Production Rules
1. Nonpast Indicative
Present Indicative Production Rules: Plain Affirmative Polite Affirmative Plain Negative Rule
[-stem] [u-stem]
[-stem] + [i-stem] + masu
Meaning X [does], X will [do]
Polite Negative
[-stem] + [-stem] + [a-stem] + nai [i-stem] + masen X doesn't [do], X will not [do]
Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative Polite Affirmative Plain Negative Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
taberu
tabemasu
tabenai
tabemasen
hanasu (to speak) hanasu
hanashimasu
hanasanai
hanashimasen
aruku (to walk)
aruku
arukimasu
arukanai
arukimasen
oyogu (to swim)
oyogu
oyogimasu
oyoganai
oyogimasen
yobu (to call)
yobu
yobimasu
yobanai
yobimasen
nomu (to drink)
nomu
nomimasu
nomanai
nomimasen
shinu (to die)
shinu
shinimasu
shinanai
shinimasen
tsukuru (to make) tsukuru
tsukurimasu
tsukuranai
tsukurimasen
matsu (to wait)
matsu
machimasu
matanai
machimasen
arau (to wash)
arau
araimasu
arawanai
araimasen
Usage Notes: 1. This form is generally used to express habitual action, or future action. It can be used generally where the present indicative or future tense is used in English.
2. Be sure to draw the distinction between habitual and progressive action. "I am eating" (that is, "I am in the process of eating right now") is expressed by the progressive form in Japanese, as in English. Many verbs in Japanese, however, also have an "instantaneous" quality about them, and in those cases the Japanese conceptualize a current condition as the progressive continuation of a previous change of state. Thus "I know" is not "shiru", but "shitte iru". That is, at some point in the past, I changed state from not knowing something to having learned about it, and I progressively continue to be in that state. Quite a few verbs in Japanese are like this.
2. Past Indicative
Past Indicative Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative [-stem] +
Rule
[-stem] [ta-stem]
[i-stem] + mashita
Meaning X [did]
Plain Negative [-stem] +
[a-stem] + nakatta
Polite Negative [-stem] + &
[i-stem] + masen & deshita
X didn't [do]
Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabeta
tabemashita
hanashita
hanashimashita
aruku (to walk)
aruita
arukimashita
oyoida
oyogimashita
yobu (to call)
yonda
yobimashita
hanasu (to speak)
oyogu (to swim)
tabenakatta
hanasanakatta
arukanakatta
oyoganakatta
yobanakatta
tabemasen deshita
hanashimasen deshita
arukimasen deshita
oyogimasen deshita
yobimasen deshita
2. Be sure to draw the distinction between habitual and progressive action. "I am eating" (that is, "I am in the process of eating right now") is expressed by the progressive form in Japanese, as in English. Many verbs in Japanese, however, also have an "instantaneous" quality about them, and in those cases the Japanese conceptualize a current condition as the progressive continuation of a previous change of state. Thus "I know" is not "shiru", but "shitte iru". That is, at some point in the past, I changed state from not knowing something to having learned about it, and I progressively continue to be in that state. Quite a few verbs in Japanese are like this.
2. Past Indicative
Past Indicative Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative [-stem] +
Rule
[-stem] [ta-stem]
[i-stem] + mashita
Meaning X [did]
Plain Negative [-stem] +
[a-stem] + nakatta
Polite Negative [-stem] + &
[i-stem] + masen & deshita
X didn't [do]
Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabeta
tabemashita
hanashita
hanashimashita
aruku (to walk)
aruita
arukimashita
oyoida
oyogimashita
yobu (to call)
yonda
yobimashita
hanasu (to speak)
oyogu (to swim)
tabenakatta
hanasanakatta
arukanakatta
oyoganakatta
yobanakatta
tabemasen deshita
hanashimasen deshita
arukimasen deshita
oyogimasen deshita
yobimasen deshita
nomu (to drink) nonda
nomimashita
nomimasen deshita
nomanakatta
shinu (to die)
shinda
shinimashita
tsukutta
tsukurimashita
matsu (to wait)
matta
machimashita
arau (to wash)
aratta
araimashita
tsukuru (to make)
shinanakatta
shinimasen deshita
tsukurimasen tsukuranakatta deshita
matanakatta
arawanakatta
machimasen deshita
araimasen deshita
3. Volitional
Volitional Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
Ichidan: [root] +
Rule
[-stem] [o-stem]
[-stem] + [root] + mai
[i-stem] + mashou
Godan: [ -stem] +
[-stem] +
[i-stem] + masumai
[u-stem] + mai Meaning I will [do]; Let's [do]
I will not [do]
Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative Polite Affirmative Plain Negative Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabeyou
tabemashou
tabemai
tabemasumai
hanasu (to speak) hanasou
hanashimashou
hanasumai
hanashimasumai
aruku (to walk)
arukou
arukimashou
arukumai
arukimasumai
oyogu (to swim)
oyogou
oyogimashou
oyogumai
oyogimasumai
yobu (to call)
yobou
yobimashou
yobumai
yobimasumai
nomu (to drink)
nomou
nomimashou
nomumai
nomimasumai
shinu (to die)
shinou
shinimashou
shinumai
shinimasumai
tsukuru (to make) tsukurou
tsukurimashou
tsukurumai
tsukurimasumai
matsu (to wait)
matou
machimashou
matsumai
machimasumai
arau (to wash)
araou
araimashou
araumai
araimasumai
Usage Notes: The negative forms of the volitional are relatively rare, although they are occasionally heard. They convey a very strong intention not to do something, or intention to not let something happen. The use of this form as a presumptive ("probably [does]") is outmoded. The affirmative forms are used as either an expression of personal volition such as "I think I'll eat something", or "I will go now", or an inclusive command/suggestion of the "let's do it" variety.
