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Psychology U P D AT E D
SEVENTH
E DITION
John W. Santrock University of Texas at Dallas
Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore S ingapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
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PSYCHOLOGY, UPDATED SEVENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright ” 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous edition(s) 2003, 2000, 1997. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 VNH/VNH 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 ISBN 0-07-293776-9 Vice president and editor-in-chief: Thalia Dorwick Publisher: Stephen D. Rutter Senior developmental editor: Judith Kromm Developmental editor: Sienne Patch Marketing manager: Melissa Caughlin Project manager: Richard H. Hecker Production supervisor: Carol Bielski Senior media technology producer: Sean Crowley Designer: Preston Thomas Illustrators: John & Judy Waller and EPS, Inc. Cover image: © Moonrunner Design Manager, Art: Robin Mouat Photo research coordinator: Alexandra Ambrose Lead supplement producer: Marc Mattson Compositor: The GTS Companies Typeface: 9.5/12 Meridian Roman Printer: Von Hoffman Press The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-Publication Data Santrock, John W. Psychology / John W. Santrock.—Updated 7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliogical references and indexes. ISBN 0-07-293776-9 (alk. paper) 1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title. BF121.S265 2005 150—dc22 2003070611 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com
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Find Balance! Balance scientific research with real-world applications.
Is Psychology Value-Free? y s r e v o r t n o C l a c i t i r C
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? A G RE E
example,a psychologistinterviewedby TedKoppelon Nightline mayhave certainvaluesconcerninggovernment’sresponsibility in caringfor thehomeless, parents’ responsibility in anadolescent’suseof cocaine,and theresponsibilityofan individualwith apsychologicaldisorderwhohascommittedmass murder. Psychotherapists whom people consult about problems may have certain personal values concerning self-esteem, marriage, sexual conduct, and other topics that i nfluence the advice they give. For example, one psychotherapist might perceive a client’s sexual behavior as “sick,” whereas another might think of it as an adaptive sexual variation. Psychology professors have certain values about gender, moral behavior, religion, child rearing, and how to get ahead in life that might influence what they communicate in their lectures and how they respond to students’ questions. For example, one professor might perceive that a female’s assertive behavior is too aggressive, whereas another might think of the behavior as competent. But wait a minute. Isn’t psychology supposed to be an ob jective science? As a science, psychology is dedicated to discovering facts about behavior and creating theories to explain those facts. In this description, there is no mention of values. The scientific approach requires only that psychology discover the most dependable facts and generate the best theories possi ble (Kimble, 1989). In the pure world of science, there is no place for values. Some critics, though, question whether a view of science as value-free is realistic (Seligman, Olson, & Zanna, ) 1996). They argue that—although psychologists often strive to s 2.0seek to discover facts about reduce the role of values d as they behavior—in the court of n li fe, which is psychology’s setting, o values and psychology are sometimes difficult to disentangle. c
D I SA G RE E
1. Human beings are basically good. 2. By changing the environment, you can change people’s behavior. 3. Intelligence is the most important human trait. 4. People are too concerned about themselves. 5. Physical attraction is important in choosing a mate. 6. Women are becoming too assertive. 7. Divorce iswrong. 8. Religion is not an appropriate area of study for psychologists. 9. Money can bring happiness. 10. It is okay to cheat if youdon’t get caught. The way you responded to these items provides insight into your values. If you decide to become a psychologist, might your views on these topics, as well as others, influence the area you choose to research? Might psychologists’ values influence how they respond in a media interview? Might clinical psychologists’ values affect the advice they give to clients? Might psychology professors’ values influence the topics they choose to discuss in class and how they respond to students’ questions? In some cases, researchers’ values might influence their choice of research questions. A divorced woman might decide to study the inadequate involvement and support of noncustodial fathers in their children’s lives rather than the increased role of fathers in caring for children because of her soured relationship with her ex-husband. An Asian American might choose to study the importance of conformity to a group’s goals rather than an individual’s unique contributions to a project because he or she believes that getting along with others in a group is more important than an individual’s achievement. Whenpsychologistsarecalled onasexperts,they maymake statementsandrecommendationsthatareladenwith values.For
Research Critical Controversy boxes in each chapter highlight current debates in psychology and pose thought-provoking questions to encourage students to examine the evidence on both sides of an issue.
Clearly labeled graphs and explanatory captions help students become familiar with visual data presentation.
e s What do you think? ( 1.5 e • Is psychology value-free? m Explain. i t • How might the culture in which psychologists grow n 1.0 up influence their values, o and how might those val i ues in turn affect their t choice of research topics and the advice they give c to clients in psychotherapy? a • Are religious values e appropriate study material for r psychologists? How might psychologists study reli e 0.5 g gious values? a r e v A 0
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Expanded and updated coverage of neuroscience and evolutionary psychology reflects psychology's increasing emphasis on the biological bases of behavior.
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Age (years)
Cell body Dendrites
Direction of nerve impulse
Nucleus Axon
Axon
New coverage of gender and cross-cultural research, as well as positive psychology and evolutionary psychology, is indexed inside the back cover of the book.
Axon
Myelin sheath surrounding the axon
Sending Neuron
Receiving Neuron
Applications
Dealing with Conflict Think about the following situations one at a time. Check which response is most typical of the way you would behave in that situation. You are being kept on t he phone by a salesperson trying to sell you something you don’t want. You want to break off a relationship that is no longer working for you. You are sitting in a movie and the people behind you are talking. Your doctor keeps you waiting more than 20 minutes. You are standing in line and someone moves in front of you. Your friend has owed you money for a long time and it is money you could use. You receive food at a restaurant that is over- or undercooked.
e v i t r e s s A
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In each chapter of the text, a Psychology and Life feature invites students to apply what they've learned to daily life.
L i f e
You want to ask a major favor of your friend, romantic partner, or roommate.
Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization
Your friends ask you to do something that you don’t feel like doing.
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You are in a large lecture hall. The instructor is speaking too softly and you know other students are having trouble hearing what is being said. You want to start a conversation at a gathering, but you don’t know anyone there. You are sitting next to someone who is smoking, and the smoke bothers you. You are talking to someone about something that is important to you, but he or she doesn’t seem to be li stening.
Descriptions and photos of psychologists at work illustrate applications of psychology in various settings plus different career options for psychology majors.
You are speaking and someone interrupts you. You receive an unjust criticism from someone. In most circumstances, being assertive is the best strategy. However, there may be some situations in which a different style ofinteraction isneeded. Look at each situat sertive style is always the best strategy and e of the other styles might work best.
PatrickMcCarthyisan I/Opsychologistwho studiesmanyaspectsof organizations,including organizationalchange,motivationandworkattitudes,andwork/familybalance.
EnvironmentalpsychologistRobertaFeldmanin oneof thepositiveenvironmentsshedesigned. Whatare someofthe interestsofenvironmental psychologists?
monitoring what they have read for meaning and periodically summarizing what they have read (Pressley, 2000, 2003).
Industrial and Organizational Psychology Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) centers on the workplace, both on the workers and on the organizations that employ them. I/O psychology is often partitioned into industrial psychology and organizational psychology. Industrial psychology involves personnel and human resource management. Industrial psychology is increasingly referred to as personnel psychology. Organizational psychology examines the social and group influences of the organization (Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Muchinsky, 2003). Patrick McCarthy is an I/O psychologist at Middle Tennessee State Universit . additi on to teachin g undergraduate and graduate cour number of companies, such as Procter & . . .
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Stay Focused and Learn! Students need help finding the key ideas in introductory psychology. Santrock's unique learning system keeps students focused on these ideas so they learn and remember fundamental psychological concepts. Chapter Outline and Learning Goals Chapter Outline
Learning Goals
TYPES OF LEARNING
1
Explain whatlearningis.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2
Describeclassical conditioning.
3
Discussoperant conditioning.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
4
Understandobservational learning.
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
5
Knowabouttheroleofcognitio n inlearning.
