most facilities is to measure gas flow to the flare, determining the mass flow rate and molecular weight. • Gas tubes—glass vials filled with chemical reagents that react to specific chemicals. A sample of air is drawn through the tube with a bellows pump. If the targeted chemical is present, the reagent in the tube changes color and the length or depth of the color change indicates measured concentration.

CHAPTER 15

Sampling

215

• Multigas LEL meter—portable instrument for detecting the presence and concentration of O2, H2S, CO, and combustible gases in manholes, in confined spaces, and around tank sample-pulls. The process technician must know the operating parameters of her or his unit and make adjustments accordingly after receiving the sample analysis to maintain product specification and operating efficiency.

Smmy Sampling saves the process facility money, increases customer satisfaction, and reduces off-specification production. Sampling helps to minimize downtime and excessive labor by preventing problems before they arise. In addition, sampling can help identify and prevent hazards that could be harmful to process technicians and product end users. While sampling or handling materials, process technicians must take all applicable precautions to prevent exposure to hazards. Excess or unused portions of samples should be disposed of properly, according to company procedures. An important part of taking process samples is knowing where the sample points are located. The locations of sampling points can be found on process facility diagrams or by consulting facility procedures. The central lab should have a master printout of the location of all sample points in the process facility. The basic purpose of sampling is to capture a small representative portion of the process so that analysis may determine if it meets the desired specifications. If other materials are allowed to contaminate the sample, the test results could be inaccurate. The process technician must ensure that the sample container is clean and free from contaminants. When obtaining samples, it is important that the amount of material drawn be representative of the actual material in the process system (purge sufficiently if not a continuous-flow sample loop). Sampling is a crucial part of process operations and something that every process technician should master and perform exactly as per procedure. Proper sampling and testing techniques verify analyzers, diagnose many operating problems, and allow the process technicians to react much more quickly when a problem arises.

Chckin Yo Knowld 1.

2.

3.

Define the following terms: a. Analyzer b. Chromatography c. Color d. Flame resistant e. Flame retardant f. Gas chromatography (GC) g. Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method h. Panametric i. Retention time j. Sample containers k. Sample loop l. Sample point m. Sampling n. Specifications Respiratory protection is not always needed when catching samples. a. True b. False List the six items mentioned in this chapter that will be included on a sample tag. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ e. _____________ f. _____________

216

Process Operations 4.

If there is a chance of overspray when catching samples, which of the following PPE should be worn? a. Mono-goggles and face shield b. Safety glasses with side shields c. A pair of sun shades without side shields d. Any of the above 5. Sample loops provide continuous circulation of the material to be tested. a. True b. False 6. FRCs are for use in situations where there is risk of electrical arc, or flash or thermal burns. a. True b. False 7. List the seven items mentioned in this chapter that the process technician may need to wear when catching samples. a. _____________ b. _____________ c. _____________ d. _____________ e. _____________ f. _____________ g. _____________ 8. Samples are used only to control product variability. a. True b. False 9. List the different types of sample containers the process technician may use. 10. Supplied air may be required during the catching of routine process samples. a. True b. False 11. An important part of catching a sample is _____________ . a. knowing the locations of the sample points b. understanding the hazards of the material to be sampled c. wearing the proper PPE d. all of the above e. only a and c

aciviis 1. 2.

Conduct on-line research on sample containers known as “sample bombs” used in the refining and process industries, and write a two-page report on the types and sizes available. Perform on-line research on the following chemicals and write a two-page report on their hazards and the type of PPE that must be worn when catching such samples. a. Naphtha b. Crude oil c. Paraxylene d. Benzene e. Gasoline

16 Chapter

Uni Sudown Objcivs After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ■

Differentiate between the different types of shutdowns: • normal/routineshutdown • emergencyshutdown • shutdownforequipmentmaintenance • shutdownforturnaround

■

Describe the process technician’s role in the execution of unit shutdowns.

■

Describe the risks and hazards associated with unit shutdowns.

■

Describe the safety and environmental activities associated with a unit shutdown and how these activities are covered by OSHA’s PSM (Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials) standard.

217

218

Process Operations

Ky tms Emergency Shutdown—suddenfailureofmajorprocessequipment,suchas compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricityrequiringanimmediateshutdown. Evacuation Plan—documentation for the evacuation of a facility, to be used by personnel in the event of an emergency. Hydrocarbon Detector—electronic device that detects, measures, and indicates the concentrationofhydrocarbonsinprocesspipingorequipment. Hydrocarbon Free—removalofhydrocarbonsfromprocesspipingandequipment prior to opening to the atmosphere and the introduction of air. Lift Plan—documented plan used to evaluate the hazards and define precautions

necessary during heavy lifting activities, including lifting over live process equipmentornearenergizedpowerlines. Scaffold Plan—documented plan for the erecting and dismantling of scaffolding usedtoaccessprocesspipingandequipment. Shutdown—systematicremovalofprocessequipmentfromserviceinordertostop the process. Stream-to-Stream—time duration between a unit shutdown when production stops to unit start-up when production is resumed.

Inoducion This chapter provides an overview of various types of unit shutdowns , the systematicremovalofprocessequipmentfromserviceinordertostopthepro cess. Unit shutdowns are utilized industry-wide for many purposes, and are an integralpartofprocessoperations.Theycanincludeaplanned,sequencedevent, thedetailsofwhichareunitspecific,oranunexpectedshutdownthatwillrequire quickthinking,decisionmaking,andactiononthepartoftheprocesstechni cian. Unit shutdowns, even those that are planned, are a deviation from normal operations. Those deviations carry an increased level of risk that, if not managed properly,cancauseinjurytopersonnel,damagetoequipment,anddamagetothe environment and surrounding communities. The time duration between a unit shutdown when production stops to unit start-up when production is resumed is called stream-to-stream. Many of the activities listed here take place during a unit shutdown and are covered by the OSHA Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM) standard: • Changestotheprocessmustbemanagedanddocumentedaccordingtothe managementofchange(MOC)guidelinesdefinedintheOSHA1910PSM requirements. • Processsafetyin formationmust beupdatedto reflectchan gesormodifi cations to the process, including changes to PSI Drawings such as P&IDs, InstrumentandControlLoopDiagrams,PlotPlansandElectricalOne-Line Diagrams, as well as Operating Procedures, Training Material, and Operating Manuals. • Hazardanalysisofanychangesoradditionstotheprocess,ortoprocesssafety information, must be completed. • Subjectmatterexperts(SME)whoareassociatedwiththeprocessmustbe allowed to participate in hazard studies, as well as the development and review of new and revised process safety information. • Activitiesrelatedtomechanicalintegrityandinspectionofprocessequipment are covered, including new and revised maintenance procedures and work practices,updatestoequipmentfilesandinspectionfiles,andinspection frequenciesandupdatestoexistingequipmenthealthmonitoringprograms thatareintendedtoprolongorimproveequipmentintegrity.

CHAPTER16  Unit Shutdown

219

• Guidelinesforemergencyplanningandresponse,pre-start-upsafetyreview,incident investigations, and contractor management are also defined in the OSHA 1910PSMrequirements. Unitshutdownscanrequir ea vastamountofpreplannin gthatnotonlyincorpo rates the skills and abilities of the unit process technicians but also involves site staffing at almost all levels, as well as various contractors staffing. Maintenance planners and craftspeople, process engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, inspection staff,warehouseandprocurementstaff,safety,health,andenvironmental(SHE)staff, PSM staff, and contractor staff all work together with an operations management team to plan and execute most unit shutdowns.

Noml o rouin Sudowns Normal or routine shutdowns are those that are planned and have a specific purpose. Anexampleofanormalorroutineshutdownmighttakeplaceafterarequiredamount ofaproducthasbeenproduced.Routineshutdownsofthisnatureareexecutedandthe unit placed in a secure condition until the next run, or product order, is established. In othercases,normalroutineshutdownscanbebasedonequipmentneedsandprocess conditions. In most shutdowns of this type, there are repair, replacement, and inspection opportunities intended to increase the production time of a unit between outages. Majorpiecesofprocessequipmentthatrequireshutdownformaintenanceand repairmayalsorequiretheentireunittobeshutdowninordertoremovetheequipment fromservice.Largecentrifugalgascompressors,forexample,aresometimescentralto aprocessunit.Thesecompressorsmayhavebearingorsealsthatrequireremovalof the compressor from service for repair. Monitoring the bearing and seal performance enables operations and maintenance personnel to predict and plan a routine shutdown to repair or replace the worn parts as necessary. Another example of a routine shutdown is a reactor system that needs catalyst replacement or regeneration. Monitoring of the catalyst performance should enable operations and engineering personnel to predict when a routine shutdown is necessary to regenerate or replace the catalyst. Planningandexecutingaroutineshutdownforaspecificpurposerequiresacoordinated effort between the operations staff and site staffing at all levels. Maintenance planners and craftspeople, process engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers,warehouseandprocurementstaff,andsafety,health,andenvironmental(SHE) staff all work together with an operations management team to plan and execute routineunitshutdownsandequipmentrepairorreplacement. Some of the key activities involved in performing a normal or routine shutdown could include the development and communication of a shutdown execution plan that should consider: • • • • •

Shutdownpurposeandpriorities Shutdownstaffing Equipmentandsystemshutdownsequence Utilityshutdownsequence Shutdowntimingandholdpoints

• Notificationtoregulatoryauthoritiesofthepotentialforflaring,andpossible effects on the environment and surrounding communities • Coordinationandplanningfortheshutdownofvariousprocess,auxiliary,and utility systems • Coordinationwithconnectingunitsaswellasadjacentunits • Controlledde-inventoryplanforofhazardouschemicalsforbothpre-and post-shutdown • Executionofoperatingproceduresforshuttingdownindividualpiecesofprocess equipmentandsystems • Executionofcontrolofwork(COW)proceduresonprocessequipment • Astart-upplan

