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Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal on Theory and Practice Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nere20
Translanguaging: origins and development from school to street and beyond a
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Gwyn Lewis , Bryn Jones & Colin Baker
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School of Education, Bangor University & ESRC Bilingualism Centre at Bangor University , Bangor , UK Published online: 29 Aug 2012.
Translanguaging: slanguaging: origins To cite this article: Gwyn Lewis , Bryn Jones & Colin Baker (2012) Tran and development from school to street and beyond, Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal on Theory and Practice, 18:7, 641-654, DOI: 10.1080/13803611.2012.718488
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.718488
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5 1 0 2 y r a u r b e F 8 1 5 1 : 4 0 t a ] h c s o b n e l l e t S f o y t i s r e v i n U [ y b d e d a o l n w o D
Educational Resea Educational Research rch and Evalu Evaluation ation Vol. 18, No. 7, October 2012, 641–654
Translanguaging: origins and development from school to street and beyond Gwyn Lewis*, Bryn Jones and Colin Baker School of Education, Bangor University & ESRC Bilingualism Centre at Bangor University, Bangor, UK 5 1 0 2 y r a u r b e F 8 1 5 1 : 4 0 t a ] h c s o b n e l l e t S f o y t i s r e v i n U [ y b d e d a o l n w o D
(Received 13 February 2012; final version received 20 June 2012) The article traces the Welsh origins of ‘‘translanguaging’’ from the 1980s to the recent rec ent glo global bal us use, e, ana analys lysing ing th thee dev develo elopme pment nt and ext extens ension ion of th thee ter term. m. It suggests that the growing popularity of the term relates to a change in the way bilingualism and multilingualism have ideologically developed not only among academ aca demics ics bu butt als also o ami amid d cha changi nging ng pol politi itics cs and pub public lic un under dersta stand nding ingss abo about ut bilingualism. The original pedagogic advantages of a planned use of translanguaging in pedagogy and dual literacy are joined by an extended conceptualisation that th at per percei ceives ves tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing as a spo sponta ntaneo neous, us, eve everyd ryday ay way of mak making ing mean me anin ing, g, sh shap apin ing g ex expe peri rien ence ces, s, an and d co comm mmun unic icat atio ion n by bi bilin lingu gual als. s. A ne new w concep con ceptu tualis alisati ation on of tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing is in br brain ain act activi ivity ty whe where re lea learni rning ng is throu th rough gh 2 lan langua guages ges.. A tri tripar partit titee dis distin tincti ction on is sug sugges gested ted bet betwee ween n cla classr ssroom oom translanguaging, universal translanguaging, and neurolinguistic translanguaging. The article concludes with a summary of recent research into translanguaging with suggestions for future research. Keywords: transl translang anguag uaging ing;; bil biling ingual ual edu educat cation ion;; Wal Wales; es; tra transl nslati ation on;; cod codeeswitching
Introduction
Translanguaging is a new and developing term. First used as a Welsh word in schools in Wales in the 1980s particularly by Cen Williams (1994), it was popularised, in part pa rtic icul ular ar bu butt not ex excl clus usiv ivel ely, y, by two boo books ks:: Ba Bake ker’ r’ss Foundat Foundations ions of Bil Bilingu ingual al ´ a’s (2009a) Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (2001, 2006, 2011) and Ofelia Garcı ´a’s provis vision ional al and dev develo elopin ping g ide idea, a, ‘‘T ‘‘Tran ransl slang anguag uaging ing Educa Edu cati tion on in th thee 21s 21stt Cen Centur tury y. As a pro is the process of making meaning, shaping experiences, gaining understanding and knowle kno wledge dge thr throug ough h the use of two lan langua guage ges’ s’’’ (Ba (Baker ker,, 201 2011, 1, p. 288 288). ). Thu Thus, s, both languages are used in a dynamic and functionally integrated manner to organise and mediate mental processes in understanding, speaking, literacy, and, not least, learning. Transl Tra nslang anguag uaging ing con concer cerns ns effe effecti ctive ve com communi municat cation ion,, fun functi ction on rat rather her tha than n for form, m, cognitive activity, as well as language production. The aim of this article is to trace the origins of ‘‘translanguaging’’ in education (some of which was written in Welsh) and analyse how the term has grown and
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et al. G. Lewis Lewis et
expanded. There is a related article on how translanguaging relates to similar ideas such su ch as co code de-s -swi witc tchi hing ng an and d mu mult ltic icom ompe pete tenc nce, e, an and d an an anal alys ysis is of pe peda dago gogi gicc tran tr ansl slan angu guag aging ing (se (seee Le Lewi wis, s, Jo Jones nes,, & Ba Bake ker, r, in pre press, ss, whi which ch in incl clud udes es re rese sear arch ch,, rela re late ted d cl clas assro sroom om st stra rate tegi gies es su such ch as tr tran ansl slat atio ion, n, co const nstra rain ints ts suc such h as a ch chil ild’ d’ss langua lan guage ge comp competen etence, ce, rel relati ationsh onship ip to the sub subjec jectt cur curricu riculum lum inc includ luding ing for Dea Deaf f students, and contextualisation issues). The article also aims to share how recent research into translanguaging in the classroom has further elucidated the notion of the term. In doing this, the essential assumption is that there can be no exact or essentialist definition as the meaning of translanguaging will become more refined and increasingly clarified, conceptually and through further research. The aim of the article is also to suggest that the growing popularity of the term relates to a change in the way bilingual and multilingual education, bilingualism, and multilingualism have developed not only among academics but also amid changing politics and public understandings about bilingual education and bilingualism. This is where we begin: the context in which the term developed.
