CONTENTS Media
Mimansa
Vol. 4, No. 1 July-September 2010
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Editorial
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Mass communication research – An introduction - J.V. Vilanilam
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Research methods in communication studies – An overview - Pradeep Nair
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Editorial Board
Communication research in India – A status evaluation - K.V. Nagaraj
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Communication research: US scene - M.R. Dua
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Data analysis and interpretation - B.S. Nagi
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Survey research method - T. Mathiyazhagan & Deoki Nandan
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Content analysis method – An introduction - B.K. Kuthiala
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Impact analysis: Resolving the dialectics of thought and action - Mohanmeet Khosla
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Evaluation research : A overview - D.V.R. Murthy & K. John Babu
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Audience research in All India Radio: Why, how and what - P.K. Bandyopadhyay
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Public opinion, polls and the media - D.S. Poornananda
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Researching new media – Complications, illusions and challenges - Dev Vrat Singh
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Public relations research : Some perspectives - Waheeda Sultana
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Editor Prof. B.K. Kuthiala
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Members Prof. Devesh Kishore (New Delhi) Prof. Kiran Thakur (Pune) Prof. Sunil K. Behera (Berhampur) Prof. D.S. Poornananda (Shankaraghatta, Karnataka) Dr. Mohanmeet Khosla (Chandigarh) Prof. C.P. Agrawal (Bhopal) Dr. Shri Kant Singh (Bhopal) Dr. Pavitra Shrivastav (Bhopal) Dr. Dev Vrat Singh (Rohtak) Dr. Ranjan Singh (Bhopal) Dr. Monika Verma (Bhopal) Language Editors Prof. C.K. Sardana (Bhopal) - English Shri Raghvendra Singh (Bhopal) - Hindi Composing Madhya Pradesh Madhyam
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Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism & Communication B-38, Vikas Bhawan, M.P. Nagar Zone I, Bhopal - 462011 Phone: Landline: 0755-2554910 Mobile : 09893556483 email :
[email protected] Subscription Single copy : Rs. 100 Annual : Rs. 350 Students and research scholars : Single copy : Rs. 75, Annual : Rs. 200 Institutional Membership : Rs. 1,000 (Annual)
Please remit your subscription through Crossed Draft in favour of Registrar, MCRPVV, Bhopal. Published by Shri Raghvendra Singh, Head, Publications for Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism & Communication, B-38, Vikas Bhawan, M.P. Nagar Zone I, Bhopal-462011
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Thrust areas of research in computer science - C.P. Agrawal & P. Sasikala
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Approaches and applications of advertising research - Madhu Deep Singh
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Portrait of the portal as a metaphor : explicating web portals for communication research - Sriram Kalyanaraman & S. Shyam Sundar
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Book Review — Routledge's Handbook of Applied Communication Research - M.R. Dua
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In Memoriam — Porf. K.E. Eapen
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Editorial After 12 issues, Media Mimansa has turned the corner and has become a refereed research Journal. Media Mimansa will now fulfill a strongly felt need for an authentic publication that showcases the research being carried out in our country and abroad in the fields related to various media communication and computer applications. Every research paper received will be sent to at least two experts who will examine the paper whether it is an authentic research–based paper or a critique of a published research worth publishing in Media Mimansa. In case the referee makes some suggestions, they will be communicated to the author(s) who can then make the required modifications. In case the author(s) do not agree with the suggestions made by the referee(s), it would be communicated to the Editor who will then send the paper to a third expert. This is a normal process for any refereed research journal all over the world. The teachers and researchers will hopefully welcome this addition in the academics of journalism, media, communication studies and computer applications as the new UGC guidelines have made it mandatory that only those research publications will be considered for appointments and promotions that are published in refereed journals. Media Mimansa has also obtained ISSN No. It has also been decided that research papers, both in English and Hindi, will be accepted for publication in Media Mimansa. But going a step further, all papers will also be published in both the languages. Purpose is to create a link between those working in English with those who read and write in Hindi. The current issue is focused on what, how and why of communication. This becomes important as there is hardly any book on media research that is original, deals with the indigenous contexts and also covers the new media and new methodologies. This issue is almost like a textbook for the students of mass communication interested to study media research. The Hindi version will soon follow, may be with some additions. The next issue of Media Mimansa will contain researches carries out in different parts of the country and even abroad on various aspects of communication, mass communication, media including new media and use of computers as devices of communication. We hope the teachers and researchers will find the Media Mimansa in its new avatar as a much-needed augmentation and as the source of academic referencing and also an outlet for their academic pursuits. Our University plans to soon bring out another magazine dealing with the contemporary and eternal issues related to the dynamics of media and human communication. Suggestions are not only welcome; they are, in fact, requested for.
Prof. B.K. Kuthiala
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Mass Communication Research – An introduction J.V. Vilanilam* ABSTRACT Tracing the importance of anachronism and plagiarism in research, the article answers two questions: What is research, and why is it done, in the context of mass communication?. There are three kinds of research—historical, descriptive and experimental. The first two are mostly relevant to the humanities and the social sociences; the last one is relevant to the pure sciences (physics, chemistry, Mathematics and Biology). Mass communication research (MCR) as well as all other kinds of research must be socially relevant, that is, the results must be of use to society. MCR started in the thirties of the last century. The bulk of it was historical and descriptive, although some experimental research was also conducted. The author, like well-known researchers in the field, has divided the entire MCR into four phases : i. 1901-1939; ii. 1940-1960; iii. 1960-1970 and iv. the 1970s to the present. The character and content of each phase are detailed. Let me begin with a story which has been under circulation in academic circles in Trivandrum for the last five or six decades. An experienced professor of English was teaching the postgraduate students of M.A. (English) class at a local college. His lecture that day th was on the history of 18 century English literature and he referred to Dr. Samuel Johnson’s ‘Lives of Poets’. Towards the end of the one-hour class, a student raised a doubt and politely asked the professor: “Sir, why didn’t Dr. Johnson say anything in his book, about Matthew Arnold, the great poet?” It was almost lunch time; the diabetic and impatient professor was really hungry, but he was resourceful enough and he ventured to close the lecture with a quick reply. “You see, Vandana, Johnson was a peculiar writer. He did not like Arnold. You remember I had told you yesterday about how the great lexicographer had exhibited his prejudice against Scots by defining OATS in his famous dictionary (the very first in the English
language) as “grain given to horses in England, but consumed by human beings in Scotland.’’ Vandana’s friend, Rajasekharan Pillai jumped up and volunteered to show his wisdom to the class: th “But, Sir, Johnson lived in the 18 century and Matthew th Arnold lived in the 19 , and there is a possibility that Johnson did not know Arnold at all.’’ The professor was dumbfounded, but he was not to be cowed down in front of the class. He simply said: “Ah! Rajan, that’s perhaps one of the reasons why Johnson ignored Arnold.’’ This story shows how scholars sometimes ignore history and chronology in discussions and serious research. Anachronism is as much a weakness in some researchers and teachers as plagiarism is. Both are to be avoided (like AIDS) in research and teaching! The story may be apocryphal but its lesson is certainly relevant to research and studies.