6
Identifybiological andc ultural factorsin learning.
Learning Goals are linked directly to the primary section headings in the text and supplementary resources to underscore key ideas.
Pavlov’sStudies ▼
ClassicalConditioning in Humans OPERANT CONDITIONING Definitionof OperantConditioning ▼
Thorndike’sLaw of Effect ▼
Skinner’sApproach to OperantConditioning
Reach Your Learning Goals
▼
Shaping
Section Maps and Chapter Summary Map
▼
Principlesof Reinforcement ▼
1 T Y PE S O F L E A R N IN G
Applicationsof OperantConditioning
2 CLASSIC ALCONDITIONING
PurposiveBehavior ▼
P a vl o v’s S t ud i es
C l as sci a l C on d ti i on i ng i n Humans
InsightLearning BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN LEARNING BiologicalConstraints
Primary and secondary headings presented graphically provide a quick visual overview of the important topics covered in the chapter.
▼
CulturalConstraints
3 OPERANTCONDITIONING DefinitionofOperant Conditioning
Learning
Skinner’sApproachTo OperantConditioning
Principlesof Reinforcement
Thorndike’sLaw ofEffect
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Chapter7
S ha pi ng
A pp li ca ti on s of O p er an t Conditioning
Learning
4 OBSERVATIONALLEARNING
Learning Goal At the beginning of each primary section, that section's learning goal reappears in the form of a question.
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking 1
Explain whatlearningis. • Definelearninganddistinguishbetweenobservationalandassociative learning.
5 COGNITIVEFACTORSINLEARNING P u pr os vi e Be ha vi or
Howdoyou learn?Thinkofa behavioryouengagein anddescribehow you learnedit.
I ns gi ht L ea rn in g
1 ●
2 CLASSICALCONDITIONING P av lo v’ s St ud ie s
6 BIOLOGICALANDCULTURALFACTORSIN LEARNING Whatis classicalconditioning? B i ol o gi c alC o n st r ai n ts
C u tl u ra l C o ns t ar i nt s
300
Itis anicespringday.A fathertakeshis babyoutfora walk.Thebabyreachesover totoucha pinkflowerandis stungbythebumblebeesittin gon thepetals.Thenext day,thebaby’smotherbringshomesomepink flowers .She removesa flowerfrom thearrangementand takesit overfor herbabyto smell.Thebaby criesloudlyas s o on a s s h e s e es t h e p i n k fl o w e r. T h e b a by ’ s p a ni c a t t h e s i g h t o f t h e p i n k fl o w e r illustr atesthelearnin gprocessof classical conditioning, inwhicha neutralstimulus(theflower) becomesassociate dwith ameaningful stimulu s(the painof abee sting)and acquire sthecapacitytoelicita similarresponse(fear).
2 ●
Pavlov’s Studies Intheearly1900s,theRussianphysio logis tIvanPavlovwasinterestedintheway the bodydigestsfood. Inhis experiments,heroutinelyplaced meatpowderin adog’smouth, causingthedogtosalivate.Pavlovnoticedthatthemeatpowderwasnottheonlystimulusthatcause dthedogto saliv ate.Thedog saliv atedin responsetoa numberof stimuliassociatedwiththefood,suchasthesightofthefooddish,thesightoftheindividual whobroughtthefoodinto theroom,andthesoundofthe doorclosin gwhenthefood arriv ed.Pavlovrecogniz edthatthedog’sasso ciationofthesesights andsoundswiththe foodwasanimportanttypeoflearning,whichcametobe calle d classicalconditioning.
Pavlov(the white-beardedgentleman in thecenter) isshowndemonstrating the natureof classicalconditioningto studentsattheMilita ryMedica lAcademyin Russia.
classicalconditioning Learningby whichaneutral stimulusbecomesa ssociatedwitha meaningfulstimulusand acquiresthe capacityto elicitasimilar response.
Explainwhatlearningis. •Learningisa relativelypermanentchangein behavior thatoccursthrough experience.Observationallearning islearningbywatchingwhatotherpeople do.In associativelearning,aconnectionis madebetweentwoevents. Conditioningistheprocessby whichassociativelearning occurs.Inclassicalconditioning,organismslearnthe associationbetweentwostimuliand,in operantconditioning,they learnthe associationbetweenbehavioranda consequence.
C la ss ic al C o nd it io ni ng inHumans
Apply Your Knowledge 1.Onecommonassociatio nthatpeoplehaveiscalleda conditioned taste aversion, which occurs when you eat or drink somethingandthengetsick.Aconditionedtast eaversionis mostlikelytooccurwhenthe foodor drinkissomething thatis relativelyunfamiliar.Suppose thatyouhave acquired aconditionedtaste aversiontotequila. Identifywhatthe unconditionedstimulus, unconditionedresponse, conditioned stimulus,and conditionedresponseare inthis example. 2.Positiveandnegativereinforcementareoftendifficultconcepts to understand. On the following website, examples andapracticeexercis emayhelpyoufigureoutthedistinctionmoreeasily : http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm
Describeclassical conditioning.
• Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and comestoelicit asimilarresponse.Pavlovdiscoveredthat anorganismlearnstheassociationbetweenanunconditionedstimulus(UCS) anda conditionedstimulus(CS). TheUCS automaticallyproduces theunconditionedresponse(UCR).Afterconditioning(CS-UCS pairing),the CSelicitsthe conditionedresponse(CR)byitself.Acquisitionin classical conditioning is the initial linking of stimuliandresponses,whichinvolvesa neutralstimulus beingassociatedwith theUCS sothat theCS comesto elicittheCR. Twoimport antaspectsofacquisitionare contiguity and contingency/predictability. Generalizationinclassicalconditio ningisthetendencyofa new stimulusthatis similarto theoriginalconditionedstimulusto elicitaresponsethatis similartothe conditioned response.Discriminationinclassicalconditioning isthe processoflearningto respondtocertain stimuliandnot to others. Extinction in classical conditioning is the weakeningoftheCR intheabsenceof theUCS.Spontaneousrecoveryisthe recurrenceof aCRaftera timedelaywithoutfurtherconditioning. • Inhumans,classicalconditioninghasbeenappliedto explaining and eliminating fears. Counterconditioning, a classicalconditioningprocedurefor weakeningtheCR byassociatingthe fear-provokingstimulus witha new responsethatisincompatiblewiththefear,hasbeen successful in eliminating fears. Classical conditioning also canexplainpleasantemotions.Someof thebehaviors weassociatewithhealthproblemsand 3.Thinkofallofthethingsyouhav elearnedinthepast several mentaldisorders, includingcerta ingeachofthefollowinaspectsofdruguseandimmunesysdays.Write downanexampleinvolv temfunctioning,caninvolveclassicalconditioning.Clasingtypesoflearning:classicalcondit i oning,operantcondiconditioning also has been applied to consumer tioning,observationalsical learning,latent learning,and insight behavior. learning. Which kind of learning do you use most frequently?Whichseemstobetheleastcommonforyou?Are 3 Discussoperant theretypesoflearningyou’v edonethatconditioning. don’t seem tofit any category? If so, what aspects ition of those types exclude •Operantcond ingisaformoflearnin ginwhichthe themfrom thesecategories? consequencesofbehaviorproducechangesin theproba-
●
bilityofthe behavior’soccurrence.B. F.Skinnerdescribed
thebehaviorof theorganismas operant:Thebehavior operateson theenvironment,and theenvironmentin turnoperateson theorganism.Whereasclassicalconditioning involves respondent behavior, operant conditioning involves operant behavior. In most instances, operant conditioning is better at explaining voluntary behaviorthanclassicalconditioningis. • Thorndike’slawof effectstatesthatbehaviors followed bypositiveoutcomes arestrengthened,whereasbehaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. Thorndike’sviewthatthe organism’sbehaviorisdue to aconnectionbetweenastimulusand aresponseiscalled S-Rtheory. • Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning are thesameforallspecie s.Thisledhimtostudyloweranimalsextensivelyinthe hopethatthe basicmechanisms oflearnin gcouldbemoreeasilyunderstoodin organismssimplerthan humans.LikeSkinner, contemporary behavioristsstudyorganismsunderprecisely controlled conditionsso thatthe connectionbetweentheoperant behaviorandthespecificconsequencescanbeexamined inminutedetail. •Shapingistheprocessofrewardingapproximationsof desiredbehaviorinordertoshortenthe learningprocess. • Principles of reinforcement include the distinction betweenpositivereinforcement(thefrequencyofabehavior increasesbecauseit isfollowedby arewardingstimulus) andnegativereinforcement(thefrequencyof behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive,or unpleasant,stimulus).Positivereinforcement canbe classifiedasprimary reinforcement(using reinforcersthatare innatelysatisfying)andsecondaryreinforcement(usingreinforcersthatacquirepositive value throughexperience).Reinforcementcanalso becontinuous(abehaviorisreinforc edevery time)orpartial(a behaviorisreinforcedonlyaportion ofthetime).Schedulesof reinforcement—fixed-ratio,variable-ratio,fixedinterval, and variable-interval—are timetables that determinewhenabehavior willbe reinforced.Operant conditioninginvolvesgeneralization(givingthesameresponsetosimilar stimuli),discrimination(respondingto stimulithatsignalthatabehaviorwillorwillnotbereinforced), and extinction (a decreasing tendency to perform a previously reinforced behavior when reinforcementisstopped).Punishmentisaconsequencethat decreasesthe likelihooda behaviorwill occur.Punishment,throughwhich abehavioris weakened,isdifferent from negative reinforcement, through which a behavior is strengthened. In positive punishment, a behaviordecreaseswhenit isfollowedby anunpleasant stimulus.In negativepunishment,abehaviordecreases whenapositivestimulus isremovedfromit. Time-outis
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Reach Your Learning Goals The chapter summary restates the Learning Goals and provides a bulleted review that matches up in a one-to-one fashion with the bulleted review statements in the section reviews.