4. Past Volitional
Past Volitional (See Usage Notes) Production Rules:
Rule
Meaning
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative Plain Negative
Polite Negative
[-stem] +
[-stem] +
[-stem] +
[-stem] + &
[ta-stem] + rou
[i-stem] + mashitarou
[a-stem] + nakattarou
[i-stem] + masen & deshitarou
probably [did]; probably has/had [done]
probably didn't [do]; probably hasn't/hadn't [done]
Notice that all of these are the Past Indicative with "-rou" tacked onto the end. Inflection Examples:
Plain Affirmative
taberu (to eat) tabetarou
hanasu (to speak)
aruku (to walk)
oyogu (to swim)
Polite Affirmative Plain Negative
tabemashitarou
hanashitarou
hanashimashitarou
aruitarou
arukimashitarou
oyoidarou
oyogimashitarou
yobu (to call)
yondarou
yobimashitarou
nomu (to drink)
nondarou
nomimashitarou
shinu (to die)
shindarou
shinimashitarou
tsukuru (to make)
matsu (to wait)
arau (to wash)
Usage Notes:
tsukuttarou
tsukurimashitarou
mattarou
machimashitarou
arattarou
araimashitarou
tabenakattarou
hanasanakattarou
arukanakattarou
oyoganakattarou
yobanakattarou
nomanakattarou
shinanakattarou
tsukuranakattarou
matanakattarou
arawanakattarou
Polite Negative
tabemasen deshitarou
hanashimasen deshitarou
arukimasen deshitarou
oyogimasen deshitarou
yobimasen deshitarou
nomimasen deshitarou
shinimasen deshitarou
tsukurimasen deshitarou
machimasen deshitarou
araimasen deshitarou
These forms are actually not a volitional, but an outdated presumptive. They are the past counterparts of the volitional forms, however. They are exceedingly rare, and "deshitarou" may not even be commonly recognized. Forget you ever even saw them, and learn the forms in the Past Presumptive section instead.
5. Presumptive
Presumptive Production Rules:
Rule
Meaning
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative Plain Negative
[-stem] &
[-stem] & [-stem] + & [-stem] + &
[u-stem] & darou
[u-stem] & deshou
[a-stem] + nai & darou
[a-stem] + nai & deshou
X probably [does], X probably will [do]
Polite Negative
X probably doesn't [do], X probably won't [do]
Notice that these are the plain forms of the nonpast indicative with the plain presumptive auxiliary "darou" or the polite presumptive auxiliary "deshou". Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
taberu darou
taberu deshou
tabenai darou
tabenai deshou
hanasu darou
hanasu deshou
aruku (to walk)
aruku darou
aruku deshou
oyogu darou
oyogu deshou
yobu (to call)
yobu darou
yobu deshou
hanasu (to speak)
oyogu (to swim)
nomu (to drink) nomu darou
nomu deshou
hanasanai darou hanasanai deshou
arukanai darou
arukanai deshou
oyoganai darou
oyoganai deshou
yobanai darou
yobanai deshou
shinu (to die)
shinu darou
shinu deshou
tsukuru darou
tsukuru deshou
matsu (to wait)
matsu darou
matsu deshou
arau (to wash)
arau darou
arau deshou
tsukuru (to make)
nomanai darou
nomanai deshou
shinanai darou
shinanai deshou
tsukuranai darou
tsukuranai deshou
matanai darou
matanai deshou
arawanai darou
arawanai deshou
6. Past Presumptive
Past Presumptive Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
[-stem] & [-stem] & Rule
Meaning
[ta-stem] & darou
[ta-stem] & deshou
X probably [did], X probably has/had [done]
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
[-stem] + & [a-stem] + nakatta & darou
[-stem] + & [a-stem] + nakatta & deshou
X probably didn't [do], X probably hasn't/hadn't [done]
Notice that these are the plain forms of the past indicative with the plain presumptive auxiliary "darou" or the polite presumptive auxiliary "deshou". Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
hanasu (to speak)
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
tabeta deshou
tabenakatta darou
tabenakatta deshou
hanashita
darou
hanasanakatta
hanasanakatta
tabeta darou
hanashita
aruku (to walk)
aruita darou
deshou
darou
deshou
aruita deshou
arukanakatta darou arukanakatta deshou
oyogu (to swim)
oyoida darou
yobu (to call) yonda darou
nomu (to drink)
nonda darou
oyoganakatta darou
yonda deshou
yobanakatta darou
yobanakatta deshou
nonda deshou
