Rowan and Red Thread: Magic and Witchcraft in Gaelic Cultures by Annie Loughlin, Treasa Ní Chonchobhair, and athryn !rice Nic"h#na
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Rowan-tree and red thread Make the witches tyne their speed.1
2n Gaelic cultures there are a number of traditional ways of interacting with the s"irit world. &hese old ways are still used by modern Gaelic Polytheists to communicate with the s"irits and create change in the world for the benefit of our communities% communities% and can include charmworing% "rotective rites% trancewor% various forms of divination% and rites aimed at gaining ins"iration imbas4. 2n modern "arlance% some also call these meta"hysical "ractices% 5magical "ractices5 or 5woring magic.5 Attem"ting to change the world around us via meta"hysical means is not necessarily an essential "art of Celtic +econstructionism or its subset% Gaelic Polytheism4% but these traditional ways can be enriching for many% no matter the focus or Celtic culture in which the individual might "ractice. &here are a variety of traditional terms for these various "ractices% as used by our ancestors as well as contem"orary Celtic +econstructionists. 6owever% it seems that there is a tendency in the Neo"agan community for "eo"le to lum" a lot of these ways together under the label of 5witchcr 5witchcraft.5 aft.5 As this article article will outline% outline% we believe believe that such a term is not a""ro"riate for the ma7ority of these traditional ways% whether historically or within contem"orary Celtic +econstructionism C+4 or Gaelic Polytheism GP4. &his is one of the many ways in which we differ from most of the wider Neo"agan community. 3 &he term 5witchcraft5 has long had a very s"ecific meaning within Celtic cultures% 1 Tyne 8 -cots for 5lose.5 Chambers% Popular Rhymes of Scotland % 19:0% "39. And from the ;orders of -cotland< 5;lac luggie% lammer bead% = +owantree and red thread% = Put the witches to their s"eed>5 cNeill gives a slightly different version i.e.% in -cots4< 5+owan tree and red threid = Gar the witches tyne their s"eed5 The Silver Bough ol ! % 1?@:% ":94. Gregor has it as 5Gars%5 Gregor% "otes on the #olk-$ore of the "orth %ast of Scotland % 1991% "199. Nic)h ic)h*n *naa et et al al% The &R #'(% 00:% "11@. 3 $et us define define these terms a bit. 5Neo"ag 5Neo"agan5 an5 means means 5odern 5odern Pagan%5 Pagan%5 yes% but acce"tan acce"tance ce of that monier monier tends tends to carry the assum"tion that we also share 5the attitudes most "revalent in the Neo"agan community.5 hile the current forms of C+ and GP are certainly Neo"agan in the sense that they are modern traditions informed by ancient beliefs% they are not Neo"agan in the sense of sharing most of the assum"tions% values% terminology and "ractices of that community. community. &his is not about claiming our traditions are older than anyone elseBs% only that we do not agree with many of the common assum"tions and "ractices of those who consider themselves themselves "art of the Neo"agan community. $ie other reconstructionist% revivalist and traditional lifeways% we "refer to distance ourselves from the Neo"agan label in order to avoid misunderstandings misunderstandings and misconce"tions about what we do and what we stand for. |3|
and it is one that is wholly negative. ost of the Gaelic magical "ractices that Neo"agans attem"t to include under the 5witchcraft5 label are not% historically% viewed as witchcraft. @ Considering all this% we believe that on a very basic level 5witchcraft5 is sim"ly an inaccurate and unhel"ful term to use for these "ractices% and to insist on a""lying such a term incorrectly isDwe believeDboth wrong and "otentially offensive to those within the living Celtic cultures who still "ractice these ways today. As a result we have decided to outline the issues surrounding witchcraft% magic and C+% in the ho"es of encouraging those who identify as Celtic +econstructionists and in "articular4 Gaelic Polytheists to consider using more a""ro"riate terminology. Eust as Fsatr uses terms lie seidr or spae for their magical "ractices% we believe that there are terms that can better describe the magical "ractices to be found in C+% and to that end we will tae a loo at the different inds of magic and magic "ractitioners "ractitioners that can be found in the sources% and eH"lore the inds of terminology that might be more a""ro"riate for use. ;efore we continue% it should be said that we realise that we have no "ower to dictate what "eo"le call themselves% and nor would we wish to. Neither do we claim to s"ea for the Celtic +econstructionist or Gaelic Polytheist communities as a whole. &his is merely an essay of o"inion baced with evidence and references% and we ho"e the reader will follow u" those references and draw their own conclusions. e also ho"e that this essay will "rom"t some healthy and res"ectful discussion in the community. As "racticing Gaelic Polytheists weBve decided to concentrate on what we now best% which is why the remainder of this article will eHamine witchcraft as seen in Gaelic cult cultur ures esDi Dins nste tead ad of cove coveri ring ng all all Celt Celtic ic cult cultur ures esDa Dand nd sear search ch for for more more cult cultur ural ally ly a""ro"riate labels while ho"efully4 debuning debuning some misconce"tions. Iven so% we believe that the issues raised here are worth eHamining within each culture that falls under the Celtic umbrella% whether Gaulish% ;rythonic or elsh% and so on% and as such this essay has relevance to the wider Celtic +econstructionist community community as well. )uring )uring the course course of this essay essay we will be looing looing at the inds of labels that have de ;lJcourt% ;lJcourt% B&he B&he itch% 6er Kictim% Kictim% &he ,nwitc ,nwitcher her and the +esearch +esearcher< er< &he Continue Continued d Ividence Ividence of &raditional &raditional itchcraft%B in de ;lJcourt et al% The 'tholone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic+ olume , The Twentieth &entury % 1???% "1@11@L (iechefer% Magic in the Middle 'ges% 1?9?% "10="1?L ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "1:L ac(enMie% aelic !ncantations+ &harms+ and Blessings of the )ebrides % 19?@% "@L -im"son% Bitches and itchbusters%B in #olklore+ #olklore+ ol. 012 % 1??% "@19. @ 6utt 6utton% on% Bod Bodern ern Paga Pagann itchc itchcraf raft%B t%B in in The 'tholone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic+ olume , The Twentieth &entury % 1???% "1:. ||
historically been used to describe a number of magical or meta"hysical "ractices and "rac "racti titi tion oner erss in 2rel 2relan and% d% -cot -cotla land nd and and an% an% wh whic ichh mi migh ghtt offe offerr more more a""r a""ro" o"ri riat atee term termin inol olog ogyy for for Gael Gaelic ic Poly Polyth thei eist stss to ado" ado"t. t. e wi will ll also also loo loo at wh what at labe labels ls lie lie 5witchcraft%5 5witch%5 and 5magic5 have meant throughout history% how they might have changed and been redefined% and what they mean to us as Gaelic Polytheists and religious reconstructionists reconstructionists today.
Celtic Reconstructionism and "Magick" 5agic%5 in the mind of many modern Pagans and occultists% is borne from the definition given by Aleister Crowley< 5&he -cience and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with ill.5 According to this definition% 5magic5 is a way of acting in harmony with oneBs 5&rue ill5 and as a means through which one comes to understand the 56igher -elf%5 and this is achieved by way of a number of "ractices that have filtered into many forms of Neo"agan traditions in some way or another. &hese "ractices include things lie circle casting% invocation% evocation% banishing% commanding gods and s"irits% astral travel% "urification and consecration% Iucharistic rites and seH rites. hile they have a rich and com"leH history in their own right% none of these things can be said to have much if anything4 to do with Celtic cultures in general. : &he basic worldview these "ractices are rooted in% as well as the "hiloso"hy and assum"tions about how one a""roaches the s"irits% and what the role of a s"iritworer is% are often in direct conflict with traditional Celtic lifeways. 9 A very sim"le eHam"le here is the use of an athame or other inds of nife4 to command gods or s"irits% as can be found in some Neo"agan traditions. hile the very notion of invoing or commanding deities or s"irits $ewis et al% )andbook of &ontemporary Paganism% 009% "9. Note< Crowley changed the s"elling from magic to magic for Gematrical reasons% and in order to avoid confusion with stage magic. eBve decided to ee" with his s"elling when referring to the modern% Neo"agan view of magic for consistencyBs sae. Otherwise we will be using the standard s"elling of magic. : i.e.% e see influences from classical "hiloso"hy and Neo"latonism% medieval grimoires% Cabbala% and alchemy% but none of these things are Celtic. 9 e strongly strongly believe believe that combini combining ng these foreign foreign attitu attitudes des with Gaelic Gaelic traditi traditions ons is not acce"ta acce"table. ble. 2t leads leads to the neglect of actual Gaelic traditions% and these mashu"s easily lead to offending the s"irits and creating s"iritual% "sychological and even "hysical harm where none was intended. 2nevitably there are going to be some ga"s in our nowledge of ancient Celtic lifeways% but es"ecially for Gaelic Polytheists4 we can loo to the eHtant Celtic cultures% to Celtic ways of listening to the s"irits% and to the feedbac of trusted community community members over decades of "ractice% to hel" inform us. &here is "lenty that survivesL we donBt need to mangle our traditions to revive them. |@|
is at odds with the way Celtic cultures interact with the gods% s"irits and ancestors on a very fundamental level% the addition of iron or steel into the euation is even more at odds. &his is es"ecially true in a Gaelic conteHtL in traditional traditional belief% iron at best4 can act as a deterrent to the gods and s"irits% defeating the whole "ur"ose of a ritual that may be attem"ting to communicate with them. At worst% it can be an eHtremely dangerous and offensive addition to the miH. miH .? 2ncor"orating Ceremonial agic or Neo"agan "ractices into a reconstructionist conteH conteHtt can can be eHtrem eHtremel elyy "roble "roblemat matic% ic% then. then. ore ore than than that% that% howeve however% r% since since Celti Celticc +econstructionism +econstructionism is rooted in the historical and surviving traditions of the Celtic cultures as the basis for our "ractices% these occult and Neo"agan ideas of 5magic5 are sim"ly not relevant to us or our worldview% and can undermine the very "ur"ose of reconstructionism. Aside from the fact that many 5magical5 "ractices contradict our own values and beliefs% incor"orating such nonCeltic "ractices and beliefs would damage our wor of bringing "reChristian Celtic ways into our lives in a modern% Celtic s"iritual conteHt. At the most basic level% since Celtic +econstructionism began as a reaction against the ram"ant eclecticism and a""ro"riation that has been so "revalent in the Neo"agan community%10 incor"orating modern% eclectic elements that have no relevant cultural roots into our own "ractices is com"letely at odds with our methodology. As such% our view is that the only meta"hysical meta"hysical "ractices that should be included in a Celtic +econstructionist tradition are those found in traditional Celtic cultural attitudes and beliefs% not eclectic Neo"agan or occult ones. 11 At this "oint% then% we ho"e it is clear that we are looing at magical or meta"hysical "ractices and their definitions from a cultural conteHt% not a Neo"agan one.
Historical Witchcraft and Modern Witchcraft !rom a historical and traditional "ers"ective the words 5witch5 and 5witchcraft5 have never had "ositive connotationsDeven in cultures that ha""ily include magical "ractices and magical "ractitioners. Iven today% 5witchcraft5 refers to harmful% malicious ? Nic)h ic)h*n *naa et et al al% The &R #'(% 00:% "130. 10 Nic Nic)h* )h*na na et et al% al% The &R #'(% 00:% ". 11 -ee footnote footnote Q3 for for clarification clarification on how we define 5Neo"agan.5 5Neo"agan.5 ||
magic in the living cultures. 1 5itchcraft5 is traditionally seen as a cause of illnesses of otherwise uneH"lained origins% bad luc and misfortune% miscarriage% the failure of cro"s or eui"ment% the failure of cows to give mil or for butter to come during churning% and "oor catches for fishermen and hunters. itches might also raise storms and cause shi"s to sin% or do harm to travellers. 13 &he &he word word 5wit 5witch ch55 as unde unders rsto tood od and and used used by many many of toda todayB yBss Neo" Neo"ag agan ans% s% however% is much different. 2n this conteHt% witchcraft tends to encom"ass a variety of magical "ractices% regardless of whether or not they are seen as malicious. On the one hand% this has largely been influenced by Christianity% which has had an increasing tendency to conflate any magical "ractices under the heading of witchcraft% 1 and is something that has filtered into intellectual and academic wor. &he Neo"agan view of witchcraft has also been es"ecially influenced by the wor of argaret urray and her "ro"osal that the witch trials of the iddle Ages and beyond were nothing to do with )evil worshi""ers% as they were traditionally seen at this time% and instead argued that those who were "ersecuted as witches were in fact adherents of a "reChristian religion. 1@ 6er ideas were controversial in certain uarters from the outset% but Gerald Gardner% for one% was ins"ired and influenced by her ideas even collaborating with her to "resent a "a"er on the surviving relics of witchcraft to the !ol$ore -ociety in 1?3?4. 1 Not sur"risingly% then% GardnerBs conce"tion conce"tion of icca was based on the idea that witches were "art of a much maligned and misunderstood Pagan religion that had ancient roots. &o him% 5reclaiming5 the word witch made "erfect sense% and since then% many Neo"agans have followed suit% both within the many different iccan traditions and outside of it in other traditions of itchcraft and Neo"aganism. &odayBs Neo"agan conce"t of witchcraft has therefore been redefined from its original conteHt. hile most Neo"agans today acce"t that icca is not the ancient tradition that Gardner "romoted it as% 5witchcraft5 is a term that is still used to refer to a 1 de ;lJcourt% ;lJcourt% B&he itch% 6er Kictim% Kictim% &he ,nwitch ,nwitcher er and the +esearcher +esearcher<< &he Continued Continued Ividence Ividence of &radition &raditional al itchcraft%B in de ;lJcourt et al% The 'tholone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic+ olume , The Twentieth &entury % 1???% "1@11@L (iechefer% Magic in the Middle 'ges% 1?9?% "10="1?L ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "1:L ac(enMie% aelic !ncantations+ &harms+ and Blessings of the )ebrides % 19?@% "@. 13 2bid. 1 Although this has by no means always always been the the case% as as we will see. see. 1@ )avies% Bitchcraft< Bitchcraft< &he -"ell &hat &hat )idnBt ;rea%B originally originally "rinted in )istory Today% August 1???% ":13. 1 6utton% 6utton% Bodern Bodern Pagan Pagan itchcraft itchcraft%B%B in de ;lJcourt ;lJcourt et al% The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume , The Twentieth &entury % 1???% "3. |:|
variety of thoroughly modern "racticesDwhether in a Pagan% religious conteHt or as an entirely secular "racticeDwhich often incor"orate to some degree4 magical "ractices that have been found in historical sourcesDthe latter of which were never considered to be 5witchcraft5 5witchcraft5 by those who originally engaged in such "ractices. 1: hile witches are traditionally defined solely by their harmful nature regardless of their degree of sill or eH"ertise% there are different terms used to define different inds of wisemen% wisewomen% healers% and charmers. &hese terms de"end on the ind of services and degree of sill they can offer% although in general they all served similar functionsL along with removing bewitchments and identifying the bewitcher4 wisemen and wisewomen also often often wored as healers% being sought out when all medical avenues had failed to yield yield any cure% and might might also have s"ecialised s"ecialised in divinatio divination% n% love charms% charms% and the removal of the Ivil Iye which may or may not have been the result of a witch4. 19 -ome% however% might concentrate on a few different areas% lie divination and love charms% or offer sim"le healing services. 1? &hese "eo"le wereDand still areDdiametrically areDdiametrically o""ose o""osed d to witche witches% s% altho although ugh de"end de"ending ing on their their behav behaviou iourr and standi standing ng in their their community% they might gain a re"utation for witchcraft themselves if they u"set the wrong "erson or choose to engage in harmful magic. &he belief in witchcraft as a wholly negative% malicious force is still "ervasive in Gaelics"eaing areas today and beyond4% 0 though it is not something that is "ublicly or o"enly taled about very often. 2n modern -cotland for eHam"le% new houses or housing estates often have rowan sa"lings "lanted% not only because they are fastgrowing trees% but because they are a traditional feature% said to ee" the witches away. 1 &his common )istory of *itchcraft *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ %urope+ 1: -ee 6utton% 6utton% Bodern Bodern Pagan itchc itchcraft raft%B%B in de ;lJcourt ;lJcourt et al% The 'tholone )istory olume , The Twentieth &entury % 1???% "1:L de ;lJcourt% B&he itch% 6er Kictim% the ,nwitcher and the +esearcher< &he Continued IHistence of &raditional itchcraft%B in de ;lJcourt et al% The 'tholone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume , The Twentieth &entury% 1???% "1@11@. 19 -chmitM% -chmitM% BAn 2rish 2rish ise oman< oman< !act !act and $egend%B $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:@. 1? ac2n ac2nnes nes%% B&radi B&raditio tional nal ;elief ;elief in Gaeli Gaelicc -ociet -ociety%B y%B in 6ender 6enderso sonn Id.4% Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish Scottish )istory )istory and &ulture &ulture% 00? *itchcraft++ Magic and &ulture &ulture 025,-067 025,-0671% 1???% "19"1?L R 00?%% "1?1 "1?1LL )avi )avies es%% *itchcraft Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ":1:L R Crualaoich% B+eading the ;ean !easa% !easa%BB in #olklore+ ol. 00,% "o. 0% 00@% "3:L )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and *itch-hunt in &onte8t &onte8t% 00% "1919:L ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% Charmers Charmers%B%B in Goodare Goodare Id.4% The Scottish *itch-hunt "00L Eenins% Bitches and !airies< -u"ernatural Aggression and )eviance Among the 2rish Peasantry%B in NarvaeM Id.4% The ood People "ew #airylore %ssays % 1??:% "3031L oore% The #olklore of the !sle of Man % 19?1% ":9:?. 0 ac2n ac2nnes nes%% B&radi B&raditio tiona nall ;elief ;elief in Gaeli Gaelicc -ocie -ociety% ty%BB in 6ender 6enderso sonn Id.4% Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "199. 1 ac2n ac2nnes nes%% B&radi B&raditio tional nal ;elief ;elief in Gaeli Gaelicc -ociet -ociety%B y%B in 6ender 6enderso sonn Id.4% Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "199L ;ennett% B-tories of the -u"ernatural< !rom $ocal emorate to -cottish $egend%B in 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% ":?L +oss% #olklore of the Scottish )ighlands% 1?:% "@.