Connections
mhhe com /
santrockp7u
In-Psych Plus
Forextrahelpinmasteringthemateria linthischapter,seethe review sections and practice quizzes in the Student Study
Guide,the In-PsychPlusCD-ROM,and theOnlineLearning Center.
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Chapte r7
Learning
Classicalconditioningalsocanbeinvolvedinimmunesystemfunctioning,which isimportantfor producingantibodiesto wardoff diseaseand illness ,such asAIDS a n d t h e fl u . R o b e rt A d e r a n d N i c h o al s C o h en ( A de r, 2 0 00 ; A d e r & C o he n , 1 9 7 5, 2000)haveconducteda numberofstudiesthatrevealthatclassicalconditioningcan produce immunosuppression (adecreasein theproductionof antibodies).Theinitial discoveryof thislink betweenclassical conditio ningandimmunosuppressioncame as a surprise. In the course of studying Pavlovian conditioning, Ader (1974) was examininghow longa conditionedresponse wouldlastin somelaborato ryrats.A conditio nedstimulus(saccharinsolution)was paired withan unconditioned stimulus,a drugcalledCytoxan,whichinducesnausea. Afterward,whilegivingtherats saccharin-lacedwaterwithouttheaccompanyin gCytoxan,Aderwatchedto seehow longit wouldtaketherats toforgettheassociatio nbetweenthetwo. Unexpectedly,inthesecondmonthof thestudy,theratsdevelopedadiseaseand beganto dieoff. Inanalyzing theunforeseen result,Ader checkedout theproperties ofthe nausea-inducingdrughe hadused.He discoveredthatone ofits sideeffects wasimmunosuppression.Thusit turnedout thattheratshadbeen classically conditionedtoassociate sweetwaternotonly withnauseabutalsowiththe shutdownof theimmunesystem.Thesweetwaterapparentlyhadbecomea CSfor immunosu ppressio n.Researc hershavefoundthatconditionedimmuneresponsesalsomayoccur inhumans(Ader,2000;Voudouris,Peck,&Coleman,1985).
Connections References to review quizzes, crossword puzzles, and additional resources remind students of the text-specific materials available for content review and enrichment.
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking Learning Goals frame the section reviews, which end with an exercise designed to hone critical thinking skills.
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ApplyingClassical Conditioning:ConsumerPsychology Consumerpsychology is thestudyof howconsumersthink,feel,reason,andselectbetweendifferentalternatives, suchas brands andproducts.Manycontemporaryadvertisersuse class ical conditio ninginsome way(Perner,2001). Considerthissequence: • Beautifulwoman(UCS) → emotionalarousal(UCR)inmales • Beautifulwoman(UCS)pairedwithan automobile(notyet aCS) manytimes • Automobile(CS) → emotionalarousal(CR)
In-Psych Plus
Recentresearchhas shownthat,ifthe conditio nedstimulusisencounteredoutsideof ads,it doesn’t predictthe UCS(Bettman, 2001).Thusclassical conditioning mayworkbestfor infrequently encountere dproductsandcasesinwhichthe UCSis associatedwithonlyone brand.Also,classicalconditioningusuallyworksbestwhen theCS precedestheUCS inads. Notall commerc ialsinvolveclassica lconditioning. Somejust giveinformation abouttheproduct.Thenexttime youwatchTV,observewhichadsrely onclassical conditio ning.Toreviewtheelementsofclassicalconditioninganditsapplicationsto humanlearnin g,go tothe interactivity “ClassicalConditioning2.”
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking 2
Describeclassical conditioning. • Summarizetheclassicalconditioningprocess.Includeinyourdescriptionthe followingterms: unconditionedstimulus (UCS),conditioned stimulus(CS), unconditionedresponse (UCR), and conditionedresponse (CR), aswell as acquisition,generalization, discrimination, and extinction/spontaneous recovery. • Discussthe roleofclassicalconditioningin humanphobiasandspecifyother typesofbehaviorthatinvolveclassicalconditioning.
Thinkabout an attach ment that youorsomeone youknow has fora certainobject orenvironment.Explainhowclassica lconditioningmightaccountfor thepleasant association.
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Make Connections and Succeed! Supplementary print and media resources include a variety of review and assessment tools that carry through the text's emphasis on key ideas, reinforcing learning and enhancing student success.
Online Learning Center www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u Student Resources Chapter outlines and practice quizzes are keyed to the text Learning Goals. The student section of the website also contains flashcards, interactive review exercises, and access, via PowerWeb, to current news about psychology, research tools, and many other valuable study tools. Instructor Resources Teaching resources on this passwordprotected site include the Instructor's Course Planner, Image Bank, PowerPoint files, and Web links to additional resources.
Student Study Guide A guided review of the chapter is organized by text section and Learning Goals, as are the three practice tests provided for each chapter. As in the text, Connections direct students to other text-correlated resources for additional help in mastering key ideas and concepts.
Instructor’s Course Planner The same Learning Goals that reinforce the key ideas in the text and Study Guide frame the teaching suggestions in this valuable manual. Chapter overviews, lecture/discussion suggestions, and goal reinforcement activities are a few of the resources provided in the Instructor's Course Planner.
New! In-Psych Plus CD-ROM In-Psych Plus features video clips and interactivities that are referenced within the main text. The video clips, chosen for interest and relevance, expand on significant concepts and theories discussed in the text and are accompanied by summaries and quizzes. The CD-ROMs also include practice self-tests with feedback and a learning styles assessment, as well as other valuable features.
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With special appreciation to my wife, Mary Jo
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About the Author
JOHN W. SANTROCK
received his Ph.D. from the
University of Minnesota in 1973. He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia before joining the psychology department at the University of Texas at Dallas. He has been a member of the editorial board of Developmental Psychology. His research on father custody is widely cited and used in expert witness testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. John has also authored these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Child Development, tenth edition, Life-Span Development, ninth edition, Children, eighth edition, Adolescence, tenth edition, and Educational
Psychology, second edition.