Background
Wales In the context of Wales, the first 1980s’ use of ‘‘translanguaging’’ was in education. This needs to be understood in terms of a reaction against the historic separation of two ‘‘m ‘‘mono onolin lingua gualism lisms’’ s’’ (We (Welsh lsh and Eng Englis lish) h) wit with h a diff differe erence nce in pres prestig tige. e. The portr po rtray ayal al of We Wels lsh h an and d En Engl glish ish had oft often en be been en abo about ut co confl nflic ict, t, opp oppre ress ssion ion,, an and d suppres sup pressio sion, n, of Eng Englis lish h lan langua guage ge dom domina inance nce and Wel Welsh sh lan langua guage ge end endange angermen rment. t. Expressions such as ‘‘language struggle’’, ‘‘fighting for survival’’, and ‘‘treachery’’ suggested a language battleground. When Welsh language revitalisation began to beco be come me su succ cces essf sful ul in th thee fin final al de deca cade dess of th thee 20 20th th ce cent ntur ury, y, it op open ened ed up th thee possibility of the two languages being seen as mutually advantageous in a bilingual school, person, and society. The positive concept of a competently bilingual child and adu adult lt dev develo eloped ped post post-19 -1960s 60s with man many y gro growing wing posi positiv tivee ass associ ociati ations ons (e. (e.g., g., communication, cognition, cultural, curriculum, and employment – see Baker, 2007). A sym symboli bolicc exa exampl mplee of thi thiss is the 192 1920s’ 0s’ bel belief ief tha thatt bil biling ingual ualism ism cau caused sed men mental tal conf co nfus usio ion n (S (Sae aer, r, 19 1922 22,, 19 1923 23), ), to Jo Jone ness (1 (195 959) 9),, wh who o fo foun und d bi bili ling ngua uals ls at no disadvantage in ‘‘intelligence’’ to monolinguals, to the publicising in Wales of the research of Peal and Lambert (1962) in the 1970s and 1980s that showed a few of the cognitive rewards of being bilingual. By the 1980s, the idea of Welsh and English as holi ho list stic ic,, ad addi diti tive ve,, an and d ad adva vant ntag ageo eous us wa wass be begi ginn nnin ing, g, al allo lowi wing ng th thee id idea ea of tran tr ansl slan angu guag agin ing g to em emer erge ge – fir first stly ly,, wi with thin in ed educ ucat atio ion n in No Nort rth h Wa Wale less an and, d, subsequ sub sequentl ently, y, dev develo eloping ping wit within hin tha thatt edu educat cationa ionall con contex textt esp especi eciall ally y at cla classr ssroom oom level.
Global
In a mo more re in inte terna rnati tion onal al co cont ntex ext, t, the gr growi owing ng pop popula ulari rity ty of tr tran ansl slan angu guag aging ing in education can be seen as emancipation from many negative ideas about bilinguals and bilingualism in the first half of the 20th century. This includes: additive (where a seco se cond nd la lang ngua uage ge ad adds ds to ra rathe therr tha than n re repl plac aces es the firs firstt la lang ngua uage ge)) ra rath ther er tha than n ´ a, 20 subtrac sub tractiv tivee bil biling ingual ualism ism (Ga (Garcı rcı ´a, 2009 09a; a; La Lamb mber ert, t, 19 1974 74), ), ho holi listi sticc ra rath ther er tha than n
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fractional conceptualisations of bilinguals (Grosjean, 2008, 2010), code-switching as natural in early childhood language development compared with strict one parent – one lan langua guage ge (OP (OPOL) OL) com compart partmen mental talisa isatio tion n str strate ategie giess (Ba (Baker, ker, 201 2010). 0). Rec Recentl ently, y, neurolinguistic studies have shown that both languages remain active when just one of them is being used and can be easily accessed and used by a bilingual speaker (Hoshino & Thierry, 2011; Thierry & Wu, 2007; Wu & Thierry, 2010). Thus overall, ‘‘bilingual ‘‘bil ingualism’’ ism’’ moved in the 20th century from being viewed (by many but not all) as a disadvantage to an advantage, from causing mental confusion to the benefits of dual language capability, from solitudes to synergies. In education, separating languages in the classroom by subject or topic, teacher, time (half days, whole days) has hitherto been fashionable. An example is Two Way Immersion in the United States, where languages (e.g., Spanish and English) are kept separate, in theory, by being used on alternate days, half-days, or lessons (Howard, Sugarman, Sugarm an, Christi Christian, an, Lindho Lindholm-Lea lm-Leary, ry, & Rogers Rogers,, 2005; Lindholm-Leary, Lindholm-Leary, 2001). The idea of language compartmentalisation in bilingual education appears to relate to,, fo to forr ex exam ampl ple, e, (a (a)) gi givi ving ng in incr crea easi sing ng ti time me to th thee ma majo jori rity ty la lang ngua uage ge wh when en assimilation is predominant; or (b) giving protected and sometimes maximal time to an indigenous or heritage language to optimise fluency, literacy, confidence, and positive attitudes around that language; (c) avoiding inefficiencies in translation and duplication; and (d) prejudices about bilinguals becoming mentally confused if two languages are active. The tide is slowly moving away from separating languages in the classroom to the use of two or more languages in the same lesson (Baker, 2010; Blackledge & Creese, ´ a, 2009a; Fortune, Tedick, & Walker, 2008; Lindholm-Leary & Howard, 2010; Garcı ´a, 2008; Met, 2008). This reflects the idea that children pragmatically use both of their languages in order to maximise understanding and performance in the home, street, and school. It also reflects the growing belief that content and integrated language learning (CLIL) is preferable to second language learning lessons both for successful language learning and the potential academic achievement gains when both languages are utilised in a lesson. Thus, separating languages in classrooms has begun to move towards more concurrent and integrated use of two or more languages (Baker, 2010). Having provided provided a brief sketch of the historical context context in which transla translanguagi nguaging ng developed in education, we now turn specifically to the origin of the term and how it has developed from the 1980s to the present. Development of the term ‘‘translanguaging’’ Cen Williams and the Welsh origins of ‘‘translanguaging’’
The ter term m ‘‘t ‘‘tran ransla slangua nguagin ging’’ g’’ was cre create ated d by Cen Wil Willia liams, ms, a wel well-kn l-known own Wel Welsh sh educationalist, in the 1980s, for the planned and systematic use of two languages for teaching and learning inside the same lesson (Baker, 2003, 2011; Williams, 1994, 1996 19 96). ). Coi Coined ned as a We Wels lsh h wo word rd ‘‘ ‘‘tr traw awsie sieit ithu hu’’ ’’ by hi him m an and d a co coll llea eague gue (D (Dafy afydd dd Whittall) during an in-service course for deputy head teachers in Llandudno (North Wales),, it was later translated into English as ‘‘tra Wales) ‘‘transling nslinguifyi uifying’’ ng’’ but then changed to ‘‘translanguaging’’ following a conversation between Cen Williams and Colin Baker. Thee te Th term rm ‘‘ ‘‘tr traw awsi siei eith thu’ u’’’ (tr (tran ansl slan angua guagi ging ng)) wa wass in init itia iall lly y co coin ined ed to nam namee a pedagogical practice which deliberately switches the language mode of input and output in bilingual classrooms: ‘‘translanguaging means that you receive information through the medium of one language (e.g., English) and use it yourself through the
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G. Lewis Lewis et et al.