220

Process Operations

emgncy Sudown Emergency shutdownscanbecausedbythesuddenfailureofmajorprocessequipment, such as compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, orelectricity,requiringan immediateshutdown.Faultyprocesstrips orinstrumentation can cause emergency shutdowns as well. Safely managing an emergency shutdown depends heavily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the process technician on shift. Although an emergency shutdown is usually unplanned, emergency scenarios for each specific process can be identified, and emergency operating procedures are written and putinplaceforusebytheprocesstechniciansandoperationssupportstaff.Emergency operating procedures lessen the stress during an emergency operation. These emergency operating procedures should include systematic instructions for securing the process

unit during specific types of emergencies, and include the expected effect on the process, theenvironment,andsurroundingcommunities.Emergencyoperatingproceduresare onlyonetypeofproced urerequiredby theOSHA1910PSM standardformanaging highly hazardous chemicals. Anevacuation plan, documentation for the evacuation of a facility, to be used by personnel in the event of an emergency, is also an important procedure that should be ready for use in an emergency. Emergencyscenariosare alsoidentifiedduringunitprocesshazardanalysi s,also referred to as HAZOP studies. The operations and engineering team members are responsible for identifying potential emergency scenarios and implementing engineeringoradministrativecontrolstoeithereliminateormitigateeachhazard.Engineering controls are a preferred method of mitigating emergency scenarios. These can include: • Instrumentationcontrolsintheformofalarms,trips,andshutdowninstrumentation • Utilizingdifferenttypesofequipment,suchasusingacentrifugalpumprather than a positive displacement pump • Installationofreliefdeviceswhereoverpressureisapotentialhazard • Properlysizingflareandventsystems Typical types of administrative controls usually include policy, procedure, and checklists. Some examples of administrative controls are: • Fireandsafetychecklists • Carsealchecklists • AVOchecklists Utilizing advanced technology can also help to manage or eliminate hazards resulting from emergency scenarios. An example might include the installation of processequipmentthatwouldyieldaspecificproductwithouttheuseofchemicalshaving characteristics that are difficult to manage safely.

Sudown fo equimn Minnnc Examplesoftheneedforequipmentmaintenancethatcouldrequireanentirepro cess unit shutdown include centrifugal compressor seal repair and reactor catalyst replacement or regeneration. Another type of shutdown could entail removing individualpiecesofequipmentauxiliaryequipmentfromaprocessorsystemwithoutthe needforanentireunitshutdown.Circumstancescanoccurincertainprocesseswherea compressor, a furnace, a process pump, a centrifuge, and a fractionation tower or reactor system can be isolated and removed from service and have only a minimum effect on the rest of the process. This enables the process to continue to operate and produce product, probably at reduced rates. The associated hazards can be severe, but are much more limited than shutting down an entire process unit. Thecomplexityoftheequipmentremovedfromservicedeterminesthelevelof planningrequired,possiblehazards,levelofcommunication,andnecessaryexecution steps. Safely managing such a shutdown can be an extensive undertaking and involve manyperson nel, orit can bea simpletaskthat  requiresonlytheon-sh ift process technician and maintenance craftsmen.


221

Examplesofauxiliaryequi pmentwithinmanyprocessunitsthat canberemoved from service with little effect on the unit as a whole include the following: • Sparepumpsandcompressors • Storagetanks • Multiplepiecesofprocessequipmentthatperformthesamefunction,suchas filters, centrifuges, crystallizers, or lube oil systems Mostoperationsactivitiesrequireprecautionsinordertomitigatethehazardsassoci atedwiththeshutdownandrepairofauxiliaryequipment.Propercommunicationand coordination between operations and maintenance personnel is critical to ensure the saferemovalandefficientrepairofauxiliaryequipment. Thehazardsassociatedwithevenminorrepairstoequipmentinhydrocarbonand process service can be severe. A process technician should make sure of the following: • Standardoperatingproceduresareusedtosafelyremoveequipmentfromservice and to minimize the impact on the rest of the unit. • Controlofworkproceduresareusedtoidentify,isolate,energyfree,andprepare theequipment. • Properpersonalprotectiveequipmentmustbeusedtoprotectindividualsfrom exposure and associated hazards. • Maintenanceproceduresareusedtoensureaqualityrepairandmaximizeequipment integrity.

eni Uni Sudown fo tunound Anentireunitshutdownforturnaround(TAR)canbethemostinvolvedtypeof shutdown. TAR plan ning requires maxi mum coordination and communicat ion betweenprocessfacilitypersonnel.Italsorequiresprolongedcommunicationbetween the operations staff and site staffing at almost all levels, and may include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Maintenanceplanners Maintenancecraftspeople Inspectionstaff Processengineers Controlengineers Mechanicalengineers Electricalengineers Warehouseandprocurementstaff Ssafety,health,andenvironmentalstaff PSMstaff Contractormanagers Contractorengineers Contractorcraftspeople Specialtycontractorsstaff Andmanymore

All the staff works together, with an operations management team, to plan and executeawholeunitshutdownandturnaround.TARplanningcanbeginmanymonths beforetheactualshutdowndate.ThedurationofaTARcanlastformanymonths, depending on the type and amount of work scheduled.

t pocss tcnicin’s rol in  plnning nd excuion of Sudowns Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit shut-downs. Theirknowledgeoftheprocesstechnologyanddesigncriteria,processequipmentand interconnecting piping, valves, safety and control systems, as well as process-specific hazards, makes process technicians one of the most important groups of personnel on

222

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the unit during shutdown. The primary responsibility of a process technician during shutdown includes the following: • Executetheunitshutdownandde-inventorytheprocedurestofacilitateasafe, efficient, and controlled shutdown. • Ensurethathazardstopersonnel,theenvironment,andequipmentaremanaged correctly. • Reportalldeviationsfromthesitesafety,health,andenvironmentalpolicies. • Shutdownspecialequipmentandpreparetouseanynormalorspecialcontrol of work(COW)procedures. • Monitortheprocessandequipmentwhiletheshutdownisinprogress. • Maintainalltheunitsafetyequipmentingoodordersothatitisavailablefor emergency situations or environmental hazards for personnel protection. • Monitorallworkactivitieswhiletheshutdownisinprogress. • Monitorallsiteandcontractorcraftspeopletoensuresafeworkpracticesand safety, health, and environmental policy compliance, including those that define unitPPE. • Participateinemployeehealthmonitoringprogramswhenthepotentialfor uniqueexposurehazardsarepresent. • Maintainthefacilityinaclean,orderly,andsafecondition. Shutdownsalsoprovideauniquelearningexperiencefortheneworinexperienced technician. The deviation from normal operations enables personnel to execute operating procedures, safety, health, and environmental policies, and work practices that are seldom encountered during normal operations. These activities provide process technicians an opportunity to increase unit and site-specific knowledge related to how a unit shutdown can affect an entire facility or community. During shutdowns, the process technician may also find opportunities to revise operating procedures where corrections or deviations to previously established work practicesarenecessary.Eachfacilityshouldhaveguidelinesinitssafety,health,and environmental policiesfor operatingprocedu resthatdefine thestepsrequiredfor correctionstooperatingprocedures.CertaincorrectionsfallwithintheOSHAPSM guidelinesformanage mentofchange(MOC)andmayreq uirehazardanalysisofthe change prior to execution. Employeeparticipationisaninvaluabletoolinimprovingoperatingprocedures forthebenefitandfutureuseofallpersonnel.Avastquantityoftherisksandhazards associated with the process industry can be eliminated with the proper development and use of operating procedures, and it is critical that the process safety information containedinthe proceduresbe correctandwithoutomission s.Revisionofprocess safety information by a process technician provides the opportunity for them to make work practice safer for all site personnel. A process technician should be familiar with the site safety, health, and environmental policies for safe execution of unit shutdowns. These policies should be readily available in electronic form or hard copy. Process technicians should use these policies exclusively to understand and implement the established safe work practices for a given activity. The following list provides an example of several typical safety, health, and environmental policies that are utilized during unit shutdowns: • Blinding—policythatdefinestheprocessandproceduretoisolateequipmentfor hotworkorspecificactivitiesthatrequireequipmentremoval • Confined space entry—policy that defines the process and procedure for entering confinedspacesthatcanincludeequipment,storagetanks,andexcavationsbelow grade • Employee health monitoring —defines the need for employee health monitoring while activities are conducted in hazardous areas, during hazardous chemical sampling, or where the extended exposure to hazardous chemicals can occur


