TAGMEMICS (An Introduction to Tagmemics Concepts)
A.
Introduction The The word word gram gramma marr has has firs firstt begu begun n with with the the Gree Greek k phil philos osop ophi hica call speculations and has come to mean “the art of speaking and writing correctly” (Ahmed, 1999: 1). It presents the fundamental entity of developing one’s ideas in expressing his concepts and perceptions toward his environment. The ideas can not be understood unless they are put in well arrangement of constructions called grammar. However, in present development of language teaching, the teaching of grammar seems to create a controversial controversial issue among teachers, applied linguists linguists and syllabus designers. Some of them like to teach grammar explicitly, others prefer to teach implicitly, and still some others prefer not to talk about it at all. If grammar is regarded as “a taboo” by some linguists, it is also overtly appreciated and warmly embraced by some others, and it is even reestablished. reestablished. My personal perception on teaching grammar in general seems to be primary importance in language learning especially those who do not speak the language as a native one. Learners can not combine words into phrase and sent senten ence ces s to form form mean meanin ingf gful ul mean means s of comm commun unic icat atio ion n unle unless ss they they are are introduced to the abstract mechanisms that manage the important characteristics of the language. Thus the question that should be raised is not whether the grammar should be taught or not, but what type of grammar to teach and how to teach it. One of the very important grammar needs to be taught is tagmemics. It is an interesting topic of a grammar construction by denoting a new combination of the previ previous ous gramma grammarr model models, s, such such as tradi traditio tional nal gramma grammar, r, struct structura uralilism, sm, transformation, and case grammar (Soeparno, 2008: 1-3). The central concept of the tagmemic is the tagmeme, defined by the relation between a syntagtic “slot” or function, such as subject or object, and a class of units, such as noun phrase 1
or pronoun, that can “fill” it (Matthews, 1997: 371), role or the function in a position, and cohesion or the relation to other units and wider context (Randal, 2002: 13). The tagmemics produces the concept of “Emic” and “Etic”. Both of them refer to the ideas in viewing the meaning of word, phrase, or sentence in tagmemics arrangement from inside (from the native speaker’s meaning) and outside (from the viewer’s viewer’s perception on the meaning). meaning). The uniqueness of the tagmemics is that its models of approach toward a language language can be applied applied into every languag language e and it may be used in different different fields of study, such as social science and psychology (Soeparno, 2008: 3). It means that the tagmemics parts: slot, filler class, role, and cohesion, may occur in every every langu language age and lead lead it to the unive universa rsalit lity y of langua language ge constr construc uctio tion. n. Therefore, Tagmemics is called a new approach of encountering a language by both combining the structural construction and the meaning. In line with the brief explanation above, this paper tries to describe the tagm tagmem emic ics s invo involv lvin ing g its its defi defini niti tion on,, the the tagm tagmem emic ics s deve develo lopm pmen ent, t, type types s of tagmemics construction, syntagmeme, syntagmeme, and emic and etic.
B. The Nature of tagmemics 1.
Definition of tagmemics The word tagmemics is originally derived from the word “tagmeme”. It comes from the Greek word tagma meaning “arrangement” “arrangement” (Cook, 1969: 7). It refers to the function or slot of a grammatical unit and the class of words fills the slot. Matthews (1997: 372) defines the tagmemics is “the relation between a syntactic ‘slot’ or function, such as subject or object, and a class of units, such as noun phrase or pronoun, that can fill it. Robins (1980: 279) gives a following definition of the tagmemics by stating that “A tagmeme is a place in a structure (syntactic or morphological) together with the formal class of elements occupying that place (often referred to in the literature as a ‘slot’ with its ‘filler’). From the definitions above, it can be understood that the tagmemics is a type of arrangement of sentence function named ‘slot’ and the kind of word class 2
put in it. As an example is the sentence he loves Jill. This sentence has three tagmemes: subject filled by pronoun he, he, predicate filled by transitive verb loves, and object filled by (proper) noun Jill. This example of a statement is formulated using abbreviations abbreviations by means means of symbols to represent represent the function or functional functional place (slot) followed by a colon, followed by in turn by a symbol representing the class of ‘filler’: +S:pn+P:tv+O:n. For the noun or pronoun in a subject slot and object slot, there is a possibility of writing the tagmemics by using this model: +S:n/pn+P:tv+O:n/pn (Robins, 1980: 29). This example can be extended into wider level of application, such as phrase, sentence, and clause. The notion of tagmemics as a basic unit of grammar, first presented by Kenneth L. Pike in 1954. He described how he had arrived at the notion of the tagmeme by working with artificial languages with a constant lexical inventory but varying grammatical structures, and contrasts his use of the word ’tagmeme’ (Cook, 1969: 13). A tagmeme is basically a composite of form and meaning, a “unit-in-context.” Where many other linguists only wanted to study the objective form of language (that is, its “etic” aspect), Pike felt that the interesting thing was how language actually functioned for users in real life—its “emic” aspect.