medium of the other language (e.g., Welsh). Before you can use that information successfully, you must have fully understood it’’ (Williams, 1996, p. 64). The term rema re mains ins an im impor porta tant nt fe feat ature ure of Wel Welsh sh bi bili ling ngua uall ed educ ucat ation ion,, ha havi ving ng al also so be been en adopted in other parts of the world as a key modern concept in some bilingual ´ a, 2009a, 2009b) ‘‘capturing the imagination of classrooms and communities (Garcı ´a, those th ose wh who o be beli liev evee th that at te teac ache hers rs an and d pa part rtic icul ularl arly y st stude udents nts na natu tura rall lly y use bo both th languages to maximize learning’’ (Baker, 2011, p. 288). ‘‘Translanguaging’’ was invented by Williams but is linked to Jacobson’s (1983, 1990) concept of purposeful concurrent uses of two languages in a bilingual classroom and Fa Falti ltis’ s’ (19 (1990) 90) dis discus cussio sion n of 16 cue cuess for swi switch tching ing the lan langua guage ge med medium ium of tea teachi ching. ng. However, Williams (2002) emphasised that translanguaging refers to a different use of the two languages from that outlined by Jacobson and Faltis, a skill that is natural for any bilingual individual: ‘‘translanguaging entails using one language to reinforce the other in order to increase understanding and in order to augment the pupil’s ability in both bo th la lang ngua uage ges’ s’’’ (p. 40 40). ). He go goes es on to de desc scri ribe be th thee pro proce cess ss fro from m the ch chil ild’ d’ss perspective: pupils internalise new ideas they hear, assign their own understanding to the message/concept, and simultaneously and immediately utilise the message/concept in their other language(s). In doing so, they augment and supplement the message/ concept through dual language processing. While Williams (1996) conceived of translanguaging as a pedagogic theory, he recognised that underpinning this was a cognitive process involving a two-language inter in tercha change nge,, but ha havi ving ng imp import ortant ant edu educat catio ional nal out outcom comes. es. He sug sugge geste sted d tha thatt the process proce ss of tran translan slangua guaging ging uses vari various ous cogn cognitiv itivee proc processi essing ng skil skills ls in list listenin ening g and reading, the assimilation and accommodation of information, choosing and selecting from the brain storage to communicate in speaking and writing. writing. Thus, translanguaging translanguaging requires a deeper understanding than just translating as it moves from finding parallel words to processing and relaying meaning and understanding (Williams, 1996). Translanguag Transl anguaging ing thus comme commenced nced as a pedagogical theory, theory, but with an emphasis on the child and not the teacher in parallel with the strong child-centred approach in most Welsh classr classrooms. ooms. Williams (2003) suggests that translanguaging translanguaging focuses more on the pupils’ use of two languages (and what they are able to achieve by using both lang la ngua uage ges) s) th than an on the tea teach chers ers’’ ro role le wi withi thin n the cl clas assro sroom, om, al altho thoug ugh h it ma may y be engi en gine neere ered d by the tea teach cher er.. Ag Agai ain, n, wi with th an em empha phasi siss on a chi child ld’s ’s de deve velo lopm pmen ent, t, Williams (2003) suggested that translanguaging often uses the stronger language to develo dev elop p the wea weaker ker lan langua guage ge thus cont contrib ributin uting g towa towards rds a pote potenti ntiall ally y rel relati ativel vely y balanced development of a child’s two languages. There are boundaries when translanguaging can operate in the classroom that are less to do with age and nothing to do with a specific language, but about a child’s duall lan dua langua guage ge com compete petence nce.. Cons Conseque equently ntly,, Wil Willia liams ms (20 (2002) 02) adv advoca ocated ted that tra transnslanguaging is more appropriate for children who have a reasonably good grasp of both languages, and may not be valuable in a classroom when children are in the early stages of learning and developing their second language. It is a strategy for retain ret aining ing and dev develo elopin ping g bil bilingu inguali alism sm rat rather her tha than n for the ini initia tiall tea teachin ching g of the second language: it should be emphasised that the aim in Wales is to strengthen and to use both languages to a high level in orde orderr to develop balanced balanced and confi confident dent bilingual bilingual pupils... pupils... The aim in the USA is different because there, the priority in education is to acquire the second language, English. (Williams, 2002, p. 47)
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In the Welsh context, context, it is seen as a natural way of simult simultaneousl aneously y developing and extending a child’s bilingualism within a curriculum context whilst also deepening understanding of the subject area.
The advantages of translanguaging
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Williams’ publications and conference presentations became well known in Wales with dissemination in Welsh and English. In 2001, a close colleague of Williams publicised ‘‘translanguaging’’ through the third edition of of Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Bilingualism , and this launched the term internationally (Baker, 2001). Develop Dev eloping ing Wil Willia liams’ ms’ con concept ceptual ualisa isatio tion n of tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing,, Bak Baker er (20 (2001, 01, 200 2006, 6, 2011) 201 1) dis discus cusses ses four pote potentia ntiall educ educati ationa onall adv advanta antages ges to tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing,, thus arguing for the importance of the concept as a pedagogical practice: It may promote a deeper and fuller understanding of the subject matter. . It may help the development of the weaker language. . It may facilitate home-school links and co-operation. . It may help the integration of fluent speakers with early learners. .