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• Environmental reporting—definestherequirementsandreportablequantitiesfor chemicalsthat,whenreleasedtotheatmosphere,requirereportingtotheproper regulatory authorities • Hot work—defines process and procedure for conducting hot work, such as weldingorgrindingin,on,oraroundprocessequipment • Housekeeping—defines activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition • Lock-out/tag-out—procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a pieceofequipment • Lift plan—documented plan used to evaluate the hazards and define precautions necessary during heavy lifting activities, including lifting over live process equipmentornearenergizedpowerlines • Management of change (MOC)—method of managing and communicating changestoaprocess,changesinequipment,changesintechnology,changesin personnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees • Material release reporting—definesreportingrequirementsofregulatoryauthorities whenventing,purging,ordrainingequipment,orintheeventofamaterialrelease • Standard operating procedures—unit-specific procedures used for the purpose ofequipmentandsystemstart-uporshutdowninnormaloperations,aswellas emergency operations • Personal protective equipment (PPE)—specialized gear that provides a barrier between hazards and the worker • Process hazard analysis—systematic assessment of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazards and locations of highest potential for exposure • Process safety information—defines the type of documentation that is considered process safety information in support of the OSHA PSM regulation, including operating procedures, inspection and maintenance procedures, operating manuals and training material, process drawings (P&IDs), electrical one-line diagrams, instrument loop drawings, and electrical classification drawings • Process safety management—OSHAstandardthatcontainstherequirements for management of hazards associated with processes using highly hazardous materials • Scaffold plan—for erecting and dismantling of scaffolding used to access process pipingandequipment • Vehicle entry—defines process and procedure for vehicle entry into process areas • Working at heights—definesrequirementsforworkingatelevatedheights

ponil hzds Many hazards are associated with unit shutdowns. In most cases, unit shut downs occur infrequentlyandareconsideredanonroutineactivity.Performingunfamiliaractivities increases hazards. Different types of shutdowns can cause different hazards. An emergency shutdown, where the loss of multi ple pieces of major  equipmentoccurs,isoneofthemostdangeroustypesofshutdown.Recyclegascompres sors, refrigeration compressors, fractionation towers, boilers, furnaces, hot oil systems, reboilers,andreactorsystemsarejustsomeofthemajorpiecesofprocessequipment that, when shutdown simultaneously in an emergency, can have severe health, safety, andenvironmentalconsequences.Typicalhazardsinclude: • Uncontrolledrapidreleaseofchemicalstoflareandventsystemswilloverload the vent system and result in an environmental release. • Rapidcool-downofprocessequipmentinhigh-temperatureservicecanresultin thermal contraction of piping and flanges, separation of pipe joints, and material release, which can lead to a fire or explosion. • Rapidheating ofprocesseq uipmentthatis incoldorref rigeratedservicec an lead to overpressure conditions. In cases involving specialty chemicals, such

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as hydrofluoric acid, r apid heating can result in overpressure and lead to a catastrophic event that could affect an entire process facility and the surroundin g communities. Emergencyshutdownscanalsoleadtopersonnelinjury,irreparabledamageto equipment,materialrelease, fire,andexplosion. A hydrocarbon atmospheric release, otherwise known as a material release,canaffecttheairqualityoftheentirefacility and surrounding communities, ground water, or waterways. Process units are typically designed to handle emergency shutdowns by the installationofadequatetechnol ogyand safety systems.Adequatelysizedflareand vent systems, piping systems, and piping connections that can handle rapid heating or cooldown without separation, safety instrumented systems, backup power, and redundant refrigeration systems are all examples of ways to eliminate or minimize the hazards associated with an emergency shutdown. An emergency shutdown has the potentialtocauseseriousinjurytopersonnel,damagetoequipment,anddamagetothe environment as well as the surrounding community if it is not managed correctly. It is critical to the safe operation of every process facility that emergency scenarios are identified and documented, and that mitigation plans are in place to manage them safely.Engineeringcontrolsmustbetestedregularlytoensuretheywillworkwhen needed.Emergencyproceduresmustbeinplace,andprocesstechniciansshouldbe trainedintheiruse.Continuedpracticeofemergencyproceduresprovidestheskills for dealing with an emergency shutdown. All unit emergency procedures for a given scenario should be reviewed as soon as the unit is secure from any immediate safety, health, or environmental hazards. Normalor routineshutdo wns,even infrequent,aretypical lya plannedactivity, and do not pose the same level threat of uncontrolled hazards. A normal or routine shutdown for a large process unit with many systems, and sometimes hundreds of piecesofequipment,cantakeseveraldaystoplan.Hazardsaresimilartothoseofan emergency shutdown, but planning, operations procedure use, and safe work practices minimize or eliminate the opportunities for hazardous accidents. Process units can be systematically shut down while consciously managing the hazards. Hydrocarbon removal and de-inventorying can minimize flaring and material release. A hydrocarbon detector , an electronic device that detects, measures, and indicates the concentrationofhydroc arbonsinprocesspipin gorequipment,canbeusefulinashu tdown,to make sure that piping is hydrocarbon free , or the removal of hydrocarbons from processpipingandequipmentpriortoopeningtotheatmosphereandtheintroductionof air.Controlledcool-downofprocessfurnaceseliminatethermalstressonthefurnace tubesandequipmentinhigh-temperatureservice.Controlledshutdownandisolation of large frame centrifugal compressors, and associated seal and lube oil systems, should eliminatethepossibilityofdamagetotheequipmentandhelpensureequipment integrity for a later start-up. Auxiliary systems, such as hot oil systems, seal oil and dry gas seal systems, water systems, steam and condensate systems, and air, nitrogen and other utility systems, can allbeshutdownsafelywithadequateplanningandprocedures.Thesearetypically sequencedeventsbasedontheneedsoftheprocess.Forexample,asteamandcondensatesystemisnotshutdownuntilaftertheprocesssystemsrequiringthemareshut down and secure. Shutdown for a turnaround is managed similarly to a normal, routine shutdown, and includes the same potential hazards and planning effort. The difference in a turnaroundis thelevelofactivityandworkscopeinvolved. Thescopeof workandTAR durationrequiremanysiteandcontracto remployeesworkin gonthe unitsimultaneously. Mitigating the hazards associated with such a high level of work and so many workersontheunitatthesametimerequiresawell-orchestratedplanforworkactivities.TheTARworkscopeanddemandforproductdictatestheshutdowntiming,turnaround duration, work schedule, and start-up timing. Isolation, de-energizing, draining, andpurgingofprocessequipmentformaintenance,inspection,andrepairaresomeof


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the primary activities during a major unit turnaround. The scope of work surrounding these activities includes: • Equipmentprepar ationforconfinedspaceent ryandinternalinspection activities • Pipingandequipmentexternalinspections • Hotwork • Vehicleentry • Inspectionandx-ray • Excavations • Heavylifting • Demolitionofpiping,equipment,andsupportstructures • Installationofnewpiping,equipment,andsupportstructures • Installationofnewtechnology

Summy Unit  shut down s arean inte gralpartof proc essoperat ionsthatprovid e uniq ue opportunities for process facilities, site personnel, and process technicians. Activitiesthattakeplaceduringshutdownsrequiremaximumprocesstechnician and site personnel skills and abilities. The deviation from normal, routine duties provides learning experiences for the site staff that only occur during shutdowns. Maintenance,repair,andreplacementofprocessequipmentprovideopportuni tiestoimproveequipmenthealth,longevity,andintegrity.Newtechnology,when implemented, can result in a process that is safer to operate, with decreased risks to personnel, the facility, and surrounding community. In many cases, the installation of new technology can often reduce operating costs, leading to higher profitability for a process facility. A unit shutdown unites personnel from across a facility opportunities to work moreto closely together than also during normal operations. This provides establish working relationships that otherwise might not have occurred, an d enables theuniqueskillsofeachindividualtobesharedandbetterunderstood.Career paths can even be altered when new opportunities are experienced by personnel related to shutdown planning—such as process hazard analysis; team participation; writing and updating process safety information, procedures, and training materials, as well as performing maintenance activities not experienced during normal operations. Shutdown planning and execution, when managed and completed safely, can constitute some of the most gratifying examples of working in the field of process technology. New experiences gained from the combined effort of many work teams, and working with new site and contract personnel for the common benefit of a facility, are not matched by many industries.

Ccking You Knowldg  1. Definethefollowingterms: a. Emergencyshutdown b. Evacuationplan c. Hydrocarbon detector d. Hydrocarbon free e. Liftplan f. Scaffold plan g. Shutdown h. Stream-to-stream 2. Inmostcase s,unitshutdowns occurinfrequ entlyandare consideredan on-routine  activity. a. True b. False

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Process Operations 3. ElementsoftheOSHA1910ProcessSafetyManagementregulationinclude:(Select all that apply) a. Managementofchange(MOC) b. Employeeparticipation c. Operating procedures d. Emergencyplanningandresponse 4. Process technicians play a key role in the planning and safe execution of unit shutdowns. Their responsibilities include: (Select all that apply) a. Executionoftheunitshutdownandde-inventoryprocedures b. Monitoringtheprocessandequipmentwhiletheshutdownisinprogress c. Monitoring all work activities while the shutdown is in progress d. Specialequipmentpreparationandshutdownutilizinganynormalorspecialcontrol ofwork(COW)procedures 5. Emergencyshutdownscanbecausedbythesuddenfailureofmajorpiecesofprocessequipment such as compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricity. a. True b. False 6. Preplanningforanemergencyshutdownrequiresthatemergencyscenariosforeachspecific process are identified, and that emergency operating procedures are written and in place for use by the process technicians and operations support staff. a. True b. False  7. Safetyandfirefightingequipmentshouldbemaintainedatalltimesduringunitturnarounds. a. True b. False 8. Many of the activities that take place during a unit shutdown or unit turnaround are covered by OSHA’s Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Materials (PSM) standard including: (Select all that apply) a. Managementofchange(MOC) b. Employeeparticipation

9.

10.

 1. 1 12.

c. Operating procedures d. Emergencyplanningandresponse Propercommunicationandcoordinationbetweenoperationsandmaintenancepersonnelis criticaltothesaferemovalandefficientrepairofauxiliaryequipment. a. True b. False Isolation,  de-energ izing, draining ,and purgingof processequipmentfor maintenan ce, inspection, or repair are some of the primary activities during a major unit shutdown. The scope of work surrounding these activities includes: (Select all that apply) a. Equipmentpreparationforconfinedspaceentryandinternalinspectionactivities b. Hot work c. Vehicleentry d. Pipingandequipmentexternalinspections Defineturnaround(TAR). ExplainControlofWorkprocedures.

aciviy  1. Selectoneoftheunitemergencyshutdownproceduresandperformapracticedrilltogether with personnel. Be able to meet the following objectives as outcomes of this exercise. • shift Explaintheresponsibilitiesofindividualsineachsystemorsectionoftheunit. • Definethepropersequenceofeventsnecessarytobringtheunittoasafestateafter the emergency has occurred. • Identifyanyspecialorcriticalactivitiesthatmusttakeplacetomitigatethe emergency. • DeterminewhetherornotanyspecialPPEisrequiredduringequipmentshutdown and isolation during the emergency. • Specifytheneedforcommunicationandpropercontactnumberstoadjacentor connecting units. • Determinetheneedforcommunicationandpropercontactnumberstosite personnel responsible for contacting regulatory authorities.