Former Vice-Chancellor, University of Kerala; a researcher and writer in English and Malayaal’am (e-mail ID :
[email protected])
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What is research and why should we do it? Most of research is re-search. Going through past literature relating to an issue of importance is essential because knowledge is not static. It is dynamic. We have already revised our views about many findings by past researchers, philosophers and thinkers in the light of new findings. Recent findings are also liable to be revised by future researchers. This is in the nature of research—re-iteration, re-inforcement and re-vision. What is accepted as truth today may be revised by new researchers and their findings. But this process is to be supported by hard evidences. For a long, long time human beings believed in the teachings of ancient philosophers and accepted their wisdom unquestioningly, perhaps almost blindly. The Earth, inhabited by God’s creature and made by God in His own image could not be so unimportant as to be relegated to the status of an insignificant planet moving round the sun and other objects in the sky, whatever the degree of their brightness. The Earth had to be at the centre of God’s universe. The heavenly objects had to revolve round the Earth. Anyone who questioned this concept was depicted by the powerful in society as either mad or blasphemous. Questioning ancient wisdom was a dangerous thing. Questioners and doubters were burnt at the stake or incarcerated in dungeons! Questioning accepted wisdom is the essence of research. Ask one question, then another and then a series of questions. People without a questioning mind cannot be researchers. And research need not always end up in new knowledge. Research can throw light on previous research. In fact, no research is possible without reviewing past literature and answering unanswered questions raised by past researchers. But researchers cannot always be safe from the economic, social and political forces prevailing at any given time, if they
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are honest. Whatever a researcher does is influenced by the nature of society around him or her and hard evidence is a sine qua non of serious research. Research must be socially relevant. It’s of no use to go on the premise that angels can dance on the head of a pin and spend years of hard work to find out how many thousand angels can dance on one pin- head at a given time. Researchers have to ask relevant questions about society, about physical, physiological, spiritual and psychological phenomena in the universe. Research must be meaningful to mankind (and womankind) because basically, all human beings are subject to the same conditions of climate, food habits, and natural environment and the difference between man and woman is only marginal, say in outer shape. But inside they are all the same: in the important systems of cardiovascular, respiratory and other mechanisms of the body. The differences are marginal except in the reproductive system. The differences in food habits and climatic or weather conditions are also superficial because no human being can abandon food altogether, although there may be certain differences in preference in normal conditions. In exceptional circumstances humans differ in their behaviour depending on extremes of heat or cold and such other physical conditions and also under the influence of intoxicating drinks and hallucinating drugs. Otherwise all humans respond to demands of life in more or less an equal manner. Research becomes essential for assessing human (and animal) behavioural differences in the past (historical studies); differences in behaviour are also studied in a descriptive manner, in questionnaire surveys and systemic differences, depending on how far conditions of living affect humans; and sometimes humans and their characteristics are studied in the lab using experimental and control subjects. The
differences in behaviour are observed in varying conditions. All research can be thus divided into three major areas: historical, descriptive and experimental. The genesis Coming to mass communication research, existing literature shows that it started in the thirties of the past century. And what was the essence of research in those days? The bulk of mass communication th
research in the first three or four decades of the 20 century (remember in those days, the print media— newspapers and magazines—were the main media.) Television’s early beginnings were in the third and fourth decades but those were also the World War years and not much attention could be paid to the
development of radio and television. However, there were some attempts at research in the electronic media, but the print media occupied major attention of mass media researchers and sociologists in this period. But even in those early years of media development and media research, the researchers were deeply interested in the effects of the media on readers and listeners. Viewers became important only after the film became an important medium. But again, researchers were impressed by the magic of the medium. Many of them were concerned that the film was going to affect morality and they began to study the effects of the film on the morality of human beings. The values of life began to be questioned by the new medium and its users. Orthodox thinkers, particularly those of religious institutions were wary of the effects of the mass media. Media and morality became hot topics of study and research. Effects of research According to McQuail, ‘‘the entire study of mass communication is based on the premise that the mass
media have significant effects and yet there is little agreement on the nature and extent of their assumed effect”. He has divided media effects research and theory into four phases: Phase 1 - 1901 to 1939 : Media effect is simply the consequence of what the mass media can do intentionally or unintentionally—to the audience-the readers, the listeners or viewers. It is different from ‘media effectiveness’, which is the efficiency of the media in achieving a planned communication goal; for example, the effectiveness of an advertisement message or a PR campaign or a cartoon in selling a product, selling an idea or bringing about behavioural changes in the receiver of the message. Again, one cannot be absolutely sure about the change in behaviour. Take the case of the hundreds of messages coming through various channels about safety of pedestrians at unguarded railway level crossings, about environmental hygiene, safety of the working and living environment of citizens, behaviour of government functionaries, the necessity of queuing up at transport bus stations, the spitting and smoking habits of many citizens, particularly in public places, and the need for curbing over-speed and consequent accidents in all parts of the country. In order to study the effectiveness of ‘ad’ or PR campaigns, one has to do a survey of the public to ascertain their views and assess the effectiveness of the campaigns. If the results of such surveys do not show any remarkable change in behaviour, one may reasonably doubt the effectiveness of those campaigns. One has to look also for extra-media indicators after assessing how many were exposed to the campaign. Perhaps a door-to-door campaigning, personal meetings with the citizens, distribution of pamphlets, etc., may be necessary. Perhaps imposing a fine on non-compliant citizens may be in order as it is done in Media Mimansa
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some countries such as Singapore, However, in Phase 1, the media were considered “almighty”, having power to shape opinion and belief, change habits of life and mould behaviour. But one cannot base one’s conclusions on impressionistic opinions; one has to have firm proof. Phase 2 - 1930-1960 (Testing the might of the media) : The prominent development during this period was empirical research based on experiments and observations. The effects of different types of media content and media units were studied. Prominent researchers during this period were Harold Lasswell, Carl Hovland, Paul Lazarsfeld, Elihu Katz, Bernard Berelson and Joseph Klapper. They were all outstanding professors and their main interests were in political communication, presidential elections, flow of public opinion, content analysis of the media (particularly newspapers, magazines and films). The outstanding research results of this period related to the Two-Step Flow of Communication: from the media not directly to the media users, but first to the opinion leaders in society and then from the leaders to the citizens. The leaders could influence the citizens’ behaviour (particularly voting behaviour) in this twostep flow, asserted Katz and Lazarsfeld. Lasswell stressed the WHO part of the model of communication he evolved, namely, WHO SAYS WHAT BY WHAT CHANNEL TO WHOM WITH WHAT EFFECT? This was the major question for researchers during this period. Berelson popularized a method of descriptive study, namely, CONTENT ANALYSIS (which flourished for the next three decades in a big way, and is still popular especially when combined with Survey of media consumers. In fact, Berelson’s content analysis could bring about a real change in the attitude to media effects which were found to be impressionistic
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and not based on the actual contents of the media. Phase 3 - Early 1960s - early 1970s (Back to the ‘Almighty’ Era) : Kurt Lang and Gladys Lang argued in favour of the theory that TV had important social effects and that it could be an instrument for exercising social and political power. In their later works and in the works of others, the power of the media was upheld. The two-step flow of the previous era was at a discount during this period. The sudden ascendancy of TV in the US, the Mecca of the Media of Mass Communication in the 1950s and 1960s led many researchers to believe that the medium had more power of attraction than any other medium. Therefore, the third phase of ‘effects research’ was begun with renewed vigour, whereas earlier research had depended heavily on the psychological model of STIMULUS-RESPONSE (SR) OR ‘HYPODERMIC NEEDLE’ [also called ‘magic model’]. The third phase saw research efforts based on attitudinal change, opinion changes and behavioural changes brought about by the media. Long-term effects were studied with attention on the variables such as contexts, disposition and motivation. Also studied were questions of how media organizations processed and shaped content before it was delivered to audiences. The work of James D. Halloran, Phillip Elliott and others was of considerable importance in this Phase. Some other prominent researchers during this Phase were : George Gerbner with his 30-year-long cultivation studies and theory, Larry Gross and Elizabeth-Noelle Newman of Germany with her “Spiral of Silence” theory. Phase 4 : Late 1970s—2010 : During this phase, the media have been credited with significant effects based on the construction of meanings, offering them to audiences in a systematic way. More attention
was paid to the audiences than the organizers of media, especially ownership, which has influenced the media and the audiences through different styles—chain ownership, cross media ownership, conglomeration and vertical integration. Effects of ownership were studied during this period but not enough attention was paid to the conglomeration and merger of the media. The number of independent newspapers, radio and television stations and film studios dwindled. Ownership became concentrated with the result that diversity of views became a stranger to the media world. Several media came under one umbrella and repeated the same voice throughout—day in and day out through 24x7 channels in the TV world and “paid news syndrome” in the newspaper world. The illeffects of ownership concentration and vertical integration are not fully revealed yet through research because of the monetary influence on researchers and independent thinkers. (A rare exception was the meeting of hundreds of journalists in Strasbourg in Austria in March-April 2002 resulting in the Strasbourg Declaration).
Further research is essential; independence in media research is as important as freedom of the media. What the citizens of the world need is a multiplicity of independent voices both in media and media research. Let us hope that the media world in India will encourage the advent of independent media units and free-thinking media researchers. REFERENCES l
Halloran, J.D. et aI., Communication and Demonstrations, Hammondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1970.
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Lent, J. A., Global Guide to Media and Communication, London : George Kurian Reference Books, 1986.
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Smith, A., The Age of Behemoths : The Globalization of Mass Media Firms, New York: th 20 Century Fund,1991.
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Vilanilam, J.V., Mass Communication : Theory and Practice, Bhopal : Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism and Communication, 2002.
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Resear ch methods in comm unica tion esearc communica unication studies - An o ver vie w ov ervie view Pradeep Nair* ABSTRACT “If you want it done right, you may as well do it yourself.” Today, this aphorism has been realized by more and more people in media industry and they are applying it to large media corporations, communication consultancies, entertainment industries, community development projects, and even to national government policies and programs. Such entities exist increasingly in an interdependent media world, and are relying on various communication research methodologies as a means of coming to grips with their constantly changing and turbulent environments. This research article is basically intended to give an overview of various research methods and methodologies practiced in communication studies, the processes and principles, stating when it is appropriate to use, and situating it within a praxis research paradigm. Introduction Research is the key to any successful communication efforts not only in the corporate world but also in the public and government sector. Without research, those who administer and practice communication programs and activities for their organizations would be operating in the dark without any guidance or clear sense of direction. Practicing research in communication studies focuses on the entire communication process and examines the communication relationships that exist among and between institutions and their key target audience groups. For a communication practitioner, research is an essential tool for fact and opinion gathering and is a systematic effort aimed at discovering, confirming and understanding through objective appraisal of the facts or opinions pertaining to a specified problem, situation or opportunity. In this context, methodology may be defined as a description of process or a philosophically coherent
collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline or field of inquiry. Further, methodology may refer to nothing more than a simple set of methods or procedures, or it may refer to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie a particular study relative to the scientific method. Knowledge about research methods Various research methods and techniques are practiced in communication studies for the following needs and purposes: i) As a graduate student to be able to read and understand the empirical literature in his or her field; to become a critical consumer of information. ii) As a graduate student preparing for a dissertation to be able to both design and implement the dissertation as well as future studies that interest him or her.
* Research Scientist and Course Coordinator, AJK- Mass Communication Research Centre, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. (email ID :
[email protected])
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iii)
As a media practitioner to plan, develop or possibly refine communication programs, activities or affairs.
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As a future communication practitioner to be able to intelligently participate in research projects, evaluations, and studies undertaken by the organization or institution.
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As an educated citizen to understand the difference between scientifically acquired knowledge and other kinds of information. Difference between research method and methodology
In communication studies, methods are generally defined as techniques for gathering evidence, information and data and the various ways of processing that collected information or data. Methodology has been defined as the underlying theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed, often influenced by discipline (Anderson, 1987). Methodology is a theory of knowledge and it is the theory which decides what should be observed. Primary research is usually either qualitative or quantitative in form. Qualitative research methods usually refer to studies that are somewhat subjective, but nevertheless in-depth, using a probing, open-ended and free response format. A quantitative research method usually refers to studies that are highly objective not projectable, using close-ended forcedchoice questionnaires. These studies tend to rely heavily on statistics and numerical measures. When communication researchers consider doing qualitative studies, the data collection methodologies and techniques that usually pop quickly into mind are field observations, focus groups, ethnography, case study, discourse and text analysis and enquiry studies.