Firstl Firs tly, y, tr tran ansl slan angu guag agin ing g ma may y he help lp st stud uden ents ts to ga gain in a de deep eper er an and d fu full ller er understanding of the subject matter. Taking the idea of the Vygotskian ‘‘zone of proxim pro ximal al dev develo elopmen pment’’ t’’ that fur further ther lea learnin rning g is bas based ed on str stretch etching ing pre pre-ex -exist isting ing knowledge, plus the idea that the interdependence of two languages enables crosslingui lin guistic stic transfer transfer (Cum (Cummins mins,, 200 2008), 8), it can be arg argued ued tha thatt tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing is an effective and efficient way of enabling this: It is possible in a monolingual teaching situation, for students to answer questions or write an essay about a subject without fully understanding it. Processing for meaning may not have occurred. Whole sentences or paragraphs can be copied or adapted out of a te text xtbo book ok,, fr from om th thee in inte tern rnet et or fr from om di dict ctat atio ion n by th thee te teac ache herr wi with thou outt re real al understanding. It is less easy to do this with ‘‘translanguaging’’. To read and discuss a topic in one language, and then to write about it in another language, means that the subject matter has to be processed and ‘‘digested’’. (Baker, 2011, p. 289)
Baker (20 Baker (2011) 11) has rec recentl ently y arg argued ued tha thatt thi thiss fits int into o a soc socioc iocultu ultural ral theory of learning (Drury, 2007; Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, Steinman , 2011; Swain & Lapkin, 2005) which whi ch is ver very y appr appropri opriate ate for the bil biling ingual ual cla classro ssroom: om: ‘‘t ‘‘the he tea teache cherr can allow a stude st udent nt to use bo both th la lang ngua uage ges, s, but in a pl plan anned ned,, de deve velo lopme pmenta ntall an and d st strat rateg egic ic manner, to maximize a student’s linguistic and cognitive capability, and to reflect that language is sociocultural both in content and process’’ (Baker, 2011, p. 290). The second potential advantage advantage of transl translangua anguaging ging is that it may help students to develop competence (oral communication and literacy) in their weaker language, as it may prevent them from undertaking the main part of their work through the stronger language while attempting less challenging tasks in their weaker language. ‘‘‘Translanguaging’ attempts to develop academic language skills in both languages leading to a fuller bilingualism and biliteracy’’ (Baker, 2011, p. 290). Third Th irdly ly,, tr tran ansl slan angu guag aging ing ma may y ea ease se ho home me-sc -schoo hooll li link nkss an and d co co-op -opera erati tion, on, especially if the child is being educated in a language that is not understood by the parents. As translanguaging involves the reprocessing of content, it may lead to deeper understanding and learning, and this, in turn, allows the child to expand,
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extend, and intensify what he has learned through one language in school through discussion with the parent at home in the other language (Baker, 2011). Fourthly, the classroom integration of fluent first language (L1) speakers and second language (L2) learners of various levels of attainment can be facilitated by tran tr ansl slan angu guag aging ing.. Fu Furth rther ermor more, e, L2 ab abil ilit ity y an and d su subj bjec ectt co conte ntent nt le lear arni ning ng ca can n be developed concurrently if a sensitive and strategic use is made of both languages in class (Maillat & Serra, 2009). This advantage was particularly important in Williams’ (1994,, 1996) original (1994 original discus discussion sion of transl translanguag anguaging ing in that he argued that it devel develops ops a student’s minority language, be it their first or second language.
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In Wales, the term ‘‘translanguaging’’ was promoted in education at the turn of the 21st century not just by academics and their writing but through central government and ‘‘official’’ channels, giving it acceptance and promotion and educational and profess pro fessiona ionall leg legiti itimac macy, y, alo alongs ngside ide the conc concept ept of ‘‘t ‘‘tran ransli sliter teracy acy’’ ’’ (Ba (Baker ker,, 200 2003). 3). Estyn, Est yn, Her Maj Majesty esty’s ’s Insp Inspecto ectorat ratee for Edu Educat cation ion and Tra Traini ining ng in Wal Wales, es, in the discussion paper Developing paper Developing Dual Literacy (2002) Literacy (2002) argued that ‘‘the skills involved in dual literacy are sometimes called ‘translanguaging’ or ‘transliterative’ skills’’ (p. 3). In this document, ‘‘dual literacy’’ is defined as the ability to speak, read, and write easily in both languages together with ‘‘the added ability to move confidently and smoothly between languages for different purposes’’ (Estyn, 2002, p. 1). The paper goe oess on to ou outl tliine th thee im impo port rtan ance ce of de dev vel elop opin ing g du dual al li lite tera racy cy fr from om th thre reee perspectives: It assists individuals’ individuals’ intellectual intellectual development by refining their abili ability ty to think, understand, and internalise information in two languages. . It prepares individuals to learn additional languages, by developing flexibility of mind and a positive approach towards other languages and cultures. . It prepares individuals effectively for situations where they need to use both languages and transfer from one language to the other. (Estyn, 2002, p. 2) .
Estyn emphasised that dual literacy (and ‘‘translanguaging’’) in the classroom is relevant to any two or more languages, with its features of speaking and listening, readin rea ding, g, and wri writing ting being the sam samee wha whatev tever er the lan langua guages ges.. As the these se lan langua guage ge modes are interdependent, they are best developed in an integrated way at different levels, as exemplified below (in the context of Welsh and English): Speaking and Listening – use personal or factual detail heard in one language to give the gist of it in another; – express information or opinions in a formal register to a group of people who speak different languages by switching easily from one language to the other as required. . Reading – use sources of information in both languages and summarise main points or opinions for different purposes, orally or in writing; – read a text or part of a text in one language and complete a number of tasks based on it in another language; .
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Writing – communicate information, read or heard, from one language to the other in writing; – summarise information received in one language and present it accurately in writing in another language.
Estyn Esty n (2 (200 002) 2) no note ted d th that at pu pupi pils ls wi with th du dual al li lite tera racy cy sh shou ould ld de demo mons nstr trat atee an increasing ability to: draw on their linguistic resources in Welsh and English to reinforce their skills in both languages; . take full advantage of communication in both languages to transfer from one language langu age to the other in order to fulfil specific specific tasks that need an understanding understanding of both languages. (p. 4) .