nomanakatta darou nomanakatta deshou
shinda deshou
shinanakatta darou
shinanakatta deshou
tsukutta deshou
tsukuranakatta darou
tsukuranakatta deshou
matta deshou
matanakatta darou
matanakatta deshou
aratta deshou
arawanakatta darou arawanakatta deshou
shinu (to die)
shinda darou
matsu (to wait)
arau (to wash)
tsukutta darou
matta darou
aratta darou
oyoida deshou
tsukuru (to make)
oyoganakatta deshou
7. Continuative/(-te Form)
Continuative / -te Form Production Rules:
Rule
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
[-stem] [te-stem]
[-stem] + [-stem] + & [i-stem] + [a-stem] + nai mashite & de
Meaning [doing] (see notes)
1st Plain Negative
2nd Plain Negative [-stem] +
[a-stem] + nakute
not [doing] (see notes)
Polite Negative [-stem] + & [i-stem] + masen & de
Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
1st Plain Negative
tabete
tabemashite
tabenai de
aruku (to walk)
oyogu (to swim)
yobu (to call)
nomu (to drink)
shinu (to die)
tsukuru (to make)
matsu (to wait)
arau (to wash)
tabenakute
hanashimashite
hanasanai de hanasanakute
aruite
arukimashite
arukanai de
hanasu (to hanashite speak)
2nd Plain Negative
arukanakute
oyoide
oyogimashite
oyoganai de
yonde
yobimashite
yobanai de
nonde
nomimashite
nomanai de
shinde
shinimashite
shinanai de
tsukutte
tsukurimashite
tsukuranai de
oyoganakute
yobanakute
nomanakute
shinanakute
tsukuranakute
matte
machimashite
matanai de
aratte
araimashite
arawanai de
matanakute
arawanakute
Polite Negative
tabemasen de
hanashimasen de
arukimasen de
oyogimasen de
yobimasen de
nomimasen de
shinimasen de
tsukurimasen de
machimasen de
araimasen de
Usage Notes: The -te form has many uses in Japanese, but it is fundamentally an incomplete form on its own. Often it is used alone where "kudasai" would be expected to follow to make a request, or because of its continuative use, used to end a sentence where the speaker is really
leaving the thought trailing off at the end. These are grammatically incomplete. The -te form requires a main verb to complete its meaning.
8. Imperative
Imperative Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Plain Negative Polite Affirmative
Polite Negative
[-stem] &
[-stem] +
[-stem] + &
[u-stem] & na
[i-stem] + nasai
[i-stem] + nasaru & na
don't [do]!
[do]
don't [do]
Ichidan: [root] +
[root] + ro Rule
Ichidan: [root] +
[root] + yo Godan: [-stem] [e-stem]
Meaning [do]! Inflection Examples: Abrupt Affirmative
Abrupt Negative
Plain Affirmative
Plain Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabero / tabeyo
taberu na
tabenasai
tabenasaru na
hanase
hanasu na
hanashinasai
hanashinarasu na
aruku (to walk)
aruke
aruku na
arukinasai
arukinasaru na
oyogu (to swim) oyoge
oyogu na
oyoginasai
oyoginasaru na
yobu (to call)
yobe
yobu na
yobinasai
yobinasaru na
nomu (to drink)
nome
nomu na
nominasai
nominasaru na
shinu (to die)
shine
shinu na
shininasai
shininasaru na
tsukuru (to
tsukure
tsukuru na
tsukurinasai
tsukurinasaru na
hanasu (to speak)
make)
matsu (to wait)
mate
matsu na
machinasai
machinasaru na
arau (to wash)
arae
arau na
arainasai
arainarasu na
Usage Notes: For imperatives, "polite" is a relative term. Note that you cannot politely command someone of equal or higher status. The plain forms here are really quite abrupt, apt to be heard in emergency situations or when emotions are running high, but they might also be encountered from a clear superior to an inferior. The "polite" forms also generally require a superior-inferior relationship, but are more gentle, and would be used, for instance, from a mother to her child, or from an older sibling to a younger one. There are exceptions to these restrictions, especially in emotional situations, or differences in what is tolerated from intimates. In any polite conversation, if an imperative is called for, the request forms should be used instead. Note that the ichidan imperative ending in -yo is an older, more literary form not likely to be heard in conversation. It might be found in textbooks (instructions for exercises, for example), on tests, and so forth.