Field observations Field observations were rarely used in communication research before 1980. Lowry reported that only two to three percent of the articles published in journalism and communication journals used the technique of field observations in 1980. Another study, conducted by Cooper, Potter and Dupagne, found that about 2% of all published studies from 1965 to 1989 relied on observation. However, now a days field observations are becoming more common in communication research. Field observation is useful for collecting data and for generating hypotheses and theories. Like all qualitative techniques, it is concerned more with description and explanation than with measurement and quantification. Although field observation is not an appropriate technique for every research question, it does have several unique advantages. For one thing, many mass media problems and questions cannot be studied using any other methodology. Field observation often helps the researcher to define basic background information necessary to frame a hypothesis and to isolate independent and dependent variables. Field observation is not always used as a preliminary step to other approaches. Sometimes it alone is the only appropriate approach, especially when quantification is difficult (Babbie, 2000). Beside a lot of advantages, field observation also has some disadvantages. Field observation is a poor choice if the researcher is concerned with external validity. Field observations also suffer from the problem of reactivity. The very process of being observed may influence the behavior under study. Of course, reactivity can be a problem with other research methods, but it is most often mentioned as a criticism of field observation. Media Mimansa
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Focus groups Focus group is a research strategy for understanding audience attitudes and behavior. It is an exploratory technique in which a group of somewhere between 8 to 12 individuals, under the guidance of a trained moderator, are encouraged, as a group, to discuss freely any or all of their feelings, concerns, problems and frustrations relating to specific topics under discussion. The identifying characteristic of the focus group is controlled group discussion, which is used to gather preliminary information for a research project, to help develop a questionnaire for survey research, to understand the reasons behind a particular phenomenon, to see how a group of people interpret a certain phenomenon, or to test preliminary ideas or plans. Focus groups are ideal for brainstorming, idea gathering and concept testing (Bogdan & Taylor, 1998). Focus groups help the researcher to identify and fill gaps in current knowledge regarding perceptions, attitudes, feelings etc. Focus groups are widely used in pilot studies to detect ideas that will be investigated further using other research methods and techniques. An important advantage of focus group is that it can be conducted quickly and the researcher may get more flexibility while designing the questions and followups. The disadvantage of this method is that the study does not give statistics and most of the analysis done through this method is subjective in nature. Further a self-appointed group leader, who monopolizes the conversation and attempts to impose his or her opinion on other participants, dominates the entire process and may influence the results. Focus group is an inappropriate technique for
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gathering quantitative data. If quantification is important, it is wise to supplement the focus group with other research techniques and tools that permit more specific questions to be addressed to a more representative sample. Ethnographic research studies Ethnographic research studies basically rely on the tools and techniques of cultural anthropologists and sociologists to obtain a better understanding of how individuals and groups function in their natural settings. Usually, this type of research is carried out by a team of impartial, trained researchers who ‘immerse’ themselves into the daily routine of a school setting, a neighborhood, or a community, using a mix of observation, participation and role-playing techniques, in an effort to try to assess what is really happening from a “cultural” perspective (Berger, 1998). The quality of ethnographic study is that it puts the researcher in the middle of the topic under study; the researcher goes to the data rather than the other way around. Ethnography also emphasizes studying an issue or topic from the participant’s frame of reference. It involves spending a considerable amount of time in the field. Ethnography uses a variety of research techniques including observation, interviewing, diary keeping, analysis of existing documents, photography, videotaping and so on. Case studies Case study uses as many data sources as possible to systematically investigate individuals, groups, organizations or events. Case studies in communication research are conducted when the researcher needs to understand or explain a phenomenon. Case studies are generally defined as empirical inquiries that use multiple sources of evidence to investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context, in which the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident. In case studies, the focus of study is generally on individual or small group. As the researchable units are small hence the researcher is always in a position to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of different cases. The study also provides the researcher an opportunity for the identification of variables or phenomenon to be studied. The technique provides tremendous detail. The case study method also affords the researcher the ability to deal with a wide spectrum of evidence. Documents, historical artifacts, systematic interviews, direct observations and even traditional surveys can all be incorporated into a case study (Bower and Courtright, 1984). But the problem with case studies is that the study needs lot of time and has more depth than breadth. Many times the study is not necessarily representative as it is in the case of survey or content analysis. The main criticism is that the case study is not amendable to generalizations. If the main goal of the researcher is to make statistical based normative statements about the frequency of occurrence of a phenomenon in a defined population, then the results will be sometimes idiosyncratic. Depth interviews Depth interview studies are those that rely on a probing, open-ended, largely unstructured interviewing format, and usually are carried out in person or by telephone. As part of the exercise, respondents are encouraged to talk freely in detail about the given subjects. Depth interview generally use smaller samples and provide detailed background about the reasons which respondents give while answering specific questions. They are also customized to individual respondents.
The most important advantage of depth interview is the wealth of detail that it provides. Further, when compared to more traditional survey methods, depth interviews provide more accurate responses on sensitive issues. The rapport between the respondent and the interviewer makes it easier to approach certain topics that might be taboo in other approaches (Wimmer & Dominick, 1994). As far as the disadvantages are concerned, generalizability sometimes creates problem and they are sensitive to interviewer bias. Enquiry study An enquiry study is a systematic review and analysis, using content analysis or sometimes telephone, mail and internet interviewing techniques, to study the range and types of unsolicited inquiries that an organization may receive from key audience groups with which it frequently communicates (Broom & Dozier, 1990). For media business establishments, for example, it could be of great benefit to conduct informal interviews with prospective consumers who contact company officials for background information or for promotional materials. Although those who contact the media organization on their own would, in effect, constitute an unscientific, self-selected sample. The mere fact that they are calling, could provide the organization with a very useful source of qualitative information about target groups that are, obviously, very important to the organization. Methods based on quantitative research approaches Quantitative research studies can be carried out using a broad array of different data collection techniques, including content analysis, surveys, panels, convenience polls etc. Media Mimansa
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Content analysis Content analysis is one of the most commonly used research methodology based on quantitative research approaches practiced by media scholars dealing with media and communication studies. Content analysis is a research technique for the systematic classification and description of communication content according to certain usually predetermined categories. It may involve quantitative or qualitative analysis or both. Technical objectivity requires that the categories of classification and analysis be clearly and operationally defined so that other researchers can follow them reliably. Content analysis is a process by which the researcher seeks to determine the manifest content of written, spoken or published communication by systematic, objective and quantitative analysis. Content analysis as a research method has been used in communication studies to measure what people say about a particular medium, content or an issue. The advantage is that it is unobtrusive, relatively inexpensive, can deal with current events, topics of present day interest, and can yield data that can be quantified (Creswell, 1994). Survey research Surveying is a research method that has been used in communication studies to get information about certain groups of people who are representative of some larger groups to know how they respond to a certain media message. It is a method used for collecting data through highly structured questionnaire from large number of respondents presumed to be representative of a specific population. Survey researches are known as an efficient means of gathering large amounts of data and can be
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anonymous and inexpensive. It is done to collect social, economic, psychological, technical, cultural and other types of data. It is done with representative samples of a population being studied and is assumed that information obtained from the sample is valid for the general population. But the feedback collected through this method is often incomplete and the wording of the instrument designed for data collection can bias the feedback. As the nature of the study is quite large in comparison to other quantitative research methods, hence sometimes important details are left out (Dillman, 1978). Surveys can be conducted through internet. Web-based surveys differ in that a specialized program or system is needed to construct a questionnaire and to collect and eventually process the information and data to draw the results. The benefit is that survey instruments can be attractively designed with audio, video and graphic and animation concepts added, and can obtain complex, built-in skip patterns. Survey responses are collected in databases which eliminates the need for manual data entry (Wimmer & Dominick, 1994). The major advantages of e-mail and web-based surveys are that: large samples are possible in a short amount of time. Usually studies can be carried out much more quickly and far more cheaply than using other methods. Data can be analyzed continuously, that is, one can ‘port’ directly into statistical tools and databases as the completed questionnaires are returned. There are also many disadvantages. These are: respondents are self-selected, thus, there is limited or often no control over sample design and selection, it is not possible to achieve probability sampling, and identity validations can be a problem (Sudman & Norman, 1982).
Panel studies
included in the sample. It is also sometimes referred
Panels are a type of research study in which a group of individuals is deliberately recruited by a research firm, because of their special demographic characteristics, for the express purpose of being interviewed more than once over a period of time for various clients on a broad array of different topics or subjects. The best time to consider fielding a panel study is when someone is trying to survey a hard-toreach or hard-to-find audience group.
as a ‘haphazard’, ‘informal’ or ‘quick-and-dirty’ poll. While practicing, convenience polls are viewed by most communication researchers as highly unscientific, unreliable and invalid research technique and mostly the findings are not projectable to the total population under study. All of the various data collection tools and techniques that we have discussed in this article can be used for designing and carrying out various
Of the various quantitative data collection techniques stated in this article, if one’s primary consideration is keeping his or her research costs down, the best techniques are e-mail polls, web-based surveys and simple telephone/fax polls. If the primary
communication researches for strategic planning and program development process and also for evaluating the effectiveness of various communication events and activities.
consideration is a quick turn around of the study from
Anti–social and pro-social effects of content
start to finish, the best techniques are e-mail polls,
The anti-social effect of viewing television and motion pictures is one of the most heavily researched areas in all mass media studies. Nearabout 300 studies were conducted during 1960 to 1990 on antisocial effects of media content in Europe. The impact of prosocial content is a newer area and grew out of the recognition that the same principles underlying the learning of anti-social activities ought to apply to more positive behaviour. Applied and academic researchers share an interest in this area. Anti-social and prosocial content have been popular issues for research in communication studies for the past three decades.