Glossary Glossary of of Terms Terms Abnormal operation operating a process unit in a mode that is different from normal operations. Acceptance documents that the unit has achieved its design capacity and specifications, and the facility agrees that the unit will function as engineered. Affected employee process technician or other employee whose job requirement is to operate or use a machine or piece of equipment that is being serviced or maintained under lock-out or tag-out conditions, or whose job requires the technician or employee to work in an area in which servicing or maintenance is being performed. Air free removal of air from process piping and equipment prior to the introduction of hydrocarbon. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) oversees and coordinates the voluntary standards in the United States, and develops and approves norms and guidelines that impact many business sectors. The coordination of U.S. standards with international standards allows American products to be used worldwide. American Petroleum Institute (API)trade association that represents the oil and gas industry in the areas of advocacy, research, standards, certification, and education for the petroleum and petrochemical industry. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) specifies requirements and standards for pressure vessels, piping, and their fabrication. Analyzer instrument or device that performs continuous sample stream analysis. Application block main part of a drawing that contains symbols and defines elements such as relative position, types of materials, descriptions, and functions. Audio visual olfactory (AVO) method used by process technicians to monitor the sounds, sights, and smells of a process unit or area during unit walk-through inspections. Authorized employee process technician or other

Body harness fall protection device worn while working at heights. Boilers highly regulated, steam-generating pressure vessels that burn natural gas, plant fuel gas, and/or waste gas streams to generate the heat for the phase change of boiler feedwater. Bunker gear protective clothing worn for fire fighting. Capable of being locked-out has a multiple padlock attachment or other means of attachment to which, or through which, multiple locks can be affixed. Cell phone a long-range electronic device used for mobile communication, text messaging, or data transmission across a cellular network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. Central control room room or building housing the facilities Distributed Control System (DCS) that may incorporate all of the facility operating control boards. Checklist procedure written in a list format that requires the user to initial or check the completion of each step. Chromatography laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. Color visual comparison scale used in the process industry to determine product color purity; also known as the Saybolt (ASTM) color scale. Commission for Environmental Quality (CEQ) primary state agency charged with enforcement of environmental regulations and with issuing air and water operating permits to businesses operating in a state. Commissioning systematic process by which process units are placed into active service, and can include the initial start-up of a newly built or the re-commissioning of a revised process unit. Commissioning team group of individuals selected from current facility personnel that plays a key role in the planning and implementing of the commissioning or de-commissioning of a process unit or facility. Communication the verbal, nonverbal, or written

employee who locks-out or tags-out a piece of equipment for required service or maintenance on that particular piece of equipment. Blinding policy that defines the process and procedure to isolate equipment for hot work or specific activities that require equipment removal. Blinding/Un-blinding Permit a permit that allows equipment isolation via the installation of blinds and blind flanges. Block flow diagrams (BFD) simple drawings that show a general overview of a process, indicating the parts of a process and their relationships.

transfer of information between people. Computer-based training (CBT) delivers training material through a facility computing system. Confined Space Entry (CSE) policy that defines the process and procedure for entering confined spaces that can include equipment, storage tanks, and excavations below grade. Confined Space Entry (CSE) Permit permit that allows human entry and work within an OSHA-defined confined space, the issuance of which indicates all regulated and pertinent safety measures have been taken and/or are active.

227

228 Glossary of Terms Construction phase building phase of an initial process unit or facility, or the building phase of an expansion project upgrading an existing unit or facility. Control board technician process technician whose primary job function is to remotely monitor and control the process unit within normal operating parameters. Control of work (COW) work practice that identifies the means of safely controlling maintenance, demolition, remediation, construction, operating tasks, and similar work. Distributed Control System (DCS) automated control system consisting of field instruments and field controllers connected by wiring that carries a signal from the controller transmitter to a central control monitoring screen. Effective communications communication skills that help convey the intended meaning more efficiently. Electric heat tracing series of self-regulating heating cables designed to provide freeze protection and temperature maintenance to metallic and nonmetallic pipes, tanks, and equipment. Electrical diagrams diagrams that help process technicians understand power transmission and how it relates to the process. Electronic logbook (eLog) a computer-based event logging program developed to assist the process technician report and record significant shift activities. Elevation diagrams represent the relationship of equipment to ground level and other structures. Emergency sudden, unexpected, or impending situation that may cause injury, loss of life, damage to property,

with the equipment knowledge they need to schedule maintenance, manage inventories and support efficient workflow scheduling. Equipment location diagrams show the relationship of units and equipment to facility boundaries. Equipment symbols set of symbols located on one sheet of a set of process flow diagrams (PFD) for the user to review. Evacuation plan documentation for the evacuation of a facility, to be used by personnel in the event of an emergency. Explosion rapid increase in volume followed by a release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of toxic gases. Feed forward flow when raw material is introduced to a process unit on a continuous basis to effectively begin the processing of the finished or intermediate product. Field technician process technician whose primary job is to monitor the fixed and rotating field equipment, perform sampling, and ensure that the unit operates within normal operating parameters. Fire brigade local, process facility fire department composed of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in basic fire-fighting techniques. Fire-retardant clothing (FRC) wearing apparel for use in situations where there is a risk of arc, flash, or thermal burns; regulated by NFPA-70E, ASTM and OSHA. First responder individuals who likely witness or discover a hazardous substance release, and have been trained to initiate an emergency response sequence by

and/or interference with the normal activities of a person or operation, which therefore requires immediate attention and demands remedial action. Emergency block valve (EBV) automatic valve, typically controlled by an operating parameter and/or hand switches for process isolation when the parameter approaches unsafe conditions or equipment limitations; also known as emergency isolation valve (EIV). Emergency operation mode of operation or procedure followed when an emergency situation has placed a process unit in an unsafe condition. Emergency response effort to mitigate the impact of an incident on the public and the environment. Emergency shutdown sudden failure of major process equipment, such as compressors or furnaces, or failure of utilities such as instrument air, steam, or electricity requiring an immediate shutdown. Energized connected to an energy source, or contains residual or stored energy. Energy-isolating device mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release of energy. Energy sources any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) independent federal agency created in 1970 that sets and enforces rules and standards for environmental protection and pollution control. Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM) efficient system for protecting rotating assets and facility operations from unscheduled downtime that provides personnel

notifying the appropriate authorities. Flame resistant characteristic of a fabric to resist ignition and to self-extinguish if ignited. Flame retardant characteristic of a fabric that has had a chemical substance added to impart flame resistance. Friction force resisting the relative lateral or tangential motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. Gas chromatography (GC) common type of chromatography used in organic chemistry for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. General Work Permit permit that allows work activity other than blinding/un-blinding, hot work, lock-out/ tag-out, and confined space. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) formal and structured review and study method used to determine potential hazards associated with process systems, equipment, process materials, and work processes. Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard (HAZWOPER) OSHA standard that applies to personnel who are in a role or position to act as a first responder during an emergency. Hot Work Permit permit that allows hot work, such as welding, grinding, or vehicle entry in or around process equipment. Housekeeping activities that must be completed in order to maintain the facility in a clean, orderly, and safe condition. Hydro test strength and integrity test, using water, for process piping and equipment.

Glossary of Terms

229

Hydrocarbon detector electronic device that detects, measures, and indicates the concentration of hydrocarbons in process piping or equipment. Hydrocarbon free removal of hydrocarbons from process piping and equipment prior to opening to the atmosphere and the introduction of air. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) highly toxic, highly flammable, colorless gas with a very distinctive, rotten egg-like odor. Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) condition from which serious injury or death to personnel can occur. Incident response teams groups of people who prepare for and respond to any emergency incident, such as a fire, spill, explosion, or environmental release, that potentially impacts the outlying community. Initial start-up procedures set of guidelines or instructions used to perform the initial start-up of a new process unit or facility. Inspection examination of a part or piece of equipment to determine if it conforms to specifications, traditionally following the completion of work. Instrumentation system of pneumatics, electronic instruments, digital logic devices, and computer-based process controls that make up the measurement and control systems for process equipment for the purpose of safe, efficient, and cost-effective unit operation. Intercom stand-alone electronic communication system intended for limited or private conversation. Interim test test of equipment requiring removal of lock-out/tag-out devices prior to completion of

Lock-out placement of a lock-out device on an energyisolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which ensures that the energy-isolating device and equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lock-out device is removed. Lock-out device a device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key or combination type, to hold equipment in a zero energy state. Lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) procedure used in industry to isolate energy sources from a piece of equipment. Logbook typically, hardbound ledgers used to handwrite significant activities that have occurred during the shift. Loop diagrams show all components and connections between instrumentation and a control room. Lubricants the materials used to reduce friction and remove heat between two contact surfaces. Lubrication the process or technique employed to reduce friction and remove heat for reducing equipment wear and increasing longevity and safety. Maintenance activity events performed by the maintenance department in a process facility, such as pump or compressor repair, pipe work, and routine general maintenance. Management of change (MOC) method of managing and communicating changes to a process, changes in equipment, changes in technology, changes in personnel, or other changes that will impact the safety and health of employees. Mechanical completion documented checking and testing of the construction to confirm that the installa-

maintenance or repair of equipment. Internal procedure company-specific procedure. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) regulates safety and health standards internationally. Intrinsically safe electronic device an electronic device certified safe for use in explosive atmospheres. ISA a global, nonprofit technical society that develops standards for automation, instrumentation, control, and measurement; formerly known as the Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society. Isolation act of separating equipment or machinery from energy sources. Isometric drawings (Isoms) perspective drawings that depict objects, such as equipment and piping, as a 3-D image as they would appear to the viewer. Karl Fischer Water (KFW) Method analytical method for quantifying water content in a variety of products, also known as Karl Fischer titration. Legend section of a drawing that explains or defines the information or symbols contained within the drawing. Lift plan documented plan used to evaluate the hazards and define precautions necessary during heavy lifting activities, including lifting over live process equipment or near energized power lines. Lockbox safety device ensuring no LOTO devices are removed while work is performed. Lockboxes have multiple locks into which all keys and/or tabs from the LOTO devices securing the equipment are inserted, and a single authorized employee using a LOTO device and a job-lock during multishift operations then secures the box.

