THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY Why are some individuals shy and others outgoing? What causes people, such as Kira and Ray, to become attracted to one another and fall in love? Can we predict which re...
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Brief Discussion
Psychology Reviewer
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Avoidance conditioning
I.
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Secondary reward conditioning
Learning and Thinking
Learning – a process by which brings about a change in the individual’s way of responding as a result of practice or other experiences. Types of Learning 1. Classica Classicall Condit Conditioni ioning ng –simples –simplestt form of learning. Ivan Pavlov CS-UCS-UCR-CS-CR (example ung sa dog at ung meat) Unconditioned Stimulus – Stimulus which is adequate at the outset of training to produce the response in question
Reinforcement Reinforcement – Stimulus that will maintain or increase the strength of a response 3. Insightfu Insightfull Learning Learning/Perp /Perpetua etuall Learning - Wolfgang Kohler •
Sign learning
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Programmed Learning
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Learning to Learn
4. Multi Multiple ple – Respo Response nse Lear Learnin ning g •
Conditioned stimulus – initially adequate to evoke the response in question but will do so if paired with the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response – learned response Discrimination Discrimination – eliciting different responses to two different stimuli Extinction – organism’s repertoire of behavior 2. Inst Instru rume ment ntal al Conditioning/Operant Conditioning – a selection from many responses of the one that habitually will be given in a stimulus situation. E.L. Thorndike & B.F. Skinner •
Primary reward conditioning conditioning
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Escape conditioning
Associative Learning – Habit formation
5. Oth Other types ypes •
Rational Learning
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Motor Learning
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Associational Associational Learning
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Appreciation Learning
Remembering and Forgetting Reintegrative Memory – recollection of a personal experience or event. Recognition – remembering only a sense of familiarity Recall - a reinstatement of something learned in the past Saving in relearning – is a way of finding out the influence of prior learning
Explanations of forgetting
A. Presence of a problem
Passive decay through disuse
B. Definition of a problem
Systematic distortions of the memory trace
C. Weighing of relevance or probabilities
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Interference effects
D. Verification
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Motivated forgetting
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Theories differing functions of the brain
Retroactive inhibition – new learning interfering with prior ones
A. Peripheralists - hold that all thinking goes on in muscular movement and all that psychology requires is a stimulus – response analysis of thinking.
Proactive inhibition – prior learning interfering with learning and recall of new materials Improvement in retention •
Correct performance
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Spacing learning
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Distributed practice
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Recall
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B. Centralists – hold that thinking goes on inside the brain and nervous system, and muscular movements merely accompany the central process. Problem Solving a) Habitual set – tendency to persist in applying a solution that was once efficient but is no longer applicable
Teaching aids Branching programs
Thinking – type of behaviour that uses symbols as inner representations of objects and events. •
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b) Functional fixedness – the inability to see alternative uses for a tool or object whose familiar use for a tool or object whose familiar use-meaning has become fixed.
Directed thinking – has an aim, goal or end point Creative thinking – attempts to discover new relationships achieve new solutions to problems, invent new methods or devices and produce new artistic forms.
Thinking process
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Preparation
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Incubation and illumination
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Verifications
Higher of mental process •
Autistic thinking
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5. Need for self – actualization
Dreaming
6. Cognitive needs II.
7. Esthetic needs
Drives and Motivations
Biological Drives •
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Maslow’s Ladder of Human Needs 1. Physical needs
Hunger
2. Safety and security needs
Thirst
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Air Hunger
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Warmth and cold
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Pain
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Rest and sleep drives
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Sleep drive
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Sex motive
3. Love and belonging 4. Self – respect 5. Personal Growth Theories of human motivation •
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Psychosocial Motives •
Affiliation
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Dependency
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Social Approval
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Status
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Security
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Achievement
Hierarchy of Motives – Abraham Maslow 1. Physiological needs – biological drives 2. Safety needs 3. Belongingness and love needs 4. Esteem needs
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Behavior theory – whiting and child Theory of unconscious motivation Cognitive theory of motivation
Alderfer’s ERG Theory •
Existence
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Relatedness
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Growth
III.
Emotions
Physiological Reactions in emotion •
Galvanic skin response
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Blood pressure and volume
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Heart rate
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Respiration
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Pupillary response
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Salivary secretion
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Pilomotor response
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Gastrointestinal motility
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Muscle tension and tremor
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Blood composition
Classes of emotional reactions •
Fear
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Anger
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Depressive reactions or grief
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Love
Theories of emotion •
James - Lange Theory
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Canon – Bard’s Theory
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Cognitive Theory of Emotions
IV.
Frustrations and Conflicts
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Displaced aggression – when circumstances block direct attack on the cause of frustration and the aggressive action is made against an innocent person or object instead. •
Scapegoating
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Free-floating
Withdrawal reactions •
Fantasy
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“Beatnik” reaction
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Repression
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Apathy
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Fixation
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Identification
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Regression
Compromise reactions •
Reaction formation
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Projection
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Sublimation
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Compensation
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Rationalization
Sources of Frustrations •
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Physical Environment Social Environment Organism itself
Type of conflicts •
Conflicting attraction or approach – approach conflicts