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Extending the term beyond education: Garcı´ Garcı ´ a, a, Hornberger, and Creese and Blackledge
What began in Wales in the early 1980s, and has developed in Welsh education circl ci rcles es fro from m the 19 1980 80ss to the pre presen sent, t, has ver very y re recen cently tly cau caught ght the im imagi aginat nation ion of exp expert ert Nor North th Ame Americ rican an and Eng Englis lish h edu educa catio tional nalis ists. ts. In par partic ticula ular, r, the ter term m hass be ha been en ge gene nera rali lise sed d fr from om sc scho hool ol to st stre reet et,, fr from om pe peda dago gogi gica call pr prac acti tice cess to ever ev eryd yday ay co cogn gnit itiv ivee pr proc oces essi sing ng,, fr from om cl clas assr sroo oom m le less sson onss to al alll co cont ntex exts ts of a bilingual’s bilingual ’s life. ´ a (20 Ofelia Ofel ia Gar Garcı cı ´a (2009a 09a,, 200 2009b) 9b) val valuab uably ly ext extende ended d the ter term m ‘‘t ‘‘tran ransla slangua nguagin ging’’ g’’ beyond pedagogy to mean more than pedagogic variation of input and output. She regards it as a strategy that bilinguals use to make meaning, shape their experiences, gain ga in un unde ders rstan tandi ding ng an and d kno knowle wledg dge, e, an and d ma make ke se sens nsee of the their ir bi bili ling ngua uall wo worl rlds ds through the everyday use of two languages: ‘‘translanguaging is indeed a powerful mech me chan anis ism m to co cons nstr truc uctt un unde ders rsta tand ndin ings gs,, to in incl clud udee ot othe hers rs,, an and d to me medi diat atee ´ a, 2009a, pp. 307–308). Indeed, she understandings across language groups’’ (Garcı ´a, arg rgue uess th that at it is imp mpos ossi sibl blee to li liv ve in co com mmu muni niti tiees su such ch as Ne New w Yo York rk and ´ a, 2009b, p. 151). communicate among multilinguals without translanguaging (Garcı ´a, Base Ba sed d on obs obser erva vati tion on of tra transl nslan angu guag aging ing pr prac actic tices es in bi bili lingu ngual al co comm mmun uniti ities es,, ´ a’s considerations of translanguaging generalised the concept from academia Garcı ´a’s ´ a, 2009a). to the more complex everyday realities of home and street (Garcı ´a, ´ a (2009a, p. 2011) views translanguaging – ‘‘or engaging in bilingual or Garcı ´a multilingual discourse practices’’ (2009a, p. 44) – as an approach to bilingualism that is centred not on languages but on the observable, natural communicative practice of bilinguals and, if properly interpreted and understood and practiced in schools, as a means to enhance pupils’ cognitive, language and literacy abilities: Translanguaging includes code-switching, the shift between two languages in context, and it also includes translation; however it differs from both of these simple practices in that it refers to the process by which bilingual students perform bilingually in the myriad ways of classrooms – reading, writing, taking notes, discussing, signing etc. Tran Tr ansla slang ngua uagin ging g is no nott on only ly a wa way y to ‘‘s ‘‘sca caffo ffold ld’’ ’’ in inst stru ruct ctio ion, n, to ma make ke se sense nse of lear le arni ning ng an and d la lang ngua uage ge;; ra rath ther er,, tr tran ansl slan angu guag agin ing g is pa part rt of th thee me meta tadi disc scur ursi sive ve regimes regi mes that stu studen dents ts in the twenty-fi twenty-first rst century century mus mustt per perfor form m . . . . (Ga (Garcı rcı´a, ´a, 2011 2011,, p. 147)
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´ a includes In accord with the Welsh educati educational onal origins of transl translangua anguaging, ging, Garcı ´a the classroom as an environment where translanguaging is observed but suggests that in a bilingual curriculum, translanguaging is more flexible and evident than that ´ a, 2009a, p. 302). She argues that translanguaging is not described by Williams (Garcı ´a, just a matter of arranging language input and output as it occurs naturally in a bilingual classroom where children move between their languages spontaneously and ´ a 200 pragma pra gmatic ticall ally y (Ga (Garcı rcı ´a 009a 9a,, 200 009b 9b). ). Sh Shee su sug gge gest stss th that at tr tran ansl slan angu gua agi ging ng is increasingly and serendipitously prevalent in many bilingual classrooms:
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Despite curricular arrangements that separate languages, the most prevalent bilingual practice in the bilingual education classrooms is that of translanguaging. Because of the incr in crea ease sed d re reco cogn gnit itio ion n of th thee bi bili ling ngua uall co cont ntin inuu uum m th that at is pr pres esen entt in sc scho hool olss an and d commu com munit nities ies th that at are rev revita italiz lizing ing th their eir lan langua guages ges,, or sch schoo ools ls whe where re mo more re tha than n one language group is present, linguistically integrated group work is prevalent in many bilingual bilin gual classr classrooms ooms.. Here, stud students ents appropriate the use of lan langua guage, ge, and although although teachers may carefully plan when and how languages are to be used, children themselves use their entire linguistic repertoires flexibly. Often this language use appropriation by ´ a, 2009a, p. 304) students is done surreptitiously. (Garcı ´a,
´ a and Williams agree that translanguaging is a most effective means of Garcı ´a ´ a arguing that translanguaging learning, with Garcı ´a translanguaging is important in a movement from relati rel ativel vely y mon monoli olingua nguall or sepa separat ratist ist lan langua guage ge pra practi ctices ces in the cla classro ssroom om to the cognitive and communicative advantages of translanguaging: It is im impo port rtan antt fo forr bi bili ling ngua uall ed educ ucat ator orss an and d bi bili ling ngua uall st stud uden ents ts to re reco cogn gniz izee th thee importance and value of translanguaging practices. Too often bilingual students who tran tr ansl slan angu guag agee su suffe fferr li ling ngui uist stic ic sh sham amee be beca caus usee th they ey ha have ve be been en bu burd rden ened ed wi with th monogl mon ogloss ossic ic ide ideolo ologie giess tha thatt val value ue on only ly mo monol noling ingual ualism ism ... An And d to too o of often ten bil biling ingual ual teachers hide their natural translanguaging practices from administrators and others because they have been taught to believe that only monolingual ways of speaking are ‘‘good’’ and valuable. Yet, they know that to teach effectively in bilingual classrooms, ´ a, 2009a, p. 308) they must translanguage. (Garcı ´a,