omnibus polling, telephone polls and web-based surveys. But if the study is complex, face to face interviews and mail intercept studies are considered best. Meta analysis Meta analysis is defined as the quantitative aggregation of many research findings and their interpretations. It allows researchers to draw general conclusions from an analysis of many studies that have been conducted concerning a definable research topic. The goal of meta analysis is to provide a synthesis of an existing body of research. Convenience polls As the name implies, a convenience poll is a type of non-probability study in which whoever happens to be available at a given point of time is
Researchers generally use content analysis, surveys, field observations, panels to study the effects of media contents. Studying uses and gratifications The uses and gratifications perspective takes the view of the media consumer. It examines how people use the media and the gratifications they seek and receive from their media behaviours. Uses and Media Mimansa
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gratifications researchers assume that audience members are aware of and can articulate their reasons for consuming various media contents. The uses and gratifications approach has been practiced by media researchers to know why people are engaged in various forms of media behaviour, such as radio listening, television viewing, internet surfing or newspaper reading. The studies are mostly descriptive, seeking to classify the responses of audience members into meaningful categories. In the last few years, the uses and gratifications approach has been used to explore the impact of new technologies on the audience e.g. watching cable television, using internet and mobile phones etc. (Lowery & Defleur, 1995). Measuring media and public agenda Several research techniques have been used to establish the media agenda. The most common method practiced is grouping coverage topics into broad categories and measuring the amount of time or space devoted to each category. Generally in this type of study, the content analysis of medium includes all media like television, radio, internet, mobile, newspapers, cinema, magazines etc. But most studies generally have been confined to one or two media, usually television and internet. The development of new technologies has expanded the information outlets available to the public thus providing more opportunities to conduct research on the role of these new mediums of communication in agenda setting.
consistent media portrayals and themes influence our perceptions of these items in the direction of media portrayals. In effect, learning from the media environment is generalized, sometimes incorrectly, to the social environment (Morgan and Shanahan, 1997). Presently, research studies taking place in cultivation studies are focusing on the expansion of cultivation into other cultures and on a closer examination of the measurement used in cultivation. A lot of studies are taking place on the quantification of television viewing and internet surfing. Studying new trends in print media Magazines and newspapers were one of the first subjects of mass media research. The initial interest in such research came from colleges and universities. Much of the early print media research was qualitative. But as the techniques of quantitative research became more widely known and adopted, newspapers and magazines research became more empirical. Newspapers and magazines research generally are conducted for the assessment and evaluation of readership, circulation, management, typography, design-layout, readability and online media usage. Readership studies, item-selection studies, reader-nonreader studies, uses and gratification studies are the most preferred areas chosen by the researchers to know the motives that lead to newspaper reading and the personal and psychological rewards that result from it. Studies about the use of on-line media and their potential competition with traditional newspapers are a recent area that is attracting a great deal of attention (Sharp, 1988).
Studying cultivation of perception of reality Several research techniques have been used to determine how the media affect audience perceptions of the real world. The basic assumption underlying the cultivation approach is that repeated exposures to
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Research methodologies used to study the print media are similar to those used in most areas of communication research that is content analysis, surveys, focus groups etc. Print media research,
however, tends to be more narrowly focused and more oriented toward practical application. Studying the changing trends in electronic media Research in electronic media is growing rapidly. Production houses are very keen to know what viewers/ listeners want to watch or listen so that they can give it to them. In this case, research is the only way to find out about a target audience and what they want from a channel or station. Research helps these production houses and broadcasting stations to determine how and when to adjust their business to meet new consumer demands. This is important because changes in broadcasting can happen very quickly and there are no factories to re-tool and no raw materials to order. The only thing which helps is accurate information (Stacks, 2002). Researches in electronic media can be on ratings, program testing, audience analysis etc. Ratings are the most visible form of research used in broadcasting but other non-rating approaches are also used frequently to study audience fragmentation. Studying the uses of internet in research The internet has had a profound impact on the way people communicate, conduct business, and process information. It is not surprising that the internet is also influencing media research. Internet has changed the way researchers search for and disseminate information. It has simplified collaboration and interaction among investigators; it provides new material for analysis and has also created new techniques for gathering media data (William, 1988). Research on internet mainly focuses on its usage in research as a tool for gathering data and ethical questions related to it.
Conclusion A good deal of communication research methodologies has been discussed and reviewed in this article to give a clear understanding of various investigations, measurement of phenomenon, procedures required to test the observations or measurements. Communication research evolved from the fields of psychology, sociology and anthropology and is now a well established field in its own right. It is not necessary to know only to measure the data while using statistical tools, it is more important to know how to conduct research and what research procedures can do. In an effort to understand any phenomenon, researchers can follow one of several methods of inquiry. Of the various research procedures discussed in this article, the scientific approach is most applicable to the mass media because it involves a systematic, objective evaluation of information. Researchers first identify a problem and then investigate it using a prescribed set of procedures known as the research methodologies. A good understanding of the research methodologies is the only learning approach that allows a researcher to work accurately. The proliferation of communication research is mainly attributable to the rapidly developing technology of the communication industry. Because of this growth in research, both applied and conceptual approaches have taken on more significance in the decision-making process of the mass media and in our understanding of the media. The only problem in conducting communication research is that internal studies conducted by media houses sometimes lack
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credibility. People sometimes tend to be skeptical about the objectivity of a research project created and analyzed by a communication department of an organization or institution who may have a vested interest in the outcome. As communication practitioner if somebody wants to conduct a research study on a large scale, he or she should have to go for sophisticated research process involving specialized data analysis procedures. So, ultimately we can say that without research it is not possible to get an idea how we are performing as a communication or media practitioner and how our communication programs and campaigns are accepted by our audience. No doubt, the field of communication research is gaining more and more popularity and is providing more job opportunities for media students, but still we need more attention and efforts.
Englewood Cliffs: N.J. Publications, pp. 43-67. 7.
Communication Research Foundation (1990) CRF Guidelines Handbook. Communication and Media Research Practices, New York.
8.
Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 125-145.
9.
Dillman, Don A. (1978) Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method. New York: Wiley Publications, pp. 18-38.
10.
Lowery, S. & Defleur, M.L. (1995). Milestones rd in Mass Communication Research (3 Edition). White Plains, NY: Longman.
11.
Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Two decades of Cultivation Research. In B.R. Burleson (Ed.), Communication Year Book 20, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 1147.
12.
Sharp, N.W. (1988). Communication Research: The Challenges of the Information Age. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, pp. 62-75.
13.
Stacks, Don W. (2002) Primer of Communication Research. New York : The Guilford Press Publications, pp. 29-47.
14.
Sudman, Seymour and Norman M. Bradburn. (1982) Asking Questions: A Practical Guide To Questionnaire Design, San Francisco: JosseyBass Publications, pp. 53-89.
15.
William, F. (1988). Research Methods and the New Media. New York : Free Press, pp. 35-43.
16.
Wimmer, R.D. & Dominick, J.R. (1994). Mass th Media Research (6 Ed.). NY: Wadsworth Publishing Company, pp. 375-401.
REFERENCES 1.
2.
3.
Anderson, J.A. (1987). Communication Research: Issues and Methods. New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 51-67. Babbie, Earl P. (2000). The Practice of Social th Research. (9 Edition), Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publications, pp. 35-72. Berger, A.A. (1998). Media Research nd Techniques (2 Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 176-197.
4.
Bogdan, R., and Taylor, S. (1998). Introduction rd to Qualitative Research Methods (3 Ed.). New York: John Wiley, pp. 33-48.
5.
Bowers, J.W., and Courtright, J.A. (1984). Communication Research Methods. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, pp. 23-35.
6.
Broom, Glen M. and David M. Dozier. (1990). Using Research in Communication Studies.