tion is in accordance with construction drawings and specifications, and is ready for commissioning in a safe manner in compliance with project requirements. Mechanical integrity the state of being whole, sound, and undamaged; capable of functioning at design specification. Mentor influential senior sponsor or trainer, usually in the form of a training coordinator, chief or lead operator, who delivers the training material, tracks material completion, provides feedback, and conducts written and performance evaluations to verify knowledge. Monitoring act of observing and listening to the equipment routinely to prevent process upsets. Multiple padlock attachment clamp-like device used to install multiple locks on a lock-out device. Mutual aid agreement among emergency responders to lend assistance across jurisdictional boundaries. Nameplate capacity designed capacity of the unit. National Electric Code (NEC) specifies electrical cable sizing requirements and installation practices. National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) emissions standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for air pollutants that may cause fatalities or serious, irreversible, or incapacitating illness if not regulated. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) specifies fire codes including building construction codes, fire suppression systems, and fire-fighting capabilities required at facilities. Natural gas combination of light hydrocarbons, with methane the most prevalent, although ethane, butane,

230 Glossary of Terms propane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide can also complete the chemical makeup of natural gas. Nitrogen colorless, odorless, inert, gaseous element constituting ≈ 78% of the earth’s atmosphere, used in manufacturing and air-freeing process equipment. Nonoperating personnel personnel other than process technicians who are visiting the unit, such as engineers, members of the management team, maintenance staff and contractors who are performing work on the unit. Nonverbal communication (NVC) nonspoken communication, such as gesture, expression, or body language. Normal operations those actions performed or procedures followed when a process unit is operating within design parameters. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) U.S. government agency created to establish and enforce workplace safety and health standards, conduct workplace inspections and propose penalties for noncompliance, and investigate serious workplace incidents. One-line diagram key electrical drawing used by the process technician; also known as the single- line diagram. On-the-job training programs objective-oriented training and qualification programs for process technicians to master process equipment, control systems, safety, and hazard management. Operations procedures unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown and normal operation, as well as emergency

Predictive maintenance (PM) maintenance strategy that helps determine the condition of in-service equipment to predict when maintenance should be performed. Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) comprehensive review process, including a list of criteria and activities that must be reviewed and performed by a start-up team to determine whether or not a unit or piece of process equipment is ready for a safe start-up. Preventive maintenance equipment maintenance strategy based on replacing, overhauling, or remanufacturing an item at a fixed interval, regardless of its condition at the time. Procedure specific series of actions that must be executed (followed) in the specified manner to obtain the desired result under the same circumstances each time the work is performed. Procedure owner individual that is accountable for the accurate development and maintenance of a procedure. Procedure template form or guide that accurately and effectively shapes procedure presentation and content. Procedure user process technician trained and qualified on the subject matter of the procedure prior to use. Process drawings provide a visual description and explanation of the processes, equipment, and other important items in a facility. Process flow diagrams (PFDs) basic drawings using symbols and directional arrows to show primary product flow through a process, including such information as operating conditions, the location of main instru-

situations. Panametric trade name used by General Electric to distinguish its line of instruments used for ultrasonic flow measurement and moisture, hydrogen, and oxygen analysis. Paraphrasing summarizes the information received to clarify understanding. Performance testing step-test of the unit to determine if the process unit is able to achieve its maximum design intent. Personal protective equipment (PPE) specialized gear that provides a barrier between hazards and the worker. Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs) detailed drawings that graphically represent the equipment, piping, and instrumentation contained within a process facility. Planning phase the stage of a project where justification and plans are developed for the construction of a new process unit. Plot plans show the layout and dimensions of equipment, units, and buildings, drawn to scale, so that everything is of the correct relative size. Post-commissioning last phase of the commissioning process, which begins after initial start-up is completed. Potable water water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long-term harm. Pre-commissioning activities that must be completed prior to moving into the start-up phase of a new process unit.

ments, and major pieces of equipment. Process hazard analysis (PHA) systematic assessment of the potential hazards associated with an industrial process, taking into account specific hazards and locations of highest potential for exposure. Process Safety Management (PSM) policy that defines the 15 elements of the OSHA 1910 regulation. Includes requirements related to Management of Change (MOC), Process Safety Information, Incident Investigations, Employee Participation, Process Hazard Analysis, Operating Procedures, Mechanical Integrity, Inspection, Training, Trade Secrets, Contractors, PreStart-up Safety Review, Compliance Audits, Hot Work Permits, Emergency Planning and Response. Process simulator stand-alone, computer-generated simulation of a process unit or process system that emulates process equipment, piping systems, control mechanisms, and behaviors that control the process. Process technician workers in a process facility who monitor and control mechanical, physical, and/or chemical changes throughout a process in order to create a product from raw materials. Public address system (PA system) a system that reinforces and distributes a given sound throughout a venue. Punchlist list of uncompleted construction items from contracted design that are not safety critical, but must be addressed by the contracted construction firm. Reactive maintenance equipment maintenance strategy in which equipment and facilities are repaired only in response to a breakdown or a fault.

Glossary of Terms

231

Re-commissioning returning existing process units or equipment to active service after an extended idled period. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) primary federal law, enacted in 1976, that governs the disposal of solid and hazardous waste. Retention time amount of time it takes for each compound to separate out. Rounds routine walk-through of the unit, monitoring the fixed and rotating equipment, and performing other routine tasks. Route sequential path followed in order to perform Equipment Health Monitoring (EHM). Routine duties duties performed that are rigidly prescribed by control over the work or by written or verbal procedures, or well-defined, constant and repetitively performed duties that preclude the need for procedures or substantial controls. Routine maintenance work routinely performed to maintain equipment in its srcinal manufactured condition and maintain operability. Safety, Health, and Environmental (SHE) policies policies implemented by process facilities in order to minimize or prevent risks and/or hazards associated with the process industry and to ensure that the facility is in compliance with applicable regulatory agencies. Sample containers vessels used to collect samples for analysis; containers include glass bottles, vials of various sizes, plastic bottles, plastic bags, metal tins or cans, metal cylinders (bombs) and others, depending on the type and quantity of sample needed.

Sound-powered phones phones containing electromechanical transducers that convert voice directly into electrical energy. Specifications product purity parameters that have been agreed on by the company and the customers, or regulated by governmental agencies. Spill uncontrolled discharge of a liquid, typically involving more volume than a leak. Standard operating procedure (SOP) unit-specific procedures used for the purpose of equipment and system start-up or shutdown in normal operations, as well as emergency operations. Start-up initial commissioning of the unit that involves the introduction of feedstock to produce a defined product at a given purity. Start-up execution plan a strategic document for a normal process unit start-up that typically includes consideration for, or makes provisional reference to other instructions for, required staffing, coordination with other units, utility and auxiliary systems commissioning, hazardous chemical inventory procedures, detailed equipment and unit start-up procedures, and notification of the EPA or other regulatory agencies in advance of the scheduled start-up. Statistical process control (SPC) a method of monitoring, controlling, and ideally improving a process through statistical analysis to determine at what point in the future the maintenance activities are appropriate. Steam vaporized water, especially at a temperature above the boiling point of water at sea level and atmospheric pressure (>100°C or 212°F).

Sample loop a continuous circulation of process liquid or gas from a higher-pressure source to a lower pressure return such as a pump or compressor discharge back to the suction. Circulation assures capture of a representative sample. Loop is typically equipped with a sample station appropriate for the sampling required, including sample cooler if needed. Sample point section of small diameter valved tubing that extends from the main process piping system for collecting low-pressure liquid samples. Sampling process of collecting and preserving a liquid, gas, or solid for laboratory analysis. Scaffold plan documented plan for erecting and dismantling of scaffolding used to access process piping and equipment. Schematics shows the circuit current flow direction, typically beginning at the power source, and the circuit components with the power and signal connections between the components. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) independent breathing device worn by rescue workers, firefighters, process technicians, and others to provide breathable air in a hostile environment. Shift change/relief handing off the operation and maintenance of a facility from one operating crew to another operating crew at a designated time; also known as shift handover, shift pass-down, shift turnover, making relief, and other phrases. Shutdown systematic removal of process equipment from service in order to stop the process.

Steam clouds tiny drops of water that have condensed from steam and are carried along by the invisible vapor. Steam generators any plant process shell and tube exchanger or kettle-type exchanger using boiler feed water (BFW) to remove process heat, convert BFW to steam, and pressure control that steam to a supply header. Steam jets steam-jet vacuum systems combine ejectors, condensers, and interconnecting piping to provide relatively low-cost and low-maintenance vacuum pumping with no moving parts. Stream-to-stream time duration between a unit shutdown when production stops to unit start-up when production is resumed. Steam tracing series of coiled or straight-run tubing, either copper or stainless, wrapped around or attached to a pipe or valve that carries steam as a heat medium. Steam turbines rotating mechanical drivers for compressors and generators powered by high-velocity steam flowing through the vanes on the turbine’s rotor. Subject matter expert (SME) an individual within an organization possessing a very high level of expertise regarding a particular job, task, or process. Symbols figures used to represent the equipment, instruments, and other devices on a process flow diagram (PFD) or piping and instrument diagram (P&ID). Systems set of interacting or interdependent equipment and process elements that work together to deliver a specific process function.