2. The Tagmemics Principles Basically, tagmemics is based on some underlying principles, such as perspective, hierarchy, and cotext (Pike, 1993; 1992). (1) Perspective Perspective refers to the reasonable understanding of a phenomenon. It further explains that every element, no matter how far or how consistently it is pursued, will lead to distortion. There There are three three kinds kinds of perspe perspecti ctives ves:: partic particle, le, wave, wave, and and field field.. Partic Particle le means that every element is a discrete unit or each version stands on its own. Wave denotes that elements are defined by a nucleus. In other word, a release is a nucleus, but development is continuous. Then, field means that
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relationships relationships between elements are what matters or versions contrast by their sets of features. (2) Hierarchy Hierarchy describes the layer of a state in a post. Pike claims that language is deeply deeply hierar hierarchi chical cal.. Sound Sound and and inton intonati ation, on, togeth together er with with emic emic (from (from phonemic) and epic (from phonetic) form a phonological phonological hierarchy; words and senten sentences ces form form gramma grammatic tical al hiera hierarch rchy; y; meani meaningng-wha whatev tever er a speake speakerr is talking about-form a referential hierarchy. The three hierarchies interlock and operate at the same time, and the fact is that what can be said as the hierarchy of language can also be labeled of the hierarchy of all behaviors. (3) Context Context refers to the situational condition. A tagmeme is essentially a compound of form and meaning, a unit in context in which some linguists intend to study the objective objective form of language. language. Pike’s idea idea is how language language actua actually lly functi functions ons for the speake speakers rs (users (users)) in real real life life to deter determin mine e their their purposes.
3. The Tagmemics Tagmemics Development The tagmem tagmemics ics develo developme pment nt here here refer refers s to the constr construc uctio tion n model models s applied as its basic characteristics. There are two episodes of the tagmemics devel develop opmen ment: t: the first phase phase and and the second second phase phase.. The first first phase phase of the tagmemics is introduced by Kenneth L. Pike in 1954. Then Walter A. Cook (1969) wrot wrote e a book book An Introducti Introduction on to Tagmemic Tagmemics s Analys Analysis. is.
In this this peri period, od, the
tagmemics introduced two terms of construction dimensions: slot and filler class (Soeparno, 2008: 5). The second period period of tagmemics occured in 1977 1977 when Kennet Kennet L. Pike and and E.G. E.G. Pike Pike releas released ed a book book Grammatical Analysis. Analysis . In this this devel develop opmen mentt period, the tagmemics tagmemics concept becomes more complete and itit consists of four features: slot (where the unit can appear), filler class (what type of unit it is), role
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(how the unit unit functions) functions),, and cohesion cohesion (how (how the unit unit relate relates s to other other units units)) (Randal, 2002: 10). Rand Randal al (200 (2002: 2: 11) 11) show shows s the the plac placem emen entt of the the four four figu figure res s of the the tagmeme into a picture in the following lines.