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Prentice-Hall
Communication research in India : A status evaluation K.V. Nagaraj* ABSTRACT Though communication research has emerged a distinct sector of both academic and professional enquiry, its status is a cause of concern in the Indian context. While professional research is market-oriented, the status of academic research in the country leaves much to be desired. Mostly moulded in the effects research tradition, the researchers have neither sharpened their skill nor branched out to gain distinct identities. The research sector is virgin and unexplored, but what has been done so far does not meet quality parameters to be recognized at international level. Advertising and Public Relations are the allied sectors that offer immense scope for a wide variety of investigation. The public sector institutions have offered very little to cheer about in media research, while the large media houses have neglected the research sector totally, unlike their Western counterparts. What we need is an Indian tradition of communication research relevant to local and regional conditions. Journalism education in India, for all practical purposes, is as old as independent India. Before Independence, the press with its obsession with political issues had little or no time to conduct even readership surveys. Circulation figures were the only source of information as to the readership. The departure of the British from India provided the press with both challenges and opportunities. Industrialists took over the ownership of major newspaper groups and as a result, journalism acquired the overtones of business. Profit and power were the twin motives behind these acquisitions. Not much importance was attached to readership research. On the other hand, the government–owned All India Radio already had the listener survey or audience research unit that later paved the way for more expansive research into the field of broadcasting. Professional research organizations came into
the scene only in 1970s. The ABC (Audit Bureau of Circulation) was perhaps the only source of circulation data considered authentic. Historically, academic research in journalism per se was not a phenomenon till 1970s. Some research efforts in journalism could be seen in other social sciences, which were basically inter-disciplinary in nature, either in history or political science or English literature. In fact, many of the early teachers who took interest in teaching journalism were from the background of English literature. With a steady process of professionalization, importance of journalism education was realized. However, as was in the United States and other Western countries, the classroom–news room conflict syndrome raised its head, and the working professionals often lampooned the theory-loaded instruction in academic institutions. Unfortunately, most teachers in journalism were and are not from the profession and did not and
* Professor & Head, Department of Mass Communication, Assam University, Silchar (e-mail ID :
[email protected])
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do not have any professional experience. In the same vein, most professionals had learnt the skills by the trial and error method. Unlike the West, which had a flourishing media market linked to the industrial revolution, India started struggling to imitate the developing countries, attempting to devise a middle road between two competing ideologies of capitalism and communism. Obviously, the media, especially the print, took delight in the triggering of politico-economic blunderbuss. The non-discriminate readership supinely accepted the political rhetoric provided by the new breed of journalists. The tradition still continues. University-industry linkage In the West, especially in the United States, the university-industry linkage is significant in the media sector. Professionals who have high academic qualifications join universities and help develop research program. They also secure projects to produce high quality research output while the newsroomclassroom hiatus has narrowed down with the graduates in journalism flooding media houses. Though now-adays media houses are opting for campus recruitment in India, the two-way traffic is not happening since professionals, except a few, do not have interest in academic programs, including research. For some, research seems to be just a collection of information. The National Knowledge Commission has bemoaned the quality of Ph.Ds churned out by Indian universities and suggested the production of Ph.Ds of more quality and quantity. Like-wise, the quality of Ph.Ds in journalism does not meet the rigorous parameters of international standards. Often these are products of ‘cut-and paste’ business drawn from the Internet sources. Original research does take place, but here again the number of quality efforts are far and few. When it comes to quantitative techniques and their
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application, it is merely duplication or multiplication of what has already been done. Even qualitative research is far from satisfactory. There exists an urgent need to train a dedicated band of researchers in the universities. In this context, we should also remember the industry investment in its own R and D as well as in academic institutions for research is abysmally low compared even to China. On the other hand, the media revolution in the form of television channel boom has prompted rating research, each channel vying for a higher TRP for its programs than others. Obviously, several Indian and foreign players have entered the field of rating research. Among Indian organizations mention must be made of ORG (Operational Research Group), MARG and IMRB. A.C. Nielsen has emerged a key player of late. However, most research organizations follow the technique of market research, different from media or communication research. Academic research in India, as already mentioned, is shoddy, irrelevant and primitive. Imprecise application of methods and techniques has been the scourge of academic research in Communication. Inter-media competition Inter-media competition should encourage research in Communication and Mass Communication as it happened in the West. Unfortunately, we are slow in catching up with them. The National Readership Surveys are a good effort, but they do need the participation of more newspapers and magazines. The audience research units of both Doordarshan and All India Radio can employ more sophisticated tools for better results. Though now under the control of an autonomous corporation, these units have to come out of the bureaucratic hangover. At the application level, there should be a
national debate on the relevance of Western tools and techniques in the Indian context. Unlike many developed countries, the collection of primary data is not an easy task in India. Social and other factors have made the collection of data difficult. Most academic researchers depend upon secondary sources of information for their output. The logistics, accessibility and finance have been the main areas of deficiency for communication researchers in India. While science gobbles up a substantial chunk of government patronage, communication as a discipline is attached to social sciences and gets very little financial attention. The private investment in communication research is absolutely non-existent, added to the inertia of most academics in government–funded universities. The situation in private institutions is equally disgusting and abominable. In reality, there exists no research tradition or culture in the field of mass communication in India. The private-public participation (PPP) model has not taken off mainly due to the disinterestedness on both sides. The public institutions have framed such rigid rules that even the most enterprising academics back out when it comes to consultancy services including research. On their part, private media houses have very little faith in the quality of research work carried out in academic institutions. It is disgusting to see many teachers in Mass Communication departments while away their time more in unproductive work than in research. The authorities should introduce an accountability clause that includes their research contributions and keep them on their toes. Added to the misery is the absence of peer reviewed research journals. Many university departments of Mass Communication make a half-hearted beginning to float a journal and after a couple of issues, these journals make an unceremonious exit. In other
countries, quality journals have survived unlike in India. We cannot boast of a single journal of standard let alone international. Some publications like the VIDURA and the Grassroots do not strictly fall under the category of research journals. It is also amusing to go through some of the research titles. No serious thought is given to the selection of the topics which appear mostly macro. The textual intervention of media history even in quantitative studies makes a mockery of the entire research process. For these reasons, institutions like the ICSSR should conduct workshops regularly on research methods to update and improve the knowledge level of young academicians and researchers. The establishment of a research institute on the model of Institute of Socio-Economic Change only for Mass Communication research can be a feasible proposition. In the US, Nieman fellowships are awarded to media professionals and others to do research on any subject of their choice without any strings attached. Similar arrangements can be thought of in India too. The prosperous media organisations can earmark a small portion of their profit for this purpose. Advertising as persuasive communication is a fertile area of research. The story is similar and it is left to the researchers in the management sector to take care of it. Neither the copy nor the design aspects have been researched upon. Advertising agencies do have research departments but for other purposes. Public Relations firms have not evinced much interest in research activities for reasons best known to them only. Likewise, the new media sector calls for meaningful research efforts. Other Asian countries like China, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore and Japan have made enormous strides in communication research, keeping India far behind. The Indian priority for media habits and impact studies show only the duplication of efforts Media Mimansa
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and their lackadaisical attitude towards the issue. The urgent need of the hour is to introduce professionalism in academic research in the field of Communication. The inference drawn here does not mean that we have to simply ape the Western concepts and methodologies of Communication Research. What is needed is an expansive development of Indian contribution to methods of investigation. We have a strong background in Mathematics and Statistics. Should we not produce new formulas of evaluation? Even our attempts at historical research are inaccurate, incomplete and often biased with personal affiliations, ideological or otherwise. Time is ripe for a rethink on the issue and a structural overhaul alongwith intensive intentions for a corrective course. We can replicate the national knowledge network suggested by the National Knowledge Commission in its report submitted to the union government for a national Communication Research
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Network to connect media institutions, university departments, research organizations and other professional institutions to create an environment of viable research. No doubt, the teeming masses of young men and women will have innumerable opportunities knocking at their door. REFERENCES 1.
National Knowledge Commission Report, Government of India, 2009
2.
Mass Media Research: An introduction by Roger D. Wimmer and Joseph R. Dominick
3.
Kenneth S. Borders and Bruce Abbot, Research Design and Methods - A Process Approach. Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, California.
4.
Keval J. Kumar, Journalism and Mass Communication in India, Jaico Publishers, Mumbai.
Communication research : US scene M.R. Dua* ABSTRACT The article traces the history of journalism and mass communication teaching and academic instruction in USA starting from early 1900s right up to the present times. The narration and analysis covers its stages and focus areas as evolved over time. It also brings out the excellent contribution of quite a few media and communication researchers and teachers of USA and also those of Indian origin, settled and/or working in American universities. The article is, therefore, directional both for the present and prospective scholars and teachers in journalism and mass communication in India and also elsewhere. “It is said that fifty thousand volumes and pamphlets have been written about America and yet there’s no history of the American press.”- Frederick Hudson (1) When teaching and academic instructions in journalism (and mass communication) were first initiated seriously in the United States of America at college and university levels in the early 1900s, mass communication was not a part of the discipline. And, it could hardly be envisioned then that this discipline, at that time known as ‘journalism’ only, would assume scholarly and erudite dimensions and would become one of the most sought after subjects of study. But, after more than a hundred years of being taught and researched in the US, journalism and mass communication, as an area of higher education and research, has acquired the profile of an independent ‘sovereign’ field of pedagogic study for undergraduate, post-graduate and doctoral degrees in many other countries of the world. “Graduate-level instructions alone with research in mass communication were started after 1935 (2) under the leadership of Clinton R. Bush (Stanford University), Ralph O. Nafziger (Minnesota and Wisconsin
Universities), Wilbur Schramm (Iowa and Stanford Universities), and Paul F. Lazerfeld (Columbia University) (3). Though the discipline has been evolving at a rather slow pace since its inception, many more of journalism and mass communication’s modern and newer branches have been added to its nomenclature, particularly in the US and Canada. To mention only some of the eminent ones at present: telecommunications (Indiana University), communication and media (Georgia University), communication arts and science (Calvin College), journalism and mass communication (California State University, Northridge), speech communication (University of Maryland), journalism, and communication sciences (two separate, independent departments) (University of Connecticut), media and performing arts (Yale University), media and theater arts (Temple University, Philadelphia), media and public affairs (The George Washington University), communication studies (Marquette University), information studies (University of California at Los Angeles –UCLA) etc. In most American universities, the nomenclature continues to be department/school
Former Professor & Head, Journalism and Faculty Advisor, Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi and Former Director, JIMS, New Delhi. (email ID :
[email protected])
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of journalism/communication. Of late, Intercultural communica-tion and international communication have also become separate fields of study in these departments/schools. Overall, at present there are around 200 universities, research institutes and post-graduate colleges spread through the length and breadth of the US awarding bachelor, masters’ and doctoral degrees in journalism, mass communication, telecommunication, international communication, intercultural communication, development communication, and communication, arts and sciences. Since a variety of new nomenclatures in the study of journalism and mass communication have been innovated and instituted, this discipline has also made its inroads in many other social sciences academic fields such as sociology, history, economics, international relations, psychology, political science, religion, traditional communications, customs and culture, anthropology, etc. Communication research, essentially a social science, also has become intimately intertwined with all these academic and research areas and programs. American communication scholars now hold that theoretically, communication research is “the product of socio-scientific culture which is limited by its language; communication research offers deep insights into the working of communication and the role and functions of media. It also reflects the dominance of a strong and persistent social science tradition that has survived various theoretical challenges during the last more than 60- -70 years” (4). Besides, after having secured the status of a veritable scholarly identity, “communication research benefits from general search for social and political explanations of society and continues to be a part of interdisciplinary theoretical debate” (5).