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Brief Contents
C H A P T E R
1
What Is Psychology?
C H A P T E R
2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
C H A P T E R
3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
C H A P T E R
4
Human Development
C H A P T E R
5
Sensation and Perception
C H A P T E R
6
States of Consciousness
C H A P T E R
7
Learning
C H A P T E R
8
Memory
C H A P T E R
9
Thinking and Language
C H A P T E R
1 0
Intelligence
C H A P T E R
1 1
Motivation and Emotion
C H A P T E R
1 2
Personality
C H A P T E R
1 3
Psychological Disorders
C H A P T E R
1 4
Therapies
C H A P T E R
1 5
Stress, Coping, and Health
C H A P T E R
1 6
Social Psychology
2 38 76
116 174
226
266 304 348
386 422
474 516
560 600
644
ix
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Contents
Preface xvii C H A P T E R
1
What Is Psychology?
Exploring Psychology 4
2
Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization 18
Studying the Mind and Behavior 5
Careers in Psychology 19
A Quest for Answers to Ancient Questions 6
Areas of Specialization in Psychology 20
Early Scientific Approaches to Psychology 8
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Is Psychology in Your Future? 25
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology 9
How to Get the Most Out of Psychology 26
The Behavioral Approach 10
Good Study Habits 26
The Psychodynamic Approach 11
Thinking Critically 29
The Cognitive Approach 12
The Book’s Learning Tools 32
The Behavioral Neuroscience Approach 12
Reach Your Learning Goals 34 Key Terms 36
The Evolutionary Psychology Approach 13 The Sociocultural Approach 15
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Humans Really Be Altruistic? 16
Apply Your Knowledge 36 Connections 36
A Positive Approach to Psychology 17 The Humanistic Movement 17 The Positive Psychology Movement 17
C H A P T E R
2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
Exploring Psychology as a Science 40
38
Facing Up to Research Challenges 62
A Scientific Approach 40
Conducting Ethical Research 63
Collaboration 42
Minimizing Bias 65
The Scientific Method 42
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Psychology Value-Free? 66 Being a Wise Consumer of Information About Psychology 68
Types of Research 47 Descriptive Research 47
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Writing Might Improve Your Health Correlational Research 53 Experimental Research 56
48
Reach Your Learning Goals 72 Key Terms 74 Apply Your Knowledge 74 Connections 74
Analyzing and Interpreting Data 59 Descriptive Statistics 59 Inferential Statistics 61
xi
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xii
Contents
C H A P T E R
3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
The Nervous System 78
76
The Endocrine System 102
Characteristics 79
Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair 104
Pathways in the Nervous System 80
The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair 104
Divisions of the Nervous System 80
Brain Tissue Implants 104
Neurons 82
Genetic and Evolutionary Blueprints of Behavior 105
Specialized Cell Structure 82
Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 106
The Neural Impulse 83
The Study of Genetics 106
Synapses and Neurotransmitters 85
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: The Human Genome Project and Your Genetic Future 107
Neural Networks 88
Structures of the Brain and Their Functions 89 How the Brain and Nervous System Are Studied 89
Genetics and Evolution 110
The Cerebral Cortex 95
Reach Your Learning Goals 112 Key Terms 114 Apply Your Knowledge 115
The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research 98
Connections 115
Levels of Organization in the Brain 91
Integration of Function in the Brain 100
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are There “His” and “Her” Brains? 101 C H A P T E R
4
Human Development
Exploring Human Development 119
116
Physical Development in Adolescence 151
What Is Development? 119
Cognitive Development in Adolescence 152
Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 120
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 153
How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 121
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Developing a Positive Identity 155 At-Risk Youth 155
Child Development 123 Prenatal Development 123
Adult Development and Aging 156
Physical Development in Childhood 125
Physical Development in Adulthood 156
Cognitive Development in Childhood 128
Cognitive Development in Adulthood 161
Socioemotional Development in Childhood 134
Socioemotional Development in Adulthood 164
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Parents Bring Up Their Children, Don’t They? 141
Positive Psychology and Aging 169
Positive Psychology and Children’s Development 148
Key Terms 172 Apply Your Knowledge 173
Adolescence 149 Positive Psychology and Adolescents 150
C H A P T E R
5
Reach Your Learning Goals 170
Connections 173
Sensation and Perception
How We Sense and Perceive the World 176
174
Theories of Hearing 207
Detecting, Processing, and Interpreting Experiences 176
Auditory Processing in the Brain 208
Sensory Receptors and the Brain 178
Localizing Sound 208
Thresholds 180
Noise Pollution 209
Signal Detection Theory 183
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Love Your Ears
Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 184 Sensory Adaptation 186
210
Other Senses 211 The Skin Senses 212
The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 187
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should We Believe the Claims of Psychics? 213
Visual Processing in the Brain 191
The Chemical Senses 216
Color Vision 194
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 219
The Visual System 187
Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 196 Illusions 202
The Auditory System 204
Perception and Human Factors Psychology 220 Reach Your Learning Goals 222 Key Terms 225
The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 204
Apply Your Knowledge 225
Structures and Functions of the Ear 205
Connections 225
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C H A P T E R
States of Consciousness
6
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226
Applications of Hypnosis 248
The Nature of Consciousness 228 Levels of Awareness 229 Consciousness and the Brain 232
Psychoactive Drugs 249 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Hypnosis a Window to Forgotten Events? 250
Sleep and Dreams 232
Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 251
Biological Rhythms and Sleep 232 Why Do We Need Sleep? 235
Types of Psychoactive Drugs 252 Addiction 261
Sleep Stages 238 Sleep and Disease 241 Sleep Disorders 241
Reach Your Learning Goals 262 Key Terms 264
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Do You Get Enough Sleep?
242
Apply Your Knowledge 264 Connections 265
Dreams 243
Hypnosis 246 The Nature of Hypnosis 247 Explaining Hypnosis 248
C H A P T E R
7
Learning
266
Types of Learning 268
Observational Learning 291
Classical Conditioning 270
Cognitive Factors in Learning 292 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Models and Mentors in My Life
Pavlov’s Studies 270 Classical Conditioning in Humans 274
293
Purposive Behavior 293 Insight Learning 295
Operant Conditioning 277 Definition of Operant Conditioning 277 Thorndike’s Law of Effect 277 Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning 278 Shaping 279 Principles of Reinforcement 280
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Will Sparing the Rod Spoil the Child? 287
Biological and Cultural Factors in Learning 296 Biological Constraints 296 Cultural Constraints 298 Reach Your Learning Goals 300 Key Terms 302 Apply Your Knowledge 303 Connections 303
Applications of Operant Conditioning 288
C H A P T E R
8
Memory
The Nature of Memory 306 Memory Encoding 308 Attention 308 Levels of Processing 308 Elaboration 309 Imagery 310
Memory Storage 311
304 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Recovered Memories or False Memories? 332 Eyewitness Testimony 333
Forgetting 336 Encoding Failure 336 Retrieval Failure 337
Memory and Study Strategies 339
Sensory Memory 312
Encoding Strategies 340
Short-Term Memory 313 Long-Term Memory 315
Storage Strategies 342 Retrieval Strategies 342
Memory Retrieval 326
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Memory and Study Strategies
Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories 330
Reach Your Learning Goals 344 Key Terms 346 Apply Your Knowledge 347
Retrieval of Emotional Memories 330
Connections 347
Serial Position Effect 327 Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 327
343
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C H A P T E R
9
Thinking and Language
The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 351
348
Language and Thought 368 The Structure of Language 368
Concept Formation 353 Functions of Concepts 353
The Link Between Language and Cognition 369
Structure of Concepts 355
Animal Language 371
Language Acquisition and Development 373
Problem Solving 356 Steps in Problem Solving 356
Biological Influences 373
Obstacles to Solving Problems 358
Environmental Influences 374
Expertise 360
Early Development of Language 375
Critical Thinking, Reasoning, and Decision Making 361 Critical Thinking 362
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Sharpening the Saw 364
Apply Your Knowledge 385 Connections 385
Decision Making 365
1 0
Intelligence
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Bilingual Education a Good Thing? 379 Reach Your Learning Goals 382 Key Terms 384
Reasoning 363
C H A P T E R
Language and Education 378
386
The Nature of Intelligence 388
Evaluating the Multiple-Intelligences Approach 403
Intelligence Testing 389
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Do People Have a General Intelligence? 404
Approaches to Testing 389 Criteria of a Good Test of Intelligence 393
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity 405
Cultural Bias in Testing 395
Mental Retardation 405
The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests 396
Giftedness 406
Neuroscience and Intelligence 397 Head and Brain Size 398 Information Processing Speed 398
Creativity 408
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Creative Is Your Thinking? 411 The Influence of Heredity and Environment 412
Electrical Activity in the Brain 398
Genetic Influences 412
Energy Consumption in the Brain 399
Environmental Influences 413
Theories of Multiple Intelligences 399 Factor Analysis, Two-Factor Theory, and Multiple-Factor
Group Influences 415
Reach Your Learning Goals 418
Gardner’s Theory of Eight Intelligences 400
Key Terms 421 Apply Your Knowledge 421
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 402
Connections 421
Theory 400
Emotional Intelligence 403
C H A P T E R
1 1
Motivation and Emotion
Approaches to Motivation 425 The Evolutionary Approach 425 Drive Reduction Theory 425
422
Dieting 436 Eating Disorders 437
Sexuality 438
Optimum Arousal Theory 426
The Biology of Sex 439
The Cognitive Approach 427
Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors 440
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Extrinsic Motivation Undermine Intrinsic Motivation? 429
Cultural Factors 441
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 430
Sexual Behavior and Orientation 443
Issues in Motivation 431
Hunger 431 The Biology of Hunger 431 Obesity and Eating Behavior 434
Psychosexual Dysfunctions 442
Social Cognitive Motives 447 Achievement 447
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Goal-Directed Are You?