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fol "ractice is not based in Christian belief% but rather in the belief of the common "eo"le that it is good to ee" malevolent "eo"le away. -tories of "owerful and damaging curses from witches affecting the fortunes of towns also "ersist in some "laces% although again% "eo"le tend to be circums"ect about the effects these curses might have% even as ste"s are taen to "revent the curse being fulfilled.
Magic in Ireland: .isidecht , .ilidecht , is "ruidecht hile many Neo"agans tend to lum" diverse magical "ractices under the sim"le heading of 5witchcraft%5 if we loo at how magic has been viewed historically% we see a different "icture% all the way from the earliest sources u" until the "resent. &he early mediev medieval al 2rish 2rish made made distin distincti ctions ons betwe between en diffe differen rentt vocati vocations ons or sill sillss that that involv involved ed magical "ractices% and also had all inds of different words for different inds of magic. Eust across the 2rish -ea% we can find "lenty of evidence to see that the Anglo-aHons did too%3 so the 2rish arenBt uniue or s"ecial in this. 2t all adds u" to suggest that these different words and their very s"ecific meanings were im"ortant in defining who you were and what you did% and as reconstructionists this is "erha"s a "oint that needs to be considered carefully. 2f we are to reconstruct religious% s"iritual and indeed 5magical5 "ractices then should we not also res"ect the historicallyattested historicallyattested definitions and labels for the "eo"le who "racticed these different vocationsS 2n the earliest written sources% the druids are called dru9 in in 2rish% or magi in 6iberno $atin. &he use of the word magi was delibera deliberate te on the "art of the Christian Christian mons who recorded these tales% in order to to associate the druids with the "agan agi of the ;ible. &he agi of the ;ible were seen as astrologers and sorcerers who harmed others with magic% so it was a not so subtle com"arison% and it allowed the early 2rish scribes to &he Paisley Curse% Curse% for eHam"le. 3 Angl Anglo o-a -aHo Honn term termss incl includ udee scinn-craeft 5magi 5magicc sill54% sill54% galdor-craeft 5si 5sill ll at enchan enchantin ting54 g54%% lyb-lac an and lyb-craeft referrin referringg to drugbase drugbased d magic4% magic4% wigle and wiglung 5divination54% 5divination54% wiccecraeft and wiccedom 5witche 5witchery54% ry54% bealocraeft 5evil art54% tunglocraeft 5starsill5Dastrology and astronomy4% only some of which im"ly illintent or wrongdoing. -ee Griffiths% 'spects of 'nglo-Sa8on Magic% 1??% "9?. &he word 5witch5 itself has its origins in the Old Inglish word wicce 5female magicianL sorceress5Dmale version being wicca4. Itymology OnlineL o f 'nglo-Sa8on OnlineL Griffiths% 'spects of Magic% 1??% "109. &he ind of $atin used by the ecclesiastical ecclesiastical 2rishL as a common common language in the Church% Church% early ecclesiastical ecclesiastical writings often favoured $atin% allowing a wider circulation within the Church in general. 56iberno$atin5 is called such because the early medieval 2rish develo"ed a distinctive form of $atin that incor"orated certain $atinised 6ebrew% Gree and 2rish words. |?|
"ortray the druids in somewhat ;iblical and negative4 terms when it suited them. @ 2n Old 2rish% the art including magic4 of the druids is druidecht% and the literature shows them to be magicians first and foremost. : 2n the surviving tales they are seen "erforming all inds of magic and divination such as n:ldoracht or 5clouddivination54. 5clouddivination54.9 A seer% who may or may not have been a druid% is called a f;ith or fisid. #isidecht refers to sill in occult nowledge% ? and the word for "hysic "hysician ian or 5leech54 5leech54%% f;ithliaig% indicates the meta"hysical roots of healing% since the first element of the word is f;ith 5seer54. 5seer54.30 &he word f;ithliaig is es"ecially used in early 2rish literature% where the magical sills of "hysicians are more "ronouncedDlie )ian CechtBs fashioning fashioning of a silver hand for Nuadu% which wored 7ust lie a normal hand only of metal% 31 or his son and daughter reviving the dead by throwing them in a well and chanting s"ells over them. 3 any of these words associate magic and divination with each other% which is sensible sensible enough when we consider consider the su"ernatu su"ernatural ral nature of both arts. &he filid are the "oets% whose art is referred to as filidecht. Originally% in "reChristian times% it is liely that they they served served as "ro"he "ro"hets ts or seers% seers% since since fili is thought to have originally meant 5seerL diviner.533 &he source of their art is imbas forosnai% or 5great nowledge which indles%5 3 and the word imbas can refer to 5magical lore%5 or nowledge gained by magical means. 3@ As such% their role can be seen to be rooted in the meta"hysical as well. Closely related to the "oet is the satirist% or c;inte although any "oet could "erform satire satire%% the c;inte s"ecialised in it4 whose satire could tae on magical overtones. &here were seven different inds of satire% 3 de"ending on its nature and intent% and they include such things as tamall molta% 5a slight bit of "raise%5 which taes the form of a "raise "oem so @ &he 2rish were also influenc influenced ed by the siHth century century -"anish -"anish Archbisho" Archbisho" 2sidore 2sidore of -eville% who wrote wrote of the agi< 5agi are those commonly termed BsorcerersB on account of the magnitude of their crimes. &hey agitate the elements% derange "eo"leBs minds% and without any draught of "oison they cause death by the mere virulence of a s"ell Tor B"oemBU.5 -ee illiams% #iery Shapes &elestial Portents and 'strology in !reland and *ales+ 211-0211 % 010% "?@0. -ee e)2$ e)2$.. : hether hether this was based on reality% reality% or "layed "layed u" for literary literary "ur"oses% "ur"oses% is a different different matter. matter. -ee< illiams% illiams% #iery Shapes &elestial Portents and 'strology in !reland and *ales+ 211-0211 % 010% "3. 9 ill illia iams ms%% #iery Shapes &elestial Portents and 'strology in !reland and *ales+ 211-0211 % 010% "3. ? -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 30 2bid. 31 e)2$ e)2$LL &ath Maige Tuired . ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1:. 3 ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender 33 -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 3 cCo cCone ne%% Pagan Past and &hristian Present in %arly !rish $iterature % 1??0% "1?. 3@ 56ence 56ence < imbas imbas forosna forosnai4 i4 lit. nowledge nowledge which which illuminates4 illuminates4 a s"ecial s"ecial gift of clairvoya clairvoyance nce or "ro"hetic "ro"hetic nowledge nowledge su""osed to be "ossessed by "oets in ancient 2reland.5 -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 3 (elly elly%% ' uide to %arly !rish $aw% 1?99% "13:L 33. | 10 |
generic and laclustre that it can only be seen to be an insult on whomever it is aimed at. 3: Anot Anothe herr form form is dallbach becthuinedhe % 5lightlyestablished innuendo%5 which does not eH"licitly name the intended victim% but gives enough clues to mae "eo"le tal. 39 &hese forms of satire are not seen as inherently magical% but nonetheless in some cases they could only be truly effective if "erformed at certain times of the month% or over a "rescribed length of time. Of them all% however% it is the glam d9cenn which is described as being magical% and descri"tions of the accom"anying ritual suggest that it was very simila similarr to the cursing cursing ceremony ceremony of corrguinecht.3? -atire has long been a "owerful and fearsome tool in 2reland% and according to the early 2rish sources it was believed that it could cause blemishes to a""ear on the victimBs face% or even ill% resulting in some sources describing the effects of satire as 5magical wounding.5 0 &his "ractice of 5rhyming to death5 was also used in rat or mice satiresDcharms which em"loyed satire to get rid of rodent infestations% a sill commonly associated with 2rish "oets from the siHteenth century onwards.1 IHam"les of these satires can also be found in -cotland. Other Other ty"es ty"es of magic magic include include muirgeintlecht 5seamagic54% 3 gesad
;attle of ag &ured54 we see ;adb% acha and the orr'gan sending forth 5magic showers of sorcery and com"act clouds of mist and a furious rain of fire% with a down"our 3: -tac -tacey ey%% =ark Speech The Performance of $aw in %arly !reland % 00:% "10?. 39 A famous famous eHam"le eHam"le goes< goes< 5 't; 't; bean as t9r > ni h-abar a h-ainm? maighidh esdi a delm amal cloich a tailm . &here is a woman from the country V 2 do not say her nameL 6er fart breas from her lie a stone from a sling.5 -tacey% =ark Speech The Performance of $aw in %arly !reland% 00:% "11. 3? -tac -tacey ey%% =ark Speech The Performance of $aw in %arly !reland % 00:% "110. 0 2bid. 1 (elly elly%% ' uide to %arly !rish $aw% 1?99% ". ;lac ;lac% % The aelic /therworld% 00@% "113. 3 -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 2bid. @ )uf )uffy% fy% Medieval !reland 'n %ncyclopedia% 00@% "@1?. ;ors7e and (elly% B&he Ivil IyeB in Iarly 2rish 2rish $iterature $iterature and $aw%B $aw%B in &eltica olume @4% 003% "3@. | 11 |
of red blood from the air on the warriorsB headsL and they allowed the !ir ;olg neither rest nor stay for three days and nights.5 : &he magical "ractices that we have looed at so far refer to a variety of different vocations and sills% mastered by different inds of "eo"le. &his shows that the "ractice of magic itself was at one time a dee"ly ingrained "art of 2rish society% and wasnBt limited to 7ust druids% or even 5witches5 who donBt feature "rominently in our early sources at all4. &his maes it very difficult to see how such "ractices could "ossibly be lum"ed under one heading% miHed together and mashed u" without regard to their historical conteHt and sim"ly labelled 5witchcraft.5 ;y ignoring the historical conteHt and the subtle differences of what these "ractices are really about% a cultural ualifier can hardly be 7ustified< when such things as 52rish witchcraft5 as it might be called today4 never involved these "ractices% is it really 52rish%5 let alone 5witchcraft5S 6aving now looed at 7ust some of the different forms of historicallyattested magic% and who was "racticing them% the neHt "art of this essay will tae a loo at the evidence of how witches have been seen historically.
Witchcraft in Ireland hat we now of magic and witchcraft comes to us from sources that s"an from as early as the fifth century C.I. to the "resent day. 2tBs im"ortant to remember that these sources are all very much a "roduct of their time% and what we find in them is inevitably going to be influenced by the different ideas and attitudes that were "revalent de"ending on the "eriod. &his has to be taen into account when we loo at evidence of beliefs and attitudes as far as the "ractice of magic is concerned% because at the very least we have to consider why the sources might say what theyBre saying. On the one hand we might be seeing genuine evidence of native belief and "ractice% or else we might be seeing attitudes that are the "roduct of Christianity and an attem"t to deliberately sew the "icture for religious "ur"oses. 2n some cases% things might not be so clearcut as being one or the other... !rom the early medieval "eriod onwards there are three different waves or "hases : The Battle of Moytura . | 1 |
that affected attitudes towards magic and witchcraft% from the earliest sources we have to hand through to the late fourteenth to early fifteenthcenturies. fifteenthcenturies. 9 2n the first wave we have the very earliest sources that were written at a time when "reChristian beliefs eHisted sidebyside with Christian beliefs. )uring this time it wasnBt uncommon to find that older% "reChristian beliefs and "ractices were ado"ted or ada"ted into a nominally Christian way of life% and so in these early sources we might find "rayers and liturgy or "ractices that seem to be very magical in feel and a""earance. &he ninth century -towe issal% for eHam"le% contains liturgy on the ass and ;a"tism% for eHam"le% but also three healing charms.? &wo other healing charms% thought to date to the eighth or ninth centuries% call on 2rish deitiesDGoibniu and )ian Cecht res"ectivelyDto cure a variety of ailments%@0 the style and form of which echo the -towe issal charms% as well as a charm for staunching blood that has been "reserved in a fifteenth century manuscri"t. @1 )ian CJcht also gave his name to an eighth century legal tract% Bretha =:in &h:cht% that covered the inds of obligations and rights as far as the sic% and those who had to care for them% were concerned.@ &hese references to gods may seem to be at odds with Christian thining. Certainly they seem that way to us now% but as far as the "eo"le who recorded such charms and called on the names of deities lie )ian CJcht in order to lend authority to legal tracts% they were sim"ly effective ways of healing and hel"ing. ;ut while these sources show us that the use of charms was acce"ted in this "eriod otherwise% why record them and advoca advocate te their their useS4% useS4% other other ecc eccle lesia siasti stica call source sourcess lie lie "enit "enitent ential ialss and saints saintsBB lives lives consistently "ortray magic as evil and destructive. @3 2t is magic that does not hel"% or that is seen to be outwith the realm of God that is condemned in these sources% and one of our earliest sources even condemns the very belief in witches<
9 Eolly% Eolly% Bedieval Bedieval agic< )efinitions% )efinitions% ;eliefs% ;eliefs% PracticesB PracticesB%% in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "13. ? -toe -toess and -trac -trachan han%% Thesaurus Paleohibernicus olume !! % 1?03% "@0@1L One of which has been recently translated. translated. @0 &he charm to )ian Cecht Cecht accom"anies accom"anies the a""lication of a salve salve and goes< W2 save the deadalive. deadalive. Against eructation% eructation% against s"earthong amentum4% amentum4% against sudden tumour% against bleedings caused by iron% against ...which fire burns% against ...which a dog eats% ...that withers< three nuts that ... three sinews that weaveB S4. 2 strie its disease% 2 vanuish blood... < let it not be a chronic tumour. hole be that whereon it )iancechtBs salve4 goes. 2 "ut my trust in the salve which )iancecht left with his family that whole may be that whereon it goes.X -toes and -trachan% Thesaurus Paleohibernicus olume !! % 1?03% "9?. @1 -tifter% -tifter% BA Charm Charm for -taunch -taunching ing ;lood%B ;lood%B in &eltica olume @7% 00:% "@1. @ (elly% (elly% Bedicine Bedicine and and Iarly 2rish 2rish $aw%B $aw%B in !rish 3ournal of Medical Science olume 021 % "umber 0% 001% ":3. @3 )uff )uffyy Id.4 Id.4%% Medieval !reland 'n %ncyclopedia% 00@% "@1?. | 13 |
A Christian who believes that there is such a thing in the world as a lamia% that is to say a witch striga4% is to be anathematisedDanyone who "uts a living soul under such a re"utationL and he must not be received again into the Church before he has undone by his own word the crime that he has committed% and so does "enance with all diligence. @ &his is a rare early mention of witchcraft in eH"licit terms although the word lamia can also be inter"reted as meaning 5vam"ire54% @@ though the early ecclesiastical sources also contain "lenty of disa""roving references to the magic of women% druids or magical "ractice in general. According to this teHt% a Christian should not condone "aganism or magical "ractice% and the two are often seen to go hand in handDthe Old 2rish word for "aganism itself% gentlidecht% has a secondary meaning of 5heathen magic%5 suggesting that magical "ractices were commonly associated with nonChristians. @ &he famous "rayer attrib attribute uted d to -t Patric Patric% % &he )eerBs )eerBs Cry% Cry% ass ass for "rotecti "rotection on agains againstt Bthe Bthe blac blac laws laws of "aganism%B as well as the s"ells of druids% blacsmiths% and women< Tocuiriur etrum inna huli nert so fri cech nert namnas n:trocar frist;i dom churp ocus domum anmain+ fri tinchetla s;ibf;the+ fri dubrechtu gentliuchtae+ fri s;ibrechtu heretecdae+ fri himcellacht nidlachtae+ fri brichtu ban A gobann A druad+ druad+ fri cech fiss arachuiliu corp A anmain duini... duini...