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Communication research methods To begin with, therefore, it would be in order to point out that some of the basic techniques, methods and tools of communication research in the US have undergone sea changes since the first masters’ thesis and doctoral dissertations were done and accepted way back in the early1940s. Mainly, these changes have been effected due to amazing advances in complexities of media operations and media’s thrust on social, theoretical, economic, political, international and philosophical content. These changes have also been mainly in methods and techniques of visualizing, identifying, conducting and researching for higher degrees or doing other identical research projects. Most of the research concepts, tools, techniques and designs have, of late, assumed really intricate and novel forms and constructs. Though in the initial stages, hardly any distinction was perceived in terms such as journalism, print media, mass communication, mass media, etc., but communication scholars have been able to sort out these differences fairly quickly by clearly defining and categorizing the areas included in each of these fields. As a result, communication researchers have also adopted distinct research methods suitable for a requisite media research project. It was only during the late 1970s and mid-1980s that increased application of qualitative and quantitative method came in vogue in communication research also. This shift was a direct result of the new social science-based research, designs, methods, and empirical and analytical trends being found scientifically more reliable. In addition, experimental, laboratory and field studies also emerged giving way to traditional, historical, descriptive and philosophical techniques. In recent times, some distinguished American
researchers have challenged the validity of “philosophical and traditional social science approaches and those underlying premises persisting with the communication research establishment” (6). Those joining this line of thought included Brenda Dervin of the Washington University and others like Lawrence Grossberg, Barbara J. O’Keefe and Ellen Wartella when they published two volumes of their book “Rethinking Communication – Paradigm Issues and Paradigm Exemplars (California: Sage, 1983). But then, the process of challenging the old methods and techniques did not end there. Most distinguished communication scholars, such as Ithiel Sola de Pool, Edwin Emery, George Gerbener, Everette Rogers, John A. Lent, Everette E. Dennis, Frederick T.C. Yu, Pamela Shoemaker, D. Lawrence, D. Lawrence Kinkaid, Elihu Katz, Ben Bagdikian, W. Philip Davidson and many others have made solid and enduring contributions in mass communication research over the years. Thus, with the beginning of the publication in 1979 of a brand new 15-volume series on communication research entitled “Progress in Communication Sciences,” by an American company, Ablex Publication Corporation based in Greenwich, Connecticut, a totally new era in communication research dawned in the US. Though the series’ last volume appeared in 1999, many other publications have come out recently, the latest one being “Routledge Handbook of Applied Communication Research,” 2009, Routledge, New York. All these publications have profusely assisted and supported the dissemination, and encouraged advanced researches in new and emerging areas of journalism, mass communication, communication science and electronic communication. In addition, there are some newly embarked upon and ingenuously innovated areas of
communication research. These include: behavioural sciences and communication sciences topics, social cognition, self-awareness and interpersonal communication, language study, relationships to communications, the broadcast regulatory process, toward a new analysis framework, communication in the communication sciences, intercultural communication: current status and proposed direction, cultural identities in international perspective: convergence or conflict, issues in the study of communicative competence, research of study of television and gender, a cognitive response analysis of source credibility, film audience research, communication networks and network analysis: a current assessment, advances in persuasion, mutual influence in personal communication, theory and research in cognition, cable and satellite television, impact of social networking and internet, including advances in telecommunication— telephone, cell phones and I-pods. Normally, each publication of the 15 volumes in the “Progress in Communication Sciences” series covers around a dozen original, unexplored and lively subjects, written individually or collaboratively, by American communication research scholars working for their doctoral degrees, junior, and senior university faculty. Many well–known media professionals from local media organizations and others from social sciences departments have joined in some projects sponsored by American NGOs or research foundations. Broadly, the research themes of these 15 volumes, besides communication science, have spanned to sociology, linguistics, phenomenology (a totally new aspect of communication), feministic politics, gender, intimate bedroom sex communication, political culture and international impact of media. Of these, volumes I to X have been edited by Dr. Brenda Dervin and
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Melvin J. Voigt, (general editor of these volumes being Brenda Dervin). The editors of volume XI are Brenda Dervin and Usha Hariharan; volume XII is edited by William D. Richard Jr. and George A. Barnett; volume XIII by Franklin J. Boster and George A. Barnett; volume XIV by Mark T. Palmer and George A. Barnett and the latest volume, XV, has been edited by Harmeet Sawhney and George A. Barnett, its main research theme being telecommunication—telephone. Important communication research journals in the US Another most important and critical aspect of communication research in the United States of America currently, is the steady and enduring presence of research journals on ubiquitous aspects of journalism, mass communication, communication science, broadcast media—radio, television and television arts, including script writing, folk and traditional media, films and cinema, theater and drama, culture, psychology, internet, international communication, telecommunication, and media ethics. Prior to 1968, only three journals existed. These were: Montana Journalism Review (1958), Columbia Journalism Review (1961) and NS Seminar (1966). Also, popular magazines on the prevailing state of media and media controversies have made their presence felt. There are more than two dozen research communication journals related to research in journalism, telecommunications and broadcasting mass media and communication science published monthly, quarterly, half yearly and, on annual basis. Most of these journals are published by well–known American universities and academic bodies, academic media associations, foundations and non-government organizations. Overall, there are more than two scores of scholarly journals and periodicals devoted to
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diversified and serious, fundamental and critical aspects of communication research, as hinted above. Of these, prominent ones are: Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly (1930), Journalism and Mass Communication Monographs and Journalism and Mass Communication Educator. All the three devoted to research and commentary on the diverse areas of communication science, journalism and mass communication are being regularly brought out by the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication in cooperation with American Association of Schools and Departments of Journalism and Mass Communication (1917) in the US. Some of the other scholarly journals are: Communication Research; Journal of Communication Inquiry; Communication Theory—official journal of International Communication Association, Washington; Accuracy in Media (AIM); Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media; Journal of Radio Studies–educating for tomorrow’s media–both are official publications of the American Broadcast Association; Communication Studies published by America’s Central States Communication Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Communication Education, published by the National Communication Association; Journalism History, devoted entirely to the history of journalism and mass communication in America; Newspaper Research Journal, published by Memphis University in Tennessee State; American Journalism, a journal of media history being published by American journalism historians; Communication, Culture and Critique; Critical Studies in Mass Communication and Journal of Media Ethics. A purely academic and a very useful publication for research scholars, Journalism and Mass Communication Abstracts, listing brief details of master's theses and doctoral dissertations, appears at regular intervals for the guidance of candidates working for such degrees in different universities in the US.
Besides, there are several other mass communication/journalism periodicals of common interest, though not exactly of scholarly or research genre — critiquing day to day mass media controversies. Mention in this category could be made of The Quill, Columbia Journalism Review (which incidentally also maintains a regular daily web site on American media), and American Journalism Review. In addition, several universities also publish their own journals. It would also be in order to point out here that, of late, several vibrant and articulate web sites on current topics and trends in the American media are being maintained by well known media critics, former journalists and independent media outfits, such as mediamatters.com, redd.it.com, Pew Research Center, etc. These have been making immense impact on media’s day to day content. The popular publication, Communication Abstracts—an international information service—listing abstracts of researches published in American communication research journals—is brought out every quarter and is of immense use for communication researchers. New paradigms in communication research However, of the many publications listed above, quite a few are really making valuable and monumental contributions to the discipline of communication science and research dealing with pluralistic challenges which are taking on traditional notions in the area, expounding new paradigms and exploring newer communication horizons. These endeavours broaden knowledge on new principles and theories concerning communications vis-à-vis political economy, political history, feminist and gender studies, cultural projections and global conflicts and cultural and intercultural projections. These relate to research scholars’ recent and landmark contributions to developments in information and communication
technology and global surveillance, complex nature of news media ownership and ideologies, entertainment and infotainment paradigms. Quite a few of these are in the form of exhaustive and analytical appraisals and interpretations. Measuring statistically and forecasting new impacts and implications of new media and communication technologies are leading to “search for theoretical grounding” and are forming the basis of new and fresh approaches to futuristic communication research paradigms. Besides, as of today, communication studies and research in the US are being intimately interlinked with social theory and current history, and their relevance to contemporary analysis of modern culture, political pressures, social ethos, and prevailing economic compulsions, national and international predilections changing day in day out and radically transforming the mass media world. Therefore, in addition to the traditional paradigms, research areas which had in the recent past generally exhibited “inadequate understanding of intellectual history and its position among and within various disciplines”(4), and had concentrated only on political economy, social changes, children and feminist studies, local cultural trends, current history and international relations, have started shifting focus on performing arts, entertainment and audio-visual dimensions, impact of emerging technologies, contemporary analysis of modern disco culture and several other mutual concerns. It is being contended that communication research now converges more on topics relating to people and institutions in specific cultural, political and economic issues and problems. However, though current trends in communication research in the US show heightened emphasis on soaring intellectual pursuits, extending and broadening intellectual diversity, reflecting Media Mimansa
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intellectual progress, the fact remains that, as Hanno Hardt argues, “its ambition to be recognized as an autonomous discipline has failed because of its ambiguity of its own claim to theory” (7). He further opines that “communication research, with its potential for generating knowledge about the relationships between people and political or economic structures in society, have risen in importance, politically and economically.” Thus, the prevalent nature of American communication research has been empirical, ahistorical, and unreflective…. Its proximity to pragmatism has provided a philosophical context for the celebration of instrumental values and practicality of human action that reflects the utilitarian nature of liberal pluralism. In this context, communication research has operated with a functional definition of the individual that emerged from the requirements of a technologically driven society in which cultural attitudes, i.e., the potential of literary or historical explanations of social existence gave way to the demands of industrial growth and technological superiority. Under these circumstances, historical analysis turns into search for evidence that locates communication research in the path of scientific knowledge and on the side of social progress” (8). As a result, many American communication scholars apprehend that most of the essential logistics of communication research in the future will drastically transform and merge into social sciences, mainly sociology, social anthropology, psychology, cultural studies, economic history, contemporary socio-political trends, linguistics, management, health sciences and medical communication studies. All these new directions in communication research will be dominantly subsumed into “multi-disciplinary analyses of the social environment by yielding to alternative definitions or visions of studying society with the result of changing the field for ever.”(7) Moreover, of late, mass communication studies and researches have been increasingly aligning with common people’s causes
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and concerns. Communication per se is being excessively yoked to investigate, sort out and solve the day to day life’s problems. This is amply evident if we dig deep into the past few years’ events (global war on terror, climate change, environment and ecology, international conflicts and economic upheavals, poverty and disease, racism, for example). Communication research of the future While during the early 1930s and 1940s, American communication researchers restricted themselves to the problems of labour, integration of communities (i.e. racism), economic developments and political behaviour and role of print media; local, regional, national and international conflicts mostly engaged the attention of media researchers. The world wars, continued strife among the great political powers— the so-called cold war and its aftermath, held sway among media scholars for several decades. In addition, communication studies and research in the US converged on three broad areas : information; information transfer and information systems; uses and effects of communication; and, control and regulating communication and information. But, in the last three decades of the last century, particularly since the beginning of the 21st century, the dawn of the 24-hour, seven days a week electronic media and profusion of divergent messages have totally transformed the media and communication scenario in the United States, as also in many other countries of the world. Moreover, as the advertising world has boomed, the public relations lobbies have made extraordinarily huge impact, the film industry and print media, aided and assisted by highly sophisticated and profusely innovative technological strides have revolutionized media processes and operations, communication scholars have also closely looked at and readily conducted several meaningful studies. The findings and conclusions of these researches have prodigiously helped to extend media’s reach and multiply their impacts several folds.