449
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Affiliation 453 Well-Being 454
Sociocultural Factors 462 Classifying Emotions 465 Reach Your Learning Goals 470
Emotion 455
Key Terms 473 Apply Your Knowledge 473
The Biology of Emotion 456 Cognitive Factors 460 Behavioral Factors 462
C H A P T E R
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Connections 473
Personality
474
Theories of Personality 477
The Big Five Personality Factors 498
Psychodynamic Perspectives 478
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Extraverted or Introverted? 498 Trait-Situation Interaction 499 Evaluating Trait Perspectives 500
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 478 Psychodynamic Dissenters and Revisionists 482
Personality Assessment 501
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 484
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 485 Skinner’s Behaviorism 486 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 486 Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 490
Humanistic Perspectives 490
Projective Tests 501 Self-Report Tests 504
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Who Is Projecting What? 505 Behavioral and Cognitive Assessment 508 Assessment in the Selection of Employees 510 Reach Your Learning Goals 512 Key Terms 515 Apply Your Knowledge 515
Rogers’ Approach 491 Maslow’s Approach 492 Self-Esteem 493 Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives 495
Connections 515
Trait Perspectives 496 Trait Theories 496
C H A P T E R
Psychological Disorders
1 3
Understanding Psychological Disorders 518
516
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Depressed? 539
Defining Abnormal Behavior 518 Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 520
Bipolar Disorder 539 Causes of Mood Disorders 540
Classifying Abnormal Behavior 522
Suicide 546
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are Psychological Disorders a Myth? 526 Anxiety Disorders 527
Schizophrenia 548 Types of Schizophrenia 549
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 527 Panic Disorder 528 Phobic Disorders 529
Causes of Schizophrenia 550
Personality Disorders 553
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 530
Odd/Eccentric Cluster 553 Dramatic/Emotionally Problematic Cluster 554
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 532
Chronic-Fearfulness/Avoidant Cluster 555
Dissociative Disorders 535
Reach Your Learning Goals 556 Key Terms 558 Apply Your Knowledge 559
Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 535 Dissociative Identity Disorder 535
Connections 559
Mood Disorders 537 Depressive Disorders 537
C H A P T E R
1 4
Therapies
560
Biological Therapies 562 Drug Therapy 563
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should Depression Be Treated with Drugs? 565
Electroconvulsive Therapy 566 Psychosurgery 568
Psychotherapies 568 Psychodynamic Therapies 569
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Humanistic Therapies 572
Common Themes in Psychotherapy 591
Behavior Therapies 574
Therapy Integrations 591
Cognitive Therapies 578
Funding and Finding Therapy 592
Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 584
Mental Health Professionals 593
Group Therapy 584
Guidelines for Seeking Professional Help 594
Family and Couples Therapy 585
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Evaluating Whether You Need a Therapist 595
Self-Help Support Groups 586 Community Mental Health 587 Cultural Perspectives 588
The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589 Research on the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589
C H A P T E R
1 5
Reach Your Learning Goals 596 Key Terms 599 Apply Your Knowledge 599 Connections 599
Stress, Coping, and Health
600
Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 603
Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping 622
Stress and Its Sources 604
Optimism and Positive Thinking 622
Personality Factors 604
Social Support 625
Environmental Factors 606
Assertive Behavior 626
Sociocultural Factors 610
Religion 627
Stress Responses 612 General Adaptation Syndrome 612 Fight or Flight, Tend and Befriend 614
Healthful Living 631 Eating Healthily 634
Stress and Illness 616 Stress and the Immune System 616 Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 618 Stress and Cancer 618 Positive Emotions, Illness, and Health 619
Coping Strategies 620 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Positive Thinking Make You Healthy? 621
1 6
Stress Management Programs 629 Exercising Regularly 631
Cognitive Appraisal 615
C H A P T E R
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Dealing with Conflict 627
Social Psychology
Social Thinking 646
Quitting Smoking 635 Making Sound Sexual Decisions 636
Reach Your Learning Goals 640 Key Terms 643 Apply Your Knowledge 643 Connections 643
644 Love 688
Attribution 647
Relationships and Gender 689
Social Perception 649
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: What Is Your Love Like? 690
Attitudes 653
Loneliness 691
Group Influence 662
Reach Your Learning Goals 694 Key Terms 697 Apply Your Knowledge 697
Leadership 666
Connections 697
Social Influence 658 Conformity and Obedience 658
Intergroup Relations 668
Glossary G-1
Group Identity: Us Versus Them 668 Prejudice 670 Ways to Improve Interethnic Relations 672
Social Interaction 675 Aggression 675
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Pornography Lead to Violence Against Women? 681 Altruism 682
Relationships 686 Attraction 686
References R-1 Credits C-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-13
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Preface
Since I started teaching psychology in 1967, my motivation and love for introducing students to this relevant science have not wavered. This commitment to relevance and to science not only has been a foundation of my teaching, but it is also the heart of this book. In this edition, I’ve kept the theme of psychology as a relevant science and, in line with current trends in the discipline, increased the emphasis on the biological aspects of psychology and on the positive changes psychology can help us achieve in our lives. These themes, together with a stronger focus on the key ideas in ps ychology, are the main features of this update of Psychology.
New! Media Integration References to video clips and interactivities, all drawn from various McGraw-Hill media resources and chosen for their interest and relevancy to the main content, appear within the main text. The In-Psych Plus CD-ROM marginal icon provides an additional, visual reference to the media. Each video and interactivity that is mentioned in the text appears on the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, which is packaged free with the text. In addition, pedagogy, activities, test questions, and other features have been created to complement these video clips and reinforce students’ grasp of the key concepts they illustrate. These materials are found on the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, in the Study Guide, in the Instructor’s Course Planner, and in the Test Item Files.
