Logic
science and art of correct th
Sytemized body of logical truths and principle governing correct thinking (as science)
Is a technique and teaches its students how to make a good argument (as an art)
Develop and perfect the intellect
Formal logic
Concerned with aspect of form with has to do with correctness of sequence of t he following of material logic
Concerned with the aspect of subject matter or content of truth
Deductive logic
That kind in which the premises flow logically into the conclusion
It is from universal to the particular as me call says “the move to the less universal by way of a middle term”
Inductive logic
Arrives at a conclusion with few cert ainly implies a sense of probability
Argument
The heart of logic
Made up of propositions which are called promises and conclusions, and these, in turn ar e made up of terms
2 criteria to consider mental processes as thinking
When the objective is the truth
When the truth we already have is the nucleus of further knowledge
3 fundamental uses of language
Informative
Most common function attested to by textbooks and all other books on history, literature, philosophy, science Frederick Copieston’s series on a History of Philosophy Philosophy
are excellent examples. In logic we use this function of work in propositions and arguments on here something is either affirmed or denied and this in turn, iseither true or false, correct or incorrect o o o
Premises- antecedent comes before Conclusion- consequent comes after Proposition- product of judgment a sentence which affirm(asserts) or denies (negates) something
Expressive
Emotions and attitudes are expressed beautifully Example:
Poetry, common exclamations
Expressive discourse is used either to express the speaker’s feelings or to evoke certain
feelings on the part of the author
Directive
Most easily seen in commands and requests. It is what w hich frods or events and action to be done Example: a) Write me a line when you reach California b) Emy, please sing Nasaan Ka Irog? c) Don’t use the car uneccesarily
Newspaper maybe biased when conceived for propaganda or protection of business interest. A poems such as the chorus of the greek tragedy Antigone is expressive of a mood but is at the same time informative of the setting and the plot and directive of human values. A homily maybe illuminating as to dead person’s life and character , expressive as to the speakers personal feelings and directive in its exhortation and the bereaved concerning the promise of everlasting life
Words/ terms
Expressives of ideas or concepts lead to propositions and propositions lead to syllogisms Mental Operations
Products
External signs
a) Simple apprehension
concept
oral/written terms
b) Judgement
mental proposition
oral/written proposition
c) Reasoning
mental agreement/
oral/written arguments
Disagreement
Simple apprehension- basic mental operation
Concept- representation of an object by the intellect through which man understands or comprehends a thing. It is an idea that starts wioth an outside reality and apprehended by the senses. Kinds of concept First intention- concept of which we understand what a thing is according to what it is
in reality, independent of our thinking about it Example: A) Man is really an embodied spirit B) A dog is an animal
Second intention- concept by which we understand not only what a thing is in reality but also how it is in the mind Example: modern man is the topic of the theological seminar
Concrete Concept- a concept which expresses a “form” and a subject “something that
can be perceived by the senses” Example: Rose: I can see and smell and touch
Abstract concept- signifies the meaning of a complete substance endowed with its independent reality. All definitions are absolute. Concept which has form only Term – abstract quality a) beauty in a woman b) kindness in a man
Absolute Concept- signifies the meaning of a complete substance endowed with its
independent reality. All definitions are absolute. Abstract concept are also absolute Example: brilliance, swiftness, inhumanity
Connotative concept- signifies the object as an accident existing in a substance. It presents a form which a subject all modifies are called connotative concept.
Positive Concept- signifies existence or possession of something
Negative concept- signifies non existence or non possession of something Term- external representation of a concept and the ultimate structural element of
a proposition. Term may be a subject as a predicate of a proposition Significant terms- subject and predicate Non-significant terms- demonstrative pronouns, adjective and proper nouns Comprehensions of a term- sum total of all notes which constitute the meaning of concept. Extension of a term- sum total of the particulars to which the comprehension of a concept can be applied “The greatest the comprehensionof a term, the lesser its extension and vice versa”
Kinds of extension 1. Absolute extension – sum total of all actual/ possible individual subjects signified by the term 2. Functional extension – sum total of all individual subjects present to the mind at the moment of discourse at the moment I think and speak and write a) Singular- stands for a single definite individuals or group. The signs of singularity are: Proper nouns Nouns modified by adj. in the superlative degree Demonstratives- this, that Collective nouns- not just the world but also expressions implying a single whole The article “the” Personal pronouns b) Particular- stands for an indefinite past of an absolute extension Indefinite pronouns and adj. some, several, many, few, most
Use of numbers Articles “a” and “an” General propositions- propositions which are true most of the time but
not all the time c) Universal- stands for every subject signified Universal expressions- all every, whatever, whoever, whichever, without exception, everything Universal ideas The articles “the” , “a”, “an”, if the idea is universal
Kinds of terms Univocal- mean exactly the same thing in atleast 2 occurrence Equivocal- have different meaning in atleast 2 occurrence Analogous- have partly the same and partly different meanings in atleast 2 occurences Analogues or analogates- inferiors of an analogous term o Primary analogues- term applies to them primarily and absolutely o Second analogues- terms applies to them secondarily and relatively o a. Intrinsic analogy- the concept they signified are r ealized in all their analogues Extrinsic analogy- concepts may signify are realized only in t heir primary analogues most common are metaphorical expressions b. Analaogy of proportionality- similar analogous terms Analogy of attribution- depends on the relationship of the secondary to its primary analogue.