2 summon today all those "owers between me and every cruel% merciless "ower that may o""ose my body and my soul% against the incantations of false "ro"hets% against blac laws of "aganism% against the false laws of heresy% against the deceit of idolatry% against the s"ells of women and smiths and druids% against every evil nowledge that is forbidden manBs body and soul... @: 2t can hardly be a coincidence that all of the things mentioned here are ones that are considered to be the greatest threats against Christian teachings< "agans% smiths whose art @ !rom B&he !irst -ynod of -t Patric%B Patric%B which is thought to to date to around @:C.I. @:C.I. ;ors7e% B$ove agic in edieval edieval 2rish Penitentials% Penitentials% $aw and $iterature< A )ynamic Pers"ective%B in Studia "eophilologica% 01% "1. ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1?. @@ ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender @ &he &he wor word d gentlidecht itself is clearly derived from the same root as 5gentile%5 showing that it is not a native word% and one that came into 2rish from Christian influence. -ee e)2$ e)2$.. @: ees% ees% &eltic &urses % 00?% "1:. -ee also (elly% ' uide to %arly !rish $aw% 1?99% "0. | 1 |
was heavily rooted in magical% Otherworldly beliefs4% and women who might lead godly men away from their calling and away from celibacy4. 6owever% itBs also worth noting that PatricBs use of the term br9chtu ban 5the s"ells of women54 echoes a much earlier eHam" eHam"le le of an inc incant antati ation on found found at a Gaulis Gaulishh site% site% which which conta contains ins the "hrase "hrase briamon brCictom.@9 &his may be a coincidence% or else evidence that such magical threats% and the
"rayers of "rotection against them% are a dee"ly ingrained "art of Celtic society from the "reChristian "ast as much as the Christian "resent of &he )eerBs Cry itself. @? &he "enitentials and letters of Patric% the laws and saints lives% and so on% may contain genuine sni""ets of magical belief and "ractice in 2rish tradition% which mae them incredibly im"ortant for us to sift through. 6owever% they are also firmly rooted in Christian thining and learning% and as such they "articularly reference attitudes and ideas towards magic that were "revalent in the wider Church% and which had filtered into Christianity from +oman thiningL 0 +oman law of the "eriod condemned the "ractice of magic% es"ecially magic "erformed by "ractitioners on behalf of a client. 1 All of this is reflected in the inds of magic% and "ractitioners of magic% that are condemned in early 2rish Christian sources. ;y far% the ma7ority of "enitentials and legal teHts refer to the magic of women as the greatest "roblem% and go so far as to define magic as being that which might involve taing magic "otions% maing charms to cause abortions% illing love rivals% or "erforming love magic to brea u" a marriage or influence a manBs lustDin lustDin the sense of causing im"otence or "erha"s inflaming "assions in order to encourage adultery. As with the laws% lie the seventh century &;in 'domn;in 5$aw of AdomnYn%5 also nown as the 5$aw of the 2nnocents54 which legislated against the the illing of women by charms or s"ells epthai4% the "enitentials encouraged the marginalising of those who would use harmful magic% or maleficium%3 by stri""ing stri""ing the individua individuall of their their status status and "osition "osition in their community. &hese ty"es of magical "ractices were singled out in "articular because @9 @? 0 1
ees% ees% &eltic &urses % 00?% "1:. ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "0L ees% &eltic &urses % 00?% "1:. ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender Eolly% lly% The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope olume 5 The Middle 'ges% 00% "1@. Peters% Bedieval Church Church and -tate -tate on -u"erstition% agic agic and itchcraft< itchcraft< !rom Augustine Augustine to the -iHteenth -iHteenth Century%B in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle ' ges% 00% "1:?. -ee for eHam"le eHam"le ;ors7e% ;ors7e% B+ules and $egislatio $egislationn on $ove Charms in Iarly edieval edieval 2reland% 2reland%BB in Peritia @0% 010L ;itel% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender from %arly !reland % 1??% "1?. 3 5&he 5&he term term maleficium designated what we term some inds of 5magic5 and all inds of 5witchcraft5 down to the end of the eighteenth century. Peters% Bedieval Church and -tate on -u"erstition% agic and itchcraft< !rom Augustine to the -iHteenth Century%B in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "191. ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1?. | 1@ |
5&hey subversively aimed the devious wea"on of s"ells and "otions at the "atrilineal in grou"% the community% and all orderly% congenial gender relations.5 @ Along with the healing healing charms discussed discussed already there are the many eHam"les eHam"les of 5magical5 miracles "erformed by great 2rish saints in their hagiogra"hies% or saintBs lives% which detail the many feats the saints "erformed that resulted in their sainthood and "ower. &he saints are often seen countering the magical attacs of druids% with fire s"urting from their fingerti"s% curses abounding% and calling on GodBs "ower to defeat the "agansL with righteousness on their side% the magic of the saints was seen as su"erior and more "owerful. hile the magic of the druids is seen to be "agan% it is not something that Christian writers could condoneL the magic of the druids did not call on God% even if it didnBt eH"licitly call on gods either. &he druidBs "ur"ose and "ower was not rooted in Christianity.: Iven so% the lines between magic and GodBs will 5miracles5 "erformed by 5saints54 remained blurry% and it is often difficult to distinguish between the two. 9 2t is between the two ends of this s"ectrumDdruids versus saints% the fol magic of the common "eo"le versus versus the teachings teachings of the ChurchDthat ChurchDthat we find the surviving surviving fol beliefs and "ractices. 2n this "lace live magical ways such as the charms used for "rotection and healing% and "rayers for 7ustice and victory% which have long occu"ied an uncomfortable and slightly mury s"ace between acce"table and unacce"table% Christian and "agan% witch and wisewoman or wiseman4< Although the "ractice of magic has never been entirely acce"table in the Church% the definition of what magic actually is has always been somewhat somewhat blurry and fluid% allowing a sort of grey s"ace in which all inds of magical "ractices might eHist and survive. As weBve already seen there has long been a magical element to the art of healing and by eHtension% the sill of the "hysician4% and before a modern understanding of medicine% many remedies and treatments were little more than what we would consider charms or s"ells. )uring the 5first wave5 weBve been discussing% when Christian and "reChristian eHisted sidebyside% healing charms were seen as legitimate and acce"table "ractices. All this began to change from the twelfth century onwards when our 5second wave5 began and saw an increasingly intellectual and analytical attitude towards towards magic tae hold in the @ : 9
ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1:. ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender (iec (iech hef efer er%% Magic in the Middle 'ges% 1?9?% "@L (elly% ' uide to %arly !rish $aw% 1?99% "01. (iec (iech hef efer er%% Magic in the Middle 'ges% 1?9?% "@L (elly% ' uide to %arly !rish $aw% 1?99% "1@. 2bid.
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Church and s"reading into 2rish society in general. &he charms and salves that were once seen as being effective came to be seen as 5low magic%5 associated with heresy and ignorant su"erstition. ? &his did not sto" them from being used or recorded the charm for staunching blood% above% being an eHam"le4% but alongside this% 5high magics5 became de rigeur amongst the learned classes% largely influenced by Arabic and Eewish sources% as
well as looing bac to Classical natural "hiloso"hy. :0 2n this sense% native "ractices were frowned u"on% but more eHotic forms of magic from sources that were seen to be intellectually intellectually su"erior% were acce"table. oving into the 5third wave5 of changing attitudes towards magic% from around the late fourteenthcentury onwards we see the ind of attitudes emerge that we are most famili familiar ar wi with th today. today. Althou Although gh 2relan 2reland d was never never "artic "articula ularly rly enthus enthusias iastic tic about about the "ersecution of witches 2reland "roduced very few trials% and even then they only too "lace "lace in Protes Protestan tantt areas% areas% i.e.% those largely "o"ulated by Inglish or -cottish settlers :14% unlie much of the rest of Iuro"e% that is not to say that it remained immune to the ind of beliefs that too hold among Iuro"eans elsewhere% with a view of magic being the "roduct of organised and demonic sects who s"ecialised in the "ractice of witchcraft% necromancy and general sorcery. : &he idea of a demonic influence in magic was not new in the fourteenth century :3 and it is in this light that we see magic being shown as far as our sourcesDthe myths in "articularDgo% and one that we should consider when looing at the ind of terminology being used in them. Although the early ecclesiastical sources do mention witches lamia% or or striga as weBve seen in the eHam"le from &he !irst -ynod of -t Patric given above4% the fact is that witchcraft is not something that features massively in any of the early 2rish sources. ost often it is the druids who are shown to have vast magical "owers and are most commonly seen to eHercise their arts% : or othe otherw rwis isee it is the the gods gods and fol fol from from the the s9de% the ? Eolly% Eolly% Bedieval Bedieval agic< )efinitions% )efinitions% ;eliefs% ;eliefs% PracticesB PracticesB%% in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "1. :0 Eolly% Eolly% Bedieval Bedieval agic< )efinitions% )efinitions% ;eliefs% ;eliefs% PracticesB PracticesB%% in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "13. %urope+ olume 7 :1 Gi7swi7t6ofstra% Gi7swi7t6ofstra% Bitchcraft Bitchcraft After the itch&rials%B itch&rials%B in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ The %ighteenth and "ineteenth &enturies % 1???% "1. : Eolly% Eolly% Bedieval Bedieval agic< )efinitions% )efinitions% ;eliefs% ;eliefs% PracticesB PracticesB%% in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "3. :3 Eolly% Eolly% Bedieval Bedieval agic< )efinitions% )efinitions% ;eliefs% ;eliefs% PracticesB PracticesB%% in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 5 The Middle 'ges % 00% "1. : ill illia iams ms%% #iery Shapes &elestial Portents and 'strology in !reland and *ales+ 211-0211 % 010% "3. | 1: |
Otherworldly mounds that dot the 2rish landsca"e. here witchcraft is mentioned at all it is mostly in association with druidic magic or 5su"ernatural women%5 and always with the negative overtones common to ecclesiastical sources. &he descri"tion of the &uatha )J )anannBs sills in the magical arts in &ath Maige Tuired or &MT % 5&he -econd ;attle of ag &ured54% for eHam"le% reads lie the author looed at a thesaurus and "ut together as many words as they could "ossibly thin of to show how much they disa""rove of magic< 5&he &uatha )e )anann were in the northern islands of the world% studying occult lore and sorcery% druidic arts and witchcraft and magical sill% until they sur"assed the sages of the "agan arts. &hey studied occult lore and secret nowledge and diabolic arts in four cities< !alias% Gorias% urias% and !indias.5 :@ agic here is em"hatically associated with both diabolical demonic4 and "agan artsDty"ical of Christian writers% as weBve seenDand throughout the teHt the words describing magical arts are ones that are thoroughly negative in nature. &wo women in &MT % ;e Chuille and )ianann% are referred to eH"licitly as witches% ban-tuathaig% while the
)agda )agdaBs Bs arts are referred referred to as amaidichtai% 5witchcraft% evil influence.5 : &he conscious association of such "ractices with "aganism% magic and evildoing can therefore only be seen as a deliberate choice of wording by a Christian writer writer wishing to dis"arage such arts that could not "ossibly be condoned in a Christian conteHt. 2n 'ided &hrimthainn maic #idaig 5&he )eath of Crimthann54 the ueen ongfind is called a witch% and is res"onsible for the death of her brother and ultimately herselfDa casualty of her scheming to get her own son on the throne. !rom her a""earances here and in other tales% her character shows clear elements of having originally been a sovereignty goddess. As a goddess ongfind should have chosen her ing% her consort% after he had shown himself to be worthy of being elevated to such a status. -hould the ing show himself to be unfit for the roleDby failing to show good 7udgement% generosity% or courage Dthe goddess had every right to withdraw her su""ort for her consort. 2n most cases this would result in the death of the ing% enabling the goddess to choose a better candidate for the role. )uring the inauguration rite of a ing% he would receive a cu" of mead from a :@ &ath Maige Tuired % lines 1. : -ee lines lines 11 11 and 11? 11? of -toe -toesB sB The Second Battle of Moytura L c.f. e)2$ e)2$.. | 19 |
woman% a symbol of the ingBs marriage to the sovereignty and the land. &he "oisoned cu" ong ongfi find nd give givess to her her brot brothe herr woul would d ordi ordina nari rily ly be a symb symbol ol of the the sove sovere reig ignt ntyy withdrawing her favour% and his ingshi"% :: but here it is nothing more than a symbol of ongfindBs evil scheming for her own sonBs sae% her own selfish means. -he is eH"licitly referred to as a witch< Moingfinn aidche samna?... conid do garar f:il Moingfinne frisin samain ocon daescarshluag+ ;r ba chumhachtach side 2 bantuathaid... bantuathaid... conid de cuindgit mn; 2 :9 daescarsluag itcheda aidchi samna fuirri ... ...
5ongfind dies on -amain Ive... so it is from this that -amain is called the !east of ongfind by the common fol% for she was "owerful and a witch... therefore women and common fol reuest -amain Ive boons of her...5:? 2n the conteHt of the tale% ongfind may indeed be termed a 5witch%5 but her "ortrayal and the choice of wording to describe her goes beyond a sim"le tale of evil scheming and could be seen as a deliberate attem"t to undermine her divine roots. 90 hereas here it is said she is a""ealed to by 5the common fol5 as a witch% it may be that she was originally a""ealed to as a deity. $ie the word gentlidecht% magic and ongfindBs divine% "agan roots are brought together into one bundle% underlined underlined by the fact that she is said to have been worshi""ed at -amhain% a time traditionally seen as "articularly ri"e with su"ernatural threats and dangers. 91 2n this sense% the word 5witch5 is a wea"on% a careful choice of vocabulary to degrade and subvert the divine nature of a goddess to something evil and demonic. &he tale a""ears in a fourteenth century manuscri"t and seems to reference genuine genuine fol "ractice of the timeL 9 however% the date may also be significant because it coincides with the early days of the witch hunts in Iuro"e% the 5third wave5 of evolving attitudes towards magic when it was seen in an almost entirely negative light and women in :: :9 :? 90
Niolaev Niolaeva% a% B&he )rin )rin of of )eath%B )eath%B in Studia &eltic DDD % 001% "300. -ee e)2$ e)2$.. &ranslat &ranslation ion by by )ennis )ennis (ing% (ing% www.sengoidelic.com 5e can note that in the original original 2rish this B)eathB B)eathB is rendered rendered as Aided% a technica technicall literary term meaning meaning BKiolent BKiolent )eathB. &he violence involved here is% on the surface of the story% the violence of the selfadministration of the "oison% but it is also% surely% the violence of the smashing of the status and "ower of the autonomous% sovereign female and the violence of her ignominious dis"lacement dis"lacement and degrading in "atriarchal narrative eyes to the ran of a BbansheeB and a witch.5 R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ". 91 +ees% &eltic )eritage 'ncient Tradition in !reland and *ales % 1?9?% 1?9?% "?1L "?1L cNeil cNeill%l% )alloweEen !ts /rigins+ Rites and &eremonies in the Scottish Tradition % "?. 9 R Crual Crualaoi aoich% ch% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ":. | 1? |
"articular were frowned u"on for acting under their own agency. Although 2reland was never as enthusiastic about the witch hunts as many other "arts of Iuro"e were% it does have the dubious honour of being host to one of the earliest witch trials< in the fourteenth century.93 2t was at this time that tales of the evil and sinful nature of magic reached their heightL heightL9 clearly there was some concern about witchcraft at the time ongfindBs story was written down. ongfind isnBt the only eHam"le of a goddessturnedwitch. goddessturnedwitch. 2n some cases% the very name or title of a formerlyrevered goddess or s"irit woman has been coo"ted as a general term for 5witch.5 Perha"s the most common word in the 2rish language to be translated into Inglish as 5witch5 is cailleach% but this definition for the word is a very late addition to its associations. &ailleach has its origins in the $atin word% pallium% meaning 5veil%5 and from this% cailleach originally meant 5veiled one.5 9@ 2t "rimarily referred to a nun% but it soon develo"ed to refer to any woman who was no longer seHually active and could no longer bear any children. !rom this% cailleach came to refer to old women or hags as well% and by eHtensionDgiven their "eri"heral role in society and the often ambivalent attitu attitude de toward towardss themDt themDthe he word word eventu eventuall allyy only only in moder modernn 2rish4 2rish4 "iced "iced u" the additional associations associations of referring to a su"ernatural being or witch. 9 &he fact that age is often a ey factor in identifying a witch is significant here% and gives a good reason for cailleach having been a""ro"riated to refer to witches. On the one hand% age infers eH"erience and wisdom% and those who wored magic and made charms were often called 5wisewomen5 in deference to their sill and s"ecialist nowledge. 2n wielding such "ower% the wisewoman might sometimes be viewed with a certain amount of sus"icionL while she and her male counter"arts4 might always use her sills to do good% some "eo"le may fear that she could switch sides and choose to do the o""osite. On the other hand% the word cailleach refers to women who are different in some way% occu"ying a 93 ;urns% rns% *itch )unts in %urope and 'merica 'n %ncyclopaedia+ 003% ""1011. ""1011. 2n s"ite of the fact that this too "lace in 2reland% the woman accused% Alice (yetler% was herself of !lemish descent. -he was accused by ;isho" +ichard de $edrede of Ossory% a !ranciscan who was trained in !rance before his return to settle into ecclesiastical ecclesiastical life in 2reland. 2n addition to being one of the earliest trials recorded in Iuro"e% it is also one of the few eHam"les of a witch trial in 2reland "er"etrated by a Catholic. &he rest are recorded in Protestant areas. -ee also< Cawthorne% *itch )unt )istory of a Persecutions+ 003% ""3:. 9 ;ors7 ;ors7e% e% B$ove B$ove agic agic in ediev edieval al 2rish 2rish Penite Penitenti ntials als%% $aw and $itera $iteratur ture< e< A )ynam )ynamic ic Pers" Pers"ect ective ive%B%B in Studia "eophilologica% 01% "1. 9@ R Crual Crualaoi aoich% ch% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% "91. 9 n' )honnchadha% )honnchadha% BCailleach BCailleach and Other Other &erms for Keiled Keiled omen in edieval 2rish &eHts%B &eHts%B in Figse @9% 1?:1% "?3?L R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% "919L ;itel% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1. | 0 |
somewhat "eri"heral or abnormal status in societyDthe nun% the old woman or hag% and so on. Normally women were eH"ected to get married and have children% but a nun dedicated herself to God and was symbolically married to him% choosing to live a celibate life and not have children. 2n doing so% the nun effectively "laced herself outside of the norms of societyDinfertile by choice% 7ust as the old woman or hag is infertile by circumstanceDbut circumstanceDbut she also attained at least some level of "ower through her involvement in the Church% in a society that was otherwise heavily weighted against women. 9: &hese womenDchildless% womenDchildless% widowed% old% or sim"ly inde"endentL on the "eri"heryDwere "eri"heryDwere eHactly the ind of "eo"le who were most liely to be accused of witchcraft. 99 As such% cailleach is a word that can refer to a variety of beings and su"ernatural figures% in addition to the more mundane associations with old women or nuns. As well as Cailleach ;hJarraDthe goddess who laments her old age% having abandoned her "agan ways and taen u" the veil of a nun 9?Dand her many counter"arts of a similar e"ithet% who are associated with many different geogra"hical features of 2reland% -cotland and the 2sle of an often as the creators of these landsca"es4% cailleach can also refer to a number of revered su"ernatural women who "lay a ey role in the follore and mythology of the Gaelics"eaing regions. 2n folloric usage% we also find the word attached to terms lie cailleach feasa 5wise 5wise womanL womanL fortunet fortunetelle eller5Ds r5Dsee ee below4% below4% cailleach phiseogach 5sorceressL
charmworer5Da dis"araging e"ithet given to Zueen IliMabeth 2 ?04 and cailleach na gcearc 5the hen hag54. 6owever% all three of these idioms have also been used to mean 5witch.5 )uring the height of the witch "ersecutions across Iuro"e% it was old womenD es"ecially those who had never had children% or were now widowed and alone% or lived on the outsirts of a village or somewhere uite isolatedDwho were often the first to come under sus"icion of witchcraft when things went wrong and a cause and cul"rit was looed for%?1 and cailleach came to be the "erfect choice for its connotations of su"ernatural hag% or goddess in her destructive form. ? 2n a modern "olytheistic conteHt% we would argue that cailleach is therefore not an a""ro"riate term to describe a magical "ractitioner% ender from %arly !reland% 1??% "1. 9: ;itel itel%% $and of *omen Tales of Se8 and ender %urope+ olume 7 99 Gi7swi7t6ofstra% Gi7swi7t6ofstra% Bitchcraft Bitchcraft After the itch&rials%B itch&rials%B in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ The %ighteenth and "ineteenth &enturies % 1???% "13. 9? ur" ur"hy hy%% %arly !rish $yrics % 1?@% ":93. ?0 6igh 6ighle ley% y% Shakespeare+ Spenser+ and the &risis in !reland% 1??:% "00. ?1 Eenins% Bitches and and !airies< -u"ernatural -u"ernatural Aggression and )eviance )eviance Among the the 2rish Peasantry%B in NarvYeM NarvYeM Id.4% The ood People "ew #airylore %ssays% 1??:% "3:. ? R Crual Crualaoi aoich% ch% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% "9L 9.