232 Glossary of Terms Tag-out placement of a tag-out device on an energyisolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, which indicates that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed. Tag-out device prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, that can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device in accordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tag-out device is removed. Thermal expansion tendency of matter to increase in volume in response to an increase in temperature. Tightness test pressurization test, typically using nitrogen or other inert gas, for process piping and equipment to ensure that equipment is leak free prior to the introduction of hydrocarbons; also known as the leak test. Title block section of a drawing that contains information such as drawing title, drawing number, revision number, sheet number, srcinator signature, and approval signatures. Train parallel system that has been designed and constructed using the exact or similar production equipment, each of which contributes toward production. Trunked radio system a complex type of computercontrolled radio system. Turnaround (TAR) a planned, scheduled process unit or facility shutdown for maintenance and repair.

Turnaround maintenance required maintenance performed on specific pieces of equipment that cannot be performed unless the unit has been shutdown and de-inventoried. Two-way radio a radio that can transmit and receive content. Unit status report information gathered by the current operating shift for reporting to the on-coming shift during shift change. Utility flow diagrams (UFD) provide process technicians a P&ID type view of the utilities used for a process. Verbal communication dialogue or conversation between two or more people for transferring information. Vibration readings check and documentation of rotating equipment for undesirable vibration. Water hammer hydraulic action associated with a noncompressible fluid in a pipe. Sounds like a pipe being hit with a hammer. Also, the energy developed by the sudden stoppage of fluid in motion. Work permits document that allows individuals or groups to perform work on a process unit. Written communication communication by means of written or printed symbols or letters. Zero energy state the state of equipment following specific process isolation and clearing procedures, followed by isolating all hazardous energy sources using lock-out/tag-out (LOTO) devices.

Index Note: Locators in bold refer to definitions. Letters ‘f’ and ‘t’ following the locators refer to figures and tables.

A Abnormal and emergency operations abnormal operation, 93 process technician’s role, 96–97 scenarios, examples, 94 train, 94 emergency operation, 93 emergency situations and resulting hazards, 95 engineering controls, need for testing on a regular basis, 96 process technician’s role, 97–99 safety systems designed for, 96 unit-specific failures, examples, 96 potential hazards, 99 technician emergency response duties, 99–103 bomb threats, 102–103, 103f

B BFW, See Boiler feedwater (BFW) BLEVE, See Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) Blinding, 55, 66, 130, 222 Blinding/unblinding permit, 80 Blinds, 165 figure 8 blind, 165f locked blind, 165f paddle blind, 165f Block flow diagrams (BFDs), 29–30, 30f Body harness, 61 Boiler feedwater (BFW), 172, 176, 177, 178, 178f Boilers, 3, 45, 171–172, 176, 177, 178, 193, 223 Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), 102 Bomb threats, 100, 102–103

emergency response, 100 explosions, chemical/physical, 101–102 fires, 100–101 incident response teams, 100 spills and releases, 100 Acceptance, 142 Affected employee, 162 AFFF, See Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) Air free, 152 Air systems, 189–190 hazards and mitigations, 189–190 instrument air, 189 plant air, 189 All Call, 77 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 50 American Petroleum Institute

checklist, 103f Bunker gear, 59–60 Burner management system (BMS), 177

(API), 50, 118, 182 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),50 Analyzer, 209 API, See American Petroleum Institute (API) Application block, 40, 40f Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF), 61, 61f Audio visual olfactory (AVO), 57, 97, 149 Authorized employee, 162, 167 AVO, See Audio visual olfactory (AVO)

preventive maintenance checklist, 121f PSSR checklist, 133 written checklist (logbook/eLog), 72 Chromatography, 214, See also Gas chromatography (GC) Color, 214 Commission for environmental quality (CEQ), 55 Commissioning, 138, See also Unit commissioning Commissioning team, 139, 141, 143 Communication, 70

C Calciners, 3 Capable of being locked-out (equipment), 160 CBT, See Computer-based training (CBT) Cell phones, 73, 75 Central control room, 196 CEQ, See Commission for environmental quality (CEQ) Checklist, 18 administrative control checklists (emergency operations), 99, 220 bomb threat checklist, 103, 103f grouping and labeling, safety checklist, 17f

233

234

Index

Communication (Continued) effective communication, importance, 70–71 electronic communication devices cell phones, 75 intercoms, 73–74, 74f PA systems, 74–75, 75f sound-powered phones, 75–76, 76f two-way radios, 76–77 nonverbal communication, 73 during routine maintenance, 79–80 permits to be controlled by the process technician, 79–80 during start-ups/shutdowns, 78–79 verbal communication, 71–72 information to be delivered at shift change, 71 needs and considerations, 71 written checklist, usefulness, 72 written communication, 72–73 clarity in, tips, 72 email, 73 logbook, 72 neatness, accuracy and completeness of information, critical factor, 73 Computer-based training (CBT), 111, 111f Confined space entry (CSE), 55, 56f, 131, 140, 222, 225 Construction phase, 139, 140 Control board technician, 7, 8, 72, 74, 85, 97, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202 Control loop, 5, 37, 47, 147, 200, 218 Control of work (COW), 56, 79, 97, 150, 151, 152, 219, 221, 222 Control panel technician, 153 Control valves, types, 33 Cooling towers, 3, 8, 45, 113, 182, 185–186, 197, 200, 203, 204, 214 cross-flow/counter-flow, 185 hazards and mitigations, 186 types, 185 water treatment, 186 COW, See Control of work (COW) CSE, See Confined space entry (CSE) CSE permit, 65, 79, 85

D Distillation towers, 3 Distributed control system (DCS), 3, 7, 110, 153, 196 Double blocks and bleeds, 166, 166f

E Eductors, 181 Effective communication, 70, 71, 88, 198 EHM, See Equipment health monitoring (EHM) Electrical diagrams, 29, 35 commonly used electrical symbols, 36f electrical components and relationships, 35 one-line diagram, 35, 36f

Electric heat tracing, 180, 180f Electricity, 187–189 facility power grid, example, 188f hazards and mitigations, 189 Electronic logbook (eLog), 72, 86, 86f, 88, 90, 197, 198, 204 Elevation diagrams, 37 Emergency, 93 operation, 98–99 response, 100 shut-down, 220 Emergency block valve (EBV), 33 Emergency isolation valve (EIV), See Emergency block valve (EBV) Employee health monitoring, 55, 152, 154, 222 Energized device, 160 Energy-isolating devices, 159, 160, 164, 165 Energy sources, 160 Environmental protection agency (EPA), 55, 56, 65, 66, 98, 148, 154 EPA, See Environmental protection agency (EPA) Equipment health monitoring (EHM), 148, 196, 200, 218 Equipment inspection and monitoring policy, 55 Equipment location diagrams, 37 Equipment monitoring, 199–200, See also Equipment health monitoring (EHM) Equipment status sheet, 121, 122f Equipment symbols, 30, 32, 45 Evacuation plan, 220 Explosion, 101 chemical explosions, 101–102 combination reactions, 102 decomposition reactions, 101 dust explosion, 102 vapor cloud explosion, 102 physical explosions, 102 BLEVE, 102 Extraction vessels, 3

F Faraday, Michael, 183 Feed forward flow, 149 Field technician, 8, 85, 97, 99, 153, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, Fire brigade, 100, 101204 Fire-retardant clothing (FRC), 60, 211, 212f Firewater, 148, 166, 171, 176, 178 First responders, 98 at awareness level, 100 at operations level, 100 Flame resistant, 211 Flame retardant, 211 Flammable gas detector, 62, 62f Flare system, 4, 5, 64, 65, 100, 171, 190–192

Index

235

Flow control valve (FCV), 33, 37 FRC, See Fire-retardant clothing (FRC) Friction, 125

K

G

L

Gas chromatography (GC), 214 General work permit, 80, 85 Gun drills, 99

LAN, See Local area network (LAN) Leak testing, See Tightness test Legend, 37, 39f Letdown stations, 172, 177 Lift plan, 223 Local area network (LAN), 154 Lockbox, 162, 163f Lock-out, 159–160 Lock-out devices, 162 blinds, 165 figure 8 blind, 165f locked blind, 165f paddle blind, 165f chains/cables, 163 to secure a valve, 164f double blocks and bleeds, 166, 166f locks and lockboxes, 162–163, 163f switch gear, 166 tags, 164 Lock-Out/Tag-Out (LOTO), 4, 35, 55, 65, 66, 78, 79, 80, 97, 112, 120, 130, 152, 158–169, 187, 199, See also Electrical diagrams affected employee, 162 authorized employee, 162 energy-isolating device, 160 generic procedure, 161f, 162 guidelines for isolation of energy-sources, 160 lock-out and isolating devices blinds, 165 chains/cables, 163 double blocks and bleeds, 166 locks and lockboxes, 162–163 switch gear, 166 tags, 164, 164f lock-out, meaning, 159–160 multiple padlock attachment, 160 OSHA policy CFR 1910.147, 160 removing LOTO devices, steps, 167 interim test, 167 tag-out, meaning, 160 types of energy requiring isolation, 167 zero energy state, 159 Logbook, 8, 9, 72, 73, 85, 86, 88, 197, 198, 204, See also Electronic logbook (eLog) Loop diagrams, 37 LOTO, See Lock-Out/Tag-Out (LOTO) Lubricants, 124 disposal, 126 handling, 126 indoor/outdoor storage, 125–126 removal from containers, 126–127