9. Request
Request (Polite "Imperative") Production Rules:
Rule
Polite Affirmative (1)
Polite Negative
[-stem] &
[-stem] + &
[te-stem] & kudasai
Meaning please [do]
Polite Honorific Affirmative (2) Affirmative
Honorific Negative
+ [-stem] + [-stem] & &
+ [-stem] &
o + [i-stem] & [a-stem] + nai kudasai & de kudasai
o + [i-stem] & nasaimase
please don't [do]
please [do]
please [do]
o + [i-stem] & nasaimasu na please don't [do]
Inflection Examples: Polite Affirmative (1)
Polite Negative
Polite Affirmative (2)
Honorific Affirmative
Honorific Negative
kaeru (to change)
hanasu (to speak)
aruku (to walk)
oyogu (to swim)
yobu (to call)
nomu (to drink)
shinu (to die)*
kaete kudasai
kaenai de kudasai
hanashite kudasai
matsu (to wait)
arau (to wash)
hanasanai de kudasai
ohanashi kudasai
ohanashi nasaimase
oyoide kudasai
yonde kudasai
nonde kudasai
matte kudasai
aratte kudasai
okae nasaimasu na
ohanashi nasaimasu na
oaruki kudasai
oaruki nasaimase
oyoganai de kudasai
ooyogi kudasai
ooyogi nasaimase
yobanai de kudasai
nomanai de kudasai
shinanai de shinde kudasai kudasai
okae nasaimase
arukanai de kudasai
okae kudasai
aruite kudasai
tsukuru (to tsukutte make) kudasai
oyobi kudasai
onomi kudasai
oaruki nasaimasu na
ooyogi nasaimasu na
oyobi nasaimase
oyobi nasaimasu na
onomi nasaimase
N/A
oshini kudasai
onomi nasaimasu na
oshini nasaimasu na
tsukuranai de kudasai
otsukuri kudasai
otsukuri nasaimase
matanai de kudasai
omachi kudasai
omachi nasaimase
arawanai de kudasai
oarai kudasai
otsukuri nasaimasu na
omachi nasaimasu na
oarai nasaimase
oarai nasaimasu na
* It is difficult to imagine many situations in which a request to die would be considered polite, no matter how flowery the language. Take this as a lesson that it's not just the forms but what you say that matters in being polite. The juxtaposition of the politeness and the nature of the request might make for a funny joke, though.
Usage Notes: The second polite affirmative case is more polite than the first one, and will frequently be heard from service people. See the notes about honorific forms in that section. The same warning about exceptions applies. For example, in the case of "nomu" the verb "meshiagaru" might be used instead as "meshiagarimase", or even "meshiagatte kudasai" in the right circumstances.
10. Provisional
Provisional Production Rules: Affirmative Rule
Negative
[-stem] + [-stem] + [e-stem] + ba [a-stem] + nakereba
Meaning if X [does]
if X doesn't [do]
Inflection Examples: Affirmative Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabereba
tabenakereba
hanasu (to speak) hanaseba
hanasanakereba
aruku (to walk)
arukeba
arukanakereba
oyogu (to swim)
oyogeba
oyoganakereba
yobu (to call)
yobeba
yobanakereba
nomu (to drink)
nomeba
nomanakereba
shinu (to die)
shineba
shinanakereba
tsukuru (to make) tsukureba
tsukuranakereba
matsu (to wait)
mateba
matanakereba
arau (to wash)
araeba
arawanakereba
11. Conditional
Conditional Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Rule
Polite Affirmative Plain Negative
Polite Negative
[-stem] +
[-stem] +
[-stem] + &
[a-stem] + nakattara
[i-stem] + masen & deshitara
[-stem] + [ta-stem] + ra [i-stem] + mashitara
Meaning if X were to [do]; when X [does]
if X weren't to [do]; when X doesn't [do]
Notice that these forms are composed of the past indicative plus "-ra". Inflection Examples:
Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
tabenakattara
tabemasen deshitara
taberu (to eat) tabetara
hanasu (to speak)
aruku (to walk)
tabemashitara
hanashitara
hanashimashitara
aruitara
arukimashitara
oyoidara
oyogimashitara
yobu (to call)
yondara
yobimashitara
nondara
nomimashitara
oyogu (to swim)
nomu (to drink)
hanasanakattara
arukanakattara
hanashimasen deshitara
arukimasen deshitara
oyoganakattara
oyogimasen deshitara
yobanakattara
yobimasen deshitara
nomanakattara
nomimasen
deshitara
shinu (to die)
shindara
shinimashitara
tsukuru (to make)
matsu (to wait)
tsukuttara
tsukurimashitara
mattara
machimashitara
arau (to wash) arattara
araimashitara
shinimasen deshitara
shinanakattara
tsukuranakattara
tsukurimasen deshitara
matanakattara
machimasen deshitara
arawanakattara
araimasen deshitara
12. Alternative
Alternative Production Rules: Plain Affirmative
Rule
Polite Affirmative Plain Negative
Polite Negative
[-stem] +
[-stem] +
[-stem] + &
[a-stem] + nakattari
[i-stem] + masen & deshitari
[-stem] + [ta-stem] + ri [i-stem] + mashitari
Meaning [doing] and ...; things like [doing]
[no info]
Notice that these forms are composed of the past indicative plus "-ri". Inflection Examples: Plain Affirmative
Polite Affirmative
Plain Negative
Polite Negative
taberu (to eat)
tabetari
tabemashitari
tabenakattari
tabemasen deshitari
hanashitari
hanashimashitari
hanasanakattari
hanashimasen
hanasu (to speak)
deshitari
aruku (to walk)
aruitari
arukimashitari
oyoidari
oyogimashitari
yobu (to call)
yondari
yobimashitari
oyogu (to swim)
nomu (to drink)
nondari
nomimashitari
arukanakattari
yobanakattari
yobimasen deshitari
nomanakattari
shinu (to die)
shindari
shinimashitari
shinanakattari
tsukuttari
tsukurimashitari
matsu (to wait)
mattari
machimashitari