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because aside from its somewhat misogynistic misogynistic roots% it is hardly res"ectful to the Cailleach herself% or to the Cailleachan the hags as a grou"4. Badhbh is another word that can be used to refer to a witch% and lie cailleach it is a
word that can also refer to a number of su"ernatural beings such as battle furies and the banshee4 or a goddess. ?3 &he word badbDthe earlier% Old 2rish s"elling of badhbhDcan be defined "rimarily as 5scaldcrow%5 describing the form the ;adb taes on the battlefield. 2n many tales ;adb% or her battle furies collectively nown as badba4 is shown in the form of a crow% "ro"hesying or heralding death% or coming to claim the dead. ? Given these associations itBs not sur"rising that the word can also mean 5deadly% fatal% dangerous% ill fated%5?@ and over time the word evolved to em"hasise the gorier as"ects and elements of the ;adb and her furies% and eventually it came to carry derogatory connotations towards womenD womenD5a 5a bhaidh bhaidhbh> bh>55 5thou 5thou witch> witch>54. 54.? &he definition of badhbh as 5a scold% a uarrelsome woman%5 came to be attached to the word in the eighteenth century% ?: and this definition can also carry magical connotationsL a scold is a raving% unhinged woman who nagged and nagged so much that she might end u" cursing someone% such was her ill will. &he term can also be found in -cots Gaelic% as baobh% which Cam"bell defines as 5a wild furious woman% a wiced mischievous female who scolds and storms and curses caring neither what she says nor what she does% "raying the houses may be raMed lGrach lom4 and the "ro"erty destroyed sgrios an codach 4 of those who have offended her.5 ?9 &he -cots Gaelic baoE as a term for wiMard is a 5careless conversational conversational form5 of baobh.?? &he idea of the nag was common to medieval Iuro"e as a whole% and "unishments for it sometimes overla""ed with those who were found guilty of witchcraft% underlying its magical and malicious4 nature. 100 hatever the case% the word badhbh has come a long Banshee The ?3 Clar lar%% The reat (ueens !rish oddesses #rom the Morr9gan to &athleen n9 )oulihan % 1??1% "L $ysaght% The Banshee !rish Supernatural =eath-Messenger % 1?9% "33:. -ee also section . of 6ei7daBs *ar-goddesses+ furies and scald crows The use of the word badb in early !rish literature . ? Clar lar%% The reat (ueens !rish oddesses #rom the Morr9gan to &athleen n9 )ouihan % 1??1% ". ?@ -ee e)2$ e)2$.. ? $ysa $ysagh ght% t% The Banshee The !rish Supernatural =eath-Messenger % 1?9% "3:. ?: OB;r OB;rie ienn and $huy $huyd% d% #ocal
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way from its original roots< !rom a goddess% battle fury or banshee heralding the death of a family member% to a raving% unhinged nag. Another word translated as 5witch5 or 5magician54 is tHaithaid% or bantuathaid also s"elled ban-tuathaig4.101 &he word ultimately comes from tHath-% meaning 5left% "erverse% evil% evil% wic wiced% ed%55 and so in its very basic sense it can be translated translated as 5evildo 5evildoer5D er5Dor% or% in the case of bantuathaid% with the addition of the female "refiH ban-% 5female evildoer.5 10 agic is freuently associated with the left% north and evil in early 2rish literature% 103 and the bantuathaid are a class of female curseworers who use negative magic against their
enemies. &wo daughters of the goddess !lidaisD;J Chuille and ;J &JiteDare considered bantuathaid% as were those who aided ongfind. 10 2n modern translations% the word is
often rendered as 5witch5Din the traditional% negative sense of the word 10@Dand of all the terms terms discusse discussed d here% tHathaid or bantuathaid are "erha"s the most a""ro"riate word to describe a witch in the traditional sense. Other Other words words someti sometime mess given given the transl translati ation on of 5witc 5witch5 h5 are< are< ammait% or or aimmit 5witch% hag% s"ectre%5 or 5foolish woman5Dit is in this secondary form% amait% a 5fool5 or 5foolish woman%5 that the words survives today as amaid in both 2rish and -cots Gaelic4% although it is used rarely 104L and bantuathecha 5wise woman5Dwhich woman5Dwhich is an unusual% out of "lace translation given the connotations of tHath-4.10: &here is also cumachtach 5"owerfulL witchL wiMardL rulerL woman "ossessing magic "ower54. 109 &he use of cumachtach can be found in !mmram Brian 5&he Koyage of ;ran54 and and also lso in 'ided &hrimthainn maic #idaig 5&he )eath of Crimthann54 in relation to ongfi ongfind. nd. 5itch5 5itch5 is only only one of the meaning meaningss that that can a""ly a""ly to cumachtach and for ongfind it a""ears to be used as 5"owerful5 more than 5witch5. 10? &here are some "olytheists who have ado"ted such terms in modern usage and% being "unished. 101 As seen in &ath Maige Tuired % mentioned aboveL 6ennessy% The 'ncient !rish oddesses of *ar % 19:0. 10 -ee e)2$ e)2$.. &he word tHath lends itself to a variety of magical words% including including tHaithe 5witchcraft% sorcery54% tHaithach 5having 5having magic "owersL "owersL witch54 witch54 and tHathch;ech% which may be defined as 5with a sinister eye.5 -ee ;ors7e% B&he eaning of tathcYech in Iarly 2rish &eHts%B in &ambrian Medieval &eltic Studies olume 45 % 00% ". 103 )uffy Id.4% Medieval !reland 'n %ncyclopedia% 00@% "@?1. 10 ac(illo"% ' =ictionary of &eltic Mythology% 1??9% "1L ?. 10@ -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 10 !rom whence we get amad;n. )wellyL ac2nnes% B&raditional ;elief in Gaelic -ocietyB% in 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "19?. 10: -ee e)2$ e)2$.. 109 ac(illo"% ' =ictionary of &eltic Mythology% 1??9% "1L ?. 10? -ee translation by )ennis (ing given above% www.sengoidelic.com | 3 |
given their negative associations% it can only be seen as either refreshingly honest% or ina""ro"riate. &hese are not labels that anybody should willingly want to identify with unless they are advertising the fact that they "ractice magic for harmful% selfserving "ur"oses. 2n traditional terms% these are "eo"le who would be avoided or outright shunned by the community. As labels go they are ones that are rarely embraced willinglyL rather% they tend to be im"osed on an individual by the rest of the community% in recognition of dishonourable behaviour. Given the meanings of these titles% we believe that such labels are not accurate descri"tions of what most magical "ractitioners within Gaelic Polytheism Polytheism are about today. &hese are not titles that can be 5reconteHtualised5 or 5reclaimed5 when they have such consistently negative connotations. +edefining is not reclaiming. &o try to change the meaning of these words disres"ects language and tradition. 2n addition% the way cailleach and badhbh have been twistedDfrom the titles or names of "owerful deities to evil old womenDcan only be seen as offensive to those deities and s"irits. &hese redefinitions cannot be considered "ositive or desirable% and to call oneself by the name of a deity or revered s"irit could be seen as an act of hubris. Considering all of this% it begs the uestion< 2f these are unsuitable for use to describe our "ractices% what can we loo toS One answer is to loo to the words lie corrguinecht% fisidecht% and so on% to see if they are a good fit. Another is to consider how
magical "ractices have survived u" until today% and this means looing to the arts of the bean feasa.
Wise-woman, or /ean feasa bean feasa feasa Gaei A bean Gaeilge lge%% 5woman 5woman of nowl nowled edge ge or wi wisdo sdomL mL a wi wise sewo woma man54 n54 110
harbours the gifts of "ro"hecy and secondsightL she also deals in herbal cures and healing.111 &he bean feasa% or less commonly her male counter"art the fear feasa 5man of nowledge or wisdomL a wiseman54 11 is a source of hel" in times of crisis% sought out by 110 R Crualaoich% 5+eading 5+eading the ;ean !easa%5 in #olklore 00,% 00@% "3:L -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:0. 111 )anaher% !rish &ustoms and Beliefs % 00% "11L R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ":. 11 -middy% 'n essay on the =ruids+ the ancient churches and the round towers of !reland % 19:1% "11?L Eenins% Bitches and | |
those afflicted with misfortune% illness% or accidentsDoften as a last resort. 113 ,nlie healers from -cotland or 2sle of an% the bean feasa a""ears to be s"ecifically an aged% and usually unmarried% woman. 11 &he "owers of the bean feasa and her -cottish and anH counter"arts4 were not something inherited or acuired by mortal means% but were usually seen to be a gift from the fairies% or Good !ol. 11@ -ometimes% however% her "owers came from divination lie 5cu"tossing5 or 5bowlreading.5 11 &he most famous bean feasa was ;iddy Iarly of County Clare% who hel"ed "eo"le in the west of 2reland with her cures buid:al dra9ochta dra9ochta 5magic bottle54% which was said to have been given to ;iddy by and buid:al
fairies and was considered to be the source of her "ower. 11: 2n 2rish culture% the benevolent bean feasa is the o""osite of a witchL119 while the bean feasa heals heals and aids the community% community% the witch witch es"ouses es"ouses traits lie aggression aggression and greed. greed.
!or eHam"le% a witch is said to steal butter by mumbling 5come all to me% come all to me5 under their breath whilst a neighbour is churning. 11? A story in !ermanagh s"eas of a woman who% des"ite rising the label of witch% would go door to door on ;ealtaine and attem"t to borrow a cu" of mil in ho"es of taing the household[s luc with it. 10 &he lore also s"eas of witches who can turn themselves into hares% steal mil from cows% and cast the Ivil Iye. 11 A bean feasa is called u"on to reverse these evil events% her function being 5to sort out the various ty"es of influence and counteract or neutraliMe them.5 1 Peter !lanagan% as recorded by follorist 6enry Glassie% summed it u" best as< 5the seer gives a forecast to the less blessed as the homemaer gives a "ound of butter to the less fortunate. &he witch who steals butter is either evilly misusing a gift from God or "ro"erly using a gift from an evil source.5 13 here here the the bean feasa sees to hel" the !airies< -u"ernatural Aggression and )eviance%B in NarvaeM Id.4% The ood People "ew #airylore %ssays % 1??1% "30. 113 113 R hRgYin% hRgYin% The $ore of !reland % 00% "@?L R Crualaoi Crualaoich% ch% B+eading B+eading the ;ean !easa%B !easa%B in #olklore 00,% 00@% "L R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ":. 11 R Crualaoich% B+eading B+eading the ;ean !easa%B in #olklore 00,% 00@% "1. 11@ R Crualaoich% Crualaoich% B+eading the ;ean !easa%B in #olklore 00,% 00@% "L -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:1L IvansentM% IvansentM% The #airy #aith in &eltic &ountries % 1?11% "@3. 11 R Crualaoich% B+eading B+eading the ;ean !easa%B in #olklore 00,% 00@% ". 11: !or a more detailed loo at ;iddy% see -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5 % 1?::% "1?1:?. 119 -chmitM maes this distinction very clear% 5\the bean feasa who is not% in the "ro"er sense of the word% a witch.5 BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:3. 11? Glassie% Passing Time in Ballymenone &ulture and )istory of an Ilster &ommunity % 1?9% "@30. 10 Glassie% Passing Time in Ballymenone &ulture and )istory of an Ilster &ommunity % 1?9% "@3. 11 R -illeabhYin% !rish #olk &ustom and Belief % 1?:% "L Eenins% Bitches and !airies< -u"ernatural Aggression and )eviance%B in NarvaeM Id.4% The ood People "ew #airylore %ssays % 1??1% "311. 1 -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:@. 13 Glassie% Passing Time in Ballymenone &ulture and )istory of an Ilster &ommunity % 1?9% "@3:39. | @ |
community% a witch sees only to hel" themselvesDto steal% to trade the embrace of community for lonely self"rofitDand eHist in isolation. 2n Gaelic cultures% as in many other traditional cultures% community is everythingL without it one is un"rotected% alone% 5\lost in an immense world% adrift in an atmos"here that is ind to the body% confusing to the mind.51 &his seeing of things that are 5ind to the body% confusing to the mind5 also indicates that the witch "rioritises his or her bodily comfort% even at the eH"ense of their own own me ment ntal al health health.. &he &he bean feasa% on the other hand% "laces the wellbeing of the community ahead of her own material needs% and "rovides a needed and benevolent lin between the community and the su"ernatural. 1@ Overall% it is not the meta"hysical gift itself which maes one either a wisewoman wisewoman or her "olar o""osite the witch% it is the intent "laced behind the gift< hel"ing the community% or hel"ing only oneself. Other names the bean feasa might be encountered under are bean leighis 5woman of healing54% healing54%1 bean siubhail 5travelling woman54% seanbhean 5old woman54% bean chumhachtach 5"owerful womanL woman of su"ernatural "ower54% or bean chrosach 5fortunetelling woman54. 1: hatever the label% these were often considered to be synonymous with the term cailleach 5old womanL hag54% which as noted above4 can also mean 5witch%5 but this conn connec ecti tion on come comess from from the the Chur Church ch%% wh wher erei einn cailleach is used in negative terms% to highlight the fact that there was a dee"ly entrenched ecclesiastical disa""roval of the role the bean feasa% bean leighis% or bean chrosach etc.4 occu"ied% as well as the wor they did. 19 As in othe otherr case casess wh wher eree gift gifts% s% tale talent ntss and and achi achiev evem emen ents ts are are reco recogn gnis ised ed and and acnowledged by the community% we must also eH"ress the im"ortance of the community conferring these titles% when earned% not an individual deciding in isolation to tae them u"on themselves.