Slot
Class
Role
Cohesion
The picture above shows that the t he slot describes where the unit appears or where the unit goes. The filler class shows what type of unit it is or what kind of unit it is. The role explains how the unit functions or why this unit is here or what’s its function. The cohesions demonstrates how the unit relates to other units and to the wider context. Tagmemic Tagmemic becomes becomes a very interesting interesting object object of study study because because it has specific characteristics, a combination of all theories of language. The traditional grammar analysis on function is placed in the slot, and the structural grammar on its its surf surfac ace e stru structu cture re is put in
the the fill filler er clas class. s. Whil While e the the case case gram gramma marr is
presented in the role position and the rationalist is taken as cohesion (Suparno, 2008: 10). This model of selection for a certain category in the previous theories elicits a new label for the tagmemics, called elective. elective.
4. Types of tagmemics constructions As it is known that tagmemes are function-forms which are distributed in the constructions in which they occur, tagmemes have many types. They are: obligato obligatory ry or optional optional to constructi construction, on, nuclear or peripher peripheral al to the structure, structure, distributed in fixed or movable positions (Cook, 1969: 17).
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(1)
Obligatory or optional construction Obliga Obligator tory y tagmem tagmeme e constr construct uctio ion n is a tagmem tagmeme e that that occurs occurs in every every manifestation of the structure in a given data. It is marked with a plus (+) sign to indicate that it must occur whenever the construction occurs. In othe otherr word word,, the the tagm tagmem eme e must must be comp comple lete ted d by a word word to clar clarif ify y its its meaningful purpose. As an example is the sentence they kiss flowers. This sentence is called called obligatory construction construction because because it needs an object. object. The word kiss needs an object, object , flower. This sentence can be formulated with +S:pn+P:tv+O:n, that is to say a noun subject is followed by a transitive verb predicate, and this must be followed by a noun object. Optional tagmeme, on the other hand, is a tagmeme that occurs in some but not all of the manifestations of the construction. It is marked with a plus/minus (±) sign to indicate that it may occur, but need not necessarily occurs, whenever the construction occurs. Such as in the sentence of John eats (meat) can be presented presented in the formula +S:n+P:tv±O:n +S:n+P:tv±O:n,, that is to say that a noun subject is followed by a transitive verb predicate, and this may or may not be followed by a noun object.
(2)
Nuclear or peripheral construction Nuclear construction is defined a tagmeme that is diagnostic of the constr construct uction ion in which which it occurs occurs.. It may be either either obligat obligatory ory or optio optional nal tagmeme. The nuclear constructed is often marked by the use of verb or verb phrase. As an example of the nuclear construction is in the following: I can’t come tomorrow or I or I can’t come because I am busy (Matthews, 1997: 328). 328). The phrase I can’t come is a nuclear construction. A peripheral tagmeme, in contrast, is a tagmeme that is not diagnostic for the construction in which it occurs. It is always optional. The peripheral tagmem tagmeme e is sometim sometimes es called called satellit satellite e or margin marginal al
tagmem tagmeme. e. In the
example sentence above I can’t come tomorrow or tomorrow or II can’t come because I am busy , the word tomorrow and tomorrow and the clause because I am busy are called satellite. 6
All obligatory tagmemes are nuclear, but not all nuclear tagmemes are not obligator obligatory; y; all optional optional tagmemes tagmemes are not periphe peripheral, ral, but all pheripheral pheripheral tagmemes are optional. The application of these two rules comes the treeway class classifi ificat cation ion of tagmem tagmemes es as stated stated by Longa Longacre cre (1964 (1964:: 19): 19): (1) (1) nuclear and obligatory; (2) nuclear and optional; and (3) peripheral (and optional). The application of these classifications can be seen in the figures below:
Figure 1
Subject
Noun phrase
Actor
Obligatory agreement with verb
The monkey eats banana The figure above shows that the word the monkey filled monkey filled the slot as subject and its class is noun phrase. The role for t he word the monkey is as an actor and it is in an obligatory position. position.
Figure 2
Nucleus Predicate
Verb
Statement
Transitive Number agreement with the subject
The monkey eats banana
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The function of the word eats is as a nucleus predicate and its class is verb. The role of the word eat is eat is as a statement and it is a transitive.