H Hazard155, and220 Operability (HAZOP),8, 9, 97, 154, Hazardous waste operations and emergency response standard (HAZWOPER), 98, 112 HAZWOPER, See Hazardous waste operations and emergency response standard (HAZWOPER) Heat exchangers, 3, 31, 33, 37, 44, 50, 113, 174, 184, 185, 187, 191, 209 Hot work, 55, 65, 66, 80, 85, 131, 140, 155, 222, 223, 225 Hot work permit, 55, 80, 85 Housekeeping, 8, 55, 58, 59, 60, 66, 131, 153, 154, 155, 167, 197, 223 common housekeeping examples, 59 importance, 58 PPE’s required, 60–61, 60f hazardous environment detector, 61f unit-specific housekeeping examples, 59–60 Hydrocarbon detector, Hydrocarbon free, 224 62, 63, 224 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 61, 187, 193 Hydro test, 152

I Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), 60 Incident response teams, 100 Initial start-up procedures, 142 Inspection, 130 Instrumentation, 5–6 Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA), 33, 49–50 instrument tag numbers, 47–49, 48f functional identification examples, 49t ISA functional identification table, 48t logo, 49f Intercom, 73–74, 74f, See also Intrinsically safe electronic device Interim test, 167 Internal procedure, 12, 17 International Organization forStandardization (ISO),12 Intrinsically safe electronic device, 73–74 ISO, See International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Isolation, 120 Isometric drawings (isoms), 37, 38f

Karl Fischer water (KFW) method, 214 Knockout pots/drums, 178

236

Index

Lubrication, 124–125, See also Lubricants process technician’s role (routine checks) leak checks, 128 lube oil level, 127–128 oil changes, 128 oil sampling, 128 oil temperature, 128

M Maintenance, 116–136 lubricants disposal, 126 handling lubricants, 126 indoor/outdoor storage, 125–126 removal from containers, 126–127 lubrication, importance, 124–125 process technician’s role, 125, 127–128 removal of friction by lubricants, 125 of mechanical integrity, effects, 117 process technician’s role, 120–124 cost estimation, 123–124, 123t equipment status sheet, 121, 122f hazards encountered during equipment maintenance, 124 isolation of equipment from energy source,120, 120f P-101A pump PM, example, 120f, 121, 122f, 123t removal of blinds after maintenance, procedure, 124, 125f safe energy state of equipment, verification/ execution, 120–121 routine maintenance, strategies, 118 predictive maintenance, 118–119 preventive maintenance, 119–120 reactive maintenance, 119 turnaround maintenance, 118 shut downs and start-ups, 133 turnarounds and turnaround maintenance, 128–130 inspection, key activity, 130 phases of a turnaround and personnel involved,129 post-turnaround audits, focus, 130 process technician’s role, 130–133 Maintenance activity, 85 Management of change (MOC), 56, 132–133, 153, 154, 155, 218, 222, 223 56, 65, 66, 154, 223 Material release reporting, Material safety data sheets (MSDS), 203 MCC, See Motor control center (MCC) Mechanical completion, 140, 141, 154 Mechanical integrity, 55, 117, 131, 148, 155, 218 Mentor, 109 mentoring situation, 109f mentorship, importance in training programs, 109 MOC, See Management of change (MOC) Monitoring, 199, See also Equipment monitoring Motor control center (MCC), 6, 35, 59, 61

MSDS, See Material safety data sheets (MSDS) Multiple padlock attachment, 160, 162, 163f, 166 Mutual aid, 101

N Nameplate capacity, 142 National electric code (NEC), 50 National emissions standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP), 65 National fire protection association (NFPA), 50, 60, 211 Natural gas, 193 NESHAP, See National emissions standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP) Nitrogen, 192–193 blanketing/purging/drying, uses, 192 hazards and mitigation, 192 spills and leaks, 192–193 storage, 192 Non-operating personnel, 84, 85 Nonverbal communication (NVC), 73 Normal operations, 3, 14, 15, 25, 57, 66, 85, 117, 147, 148, 150, 153, 155, 175, 189, 191, 195–206, 218, 222, 223

O Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 12, 31, 50, 55, 57, 60, 79, 85, 97, 98, 99, 107, 120, 133, 147, 148, 151, 153, 154, 155, 159, 160, 185, 192, 203, 211, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223 One-line diagram, 35 On-the-job training (OJT), 106–115 OSHA, 107 process safety management standard, 107 purpose and importance, 107 communication, importance, 108 continuous education, 108 qualification for a specific job assignment, requirements, 108 training programs, goals, 108 training materials, 110–113 CBT, 111 process simulator, aid to emergency situations, 111 reference materials and its uses, 113 training modules hazards, 112 matter, training modules,for materials/subject 110–113 training methods, skill development, and trainee observation, 108–110 mentorship, importance in training program, 108 performance evaluation of trainee’s progression, 108–109 positive/negative feedback to trainees, impact, 110 On-the-job training programs, 107 Operations, 2 equipment, 3–4

Index

P&ID of flow orifice and control valve, 3f process technicians’ understanding of LOTO, importance, 4 training process for technicians based on equipment-specific procedures, 3–4 instrumentation, 5–6 key devices and information, 5–6 process control, 5 simple temperature indicator (TI), 5f operations organizational structure/facilities, 6–7, 6f process technicians, 2 of the future, 9 performance evaluation of, 2 roles and responsibilities, 7–9 in safety/efficacy of operations, role, 2 systems, 4–5 key systems within a process facility, 4–5 Operations organizational structure/facilities, 6–7, 6f facility management team, 6 operations superintendent, 7 process engineering, 7 process supervisor, 7 process technicians, 7 Operations procedures, 57 OSHA PSM guidelines for unit start-up, 147–148

P Panametric, 214 Paraphrasing, 88 Performance testing, 142 Personal protective equipment (PPE), 9, 14, 57, 59, 60, 60f, 66, 97, 124, 150, 155, 187, 188, 190, 201, 202–204, 211, 221, 223 PFDs, See Process flow diagrams (PFDs) PHA, See Process hazard analysis (PHA) P&IDs, See Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), 3, 31–33 information available on equipment designations, 32–33 equipment symbols, 32 instrumentation, 33 process piping, 33 Planning 139 PLC, See phase, Programmable logic controllers (PLC) Plot plans, 37, 39f Post-commissioning, 142 Potable water, 179 PPE, See Personal protective equipment (PPE) Pre-commissioning, 141 Predictive maintenance (PM), 118–119 advantages/disadvantages, 118 Fitness-for-Service/Remaining Life (standard (579), API), 118–119 SPC principles, 118

237

Pressure relief and flare system, 190–192 flare and vent system, 190–191 hazards and mitigation, 191–192 pressure-relief systems, 190 safety relief valve operation, 190 Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR), 8, 9, 133, 148, 152, 154, 155, 219 Preventive maintenance, 119–120 advantages/disadvantages, 120 checklist, example, 121f role of process technician, 120 Procedure, 3 owner, 12 template, 14 user, 15 Procedure writing effective written communication, techniques avoid subjective words, 17 be precise, 16 employ visual techniques, 18, 19f–22f follow company procedures, 17 group and label information, 17, 17f practice, 23 use common names, 16 government organizations, management of hazards ISO, 12 OSHA (PSM standard), 12 principles and techniques, 12–16 effective/operating procedure template, example, 13f gathering information, 14 organizing the information, 14–15 presenting the information, 15–16 process technician, the procedure owner internal procedure creation, 12 Process and instrument drawings, See Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) Process drawings, reading common functions, 29 equipment standards, 49–50 information application block, 40 legend, 37 symbols, 41–48 title block, 40 requirements to meet industrial standards, 29 uses BFD, 29–30, 30f electrical diagrams, 35 isometric drawings (isoms), 37 other drawings, 37 PFD, 30–31 P&IDS, 31–33 plot plans, 37 schematics, 35 symbology, 33 UFD, 33–35

238

Index

Process engineering, 7 Process flow diagrams (PFDs), 3, 30–31, 31f information available on a PFD control instruments, 31 equipment designation, 30 equipment symbols, 30 heat exchangers, 31 major process piping, 30 pump capacities, 31 variables/parameters, 31 Process hazard analysis (PHA), 8, 9, 57, 99, 133, 155, 220, 223 Process safety information, 57, 132, 133, 147, 154, 155, 218, 222, 223 Process safety management (PSM), 12, 55, 57, 85, 97, 99, 108, 139, 141, 147, 155, 218, 223 Process simulator, 111, 111f Process technician, 2 of the future, 9 knowledge on equipment-specific procedures training process, 3–4 performance evaluation of, 2 role in equipment lubrication leak checks, 128 lube oil level, 127–128, 128 oil changes, 128 oil sampling, 128 oil temperature, 128 role in equipment maintenance, 120–124 cost estimation, 123–124, 123t equipment status sheet, 121, 122f hazards encountered during equipment maintenance, 124 isolation of equipment from energy source, 120, 120f P-101A pump PM, example, 121, 121f, 122f, 123t removal of blinds after maintenance, procedure, 124, 125f safe energy state of equipment, verification/execution, 120–121 role in handling abnormal operations, 96–97 role in handling emergency operations emergency operating procedures, 98–99 HAZWOPER, 98 process hazard analysis, 99 role in planning/execution of shut-downs, 221–223 role in safety/efficacy of operations, 2 role in turnarounds change management/MOC, 132–133 maintaining mechanical integrity, 131–132 pre-turnaround duties, 130 PSSR, 133 role in unit start-ups, 152–155 coordination and control of variables, 153 PSSR activities, 154 SHE policies (through LAN), 154–155

roles and responsibilities, 7–9 understanding of LOTO, importance, 4 Process technician routine duties automated systems, benefits, 197 DCS, 196–197 control board technician role, 196 routine duties, 196–197 documentation information to be documented, 204 unit logbook/eLog, 204 EHM, 200–201 checking for leaks, 201 readings recorded on technician’s route, 200 vibration and temperature recording, tools, 200, 201f equipment monitoring, 199–200 considerations, 200 field technician normal routine duties, 197 role, 196 normal operations, 196 operating procedures, 204 PPE, 202–204 OSHA’s general PPE standard, 203 reference to MSDS, 203 rounds, 196 routine duties, 196–198 starting/stopping equipment, 201–202 tools commonly used, 198–199, 198f–199f Programmable logic controllers (PLC), 6 PSM, See Process safety management (PSM) PSSR, See Pre-start-up safety review (PSSR) Public address system (PA system), 73, 74–75, 75f Punchlist, 142