arau (to wash) arattari
araimashitari
oyogimasen deshitari
tsukuru (to make)
arukimasen deshitari
oyoganakattari
tsukuranakattari
nomimasen deshitari
shinimasen deshitari
tsukurimasen deshitari
matanakattari
machimasen deshitari
arawanakattari
araimasen deshitari
Usage Notes: I'm only familiar with the use of the affirmative, plain form of this inflection. It is used to chain together an incomplete list of things the speaker does, and the final element of the list is followed by a form of the verb "suru", the inflection of which gives the timeframe (past, progressive, future). This construction would be used to translate "At camp this summer I did things like hike in the woods, boat on the lake, and carve wooden statues." Usage Examples: terebi mitari, hon yondari, tomodachi to asondari shite imasu. I'm doing things like watching television, reading books, and playing with friends.
13. Potential
Potential Production Rules: Ichidan: [root] + [root] + rareru Rule Godan: [-stem] + [e-stem] + ru Meaning be able to [do]; can [do] Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
taberareru
hanasu (to speak) hanaseru
aruku (to walk)
arukeru
oyogu (to swim)
oyogeru
yobu (to call)
yoberu
nomu (to drink)
nomeru
shinu (to die)
shineru
tsukuru (to make) tsukureru
matsu (to wait)
materu
arau (to wash)
araeru
Usage Notes: Conjugating to the potential form results in the creation of a new ichidan verb (even if the starting verb was godan). This resulting verb can be conjugated to give negatives, past tenses, presumptives, provisionals, polite forms, etc., just as any other ichidan verb. Of course, you must be careful, as there are conjugations that wouldn't make logical sense for a verb in the potential form.
There is a colloquial form of the potential for ichidan verbs only whose rule is [root] + reru. For "taberu", this would result in "tabereru". In some circles, using it may be considered "sloppy" speech habits, though.
14. Passive/Respectful Expression
Passive or Respectful Expression Production Rules: Ichidan: [root] + [root] + rareru Rule Godan: [-stem] + [a-stem] + reru Meaning is [done] (by ...); will be [done] (by ...) Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
taberareru
hanasu (to speak) hanasareru
aruku (to walk)
arukareru
oyogu (to swim)
oyogareru
yobu (to call)
yobareru
nomu (to drink)
nomareru
shinu (to die)
shinareru
tsukuru (to make) tsukurareru
matsu (to wait)
matareru
arau (to wash)
arawareru
Usage Notes: Conjugating to the passive form results in the creation of a new ichidan verb (even if the starting verb was godan). This resulting verb can be conjugated to give negatives, past tenses, presumptives, provisionals, polite forms, etc., just as any other ichidan verb. Of course, you must be careful, as there are conjugations that wouldn't make logical sense for a passive verb. There are two types of passive in Japanese. One form is similar in use to English and follows this pattern: [subject] wa [agent] ni [transitive verb in passive form]. In this sentence pattern, the subject marked by "wa" ( ) is the recipient of the passive action which is taken by the agent, for instance: kono keeki ha amerikajin ni yoku taberarete iru. This cake is often eaten by Americans. Japanese has another kind of passive which conveys a notion of misfortune occurring to the subject. It is a form which does not directly correspond to anything in English grammar. You can distinguish it from the other case because it either uses a transitive verb which takes an object, or else uses an intransitive verb. Neither is possible for equivalent verbs in English. For a transitive verb, the pattern is: [subject] wa [agent] ni [direct object] wo [transitive verb in passive form]. For example: watashi wa inu ni te wo kamareta. My hand was bitten by a dog. For an intransitive verb, the pattern is: [subject] wa [agent] ni [intransitive verb in passive form]. For example: ano ko ha ryoushin ni shinareta. That child had his parents die on him. Because of the misfortune conveyed by these sentences the subject of this kind of passive must almost always be animate. To use an inanimate subject almost causes it to become anthropomorphized (if it doesn't sound wrong outright). The passive form is also used in place of the root verb as an expression of respect when directly inquiring about (or, less likely, describing) another person's actions or state of being. One case you may occasionally hear is "oraremasu". The verb "oru" from which this comes is typically the humble form of the verb "iru", which means you would not normally use it to refer to others. In certain dialects, however, "oru" replaces "iru". At the same time, honorific language is hard even native Japanese speakers, so occasionally incongruent or incorrect forms are used. When "oraremasu" is used in this way it is not intended to display humble aspect — the honorific suffix takes over. Foreign learners of Japanese not situated
in dialect regions that use "oru" should generally use "irasshaimasu" when this level of respect is intended, as it is both very polite and cannot be misinterpreted.