1 Glassie% Passing Time in Ballymenone &ulture and )istory of an Ilster &ommunity % 1?9% "@9. 1@ -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5% 1?::% "1:L R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% ":. 1 &hough -chmitM claims the bean feasa and bean leighis should not be confused with one another since the bean feasa does not deal in actual% "ro"er medicine -chmitM% BAn 2rish ise oman< !act and $egend%B in 3ournal of the #olklore !nstitute+ ol. 04+ "o. 5 % 1?::% "1:L 1::4. 6owever% in some teHts they are indeed conflated. 1: R Crualaoich% B+eading the ;ean !easa%B in #olklore 00,% 00@% "0L R Crualaoich% & he Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% :1:. 19 As above% then% it is not a term we would consider to be desirable to ado"t in a Gaelic Polytheist conteHt. R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% "?. | |
Witchcraft in Scotland 2n Gaelic -cotland% witchcraft is nown as buidseachd%1? and the witch is nown as a buidseach male4 or bana-bhuidseach female4.130 2t may be significant that while 2rish has
"lenty of words that relate to witchcraft% witchcraft% the -cots Gaelic word has been borrowed into the language from the Inglish word 5witchcraft%5 5witchcraft%5 with the word buidseachd and related forms4 only a""earing in written record from the siHteenth century onwards. 131 ;efore then the word amait was used for 5witch%5 but as buidseach came to be the most common descri"tor% amait came to refer only to 5foolish woman.5 13
&he ma7ority of "eo"le accused of witchcraft have traditionally been womenD though men may be accused of it as wellDand it was normally something inherent in certain families and "assed down. 133 As in 2reland% these witches are always malevolent and they are seen as being res"onsible for causing disease in "eo"le and beasts% raising storms to destroy cro"s% stealing a cowBs mil% stealing the 5goodness5 from mil% sining shi"s% and other destructive wor. 13 &hey are nown to wor curses using a waH or clay effigy nown as a corp creadha 5clay body54 which they stic with "ins. 13@ 2t is also claimed that they 5"lunged into Becstasies and transisB abandoning their lifeless bodies in the form of an invisible s"irit or animal a crow4.5 13 &he buidseachan are also traditionally said to have the ability to turn into a hare. 13: At the height of concern about witchcraft in -cots Gaelic society% those who were accused of witchcraft were usually illfavoured in the community for one reason or anotherDan old woman who lived alone% someone who "ros"ered ineH"licably while
1? &he alternate s"elling% buitseach% is also found% notably in )wellyBs. 130 ac2nnes% ac2nnes% B&radition B&raditional al ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00? 00?%% "19?. "19?. Plural Plural of buidseach is buidseachan or buidsichean. odernly% the words is sometimes also translated as 5wiMard%5 but this is a modern variation on the original Gaelic meaning of 5witch.5 131 As has the anH word% see below. 6enderson% Bitchhunting and itch ;elief in the G*idhealtachd%B in Goodare et al Id.4% *itchcraft and Belief in %arly Modern Scotland% 009% ". 13 ac2nnes ac2nnes%% B&radition B&raditional al ;elief ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "19?. 133 Gregor% "otes on the #olk-$ore of the "orth-%ast of Scotland % 1991% ":1. &he -urvey of -cottish itchcraft )atabase has calculated that 9] of those accused of witchcraft were women% with only 1@] being men and 1] whose gender is unnown4. 13 Gregor% "otes on the #olk-$ore of the "orth-%ast of Scotland % 1991% ":1. 13@ +oss% #olklore of the Scottish )ighlands% 1?:% ":0:1L Cam"bell% *itchcraft and Second Sight in the )ighlands and !slands of Scotland% 1?0% "L cPherson% Primitive Beliefs in the "ortheast of Scotland % 003 1??4% "0. 13 GinMburg% %cstasies =eciphering the *itchesE Sabbath % 1??1% "100. 13: Gregor% "otes on the #olk-$ore of the "orth-%ast of Scotland % 1991% ":1. | : |
others didnBt% and so on. 139 Although in theory any ind of magic was considered sinful by the Church% beneficial magic continued uietly alongside nominal Christian life. &hose who hel"ed the community were su""orted and turned to for hel" in times of need. 13? &he ma7or concern within traditional communities was with those who did harm to othersD witches.10 2nstea 2nstead d of legal legal me means ans being being em"loy em"loyed ed to deal deal with with sus"ec sus"ected ted witches witches%% unofficial "ersecution% shunning and even mob eHecution seems to have occurred in the 6ighlands of -cotland insteadL 11 as in 2reland% the wides"read and devastating witch "ersecutions of the Iuro"ean iddle Ages never gri""ed the Gaelics"eaing "arts of -cotland unlie the $owlands of -cotland% that isDwith a few eHce"tions4. Although witches were seen as a threat% legal means of dealing with them were only rarely em"loyed%1 and the lac of "ersecutions in Gaelic countries as a whole suggests that there was a higher level of tolerance and acce"tance of magic amongst the general "o"ulation% in s"ite of the Church and secular laws that ruled against it. 13
139 ;lac% ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "1:3L see also AleHander PolsonBs Scottish *itchcraft $ore % 1?3% where Polson recounts an interview with a woman accused of witchcraft by her local community. Although shunned socially by them% the woman who lived on the outsirts of the community in an area re"uted to be inhabited by fairies% and whose husband died shortly after they marriedDboth being factors in the initial sus"icion and resulting accusation4 "layed u" to her re"utation in order to eHact "ayments from locals to mae sure she wouldnBt curse them% in order to mae a living. 13? hen saints went around cursing "eo"le and "erforming miracles reflecting the magic of the druids with whom they battled% and many "rofessions retained ultimately meta"hysical roots see above4% there eHisted a grey area in which magical "ursuits could survive and evolve. (iechefer% Magic in the Middle 'ges % 1?9?% "1@L "@@. 2n -cotland in "articular% "riests were often assigned large areas as "arishes% which were s"arsely "o"ulated. $ocal "o"ulations could therefore be left without a "riest for wees or months at a time while the "riest made his circuit around his "arish and tended to his floc elsewhere. &his meant that "eo"le would have to deal with their own "roblems that a "riest might otherwise have attended toDand thus allowing wisemen and wisewomen to flourish and combat such "roblems of a su"ernatural nature or causeDbut also meant that the (ir in "articular who was largely res"onsible for the brutal "ersecution of witches in -cotland4 had less influence in such areas% and therefore less sco"e to stam" out such "ractices and beliefs. 6enderson and Cowan% Scottish #airy Belief % 00:% "11. 10 )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and Charmers%B in Goodare Id.4% The Scottish *itchhunt in &onte8t% 00% "19?. 11 6enderson% Bitchhunting and itch ;elief in the G*idhealtachd%B in Goodare et al Id.4% *itchcraft and Belief in %arly Modern Scotland % 009% ". 1 6enderson% Bitchhunting and itch ;elief in the G*idhealtachd%B in Goodare et al Id.4% *itchcraft and Belief in %arly Modern Scotland% 009% "L ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "1:. 13 2n both -cotland and 2reland the recorded witch trials were not "er"etrated by the general Gaelics"eaing "o"ulation. 2n 2reland% the only witch trials recorded were notably in Inglish or -cottish settled areas% while in -cotland the trials are "rimarily associated with the (ir. -ee Gi7swi7t6ofstra% Bitchcraft After the itch &rials%B in The 'thlone )istory of *itchcraft *itchcraft and Magic in %urope+ olume 7 The %ighteenth %ighteenth and "ineteenth "ineteenth &enturies &enturies% 1???% "1L Scottish #airy Belief % 00: 6ender 6enderson son and Cowan% Cowan% Scottish 00:%% "11 "11 6ender 6enderson son%% Bitc Bitchh hhunt unting ing and and itch itch ;elief ;elief in the G*idhealtachd%B G*idhealtachd%B in Goodare et al Id.4% *itchcraft and Belief in %arly Modern Scotland % 009% ":. | 9 |
Magic in Scotland: Healers, Charmers and .iosaichean At the other end of the -cottish magical s"ectrum there are a variety of different "ractices and ty"es of "ractitioners. 6omeless% wandering men and women% who were generally eHtremely "oor and relied on the hos"itality of others to give them food and shelter for the evening% often wored as fortunetellersDusually by "alm reading or using cartomancy divination divination using "laying cards4. &hese fortunetellers restricted themselves themselves to 7ust one or two ty"es of divination% and that was the eHtent of their sill. Charmers or healers% on the other hand% concentrated on curing sim"le ailments using herbs or charms. &hey rarely diagnosed an illness% sim"ly offered a cure for a "roblem that had already been labelledDan illness that was easy enough to cure with the right treatment% but not necessarily something that was serious enough to necessitate a doctor who would cost a "retty "enny4. &he charmers=healers did not acce"t financial "ayment for their wor% alth althou ough gh they they mi migh ghtt acce acce"t "t gift giftsL sL thei theirr sil silll was was seen seen as God Godgi give venn and and ther theref efor oree ca"italising on it for financial gain was seen as wrong. 1 &hese healers or charmers didnBt deal in illnesses that were seen to have uneH"lained and "ossibly su"ernatural originsL that was left to the wisemen and wisewomen. 2n addition to the basic healing sills of the charmer% the wisemen and wise women offered a range of magical services% including love charms% detecting thieves% fortunetelling% astrology% herbalism% charms of "rotection% 5unbewitching%5 and divining the cause and cure for illnesses. 1@ &he -cots Gaelic terms for these wisemen and wise women are fiosaiche male4 or ban-fhiosaiche female4% and they derive from the Old 2rish word ord fios< 5nowled 5nowledgeL geL information.5 information.5 #iosaiche therefore translates roughly as 5seer5Da diviner of hidden nowledgeDand has come to mean wiseman or woman4 in the sense of their ability to determine and a""ly this nowledge.1 &he ma7ority of fiosaichean1: in -cotland were men% and unlie the cunningfol in Ingland and ales% the -cottish fiosaichean tended to em"hasise the fact that their "owers 1 )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and Charmers%B in Goodare et al Id.4% The Scottish *itch-hunt in &onte8t % 00% "19. 1@ )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and Charmers%B in Goodare Id.4% The Scottish *itchhunt in &onte8t% 00% "19?L ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "00. 1 ac2nnes ac2nnes%% B&radition B&raditional al ;elief ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "1?1. 1: &he "lural form of fiosaiche. | ? |
came from the daoine sJth the Good !olL fairies4. 19 2n Ingland and ales it was far more common for cunningfol to em"hasise that their occult nowledge came from boo learning% utilising 5eHotic5 sources such as Cabbalistic and 6ermetic teHts es"ecially from the seventeenth century onwards4% but the wisemen and women of the 6ighlands em"ha em "hasis sised ed the fact that that their their "owers "owers and nowl nowled edge ge came came from from the daoine sJth and tradition% not boos. 1? uch of the wor that fiosaichean dealt with involved determining the "resence of the Ivil Iye% and then determining the source of it so that it could be removed from the victim. &he Ivil Iye was commonly associated with witches% but there were also "eo"le whoo we wh were re othe otherw rwis isee good good%% u"st u"stan andi ding ng me memb mber erss of the the comm commun unit ity% y% but but had had the the misfortune to be afflicted with the ability to 5cast the Iye5. &hese "oor unfortunate souls had to be careful% careful% lest they be accused accused of using their 5gift5 5gift5 for their own gain. Or else the Ivil Iye could even come from somebody who was sim"ly "ossessed by 5...a discontented and unha""y mind full of envy farmad4% covetousness sanntachadh4 and suchlie mean feelings% and looing re"iningly on the good of others% and it may too earnestly be and anHiously on what belongs to oneself.5 1@0 Affliction from the Ivil IyeDmuch lie the witchesB curse which might be seen as heavily overla""ing the conce"t of the Ivil Iye4 1@1Dcould result in illness% infertility% death% delayed and dangerous births% the mil of an animal or nursing mother to dry u"% or for the churning of butter to fail. 1@ 2n serious cases% the wiseman or woman would be consulted to hel" identify whether or not the Iye had been cast% and the first thing to do was to determine who was res"onsible for it% since it was often necessary for the victim to force the witch or "erson res"onsible for casting the Iye to remove it. 1@3
19 -utherland% Ravens and Black Rain The Story of )ighland Second Sigh t% 1?9:% "1. 1? )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and Charmers%B in Goodare Id.4% The Scottish *itch hunt hunt in &onte8 &onte8tt% 00 00%% "19?L "19?L ac2n ac2nnes nes%% B&radit B&radition ional al ;elief ;elief in Gaeli Gaelicc -ocie -ociety% ty%BB in 6ender 6enderson son Id.4% Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "1?1. 1@0 ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "01. 1@1 ;ors7e and (elly% B&he Ivil Iye in Iarly 2rish $iterature and $aw%B in &eltica+ olume @4% 003% ":. 1@ )avidson% Rowan Tree and Red Thread % 1??% ":::. 1@3 )avies% *itchcraft+ Magic and &ulture 025,-0670 % "19. | 30 |
Witchcraft on the Isle of Man On the 2sle of an a witch is nown in anHInglish as a butch%1@ from the anH buitch or buitKh1@@Da term term wh whic ichh a""l a""lie iess to both both seHe seHes. s. itc itchc hcra raft ft is now nownn as buitcheraght.1@ &he buitch is said to tae the form of a hare% therefore itBs considered bad
luc to see a hare cross the road. 1@: -ome anH fol even refuse to eat hare for fear they might be eating a woman. 1@9 &he Curragh Glass% a bog near &ynwald% is re"uted to be associated with witch trials by the ordeal of water i.e.% if a woman floated% she was a witch and if she san% she was deemed innocent4. 6owever% there are no actual records of this ind of ordeal having taen "lace on the 2sle. 1@? 2n fact% only three accounts of death for witchcraft eHist on the 2sle of an< Alice 2ne Zuay in 1@? and argrett 2neuane with her son in 11:. 10 Charges brough broughtt again against st anH anH wi witch tches es often often inc includ luded ed<< 5the 5the "ower "ower to tae tae away away the tarra% or increase% increase% from a manBs cattle cattle or cro"s% cro"s% and transfer transfer it to another% to cast s"ells s"ells u"on men and cattle% cro"s and churning and to change% at will% into hares.5 11 $ie the 2rish word cailleach% its anH cognate caillagh was coo"ted and twisted to mean 5witch.5 $ie in 2reland and -cotland% this was originally the name of a goddess or revered s"irit and more correctly means 5old woman.5 &he authors res"ect the original meaning and the sacred beings nown by this name% so consider it an ina""ro"riate monier for humans who do witchcraft. hile the Cailleach in all Gaelic cultures4 can be an ambiguous figure% and "rone to acts that are destructive as well as creative% ultimately she is a divine being% and in a different different category category than humans humans who use magic for selfish selfish means. 2n anH lore% the Cailleach was nown as &aillagh-ny-ueshag 5the Old oman of the -"ells -"ells54 54 and &aillagh ny roamagh 5the -ullen Oldwoman54. &he following is one anecdote on how she came to an< 5Caillagh ny groamagh% the gloomy or suly witch% was said to have been 1@ oore% B!urther Notes on anH !ollore%B in The 'ntiLuary+ olume 50 % 19?@% "?L +hys iller% Id.4% Man8 #olklore and Superstitions% 1??% "3. 1@@ Plural% buitchyn. Cregeen% ' =ictionary of the Manks $anguage% 193@% "30L +oeder% Man8 "otes and (ueries% 1?0% "9@. 1@ orrison% BanH !ol$ore Notes%B in !sle of Man Times % 1?0% bd. 1@: (illi"% The #olklore of the !sle of Man % 1?:% "@. 1@9 (och% &eltic &ulture ' )istorical %ncyclopedia % 00% "139. %ssays % 1??% ". 1@? Craine iller% Id.4% MannananEs !sle Selected %ssays 10 2bid. 11 TarraL c.f.% toradh in Gaelic. Craine iller% Id.4% MannananEs !sle Selected %ssays% 1??% "?. | 31 |
an irish TsicU witch who had been thrown into the sea by the "eo"le of 2reland with the intention of drowning her. 6owever% being a witch% she declined to be drowned% and floated easily until she came to the 2sle of an% where she landed on the morning of !ebruary 1th.51 !urthermore% ;errey )hone 5;rown ;errey54Da figure who might actually be -entainne ;Jrri% or Cailleach ;Jrri% rather than any anonymous witch 13Dis a fabled 5witch5 and the sub7ect of uite a few anH ballads and airs. 1
Magic on the Isle of Man: the .er0obbee and /en0obbee hen collecting his small but valuable cor"us of anH lore% Charles +o"er made the distinction between 5witch5 and 5wise woman5 in his writings. 6e re"orted that fisherman collect herbs from wise women in the north% bring them to their boats% brew a decoction% drin some and then "our the rest over their nets for luc. 1@ +o"er goes on further still to s"ea of Nan aid% a witchiller who lived in -t. EohnBs. &his witchiller was a woman who could reverse the evil done by witches. 1 -o"hia orrison also "rovides anecdotes about Nan aid or Nan ade4% and refers to Nan as a 5charmer.5 1: One such account relays a charm that Nan told a man in order to cure his sister of bewitchment< 5Nan told him% he said% the girl was to get the liver of a "ullet% and stic it all over with "ins% and "ut it on the "an on the fire.5 hen the girl did this% a scream was heard outside and a witch was found with redhot "ins stuc in her liver. 19 &hese wisemen and wisewomen were nown in anH as fer-obbee and ben-obbee D5men D5mencha charme rmers5 rs5 and 5wome 5womenc nchar harmer mers5 s5 res"ec res"ectiv tively elyDan Dand d in additi addition on to hel"in hel"ingg fishermen ensure a good catch% they were consulted in matters of removing the Ivil Iye% dis"ensing a pishag 5charm5 or 5incantation54 to counteract those of witches and fairies% 1 n $ior Manninagh+ ol ! % 19?1% "3. 13 ;roderic% B;errey )hone V A anH Cailleach ;JrriSB in Neitschrift fOr &eltische Philologie olume 41 % 1?9% "1?:1??L R Crualaoich% The Book of the &ailleach Stories of the *ise-*oman )ealer % 003% "9?. 1 ;roderic ;roderic%% B;errey B;errey )hone V A anH Cailleach Cailleach ;JrriSB in Neitschrift fOr &eltische Philologie olume 4 0% 1?9% "1?L ac(illo"% =ictionary of &eltic Mythology % 1??9% "1. &he Caillagh ny Groamagh is also nown to tae the form of a giant bird% and is associated with weather weather omens on $aaBl ;reeshey $Y !hJile ;r'de=2mbolc4. 1@ +o"er% *here the Birds Sing ' Selection of Rustic Sketches and !dylls of &ommon $ife % 19?% "19193. 1 +o"er% *here the Birds Sing ' Selection of Rustic Sketches and !dylls of &ommon $ife % 19?% "19919?. 1: orrison% BanH !ol$ore Notes%B in !sle of Man Times % 1?0% bd. 19 2bid. | 3 |
and curing illnesses with medicinal herbs. 1? $ie the benaaishnee 5fortuneteller54% the benobbee also "racti "racticed ced fassishlaght 5"alm reading54. 1:0 &he abilities of these charmers are
believed to be hereditary. 1:1 &he Ivil Iye is usually combated by taing the dust from under the feet of the afflicted and=or from the threshold of the sus"ected witch and rubbing on the victim. 1:
Protection against Witchcraft &he distinction between the hel"ful charmer and the harmful witch shows even more clearly in the many customs that safeguard against witches and witchcraft. As the uarter days es"ecially ;ealtaine and -amhain4 are believed to be a time when a witchBs "ower is renewed and at its strongest% there eHist numerous customs "erformed on these days which see to "revent their influence. &his belief is hinted at in the anH saying that on uar uarte terr days days a wi witc tchB hBss chim chimne neyy smo smoee goes goes agai agains nstt the the wi wind nd.. 1:3 According According to AleHander Carmichael% the first onday of each uarter held similar dangers to the uarter day itself. &his was said to be a "rime time for the Ivil Iye to be aimed at other "eo"le% and for witches to steal mil away from cows. 1: -inc -incee the the bean feasa% fiosaiche% or ben-obbee were only really looed to for hel" in "articularly "roblematic cases that went beyond the sills of the ordinary fol% most "rotective rites are "erformed in the homeDsometimes with the hel" of the whole household% or else they are "erformed by 7ust one member of the household. Prevention is always better than the need for a cure% and so "eo"le too matters into their own hands in order to "rotect themselves against witches% daoine sJth%1:@ and the Ivil Iye which may or may not come from a witch4% in order to mae sure that no harm or misfortune fell on the household. 2n all three countries it is believed that sacred wells should be visited on $nasa for 1? oore% The #olk-lore of the !sle of Man % 19?1% ":9:?L Eeffcott% B-ome Ancient anH -u"erstitions%B in Man8 "otebook+ ol 0% A"ril 199@. 1:0 Eeffcott% B-ome Ancient anH -u"erstitions%B in Man8 "otebook+ ol 0% A"ril 199@. 1:1 oore% The #olk-lore of the !sle of Man % 19?1% ":?. 1: oore% The #olk-lore of the !sle of Man % 19?1% ":9. %ssays % 1??% "11. 1:3 Craine iller% Id.4% MannananEs !sle Selected %ssays 1: Carmichael% &armina adelica% 1??% "3. 1:@ &he daoine sJth are generally neutral in natureDneither inherently good nor inherently malevolent. &hey can be hel"ful to humans when "leased% or deadly when angered. | 33 |