Psychology: The Relevant Science Many students come into the introductory psychology class asking why they should study psychology when their major is physics or computer science or French. To a psychologist, the answer is obvious: It will help you to understand yourself and others better. Psychology is relevant to almost every aspect of daily life. What psychologists have learned from memory research, for example, can be used to study more effectively, no matter what the subject is. Principles of learning can be applied to change undesirable behavior in children. Knowle dge of sensation a nd perception can be used to more effectively design computers. Research on stress, coping, and health can help people to live fuller, happier lives. Writing the preface for Psychology , I am convinced that the science of psychology is more relevant today than
ever. After September 11, 2001, psychologists and psychiatrists were called on to counsel not only people whose lives were directly affected by the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon but also students, teachers, parents, and others who were struggling to understand, as we were, what could trigger such hostility and violence toward Americans. Psychology teaches us about the roots of aggression and the influence of groups on individual behav ior. It also sugge sts strat egies for handli ng stre ss, whatever the source. Nothing is more relevant to contemporary life. In addition to relevance, this edition continues to stress the scientific nature of the discipline. A hallmark of the book has always been its focus on research, the foundation of all sciences. Here the latest research findings are discussed, along with the classic studies that established psychology as an objective science. There are more than 900 citations from the twenty-first century, including many from 2002 through 2004. Also, numerous new graphs show students how scientific data can be presented visually.
Neuroscience and Biological Influences on Behavior The growing emphasis on neuroscience and genetics as the means to understand the effects of biology on behavior is also reflected in this edition. Evolutionary psychology, another area of increasing interest, receives increased attention as well. Knowing that students often have difficulty understanding why it is important to learn biology in a course on psychology, I’ve taken particular care to present these topics in a psychological context and to underscore the complex relationship between biology, environment, and behavior wherever appropriate. Neuroscientist Lawrence Cauller provided outstanding guidance for incorporating stronger biological neuroscience content in this edition.
Positive Psychology Currently, there is a movement in psychology to focus attention on the positive contributions psychology can make to everyday life. Proponents of positive psychology, notably Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, share the belief that for much of
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the twentieth century the discipline concentrated on the negative aspects of life and that it’s time to emphasize the positive side of psychology. Positive psychology offers all of us the opportunity to take control of our lives and find balance. For this edition, I have revised many of the chapteropening vignettes and examples in the text to highlight positive outcomes and, with Csikszentmihalyi’s expert guidance, have incorporated material on positive psychology throughout the book.
Focus on Key Ideas The most significant instructional challenge facing introductory psychology teachers today is ensuring that students master the core content of the course. For students overwhelmed by information from lectures, textbooks, the Internet, and other media, it is more difficult than ever to find the main ideas in their courses. To address these challenges and help students achieve the best possible outcome, I have developed a learning system for this edition that emphasizes basic concepts and ideas, encourages review, and promotes critical thinking. This system frames the presentation in the text and the supplements, providing a truly integrated package that reinforces learning and gives instructors the tools they need to assess students’ grasp of core concepts and ideas. The learning system has several components, all centered on three to six key ideas per chapter. These ideas are encapsulated in learning goals, which correspond with the chapter’s main headings, as shown at the opening of each chapter. The learning goals reappear at several places in the chapter: as a question at the beginning of a new topic, in a guided review at the end of the section, and again in a summary at the end of the chapter. Content maps of the section and subsection headings accompany the learning goal question at the beginning of each major section. Together with a complete chapter map at the end of the chapter, the section maps provide a visual guide to the core concepts that support the learning goals. To encourage students to apply what they’ve learned, and increase the likelihood that they will remember the material, the learning system includes critical thinking questions keyed to the learning goals in the “Review and Sharpen Your Thinking” sections. Additionally, “What do you think?” exercises accompany each of the new Critical Controversy boxes and at least three critical thinking exercises follow the review section at the end of each chapter in a section titled“Apply Your Knowledge.” For students who have access to the Web, the end-of-chapter exercises include at least one Web-based activity. Incorporating the learning goals and maps in the student supplements reinforces the lessons from the text and eliminates the confusion many students have about how to use the supplements to boost their performance in the course.
Changes in Coverage Instructors who have used previous editions of this text will find much in the seventh edition that’s different and much that hasn’t changed. In addition to increased emphasis on neuroscience, genetics, evolutionary psychology, and positive psychology, the seventh edition contains increased coverage of diversity, controversies, and careers in psychology. This material is presented where appropriate throughout the book. The table of contents and chapter sequence remain the same as in the sixth edition, except that human development now falls closer to the beginning of the book (chapter 4). With this change, instructors can cover a topic of high student interest early in the course, while the principles of genetics (chapter 3) are still fresh in students’ minds, and later incorporate the material in their discussions of learning, cognition, and language. Although the number of chapters and their topics are unchanged, the substance and presentation in each chapter have been revised thoroughly. Some of the detail that is less relevant today than it once was has been pruned to make room for cutting-edge research and some of the presentation was reconceptualized to focus on the key ideas reflected in the learning goals. Although there isn’t enough space here to list all of the changes in this edition, here are the highlights:
CHAPTER 1 What
Is Psychology?
• Expanded, updated coverage of the evolutionary psychology approach and a new section on positive approaches to psychology, including the humanistic movement and the positive psychology movement • Expanded treatment of psychology’s careers, including descriptions of the work that different types of psychologists do • New section added on how to get the most out of psychology, focusing on study habits and skills
CHAPTER 2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
• New opening discussion of attitudes central to the scientific approach and on collaboration in science • Introduction of James Pennebaker’s research as an extended example of the scientific method and positive psychology • Reorganized section on research methods focusing on descriptive, correlational, and experimental research and including new coverage of positive and negative correlations and their interpretation, as well as recent research on bias and the placebo effect • New introduction to data analysis and interpretation, with explanation of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
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CHAPTER 3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
• Reorganized chapter now starts with a discussion of the characteristics of the nervous system, focusing on complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission • Revised presentation of neuron structure and function, including new material on drugs, neurotransmitters, and neural networks • Updated coverage of functioning in the left and right hemispheres of the brain and many new drawings of the brain • Separate section on the endocrine system • Expanded and updated discussion of neurogenesis • New section on genetics and evolution
CHAPTER 4
Human Development
• Nature and nurture section now includes a discussion of genotype and phenotype, as well as a subsection on optimal experiences • Added coverage on the brain and how it changes from infancy to adulthood • Revised discussion of socioemotional development in childhood includes the effects of divorce, positive parenting, ethnic and cultural differences, and gender development • New sections on positive psychology and development in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood • Expanded discussion of biological aspects of aging, including new figures on telomeres and aging and updated information on Alzheimer’s disease • Updated coverage of cognitive changes and aging, including new figures on longitudinal changes in six intellectual abilities and on the relation of age to reaction time • Discussion of John Gottman’s work on what makes a successful marriage and of Laura Carstensen’s research on emotion, social networks, and aging, including new figures on aging and remembering emotional material
CHAPTER 5
Sensation and Perception
• Completely revised discussion of how we sense and perceive the world now includes transduction, bottomup and top-down processing, new examples of signal detection theory, and selective attention • New coverage on parallel processing in the visual cortex and on the process of binding in neural pathways and how it functions in visual perception • Cochlear implants and sound localization added to discussion of the auditory system • Discussion of parallel processing in touch • Expanded coverage of pain, including new discussion of the “fast” and “slow” pain pathways, plus pain control and treatment
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• New section on human factors and perception, including recent research of Susan Lederman and Roberta Klatsky and of Robert McCann at NASA
CHAPTER 6
States of Consciousness