´ a and Sylvan (2011) have further developed the notion of translanguaging Garcı ´a as an effective means of learning by research in United States International High Schools, where, for example, children speak over 55 languages, and hence ‘‘dynamic plurilingual pedagogy’’ is essential. They suggest that translanguaging best operates in a co conte ntext xt whe where re se seve ven n pri princ ncip iple less ar aree en enga gage ged: d: he hete tero roge gene neity ity in la lang ngua uage ge is cele ce lebra brate ted, d, co coll llabo abora rati tion on am among ong bo both th te teac ache hers rs an and d stu stude dents nts,, le lear arne nerr-ce centr ntred ed clas cl assr sroom ooms, s, la lang ngua uage ge and co cont ntent ent in inte tegr grat ation ion,, in incl clus usiv ivee pl pluri urili ling ngual ual us usee fr from om students, experiential learning, and local autonomy and responsibility. In terms of ´ a and Sylvan define this as ‘‘Rather than ‘‘pluriling ‘‘plu rilingualis ualism m from the students students’’, ’’, Garcı ´a havi ha ving ng a str struct uctur uree whe where re la lang ngua uage ge pr prac actic tices es ar aree con contro troll lled ed by a ri rigi gid d ex exte tern rnal al language education policy, the students use diverse language practices for purposes of learning, and teachers use inclusive language practices for purposes of teaching’’ (p. 397). Anot An othe herr em emin inen entt US ed educ ucat atio iona nali list st ha hass re rece cent ntly ly jo join ined ed Ga Garc rcı ´a ı´ a in both substantiating and extending the meaning of translanguaging. Nancy Hornberger (2003) and Hornberger and Link (2012) provided a theoretical framework in which tran tr ansl slan angu guag agin ing g ca can n be co conc ncep eptu tual alis ised ed an and d co cont ntex extu tual alis ised ed wh whil ilee no noti ting ng it itss impor im porta tanc ncee in edu educa cati tion. on. Dr Draw awin ing g on he herr Continu Continua a of Bil Bilite iterac racy y (Hornberger,
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2003), it is shown how educational contexts can ‘‘offer new spaces to be exploited for innovative programs, curricula, and practices that recognize, value, and build on the multip multiple, le, mobile communicative communicative repertoires, translanguaging translanguaging and transna transna-tional literacy practices of students and their families’’ (Hornberger & Link, 2012, p. 274). From a sim simila ilarr eth ethnogr nograph aphic ic and eco ecolog logica icall per perspe spectiv ctivee to Hor Hornbe nberge rger, r, UK scholars Creese and Blackledge (2010; also Blackledge & Creese, 2010) profitably util ut iliise th thee mu mult ltil ilin ingu gual al co cont ntex extt of Eng ngla land nd to ex exte tend nd th thee im impo port rtan ance ce of tran tr ansl slan angu guag aging ing in the cl clas assro sroom om.. Dr Drawi awing ng on the their ir et ethno hnogr grap aphi hicc re rese sear arch ch in comple com plement mentary ary sch schools ools (es (estab tablis lished hed by a lan langua guage ge com communi munity ty out outside side the sta state te sector to encourage the learning of a heritage language and culture) using Bengali, Mandar Man darin in Chin Chinese ese,, Guj Gujara arati, ti, and Turk Turkish ish,, the they y endo endorse rse tra transla nslangu nguagi aging ng in the bilingual bilin gual classroom as a flexibl flexiblee biling bilingual ual pedagogy for learn learning ing and teachi teaching. ng. Based on eco ecolog logica icall pers perspec pectiv tives, es, they port portray ray the lan langua guage ge fluid fluidity ity and mov moveme ement nt in classrooms that is endemic to ‘‘translanguaging’’ and ‘‘heteroglossia’’. They argue that this ‘‘flexible bilingualism is used by teachers as an instructional strategy to make links for classroom participants between the social, cultural, community, and linguistic domains of their lives’’ (Creese & Blackledge, 2010, p. 112). Blackledge and Creese (2010) suggest that code-switching in classrooms has hitherto been seen as ‘‘embarrass ‘‘emb arrassing’’, ing’’, ‘‘wrong ‘‘wrong’’, ’’, ‘‘dile ‘‘dilemma-fill mma-filled’’, ed’’, ‘‘bad practi practice’’, ce’’, ‘‘fee ‘‘feelings lings of guilt guilt’’, ’’, ‘‘squan ‘‘s quander dering ing our bil biling ingual ual res resour ources’ ces’’’ as the two lan langua guages ges ‘‘c ‘‘conta ontamin minate ate’’ ’’ eac each h other. Sometimes, the socioeconomically disadvantaged children in the classroom are the ones most using code-switching, thus giving language mixing less desirable associations. Instead, translanguaging has the potential for cross-language transfer, flexibil flex ibility ity in lan langua guage ge and ped pedago agogic gic cla classr ssroom oom app approa roache ches, s, ide ideas as mor moree eas easily ily conv co nvey eyed, ed, un under dersto stood od,, an and d re rela laye yed, d, and the pe perm rmea eabi bili lity ty of le lear arni ning ng ac acro ross ss languages. However, Blackledge and Creese (2010) add a note of caution in connection with thee de th deve velo lopm pmen entt of bi bili ling ngua uall st stra rate tegi giees an and d pe peda dago gog gie iess ba base sed d on fle flexi xibl blee bili bi ling ngua uali lism sm,, wi with th th thee im impo porta rtance nce of re resp spond ondin ing g to lo loca call ci circ rcums umsta tanc nces es be bein ing g emphas emp hasise ised. d. ‘‘A ‘‘Altho lthough ugh we can ack acknowl nowledg edgee tha thatt acr across oss all lin lingui guistic sticall ally y div diverse erse contexts moving between languages is natural, how to harness and build on this will depend on the socio-political and historical environment in which such practice is embedded and the local ecologies of schools and classrooms’’ (Creese & Blackledge, 2010, p. 107). This is particularly true in the context of a minority language coexisting with a majority language in and outside of the classroom. For example, in Wels We lsh-m h-med ediu ium m sc scho hool olss in an angl glic icis ised ed ar area eas, s, the pr promo omoti tion on of fle flexi xible ble la lang ngua uage ge arrangements such as translanguaging could easily encourage pupils to focus more on the majority language (English). In such situations, teachers are cautious about its use in order to preserve and safeguard the minority language within the classroom (Jones & Lewis, in press).