Moreover, these developments have also simultaneously induced and prompted researchers to extend and enlarge the field, refine research skills and techniques, and redefine research methods to arrive at scientifically accurate conclusions for wider national / global application and social change. Consequently, commerce, culture and communication scholars have intimately interacted. Meanwhile, American ideals and values have spread fast and deep globally creating widespread political, economic, social, commercial and cultural impacts. Also, many universally applicable, newer and significant themes have emerged. And, since majority of these topics stress on audiences’ personal life, intimate sex behaviour, gender, gay culture and changing morals, these concerns have also become theses for researches and, hence closely linked with human and speech communication, community relations, politics, cultural sociology, parapsychology, and human psychosis. In addition, several new areas that have recently surfaced include: health, fear appeal, science and technology, information and communication technology, ageing, managing community, environment, climate, ecology, family as agency of human potential, infant and children’s communication, corporate and religious affairs. There is yet another subtle area of speech communication which is coalescing into mass communication research. This relates to verbal and non-verbal research by gestures, body language – silence, touch, animal communication. Thus, research problems of the future may have to be most closely addressed to the issues which are extremely critical and pervasive, generally of inconsistent background, of disciplinary origin and divergent, relating to incongruent hopes and expectations, theoretical positions and methodological contradictory injunctions, of variant styles of exposition, according to Dr. Mary S. Mander (12). Significantly, she further avers that since modern
researches are being done against the background of rapidly changing circumstances, reformulating notions of communication in the light of the quickly changing communication and technological revolution, these will acquire added importance. Hopefully, these will help effect restructuring and reconfiguration in communication problems and issues to open up bigger changes in contemporary research scenario and cause fundamental changes in communication policies. These will facilitate help tying researches to the problems of power and desire that occupy western ‘postmodernist thought’ (13). Besides, the stress will be “to trace the inadequacies of various theories of one kind or another, and to look for another theory: the theory of history, of freedom, or of communication itself… to make meaningful contribution to the discipline. Then, to review and re-review theories, methods to raise questions about the purpose of research and its practical use / application… research is basically driven by search of profit, power and efficiency” (14). It’ll be quite appropriate to mention here that a recent landmark publication, ‘Some Contemporary Communication Research Methods’ by Mary John Smith, is a well-grounded and comprehensive guide to conducting scientifically accurate and practically relevant communication research. In the final analysis, it will be in fitness of things to underline that human issues and problems attract the largest interest and need immediate redress. It is precisely due to these and other colossal conundrums that modern communication research is expected to address and grapple with. A latest compilation entitled, ‘Routledge Handbook of Applied Communication Research’ edited by Lawrence R. Frey and Kenneth N. Cissna, attempts to chronicle this at length. They have systemically pointed out that “people today are confronted by myriad problems that include how to create and sustain high-quality interpersonal relationships; raise and educate children in healthy families and schools; structure work environment to Media Mimansa
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make people’s experiences both meaningful and productive; cope with and help others to face significant illnesses; prevent ageism, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination; and talk together constructively in local, national, and international settings to make effective collective decisions about important controversial and often deeply contested issues facing communities, countries, and indeed, the world. For these and many other important issues facing people, communication is absolutely crucial making those who study communication central to creating better social worlds.” (15) Consequently, applied communication research has beckoned and hypothesized prime attention among academics these days. Hence, critical communication approaches have had vast impact on crying issues of global import and have sought to resolve significant and contrite issues such as terrorism, HIV Aids, climate change and creation of public policies and regulations— not only in the US but also in other parts of the world. Concepts, elements and foundations of applied communication research are being reconsidered and restated; theory and practice of applied communication scholarship are being redefined; new methods and tools of applied communication research are being expounded and elucidated; fresh perspectives being given to rhetorical methods of applied communication scholarship; and ethnography in applied communication research are being reassessed to critical issues such as drugs, fear appeals and public health (managing fear and creating hope) are being focused on. Here’s an example of how it’s being theorized by communication researchers, as Kim White and Anthony J. Roberto say : suppose that one wanted to convince young adults to abstain from sexual activity or to use condom to avoid contracting HIV, or to convince gun owners to store their guns locked and unloaded to reduce the number of unintentional firearm injuries and deaths.
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Applied communication researchers and practitioners face these situations every day, wanting to shape, change or reinforce people’s behaviour in a wide variety of contexts for their intended purposes” (17). An access to persuasion and health communication demonstrates how it’s being done. A newly phrased and unique model— ‘extended parallel process model’ (EPPM;Witte: 1992, Communication Monograph, pp. 329)— does this in ample measure (17). Therefore, American communication scholars tend to hold out promises that future researches including “extensive analyses of the mass media and their effects will make possible better and more effective uses of communication technology, “and lead to improvements in communication planning at all levels, and the work of communication and information specialists will result in improved access to information for all of the world’s citizens and to an improved understanding of the needs, uses and effect of information as provided through all types of media(18).” Also, it is being speculated that rapid social changes and social reforms will take place all over the world in due course of time. As the world treads into the concluding era of the first decade of the 21st century, mass media in the US is playing enhanced and intimate roles in all spheres of life. As we have been witness to what and how “mass media and communications have continued to be shaped by tensions, competition and contradictions between democratic expansion and oligopoly, between public service and commerce, between information and entertainment, between information and manipulation, and between the national and the global. The interaction between different and sometimes between contradictory processes remain central to an understanding of the media.” The future predilections of American communication researchers have been extremely well crafted, finely chiseled and will surely be strategically
focused. These will comprise a variety of tasks, assimilations, diversification, and more recently, of commodification of the American politics, economy and society, and of informing the people as to how to settle for a happy, moot and viable cohabitation. P.S. As a postscript, in the end it will be in order to pinpoint and recognize innumerable benchmarks and excellent contributions made by media and communication researchers of Indian origin working in American universities, and the sincere manner as to how they’ve been participating in conducting research in various areas of communication and media global import and significance. Perhaps the first Indian on whom a journalism Ph.D. was conferred was Krishanlal Shridharani, in the US in late 1940s, followed by Dr. Ram Subhag Singh (who was a minister in the Nehru cabinet in the mid-1950s). After that, several Indian communication scholars have been awarded masters and doctoral degrees and are currently working in many American universities and colleges. Among the prominent one include: Anantha S. Babbili, currently editor of Communication & Journalism Monographs, Srinivas S. Melkote, K.S. Sitaram, Manjunath Penendikar, Krishna P. Jayakar, S. Shyam Sundar, Harmeet Sawhney, Hemant Shah, Raajiv Rimal, Noshir Contractor, Shanto Iyengar, Radhika Kumar, Sriram Kalyanaraman, Sujata Sosle, Radhika Gajjala, Jay P. Kesan, K. Viswanath, Arun Vishwanath, Biswarup Sen, Sonora Jha and many others who have successfully carried out several research projects and have richly contributed in almost all areas of journalism and mass communication. REFERENCES AND CITATIONS 1.
2. 3. 4.
Hudson, Frederick (1968). Journalism in the United States from 1690 to1872. New York: Haskell House Publishers, pp.xxi. Emery, Edwin (1996). Press in America, 8th edition, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, pp.523 – 525. Ibid. Hanno Hardt. (1992). Critical Communication
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10.
11.
12. 13.
14. 15.
16. 17.
Studies – communication history and theory in America. New York: Routledge, pp. 1. Mander, Mary S. (1983). Communications in Transition—issues and debates in current research. (New York: Praeger Publishers, pp. 2-3. Mander, Mary S.(1983). Communications in Transition -– issues and debates in current research. New York: Praeger Publishers, pp.3. Voigt, Melvin J. and Hanneman, Gerhard J., ed. (1979). Progress in Communication Sciences, Vol. I. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corporation, pp. vii. Hard. pp. 2. Ibid Davidson, W. Philips, ed. (1974). Mass Communication Research: Major issues and future directions, New York: Pareger Publishers Sharp, Nancy Weatherly (1988). Communication Research—The challenges of information age, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. Yu, Frederick T.C. Where is mass communication research going? in Sharp, op. cit. Mander, pp. 10, op. cit. Smith, Mary John (1988). Some Contemporary Communication Research Methods, Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, pp 16-17. Ibid. Frey, Lawrence R. (University of Kansas), and Cissna, Kenneth N. (University of Denver) (2009). Routledge Handbook of Applied Communication Research, pp 9. Ibid, pp.485. Gorman, Lyn and McLean, David. Media and Society into the 21st Century, a historical introduction, (2009). 2nd edition. Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 289. Media Mimansa
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Data analysis and interpretation B.S. Nagi* ABSTRACT The fair and accurate results of the statistical analysis of the data collected for any study depend on a good questionnaire, the way data have been collected, method of monitoring data collection, coding of the data, how the data have been entered and verified in the computer, sampling techniques used, appropriate statistical tools used to test the hypothesis and objectives, and an accurate way of interpretation. This paper deals with quantitative data analysis and interpretation. The researchers have to take into account the following steps for analyzing data. Among various aspects of communication research, collection of relevant data, its analysis, interpretation and report preparation is a key to arriving at right conclusions. 1.