heal healin ingg and and char charms ms agai agains nstt fair fairie iess and and wi witc tche hes% s% and and many many ;eal ;ealta tain inee cust custom omss are are concerned with the reinforcing and redefining of boundariesDeither within the "hysical s"ace of the house and the farmland such as the doorways% windows% and then field bounda boundarie ries4. s4. &hese &hese bound boundari aries% es% lim limina inall s"ace s"acess of neithe neitherr one "lace "lace or anothe another% r% are considered to be under "articular threat by the su"ernatural forces that are believed to be at large on the eve of ;ealtaine itself% and without the "ro"er "rotection witches or evil s"irits could enter and have away with the "ros"erity and "roduce of the household. 1: hile these eHam"les are universal to all Gaelic countries and the dias"ora4% there are also localised customs that are traditionally observed< Ireland
On -amhain% a cross nown as a parshell is made and affiHed to the s"ace over the front door to ward off illness% bad luc and witchcraft for the coming year. 1:: ;ealtaine was a time when milstealing might be a "articular "roblem% with 7ealous neighbours or witches secreting charms or s"rigs of rowan in the tails of cattle to "rocure the mil for themselves. -o on this day% cattle are ins"ected for bewitchment and should anything sus"icious be found% it was removed and burnt% and vervain or s"rigs of rowan were substituted to "rotect the cattle and remove the curse. !inally% after the ins"ection was com"lete com"leted% d% the cattle were then s"rinled s"rinled with with sgaith an tobair the the first sim of the well taen in the morning4 in blessing.1:9 -ince hares were often thought to be the animal of choice for witches to sha"eshift into% any seen amongst the cattle on ;ealtaine would be shot immediately in order to "revent the mil being stolen% and hedgehogs often met the same fate for the same reasons. &here are "lenty of tales that relate how a farmer shot a hare one ;ealtaine and shortly after found an old woman in the village had suddenly develo"ed a lim". 1:? Other ;ealtaine rites safeguarding against witches included< s"rinling "rimroses% marshmarigolds% or gorse on the threshold% maing wreaths for door "osts% or tying bunches to cowsB tailsL 190 carrying iron es"ecially a dar handled nife4 or a charm of 1: Newton% ' )andbook of the Scottish aelic *orld% 000% "19. 1:: )anaher% The ear in !reland !rish &alendar &ustoms % 1?:% "09. 1:9 )anaher% The ear in !reland !rish &alendar &ustoms % 1?:% "1111:. 1:? )anaher% The ear in !reland !rish &alendar &ustoms % 1?:% "111L ilde% !rish Popular Superstitions % 19?% "@@:. Superstitions of !reland % 199:% "1?:L oodartin% Traces of the %lder #aiths of 190 ilde% 'ncient $egends+ Mystic &harms and Superstitions !reland+ olume @% "3L )anaher% The ear in !reland !rish &alendar &ustoms % 1?:% "9?. | 3 |
woven rowan in your "ocet if you needed to leave the house after darL 191 and lighting and 7um"ing over bonfires. Scotland
Nailing a rowan cross or branch above the door of house or byre "rotects cattle and "regnant women from the influence of witches. 19 Cattle are further "rotected by "lacing a garland of rowan and honeysucle around their necs with red thread woven in their tails.193 reaths of twisted cattail fibers were also created as a safeguard. 19 &he Samhnagan -am -amha hain innn fire fires4 s4 are are lit lit at dus dus beli believ evin ingg to have have "rot "rotec ecti tive ve ual ualit itie iess agai agains nstt the the su"ernatural elements that are believed to be abroad that nightDthe fairies% witches% or demonic demonic beings. beings.19@ $ocal $ocal commu communit nities ies often often engage engaged d in friend friendly ly rivalr rivalryy with with their their neighbours to see who could build the biggest. alter Gregor records that% 52n the villages the boys went from house to house and begged a "eat from each householder% commonly with the words% BGeBs a "eat tBburn the witches.B5 19 -aining the house with the smoe of burning 7uni"er at New ^earsB% s"rinling stale urine around% or s"rinling menstruum silvered water or water miHed with s"ittle4 around with a sop seille 5s"ittle wis"5Dliely a "iece of straw4% also served as good "rotection% and hel"ed to mae sure that any evil influences were forced out as well as e"t away. 19: 2n the "rocess of observing these rites% charms might be s"oen. A seun% or sian% is the Gaelic for a "rotective charm. 199 hil hilee the the best best nown nown ty"e ty"e of charm charm is the the eolas 5nowledge54% 19? many many of which which are detaile detailed d by Cam"bell Cam"bell in his *itchcraft and Second Sight in the )ighlands and !sland of Scotland .1?0 &hese eolas charms are for curing. An ubag or ubhaidhDa word that is "ossibly related to the Gaelic obair % 5wor5 i.e.% a woring4Dis
associated with the ind of charms associated with common su"erstitions see below4. 1?1 A 191 )anaher% The ear in !reland !rish &alendar &ustoms % 1?:% "11. 19 +oss% #olklore of the Scottish )ighlands% 1?:% "L :. 193 +oss% #olklore of the Scottish )ighlands % 1?:% ":. 19 c(ay% More *est )ighland Tales% 1??% "3?3:0. 19@ ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "@@?L cNeill% The Silver Bough olume 5 % 1?1% "1:. 19 cNeill% The Silver Bough olume 5% 1?1% "19L Gregor% The #olklore of the "orth-%ast of Scotland % 1991% " 1:. 19: Saining< -cots for 5warding% blessing% consecrating.5 consecrating.5 )erived from the from the 2rish and -cottish Gaelic seun and sian and the Old 2rish s:n. -ee ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "13:% 11L Carmichael% &armina adelica olume !! % 1?00% "3:L acbain% %tymological =ictionary of Scottish-aelic% 1??9% "30?. 199 2bid. 19? ac(enMie% aelic !ncantations+ &harms+ and Blessings of the )ebrides % 19?@% "@. 1?0 -ee also ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@. 1?1 ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "00L ac(enMie% aelic !ncantations+ &harms+ and Blessings of the )ebrides % 19?@% "@L +oeder% Man8 "otes and (ueries% 1?0% "9@. | 3@ |
soisgeul% 5gos"el54 is a ind of charm that was usually obtained from a "riest% with the
intention to hel" cure or "rotect the reci"ient. 2t usually consisted of a "assage or verse from the ;ible% a hymn% 5or some good words%5 that were then sewn into the clothes. -o long as the soisgeul was worn% it would give "rotection against s"ite which might therefore include witchcraft4 or 5weaness of mind.5 1? -ince the daoine sJth are also often heavily associated with witches% bad luc and misfortune% the charms all tend to blur into one% covering all bases. &oday% observing "ractices such as this would be seen as engaging in geasagan 5harmless su"erstitions54. 1?3 &he word itself% however% has a long and com"licated history% and has its root in the Old 2rish word geis% a 5"rohibition or taboo.5 Over time the conce"t of geis evolved to "ic u" associations with 5s"ells and incantations%5 and that is how the word survives in modern -cots -cots Gaelic Gaelic today. easagan% therefore% while referring to 5harmless su"erstitions5 today% originally made their magical associations eH"licit% being defined as 5enchantmentsL belief in witchcraft.51? Isle of Man
On $aa ;oaldyn ;oaldyn ;ealtaine4 ;ealtaine4%% hedges hedges of koinney gorse4 and bonfires are lit to scare off witches1?@ and the crosh curinDa crude cross made without the aid of a nife from small branch branches es of mount mountain ain ash rowa rowann or cuirn4Dis renewed. 2t is believed that this cross "rotects against witches% elves and the phynnodderee.1? Also% gathering the morning dew on $aa ;oaldyn ;ealtaine4 is believed to ensure luc% im"rove the com"leHion and "rovide immunity against witches. 1?: 2n both -cotland and 2sle of an% an elder tree growing outside of your house is believed to "rotect the inhabitants from witches. 1?9 aelic Cultures as a Whole
2n all of the Gaelic areas% as witches were most active at the festivalsDes"ecially 1? ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% ". 1?3 ac2nnes ac2nnes%% B&radition B&raditional al ;elief ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "19:199. 1? ac(enMie% aelic !ncantations+ &harms+ and Blessings of the )ebrides % 19?@% "@. 1?@ +hys% BanH !ol$ore and -u"erstitions%B in #olklore+ ol. @+ "o. 5 % 19?1% "303L Paton% BanH Calendar Customs< -econd Zuarter%B in ! olklore+ ol. 70+ "o. 4% 1?0% ":9L 90. 1? Cashen% Cashen% Man8 #olk-$ore% 1?1% Cha"ter 1% B6ome $ife of the anHBL +hys% BanH !ol$ore and -u"erstitions%B in #olklore+ ol. @+ "o. 5 % 19?1% "301L Paton% BanH Calendar Customs< -econd Zuarter%B in #olklore+ ol. 70+ "o. 4 % 1?0% "9. 1?: Paton% BanH Calendar Customs< Customs< -econd Zuarter%B in #olklore+ ol. 70+ "o. 4% 1?0% "939. 1?9 oore% #olklore of the !sle of Man % 19?1% "1@L ;lantyre-im"son% ;lantyre-im"son% #olk $ore in $owland Scotland% 1?09% "1@1. | 3 |
;ealtaineDmany of these charms and customs to ensure "rotection against witchcraft were "erformed as "art of the observances of the festivalL 7ust as witches might be at their most "owerful% so the charms against them might be as well. &oday% many Gaelic Polytheists also incor"orate these traditions into their "ractices% in order to "rotect against witchcraft% the Ivil Iye% bad luc% or the unwanted attention of any daoine sJth who may have mischievous or malevolent intent. As such% we would not define these "rotective charms as witchcraft% though we certainly might regard them as magical or meta"hysical in "ur"ose. 2n this sense% we might say that% to one eHtent of another% we believe in geasachd -cottish GaelicL magical charms or enchantments% as well as things such as
augury41?? or that we are piseogach 2rishL su"erstitious% one who "ractices or believes in piseoga T5charmsL su"erstitions5U4% 00 whether we sim"ly believe in the eHistence of these
things or also "ractice them ourselves.
Concerning the Witch as !utsider, or !utcast As shown above% the 5witch5 has long been a contem"tible figure who lived on the outsirts of society. hile ancient Gaelic tradition tradition does have honourable "eo"le who lived on the fringes the fianna% for instance4% the 5witch5Das defined by Gaelic culturesDis not one of them. itches cause harm% cast the Ivil Iye% and steal from their neighborsL they were something to be feared and guarded against. Gregor says the 5witch5 5...lived in a lonely house by herself% and e"t her affairs very much to herself.5 01 !urther !urther on Gregor Gregor states< 5-uch a woman was dreaded% and all her neighbours tried to live on good terms with her% bore from her what they would bear from no one else% and% if she ased a favour% favour% would have granted it% however much it cost to do so.5 0 hile witches were dreaded% to some eHtent they might be tolerated not out of love% but out of fear of what they might do if offended. ;ut as Celtic +econstructionism and Gaelic Polytheism are built on the foundations of community and family% "eo"le who wor to harm the innocent do not have a role within the community. &he values that the 1?? ac2nnes ac2nnes%% B&radition B&raditional al ;elief ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "19:199. 00 !rom the Old 2rish pise
Celtic +econstructionist +econstructionist community generally hold in commonDu"holding honour% truth% 7ustice% courage% community% loyalty% strength and gentleness 03Dare not com"atible with the traditional conce"t of witchcraft. &hose who choose to "ractice magic for themselves or others% and do so for "ositive% hel"ful "ur"oses that benefit the community% certainly have a welcome role within Celtic +econstructionism% Gaelic Polytheism% or whatever sub trad tradit itio ionn they they mi migh ghtt foll follow ow.. &hos &hosee wh whoo choo choose se to act act agai agains nstt the the inte intere rest stss of the the community and choose to "ractice witchcraft as we would traditionally define it% have no "lace.
ut isn#t modern "$raditional Witchcraft" Witchcraft" %ust folk charms, cures, etcetera& &he ma7ority of "eo"le who refer to themselves as 5witches5 today do not seem to intend to claim they are "racticing malevolent magic% magic% and most actually seem to be aiming for the euivalent of the wor of the 5wise woman=man5 or 5cunning woman=man5. hile most of the "eo"le now claiming to be 5witches5 are iccans% Neoiccans or other eclectic Neo"agans% using charms and s"ells from a variety of cultures% there are others who attem"t to base their "ractices in traditional Gaelic healing and fol magic. &he latter ty"e are at least in some cases modelling their "ractices on the fol charms and cures that can be found in historical sources. As we have already established% however% the 5witch5 and 5cunningfol5 are inherently o""osed to one another% and considering this fact% conflating them is ina""ro"riate. 2n some cases% the use of terms lie 5witch5 and 5witchcraft5 to describe such "ractices in a modern conteHt are "erha"s the result of a lac of historical "ers"ective% as well as a lac of familiarity with the languages. -ometimes% for those who come to Gaelic Polytheism from iccan bacgrounds% it may also be the result of an attachment to a "ast identity% romanticism% and=or a reluctance to let go of the assum"tions from that faith. 0 2n the broader Pagan community the view of icca as a recent% eclectic invention has only 03 Nic)h*na et al% The &R #'(% 00:% "11111. 0 ;y the 1?90s at the latest% some "rominent leaders of AleHandrian and Gardnerian covens% for eHam"le% were already aware that icca is an eclectic% modern s"iritual tradition% cobbled together by Gardner and )oreen Kaliente in the 1?0s% from various various literary and diverse cultural sources. ^et some of them made the choice to maintain the 5yth of the ica%5 and reuired that their initiates maintain the fiction of icca as an ancient% "reCeltic religion% maintained in secret for millenia. &he myth continued among many covens through the 1??0s% and some hold onto it to this day. -ee e.g.% the documentary The Supernatural *itchcraft % which maintains the 5Old +eligion5 fallacy. | 39 |
taen hold since the widely influential "ublication of wor from the lies of Aidan (elly and +onald 6utton%0@ which give a critical review of iccaBs origins and the claims made by Gardner although there is still a vocal minority of iccans who refuse to let go of the origin story they learned in their covens4.0 As the reality of iccaBs modern origins began to be acce"ted in the wider Neo"agan community% we began to also see the increasing "o"ularity of 5traditional witchcraft5Dgrou"s and individuals who claim their traditions are inde"endent of icca% even though they are clearly influenced by% or even directly derived from% Gardnerian icca. +obert CochraneBs Clan of &ubal Cain is one such eHam"le% and Cochrane himself claimed to have been raised in a hereditary witchcraft traditionDby an aunt% rather than the usual grannyDand described himself as a 5"ellar5 thus clearly attem"ting to conflate witchcraft with cunningfol4. 0: Cochrane influenced various offshoots% including Ivan Eohn EonesB wor with )oreen Kaliente that resulted in the boo *itchcraft ' Tradition Rene Renewe wedd 1?9?4. 1?9?4 .09 2t is "robably a fair assum"tion that many of these newlyminted
5traditional witches5 are trying to find a way to maintain GardnerBs illusion of an unbroen magical and religious tradition% while distancing themselves from both Gardner and the mainstream Neoiccan Neoiccan fluff most commonly found in boosho"s today. hile in some cases "eo"le are sim"ly unaware of the contradiction between the modern% Neo"agan meaning of terms lie 5witchcraft5 when com"ared with traditional understanding of such labels% there are some "eo"le who identify as witches who are well aware of all of this. -omeDwhen having to clarify what they meanDmay ualify the marrying of these two different vocations with the term 5white witchcraft%5 as a catchall term for all the different inds of fol magic. 6owever% while the idea of 5blac5 and 5white5 witchcraft is a conce"t that has been widely used in Inglish follore studies from only the nineteenth century onwards% it is not something that has much relevance to Gaelic culturesL the Gaels have no conce"t of 5white5 or 5blac5 witchcraft. witchcraft. 0? 0@ (elly% &rafting the 'rt of Magic+ Book ! ' )istory of Modern *itchcraft 0656-06,4 % 1??1L 6utton% The Triumph of the Moon ' )istory of Modern Pagan *itchcraft% 1??:. 0 -ee for eHam"le eHam"le Phili" 6eseltonBs 6eseltonBs boos% and ;en hitmoreBs hitmoreBs &he &rials of the oon< +eo"ening the Case for 6istorical itchcraft. itchcraft . 0: 6oward% The Roebuck in the Thicket 'n 'nthology of the Robert &ochrane *itchcraft Tradition % 001% "9L see also )oreen KalienteBs cha"ter B+obert Cochrane% agisterB in The Rebirth of *itchcraft % 1?9?% "11:13. 09 -ee also< KalienteBs The Rebirth of *itchcraft % 1?9?. 0? &o be more s"ecific< 5Bhite witchB was a term little used in "o"ular discourse% although it was commonly commonly em"loyed by follorists and other middleclass commentators.5 )avies% *itchcraft and &ulture 025,-0670 % 1???% "1@. -ee also ac2nnes ac2nnes%% B&raditio B&raditional nal ;elief in Gaelic Gaelic -ociety%B -ociety%B in 6enderson 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in | 3? |
Although the conce"t of 5white5 vs. 5blac5 is a flawed attem"t to distinguish between 5good5 and 5bad5 magic% the fact remains that those misnomers a""ly moral values onto "ractices that are not traditionally seen in such a wayL the "ractice of magic in itself is very much a grey area in Gaelic culture% and modern% scholarly witchcraft studies now mae a concerted effort to distinguish between witchcraft and the magical "ractices of the cunningfol without resorting to artificial terms lie the 5blac5 and 5white5 "aradigm.10 5;lac5 and 5white5 witchcraft aside% there are some Neo"agans who are aware of all of the issues raised so far and still choose to ado"t the label of 5witch5 because% if their cultural matriH is the mainstream of the Neo"agan community% 5witch5 is a word that has a shared meaning to most "eo"le in that communityL in essence% although the term is not correct% they find it easier to use because it doesnBt need eH"laining in discussions with mainstream Neo"agans. Needless to say by now% we disagree with this line of thining< Eust as other reconstructionist reconstructionist communities communities use culturally a""ro"riate labels to define their own magical "ractices% we are advocating eHactly the same. hile misusing the word 5witch5 may mae communication easier among those embedded in the mainstream Neo"agan community% for those of us whose "rimary alliances and social matrices are with and within other% traditional communities% it is not an easy or useful term for us at allL not unless we are using it to mean what it meant to our ancestors% and still means in the living cultures today< a malevolent "erson who is trying to harm the innocent via su"ernatural means. !or those of us who believe in hel"ing and "rotecting our communities% in "lacing the wellbeing of the community above our own% and woring for "eace and healing% to call ourselves 5witches5 would not only be wildly inaccurate% it would be a""alling% alienating and shameful. One of the core challenges of Celtic +econstructionism and Gaelic Polytheism is to Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "1?0. 10 Owing much to the wor of Owen )avies in his studies of cunningfol. 2n )avies dissertation which was later "ublished as *itchcraft and &ulture 025,-0670 % 1???4 and his subseuent title &unning-#olk Popular Magic in %nglish )istory 0034. &here are many different local terms for these cunningfol% with pellar being being favoured in Cornwall% dyn hysbys in ales% and terms such wiseman or woman% or 5fairy doctor5 historically favoured in Gaelic s"eaing areas. 2n academic terms% 5cunningfol5 is now used as a catchall to refer to the "rofession in general% though it is not a descri"tor that has ever been used in -cotland or 2reland and an4 at all. -ee< )avies% BA Com"arative Pers"ective on -cottish Cunning!ol and Charmers%B in Goodare Id.4% The Scottish *itch-hunt in &onte8t % 00% "199L )avies% *itchcraft and &ulture 025,-0670 % 1???% "199L 1@. Additionally% there is a serious critiue in many uarters of the estern worldBs association of darness with evilL many involved in race studies and dialogues feel "er"etuating "er"etuating those associations of 5blac8bad5 and 5white8good5 subtly or notsosubtly notsosubtly contributes to the unconscious validation of racism and hatred of the Iarth.