• Neuroscience coverage incorporated in sections on consciousness, stages of sleep, and psychoactive drugs • Greater coverage of circadian rhythms, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus • New coverage of the role of sleep in the storage and maintenance of long-term memory • Addition of recent research on sleep deprivation in adolescents and older adults • New section on sleep and disease • Inclusion of new research on dream content across cultures • Expanded and updated material on the activationsynthesis theory of dreaming • Most recent data on trends in adolescent drug use (Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001)
CHAPTER 7
Learning
• Expanded and clarified discussion of classical conditioning, including new examples, such as fear of the dentist and how it varies across cultures; a new section on the role of classical conditioning in health problems; and applications to consumer psychology • Expanded, improved, easier-to-understand examples of positive and negative reinforcement • Expanded and easier-to-understand examples in comparing punishment and negative reinforcement • Expanded applications of operant conditioning, including the use of shaping and behavior modification in the classroom
CHAPTER 8
Memory
• Revised coverage of memory encoding includes the effects of divided attention • New discussion of recent research on how verbal working memory can be impaired by negative emotion, and on how writing about negative emotional events can improve working memory • Revised coverage of memory storage includes new sections on prospective memory and on connectionist networks and memory, plus a discussion of long-term potentiation • Revised discussion of forgetting includes Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve, decay and transience, and a new section on motivated forgetting • Complete reorganization of memory and study strategy section to correspond to organization of the section on memory
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CHAPTER 9
Thinking and Language
• Expanded coverage of concepts, including new sections on the functions and structures of concepts • New section on expertise, including four ways that experts solve problems differently than novices do • Earlier discussion of the link between cognition and language • Revised section on language acquisition and development includes material on the level of maternal speech to infants and its effects on vocabulary development in infants, a new figure on language milestones, a discussion of how young children find the boundaries between words, and recent research on how long it takes to become competent at a second language
CHAPTER 10
Intelligence
• Intelligence testing now cohesively discussed in opening section • New section on neuroscience and intelligence with subsections on head and brain size, information processing speed, electrical activity in the br ain, and energy consumption in the brain • Added sections on theories of multiple and emotional intelligence, including a comparison of Gardner’s, Sternberg’s, and Mayer/Salovy theories of intelligence • New section on the influence of heredity and environment includes the research of Craig Ramey and colleagues, as well as gender and cultural comparisons
CHAPTER 11
Motivation and Emotion
• Section on motivation theory now includes the evolutionary approach to motivation, arousal and sensation seeking, expanded coverage of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and a discussion of the importance of selfgenerated goals • Hunger section includes expanded and updated discussion of blood chemistry and the role of leptin in obesity, new material on neurotransmitters in the section on brain processes and hunger, new data on obesity in the United States, and more coverage of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa • Social cognitive motivation section now includes a cross-cultural comparison of math achievement in the United States, Japan, and Taiwan; achievement applications in the workplace and in sports; and discussions of the motivation for affiliation and well-being • Section on emotion includes a new discussion of the roles of neural circuits and neurotransmitters, including Joseph LeDoux’s concept of direct and indirect pathways for fear in the brain, and of the links between emotion and the brain’s hemispheres
• New focus on positive emotions, including Barbara Frederickson’s research on how they might enhance people’s well-being and David Buss’ ideas on the evolved mechanisms that can produce a deep sense of happiness
CHAPTER 12
Personality
• Issues in the study of personality now at beginning of chapter • Social cognitive theory section revised to include discussions of personal control, locus of control, and optimism • New figure showing the link between self-efficacy and smoking cessation • New discussion of changes in self-esteem across the life span, including new figure based on 2002 research study • Section on personality assessment expanded to include discussion of the big five factors, locus of control, and the selection of employees
CHAPTER 13
Psychological Disorders
• The multiaxial system in the DSM-IV covered in greater depth, including a new figure on the major categories of psychological disorders, organized according to Axis I and Axis II • Introduction of concept of etiology, new discussion of the etiology of anxiety disorders, and expanded discussion of post-traumatic stress disorder • Added material on the hidden observer concept applied to dissociative disorders • Updated discussion of mood disorders, including new coverage on neurobiological abnormalities, new material on the depressive realism view of depression, and several new figures • New section on suicide, including coverage of suicide rates across cultures • Expanded discussion of schizophrenia, including recent information about heredity and schizophrenia, as well as neurobiological factors and case studies
CHAPTER 14
Therapies
• Substantially reorganized chapter with biological therapies now covered in the first section • Updated discussion and figures on the effects of drug therapies, including Prozac and Risperdal • New sections on cognitive behavior therapy and using cognitive therapy to treat psychological disorders • New section on sociocultural approaches and issues, including new coverage of the community mental health movement
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CHAPTER 15
Stress, Coping, and Health
• Reorganization of stress discussion to focus on sources and responses • New section on coping strategies with new coverage of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, optimism, and positive thinking and the role of religion in helping people cope with stress • Section on healthful living updated with new coverage of the role of the antidepressant Zyban in helping people quit smoking, as well as the effective rates of other approaches, such as nicotine patches
CHAPTER 16
Social Psychology
• Revised social influence section with expanded discussion of symptoms of groupthink and strategies for avoiding groupthink, as well as a discussion of leadership styles in women and men • Expanded, updated discussion of prejudice focusing on the reasons people develop prejudice • Updated section on social interaction, including discussion of neurotransmitters and aggression, recent information on children’s TV viewing habits and possible links to aggression, and updated coverage of trends in altruism among U.S. college students • In relationships section, addition of recent research on gender and relationships; new research on loneliness, stress, and health; and new discussion of loneliness and technology
Print and Media Supplements For the Student
the text: chapter overview, learning objectives, guided review (for each section), three practice tests, essay questions, crossword puzzle, learning goal checklist, and diagram labeling exercises.
Psych Online This supplement is designed to help students get the most out of the Internet for psychology research and provides general resource locations. Psychology sites are grouped by topic with a brief explanation of each site. Included in this booklet are a number of general resource sites for students seeking help.
Online Learning Center for Students
The official website for the text contains chapter outlines, practice quizzes that can be e-mailed to the professor, key term flashcards, interactive exercises, Internet activities, Web links to relevant psychology sites, drag-and-drop labeling exercises, Internet primer, career appendix, and a statistics primer. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u.
For the Instructor Instructor’s Course Planner Susan Weldon, Eastern Michigan University This manual provides many useful tools to enhance your teaching. In each chapter, you will find teaching objectives, chapter overviews, key terms, Teaching the Chapter, lecture/discussion suggestions, goal reinforcement classroom activities, Experiencing Psychology boxed feature, critical thinking questions, video/media suggestions, and references and sources of bibliographical information.
PowerWeb This unique online tool provides students
Test Item Files
with current articles, curriculum-based materials, weekly updates with assessment, informative and timely world news, Web links, research tools, study tools, and interactive exercises. A PowerWeb access card is packaged FREE with each new copy of the text.
Test Item File I: Ron Mulson, Hudson Valley Community College
New! In-Psych Plus Student CD-ROM In-Psych Plus sets a new standard for introductory psychology multimedia. In-Psych Plus is organized according to the text chapter outlines and features video clips, audio clips, and interactive exercises chosen to illustrate especially difficult core concepts in introductory psychology. In-Psych Plus also includes a pre-test, follow-up assignments, Web resources, chapter quizzes, a student research guide, and an interactive timeline that puts events, key figures, and research in historical perspective.
Study Guide Ruth Hallongren, Triton College Designed to reinforce the key ideas in the text, the study guide contains the following features for each chapter of
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Test Item File II: Susan E. Swithers, Purdue University Test Item File III: Susan Weldon, Eastern Michigan University Three Test Item Files provide you with the widest variety o f questions to last the life of this edition. The questions in the Test Item Files are also available on Brownstone , a powerful but accessible test-generat ing program that McGraw-Hill offers on a hybrid CD-ROM. With Brownstone , you can easily select questions and print tests and answer keys. You can also customize questions, headings, and instructions; add or import your own questions; and print tests in a choice of printer-supported fonts.
PowerPoint Lectures Available on the Internet, these presentations cover the key points of each chapter and include charts and graphs from the text. Helpful lecture
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guidelines are provided in the Notes section for each slide. These presentations can be used as they are or can be modified to meet your needs.