A threefold distinction in translanguaging
The above discussion of the development of the term shows it is dynamic, and that the concept is likely to continue to develop in meaning and be more fully articulated as it becomes examined in varying sociolinguistic arenas, and benefits from crossdisciplinar disci plinary y consid consideration eration by lingu linguists, ists, sociol sociolinguist inguists, s, educa educationali tionalists, sts, and neuroli neurolinnguis gu ists ts.. It Itss eff effec ecti tive vene ness ss as a cl clas assr sroo oom m pr prac acti tice ce is st stil illl on only ly be begi ginn nnin ing g to be
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et al. G. Lewis Lewis et
understood with the effectiveness of translanguaging strategies yet to be researched, evaluated, and critiqued. Forr th Fo thee mo mome ment nt,, a tr trip ipar arti tite te di dist stin inct ctio ion n ma may y be he help lpfu ful. l. Th Thee hi hist stor oric ical al development of the term suggests that it began with (a) classroom translanguaging, and an d thi thiss ha hass bec becom omee a ne new w li line ne of in inqu quiry iry in ed educ ucat atio ion n re rese searc arch h (B (Bla lack ckled ledge ge & Creese, 2010; Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Jones & Lewis, in press; Lewis et al., in ´ a, 2010). (b) Various scholars discussed above have extended press; Menken & Garcı ´a, the term from the life of a classroom to the lives of bilinguals irrespective of context and an d pa part rtic icula ularl rly y for ga gain inin ing g un under derst stan andi ding ngs, s, ev ever eryd yday ay co comm mmuni unica cati tion on,, and achievement in interactions irrespective of site. A plethora of similar terms (e.g., metrolingualism, polylanguaging, polylingual languaging, heteroglossia, codemeshing, in g, tr tran ansl slin ingu gual al pra pract ctic ice, e, fle flexi xibl blee bi bili ling ngua uali lism sm,, mu multi ltila lang ngua uagi ging ng,, an and d hy hybri brid d lang la ngua uage ge pra pract ctic ices es)) ma makes kes thi thiss ex exte tensi nsion on of tra transl nslan angu guag agin ing g ap appe pear ar in ne need ed of focused explication and more precise definition. Such varied terms are competitive with translanguaging for academic usage and acceptance (Lewis et al., in press). (c) The most recent development is the study of translanguaging at the neural level.. Guill level Guillaume aume Thierry ( http://bilingualism.bangor.ac.uk/people/GThierry.php.en http://bilingualism.bangor.ac.uk/people/GThierry.php.en)) is currently using neuroscience methods such as event-related potentials (ERPs) to testt the effe tes effect ct of proc processi essing ng inpu inputt in one lan langua guage ge fol followe lowed d by con content tent-re -relev levant ant produ pr oduct ctio ion n in an anoth other er la lang nguag uage. e. Th Thee ex expe peri rime ment nt in invo volv lves es ma mani nipu pula lati ting ng the lang la ngua uage gess us used ed by bi bili ling ngua uals ls an and d mo monol nolin ingu gual al co contr ntrol ol gr grou oups ps at enc encod odin ing g an and d retrieval. In a unilingual sequence, participants encode definitions presented in one lan angu guag agee an and d re retr triiev evee re rellat ated ed ob objjec ectt na name mess in th thee sa same me la lang ngua uag ge. In th thee translanguaging sequence, subjects encode definitions in one language but retrieve and prod produce uce nam names es in the their ir othe otherr lan langua guage. ge. ERP mea measure suress tha thatt ind index ex sem semant antic ic integration efforts in the brain (the N400 wave) are collected to study the quality of thee ne th neur ural al re repre presen senta tatio tions ns co const nstruc ructe ted d in the un unil ilin ingu gual al and tra transl nslan angu guag agin ing g conditi con ditions ons.. Ear Early ly findi findings ngs sho show w tha thatt sem semant antic ic rel relate atednes dnesss is gre greate aterr for obje objects cts learnt in translanguaging encoding-retrieval than in monolingual encoding-retrieval. Thiss sug Thi sugges gests ts tha thatt tra transl nslang anguagi uaging ng all allows ows mor moree effec effectiv tivee lea learni rning ng due to cro crosssslangua lan guage ge sem semant antic ic rem remapp apping ing tha thatt occu occurs rs whe when n the enc encoded oded inf informa ormation tion in one language is retrieved to enable production in the other language. Thus, Th us, a cl clas assi sific ficati ation on in th thee us usee of the te term rm ‘‘ ‘‘tra transl nslan angu guag agin ing’ g’’’ ma may y be be:: (a (a)) Classroom Translanguaging (planned and serendipitous) with a pedagogic emphasis; (b) Uni Univer versal sal Tra Transl nslangu anguagi aging ng wit with h cog cognit nitive ive,, cont context extual ual,, and cult cultura urall asp aspect ects. s. While Whi le Uni Univers versal al Tra Transl nslang anguag uaging ing inc includ ludes es the cla classr ssroom oom as one cont context ext amo among ng many, retaining ‘‘classroom translanguaging’’ enables a discussion about learning and teaching style and curriculum planning. (c) Neurolinguistic Translanguaging is a new ne w fie field ld tha thatt re rese searc arches hes bra brain in ac activ tivit ity y mo modul dulat atio ions ns wh when en bo both th la lang nguag uages es ar aree activated, and holds much for the future. Research into translanguaging Current pedagogic research in Wales
Various recent articles have shared some of the early research into translanguaging in the pedagogic setting (Canagarajah, 2011a, 2011b; Creese & Blackledge, 2010, ´ a & Sylvan, 2011; Hornberger & Link, 2012; Wei, 2010). From Wales, 2011; Garcı ´a two recent publications have shared the results of a 5-year research project into dual use of lang ngu uages in We Wellsh classrooms for con onttent learnin ing g, espe peccia iallly
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translanguaging (Jones & Lewis, in press; Lewis et al., in press). The researchers observ obs erved ed (se (semis mistru tructur ctured, ed, nonp nonparti articip cipant) ant) 100 ‘‘b ‘‘bili ilingu ngual’ al’’’ les lessons sons in 29 Wel Welsh sh primary and secondary schools plus interviewed teachers and pupils, consulted with experts exp erts,, and ran wor worksho kshops ps to mut mutual ually ly exp explor loree ide ideas as of tra transl nslang anguag uaging. ing. Whi While le transl tra nslati ation on was fre frequen quently tly witn witness essed, ed, and whil whilee stud students ents influ influenc enced ed the lan langua guage ge appr ap proa oach ch in a le less sson on mo more re th than an ex expe pect cted ed,, tr tran ansl slan angu guag agin ing g wa wass pr pres esen entt in appr ap prox oxim imat atel ely y a th thir ird d of al alll le less sson onss as th thee on only ly or do domi mina nant nt ap appr proa oach ch.. Fo Forr example, 10–11-year-old students watched an English medium DVD, discussed the content in Welsh, and completed written work in Welsh. The teacher deliberately used translanguaging to enable language development in both Welsh and English, and to optimise cognitive development and content learning. There were also plentiful recorded examples of students themselves purposely using both languages to increase understanding. For example, in completing a task in Welsh, they used the internet in English (and then discussed in Welsh). Statistical and qualitative analyses of the 100 lessons also showed that translanguaging was rela re late ted d to: primar primary y cl clas assro sroom omss in th thee ag agee ra rang ngee 7 to 11 mo more re th than an se seco cond ndar ary y classr cla ssrooms ooms,, plus art artss and huma humanit nities ies cont content ent rat rather her tha than n sci science ences, s, mat mathema hematic tics, s, inter-disciplinary, and practical areas of the curriculum.