15. Causative
Causative Production Rules: Ichidan: [root] + [root] + saseru Rule Godan: [-stem] + [a-stem] + seru Meaning X makes/will make (someone) [do] Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
tabesaseru
hanasu (to speak) hanasaseru
aruku (to walk)
arukaseru
oyogu (to swim)
oyogaseru
yobu (to call)
yobaseru
nomu (to drink)
nomaseru
shinu (to die)
shinaseru
tsukuru (to make) tsukuraseru
matsu (to wait)
mataseru
arau (to wash)
arawaseru
Usage Notes: Conjugating to the causative form results in the creation of a new ichidan verb (even if the starting verb was godan). This resulting verb can be conjugated to give negatives, past tenses, presumptives, provisionals, polite forms, etc., just as any other
ichidan verb. Of course, you must be careful, as there are conjugations that wouldn't make logical sense for a verb in the causative form.
16. Causative Passive
Causative Passive Production Rules: Ichidan: [root] + [root] + saserareru Rule Godan: [-stem] + [a-stem] + serareru Meaning X is made/will be made to [do] (by someone) Note that this form is simply the result of conjugating the causative form into the passive. Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
tabesaserareru
hanasu (to speak) hanasaserareru
aruku (to walk)
arukaserareru
oyogu (to swim)
oyogaserareru
yobu (to call)
yobaserareru
nomu (to drink)
nomaserareru
shinu (to die)
shinaserareru
tsukuru (to make) tsukuraserareru
matsu (to wait)
mataserareru
arau (to wash)
arawaserareru
Usage Notes:
Conjugating to the causative passive form results in the creation of a new ichidan verb (even if the starting verb was godan). This resulting verb can be conjugated to give negatives, past tenses, presumptives, provisionals, polite forms, etc., just as any other ichidan verb. Of course, you must be careful, as there are conjugations that wouldn't make logical sense for a verb in the causitive passive form. For ichidans there is a colloquial form whose rule is [root] + sasareru. For "taberu", this results in "tabesasareru". For godans there is a colloquial form whose rule is [a-stem] + sareru. For "nomu", this results in "nomasareru". Note that both these forms result from the contraction of "sera" into "sa".
17. Honorific
Honorific Production Rules:
Rule
+ [-stem] & + [-stem] & o + [i-stem] & ni naru
Meaning to [do]
o + [i-stem] & nasaru to [do]
Inflection Examples:
kaeru (to change) okae ni naru
okae nasaru
hanasu (to speak) ohanashi ni naru
ohanashi nasaru
aruku (to walk)
oaruki ni naru
oaruki nasaru
oyogu (to swim)
ooyogi ni naru
ooyogi nasaru
yobu (to call)
oyobi ni naru
oyobi nasaru
nomu (to drink)
onomi ni naru
onomi nasaru
shinu (to die)
onakunari ni naru*
onakunari nasaru*
tsukuru (to make) otsukuri ni naru
otsukuri nasaru
matsu (to wait)
omachi ni naru
omachi nasaru
arau (to wash)
oarai ni naru
* Note different verb "nakunaru"
oarai nasaru
() used in place of "shinu".