Overhead Transparencies More than 70 key images from the text are available upon adoption. A separate package, Introductory Psychology Transparency Set , provides more than 100 additional images illustrating key concepts in general psychology.
Online Learning Center for Instructors The passwordprotected instructor side of the text website contains the Instructor’s Manual, a sample chapter from the text, PowerPoint Presentations, Web links, and other teaching resources. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp74u
PageOut TM Build your own course website in less than an hour. You don’t have to be a computer whiz to create a website, especially with an exclusive McGraw-Hill product called PageOut. It requires no prior knowledge of HTML, no long hours of coding, and no design skills o n your part. With PageOut, even the most inexperienced computer user can quickly and easily create a professional-looking course website. Simply fill in templates with your information and with content provided by McGraw-Hill, choose a design, and you’ve got a website specifically designed for your course. Best of all, it’s FREE! Visit us at www.pageout.net to find out more.
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM This comprehensive CD-ROM includes the contents of the Instructor’s Course Planner; Test Item Files in computerized, Word, and Rich Text versions; an image gallery; and PowerPoint slides. The Presentation Manager provides an easy-to-use interface for the design and delivery of multimedia classroom presentations.
Acknowledgments Many people guided this update of Psychology. The McGrawHill team of Steve DeBow, president; Thalia Dorwick, editor in chief; Stephen Rutter, publisher; Melissa Caughlin, marketing manager; Judith Kromm, director of development; and Sienne Patch, developmental editor, all played key roles and spent long hours in the planning, revision, and publication process for this update.
Reviewers of the Updated Seventh Edition The following psychologists and instructors provided comments and suggestions, which helped me to improve and update this text: Tamara L. Brown, University of Kentucky Peter B. Crabb, Pennsylvania State University–Abington William Fabricius, Arizona State University
Linda E. Flickinger, St. Clair County Community College Edwin E. Gantt, Brigham Young University Debra L. Hollister, Valencia Community College Richard Kandus, Mt. San Jacinto College Maria LeBaron, Randolph Community College Brennis Lucero-Wagoner, California State University– Northridge Wendy Mills, San Jacinto College North Doug Peterson, University of South Dakota James S. Previte, Victor Valley College Steven V. Rouse, Pepperdine University John Ruys, University of California –Davis H.R. Schiffman, Rutgers University Susan Spencer, Eastern Oklahoma State College Katharine Webb, Maria College Fred Whitford, Montana State University
Expert Reviewers of the Updated Seventh Edition In addition, I would like to thank the following expert reviewers, who provided in-depth comments in the areas of neuroscience and cognitive psychology: James C. Bartlett, University of Texas at Dallas Mike Kilgard, University of Texas at Dallas
In-Depth Reviewers of the Seventh Edition I benefited considerably from the advice and analysis provided by a number of in-depth reviewers of the book’s seventh edition. The following individuals provided this input: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate University (positive psychology) Larry Cauller, University of Texas at Dallas (neuroscience) Susan Swithers, Purdue University (chapters 3 and 5 and author of end-of-chapter exercises) John Mitterer, Brock University (author of many of the Critical Controversy boxes) Meredith Stanford-Pollack, University of Massachusetts at Lowell (diversity) Saera Khan, Western Washington University (illustrations)
Reviewers of the Seventh Edition The following psychologists also helped to make the seventh edition a much better text through their thoughtful reviews: Richard Anderson, Bowling Green State University Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College Stella B. Baldwin, Wake Technical Community College Pearl Berman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Joy L. Berrenberg, University of Colorado at Denver
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Frederick M. Brown, Penn State University Richard Cavasina, California University of Pennsylvania George A. Cicala, University of Delaware Pamela Costa, Tacoma Commmunity College Donna Dahlgren, Indiana University Southeast Leta Fenell, Chesapeake College Roseanne L. Flores, Hunter College Bety Jane Fratzke, Indiana Wesleyan University Robert Gallen, Indiana University of Pennsylvania J. P. Garofalo, University of P ittsburgh Michael Kaye Garza, Brookhaven College Roderick C. Gillis, University of Miami Leslie Grout, Hudson Valley Community College Arthur Gutman, Florida Institute of Technology Christine Harness, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee James R. Heard, Antelope Valley College Paul Hernandez, South Texas Community College Karen Jordan, University of Illinois at Chicago Kevin Keating, Broward Community College Saera Khan, Western Washington University Brian Kim, University of Maryland, College Park Michele K. Lewis, Northern Virginia Community College, Annandale Wanda McCarthy, Northern Kentucky University Diane Martichuski, University of Colorado at Boulder Glenn E. Meyer, Trinity University Fred Miller, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland Community College Richard Miller, Western Kentucky University Ann Miner, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Arthur G. Olguin, Santa Barbara City College Barbara Radigan, Community College of Allegheny County, Allegheny Campus Pamela Regan, California State University, Los Angeles Bob Riesenberg, Whatcom Community College Susan J. Shapiro, Indiana University East John E. Sparrow, University of New Hampshire, Manchester Meredith Stanford-Pollock, University of Massachusetts at Lowell Susan Swithers, Purdue University Jeremy Turner, The University of Tennessee at Martin David Wasieleski, Valdosta State University Marek Wosinski, Arizona State University
Reviewers of Previous Editions The following psychologists shared their comments and ideas or contributed content for previous editions of Psychology: Valerie Ahl, University of Wisconsin –Madison; Susan
Amato, Boise State University; Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College; James Bartlett, University of Texas –Dallas; Jackson Beatty, UCLA; Ludy Benjamin, Texas A&M; John Best, Eastern Illinois University; Michelle Boyer-Pennington, Middle Tennessee State University; Charles Brewer, Clemson University; Richard Brislin, University of Hawaii; David Buss, University of Texas, Austin; James Calhoun, University of Georgia; Lillian Comas-Diaz, Transcultural Mental Health Institute; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate University; Florence Denmark, Pace University; Ellen Dennehy, University of Texas, Dallas; Kim Dielmann, University of Central Arkansas; G. William Domhoff, University of California–Santa Cruz; James Francis, San Jacinto College; Stanley Gaines, Pomona College; Robert Gifford, University of Victoria; James Greer, Louisiana State University; Jean Berko Gleason, Boston University; Richard Halgin, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; John Harvey; University of Iowa; N.C. Higgins, University of North British Columbia; James J. Johnson, Illinois State University; James Jones, University of Delaware; Seth Kalichman, Georgia State University; Laura King, Southern Methodist University; Paul R. Kleinginna, Georgia Southern University; Linda Kline, California State University, Chico; Karen Kopera-Frye, The University of Akron; Phil Kraemer, University of Kentucky; Eric Landrum, Boise State University; Gary D. Laver, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Marta Losonczy, Salisbury State University; Karen E. Luh, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Jerry Marshall, University of Central Florida; Vicki Mays, University of California –Los Angeles; David Mostofsky, Boston University; Carol Nemeroff, Arizona State University; David Neufeldt, Hutchinson Community College; Illene Noppe, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay; Cindy Nordstrom, Illinois State University; Alice O’Toole, University of Texas–Dallas; Raymond Paloutzian, Westmont College; David Penn, Louisiana State University; James Pennebaker, University of Texas –Austin; Jeffrey Pedroza, Lansing Community College; Lawrence A. Pervin, Rutgers University; Michelle Perry, University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign; Vincent Punzo, Earlham College; Ed Raymaker, Eastern Main Technical College; Daniel Schacter, Harvard University; Judith A. Sheiman, Kutztown University; Paula Shear, University of Cincinnati; Cynthia Sifonis, University of Illinois; Charles M. Slem, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Steven Smith, Texas A&M; Keith E. Stanovich, University of Toronto; Barry Stein, Tennessee Technological University; Jutta M. Street, Wake Technical Community College; Roger M. Tarpy, Jr., Bucknell University; Christopher Taylor, University of Arizona; Leonard Williams, Rowan University; Michael Zickar, Bowling Green State University.