The questionnaire/scale or interview schedule prepared for data collection can be structured or unstructured. If it is structured, the answer options to the questions are assigned numerical values/codes. For example, for gender of the respondent, the option ‘male’ could be assigned numerical value as 1 and for ‘female’ as 2. In the case of semi-structured or unstructured questions, one has to create codes after data collection. For example, the options stated by the respondents could be written against the question occupation. If somebody says ‘lawyer’ as ‘occupation’, it should be written against the question occupation. Once the data collection work is over, a list of the ‘occupations’ should be prepared and then each occupation should be assigned numerical value I, 2, 3 and so on. In this way, for each open ended/unstructured question, one has to assign a numerical code to the options of each question.
2.
As a matter of fact, a ‘code book’ should be prepared after manually scanning the answers of open ended questions of filled in questionnaires and these numerical codes should be entered in the computer for analysis. The example of a code-book is given below : Code Book for the questionnaire on (Name) ....................... l
Gender:
l
Occupation: 1. Teacher 2. Lawyer 3. Student 4. Farmer, etc.
l
For multiple responses, the responses should be entered as ‘1’ for ticked response, for un-ticked enter ‘0’, for example, the question No.7 of a questionnaire is on the reasons for visiting an exhibition, the structured responses could be four types of reasons, like
1. Male 2. Female
a. To get knowledge about the new products b. To eat some food c. To pass time d. To buy some products
* Former Director of Research, Council for Social Development, New Delhi. Presently, teaching research methodology, statistics and SPSS at various institutes. (email ID :
[email protected])
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A respondent can tick on all the four options, another respondent can tick only option ‘a’, third respondent can tick ‘a’ and ‘d’ options, etc. For entering the data of the respondents on this question, use four column of question No.7 with the headings (variable names) as Q7A, Q7B, Q7C and Q7D. The options ticked by the respondents should be entered as ‘1’ and for un-ticked enter ‘O’. Codes to the un-structured questions should be created as indicated above in the code book and then the data should be entered in the computer. After data collection, the filled in questionnaires should be manually checked and appropriate codes should be given to the unstructured questions. The data should be entered in the spread sheets of excel/ SPSS/lotus, etc. for the analysis. The SPSS accepts the data entered in these packages. The SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) is generally used to handle the data of education, media, management and other social sciences. The first row of the excel sheet/SPSS should be used for variable name. The name of any variable should not be more than eight characters. For example, education level of the respondents, the variable name could be EDUCATN or EDU. No variable name should start by numerical or special character, for example, 6THDAY should not be used, instead it should be DAY6TH or DAY6. The underscore or decimal (.) could be used in the variable name, for example education level of the father of the respondent could be given name as F_EDU or F.EDU or FEDU. Each row of the excel sheet/SPSS sheet should contain the data of one respondent. If there are 100 respondents, data should be entered in 100 rows of 100 respondents. If any cell or box of any respondent of any variable is left blank, the SPSS will treat that
case for that particular box or cell as missing value, and that particular case will be deleted for that variable for the analysis, and the analysis of the remaining cases will be done. 3.
Questionnaire prepared for data collection, should be pre-tested at least on 30 respondents, and if all the questions of the filled-in questionnaire are clearly understood by the respondents and found without any ambiguity, the data should be collected from the sampled respondents. Otherwise, questions with ambiguity should be modified in the light of the findings of pre-test and then the data could be collected. In case the scale is used to measure the satisfaction level or attitude, etc. of the respondents, first of all, the scale should be subjected to reliability test after collecting the data from 30 respondents. Minimum requirement of respondents (Number of cases) for any statistical analysis of any quantitative data set is 30. First of all, the total-item correlation coefficient should be calculated. The total-item correlation of the scale will indicate the reliability of each item or question of the scale. The non-significant correlation coefficient of the items should be treated as non-reliable items, and these items (questions) should be dropped. After removing/dropping the unreliable items or questions of the scale, the scale reliability should be calculated with the help of split-half or cronbach alpha method. If the value of split-half or cronbach alpha is equal to or more than .70, the scale is considered to be reliable. Both these statistical tools are available in the SPSS. The scale reliability means the results of the data are reliable or consistent. If it is consistent, the scale will be
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called reliable. In other words, the consistency means, if two samples drawn randomly from a population and data are collected with the same scale from two sampled group of respondents and the required analysis is done separately of these two groups. If the results of these groups are almost the same, the scale is called consistent or reliable. 4.
5.
The purpose of this paper is not to teach the SPSS or Statistical tools, it is intended to tell the reader how to prepare the data for statistical treatment by using SPSS. After preparing the data, the statistical treatment should be given as per the objectives and hypotheses of the study. In other words, the use of statistical tools depends on the type of data and on the objectives and hypotheses of the study. However, some important SPSS statements which are quite often used in the analysis are discussed here. RECODE statement is used to change the original codes of the variables of the data set. Suppose AGE is a variable. Recording of the age in the filled-in questionnaire is the actual age of the respondents, and now the researcher is interested to make three categories of the age variable – up to 30 years as one category, 31-40 years as second category, and above 40 years as third category. The same can be done after opening the data set in the SPSS, with pressing paste option in the dialogue box. This will show the blank page in the syntax file. Use the RECODE for making the three categories in the following way: RECODE AGE (LOWEST THRU 30 = 1) (31 THRU 40 = 2) (ELSE = 3). In this way, three categories of the age will be made in the column of AGE variable by
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replacing actual age by 1, 2 or 3 options. Now, this age variable is ready for analysis of data in three age categories. In case the researcher wants to retain the original age and is also interested in retaining the age in three categories, the following statement of RECODE would do these two functions : RECODE AGE (LOWEST THRU 30 = 1) (31 THRU 40 = 2) (ELSE = 3) INTO AGE 1 This statement will create a new column in the data set in the name of AGE1 which will have only three categories. In this way, the AGE variable will have original age whereas AGE1 variable will have three categories of age. 6.
COMPUTE statement means creating new variable by adding, subtracting, dividing, multiplication, etc. with mathematical symbols. The examples are given below :
COMPUTE NV1 = V1+V2+V3 (e.g. of addition) COMPUTE NV2 = V4 – V5 (e.g. of subtraction) COMPUTE NV3 = V6 * V10. (e.g. of multiplication) COMPUTE NV4 = V15/V16. (e.g. of division) If percentage expenditure on education is to be calculated from two variables, that is, TFEXP (Total family expenditure) and TFEXEDU (Total family expenditure on education), the following COMPUTE statement can be used : COMPUTE PERCEXPE = (TFEXEDU * 100)/ TOEXP. 7.
‘IF statement’ can be used in different ways. One way is to make four groups with the help of two variables. For example, GENDER variable of the respondents (students) has two categories – 1 for male and 2 for female. On
‘descriptive statistics’, one finds five or six suboptions, like frequencies, descriptive, etc. The required option may be pressed with the cursor and a dialogue box will appear along with the list of variable names on left side. Take the variables (for statistical analysis) from left side to right side with the help of arrow function mentioned in the dialogue box. Then by pressing the OK button on the dialogue box, the results of the analysis will be displayed on the screen in tabular forms. It requires a little practice to handle all the functions of SPSS.
the other hand, the respondents (students) may belong to two types of schools. SCHOOL is a variable having two categories - 1 for Government school, and 2 for Private school. The four categories can be made with the following four statements : IF (GENDER =1 AND (SCHOOL (Males of Govt. school) IF (GENDER =1 AND (SCHOOL (Males of Pvt. school) IF (GENDER =2 AND (SCHOOL (Females of Govt. school) IF (GENDER =2 AND (SCHOOL (Females of Pvt. school)
E 1)) GRP = 1. E 2)) GRP = 2. E 1)) GRP = 3. E 2)) GRP = 4.
9.
In this way, four categories of a new variable, namely GRP, will be made. It may be noted that right side of the statements is not a part of the ‘IF statements’. This indicates only explanation of each statement. 8.
There are also many other statements which one learns gradually. Now a few following paragraphs will explain how to use the SPSS window version. First, the data set should be opened after pressing SPSS Icone. When one presses the SPSS Icone, a blank spread sheet will appear. Now take the cursor to OPEN option and this will show a number of options. One such option is DATA. By pressing DATA option, you can open the required data set. After opening the data set, one notices tool bar buttons on the top of the screen. One such button is ANALYZE. In some versions of SPSS, ‘Statistics’ may be the button instead of ANALYZE. When one presses this ANALYZE button, one finds many options of various statistical tools available in the SPSS. By pressing one such option, for example say
It becomes difficult to demonstrate how to interpret the results of the analysis in this paper as there are several statistical tools, like, Mean SD, Chi Square, t-test of independent samples, paired t-test, correlation, regression, factor analysis, one-way analysis of variance, etc. To understand about the interpretation of various results of different statistical analysis one has to understand the meaning and application of each statistical tool. Therefore, it is advisable to attend some workshops on the applications of statistical tools and to read some simple statistics books. Such workshops are also being organized by the ICSSR at various parts of the country. For enquiry, one can write or visit the WEB site of ICSSR. REFERENCES
1.
Manuals of SPSS.
2.
David K. Hildebrand, etl. Analysis of Nominal Data. Series : Quantitative Applications In Social Science, Sage Publications.
3.
H.T. Reynolds. Analysis of Ordinal Data. Series: Quantitative Applications In Social Science, Sage Publications. Media Mimansa
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