Usage Notes: The above represents common patterns for how verbs are made honorific, but the fact is that keigo is extremely complex. There are many exceptions governing how particular verbs are made honorific, depending on what forms have survived to modern times, as well as particular ways of expressing certain sentiments. For instance, notice that "taberu" could not be used as a model verb here (see below) and that a different verb entirely is used in place of "shinu". It would be advisable to check a reliable source for any particular case. Honorific forms are used only when a person other than the speaker (or a member of the speaker's group) is the subject. The subject of an honorific, in general, must be a person. This can be the listener or a third party. It elevates the position of the subject to show politeness to that person. This is a separate function from that provided by the "normal polite" forms ("desu", "masu"), which show politeness to the listener regardless of the subject. So for instance, if you're talking to an employee of a client company, you may speak of that company's president honorifically, but you still need the "masu" forms to show politeness to the employee you're speaking to. This remains true even if the subject of the honorific and the listener are the same person. Note that some verbs have inherently polite or honorific counterparts that are used in their place when an honorific is called for. Common Examples: taberu
()
meshiagaru
nomu
()
meshiagaru
iku
()
irassharu
kuru
()
irassharu
iru
()
irassharu
iu
()
ossharu
miru
()
goran ni naru goran nasaru
shiru
()
gozonji de irassharu
suru
()
nasaru
aru
()
gozaru*
* This is not actually honorific, since it applies only to inanimate things. It is neutrally polite. However, you might use it in situations in which honorific forms are called for.
For verbs that conjugate as noun + "suru", where the noun involved is of Chinese origin (i.e. the "on" reading of the kanji is used), generally the noun is prefixed with "go-" and "suru" becomes "nasaru". For example, "benkyou suru" becomes "gobenkyou nasaru".
18. Humble
Humble Production Rules:
Rule
+ [-stem] & + [-stem] & o + [i-stem] & suru
Meaning to [do]
o + [i-stem] & itasu to [do]
Inflection Examples:
kaeru (to change)
okae suru
okae itasu
hanasu (to speak)
ohanashi suru ohanashi itasu
hiku (to pull)
ohiki suru
ohiki itasu
fusegu (to prevent)
ofusegi suru
ofusegi itasu
yobu (to call)
oyobi suru
oyobi itasu
susumu (to make progress) osusumi suru osusumi itasu
N/A
N/A
tsukuru (to make)
otsukuri suru
otsukuri itasu
matsu (to wait)
omachi suru
omachi itasu
arau (to wash)
oarai suru
oarai itasu
shinu (to die)
Usage Notes: The above represents common patterns for how verbs are made humble, but the fact is that keigo is extremely complex. There are many exceptions governing how particular verbs are made humble, depending on what forms have survived to modern times, as well as
particular ways of expressing certain sentiments. For instance, notice that a number of the model verbs used for the other forms could not be used here. It would be advisable to check a reliable source for any particular case. Humble forms are used only when the speaker, or member of the speaker's in-group is the subject. It lowers the position of the subject in order to show politeness to the listener. This is a separate function from that provided by the "normal polite" forms ("desu", "masu"), which show politeness to the listener regardless of the subject, so these are still generally needed. Note that some verbs have inherently polite or humble counterparts that are used in their place when a humble form is called for. Examples: taberu
()
itadaku
nomu
()
itadaku
iku
()
mairu
kuru
()
mairu
ageru
()
sashiageru
iru
()
oru
iu
()
mousu
kiku
()
ukagau (to ask) uketamawaru (to hear or listen)
miru
()
haiken suru haiken itasu
shiru
()
zonjiru
suru
()
itasu
There are numerous exceptions in how particular verbs are made humble, so it would be advisable to check a reliable source for any particular case. For verbs that conjugate as noun + "suru", where the noun involved is of Chinese origin (i.e. the "on" reading of the kanji is used), generally "itasu" is used in place of "suru". For example, "benkyou suru" becomes "benkyou itasu".
19. Progressive
Progressive Production Rules:
Rule
[-stem] & [te-stem] & iru
Meaning to be [doing]
Inflection Examples:
taberu (to eat)
tabete iru
hanasu (to speak) hanashite iru
aruku (to walk)
aruite iru
oyogu (to swim)
oyoide iru
yobu (to call)
yonde iru
nomu (to drink)
nonde iru
shinu (to die)
shinde iru
tsukuru (to make) tsukutte iru
matsu (to wait)
matte iru
arau (to wash)
aratte iru
Usage Notes: Progressive is used similarly to the English progressive "[to be] doing", as in "I am working now". It can also express habitual action in the same way as the English, for instance "I am studying Japanese" would be "Nihongo wo benkyou shite imasu." Just as in English, it can mean being engaged in the activity right now, or being in the middle of a long-term continuing process, depending on the context. The progressive is also used to express a continuing state for "instantaneous" verbs such as "shiru". See the usage notes for present indicative. Another example is the verb "aku" used to describe a store as being open. One says "omise ha aite imasu" rather than *"omise ha akimasu" when one means "the store is open". What this literally means is, the store was closed at one point, at an instant of time it was opened, and it continues to be in that state: "the store is in the state of being open", sort of. Note that "aku" is most properly glossed as "to be open". This "to be ..." form of gloss can be a clue that a verb has this instantaneous quality (but does not guarantee it). The progressive, oddly enough, can also take on a perfective (completed action) meaning under certain circumstances. I'm not entirely certain what those circumstances are.