Figure 3
Object
Noun
Undergoer
Optional
The monkey eats banana The function of the word banana is as a subject and it is filled by noun. Its role is as an undergoer (object) and it is optional, can be replaced by other words in similar class. (3)
Movable or fixed order of construction Tagmemes are generally assumed to occur in the position in which they are represented in a fixed linear sequence, string. In the case of languages languages with movable word order, the statistically prominent order is represented in the stri string ng,, but but the the mova movabi bili lity ty of the the tagm tagmem eme e must must be indi indica cate ted. d. This This construction is labeled by a formulation below. below. tCl=(+S:n+P;tV+O:n) ± L:loc ±T:tem The application of this formulation f ormulation can be seen in the following example: example: A teacher drink coffee in the canteen at 10 am If the tagmeme has two and only two fixed positions in the string, the alternate positions may be represented by writing the tagmeme in each position, in an either/or notation such as ± A….±A. If the tagmeme is freely movable within the string, one device used is an arrow written above the movabl movable e tagmem tagmeme. e. If, in the same same situa situatio tion, n, the tagmem tagmemes es are freely freely movable, but may not interrupt the nucleus, or SPO complex, then the
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nuclear element may be enclosed in parentheses to restrict the movability tagmemes.
5. Syntagmeme Syntag Syntagmem meme e is defin defined ed as “a potent potential ial string string of tagmem tagmemes, es, whose whose manifesting sequence of morphemes fills a grammatical slot (Cook, 1959: 21). There are three types of syntagmemes: exocentric and endocentric, closed and open ended, recursive and non-recursive layering. (1) Exocentric and endocentric An endocentric construction is centered about one or more head tagmemes and marked by subordination or coordination. Such as men and woman for coordinative and clever boy for sub-ordinative. An exocentric, in contrast, is not centered. centered. In endocentr endocentric ic construct construction, ion, the whole whole constructi construction on may be repla replaced ced by a form form simil similar ar in form class class to the head of constr construct uction ion;; in exocentric, where there is no head tagmeme, the whole construction does not fill fill the same slot as one of it part. part. Exocen Exocentri tric c is marked marked by prepos prepositi ition on followed by a noun or noun group such as toward London, London, from the country , etc. and conjunction followed by clause group such as if we had the money, because it is not good, etc. (2) Closed and open ended Some constructions are closed, while others seem to have no limit to their expansion possibilities. Coordinate constructions are open-ended at almost all levels except the word level, where morphemes are combined into words. As an example is this phrase: He went to store and bought books, pencils, pens… The tagmemics model is expressed by Nco=+H1:n±H2:n±H3:n…+C:c+Hn:n In the example, the object slot, filled by a coordinate noun phrase, indicate a phrase level construction that can be extended without limit. The conjunction genera generalllly y occurs occurs befor before e the last last items items record recorded. ed. The discon discontin tinui uity ty of the 9
construction is indicated by three dots (…) and the final expression indicates how the construction has closure. The modification structures may be open ended; ended; and limit limitle less ss numbe numberr of modifi modifier er can be added added at the will of the speaker. The example of this description is listed below: We want students who are bright, honest, diligent…. AJco=+H1:aj+H2:aj+H3:aj… The closed construction is a type of construction in which its membership in the construction is limited to the certain word (class) marked by the, this, ect. The example of this application is in the next sentence: I know this book. The this denotes that the possibility of coming the new alternative word is impossible. impossible. So, this model is called closed end construction. construction. (3) Recursive and non-recursive layering Recursive layering means that the rule is re-applied to form a construction that is itself partly or wholly derived by it. Grammatical must have methods for handling recursive constructions. Tagememics has this recursiveness with layering formulas, but not all cases of layering are recursive. The recursive layering formula is X→X+Y, where the same symbol occurs on both sides of the arrows or rewrite sign. The police said the assassin shouted he hoped he had killed him tCl=+S:N+P:TV+O:tcl/pn Non recursive layering is an inclusion of phrase within phrase, or clause within clause, and need not be recursive. For example, an adjective phrase might be included within a noun phrase. Thus, in phrase, a very old man, man, the word very modify old in an adjective phrase. The whole phrase very old , is then one of the modifiers of the word man.