Definition- “definere” (latin) : to enclosed within limits Purpose- it explain in details the meaning of words and to indicate what the word or phrase signifies Hurley- as a group of words that assigns that a meaning to some words or g roup of words. COPI- Functions 1. To increase vocabulary 2. To eliminate anviguity/ double meanings 3. To reduce not clear vagueness 4. To explain theoretically /theory 5. To influence attitudes Parts of definitions 1. Definiendum- word or group of words that needs to be defined. Example: nuisanceannoying person 2. Definiens- group of words that is meant to give m eaning or specific definition to definiendum. Ex.: annoying person-nuisance Kinds of definition 1. Stimulative definition- that which assigns a meaning to aword for the first time. Example: tigon- offspring of a male lion a a female tiger 2. Lexical definition- report a meaning of a word w hich is already use in the language.
3. Précising definition- is that which use to reduce the vagueness of the world 4. Theoretical definition- is that which presents an abstract picture o f characterization Heat- enegy is associated with the random motion of mole cules of a substance 5. Persuasive definition- use to generate or cause favorable or unfavorable attitude or reaction towards what is signifies by the definiendum Propositions- a sentence or statement that affirms or denies something Ex: Racquel is a big lady-affirms Racquel is not a big lady-denies
Kinds of propositions Categorical- that affirms or deny something without any condition or qualification Example: baguio is a city that is cool Conditional- is the kind which makes an assersion but qualified by a condition Ex: if the weather will be fine Disjunctive –type which presents 2 or more alternatives but only one is true Ex: Bernie is either awake or asleep Conjunctive- kind of propostions the presents 2 alternativbes which cannot be true simultaneously or at the same time
Basic components of propositions 1. Subject term 2. Predicate term 3. Copula- the linking verb a. Standard form of structure Original form: Dr. Zulueta writes books Standard form in logic: Dr. Zulueta is a person who writes books Quality: Affirmative- asserted or affirms of its subject term Negative- denies or negates the subject Quantity Singular- according to extension; designates individual or group Plural Quality Quantity 1. Univ. affirmative A singular affirmative 2. Univ. negative E singular negative 3. Particular affirmative I 4. Particular negative O
Inference- Arguments and reasoning. It is a mental operation wherein the mind moves from 2 or more statement or propositions or premises to a conclusion or truth which is implied by the premises. Types of inference 1. Mediate- mind moves or arrives at a conclusion drawn from 2 propositions 2. Immediate- minds arrive act a conclusion going through 1 proposition, the reasoning moves directly to 1 proposition to a new one
Square of opposition contrary
Oppositional Inference- refers to proposition which are opposites or o ppose to each other Types: 1. Contradictory- related in such a way t hat if one of them is true its opposite must be false. 2. Contrary - A&E -Related in a manner that both cannot be true & both may be a false, if one of them is known as false, the other is undetermined. 3. Sub-contrary-both cannot be false but both may be t rue at the same time. If one of them is known as false, the other is undetermined. 4. Sub-Alternation- A&I, E&O Categorical Syllogism Major Premise 1.
William is a friend. Friends are God’s gift. ( Italicized sentence is the major premise)
Therefore, William is God’s giftconclusion
2. Only good student can pass the exam Parts of the categorical syllogism (other parts) 2.1 Premises- antecedent proposition. The truth of pre-suppose and from which the conclusion is drawn. 2.2 Conclusion- consequent proposition. The truth by w/c implied by premises. Major Parts: (Basic) 1. Terms major has the greatest extension predicate term of the conclusion, occurs in one of the premises. minor subj. term of the conclusion. middle found in both premises, but not in conclusion. Ex. Therefore Roses are plants. ( Italicized sentence is the major term) Flowers are plants.- middle term. The premise where the minor term is found.
Ex. Flowers are plants. But roses are plants. Therefore roses are plants. Major term is always the predicate of the conclusion. Minor term of the conclusion is the subject.
Valid Moods First Figure Major premise is universal Minor premise is affirmatives/
Forms & Parts of Categorical Syllogism Syllogism- reason
-has a discourse w/c certain things is posited (DECLARED:STATED) Something else that is posited necessary…
GOODLUCK AND GODBLESS