Future research
The above discussion suggests that translanguaging has begun to be researched in terms of teaching and learning style, and, previously, the ongoing experiments on tran tr ansl slan angu guag aging ing an and d br brai ain n fun funct ctio ionin ning g ha have ve be been en out outli lined ned.. A we weal alth th of fut future ure research is needed to establish when, where, and how translanguaging is a suitable teaching approach. The discussion in this paper is designed to help conceptualise such research (e.g., age of children, language proficiency of the students, subject/ discipline, curriculum aims and goals, language balance of the classroom, language aims of the school and society, student motivations and preferences). There Th ere ar aree wi wide derr th them emes es al also so for cl clas assr sroom oom tr tran ansl slan angu guag aging ing re rese sear arch ch.. Fo Forr example, how does translanguaging extend to the education of Deaf children using sign language and literacy in another language? For children with different forms of special speci al needs (e.g., dyslex dyslexia, ia, language delay, stamme stammering, ring, less cognit cognitively ively able), does translanguaging work for them as well? Does translanguaging have benefits with homework (e.g., when a parent speaks a different language to the school language)? How does tra transl nslang anguag uaging ing rel relate ate to per perform formanc ancee and ach achiev ieveme ement nt in aca academi demicc outcomes, outcome s, for example, tests, assessments, assessments, and exami examinations? nations? To what extent, and in what way, does it allow more effective learning? Does it help emergent bilingual students gain both a deeper and fuller understanding of the subject matter as well as develop competence in a weaker language, or is it more of one rather than the other? Is it app appro ropri priate ate at pr pres esch chool ool an and d in hi high gher er edu educa cati tion on as wel welll as pr prima imary ry an and d seco se cond ndar ary y sc scho hool oling ing?? Is it ap appro propr pria iate te in mu mult ltil ilin ingu gual al cl clas assro sroom omss whe where re thr three ee lang la ngua uage gess ar aree be bein ing g uti utili lise sed, d, or in cl clas assro sroom omss wi with thout out te teac ache hers rs who ar aree ful fully ly compete com petent nt bil biling ingual uals? s? Whe When n one of the cla classr ssroom oom lan langua guages ges is an ‘‘i ‘‘immi mmigra grant’ nt’’’ language, then how does translanguaging enable a balance to be kept alongside the higher status dominant language? When Whe n uni unive vers rsal al tr tran ansl slan angu guag agin ing g is re rese sear arch ched ed ou outsi tside de the cl clas assro sroom om (e (e.g .g., ., pla pl ayg ygro roun und, d, sp spor orts ts fie field ld), ), th then en th thee co cont nteext xt,, si site te,, pu purp rpos ose, e, an and d na natu ture re of translanguaging is particularly open to ethnographic approaches as there are social,
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situat situ ated ed,, an and d st stat atus us di dime mens nsio ions ns,, fo forr exa xam mpl ple, e, th tha at joi oin n th thee co cogn gnit itiive an and d commun com munica ication tion dim dimens ensions ions tha thatt Gar Garcı cı ´ ´a a (2 (200 009a 9a)) di disc scuss usses es.. Th There ere ar aree que questi stions ons such as: How consciously aware are bilinguals in using two languages for purposeful use of two languages that goes beyond the linguistics of code-switching and into improving understanding, ease of conceptualisation, and transmission of thinking? How do we depict everyday translanguaging that occurs in thinking, interpersonal negotiations, understanding of meaning and is situated within changing scenery, coactors, audience, expected lines of a play, and a moving and not static storyline? Initially, universal translanguaging has been about efficient and effective communication and cognitive processing. However, a sociolinguistic and anthropological approach needs adding to make research on translanguaging multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary. This suggests that while translanguaging is a new and developing term, the idea that both languages are used in a dynamic and functionally integrated manner to organise and mediate mental processes in understanding, speaking, literacy, and, not least, lea st, lea learnin rning g nee needs ds mult multidi idisci sciplin plinary ary and int interdi erdisci scipli plinary nary res resear earch. ch. Whil Whilee suc such h resear res earch ch wil willl be qual qualita itativ tivee and qua quantit ntitati ative, ve, mul multim timetho ethod, d, and mul multil tiling ingual ual,, the origins as a reaction against fractional bilingualism, two solitudes and the ideology of language separation in early childhood development, dual language schooling and in diglossic language planning, is a reminder that translanguaging is also a valued view of bilinguals that relates to policy, planning, and politics at home and school, regionally and globally. Notes on contributors Dr Gwyn Lewis is Deputy Head of the School of Education, Bangor University. His research interests are Welsh and bilingual education, bilingualism, and children’s linguistic development. He is currently researching aspects of language heritage and immersion education in the context of Welsh-medium and bilingual schools. Email:
[email protected] Bryn Jones is a Lecturer in the School of Education, Bangor University. His principal research intere int erests sts inc includ ludee bil biling ingual ualism ism in edu educat cation ion.. Th Thee foc focus us of his cur curren rentt res resear earch ch wor work k is on language allocation of Welsh and English in the context of teaching and learning in bilingual primary and secondary classes. Email:
[email protected] Colin Baker is Professor of Education at Bangor University and Pro Vice Chancellor. He is the author of 16 books and over sixty other texts on bilingualism and bilingual education, with specific interests in language planning and bilingual education. His current research interests incl in clud udee th thee re relat latio ions nshi hip p be betw twee een n la lang ngua uage ge pl plan anni ning ng an and d bi bili ling ngua uall ed educ ucat atio ion. n. Em Emai ail: l:
[email protected]
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