Verb Expressions and Compound Verbs Constructed Using the - stem (Under Construction) What I call the "i-stem" in these pages is often called the "masu-stem" in many sources. It's Japanese name is (ren'youkei). Attaching "masu" endings is only one of its uses. Most compound verbs are made by attaching another verb to the i-stem. Such verbs must be learned case by case, but there are also many productive attachments that work with almost any verb. Note: In case you did not read the overview, note that the "i-stem" does not end in "i" for an ichidan verb ending in "-eru". For instance, the "i-stem" or ren'youkei of "taberu" is "tabe".
Noun Form This is not a productive rule, but a pattern which happens to occur with many different verbs allowing the formation of a noun in a similar fashion to the -ing ending in English. Check with a dictionary for individual cases of verbs which can form nouns using this pattern.
Rule
[-stem] [i-stem]
Meaning [noun form]
(hajime) beginning, from (hajimeru) to begin (sawagi) uproar, commotion, from (sawagu) to make a disturbance Occasionally in nouns formed from this pattern, the okurigana is left off when writing the noun: (hanashi) story, talk, from (hanasu) to speak (kakari) official, person in charge, from (kakaru) to concern, to involve
Continuative Rule
[-stem] [i-stem]
Meaning [do] and Forms a continuative similar to, but more literary-sounding than the te-form. The interpreted tense of the continuative is relative to the main verb which completes the sentence.
o-tegami wo yomi, sugu ni henji wo kakimashita. I read your letter and immediately wrote a reply.
"Easy to do" Rule
[-stem] + [i-stem] + yasui
Meaning easy to [do] Note that "yasui" as an adjective by itself means "cheap" not "easy" as in "easy to do something". For the latter meaning, the correct adjective is "yasashii".
"Unable/reluctant to do" / "might happen" Rule
[-stem] + [i-stem] + kaneru
Meaning unable/reluctant to [do] This is a frequently misused expression, even by native speakers. The reason is that it has the negative connotation of inability or reluctance already built in, so when negated it flips back to a positive meaning again. Still, it will often be negated where the speaker meant the original sense. It's similar to how English speakers say "I could care less" when they mean "I couldn't care less". In the negative [i-stem] + kanenai it means that there is a danger or possibility that the adverse situation expressed by the verb may come to pass. See this JeKai entry for a discussion of this expression.
Godan verbs ending in "-eru" or "-iru" -eru aseru
to hurry
azakeru
to ridicule
daberu
to chatter
eru
to carve
eru
to choose
eru
to ridicule
fukeru
to be absorbed in
fuseru
to hide, to lie in ambush
haberu
to attend on
heru
to humble oneself
heru
to decrease
hineru
to twist
hirugaeru
to turn over, to wave
hoderu (???) hoteru
to feel hot
kaeru
to return
kaeru
to turn over
kaeru
to be hatched
kageru
to become cloudy
kakeru
to soar
keru
to kick
kuneru
to be crooked
kutugaeru
to be overturned
meru
to decrease
nameru (???) neru
to temper
neru
to refine
neru
to knead
nomeru
to fall forward
numeru
to be slippery
omoneru
to flatter
seru
to compete
seseru
to pick, to play with
shaberu
to talk, to chat
shigeru
to grow thick
shikeru
to be damp, to be moist
shimeru
to be wet, to become wet
soberu
to lie sprawled
suberu
to slip
takeru
to act violently
teru
to shine
tsumeru (???) tsuneru
to pinch
uneru
to undulate
useru
to root with the nose
yomigaeru
to rise from the dead
-iru aburagiru
to be greasy
bibiru
to be surprised
chigiru
to pledge
chiru
to scatter
dojiru
to mess up
guchiru
to grumble
hairu
to enter
hashiru
to run
hiru
to winnow
hojiru
to pick, to dig out
hotobashiru to gush, to spurt ibiru
to torment, to roast
ijiru
to fiddle with
ikiru
to become sultry
iru
to boil down
iru
to go in
iru
to need
iru
to roast
kagiru
to limit
kajiru
to knaw, to have a smattering of (knowledge)
kiru
to become misty
kiru
to cut
kishiru
to become misty
kishiru
to squeak, to creak
kojiru
to gouge, to wrench
kubiru
to grip, to strangle
kujiru
to gouge, to scoop
mairu
to come, to go (humble)
majiru
to mingle
meiru
to feel depressed
mikubiru
to underrate, to belittle
minagiru
to overflow
mogiru
to wrench
mojiru
to parody, to twist
mushiru
to pluck, to pick, to tear
najiru
to rebuke
nejiru
to twist
nigiru
to grasp
nijiru
to edge forward
nonoshiru
to abuse verbally
ochiiru
to fall, to sink
omoiiru
to ponder, to contemplate