R Reactive maintenance, 119 advantages/disadvantages, 119 role of process technician, 119 Re-commissioning, 138, 142–143 Refrigeration systems, 4, 183–185 components, 183 compressed ammonia, role, 183 hazards applications, and mitigations, process 185 185 vapor compression refrigeration, 184f Relief valve, 5, 190, 192 Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA), 60, 98 Retention time, 214 Rounds, 196 Route (technician), 200 Routine duties, 197, See also Process technician routine duties Routine maintenance, 118

Index

S Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies, 14, 53–68, 70, 77, 97, 113, 151, 152, 153, 154, 219, 221, 222, See also SHE policies, complying with Sample containers, 210 Sample loop, 210 Sample point, 209 Sampling, 208 contamination, consistency, and reliability, 213 importance, 208–209 analyzer verification, 209 customer quality assurance, 209 protection of personnel, 209 proper labeling and quantity, 213–214 proper sampling procedure, using, 209 sample analysis, factors BS&W, 214 color, 214 gas chromatography (GC), 214 gas tubes, 214 KFW method, 214 lead acetate test, 214 multigas LEL meter, 215 panametric, 214 pH, 214 sample points/loops/containers, 209–210 wearing proper PPE, 211–213 flame-resistant/retardant clothing, 211 hazards associated with material samples, 212 PPEs for respiratory protection, 211–212 Sanitary sewer system, 180–181, 180f aeration section, 181 aeration-type package, 181 hazards, 181–182 lift stations, 181 settling section, 181–182 Scaffold plan, 223 Schematics, 35 Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 57, 58f, 60, 193, 209, 211, 212 SHE policies, See Safety, health, and environmental (SHE) policies SHE policies, complying with environmental hazards, 64–65 isolation scenario, 66 list of policies, 55–57 blinding, 55 COW, 56 CSE, 55 employee health monitoring, 55 equipment inspection and monitoring, 55 hot work, 55 housekeeping, 55 LOTO, 55 material release reporting, 56

239

MOC, 56 operations procedures, 57 PHA, 57 PPE, 57 process safety information, 57 PSM, 57 vehicle entry, 57 potential hazards, 65–66 improper equipment identification, prevention policies, 65–66 process technician’s role, 57–61 importance of housekeeping, 58–61 process industry risk management, skills required, 57 regulatory agencies CEQ, 55 EPA, 55 OSHA, 55 routine maintenance and inspection, 66 safety equipment, 61–64 deluge or sprinkler systems, 62 fire extinguishers, 61 inspections, importance/criteria, 62–63 insulation on piping, 62 safety showers and eyewash stations, 62 SCBAs, 62, 62f Shift change/relief establishing good relationships, 90 items/information to be communicated at shift change, 84 making a timely relief, 88–89 methods used to make relief, 85–88 eLogs, 86, 86f logbooks, 86–87, 87f shift pass-down sheets, 88, 89f verbal communication, 85, 88 participants in the shift change group communication method, 88 paraphrasing, tool for communication, 88 technician-to-technician communication method, 88 unit status (reports), 85 Shift pass-down sheets, 88, 89f Shut-down, 218, See also Unit shut-down Single-line diagram, See One-line diagram Soft skills, 109 SOP, See Standard operating procedure (SOP) Sound-powered phones, 75–76, 76f Sour fuel gas, See Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) SPC, See Statistical process control (SPC) Specifications (product), 208 Spill, 100 Standard operating procedure (SOP), 14 Start-up, 141–142, See also Initial start-up procedures Start-up execution plan, 148 Statistical process control (SPC), 118

240

Index

Steam, 171 clouds, 174 de-superheating, 174 generation and distribution, 171–175 boilers, 171–172 de-superheating, 174 hazards, 174–175 heat exchangers, 174 letdown stations, 172 power generation, 174 steam, definition, 171 steam turbines, 172 surface condenser, 172 turbine-supplied steam letdown, 172 generators, 176 jets, 175 tracing, 175, 175f turbines, 172 Stream-to-stream, 218 Strippers, 3 Subject matter expert (SME), 14 Surface condenser, 172 Switch gear, 166 Symbols, 41–49 actuator symbols, 43, 43f boiler symbols, 45 common P&ID symbols, 41f compressor symbols, 43, 44f cooling tower symbols, 45, 45f electrical equipment and motor symbols, 46f, 47 furnace symbols, 45 heat exchanger symbols, 44, 44f instrumentation symbols, 47, 47f, 48f piping symbols, 41 pump symbols, 43, 43f reactor and distillation column symbols, 45 turbine symbols, 45, 45f valve symbols, 42–43 vessel symbols, 44f, 45 Systems, 4

T Tag-out, 160 Tag-out device, 164 Tags, 164 Thermal expansion, 64, 133, 134f, 155 Tightness test, 152, 155 Title block, 40, 40f Train, 94 Training modules for hazards, 112 Transmitter, 6, 7, 153, 197 Trunked radio system, 76, 77 Turnaround (TAR), 55, 79, 88, 118, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 147, 148, 151, 153, 174, 178, 183, 187, 192, 221, 224, 225 maintenance, 118, 128–130

Two-way radios, 73, 76–77 All Call, 77 FCC license, 77 inspection, 77 safety check, considerations/indications, 77 trunked vs. conventional radio systems, 76–77

U Uninterruptable power supply (UPS), 6 Unit commissioning construction, 140–141 mechanical completion documentation, 140 process technician’s duties, 140 key criteria, 138–139 planning, 139 commissioning team, 139 considerations during planning phase, 139 post-commissioning, 142 punchlist, example, 142, 143f pre-commissioning, 141 re-commissioning, 142 start-up, 141–142 initial start-up procedures, 142 nameplate capacity, 142 on-test production and acceptance documentation, 142 performance testing, 142 Unit shut-down activities during a shut-down (OSHA PSM standard), 218–219 emergency shut-downs, 220 administrative controls, examples, 220 evacuation plan, 220 HAZOP studies, 220 entire unit shut-down for turnaround, 221 normal/routine shut-downs, 219 potential hazards, 223–225 process technician’s role in planning/execution of shut-downs, 221–223 SHE policies used, 222–223 shut-down for equipment maintenance, 220–221 site staffing, requirement, 219 stream-to-stream, 218 Unit start-up activities during, OSHA PSM standard/guidelines, 147–148 equipment start-up after maintenance activities, 150–151 hazards associated with minor equipment repairs, 150 OSHA 1910 PSM standard, policies, 151 major unit start-ups operations/personnel in, 151 normal/routine start-up, 148–149 AVO method, process unit monitoring, 149

Index

communication with adjacent/connected process units, need, 148 feed forward flow, 149 order of safety systems to be used, 148–149 start-up execution plan, instructions, 148 potential hazards, 155–156 preparation of equipment for service, tests performed, 152 process technician’s role in planning and executing start-ups, 152–155 SOPs and personnel for, 148 start-up after an emergency shut-down, 149–150 major/minor equipment failure, effects, 149–150 types initial commissioning start-up, 147 start-up after an emergency shut down, 147 start-up after a turnaround, 147 Unit status report, 84, 85 UPS, See Uninterruptable power supply (UPS) Utility and auxiliary systems air systems, 189–190 hazards and mitigations, 189–190 instrument air, 189 plant air, 189 cooling towers, 185–186 cross-flow/counter-flow, 185 hazards and mitigations, 187 types, 186 water treatment, 186 electricity, 187–188 facility power grid, example, 188f hazards and mitigations, 189–190 firewater, 178 natural gas, 193 nitrogen, 192–193 blanketing/purging/drying, uses, 192 hazards and mitigation, 192 spills and leaks, 192–193 storage, 192 potable water, 179–180 electric heat tracing, 180, 180f pressure relief and flare system, 190–192 flare and vent system, 190–191 hazards and mitigation, 191–192 pressure-relief systems, 190 safety relief valve operation, 190 refrigeration systems, 183–185 components, 183 compressed ammonia, role, 183 hazards and mitigations, 185

process applications, 185 vapor compression refrigeration, 184f sanitary sewer system, 180–182, 180f aeration section, 180–181 aeration-type package, 181 hazards, 181–182 lift stations, 181 settling section, 181 steam generation and distribution, 171–175 boilers, 171–172 de-superheating, 174 hazards, 174–175 heat exchangers, 174 letdown stations, 172 power generation, 174 steam, definition, 171 steam turbines, 172 surface condenser, 172 turbine-supplied steam letdown, 172 wastewater hazards, 183 treatment process, 182, 182f water treatment operations, 182–183 water systems, 176–178 BFW treatment, 176, 177f hazards, 177–178 Utility flow diagrams (UFD), 28, 33, 34f

V Vapor cloud explosion, 102 Vapor compression refrigeration, 184f Vehicle entry, 55, 57, 65, 80, 155, 223, 225 Verbal communication, 71–72, 79, 85, 88 Vibration readings, 200

W Wastewater, 171, 180, 181–183, 187 hazards, 183 treatment process, 182, 182f water treatment operations, 182–183 Water hammer, 175 Water systems, 4, 176–178 BFW treatment, 176, 177f hazards, 177–178 Water treatment operations/process, 182–183, 182f Work permits, 55, 78, 79, 85, 140 Written communication, 16, 72–73, 79

Z Zero energy state, 159, 160, 162, 167

241

Process Operations

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