| 0 |
be willing to let go of misconce"tions as we learn more about our ancestors and their ways. 2n the early waves of the movement% this was es"ecially crucial as we were still struggling with gross misconce"tions lie 5icca is Celtic%5 11 and we have had to throw out many things we had learned were wrong. &he label 5witch5 is another thing that must be discarded% as much as we no longer acce"t "eo"le claiming to be C+ while they wave nives at the s"irits% 1 attem"t to command or 5use5 the deities% "erform rituals without maing maing offeri offerings ngs%% or inc incor" or"ora orate te belie beliefs fs and "racti "ractice cess mi misa" sa""ro "ro"ri "riate ated d from from other other cultures. cultures.13
Magic in Contem'orar( aelic Pol(theism any of the names for magical "ractitioners we have discussed so far s"ecifically describe individuals who have made such "ractices their lifeBs wor% and are terms that describe "eo"le who have s"ent many decades in study% "ractice% and effective service to the community before being recognised as being ualified to wear such labels. 2n Gaelic Polytheism% these labels are seen in the same way but this does not mean that magical "ractices are only reserved for the eH"erts. One thing that tends to be overlooed when discussing meta"hysics and identity in Gaelic Polytheism is that many of our rites may be seen seen as inhe inhere rent ntly ly 5mag 5magic ical al5% 5% rega regard rdle less ss of wh whet ethe herr or not not we labe labell ours oursel elve vess as "ractitioners of 5magic5% or whether or not we are interested in s"ecialising in any of the magical% mystical% or meta"hysical vocations we may have inherited from our ancestors. Our s"iritual beliefs "ermeate our daily lives lives on many different levels% and so to us% our religion is a lifeway. 1 uch of what we do on a daily basis as "art of our religious 11 &oday% &oday% after decades of wor by the "ioneers "ioneers of C+% itBs common common nowledge nowledge that icca is not Celtic Celtic and even noting this may seem to be stating the shocingly obvious4% but twenty years ago% attem"ts to educate Neo"agans about legitimate Celtic traditions were met with hostility% necessitating basic articles with content lie% 5;eltane is% among many NeoPagans% considered a ma7or fertility celebration and holiday. 2n ancient Celtic society% however% it was not uite so cut and dried...5 &ides -taff T(athryn Nic)h*na and P/l acAmhlaoibhU% B&urning of the heel.B Tides% ;oston% A% Kol. 1% No. 3% ;eltane=-ummer -olstice% 1??3% "3L and 52t is debated as to whether the ay"ole ribbon dance can be considered Celtic at all.5 N' )hoireann% (ym $ambert% ibid% ". At the time% such articles were challenging and revolutionary. revolutionary. 1 -ee Nic)h*na et al% The &R #'(% 00:% "130. 13 5C+ is not eclectic. ... C+ was actually begun as an alternative to eclectic Neo"agan traditions%5 Nic)h*na et al% The &R #'(% 00:% ". 1 And for the core members of Gaol Naofa% s"ecifically< Our Gaelic Polytheist $ifeway Gaeilge< r n=
"ractices may be seen as magical in some way or another% and so one does not have to claim to be a bean feasa% for eHam"le% in order to "ractice magic as "art of a Gaelic Polytheist identityL one sim"ly has to be a Gaelic Polytheist. uch of what we doDfrom daily "rayers or maing offerings% "erforming rites of blessing or "rotection% or rites of divination and the taing of omensDall involve communication with the s"irit world. &he s"iritual and "hysical is interwoven in every facet of our lives. -im"ly by living this traditional way of life% every "racticing Gaelic Polytheist is involved in s"iritual% magical "ractice% whether or not one has the calling and talent to s"ecialise in it. 1@ !or those who dedicate themselves to a "articular vocation% the titles lie fili% dru9 % bean feasa or fiosaiche describe a level of "roven mastery only achieved by a combination of
inborn talent% training% and after decadesDor a lifetimeDof study and dedication. &hey also describe vocations that serve the community% and as such they are only really conferred on individuals in recognition of their service to that community. 1 Not everyone can ho"e to reach such heights% but they can still engage in a fulfilling and meaningful way of life that serves their needs% and the needs of others. 2t is not necessary for Gaelic Polytheists to "ursue mastery of meta"hysical arts% such as the "ractice of divination and seershi"% or maing changes in the world via meta"hysical means% and not everyone has the a"titude or interest in doing so 7ust as not everyone will be interested in "ursuing the sacred art of the "oet filidecht4% the druid druidecht4% or warrior% etc4. 6owever% because many of our rites and "ractices might be seen as 5magical5 in some way or another% meta"hysical wor is something that affects Gaelic Polytheists far more than some other vocations might. 2n the case of "rotective rituals% everyone in the community traditionally "erformed "erformed rites of saining on a regular basisDat the uarter days and other festivals lie 6ogmanay. &hese rites ty"ically involved burning 7uni"er which "roduces a lot of smoe% easily filling an enclosed s"ace4% 1: and=or by s"rinling silvered water around the house% concentrating on thresholds and windows% and each member of the family including as a way of life. Although Although admittedly admittedly a bit of a mouthfu mouthful%l% we feel the "hrase s"eas s"eas to the heart of Gaol NaofaBs NaofaBs "hiloso"hy and community. 1@ &he degree at which these "ractices are engaged in may differ widely from one individual% household or grou" to another de"ending on a"titude or interest% but through 5right action5 ortho"raHy4 we might communicate with the gods% s"irits% and ancestors even if we are not "articularly sensitive to their res"onses. 1 And% when humanly "ossible% by Ilders or at the very least% "eersL that is% by those who fully understand the standards that need to be met. 1: cNeill% The Silver Bough olume 5 % 1?1% "11311. | |
animals4.19 ,nder s"ecial s"ecial circumstanc circumstances% es% howeverDin howeverDin times of murrain or sicnessDa s"ecialist might be called in to give eHtra su""ort. 1? 2f a whole town or village was affected then they would all 7oin in% eHtinguishing the hearth fire and gathering on a hillside to light a needfire that everyone hel"ed to build% and then taing a torch from the flames to relight the hearth 0D7ust lie the saining rites of ;ealtaine when the hearths were eHtinguished and relit from the needfire% after the cattle and other livestoc had been driven between two bonfires% or across the dying embers. As well as "rotection% these rites can be seen as a ind of cleansing and renewal% then. &oday% entire villages might not tae "art in these rites% but Gaelic Polytheists may observe such rites individually or within their own grou" or community when necessary. necessary. -aining charms may also be recited before im"ortant 7ourneys% or whenever "rotection might be needed. 1 At or 7ust before4 dawn on ;ealtaine morning% the first water of the day might be drawn to "reserve the toradhDthe 5"roduce5 or 5goodness5 of the householdDand this water can be saved and used in saining rites% or added to healing salves% balms or ointments. &he toradh of the water effectively holds the "otential wealth and wellbeing of the household and so where wells were shared amongst a number of households it was often the case that "eo"le would com"ete to tae the first draw% and thus the toradh for themselves. &here was also the "otential to steal the toradh from a neighbourBs well by simming it before they did% so ;ealtaine morning was a time that could be uite fraught% de"ending on how nice your neighbours were. &he dawn of each festival is seen as a "owerful time when divination rites such as frJth can be "erformed% to see what the neHt uarter might hold% or else to try and divine
the whereabouts of lost items or the wellbeing of loved ones who might be far away. 3 Other inds of divination might also be s"ecialised in% based on traditional "ractices such as n:ldoracht 5clou 5cloudd ddivi ivinat nation ion54% 54% or throug throughh obser observin vingg the behavi behaviour our of birds birds and wildlife. eather divination and looing to the direction the wind is blowing in on the 19 -ometimes stale urine or s"ittle might be used instead. ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "13:. 1? One eHam"le is described in great detail by AleHander Polson% whereby the whole house was smoed out with 7uni"er in order to cure the illness of a young girl% after other means of curing her had failed. 6owever% in this case the density of the smoe illed her as a result of her weaened state. Polson% Scottish *itchcraft and $ore% 1?3% "1:?. 0 cNeill% The Silver Bough olume 0 % 1?@:% "3. !or more on this% see< B;reath of $ife< &he &ri"le !lame of ;rigidB ;rigid B by (athryn Price Nic)h*na and &reasa N' Chonchobhair. 1 -ome eHam"les< Carmichael% Carmichael% &armina adelica olume !! % 1?00% "3:. ac2nlay% #olklore of Scottish $ochs and Springs % 19?3% "?:L ilde% !rish Popular Superstitions % 19?% "@. 3 Carmichael% &armina adelica% 1??% "@3L "1. Abercromby% B2rish ;ird$ore%B in #olk-$ore olume !! % 199199@% ":. -ee also +oss% Pagan &eltic Britain% 1?:% "3: | 3 |
morning of the festivals can also be "erformed% @ but these inds of divination are traditionally the "reserve of the silled few. hile it is unclear whether or not ogham was traditionally used for divination by the "reChristian Gaels% there is evidence to suggest that it came to be used in such a way at a later date : and some Gaelic Polytheists have develo"ed their own methods of divination by ogham staves or fe;nna4.9 2n addition to all of these rites there are other inds of rituals and "ractices that might be seen to have magical undertones% from the blessing of food for consum"tion at festivals or the ritualised cooing of certain foods for divinatory "ur"oses4% ? or the hanging of "rotective charms made of rowan and red thread% 30 ;rigidBs crosses made at $Y !hJi !hJile le ;r'd ;r'de% e% or parshell crosses made at -amhain. any of these traditional rites are concerned with the "rotection and "reservation of the household from bad luc or disaster%31 which might be seen as having su"ernatural causesDsuch as from causing offence to the s"irits% gods or ancestors% or due to the influence of the 5Ivil Iye%5 which might have been cast intentionally or accidentally by another human. 3 &hese observances are based on what we now of historical and surviving "ractices "ractices from from the the Gael Gaelic ic cult cultur ures es them themse selv lves es%% 33 from from looi ooing ng at sour source cess lie lie Al AleH eHan ande derr CarmichaelBs &armina adelica% which has "reserved many of the songs and charms that accom"any the rhythms of daily life for the Gaels% as well as looing to the myths and legends% and other sources we have to hand. &hese inds of rites eui" the average Gaelic Polytheist with the ability to loo after their own everyday everyday needs and those of their family. -ometimes outside hel" might be necessary% and this is where the sills and eH"ertise of 39. @ eyer% )ibernica Minora% 19?% ""3?1L ;lac% The aelic /therworld% 00@% "@3@. Gregor% "otes on the #olk-$ore of the "orth-%ast of Scotland % 1991% "1?9. : As evidenced evidenced by the use of ogham staves for divination by druids in some of the tales% as well as !ionnBs indow% "reserved in medieval manuscri"ts and which seem to have served a divinatory "ur"ose. 9 !or more information see< B&ree 6uggers< A ethodology for Crann Ogham or a..a. +aven and (athryn Get $ost in the oods4B oods4B by +aven nic +h/is'n and (athryn Price Nic)h*na. ? e.g.% !estival ;annocs and Caudle. Caudle . 30 oodartin% Traces of the %lder #aiths in !reland % 1?01% "1@L Chea"e% B&he aterial Culture of Charms and AmuletsB% in 6enderson Id.4% #antastical !maginations The Supernatural in Scottish )istory and &ulture % 00?% "91. 31 !or further eHam"les% see B+itual B+itual ithin Gaelic PolytheismB Polytheism B by Annie $oughlin and &reasa N' Chonchobhair. 3 -ee for eHam"le< aclagan% %vil %ye in the *estern )ighlands % 1?0% and also )avidson% Rowan Tree and Red Thread % 1?? 1??%% "::: ":::LL Grant Grant%% )ighland #olk *ays% 1?1 1?1%% "139L "139L ;lac% ;lac% The aelic /therworld % 00@% "01. &he Ivil Iye is commonly associated with witches% but might also be cast by those whoBve been lum"ed with the unfortunate affliction since birth. 2n some cases% it might be caused by ill will or eHtreme 7ealousy. ;eing the victim of the Iye means things can go wrongDdisaster% illness% one "iece of bad luc or another...;ut sometimes shit 7ust ha""ens too. &here a "lenty of ways to remove the Ivil Iye% or droch shil% and in "articularly stubborn cases the eH"ertise of the bean feasa is traditionally resorted to. 33 -ee Gaol NaofaBs B+itual within Gaelic PolytheismB Polytheism B and The aol "aofa #'( for more. | |
the fiosaiche or bean feasa might come into "lay. As nowledgeable healers and charmers% they are the "eo"le who can hel" when all else fails% and their "ractices are rooted in what we now of historical sources and surviving surviving "ractices. &heir title is not one that is taen on by the individual% but one that is given to them by the community they serve% in recognition of the talent they have% the services they have "erformed and the role they occu"y in the community. $ie the bean feasa% the title of dru9 druid4 druid4 is one that conferred on the individual by the Ilders and other longterm% eH"erienced members of the living community% rather than selfdesignated. &raditionally% the druid served as a "riest=ess and advisor% leader of grou" rituals% and eH"ert in areas of occult nowledge fisidecht4. &hey "erformed different inds of divination% acted as seers% were silled in different inds of magic such as battle magic magic and corrguinecht4 and liely served as 7udges% law maers% and "olitical advisers as well. Given the fact that modern society is so different com"ared to the time of the druids% and the fact that Gaelic Gaelic Polythei Polytheism sm is still still in the early early stages stages of develo"m develo"ment% ent% the role of the druid is one that "resents certain difficulties. As yet% there are no druids serving in the Gaelic Polytheist community% because of the amount of sill and learning involved in being able to serve such a role. 3 Eust as the roles the druids served seem to have s"lit u" and evolved into several different vocations after Christianity dis"laced their central role in Gaelic society% there are different "eo"le within modern Gaelic Polytheist grou"s who s"ecialise in certain areas that encom"ass one or more of the roles a druid traditionally fulfilled. !or eHam"le% our Ilders are our advisers and leaders of grou" ceremony% while some "eo"le s"ecialise in certain inds of divination or seershi"% others are scholars with advanced degrees% or medical "rofessionals% and so on. 3@ &here are a variety of different "aths that involve magical elements of "ractice not limited to the socalled everyday 5domestic5 "ractices that have been described above. &hose with talent and training to become a seer f;ith4% for eHam"le% might choose to "erf "erfor orm m the the taghairm ritual% a -cottish form of divination which traditionally involves being wra""ed in the sin of a newly slain oH or cow. 3 &hose &hose who are called called to "ursue "ursue 3 hich is not to say that this will always be the case. 3@ -ee The " #'( for more details on how this wors within Gaol Naofa. 3 As such% a reconstructed taghairm ritual would be a very serious undertaing% undertaing% oH or cows not being ten a "enny... -ee )wellyd entry for 5taghairm.5 &he ritual is similar in form to the tarb-feis described in early 2rish literature% but while the taghairm was used for any divinatory needs% the tarb-feis a""ears to have been solely used to divine who the neHt ing might be. As such the tarb-feis may have limited a""lications a""lications in modern GP. | @ |
filidechtDthe "rofession of the eH"ert% ins"ired% and gifted "oetDmight "erform the rite of imbas forosnai%3: in order to gain a sort of 5enlightened ins"iration5 ins"iration5 as "art of the "rocess of
"oetrymaing.39 Part of their remit may be to "erform satire although the satirist may also be a se"arate vocation4% which as we have seen above% involves some forms of satirical "oetry that can be seen as magical. Other Gaelic Polytheists might s"ecialise in the arts of healing% and there are many charms associated with the harvesting of medicinal herbs that can be found in sources lie the &armina adelica. As we have seen from &he )eerBs Cry% which calls for "rotection 5against the s"ells of women and smiths and druids%5 as well as the charm against thorn that calls on Goibniu% smithing also contains magical undertones. 3? &he "ath of the warrior can also involve some magical "ractices% including being silled in using ogham to "lace "lace or recognise recognise magical magical geasa on other warriors geasa are magical "rohibitions that affect how an individual must behave in certain situations4. 0 2n some cases% Gaelic Polyth Polytheis eists ts may may have have geasa% which can be taen on% given at certain times% or sim"ly recognised as having been inherited. &his may ha""en during rites of "assage such as ba"tism% ado"tion% and the taing on of new tass or vocations. &he sources we loo to in order to inform our meta"hysical "ractices "ractices are varied. e loo to the myths and surviving fol customs% sources lie Sanas &ormaic % which describe a number number of rites rites and and "ract "ractice icess incl includi uding ng the "rotec "rotectiv tivee ;ealta ;ealtaine ine bonfir bonfires es and imbas forosnai4% and &armina adelica adelica. Auth and Al AleH eHan ande derr Carm Carmic icha hael elBs Bs &armina Author orss such such as !. aria ariann
cNeil cNeill%l% (evin (evin )anahe )anaher% r% +onald +onald ;lac% ;lac% -Jan -Jan R -ille -illeabh abhYin Yin%% I. Istyn Istyn Ivans% Ivans% $ady $ady Gregory% alter Gregor% 6ugh Chea"e% argaret ;ennett% and artin artin give us a detailed view of every day Gaelic life% as well as the "ractices of the charmers% healers% wise women% and wise men who form our "oint of reference for the inds of "ractices that might be deemed 5magical5 in a Gaelic Polytheist conteHt. !rom these sources we see how we ourselves can model our "ractices along traditional lines. !or us% eclectic Neo"agan 3: One eHam"le can be found archived here here.. 39 As with a number of other vocations vocations within within Gaelic Polythei Polytheism% sm% the "ath of the fili is one that reuires great nowledge and eH"ertise in the art% and meeting the standards set by our ancestors. &hese reuirements include memorising vast numbers of traditional "rayers% "oems and songsL being able to com"ose ins"ired "oetry on the s"otL eHtensive memorisation of lore and historyL and the "roven ability to communicate well with the s"irits and relay their messages with accuracy% among other things. hen it comes to vocations that demand fluency in at least one of the Gaelic languages% this is certainly one of them. As with dru9 % fili is also a title that should be granted by nowledgeable nowledgeable "eers and Ilders% not selfdesignated. 3? -ee +andol"h% BCeltic -miths and -atirists< -atirists< Partners in -orcery%B in %$)+ ol. + "o. 5% 1?1% "191?:. 0 As we see in the T;in% for eHam"le. | |