6. Emic and Etic Tagmemes are the essential units of grammar, but parallel to phonology and lexicon. lexicon. It is basically basically a composite of form and and meaning, a “unit-in-context.” “unit-in-context.” The grammar has essential units and non-essential units. The non-essential unit 10
is called an etic. It is the view of the unit from an outsider point of view. It means that a view in seeing seeing a language idea idea (meaning) from the viewer’s viewer’s thought as it is existing. existing. The essentia essentiall unit, on the other hand, hand, is called emic. It is a unit unit of language from the point of view of a native speaker of the language. This means that a perception on the language idea (meaning) from the native speaker’s real idea. To make a clear description of this different term is shown by an example of a pair of synonyms, such as ‘aid’ and ‘assist’. ‘assist’. These words are objectively different, but the fact claims that they can be used and understood in the same way in a given context makes them equivalent at the level of grammar. We used the terms “etic” (as “etic” (as in phonetic) and “emic” (as “emic” (as in phonemic) to describe objective and subjective units of meaning, respectively. Thus, in this example, “aid” and “assist” are “assist” are etically different etically different but emically the emically the same (Kissel, 2005: 4). Onother example is a non-card-player non-card-player observing a game of bridge will see different things than a bridge- player will. The non-card-player, who is an "alien" in this situation, may notice that the cards are handled and passed around, that the players pick up the cards in front of them and carry on a short conversation in cryptic phrases, that one player then puts all of his cards on the table while the other three put theirs down one by one as this player or that pulis little piles of cards in front of him . . . What the bridge- player sees as a "native" to the game is a distinct unit called a "hand," consisting of the deal, the bidding, bidding, the play and the scoring. The non-card-player observes a number of etic facts, some of which fit into into the the emic emic cate catego gori ries es of the the brid bridge ge-- play player er and and some some of whic which h are are irrelevant . . . To know which events at the card table are significant for the game, which are not, and how the significant events are related to one another, one must know the rules of the game--that is, one must know the events emically.
C. Conclusion Tagmemics is a variation of a syntactic structure developed by Kenneth L. Pike. The nature concept of tagmemics is the tagmeme, a relation between a 11
syntactic function and class of unit that fills its construction. Tagmemics has underlying underlying principles; perspective, wave, and field. The tagmemics tagmemics has four principl principle e features: features: slot, filler filler class, class, role, role, and cohesion. Its specific finding and contribution contribution to the linguistic science is emic and emic and etic. The tagmem tagmemics ics devel developm opmen entt meets meets with with two perio periods, ds, the first first perio period d marked by identification of tagmemeics component of slot and filler. The latter development marked by adding the role and cohesion. The combination of slot, filler, role, and cohesion cohesion denotes denotes the characteristics frame of tagmemics. tagmemics.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahmed, Moumene, 1999 “Case grammar and its implication implication to developing developing writing skill” www. webrew.dz/mg/pdf/ webrew.dz/mg/pdf/ Cook, S.J., Walter A. 1969. Introduction to Tagmemic Analysis. Analysis . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Kissel, Joe, 2005. “Tagmemics “Tagmemics:: The linguistic theory of everything” www.dictionary.. English www.dictionary Matthews, Matthews, P.H., P.H., 1997. 1997. The Concise Concise Oxford Oxford Dictionar Dictionary y of Linguis Linguistics tics,, Oxford: Oxford University Press Pike, Kenneth L. 1992. Linguistics Concepts. Concepts . London: University of Nebraska Press London Pike, Kenneth L. 1993. Talk, Thought and Thing . Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics, Linguistics, Inc. Randa Randal, l, Allis Allison, on, 2002. 2002. “Tagme “Tagmemic mics: s: an introd introduct uctio ion n to lisngu lisnguist istics ics for Perl Perl Developers Developers or “Wouldn’t know a tagmeme tagmeme if it bit me on the parse”. parse”. The unpublished dissertation paper Robins, R.H., 1980. General Linguistics, Linguistics , London: Longman Soeparno, 2008. Aliran 2008. Aliran Tagmemik , Tagmemik , Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana
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