"ractices are not a "oint of reference at all% nor do we 5flesh out5 our "ractices by using eclectic or New Age sources% nor do we a""ro"riate from other cultures or "aradigms. &his means we do not cast runes% do &arot s"reads% incor"orate 5magical corres"ondences%5 cast a 5magic circle5 or invoe elements% atchtowers or deities% or attem"t to 5use5 gods or s"irits in magical s"ells as some Neo"agan traditions might. Nor do we try to stealthily incor"orate nonGaelic elements by misa""ro"riating things from other cultures and trying to disguise the theft by giving it an ina""ro"riate or new Gaelic name.1 Our "ractices come solely from what we can find in tradition and where necessary% the careful a""lication of "ersonal ins"iration and vision% o"erating within the checs and balances of community and traditional cultural conteHt4. 2n this res"ect% it is not a""ro"riate to call our "ractices 5witchcraft5 because that would im"ly malevolent acts or an involvement in eclectic Neo"agan "ractices where ther theree is none none.. hil hilee thes thesee dist distin inct ctio ions ns may may be conf confus usin ingg for for thos thosee new new to Gael Gaelic ic meta"hysical lore% and has led to some unnecessary misconce"tions among mainstream Neo"agans% with immersion in a Gaelic worldview these things become clear. As far as witchcraft in its traditional sense is concerned% the main thing that defines what is or isnBt witchcraft de"ends on the actions of the individual and their relationshi" to the community. As we see in the sources there are "lenty of occasions where magic might be used to cause harm to someone% and a good eHam"le here is satire. Iven saints are seen to use satire and curses in many cases% satire and curses can overla"4% but if this is done in the "ursuit of 7usticeDand it is agreed by the community that it is 7ust% not 7ust due to the obsessions of an unbalanced% harmful individual who wants to believe their "ersonal vendetta is 7ustDthis is not necessarily seen as witchcraft or bad behaviour. &his can be the case even though the satire may be magical in its "ower and harmful in its end resultD"ossibly illing or maiming the victim. &he "ower of the satirist rests not 7ust on their sill and "otential "ower to harm% but on the im"ortance of honour in Gaelic society% and the "ower of words. &o be accused of dishonour can be hugely damaging to your re"utationDto your very being. &herefore% to be the victim of satire is a terrible thing% and why the results can be so devastating. 2t is therefore incumbent on the satirist to use their 1 As has been seen when some non2ndigenous Neo"agans have "erformed their offensive% outsider fantasies of Native Native America Americann sweatlod sweatlodge ge ceremonies% ceremonies% but tried tried to claim they are the Gaelic Gaelic taigh an fhallais or teach an allais ceremonyDwhich is an entirely different thing. Nor do we su""ort similar misre"resentations of our source materials% such as re"lacing the 2rish ideas in the medieval BCauldron of PoesyB "oem with conce"ts misa""ro"riated from -outh Asian &antra. !or more on this see< eehan% ichael E.% BA Protocol for 2mbas !orosnai .B | : |
"owers wiselyL those who donBt% face severe conseuences... 7ust loo at the fate of CridenbJl in &ath Maige Tuired hint< he abused his "osition and ended u" dead4. hen the satireDor threat of satireDis un7ustified% there are sanctions made against the satiristL 7ust as when someone is accused of "erforming magic for selfish% harmful "ur"oses% they are accused of witchcraft. 2n both cases% the individual only gains a bad re"utation as a result of their own dishonourable behaviour. 6onour and integrity are central values within our Gaelic Polytheist community% and those who act without honour or integrity% who use magic for malicious ends or selfish "ur"oses% or who actively wor to cause harm and chaos in the community% may be seen as a witch.
In Conclusion As Gaelic Polytheists there is an admittedly confusing% and historically dense% landsca"e of labels that may or may not be a""ro"riate for our magical "ractices and "ractitioners. -o it is "erha"s not sur"rising to find modern terminology even incorrect terminol terminology4 ogy4 filterin filteringg into Celtic Celtic +econstru +econstruction ctionist ist and Gaelic Gaelic Polythei Polytheist st discussi discussions% ons% es"ecially among newer members or those who may not have contact with the living cultures. 6owever% as reconstructionists who loo to the historical and living cultures to inform our "ractices% we believe that we should do the same in choosing the terminology with which we identify ourselves. any Celtic +econstructionists have done this in identifying the cultural focus of their traditions% ado"ting labels such as PGganachd=P;g;nacht% !ldiachas% Senobessus% or 'mldduwiaeth% and calling for "eo"le to
give even more s"ecific names to their branches of the tradition% so as to recognise the diversity that eHists under the C+ umbrella. 3 $iewise% filidecht and druidecht are some eHam"les of culturally a""ro"riate labels that are already in use to describe certain vocations that some Gaelic Polytheists might
&he latter two describing Gaulish and elsh reconstructionist traditions res"ectively% while the former might be found in Gaelic conteHts. Senobessus translat translates es as 5old custom5 custom5 while the other other terms terms translat translatee as 5"olythei 5"olytheism5 sm5 or 5"aganism.5 3 3 Nic Nic)h* )h*na na%% (athry (athrynn Price Price%% B &u &urn rnin ingg Po Poin intt < &h &hir ird d Po Poin intt < Ga Gate tewa wayy &h &hou ough ghts ts on th thee hi hist stor oryy of Ce Celt ltic ic +econstructionism% 1?9@ 009. B A"ril 30% 009% "ailed to the door of the !nternet . | 9 |
dedicate dedicate themselv themselves es to achievin achieving. g. hi hile druidecht is "erha"s less commonly used because 5druid5 can convey basically the same meaning in Inglish% filidecht is a term that is more widely used in the C+ community because it encom"asses a com"leH conce"t that is not easy to articulate sim"ly in Inglish. &he same is true when we consider the very nuanced beliefs and attitudes when it comes to varieties of magical "ractice% and vocations of a magical focus% in a Gaelic conteHt. Of the words that have been eHamined in the course of this essay% fisidechtDencom"assing 5occult5 and 5druidical5 inds of nowledgeDis a term that could "ossibly serve as a convenient catchall label when discussing magical "ractices in general though this is 7ust one o"tion among many4. hat we are advocating here is hardly something new or revolutionaryL looing to our s"iritual cousins we find that the heathen community% for eHam"le% have long used culturallya""ro"riate culturallya""ro"riate labels to describe their own magical "ractices and "ractitioners% and the same is true for living s"iritual traditions that have not needed any reconstruction. @ &o name ourselves accurately% in the languages of our cultures% is sim"ly "art and "arcel of a reconstructionist methodology% and to ignore the historical and cultural conteHt and meaning of these labelsDand choose modern definitions over them% even though they are contradictoryDis antithetical to that methodology. e also believe that it is a sim"le matter of res"ect% since belief in witchcraft% according to its traditional definition% can still be found in Gaelic areas today. ;eneficial fol magic and traditions also survive% and to insist on calling such "ractices 5witchcraft5 is both inaccurate and "otentially offensive to the "eo"le who still "erform them. !rom all sides% we must conclude that the word 5witchcraft5 has very little relevance to a reconstructionist community% unless the word is being used in its traditional and historical conteHt< to describe someone who is woring malevolent magic of the sort that blights a community and harms the innocent. &he abundance of Gaelic technical terms to describe different ty"es of magic% and those who might "ractice them% suggests that all of the different meanings and nuances between these terms are im"ortant. &his in itself has im"lications in how we might a""ly these terms in a modern conteHt% if and when they are a""licable today. e must also consider the fact that as times have changed% so have beliefs and the ;ut see "revious notes on the necessity for res"ecting the great learning% achievement% and community recognition necessary for the granting of these titles. @ -ee also< The aol "aofa #'( 5;ut hasnBt the meaning of itchcraft changedS5 | ? |
conteHt in which some of these words have been used% as well as the inds of words being used used.. As a resu result lt of thes thesee chan change ges% s% we find ind that that some some words ords wi with th very very s"ec s"ecif ific ic connotations in a "olytheistic conteHt have been coo"ted% subverted and redefined over time% and so are not necessarily a""ro"riate for us to ado"t. As we have seen% during the iddle Ages when views on magic were increasingly being framed framed as demonic or -atanic at their core4% the names of certain goddessesDsuch as ;adb and the CailleachDwere co o"ted and subverted to refer to witchcraft or witches. Along with ongfind% whose origins as a sovereignty goddess have been subverted to those of a mere witch% it is clear that these deities have been reduced to demonic% evil% yet mortal women rather than goddesses in their own right% in order to serve a medieval Christian narrative. As "olytheists% it could hardly be a""ro"riate to ado"t the names of these demoted goddesses as terms for ourselves as magicworers% either to use them in the Neo"agan "ositive4 sense of the word or to label someone as a 5witch5 in the traditional negative4 sense. 2n either conteHt% this usage of their names can hardly be seen as res"ectful or honouring the goddesses who have been subverted in the "rocess. 2nstead% if terms are needed to refer to the ty"e of "eo"le we would describe as witches in the Gaelic sense% there are surely more a""ro"riate terms that can be considered for use% such as ammait or tHathaid=bantuathaid. -ome of the terms that describe the "ractices of wise women and men% es"eciallyD such as bean feasa% fiosaiche=ban-fhiosaiche% or fer-obbee=ben-obbeeDmay be more relevant to the ind of vocations that we as Gaelic Polytheists might wish to dedicate ourselves to% "rovided there is an understanding that these are not labels that are ado"ted in isolation% but ones that are earned and conferred in recognition of the eH"ertise% sill and nowledge a "erson might "ossess% and share with their community. e have suggested these terms as they are more accurate descri"tors of the role that these "ractitioners may "lay in Gaelic Polyth Polytheis eistt commun communiti ities% es% and also also to remove remove the many many other other "roble "roblems ms that that sim"ly sim"ly identifying as a witch can bring. &he issues we have raised during the course of this essay go beyond a matter of accuracy and semantics in the words we might choose. 2f we embrace mainstream Neo"agan terms it often leads to the mistaen assum"tion that we ourselves embrace the ecle eclect ctic ic rang rangee of "rac "racti tice cess that that are are commo ommonl nlyy found ound as the the norm norm wi with thin in thos thosee communities% such as circle casting% divination by &arot or runes% the commanding of -ee the section 5itchcraft in 2reland5 for more about these words. | @0 |
s"irits or the use of ritual "ro"s lie the athame. : &hese things are rooted in a vastly different worldview that is often diametrically o""osed to our own% and so they are not a""licable to a Celtic +econstructionist or Gaelic Polytheist "ractice. hen one chooses Neo"agan and "o" culture labels over culturallyrooted ones% such a fundamental and im"ortant "oint is often missed or misunderstood by newcomers or those with only a basic nowledge of reconstructionism in general4% and this is "roblematic on many levels. Any im"lied agreement with the values of mainstream% eclectic Neo"aganism tends to also im"ly an acce"tance of this eclectic range of belief and "ractice% and this not only goes against the grain of what reconstructionism is trying to achieve% and the core values of reconstructionism% but it also has the "otential for introducing the inds of culturally a""ro"riative elements elements that reconstructionism aims to avoid. 2n this res"ect% incor"orating elements from eclectic Neo"agan "ractices is sim"ly incom"atible with a reconstructionist reconstructionist a""roach.9 Additionally% these inds of misunderstandings run the ris of newcomers doing things that might cause offence to the s"irits% which can lead to more than 7ust a mild headache. &his is a "oint that is often glossed over% but is something that cannot be understated. 2n many cases% "eo"le may not be aware of the issues that have been raised here% and considering the lac of more a""ro"riate terminology on offer the use of such ina""ro"riate terms as 5witch5 in its Neo"agan sense4 is "erha"sDu" until now% at least Dunderstandable. At the other end of the scale are those who are well aware of the traditional meaning of 5witch5% and are using the label with the harmful meaning in mind% whether to describe their own "ractices or "erha"s the "ractices of others. ? Although 5witch5 and 5witchcraft5 may not traditionally be seen as desirable labels or "ractices to ado"t% there are always going to be a small number of "eo"le who will choose to "ractice harmfu harmfull magic magic%% for for wh whate atever ver reason reason.. &his &his is anothe anotherr reason reason wh whyy using using such such terms terms accurately within our own communities is im"ortantL when words can carry such weight% : Iven today there are some "eo"le out there calling themselves 5Celtic +econstructionist iccans%5 for eHam"le% which is an oHymoron. 9 As ;ill $inMie comments% in discussing the increasing tendency to incor"orate BneoshamanicB "ractices into heathen seidr wor% to do so 5...the very foundations of the worldview can be undermined so that the cosmological Troots of our "ractice areU com"letely altered...5 hat we end u" with is therefore a 5confabulation%5 and one that isnBt rooted in the culture we are eH"licitly identifying with when we call ourself Gaelic Polytheists% or similar. -ee $inMie% ermanic Spirituality% 003% "3@3. ? 2f a""lied to others% we would consider this to be a very serious accusation% however% and would not recommend it being thrown around lightly. | @1 |
they should be used with care. 2n some cases% however% "eo"le may be aware that 5witch5 and 5witchcraft5 are not "ositive terms in a Gaelic conteHt but still choose to use them because the modern re defi defini niti tion onss are are so we well lle ent ntre renc nche hed d in the the main mainst stre ream am Neo" Neo"ag agan an and and New New Age Age communities. 6ere it might be argued that because the modern redefinitions are so "o"ular it is both easier and sim"ler to go along with it because they wonBt need eH"laining lie culturallys"ecific labels might. A counterargument might "oint out that heathen communities have no such trouble when referring to seidr or spae. !or some% it might sim"ly be the case that Neo"agan terminology is both familiar and comfortable% and that there is a reluctance to let go of such an identity even though oneBs "ractices have otherwise moved away from that. hatever the reasoning% that is their "rerogative% of course. 6owever% considering the issues that have been raised here% and bearing in mind that other culturallys"ecific terms are widely used and "romoted within the C+ and GP communities% it seems contradictory% and a little incongruous% to sto" short at referring to other vocations in the same% culturallyaccurate% culturallyaccurate% fashion. 2n considering the inds of labels that are available to us% it may also be the case that s"ecialised terminology is not even necessaryL much of what we do as Celtic +econstructionists might be seen as 5magical5 in some way% but that does not necessarily mean those acts define us or our vocation. any of us see to build "ositive relationshi"s with the nature s"irits on whose land we live and worL we "erform rites of "rotection and blessingL we mae charms lie the cros Br9de to hang above the hearth or set out the br9de
might mae crosses of rowan and red thread to "rotect the householdL smoor the hearth in the evening and reindle it in the morningL @0 loo for signs and omens in the clouds or in natureL natureL tae an ogham reading to divine the future or an answer to a uestion% and so on. &hese things could be inter"reted as being 5magical5 in one way or another% but for most of us they are sim"ly "art and "arcel of the normal% everyday "ractices that mae us Gaelic Polytheists. &he inds of terms that describe cunning fol% or other inds of magicallyoriented magicallyoriented vocations lie druids or filid% are generally reserved for those who have decades of study% "ractice and s"ecialisation under their belts% and who can be considered @0 Often a symbolic act in this day and age. | @ |
eH"erts at the to" of their fields. Iven if such s"ecialists have a "rohibition against taing money for the services they "rovide% they can be seen as the euivalent of degreed "rofessionals% and the difference between the normal "ractitioner of magic and these s"ecialists is much the same as the difference between someone someone who nows how to clean a wound and a""ly a bandage% versus a "racticing surgeon. agic in Gaelic Polytheism is a vast and varied sub7ect% and witchcraft is 7ust a small "art of it. 2n eH"loring this sub7ect% and advocating for the ado"tion of more a""ro"ria a""ro"riate te terminol terminology ogy to describe describe our magical magical "ractices% "ractices% we realise realise that we have only scratched the surface here. &here is surely much more to eH"lore and discuss% but we ho"e that what we have outlined here "roves to be a good starting "oint for further study and o"en dialogue% clarifies our "osition% and illuminates why we in Gaol Naofa use the terminology we use. ,ltimately% whatever labels or terminology grou"s or individuals choose to ado"t is going to be a "ersonal matter% but we ho"e that this essay has "rovided some ideas and avenues to consider.
| @3 |
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